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page-break-inside: avoid; - clear: both; } - div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; } - div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; - line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } - .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; - margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } - .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; - page-break-before: always; } - .border {border-style: solid; border-width: medium; padding: 1em; margin: 0em auto; - page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 50%; } - .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } - /* ]]> */ </style> - </head> - <body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Vision of the Future, by Jane Hume Clapperton</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Vision of the Future</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>based on the Application of Ethical Principles</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Jane Hume Clapperton</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 21, 2022 [eBook #67463]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A VISION OF THE FUTURE ***</div> - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='chapter ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>A VISION OF THE FUTURE</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='border'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><em>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</em></div> - <div class='c003'>Crown 8vo, 443 pp., price 8/6.</div> - <div class='c002'><span class='large'>Scientific Meliorism and the Evolution of Happiness.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>“In the Author we recognize an advanced thinker of a -rare and high order.”—<cite>Westminster Review.</cite></p> - -<p class='c004'>“We earnestly advise all to read this admirable book.”—<cite>Weekly -Despatch.</cite></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., LONDON.</div> - <div class='c003'>Crown 8vo, 207 pp., cheap edition 6<em>d.</em></div> - <div class='c002'><span class='large'>Margaret Dunmore or A Socialist Home.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>“The story in the life in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Maison</span></cite> is very well told.”—<cite>Literary -World.</cite></p> - -<p class='c004'>“In the chapter on <cite>Unselfish Love</cite> there are some sound -and sensible views which might well be adopted without -waiting for the advent of The Unitary Home.”—<cite>Times.</cite></p> - -<p class='c004'>“Decidedly entertaining.”—<cite>Manchester Examiner.</cite></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., LONDON.</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c005'>A VISION OF THE FUTURE<br /> <span class='small'>BASED ON</span><br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>The Application of Ethical Principles</span></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>By</div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>JANE HUME CLAPPERTON</span></div> - <div><span class='small'>AUTHOR OF “SCIENTIFIC MELIORISM”, “MARGARET DUNMORE”, ETC.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<em>HITCH YOUR WAGON TO A STAR</em>”</div> - <div class='line in6'>—<em>Emerson.</em></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>LONDON</div> - <div><span class='large'>SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., LIMITED</span></div> - <div>PATERNOSTER SQUARE</div> - <div class='c003'>1904</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>TO MY FRIEND</div> - <div>GEORGE ARTHUR GASKELL</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> - <h2 class='c007'>To the Reader</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Social Problems are the chief interest and study -of my life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In 1885 I published in London a work entitled -<cite>Scientific Meliorism and the Evolution of Happiness</cite>.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The world of thought has acquired new knowledge -since then; and many social changes have occurred. -The present volume is not a replica of that work, -although, as before, my aim has been to gather together -the currents of meliorism pursuing diverse -courses throughout society and to throw upon these -the light of fresh knowledge gained by investigators -of economic and social science; and, above all, the -light emanating from philosophic thinkers who recognize -that the path of improved outward conditions, -and the path of inward progress for man, lie parallel -to each other. It is my belief that in this dawning -epoch of conscious evolution man may, if he so -chooses, push forward the actual life of to-day and -merge it into the ideal life of to-morrow.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There has recently occurred a widespread commemoration -of the birth of that pure-souled American, -who was pre-eminently a teacher of the ideal -life. This volume, I hope, will be read in America, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>and, to the memory of Emerson I tender homage, -while adopting his phrase, “<cite>Hitch Your Wagon to a -Star</cite>,” as the motto of my book.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The toil of man’s daily life alas! is indeed as the -straining and jolting of a lumbering wagon,—it -grovels, it wallows, it drags wearily, and the soul of -the wagoner soars not.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But there are few thinkers who confront the great -social question of the hour as not the rescue of the -submerged tenth merely, not the elevation of the -masses only, but the uplifting of <em>all Humanity</em> to -higher levels in the scale of being.</p> - -<p class='c004'>When the great process of social reform is -animated and ruled by that lofty aspiration, the -lumbering wagon of toil will become a triumphal -chariot of moral and spiritual progress.