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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 04:19:08 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 04:19:08 -0800 |
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- margin-bottom: 0.25em; } - .c021 { margin-left: 5.56%; margin-top: 2em; } - div.tnotes { padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em;background-color:#E3E4FA; - border:thin solid silver; margin:2em 10% 0 10%; font-family: Georgia, serif; - } - .covernote { visibility: hidden; display: none; } - div.tnotes p { text-align: justify; } - .x-ebookmaker .covernote { visibility: visible; display: block; } - .figcenter {font-size: .9em; page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; } - .x-ebookmaker img {max-height: 30em; max-width: 100%; } - .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; } - .ol_1 li {font-size: .9em; } - .x-ebookmaker .ol_1 li {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: 0em; } - body {font-family: Georgia, serif; text-align: justify; } - table {font-size: .9em; padding: 1.5em .5em 1em; page-break-inside: avoid; - clear: both; } - div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; } - div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; - line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } - .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; - margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } - .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; - page-break-before: always; } - .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } - /* ]]> */ </style> - </head> - <body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Invention of Typography, by Frederick W. Hamilton</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Invention of Typography</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>A Brief Sketch of the Invention of Printing and How it Came About</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Frederick W. Hamilton</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 22, 2022 [eBook #67471]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY ***</div> - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VIII, No. 50</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>THE INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY<br /> <span class='xlarge'>A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE INVENTION OF PRINTING AND HOW IT CAME ABOUT</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='small'>BY</span></div> - <div><span class='large'>FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>EDUCATION DIRECTOR</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/pub_logo.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION</div> - <div>UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA</div> - <div>1918</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='small'>Copyright, 1918</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>United Typothetae of America</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Chicago, Ill.</span></div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'>Composition and electrotypes contributed by</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Evans-Winter-Hebb, Inc.</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>Detroit</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> - <h2 class='c004'>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>The writer of this book makes no claim to original -investigation. The materials for such investigation -do not exist to any considerable extent in this -country. The results of such an investigation would -form a book not suited to this series.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The writer has attempted to set forth briefly the -conditions which brought about the invention of -printing and to present the main lines of discussion -concerning the inventor. He has consulted with -some care a considerable number of authorities -and has endeavored to present the results in comprehensive -shape.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The writer believes that the history of any particular -event is a part of the general history of the time -in which it occurred. He has, therefore, endeavored -throughout the historical portion of this series to -indicate the general historic background of all particular -historical events sufficiently to set these particular -events in their relations to what was going on at the -time in the world generally.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In addition to the supplementary reading indicated -in the several volumes which follow, the writer ventures -to hope that the students will familiarize themselves -with some good general text book on modern -history.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span> - <h2 class='c004'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0'> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter I</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Conditions in the Middle of the Fifteenth Century</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter II</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Steps Toward Typography</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter III</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Claims to the Invention</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter IV</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>The Invention</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Chapter V</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Materials and Methods of the First Printers</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Supplementary Reading</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='sc'>Review Questions</span></td> - <td class='c008'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span></div> -<div class='chapter ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>THE INVENTION OF PRINTING</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div> - <h2 class='c004'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>Many persons and many places have claimed -the honor of the invention of typographic printing. -That these conflicting claims should be made -is the most natural thing in the world. Almost all -epoch-making inventions and discoveries are of more -or less doubtful origin. The reason for this is that -such discoveries grow out of conditions and needs. -At the time appointed they appear as inevitably as -the blossom on the plant. Very likely they appear -in several places at once. Often, also like the blossoms -on a plant, only one produces what the gardener calls a -“set,” that is, a fruit which ripens and matures seed -for reproduction. The state of human knowledge or -the pressure of human need may be such that many -students are at work at the same time upon problems -which seem to demand solution. In this way the -theory of evolution, whose adoption, revolutionizing -as it did the entire system of human thinking, was -the most important event of the nineteenth century, -was independently discovered by Darwin and Wallace, -who were working at the same time along independent -lines of investigation.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The advance in surgery and a keen appreciation -of the suffering under operation which made many -operations impossible led to the simultaneous discovery -of anesthesia by at least two investigators, -William T. G. Morton and Dr. Charles T. Jackson. -Investigation of the uses of electricity led to the -independent invention of the telephone by Bell and -Dolbear. It is certain that occasional European -sailors found their way to the western hemisphere -through several centuries before Columbus made his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>famous voyage. These are only a few of the most -notable instances of such disputed or independent -discoveries.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In some cases the judgment of the world has probably -awarded the glory incorrectly. In other cases -the glory has gone, perhaps justly, to that one of -two or more discoverers who succeeded in making his -invention practically or commercially useful. For -instance, while Morton was probably not the original -discoverer of anesthesia, it was he who made it -practically useful in surgical operations, and while -there appears to be no question that Dolbear antedated -Bell in the discovery of the telephone, Dolbear’s -interest was purely scientific while Bell gave -the telephone to commerce.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The same conditions of doubt and obscurity surround -the invention of printing. As we shall later -see, more at length, the invention of printing was a -development of existing processes called for by the -needs of the time and arising out of the conditions of -the time. It was inevitable that typographic printing -should be discovered by somebody in the middle of -the fifteenth century. So far as the evidence at our -command shows, the art was not invented in several -places at the same time, but was developed by one -man out of familiar processes. For some reason -which is not now clear, the work of this man, though -considerable in extent, appears to have been without -immediate direct results of much importance. At a -very early stage the invention was seized upon by -another who, with his associates, established a center -from which the art steadily grew and developed. So -important in its practical results was the work of this -man and his associates that he has been for centuries -hailed as the inventor of printing. It is needless to -say that this man was John Gutenberg.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In the judgment of the present writer, however, -the claim that Gutenberg invented typographic printing -cannot be maintained. The discussion has been -long and sometimes bitter. The arguments, or at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>least many of them, are of a highly technical nature -and many minor points yet remain to be cleared up. -In a book of this sort it would be obviously out of -place to go at length into the details of the argument. -The writer, moreover, lays no claim to original -investigation. An attempt will be made in the following -pages to show the conditions out of which -the discovery arose, to tell the story of the invention, -to place the credit both of actual invention and -practical application where it belongs, and to bring -out certain points which may be interesting about -the work of the very earliest printers.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In taking the position which he does with regard -to the invention the writer regrets that he is obliged -to dissent from the conclusions of De Vinne. In his -Invention of Printing, De Vinne ably maintains the -claims of Gutenberg. No one can be more ready -than the present writer to pay homage to the greatness -of De Vinne and to acknowledge the immense debt -which the printers of America owe to him. His -series of historical and critical essays on the practice -of typography are still unapproachable. In spite of -the changes which have taken place in the years since -they were written, their substance is not affected -excepting in some minor and unimportant details. -They are still supreme authority in their field. De -Vinne’s historical work was also of great importance -and for the most part may still be accepted without -question. Under these circumstances it is only natural -that the conclusions of De Vinne should carry -great weight and that the great body of American -printers should have accepted the Gutenberg attribution -without question upon De Vinne’s authority.</p> - -<p class='c006'>It must be remembered, however, that De Vinne’s -work was written nearly forty years ago. Just before -he wrote, Dr. Van der Linde had published a voluminous -work in which the theory of the Gutenberg -invention was supported at great length and with -great show of scholarship. This was later followed -by other volumes of similar purport. For a considerable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>time Van der Linde’s books were considered -as settling the question. De Vinne, as may clearly -be seen from his preface, wrote under the spell of -Van der Linde’s influence. Later investigations, -however, have shown that Van der Linde’s scholarship -was largely show, that he was not only uncritical -but unskillful in his use of authorities, and that his -voluminous works are written with the sole purpose -of bolstering up a preconceived theory. Most of this -investigation had not been conducted when De Vinne -wrote. The discussion cannot be said to have swung -the balance of probability to the other side until after -De Vinne’s literary activities ceased. The knowledge -we now possess, however, has forced the present -writer to abandon the De Vinne position and to base -the historical part of this series of text-books on -acceptance of the belief that typographic printing -was discovered by Coster, of Haarlem, in Holland.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span> - <h2 class='c004'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Conditions in the Middle of the Fifteenth Century</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>As was briefly indicated in the preceding volume -in this series, the conditions existing in the world -of letters at the middle of the fifteenth century were -such as to demand imperatively some new method of -making books. The slow march of civilization had -gone on with many setbacks and interruptions through -the centuries, but was now proceeding with a swiftness -hitherto unknown. The demands of the human mind -were pressing hard against the physical boundaries -to progress created by the methods of book-making -then in use. It must be remembered that men were -still making books just as they had done for nearly -two thousand years. A vast store of knowledge had -been accumulated and additions were being made -with tremendous rapidity, but there was no adequate -means of getting this knowledge before the people. -At the same time there were more people intensely -eager for knowledge than ever before.</p> - -<p class='c006'>It is worth while to stop for a moment to consider -the conditions of the period. The Hundred Years’ -War between France and England, which had paralyzed -the energies of a divided France and had -exhausted the powers of England in useless attempts -at an impossible conquest, had at last come to an end. -The English had withdrawn to their own island. -They had given up the dreams of a continental -empire which had danced before their eyes ever since -William of Normandy, in 1066, had added England -to his possessions. In reading English history we -are liable to forget that during a great part, if not the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>whole, of the four hundred years succeeding the Conquest, -the English kings had considered their continental -possessions the more important, regarding the -little island which they shared with the Scotch, then -an independent nation, as a sort of colonial possession. -It is true that they maintained their capitals -there and took their titles thence, because in England -they were kings, whereas they governed their broad -possessions on the continent as dukes or counts only. -From the time of Henry V they had claimed to be -kings of France. Now these continental ambitions -were definitely given up and England was free to -develop her own nationality, and a much more vigorous -national life immediately began.