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-r'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>JANE HUME CLAPPERTON.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span> - <h2 class='c007'>Contents</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0'> - <tr> - <th class='c009'><span class='small'>CHAP.</span></th> - <th class='c010'> </th> - <th class='c011'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'>Initial Chapter—<span class='sc'>Happiness</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c012' colspan='3'>Part I—<span class='sc'>Economics in Modern Life</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Industrial Revolution</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Organized Industry</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c012' colspan='3'>Part II—<span class='sc'>The Physiological Aspects of the Subject</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Law of Population</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Problem of Sex</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Eugenics or Stirpiculture</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Marriage</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Parentage</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c012' colspan='3'>Part III—<span class='sc'>Abnormal Humanity</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Elimination of Crime</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c012' colspan='3'>Part IV—<span class='sc'>Evolution of the Emotions</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Sentiments of Individual Rights and Social Justice</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Rapacity, Pride, Love of Property</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Personal Jealousy, National Patriotism</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'>Part V—<span class='sc'>Education, or Direct Training of Childhood to the Civilized Habit of Mind</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c012' colspan='3'>Part VI—<span class='sc'>Conditions in Aid of Happy Life in a Developing Civilization</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>The Needs of Adolescence</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II</td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Domestic Reform</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr><td class='c012' colspan='3'>Part VII—<span class='sc'>Religion and Religious Life</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Primal Elements in Humanity’s Evolution</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_287'>287</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Summary</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Synopsis</span></td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 class='c007'>INITIAL CHAPTER<br /> <span class='large'>HAPPINESS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>The ultimate value of all effort is the production of -happiness, and objects excite our interest in so far as we -believe them to be conducive to that great and ultimate -consummation of existence—Happiness.—<span class='sc'>J. C. Chatterji.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>The age in which we live is one of great activity -and general movement. We are passing out of -the mindless, genetic, into the rational, conscious -epochs of evolution; and while, at every stage of -human history, right conduct depends objectively -on relatively true thinking, and subjectively, on -good impulses, a transitional period such as the -present demands special efforts to attain to an -adequate and clear conception of the problems of -life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If no correct philosophy of life comes to birth -in the thinking centres of our social organism, -general conduct will continue harmful to many -and inimical to progress.</p> - -<p class='c004'>How may the truth of a philosophy be tested? -No better answer, I think, can be given than that -of Buddha, of whom it is chronicled that he said -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>in reference to a projected philosophy—“After -observation and analysis if it agrees with reason -and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and -all, then accept it and live up to it.” Our theory -of life must appeal to the developed reason of -civilized man and carry a conviction of its truth. -Moreover, it must be all-embracing. Sectional -aims and aspirations will never suffice. The aim -must be universal, i.e., directed to the well-being -of all mankind.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In view of the question: “What is the primary -object of human life?” two significant facts are -apparent. First, the perpetual aim, conscious -or instinctive, of man, as of all physical beings, -is to compass the satisfaction of his desires, viz., -contentment. Second, however diverse and conflicting -may seem the opinions held by popular -teachers on the subject, there is nevertheless -an essential unity. For all point to some kind -of happiness, in the present or future, for oneself, or -others, for individuals, or for the race, as the ultimate -end of existence.