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The same events mark an era in the development of -France. Free from the horrors of war and the dread -of another conquest, a new opportunity was given for -the development of the arts of peace.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Italy was still divided into a great number of -independent states whose quarrels and changing -alliances make the Italian history of the period -extremely difficult to study on its political side. -There had, however, developed in Italy a group of -strong rulers who governed states of respectable size -and kept them for considerable periods in comparative -stability. The Italian states had rallied more quickly -from the barbarian invasions which overthrew the -Roman Empire than the rest of Europe and their -progress in civilization had been very remarkable -when one considers the civil wars and wars between -small states which had been almost continuous.</p> - -<p class='c006'>For the most part Germany had lagged far behind -the rest of Europe in the development of civilization. -The greater part of it, however, was now in a fairly -stable political condition and many of the German -states had become important centers of learning. -This was especially true of western and southern -Germany, where the influence of Rome had been -strongest and where the influence of France and Italy -had been most felt.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>Much of Spain was still in the hands of the Moors, -who were in many respects more civilized than their -Christian neighbors. Portugal was enlightened and -advanced.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The great schism known as the Babylonish Captivity -which had rent the Catholic Church in twain, with -rival popes ruling at Rome and Avignon, had come -to an end, and for the time being the unity of Christendom -was undisturbed.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The political conditions of Europe were thus more -favorable than they had been for a long time for the -development of the intellectual life. They were still -far from ideal and there were many dark days in store, -but the bad old times were never fully to come back.</p> - -<p class='c006'>This political condition, however, was only a background -for the revival of intellectual activity known -as the Renaissance which distinguishes this remarkable -period.</p> - -<p class='c006'>This movement may perhaps be said to have begun -with Petrarch, the Italian poet, philosopher, and -student, who died in 1374. By the middle of the -fifteenth century, however, many men had appeared -in the world of letters whose names are famous for -all time. These great thinkers and writers revived the -study of the ancient languages, recast the study of -philosophy, and even ventured to discuss the fundamentals -of religion. In so doing they not only revived -the ancient learning, but started a new one.</p> - -<p class='c006'>New universities sprang up, among them Erfurt in -1392, Leipsic in 1409, St. Andrews, in Edinburgh, in -1411, Louvain in 1426. The revival of the study of -great literature in Italy may be said to have begun -about 1400. About 1450, there were many eminent -Greek scholars and their enthusiasm for Greek literature -had led to the revival of the philosophy of Plato.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The revival of interest in the art of the ancients, -classic literature, and the philosophy of Plato brought -about the great advance of modern art which marked -the second half of the century, Perugino, the teacher -of Raphael, being born in 1446.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>All this intellectual activity stirred a new spirit -of adventure. Just as the men whose intellectual -energies had been absorbed in the petty quarrels of -church and state now devoted themselves to constructive -thinking, so those whose physical energies had -been devoted to the constant succession of small wars -of which we have spoken now gave themselves to -exploration. By the middle of the century important -discoveries had been made by the exploring expeditions -sent out by the Portuguese prince, Henry the -Navigator. The known world was to be doubled in -size by the voyage of Columbus before the end of the -century.</p> - -<p class='c006'>It is easy to see that all this meant the creation of -many books. Learning without books is a manifest -impossibility. There was a renewed interest in the -old books and a great call for copies of them. All this -new learning and discovery required books for record -and for dissemination. It is true there were many -more books than there had been formerly and many -more were being made, but the possibility of supply -was hopelessly behind the demand. Great libraries -were being formed and many individuals had remarkable -collections of books. Some of these libraries -still exist, the best known probably being the library -of the Vatican, at Rome, which was started in 1447. -The trade of book-making had long since outgrown -the monastery. As we saw in the preceding volume, -practically all of the book-making of the so-called -Dark Ages was in the monasteries and much was still -done there, but there was now in existence a regularly -organized trade of copyists. No really good -book of this period was complete without its ornamental -capitals, pictures, and other embellishments. -These adornments, or illuminations, as they were -called, extended in some cases to every page of a -book. They were not generally made by the men -who did the copying or writing of the text, but -by a class of specially trained men who were called -illuminators.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>Clearly the shortcomings of the manuscript books -are very evident. First and foremost must be placed -the absolute impossibility of making by the laborious -process of writing out by hand anything like the -number of books required to meet the demand. -Either some new method of making books must be -devised or the new learning and the new civilization -were to be strangled at birth. Moreover, the manuscript -books were necessarily very costly and they -were also very inaccurate. Any one who has had -any experience in the hand-copying of large amounts -of manuscript will see how impossible it is to avoid -errors, even with the most careful checking over. It -is not probable that any two copies of any manuscript -book were ever exactly alike. It is true that the -invention of printing did not automatically remove -errors. Indeed errors and inaccuracies, very common -in the early books, are far from unknown at present, -but at any rate all the copies of one edition are alike -and errors may be corrected either in subsequent -editions or by the insertion of errata in the printed -book.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Not only was the time ripe for the invention of a -new method of book-making, but the materials were -ready with the vital exception of type, and that was -within a step of discovery. The materials are paper, -ink, presses, and type. Paper is supposed to have -been invented by the Chinese about the end of the -first century A. D., and to have been more or less -known in the East for a long time before the knowledge -of it was brought to Europe. The Arabs conquered -Samarkand in 751, and from this conquest it -is supposed that the knowledge of paper and paper-making -came to Europe by way of Spain, the greater -part of which was then in the hands of the Moors, -who were themselves Arabs. As early as the eleventh -century there were paper mills at Valencia, Xativa, -and other Moorish towns in Spain. From Spain the -art of paper-making spread to Italy where we know -that there was a paper mill at Fabriano before 1340, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>and to France where there was a mill at Troyes about -the same time. Not long after we find paper-making -at Nuremberg. By the middle of the century paper -was familiar throughout Europe, but the use of it was -not extensive. The paper of that time did not lend -itself readily to writing and the makers of the manuscripts -preferred the use of parchment.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Obviously, printing can not be done with writing -ink. Very different qualities are necessary for the -two arts, but as early as the beginning of the century -special inks were being made for printing from blocks. -Those inks were not exactly like those soon to be used -for printing from type, but they were near enough -in their general character to indicate the improvements -which were needed to produce a true printer’s -ink. Who invented these inks is not known, but it is -generally supposed that they were invented by artists -who were accustomed to the handling of color and -pigments. The invention has been attributed by -some to an unknown Italian painter, by others to -Hubert Van Eyck, a great Dutch painter of the period. -It is not probable, however, that the invention, if it -can be said to be the invention of an individual, can -ever be traced to its author.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The press needed was only an adaptation of a very -simple machine in common use for many different -purposes. The use of the press in squeezing grapes -for wine, in molding cheese and squeezing out the -whey, and for a great number of other purposes was -so common that the problem of the exertion of pressure -was already solved. Everything was ready but the -type, and when one sees how far men had gone -toward the use of type one wonders that the invention -was not made long before it really occurred. Probably -it was only waiting for the imperious demand of -necessity to spur some one to the making of the -necessary experiments.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span> - <h2 class='c004'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Steps Toward Typography</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>Typographic printing, briefly defined, is -printing from movable types. That is to say, -it is the impression of words upon paper or other -material by the use of movable types which have -first been covered with ink, the inked face of the type -transferring the characters to paper and producing -the printed page. This includes any printing from -a type form in which movable cuts may be locked up -with the type, or in some cases may be used alone on -the press as in printing full-page illustrations. It was -this process which was invented in the middle of the -fifteenth century.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The practice of making impressions upon various -substances by the use of various devices prepared for -that purpose goes back to the dawn of civilization. -The earliest device of this sort appears to have been -a seal used for impressing a device which might stand -for a personal signature or indicate the official -authentication of a document or other public act. -These seals are found in great numbers among the -most ancient remains. Two early ones from the island -of Crete are shown herewith.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/illos_p17.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Ancient Seals from Crete</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>There are also in existence many ancient Babylonian -seals. These seals were of various sorts. Sometimes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>the design was cut in the flat surface, leaving a raised -impression when stamped upon wax, clay, or some -other yielding substance. Such seals are said to be -made in intaglio. Sometimes the surface is cut away -leaving the designs standing out, thus making a -depressed mark in the soft surface. These seals are -said to be cut in relief. Sometimes the surface of -the seal, instead of being flat, was a cylinder rolling -on a pivot so that the impression of whichever sort -it might be was made by rolling the seal with pressure -over the soft substance. It is said that the -Romans came very near the discovery of typographic -printing. The Roman potters stamped their -names letter by letter in the soft clay of their ware -before it was fired. The use of dies for stamping -coins and metal seals is also very ancient.</p> - -<div class='figright id003'> -<img src='images/illos_p18.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Assyrian Clay Tablet</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>The Assyrians not -only inscribed their -records upon cylinders -of soft clay by -pressing a sharp stick -into them to make -the curious wedge-shaped -characters of -their alphabet, but -it is evident that they -carved rather long inscriptions -on plates, -probably of wood, and -transferred these to -bricks by pressure. -The illustration shows -an Assyrian stamped -brick of this sort. Wherever we touch the history of -civilized man we find some form of printing by the -use of a seal, a stamp, or even a single letter. Some -manuscripts long before the middle of the fifteenth -century seem to have had the initial letters put in -by means of stamps which were applied either by -heavy hand pressure or by the blow of a mallet. These -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>initial letters certainly show the use of color in making -the impression. It is probable that such use of color -was early thought of as a means of making the impression -of the seal more distinct and dispensing with -the pressure necessary to force the seal into the substance -of the parchment, papyrus, or paper which was -being used. Thus through the ages we slowly grow -toward a more varied and extensive use of these -primitive methods of printing.</p> - -<p class='c006'>If we turn to Asia we find that the Chinese and their -neighbors, the Japanese and the Coreans, anticipated -Europe by many centuries in printing, as well as in -other arts. The Chinese appear to have hit upon -the device of multiplying books by cutting all the -characters needed for a page on a block of wood and -then applying the inked block to the paper as early -as the sixth century, A. D. Books printed by this -process, generally known as block books, were common -among the Chinese as early as the tenth century. -The Japanese were using blocks for printing before -the year 800, A. D. The British Museum contains a -Corean book apparently printed from movable types -which is supposed to date as far back as 1338.</p> - -<p class='c006'>All this is very interesting, but there is not the -slightest evidence that it had any effect whatever -on the development of printing in Europe. Chinese -and Japanese typography is not a development -from their own block books, but is a recent importation -from Europe. The Chinese characters, which -are also used by the Japanese, are not letters but -ideograms. Instead of having a few characters -representing the fundamental sounds, by the combination -of which words are expressed, they have a vast -number of characters, many thousands of them. -These characters represent to the mind an idea as a -whole. They may be vocalized as a word or a syllable, -but not as a single sound out of a combination -of which syllables and words may be built up. It was -quite practicable to carve the characters representing -a page on a block and print from that, but it was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>clearly not practicable to make movable types representing -all these almost innumerable characters. -Typographic printing is possible only through the -selection for common use of a small number of the -most essential characters and using them as the basis -of a working vocabulary. The introduction of -typography represents probably a step toward the -reduction of this great number of characters to a -comparatively small number representing the sounds -or syllables most in use. A font of Chinese type is -a fearful and wonderful thing, and learning the case -for Chinese composition is a task which very few -western people would care to undertake.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/illos_p20.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Modern Chinese Type Case</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>The accompanying illustration shows a Chinese -compositor at his case in the Lakeside Press, Chicago. -The “frame” contains one complete font of approximately -seven thousand characters. It is about sixteen -feet long by five feet high, and is made up of a number -of smaller “cases” approximately twelve by fifteen -inches over all, each holding about two hundred and -forty characters. This font is approximately ten-point -body according to United States standards. It -required an entire month to “lay the cases.” It -requires about ten thousand characters to print a -Chinese book, but some of them are made by combinations -of primary characters, so that the seven thousand -in the case will do the work.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>During the centuries previous to the invention of -printing the number of persons who could read was -very small. The common people, farmers, soldiers, -workmen, and the like, received but little instruction -outside the immediate necessities of their lives. That -little was largely by word of mouth reinforced by -symbol and picture or statue. In those days the -churches were the poor man’s schools and libraries. -The Bible stories were told him by the priests and -nuns and by the old men and women. The churches -were elaborately ornamented with statues, stained -glass windows, brasses, paintings, and carvings. Many -of these painted or sculptured representations were -conventionalized. If one saw a figure with a great -key in his hand, no matter what the costume of the -figure or the design of the face, he knew it was St. -Peter. If he saw another figure with a book and a -sword, he knew that it was St. Paul, and so on. He -saw the sacrifice of Isaac, the Massacre of the Innocents, -the Crucifixion, the Martyrdom of St. Stephen, -and all the other Bible stories visibly expressed. He -saw the statues of kings and bishops and was told -the meaning of the scenes in which these and other -characters were represented in picture or sculpture. -He thus read and reread the statues, stained glass -windows, and sculptures of his church as we read -and reread our Bibles and our histories. Many carvings -and pictures were put into the churches which -we should today consider entirely out of place. -Caricature began here as well as religious and historical -instruction. We find represented scenes which -recall the current fables of the time and sometimes -pictures of scenes ridiculous or even indecent, according -to modern ideas, which satirized the vices and -faults of men and women while they warned against -them.</p> - -<p class='c006'>By and by the desire came to bring this instruction -into the homes of the people who were too poor to -have paintings and carvings of their own. This desire -was met by the production of what is known as image -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>prints. The picture of some saint was carved on a -piece of wood and from this block, or more properly -plate, because the pictures were carved on the side -and not the end of a flat piece of wood, an inked -impression was made on parchment or paper. This -process seems to have come in use some time in the -fourteenth century. By the beginning of the fifteenth -it was fairly common. The earliest dated woodcut -of this sort, bearing the date 1423, is shown herewith. -It is interesting not only as being the oldest dated -work of this sort, but as being typical of the way in -which these pictures were conceived and executed. -It represents St. Christopher. The saint is shown -fording the river with the Child Jesus on his shoulder -and represents the entire legend of St. Christopher, -the Christ Bearer.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/illos_p22.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Reduced Facsimile of Early Wood-cut</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>At first these images appeared upon single sheets -bearing only the picture. Later, words were carved -upon the block in addition to the picture, giving us -on one page the combination of picture and text. -Very probably the owner could not read the inscription, -but he could be told what it meant and the very -form of it would recall to his mind the words which -he had learned.</p> - -<p class='c006'>From this single picture there were two lines of -development. One was the binding up of several -pages of such pictures and texts into a book. Each -page was printed from a single block and the result -was a block book. Of these there were two especially -famous and often printed, The Biblia Pauperum, or -Poor Man’s Bible, and the Speculum Humani Salvationis, -or Mirror of Human Salvation. The Poor -Man’s Bible, of course, was a collection of prints -recalling the biblical stories. The Mirror went further -afield and showed pictures representing moral teaching. -Great numbers of these books were printed -and circulated, especially in Holland and Germany.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The other development was the printing of whole -pages of text. Certain books were in great demand. -The advantage of being able to reproduce them -quickly and cheaply was obvious. The two best -known are alphabet books for beginners called -Abecederia, or Abecederium in the singular, and the -elementary Latin grammars abstracted from the works -of an old Latin grammarian named Donatus. These -grammars were commonly called Donatuses. These -books, especially the school books, were printed -mostly on vellum, partly because of its greater durability -and partly because the use of paper was not -yet common.</p> - -<p class='c006'>We have here the lines of development which led -directly to the invention of typography. We have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>already mentioned books printed from plates with -pictures without text, pictures with text, and text -without pictures. What would be more natural -than to cut off the part of the block containing the -text and use the picture alone, or to combine the -text with text cut from another block or with another -picture from which the text had been removed? If -we could do this why could we not cut out a single -word or a single letter and why not make a considerable -number of these single letters and combine them -into words? If parts of two or more blocks were to -be used for the same picture, they must be fastened -together in some way, or as we should say today the -form must be locked up. Why could not separate -letters be fastened together in the same way so that -we could print anything we wanted by the simple -process of putting together the necessary letters in -the proper relation? As we shall see presently, this -is exactly what happened, and the invention of printing -thus considered is the most natural thing in the -world.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Before passing to the next phase of the discovery, -a word should be said about playing cards. Until -recently playing cards were considered as having a -place in this development which they probably never -occupied. Playing cards, like many other things -good and bad, were invented in the East. They -made their appearance in Europe somewhere about -1375 A. D. and by 1400 they had become popular. -The first cards were hand painted which, of course, -made them expensive and confined their use to the -wealthy. A little later, however, they were painted -by the use of stencils so that they could be produced -cheaply and plentifully. Later still they were printed -from blocks like the image prints and colored by -hand. Color being essential to playing cards, the -development thus outlined was the most natural. It -has been supposed that the comparatively small -playing card was first made and that the image print -was derived from the playing card. There now seems -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>no question that the process was the other way about, -as there are no printed playing cards known as early -as the St. Christopher above referred to. The block-printed -playing card seems to have been clearly an -imitation of the image print, and not the image print -an evolution from the playing card.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span> - <h2 class='c004'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Claims to the Invention</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>De Vinne mentions fifteen cities or towns as -having been specified by as many different -authors as the true birthplace of typography. The -names of these are Augsburg, Basle, Bologna, Dordrecht, -Feltre, Florence, Haarlem, Lubeck, Mainz, -Nuremberg, Rome, Russemburg, Strasburg, Schelestadt, -and Venice. The various authors assign to -these towns the names of the following alleged inventors: -Castoldi, Coster, Fust, Gensfleisch, Gresmund, -Gutenberg, Hahn, Mentel, Jenson, Regiomontanus, -Schoeffer, Pannartz and Sweynheym, and Louis de -Vaelbaeske.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Of these claims there are only three which deserve -any consideration whatever. The first of these -claims, the alleged discovery at Avignon, is by far -the most recent and may be quickly disposed of. In -1890 the Abbé Requin discovered five curious documents -in the notarial records of Avignon, in southern -France. These papers deal with the business dealings -of the silversmith Procopius Waldfoghel with -certain other persons regarding the art of writing -artistically, instruction therein, and certain tools -therefor. There are mentioned in these papers two -steel alphabets in Latin, one iron alphabet in Hebrew, -two iron frames, one steel screw, forty-eight forms of -tin, and divers other forms belonging to the art of -writing. There is also mention of instruments or -tools of iron, steel, copper, latten, lead, tin, and wood -for writing artistically. These documents date from -1444 and 1446, before Gutenberg had produced any -results. On the evidence of these documents attempts -have been made to show that printing was being -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>done at Avignon several years before the earliest date -that can be assigned to the 42-line Bible, the Letters -of Indulgence, or even the somewhat doubtful Latin -Grammar.</p> - -<p class='c006'>A careful study of the documents, however, hardly -bears out this claim. It is said that the writing was -to be done on “stuffs” (cloth), but nothing is said of -paper, ink, or other materials needed for printing, and -it is a stretch of the imagination to see punches and -matrices in the iron and steel alphabets and the forty-eight -forms.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The probability is that Waldfoghel cut letters of -ornamental and artistic forms on dies to be used as -initials and the like on manuscripts or on cloth and -other materials and devised or borrowed a method of -printing from them by the application of power -through some sort of screw press. This is in harmony -with much that we know to have been done at that -time, but is quite apart from anything like typography -as we are considering it.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The second is the so-called Coster legend. This -story in its legendary form says that Lourens Janssoen -Coster invented printing from the chance trifling of -an idle hour. He is said to have been strolling in -the woods near Haarlem one day and to have cut -some pieces of birch bark in the form of letters. With -some of these letters dipped in ink he made marks on -parchment or paper and found that he could combine -them and recombine them so as to make words and -sentences. He then began experimenting in earnest. -His first letters were carved out of wood, then he -made them out of lead, and at last out of tin. Finding -the ink used by the copyists unsatisfactory he invented -an ink of more viscous kind better suited to the work -in hand. The story runs that his new invention attracted -much attention and that he made many books -which he sold at good profit. The work grew beyond -his personal capacity to do it and he took servants or -apprentices. Among them was a young fellow named -John. John had more brains than honesty, and one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>day while the family were at church John packed up -the type and the matrices and left Haarlem. From -Haarlem, the story goes on to say, he went to Mainz -where he set up in business for himself and prospered -exceedingly. It is from this act, says the story, that -all the Mainz printing proceeded. In this form the -story is obviously legendary. We shall examine it -later in another connection when we shall see this -point more clearly, some of the details being evidently -introduced to fill the gaps in what may be regarded -as history.