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A close observation of actual life—apart from -theories of duty—reveals incontestably that the -instinct to seek pleasure and avoid pain is universal -and paramount. It is the general force ruling -individual conduct. A child shrinks from lessons -and seeks play because the one causes painful -effort, the other gives pleasurable sensations, -unless there are the beginnings of an intellectual -sense and the child is what we call studious; in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>that case the sense of effort is overcome by the -pleasure of learning, and there is no unwillingness. -Or when the representative faculty is strong, -the thought of a parent’s or teacher’s approval -may be so clear in the young mind as to make -the future happiness counterbalance the present -effort. But it is always pleasure at the moment, -or pleasure in anticipation, or fear of punishment, -viz., avoidance of pain, that gives the stimulus -to work. The human nature of a tender -mother is much the same. She hates to hear -her offspring cry, she loves to see them -smile. She <em>seems</em> to sacrifice herself to them, but -in reality it is not so; for her greatest pains and -pleasures reach her through them. Her personal -desires, her dearest hopes, are centred in her children. -She is proud of their acquirements, ambitious for -their future, happy in their success. When she -strives to check and discipline them, it is because -she dreads, for them and for herself, some baneful -consequences should she refrain. She does not -act for a selfish end. Her nature is more complex, -far wider and deeper than the child’s; but her -action is essentially the same. She is avoiding -painful and seeking pleasurable sensations, present -and future, for herself and her children.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Nor with the poor man is the position different. -The pain of hunger or the dread of hunger, for -himself or those beings whom he loves, stimulates -to a life of continuous and wearing toil. If he -submit to present pain, it is that he may avoid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>remote pain, and secure the satisfaction of his most -pressing wants.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The leisured classes are differently situated. -With conditions of life that place them above the -struggle for subsistence, they seek enjoyment according -to individual character and tastes. Whatever -interests the mind and stirs the emotions pleasurably -will be pursued. We speak of this and that career -as guided by genius, ambition, benevolence, and so -forth, but in every case these qualities of mind -have pushed choice in the direction which will -gratify the individual.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we say goodness, not happiness, is the proper -aim of life, we must allow that goodness means the -aiding to bring happiness to mankind. Religions -signifying less than this are unworthy the name -of religion. Now it is emphatically the good who -keenly suffer in the midst of an evil social state -where poverty, misery and crime abound. It -has been truly said—“The contrast between the -ideal and the actual of humanity lies as a heavy -weight upon all tender and reflective minds.” -These perceive that goodness, in their own case, -has depended largely on the conditions of their -lives, while thousands of their fellow-creatures -have had little scope for goodness, because born -and brought up in degraded, vile conditions they -had no power to escape from. It is no consolation -to the good to point to a future happy state and to -immortality for themselves. The actual is what -concerns them. Their feelings get no rest, their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>intellects surge with perpetual efforts to conceive -some means of radical reform, some method to -secure more goodness and more happiness for all, -i.e. for every woman, man and child, alive in the -present day.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Turning now to published opinions concerning -the object of life, Carlyle taught that conscientious -work was the main business of civilized man. -“Be indifferent,” he cried, “alike to pleasure and -pain; care only to do work, honest, successful -work (no futilities) in this hurly-burly world.” -He directed attention from abstract ideals of the -future to the actual life of the present, pointing out -the miseries and shams of the evil social state and -powerfully inveighing against its corruptions. To -maintain an outward existence of active usefulness -and an inward state of quietism and stoicism was -Carlyle’s conception of an individual’s duty, but -while there was to be no seeking for personal reward -he believed this course would result in blessedness, -and blessedness meant something purer, nobler, more -desirable than happiness. If we take his own history -set forth in the <cite>Reminiscences</cite> as carrying out this -theory, we find that in his case it broke down. He -toiled and plodded, doing successful work to the end -of what appeared a noble, victorious career, but the -blessedness never came, or if it did, it was not nobler -and purer than happiness. It was a gloomy state, -bankrupt of hope and full of querulous, dissatisfied -egotism.</p> - -<p class='c004'>George Eliot gave us no theory of life in any of her -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>works of genius. The action of her influence is, -however, unmistakeable. It was to develop social -and sympathetic feeling, to make individuals -tolerant and tender towards their fellows, judging -none without due regard to his or her surroundings. -She has accustomed her thoughtful readers to the -scientific aspect of human nature and social life, to -watch the manifold relations between the two, the -action and interaction of forces without and within, -and to see the continuity of causation along with -the reforming effect of ceaseless changes. The evolutional -conception of life underlies all her work. -The pictures are realistic, there is no false colouring -and vain delusions, no perfection of character—but -aspiration, effort, broad humanity—and no perfect -happiness attained. She indicated, however, that -the social state wants altering, and readjustments -there would conduce to nobler life and greater happiness. -She hoped for progress by gradual changes -in the outward social system and in inward human -nature. “What I look to,” she once said, in conversation -with a friend, “is a time when the impulse to -help our fellows shall be as immediate and irresistible -as that which I feel to grasp” (and as she spoke she -grasped the mantelpiece) “something firm if I am -falling.” Although George Eliot formulated no -theory I conceive she held the belief that happiness -for all at all times is the object of life, and to be -arrived at, chiefly, through the development of -the altruistic or sympathetic side of human -nature.