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The third claim is the commonly accepted Gutenberg -legend. Concerning Gutenberg himself we know -very little, although somewhat more than we know -about Coster. What we do know of him rests almost -entirely upon public registers and the records of law -suits. No authentic record of his birth exists, but it -is supposed to have taken place at Mainz about 1399. -Mainz, like many other cities of the time, was a prey -to internal disputes and as a result of some such -political overturn Gutenberg’s family went to Strasburg -some time before 1430. In a legal document in -existence at Strasburg we find mention of John Gensfleisch, -otherwise known as Gutenberg, of Mainz. -His name occurs in a proclamation issued in 1430 -granting political amnesty to the Mainz exiles. In -the same year he negotiated with the authorities of -Mainz for a pension for his mother and in 1432 he was -in Mainz. He next appears in the Strasburg court -records in 1439, when he was defendant in a suit -brought against him by his business partners. In -these records are obscure references which have been -interpreted as referring to printing. In the light of -the clearer reference of later law suits it is not -probable that this interpretation is correct.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Gutenberg was then, as for all his life, in financial -difficulty. Whatever the outcome of the 1439 suit, -he borrowed a hundred pounds in 1441 and in 1442 -sold an annual income of four pounds for eighty -pounds cash. The Strasburg tax books show that he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>was in arrears for taxes between 1436 and 1440. By -some writers these financial difficulties are supposed -to have arisen out of Gutenberg’s devotion to his -experiments in typography. It is more probable, -however, that they were owing to lack of business -ability and possibly to lack of business integrity. -The shifts to which he had recourse in his financial -difficulties run at times perilously near the line of -dishonesty.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In 1448 Gutenberg was back in Mainz and again -borrowing money. What happened next can best be -read back from what is known as the Helmasperger -document, a notarial instrument relating to a law suit -which John Fust brought against Gutenberg in 1455. -From this document it appears that about 1450, or -slightly before, Gutenberg became acquainted with -John Fust, who was a prosperous business man in -Mainz. The two entered into a contract of partnership -for five years. Fust was to advance 800 guilders -to Gutenberg at six per cent interest for use in -procuring tools and materials, said tools to remain -mortgaged to Fust until the loan was paid. -In addition Fust was to advance to Gutenberg 300 -guilders every year to provide for servant’s wages, -house rent, vellum, paper, ink, etc. In return Fust -was to receive one half of the profits, but was to be -responsible for no debts and was to take no personal -part in the business.</p> - -<p class='c006'>It is reasonably clear from this contract that while -Gutenberg had hopes in 1450, and we shall probably -see later upon what they were founded, he had not -even made the necessary tools for printing, much less -printed anything. Things did not, however, go -smoothly under the new partnership. Instead of -Fust paying the eight hundred guilders at once, he -spread the payments over two years. Gutenberg, -on his part, did not find the three hundred guilders a -year sufficient. Fust, therefore, proposed that instead -of paying the three hundred guilders a year for the -remaining three years of the partnership, he should -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>pay eight hundred guilders down, and remit the -interest on the first eight hundred guilders as an offset -for the one hundred guilders which Gutenberg would -lose under this modification of the original contract.</p> - -<p class='c006'>These arrangements seem to have been carried out -but in 1455 the results were so unsatisfactory that -Fust brought suit to recover the money advanced. -The court decided at least in part in favor of Fust. -Gutenberg was unable to return the money which the -court awarded to Fust, and in consequence Fust took -possession of the business and equipment. Gutenberg -appears to have saved something out of the wreck -and found a new financial backer in the person of -Conrad Humery, a physician and town clerk of Mainz. -To this new office are attributed a number of books -and pamphlets, the most important one being a Catholicon, -1460, nearly eight hundred pages large folio. In -1462 the city of Mainz was besieged and sacked and -the printing industry therein was broken up. In -1466, however, we find printing done in Eltville, a -suburb of Mainz, with type which is supposed to have -been Gutenberg’s. As this was the birthplace of -Gutenberg’s mother and there was a family estate -there it is quite probable that the Gutenberg-Humery -office was set up in that place. In 1465 we find -Gutenberg appointed one of the officers of the court -of Adolph II, the militant prince-bishop who had -captured and looted Mainz three years before. The -patent states that this appointment is made on -account of “agreeable and voluntary service rendered -to us and our bishopric.” This is the last we hear of -Gutenberg except the record of his death in February, -1468.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In brief, this legend tells us that Gutenberg was for -years a patient but disappointed seeker after an -invention which he had dreamed of but could not -make practical, that he finally succeeded only to be -robbed of the fruits of his success by an unscrupulous -money lender, that in his old age he began -again with undaunted courage, struggling always -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>against financial difficulties and always failing to -make a wordly success of his great invention, reaping -his only reward in the tardy favor of the prince-bishop. -That Fust and his son-in-law, Schoeffer, -did make a financial success of printing, and that -further success was made by Bechtermüntz, who is -said to have been a relative of Gutenberg and to have -inherited type and material from his second shop, and -that from Mainz as a center the art of printing spread -over the civilized world are beyond question. These -are the legends of the invention. Now let us see if -we can find out what really happened.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span> - <h2 class='c004'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The Invention</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>The study of the question of the invention of -printing, like that of any other historical question, -must deal with the examination of three classes -of evidence or so many of them as may be available. -These three classes of evidence, in order of their -importance, are first, remains, second, contemporary -documents, and third, documents or evidence of a -later period. For example, there may be tradition -widely current and running backward in literary form -to within a hundred years of the death of the person -referred to, that a certain king ruled in a certain -country and did certain things. That is evidence of -the third class. There may be extant contemporary -works of travelers, histories of other countries, or even -the published recollections of old men, which said -that at a certain period that king lived and did certain -things. That is evidence of the second class. There -may be coins, official inscriptions, public documents, -emanating directly from this king or even bearing -his signature. This is evidence of the first class. -This class of evidence is conclusive. The second -class is strong, but not conclusive, the third class is -very uncertain.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Now it happens that with regard to the invention -of printing we have evidence of all three classes. All -of it is conflicting, but the conflicts, it is to be noted, -are mainly in the evidence of the third class. The -evidence of the second class exists mainly in Mainz, -but is not nearly as conclusive as has been supposed. -Evidence of the first class comes entirely from Haarlem, -and is there supported by one or two important -pieces of evidence of the second class. With this brief -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>introduction perhaps it will be easier to understand -the argument which follows.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Of course, the material of the first class, namely, -remains, would be the earliest known pieces of printing. -If these pieces of printing were dated as books -are today, they could not be questioned, but as they -are not so dated, but must be placed by other evidence, -they have been questioned. There exist, in whole or -in part, forty-seven distinct pieces of printing each -bearing evidence of being among the first pieces of -printing produced. These forty-seven works in -their present condition run all the way from an entire -book to a fragment of a single page. A group of -three or four of them may be identified by reference -to officials whose official dates were known as being -either in 1474 or immediately preceding it. This, -however, does not date the whole group. These -few specimens are much more advanced in their -appearance and workmanship than the rest of the -forty-seven. Several other editions of some at least -of these better books appear in this interesting lot of -remains. The other editions are of a much more -primitive appearance, showing that the period covered -by the forty-seven works ended not later than 1474.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Of these forty-seven works, forty-five are in Latin, -which, as we know, was the language of schools, -courts, and churches at this period in all nations. One, -an edition of a book of which there are several editions -in Latin, was in Dutch. One was in French. That -these forty-seven books all came from Haarlem is -pretty clearly shown by certain internal evidence. -One of them is clearly placed in Holland by the fact -that it was printed in Dutch. Nobody at the very -outset of printing would print books in Dutch except -a Dutchman. All the rest of the forty-seven are closely -related to these, as is shown by the similarity but not -identity of their types.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The earliest printers were imitators of the copyists. -They made their pages look as much like a manuscript -page as they could, not perhaps with intent to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>deceive, but because nothing else occurred to them. -You will find that all the earliest types are modeled -upon the handwriting current among the copyists -of the place where the printing was done. Certainly -these books did not come from Mainz. Nobody has -ever claimed that they did. Almost equally certainly -they did come from Holland and from Haarlem. The -handwriting is the handwriting of the Haarlem copyists -of the period. An attempt was made at one time -to assign these books to Utrecht, but it is not only -true that each country had its prevailing copyist’s -hand, but that each important center had its own -system variously developed in the local schools in -which copying was taught. The Utrecht hand is not -the Haarlem hand. The books resemble the Haarlem -hand and not the Utrecht.</p> - -<p class='c006'>While the forty-seven books show a considerable -number of varieties of type, the editions being identified -by these type differences, all the type faces show -a strong family resemblance. They are designed from -a common model, but not at the same time, and consequently -they show marked resemblances and marked -differences. The question may be asked why the -same printer should use eight or nine different fonts -of type for only forty-seven books. The answer is -found in the fact that type-making was as yet in an -experimental stage and that durable material had not -yet been found for that purpose. When we come to -the discussion of evidence of another class we shall -find confirmation of this. There is no evidence of -the second or third class connecting early printing -with any Dutch town except Haarlem. There is, -however, important evidence of the other classes -which does connect printing with Haarlem. There -are not, however, forty-seven different works. Twenty -of the forty-seven books are different editions of the -Donatus, that is to say they are Donatuses showing -such typographic differences as to show that no two -of them could have been printed from the same type -form. Four of them are editions of the Speculum -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>and eight are different editions of the Doctrinale. The -Doctrinale was a brief compend to Christian doctrine -approved by the church and widely circulated among -the faithful.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Nearly all of the fragments of these forty-seven -books have been found in Haarlem or in the neighborhood. -It is evident that the publications of this -press, whatever its date, were locally sold and that -neither its fame nor its product went far from the -place of production.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Having thus shown the reasons for believing that -these forty-seven pieces of early printing came from -Haarlem, let us see what they have to say for themselves -as to the time of their production. It has -already been pointed out that a small group of the -best of them dated themselves no later than 1474, -as is shown by their contents. So far as the contents -themselves are concerned we have nothing to date -the others. There are certain things about the books -themselves, however, which show that their production -must have begun long before 1474.</p> - -<p class='c006'>For one thing, there are twenty editions of the -Donatus. We have no way of knowing how near -together the editions were, but when we compare -them with the editions of the Donatus later published -we shall see that it is not unreasonable to suppose -that they run back some thirty years. There were -also four editions of the Speculum and eight editions -of the Doctrinale. In each case the evidence of other -printers shows that even one of the small editions -usually published at that time lasted for a considerable -period. The appearance of the books themselves -bears out this conclusion. Good as the later -ones are, they are inferior to Mainz workmanship -of their period and the earlier ones are far inferior to -Mainz workmanship of any period. They are not -only without signatures, initial directors, hyphens, -and catch words, all of which had come into use before -1474, but they show certain other remarkable peculiarities.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>Many of these editions were printed on vellum, -which is not in itself remarkable, as vellum continued -to be used for a good many years for some books and -for special copies of certain editions. Some of them -show a further peculiarity of having vellum and -paper combined together, some of the pages being -printed on sheets of vellum and some being printed -on sheets of paper. A considerable number of these -books are printed only on one side of the page. None -of the early Mainz books show this peculiarity. -Some of these books not only show the curious combination -of paper and vellum just noted, but curious -combinations of the use of block and type. In -some cases the upper part of the page shows a picture -printed from a block while the lower part is -printed from type.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The blocks thus used are the old familiar blocks of -the Speculum but with no text carved on the block. -Some of the books show the peculiarity of certain -pages of text printed from blocks and other pages of -text printed from type.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The accompanying illustrations show a reproduction -of a page of a Donatus printed from blocks, -and a reproduction of a Donatus printed from type -by Coster. They are taken from Holtrop’s Monuments -Typographiques des Pays-Bas. Two pages, -not consecutive, of the printed Donatus, were found -in the binding of a book published in Delft in 1484. -The leaves are of vellum, printed on one side only. -The ink is pale and is soluble in water. There is no -punctuation and there are no hyphens at the ends of -lines where words are divided, showing that the font -contained only letters. The lines are fairly regular -in length and end with either a complete word or a -syllable. The form is well locked up and the presswork -is fair. The letters are of slightly varying size -and are not in perfect alignment. Apparently each -letter was cut independently on the end of the type -body and the cutter was not sufficiently skillful to -center them perfectly.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>Compare this page with the reproductions of the -Mazarin, or forty-two line Bible, shown on pages <a href='#Page_48'>48</a> -and <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>. We know that the Mazarin Bible was -printed not later than 1456. By some it has been -attributed to Gutenberg, or at least to his types, but -it is now considered the work of Schoeffer. The -Mazarin Bible is one of the most perfect and splendid -pieces of typography that has ever been produced. -Other work attributed to Gutenberg shows a high -degree of excellence. It has always been one of the -wonders of invention that so difficult and complicated -an art as typography should have sprung into being -fully perfected, without trace of imperfect experiment. -In the rough page of Coster’s Donatus we clearly see -the imperfect beginning—the missing link.</p> - -<p class='c006'>These peculiarities are exactly what we should -expect to find in the missing links between the -printing of block books and the printing of books from -type. The printer is experimenting. He cuts the -lettering off his blocks and combines them with type. -He uses type and blocks for the same edition. He -experiments with paper. He is very primitive in his -methods. A block book could be printed only on -one side. He is not yet sure that the type-set book -can be printed on both sides. Not improbably he -began by using for his type page the same method of -printing that he used with his wooden block. It -seems pretty clear that in this mass of material, -known collectively as the Costeriana, we have the -records of the course of experimentation which led -from the printing of the image print, with its legend -cut on the same block, by placing a sheet of paper or -vellum on the inked surface of the block and pressing -it down with a frotten, to the production of the book -from type-set pages impressed upon both sides of the -paper by means of a press.</p> - -<p class='c006'>We have thus gone through the evidence of the -first class which exists for the invention of printing. -We have seen that there exists indisputable evidence -that forty-seven editions were printed at Haarlem -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>before 1474 by an experimenter who seems to have -gone over the road from the block book to the type-set -book.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/illos_p38.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Reduced Facsimile of Type Page by Coster.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span> -<img src='images/illos_p39.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Reduced Facsimile of Block Printing</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>We have a few bits of evidence of the second and -third class which bear upon this subject and confirm -our conclusions. Jean Le Robert, Abbot of Cambray, -says in his diary that he bought in 1446 and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>1451 copies of the Doctrinale of Alexander Gallus -printed from type. Certainly no Doctrinales were -printed from type in Mainz as early as 1446, although -we know that the Costeriana include Doctrinales in -eight editions which may well have gone back to 1451. -The opponents of the Haarlem theory claim that the -Abbot refers to Doctrinales printed from blocks but -we have no knowledge of the existence of any Doctrinales -so made, and the term by which he describes -them is a term which from the beginning has been -specifically applied to the making of type and could -not be applied to the making of blocks. Presumably -the Abbot knew what he was talking about and told -the truth.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Hadrianus Junius, in 1568, tells the story of Coster -and the birch bark letters as we have previously told -it. It is not necessary to repeat the story, but it is -interesting to note certain features of it. Junius says -that Coster printed his leaves on one side, pasting -two together to avoid the recurrence of alternate -blank pages. He further says that he saw one or two -of Coster’s books thus made. He claims that he got -the story in his youth from his tutor, Nicholas Gaal, -a very aged man, but of good memory, who said that -in his boyhood he had heard a certain Cornelis, a -book binder, then eighty years old, tell the story of -Coster’s invention and his struggles to perfect it, -including the use of one side of the paper and of -several different materials for type. The Burgomaster -of Haarlem, Quirinius Talesius, admitted to -Junius that in his youth Cornelis had told him the -same story, and it is interesting to note in this connection -that some of the Costeriana fragments are -found in bindings made by this same Cornelis.</p> - -<p class='c006'>One more evidence which, like that of Junius, falls -into the third class remains to be cited. In 1499 -Koelhoff published the Cologne Chronicle in which he -speaks of the invention of printing, using as his -authority Ulrich Zell, a printer of the Mainz school, -who settled in Cologne. He says that Zell told him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>that “the art of printing was first found at Mainz, -but in the manner as it was then (1499) practiced; -the first prefiguration, however, the beginning -of that at Mainz, was found in Holland from the -Donatuses which had been printed in that country -before.” Certainly this is not an attribution of the -invention of printing either to Mainz or to Gutenberg. -It is a distinct confession that it is only the sort of -work then being done which was invented at Mainz -and that it was suggested by work brought from -Holland. It entirely agrees with the Junius account -above quoted.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In the Haarlem Town Library there is a pedigree -of the Coster family. In its present form it dates from -1559, but the earlier part was evidently copied from -an old document. This pedigree says that Lourens -Janssoen Coster invented printing in 1446.</p> - -<p class='c006'>While we have not here an exact agreement of -dates we have one near enough for all practical purposes. -The Costeriana run back for a period which -may be conservatively stated at thirty years from -1474, that is to say, to 1444 or thereabouts. Zell -says that printed Donatuses came from Holland, but -that the art of printing as practiced in 1499 was -invented at Mainz, and this invention, as we shall -presently show, is fixed as subsequently to 1450. -Junius, writing in 1568, says that Coster discovered -printing 128 years previously, that is to say, 1440.</p> - -<p class='c006'>If we now turn to the examination of the evidence -in support of the claim for Gutenberg, we find that it -is lacking in material of the first or even of the second -class. It is not absolutely certain that we have any -book printed by Gutenberg. If, however, for the -sake of the argument we admit that he printed nearly -or quite all of the works that are attributed to him we -find that they are all much better in workmanship -and appearance than the Haarlem books. None of -them are printed on one side of the page only, excepting, -of course, small matters which would not cover -more than one page, and there are no signs whatever -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of transition from any previous type of printing to -typography. Those who have accepted the theory -of Gutenberg’s invention have marveled at the perfection -of his work, as well they might.</p> - -<p class='c006'>There are only two pieces of evidence of the first -class. One is the Helmasperger document, a notary’s -document concerning the law suit which Fust brought -against Gutenberg in 1455. A close examination of -this document would appear to show that it tells -rather against than in favor of Gutenberg. It appears -to show conclusively that Gutenberg had not done -any printing before 1450, and had not at that time -even made the tools with which to print. In this -document Fust speaks of “the work” and “our common -work.” Gutenberg speaks of “tools” in preparation. -Clearly he is borrowing money in order to -make tools. He speaks further of “servants’ wages, -house rent, vellum, paper, ink, etc.” and of “the work -of the books.” The judges speak of “the work to the -profit of both of them,” “their common use,” and the -like. There is not a word which speaks distinctly -of an invention. It is true that the argument from -silence is always dangerous and that those who believe -that Gutenberg invented printing could easily read -between the lines of this document references to the -invention. To one who approaches the subject with -an open mind, however, the language is rather that -of one who enters into partnership for the carrying on -of a business enterprise which is understood by both -parties and from which both expect to receive profit -rather than that of the man who undertakes to finance -an inventor for a share in the invention.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The other piece of evidence of the first class is the -letters patent by which Adolph II appointed Gutenberg -one of the officers of his court. The document -states that the appointment is made for “agreeable -and voluntary service rendered to us and our bishopric.” -It has been argued that as Gutenberg was not -a soldier this agreeable and voluntary service must -have been the invention of printing. Surely this is a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>violent assumption. If we believe that Gutenberg -invented printing, we may perhaps see in these words -a reference to the invention, although we then marvel -why so epoch-making an accomplishment was not -specifically mentioned. It is difficult, however, to -see why an unconvinced person should be expected -to see in such a statement as this any evidence that -Gutenberg had invented printing. Certainly there -are many other kinds of service which might well -have been rendered by one of whom we know so little -as we do of Gutenberg.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Zell’s testimony, already referred to, is of the second -class. Zell’s testimony also counts against Gutenberg. -He distinctly does not claim that Gutenberg invented -any more than the method of printing in use in 1499, -admitting that he got his suggestion from the Donatuses -brought out of Holland. It has been argued -that these Donatuses were block books and that it -was from them that Gutenberg got the idea of typography. -This argument, however, breaks down at -once when we remember that many block books were -printed in Germany. There is no earthly reason -why the suggestion of typography should have come -from a Dutch block book when everybody was familiar -with the German ones and had been so familiar for -many years.</p> - -<p class='c006'>A careful examination of the documentary evidence -which will be found set forth in chronological order -in the article on Typography in the eleventh edition -of the Encyclopedia Britannica shows several interesting -things. While the earlier mentions of printing -generally attribute the beginnings of the art to Mainz, -few of them speak distinctly of its being invented -there. They speak of its being practiced there and -being given to Germany and the world from there, -claims as we shall presently see quite consistent with -the theory of invention elsewhere. Nearly, if not -quite, all of the early statements that printing was -invented by Gutenberg are traceable either directly -to Gutenberg himself, to his family, or to people who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>would be quoting him or his family. It is not until -a comparatively late period that we find any agreement -among writers in attributing the invention to -Gutenberg.</p> - -<p class='c006'>We are now perhaps in position to form a pretty -clear idea of just what happened and to award discriminating -credit where it belongs. The present -writer believes that it may be considered as settled -that Coster invented printing in Haarlem about 1446. -Coster did not, however, found a school of printing. -He ceased to print not far from 1481, as about that -time we find some of his material used elsewhere. The -later years of the century see a few printers in Holland. -How far they derived their inspiration from Coster -is doubtful. It is certain that Haarlem was not a -center from which spread to the rest of Europe and -ultimately to the whole world the art preservative of -all arts.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The honor of being this center clearly belongs to -Mainz. How did the art get there? Probably not -through the treachery of a dishonest apprentice. That -is one of the legendary features of the Junius story, -explained by the fact that in his time everybody knew -that the center from which printing spread was -Mainz and that the first two printers were John -Gutenberg and John Fust. We may at this point -accept Zell’s account as the true one. Some of Coster’s -work found its way to Mainz, together, probably, -with some general, unscientific statements as to how -it was produced. Acting on this hint and with these -models before him, Gutenberg reinvented the art, -that is, he worked out from the finished product and -a general idea of how it was made what was to all -intents and purposes an original process superior to -the one by which the work in his possession had been -produced.