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>Some writers teach that culture is most to be -desired. The rapid growth of wealth in this country -has forced upwards in the social scale a class of -people destitute of culture and refinement. This -class dominates society and takes the lead in fashion. -Luxury and ostentation are everywhere prominent; -extravagant modes of living prevail without the -comfort of the former simpler and more genial -modes, and this is side by side with poverty and -destitution that do not decrease. Patronage, with -its demoralizing influence on both classes, is the most -conspicuous bond between the wealthy and the -poor, and vulgarity of mind characterizes the age. -There is little to surprise us in the fact that gentle, -refined natures withdraw from public life into -a narrow sphere, not necessarily a selfish one, -but a sphere bounded and circumscribed by their -own personal tastes and temperaments. Finding -solace in intellectual pursuits and a pure elevated -enjoyment in the study of art and literature, they -adopt the theory that culture is the proper business -of man. Sweetness and light have been held up -as the panacea for all the ills of life and the “elevation -of the masses” as the true social progress.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Other teachers, thinking less of intelligence than -of moral sentiment, point to perfection of character -as the aim of life. They recognize the marked -diversity in human nature. Some intellects are -slow and dull, incapable of being kindled into fervour -or brightened into swift reflection, and culture -for such is hopeless. But in God’s sight, surely, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>all men are equal. Birds without song have brilliant -plumage to compensate the defect, and so with man. -The “law of compensation” holds throughout -humanity they have said, and, for the most part, -hearts are deep and tender even when heads are -dull. Our finest works of literature and art may -fail to give one pleasurable sensation for lack of -the special faculty to apprehend their beauty, -but kindness makes the whole world kin. When -the noble, generous, sympathetic side of human -nature is appealed to there comes a quick response. -Happiness is the aim of life, but happiness implies -excellence of character, the emotional and moral -elevation of all mankind.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That Ruskin’s views were similar to the above -we learn from his <cite>Crown of Wild Olive</cite>. “Education,” -he says there, “does not mean teaching -people to know what they do not know—it means -teaching them to behave as they do not behave. It -is not teaching the youth of England the shape -of letters and the tricks of numbers, and then leaving -them to turn their arithmetic to roguery and their -literature to lust. It is, on the contrary, training -them into the perfect exercise and kingly continence -of their body and souls by kindness, by watching, -by warning, by precept and by praise—but, above -all, by example.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>From the field of modern science there has come -as yet no direct teaching on the subject of life’s -duties and purpose, but two of our eminent scientists -have thrown out hints that are important and significant. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>The late Professor Huxley says of his -own career: “The objects I have had in view -are briefly these—To promote the increase of -natural knowledge and forward the application of -scientific method to all problems of life—in the conviction -that there is no alleviation for the sufferings of -mankind except veracity of thought and action -and the resolute facing of the world as it is when -the garment of make-believe by which pious hands -have hidden its uglier features is stripped off.” -(<cite>Methods and Results</cite>, Essays by Thomas M. -Huxley.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Professor Sir Oliver Lodge has stated that new -paths of investigation are opening up to science. -Telepathy, clairvoyance and some other allied psychic -states have been tested and found in the range of -actual fact. They reveal qualities in man which -although special to a few individuals only, are -latent it may be in all, and point to an unknown -province of nature to which man seems related -independently of his five senses. It becomes -evident that by the “resolute facing of the world -as it is,” science is altering our conception of man’s -existence and nature, and extending our vista of his -future.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Positivist thinkers, who base their teaching on -materialistic philosophy, have bright anticipations -for the human race, although ages may elapse before -the realization of their hopes; and the existence of -poverty and misery in our midst is fully recognized, -graphically described, and feelingly deplored. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>exponents of Positivism are eloquent, cultured, -refined. We want a new religion, they say, and -without that, no rapid progress can be made. The -public mind is all at sea, floating in a chaos of unfixed -beliefs, and to reach settled convictions and -formulate a creed is the crying need of our times. -Religion is a scheme of thought and life whereby -the whole effort of individual men and societies -of men is concentrated in common and reciprocal -activity with reference to a Superior Being which men -and societies alike may serve. The Superior Being is -collective humanity, and men’s true business is to -understand and seek to perfect human nature -and the social state.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A marked feature of present-day French literature, -we are told, is a reaction of religious sentiment -against the rule of scientific naturalism, and religious -sentiment dominates in the strangely pathetic -and fascinating journal of the Swiss author, -Amiel, which has been widely read. “To win true -peace,” says Amiel, “a man needs to feel himself -in the right road, i.e., in order with God and the -Universe. This faith gives strength and calm. -I have not got it. Sybarite and dreamer,” so he -addresses himself, “will you go on like this to the -end for ever, tossed backwards and forwards between -duty and happiness, incapable of choice and action? -Is not life the test of our moral force? Are not -inward waverings temptations of the soul?” To -the question—Will all religions be suppressed by -science? he replies: “All those that start from a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>false conception of nature, certainly,” and adds -reflectively: “If the scientific conception of nature -prove incapable of bringing harmony to man, what -will happen?” To which he answers: “We shall -have to build a moral city without God, without -an immortality of the soul.” Then, protesting -against Emil de Laveleyes’ notion that civilization -could not last without belief in God and a future -life, he exclaims: “A belief is not true because -it is useful; and it is truth alone—scientific, established, -proved and rational truth—which is capable -of satisfying now-a-days the awakened minds of all -classes.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>I have here presented what is only a meagre -reflection of portions of our mental atmosphere, -but I know of no clearer, more definite thoughts -emanating from influential teachers calculated to -throw light on the great enigma of life. It may seem -to my readers that on these mental heights unanimity -exists as little as on the lower planes of man’s -discordant impulses, his confused and conflicting -actions. Clearly we have no philosophy of life -as groundwork to orderly personal and social action, -no religion of vital power to bind the nations in -one, no moral code adapted to the complexities -of our social relations, and, above all, no steady belief -in a universal love to sweeten society from end to -end and create the requisite medium in which -alone the nobler qualities of human nature will bud -and blossom.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Nevertheless the diverse opinions held by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>above thinkers are not irreconcilable. Carlyle’s -“blessedness” is the feeling of harmony with the -divine order of development in humanity and the -universe, therefore it is identical with Amiel’s -“true peace.” The Positivists’ “Supreme Being” -is the perfected man whose endowments of sympathetic -fellowship, emotional sweetness, intellectual -light, moral strength, kingly continence of body -and soul, and knowledge of truth are specialized -and pointed to by George Eliot, Ruskin, Huxley -and others. All have simply given expression to -aspiration from the subjective side of their human -nature conformably to the evolutionary process -within themselves, and the attitude of mind produced -thereby in each. Partial, but not contradictory -views, characterise those thinkings. Beneath -superficial differences there lurks a unanimous -belief that harmony of life with conditions—viz., -happiness, is the legitimate <em>aim</em> of life. A Humanity -steadily moving in a given direction may be infinitely -varied in detail, and since the correct philosophy -of life must be a wide generalization embracing -all, we need not wonder at its slowness to appear. -Modern nationalities are only now emerging from -the individualistic to pass into the socialistic stage -of industrial development. Our popular writers -and teachers, springing from a specialized class—not -the main body of the people—instinctively -show their limitations by individualistic or sectional -modes of thought. Mark, for instance, the insufficiency, -nay, the pathetic absurdity of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>thought—Culture will cure the ills of life, in face of -the fact that thousands in our midst to-day possess -no intellectual desires whatever, while the appetites -belonging to their physical nature which forms -the very basis of life have never been properly -met and satisfied.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In setting forth a definition of happiness we have -to recognize the marvellous complexity of human -nature. We have to take into account not only -variations distinctive in, and native to, separate -individuals, but the gradations and variations -within each individual arising from progress, or the -reverse, in his or her outward condition and inward -development. Contentment means the satisfaction -of desire. But desire may be directed to the physical -plane, the emotional plane, the mental plane, the -spiritual plane. The harmony of all life is happiness, -and brings blessedness or peace.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Having shown that practically infants, children, -young men and women, adults and old people of -every social class are similarly engaged in seeking -happiness, each according to his tastes and tendencies -controlled by his personal, social and spiritual -development; having shown also that thinkers -and writers offer no condemnation, I proceed to -point out that this universal habit is in harmony -with evolution. It tends to personal evolution, i.e., -to expansion and elevation of character and capacities. -Moreover, it tells favourably on general life. -It tends to social evolution, i.e., to expansion and -elevation of the social organism or collective society -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>so long as the method pursued by each individual is -unhurtful to the other organic units incorporated -in that society.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To seek to attain happiness at the expense of -other human beings whose happiness is thereby -sacrificed, is of course evil. It is anti-social, or -vicious, i.e., it is wholly adverse to personal evolution -and social evolution, in other words, to general -progress. But given a society that has carefully -surrounded its units by conditions of personal -freedom (harmonious with general well-being) in -which to seek innocent happiness, the normal man -or woman on a level with the average of his race -is not in any danger of preferring the vicious course.