</p> - -<p class='c006'>His association with Fust, the business man, and -Schoeffer, the craftsman, was the means whereby the -invention became profitable to the world, though not -to Gutenberg. There is no reason to suppose that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>Fust was an unprincipled schemer who stole Gutenberg’s -invention and profited by it. He was a business -man who made a contract with another man for -the carrying on of a certain manufacturing process, -setting his capital against the other man’s labor for -an equal share in the profit. There was not only no -profit, but the working partner did not live up to his -side of the contract. Fust sued, obtained a judgment, -and under this judgment took over a great part at -least of the equipment which his money had paid for. -While the criminal procedure of this age was of a -very harsh and primitive sort the judgments of the -German courts in civil cases appear generally to have -been fairly just. When we consider Gutenberg’s -record of financial slipperiness there seems no reason -to doubt that it was just in this case. On obtaining -the business Fust associated with himself the young -journeyman, Peter Schoeffer, who had learned the -business in the Gutenberg and Fust establishment -and had married Fust’s daughter. He was an excellent -workman and his skill, backed by Fust’s capital, -set the new invention on a practical basis and insured -its future.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In deciding against the claims of Gutenberg to the -invention we by no means deprive him of all share in -the glory. The reinvention with improvements was -nearly if not quite as creditable a task as the invention, -especially when we remember how simple a step -the actual inventor took in going from his block book -to his type-set book. The invention of Coster was -sterile. The reinvention of Gutenberg was fruitful. -It was Mainz and not Haarlem which actually gave -printing to the world.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In view of all this the early testimonies are not so -conflicting as they seem. We have seen that the -testimonies of Junius and of Zell supplement each -other. We can see that the early authorities were -right in their claim that printing was given to Germany -and the world by Mainz, and at the same time -that the claim is not, as has been hastily supposed, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>a claim that it was invented there. We can see that -the reinvention of printing might well seem so important -to Gutenberg himself and to his family that they -should claim that he invented it. The statement in -the letters patent may well refer to the service which -Gutenberg rendered to the court and bishopric of -Adolph II by the introduction of typography because -he unquestionably did thus render them great service, -and we are no longer surprised at the omission of a -distinct statement that Gutenberg was rewarded for -inventing typography. In a word, the Gutenberg -monuments need not come down, but the inscriptions -on them should be changed.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span> - <h2 class='c004'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Materials and Methods of the First Printers</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>Our knowledge of Coster is much less complete -than our knowledge of Gutenberg. Much, however, -that could be said of one would undoubtedly -be true of the other. It is reported that Coster began -with wooden type. This would naturally be the first -step forward from the block book, which was invariably -printed from wood. Finding that wooden type -was unsatisfactory in the press, he experimented with -lead and with tin, we are told. Obviously he would -not get satisfactory results with either of these metals -unalloyed. The use of unsatisfactory material probably -accounts for the number of fonts of type which -he employed in his comparatively small output.</p> - -<div class='figleft id003'> -<img src='images/illos_p47.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Showing Principle of a Type Mold</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>Gutenberg and his associates -invented a more satisfactory -type metal and an improved -method for the making of type. -The first types appear to have -been carved individually by -hand. This was a great task, -but not as great as might -appear. The early printers -printed their books page by -page. When one page was -printed in sufficient numbers -for the edition the type was distributed and another -page set up, and so on. In this way a comparatively -small amount of type would suffice for the equipment -of a small shop. It was not long, however, before the -superiority of casting was perceived.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The first mold was probably two notched blocks -of brass or copper, like those shown in the accompanying -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>illustration, a method being provided of accurately -positioning the matrix under the opening in the mold -and also of holding the two blocks firmly together. -From the illustration it will be noted that when the -blocks are forced together a square opening remains. -Still keeping the blocks together, but sliding down the -one at the right, one dimension of the opening does -not change, but the other can be varied. This mold -has been improved in detail, but not greatly altered -in principle down to this day. A fairly satisfactory -form of matrix very similar to the one in use today -was soon devised. This was made by cutting the -letter in relief on the end of a soft steel or iron punch -which was then hardened and driven into a block of -soft brass or copper, which became the matrix.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/illos_p48.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Type of the Mazarin Bible (exact size)</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>The type, as has been said, was cut to resemble the -handwriting of the scribes in the locality where the -book was printed. This would be the obvious method -because it must be remembered that the rapid reproduction -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>of manuscripts was the sole end which the -first printers had in view. They did not think of -developing a conventional book type different from -handwriting or script. They simply imitated the -script which was current, and consequently most -legible, in their neighborhood. The school boys of -that day did not have to learn two alphabets, one the -script letter and the other the printed letter, as we do -today. The device of spacing was immediately -adopted. The letters were cast, however, upon -bodies with wide shoulders at top and bottom and -used without leads.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/illos_p49.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Page from the Mazarin Bible (reduced)</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>The types of the period were both handsome and -legible. Perhaps they may not be easy for us to -read, but that is because we are not familiar with the -forms of the letters used and especially with the contractions -and abbreviations which were common. -The beauty of some of these early types will be seen -from the little specimen of the type of the Mazarin -Bible which is herewith -reproduced in -full size.</p> - -<p class='c006'>With the example -of the illuminators -before them the early -printers paid much -attention to the ornamenting -of their -pages. They introduced -some ornaments -of their own -and they occasionally -left space for the hand -illuminator to use in -supplementing their -work. A full page of -the Mazarin Bible -greatly reduced is -shown herewith. By -comparing that with -the specimen of full -size type and imagining -the whole page -thrown up to natural -size one can see what a really beautiful book this -famous Bible was.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/illos_p50.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>An Early Printing Press</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>The press in use was of the most simple form imaginable, -as shown by the accompanying illustration. -It was an adaptation of a familiar mechanical device, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>with no originality about it. It was made of wood -and was operated by a screw turning through a nut, -the moving of the screw bringing the platen and bed -into contact. The form was released by the reverse -movement of the screw. After a while the sliding bed -and frisket shown in the accompanying illustration -were introduced and there the mechanism stopped -for a long time.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/illos_p51.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>Bed of Hand Press Showing Tympan and Frisket</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>The first twenty-five years or so of printing have -been described as a period of stagnation. They have -also been described as the period of the workman. -Apparently the vast possibilities of the new art were -slow in obtaining recognition. The earliest printers -were only mechanics. They had not yet got the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>vision of combining scholarship with their art and so -unlocking the treasuries of the world to mankind -generally, still less that of adding to the sum total of -human knowledge. They had found out an art by -which manuscripts could be rapidly produced and -money made by their sale, and that was all.</p> - -<p class='c006'>They contented themselves with a slavish imitation -of manuscripts, with apparently no thought of their -being anything more than manuscript imitators. This -condition of things, however, could not last long. It -was inevitable that the scholars of the world should -become interested in this new process and should -begin to see its advantages. After twenty or twenty-five -years of printing this took place. The period of -sluggish and practically dormant infancy passed and -the development of the art began, as we shall see in -the next volume of this series, No. 51, A Short History -of Printing, Part I.</p> - -<h3 class='c010'>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</h3> - -<p class='c011'><span class='sc'>The Story of Books.</span> By Gertrude Burford Rawlings. McClure, -Phillips & Co., New York.</p> - -<p class='c012'><span class='sc'>The Invention of Printing.</span> By Thedore L. De Vinne. Oswald -Publishing Co., New York.</p> - -<p class='c012'><span class='sc'>Haarlem, not Mainz.</span> By J. H. Hesels.</p> - -<p class='c012'><span class='sc'>Early Printed Books.</span> By E. Gordon Duff.</p> - -<p class='c012'><span class='sc'>Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages.</span> Vol. I. by -George Haven Putnam. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York.</p> - -<p class='c012'><span class='sc'>Encyclopedia Britannica.</span> Eleventh Edition. Article on -Typography.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Pupils who have access to large libraries should consult J.W. -Holtrop’s Monuments Typographiques des Pays-Bas and Samuel -Sotheby’s Principia, both of which contain many excellent -reproductions of very early printing. Sotheby’s book is commonly -referred to as above, but is published under several -different names in editions which vary but little. Perhaps the -best is entitled Typography of the Fifteenth Century.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span> - <h2 class='c004'>SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The following questions, based on the contents of this volume, -are intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) -as an aid to the student in putting the information contained -into definite statements without actually memorizing the text, -(3) as a means of securing from the student a reproduction of the -information in his own words.</p> - -<p class='c006'>A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure -full acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental -omission of what might be of value. These primers are so -condensed that nothing should be omitted.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In teaching from these books it is very important that these -questions and such others as may occur to the teacher should be -made the basis of frequent written work, and of final examinations.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not -only assures knowledge of material but the power to express that -knowledge correctly and in good form.</p> - -<p class='c006'>If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed -form it will be doubly useful.</p> - -<h3 class='c010'>QUESTIONS</h3> - - <dl class='dl_1 c015'> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>1. What interesting fact is noted about most great inventions and what is the reason for - it? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>2. Give some well known instances. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>3. How does this condition apply to the invention of printing? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>4. Why may we question De Vinne’s decision? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>5. Why was the discovery of typography inevitable about 1450? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>6. What was the condition of England and France at this time? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>7. What was the condition of Italy? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>8. What was the condition of Germany, Spain, and Portugal? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>9. What was the condition of the church? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>10. What important movement was made possible by these political conditions? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>11. Name some important events in the movement. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>12. What had all this to do with book-making? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>13. What were the shortcomings of manuscript books? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>14. What materials were already invented and ready for the printer? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>15. Tell what you can about each. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>16. What is typography? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>17. What were the earliest predecessors of typography? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>18. Tell of some later methods of making impressions. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>19. What early attempts at printing were made by the Chinese and their neighbors? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>20. Did these attempts develop into typography, and why? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>21. What devices took the place of books among the poor before the invention of printing? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>22. What were image prints, and how made? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>23. What were the two lines of development from the image prints? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>24. How did these developments suggest typography? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>25. How were early playing cards made, and what was their relation to block printing? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>26. Name some of the places where and persons by whom typography is said to have been - invented. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>27. Tell the story of Waldfoghel, and what we conclude about it. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>28. Tell the Coster legend. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>29. What do we know about Gutenberg before 1450? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>30. What was his contract of that year with Fust? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>31. How did it work out? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>32. What do we know of Gutenberg after 1455? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>33. Give the main points of the Gutenberg legend. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>34. What are the clear facts about early Mainz printing? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>35. What are the three classes of historical evidence? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>36. What can you say, with this distinction in mind, about the evidence concerning the - invention of typography? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>37. What evidence of the first class is there coming from Haarlem? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd><span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>38. Why do we claim that this evidence comes from Haarlem? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>39. Why did the printer use so many fonts of type for so few books? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>40. What internal evidence is there for the date of these books? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>41. What are the peculiarities of these books? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>42. What do these peculiarities show? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>43. What piece of evidence of the second class have we which bears on these books? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>44. What pieces of evidence of the third class have we which bear on these books? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>45. What does all this evidence seem to show as to who invented typography, where, and - when? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>46. What do the printed pieces attributed to Gutenberg show? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>47. What does the Helmasperger document show? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>48. What does the patent of Adolph II show? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>49. What does Zell’s statement show? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>50. What can you say of the early statements that Gutenberg invented typography? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>51. Compare the results of the work of Coster and of Gutenberg. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>52. How did the Haarlem invention get to Mainz? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>53. What did Gutenberg really do? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>54. What was the outcome of his work? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>55. How does this theory explain the doubtful or conflicting evidence? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>56. What can you say about Coster’s type? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>57. How were the first types made? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>58. What two important inventions in type-making do we owe to Gutenberg and his - associates? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>59. What can you tell about the first type faces? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>60. Why are the early books so beautiful? - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>61. Describe Gutenberg’s press and the first improvements upon it. - </dd> - <dt> </dt> - <dd>62. What has the first period of about twenty-five years of typography been called, and - why? - </dd> - </dl> - -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_i'>i</span></div> -<div class='section ph3'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c005'>The following list of publications, comprising the <span class='sc'>Typographic -Technical Series for Apprentices</span>, has been prepared -under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the -United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of -printing instruction, and by individuals.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or -group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide -the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, -and apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and -inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon -the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all -arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.</p> - -<p class='c006'>The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. -Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has -been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief -synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each -volume will be found under each title in the following list.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to -embody in each publication as completely as possible all the -rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding -of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements -accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential -information within the understanding of beginners in the different -fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined -drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving -additional clearness to the text.</p> - -<p class='c006'>In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible -help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each -title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering -essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical -terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also -added to many of the books.</p> - -<p class='c006'>These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of -America.</p> - -<p class='c006'>Address all orders and inquiries to <span class='sc'>Committee on Education, -United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A.</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_ii'>ii</span>PART I—<i>Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>1. Type: a Primer of Information</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> -<p class='c016'>Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font -schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; -illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.</p> -<p class='c000'><strong>2. Compositors’ Tools and Materials</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass -rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review -questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>3. Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case -racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review -questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>4. Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, -including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated; -70 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>5. Proof Presses</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for -taking printers’ proofs. 40pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>6. Platen Printing Presses</strong> By Daniel Baker</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction -of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern -job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size. -51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>7. Cylinder Printing Presses</strong> By Herbert L. Baker</p> - -<p class='c016'>Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of -cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>8. Mechanical Feeders and Folders</strong> By William E. Spurrier</p> - -<p class='c016'>The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with -hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>9. Power for Machinery in Printing Houses</strong> By Carl F. Scott</p> - -<p class='c016'>A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied -machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; -69 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>10. Paper Cutting Machines</strong> By Niel Gray, Jr.</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever -cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper, -70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>11. Printers’ Rollers</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of -inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>12. Printing Inks</strong> By Philip Ruxton</p> - -<p class='c016'>Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission -from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with -some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by -Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_iii'>iii</span><strong>13. How Paper is Made</strong> By William Bond Wheelwright</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing -paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>14. Relief Engravings</strong> By Joseph P. Donovan</p> - -<p class='c016'>Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving; -woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things -to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>15. Electrotyping and Stereotyping</strong> By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. -94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART II—<i>Hand and Machine Composition</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>16. Typesetting</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, -correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; -review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>17. Printers’ Proofs</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with -observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>18. First Steps in Job Composition</strong> By Camille De Véze</p> - -<p class='c016'>Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, -especially about the important little things which go to make good -display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>19. General Job Composition</strong></p> -<p class='c016'>How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and -miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>20. Book Composition</strong> By J. W. Bothwell</p> - -<p class='c016'>Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” -revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell of -The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II: -Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>21. Tabular Composition</strong> By Robert Seaver</p> - -<p class='c016'>A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of -more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>22. Applied Arithmetic</strong> By E. E. Sheldon</p> - -<p class='c016'>Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation -of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules -for computation, each subject amplified with examples and exercises. -159 pp.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>23. Typecasting and Composing Machines</strong> A. W. Finlay, Editor</p> - -<p class='c016'>Section I—The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein -Section II—The Monotype By Joseph Hays -Section III—The Intertype By Henry W, Cozzens -Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. Smith</p> - -<p class='c016'>A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their -mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_iv'>iv</span>PART III—<i>Imposition and Stonework</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>24. Locking Forms for the Job Press</strong> By Frank S. Henry</p> - -<p class='c016'>Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and -about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>25. Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press</strong> By Frank S. Henry</p> - -<p class='c016'>Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of -handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART IV—<i>Presswork</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>26. Making Ready on Platen Presses</strong> By T. G. McGrew</p> - -<p class='c016'>The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of -commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the -impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other -details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>27. Cylinder Presswork</strong> By T. G. McGrew</p> - -<p class='c016'>Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink -fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; -modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>28. Pressroom Hints and Helps</strong> By Charles L. Dunton</p> - -<p class='c016'>Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions -and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. -87 pp.; 176 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>29. Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts</strong> By A. W. Elson</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the -intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; -100 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART V—<i>Pamphlet and Book Binding</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>30. Pamphlet Binding</strong> By Bancroft L. Goodwin</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the various operations employed in -binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review -questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>31. Book Binding</strong> By John J. Pleger</p> - -<p class='c016'>Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; -folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making -and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and blank-book -binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART VI—<i>Correct Literary Composition</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>32. Word Study and English Grammar</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. -68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>33. Punctuation</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, -both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span><strong>34. Capitals</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic -hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions; -glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>35. Division of Words</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on -spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>36. Compound Words</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, -and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>37. Abbreviations and Signs</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified -lists of those in most common, use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>38. The Uses of Italic</strong> By F. W, Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. -31 pp.; 37 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>39. Proofreading</strong> By Arnold Levitas</p> - -<p class='c016'>The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, -revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by -examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>40. Preparation of Printers’ Copy</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing -copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>41. Printers’ Manual of Style</strong></p> - -<p class='c016'>A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions -relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, -numerals, and kindred features of composition.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>42. The Printer’s Dictionary</strong> By A. A. Stewart</p> - -<p class='c016'>A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various -processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. -Illustrated.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART VII—<i>Design, Color, and Lettering</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>43. Applied Design for Printers</strong> By Harry L. Gage</p> - -<p class='c016'>A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the -periods of design which have most influenced printing Treats of harmony, -balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety; -ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions; -glossary; bibliography.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>44. Elements of Typographic Design</strong> By Harry L. Gage</p> - -<p class='c016'>Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material -of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling -of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design of -commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions, -glossary; bibliography.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span><strong>45. Rudiments of Color in Printing</strong> By Harry L. Gage</p> - -<p class='c016'>Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, -in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. -Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in which color -may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and -combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with -color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; -glossary; bibliography.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>46. Lettering in Typography</strong> By Harry L. Gage</p> - -<p class='c016'>Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development -of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design. -Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of design to -lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review questions; -glossary; bibliography.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>47. Typographic Design in Advertising</strong> By Harry L. Gage</p> - -<p class='c016'>The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising -is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, -color. Method of studying advertising typography. Illustrations; -review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>48. Making Dummies and Layouts</strong> By Harry L. Gage</p> - -<p class='c016'>A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed -final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of -layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. -Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART VIII—<i>History of Printing</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>49. Books Before Typography</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the -history of book-making up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; -illustrated; 64 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>50. The Invention of Typography</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. -64 pp.; 62 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>51. History of Printing</strong> Part I By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development -of the book, the development of printers’ materials, and the work -of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>52. History of Printing</strong> Part II By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from -1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal -conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>53. Printing in England</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. -89 pp.; 65 review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>54. Printing in America</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on -publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 -review questions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>55. Type and Presses in America</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press -building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>PART IX—<i>Cost Finding and Accounting</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>56. Elements of Cost in Printing</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should -show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. -Glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>57. Use of a Cost System</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should -show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. -Glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>58. The Printer as a Merchant</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The -relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished -product. Review questions. Glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>59. Fundamental Principles of Estimating</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. -Review questions. Glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>60. Estimating and Selling</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation -to selling. Review questions. Glossary.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>61. Accounting for Printers</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and -accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c017'> - <div>PART X—<i>Miscellaneous</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><strong>62. Health, Sanitation, and Safety</strong> By Henry P. Porter</p> - -<p class='c016'>Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical -suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>63. Topical Index</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic -Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.</p> - -<p class='c000'><strong>64. Courses of Study</strong> By F. W. Hamilton</p> - -<p class='c016'>A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and -shop work.</p> -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span></div> -<div class='chapter ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c018'> - <div>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c019'>This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the -splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals -engaged in the printing business and its allied industries -in the United States of America.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of -America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and -published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance -rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified -with this work.</p> - -<p class='c020'>While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright -pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless -felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of -interest.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who -have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, -constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books -comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed -(which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list -will be printed in each volume.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to -the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its -publication.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c017'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in17'><span class='sc'>Committee on Education,</span></div> - <div class='line in17'><span class='sc'>United Typothetae of America.</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in24'><span class='sc'>Henry P. Porter</span>, <i>Chairman</i>,</div> - <div class='line in24'><span class='sc'>E. Lawrence Fell,</span></div> - <div class='line in24'><span class='sc'>A. M. Glossbrenner,</span></div> - <div class='line in24'><span class='sc'>J. Clyde Oswald,</span></div> - <div class='line in24'><span class='sc'>Toby Rubovits.</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in17'><span class='sc'>Frederick W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Education Director</i>.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span></div> -<div class='chapter ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c018'> - <div>CONTRIBUTORS</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='lg-container-b c021'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><strong>For Composition and Electrotypes</strong></div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Isaac H. Blanchard Company</span>, New York, N. Y.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>S. H. Burbank & Co</span>., Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>J. S. Cushing & Co</span>., Norwood, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Devinne Press</span>, New York, N. Y.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co</span>., Chicago, Ill.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Geo. H. Ellis Co</span>., Boston, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Evans-Winter-Hebb</span>, Detroit, Mich.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Franklin Printing Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>F. H. Gilson Company</span>, Boston, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Stephen Greene & Co</span>., Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>W. F. Hall Printing Co</span>., Chicago, Ill.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>J. B. Lippincott Co</span>., Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>McCalla & Co. Inc.,</span> Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Patteson Press, New York</span>, New York</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Plimpton Press</span>, Norwood, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Poole Bros</span>., Chicago, Ill.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Edward Stern & Co</span>., Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co</span>., Roanoke, Va.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>C. D. Traphagen</span>, Lincoln, Neb.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The University Press</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><strong>For Composition</strong></div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Boston Typothetae School of Printing</span>, Boston, Mass,</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>William F. Fell Co</span>., Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Kalkhoff Company</span>, New York, N. Y.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Oxford-print</span>, Boston, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Toby Rubovits</span>, Chicago, Ill.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><strong>For Electrotypes</strong></div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Blomgren Brothers Co</span>., Chicago, Ill.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Flower. Steel Electrotyping Co</span>., New York, N. Y.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>C. J. Peters & Son Co</span>., Boston, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Royal Electrotype Co</span>., Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>H. C. Whitcomb & Co</span>., Boston, Mass.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><strong>For Engravings</strong></div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>American Type Founders Co</span>., Boston, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co</span>., Westerly, R. I.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Golding Manufacturing Co</span>., Franklin, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Harvard University</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Inland Printer Co</span>., Chicago, Ill.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Lanston Monotype Machine Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Mergenthaler Linotype Company</span>, New York, N. Y.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Geo. H. Morrill Co</span>., Norwood, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>Oswald Publishing Co</span>., New York, N. Y.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Printing Art</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>B. D. Rising Paper Company</span>, Housatonic, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>The Vandercook Press</span>, Chicago, Ill.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><strong>For Book Paper</strong></div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>American Whiting Paper Co</span>., Holyoke, Mass.</div> - <div class='line in4'><span class='sc'>West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co</span>., Mechanicville, N. Y.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c015' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> - -<div class='chapter ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c018'> - <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling. - - </li> - <li>Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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