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That we confuse a wholesome love of pleasure -with selfishness arises from the fact that individual -selfishness unhappily is developed by our -present evil system of life. Notwithstanding, it is -easy to show the real value of pleasure by its ready -alliance with unselfishness. A significant feature is -this—people take pleasure in uniting for pleasure. -Sensuous pleasures are taken as a rule, socially, -it being recognized that to civilized man the presence -of the enjoyment of others enhances his personal -enjoyment. The physiological effect of pleasure -is to promote health and activity. “Every pleasure -raises the tide of life; every pain lowers the tide -of life,” says Herbert Spencer. The pleasures of -love are essentially and pre-eminently invigorating -and social. It is only when they are selfishly -pursued that evil creeps in, and what should produce -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>the purest happiness becomes degraded into a -source of misery.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It seems hardly necessary to point out further -that asceticism and purism are immoral because -directed against an element in happiness. Whenever -science finds out means to alleviate suffering -or free the condition of pleasure from accidental -accompaniments that are evil, it is clearly the duty -of man to hail the discovery and apply it that he -may add to the sum of human happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Before touching on environment, i.e., the social -condition under which alone general happiness -becomes possible, I may classify desires into primary -and secondary in order to make the subject clearer. -Primary desires are those common to all physical -beings, the satisfaction of which (in man) is necessary -to healthful ordinary social life. Secondary desires -are those whose satisfaction is necessary to some -individuals, but not to all.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Desires for food, clothing, shelter, also for work -alternating with rest, and for love, belong to the -first class. They are primary and fundamental. -But desires that imply a development of cultured -intellect, of delicate sensibilities, of high moral -and emotional attainments, of aesthetic tastes, and -of spiritual life are secondary desires, i.e., they -are not common to all at the present stage of the -evolution of man. That they may become so is -devoutly to be desired; but if we expect to reach -a high standard of life in the social organism without -first securing for its individual units the satisfaction -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>of primary needs, we indulge a vain delusion. -Does a tree throw out fruitful branches before it is -rooted in the soil at its base? Development depends -on the satisfaction of primary needs, and proportionally -to these being made secure will the satisfaction -of the higher desires become necessary to -happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now in relation to primary needs, the conditions -which it is the duty of society as a whole to secure -for the individual are, first: Freedom to act for -the end of securing satisfaction of desire; second, -opportunity for acquiring the means of satisfaction; -third, ability to adopt the means; fourth, -protection of life and action. And these conditions -have a wide implication. The first implies some -control of individual conduct as regards propagation, -that each social unit may possess a sound -constitution and the comfort of physical health. -The second implies access to nature. The third -implies education to give knowledge and skill. The -fourth implies an organized society with an appropriate, -scientifically arranged system of industry.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That our present confused industrial and social -system—the survival of an archaic state—is inimical -to happiness, few thinkers will deny. Discontent -is not confined to the poor. Where wealth abounds -there is little, if any, real happiness. “The towers -of Westminster,” says Edward Carpenter, “stand -up by the river, and within, the supposed rulers -contend and argue.... The long lines of princely -mansions stretch through Belgravia and Kensington; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>lines of carriages crowd the park; there are clubs -and literary cliques and entertainments, but of the -voice of human joy there is scarcely a note.... -And I saw the many menacing, evil faces, creeping, -insincere worm-faces, faces with noses ever on the -trail, hunting blankly and always for gain; faces -of stolid conceit, of puckered propriety, of slobbering -vanity, of damned assurance.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“O faces, whither, whither are you going?</p> - -<p class='c004'>“No God, no truth, no justice, and under it -all no love.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“O the deep, deep hunger!</p> - -<p class='c004'>“The mean life all around, the wolfish eyes, the -mere struggle for existence, as of man starving on -a raft at sea—no room for anything more.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“O the deep, deep hunger of love.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>This picture of the degradation and misery of -rich and poor alike is essentially true to fact. Our -collective life does not supply the necessary conditions -for real happiness in any section of the community; -and nothing less than a reconstruction of -society and regeneration of its life will suffice to -meet the wants of humanity. Immense efforts are -put forth in philanthropy and benevolence. Enormous -energy is expended in partial or sectional -reforms; for quite correctly has it been said that -“Reform tends to run on a single rail, the majority -of people refusing to study society as an organism -of organisms resting on biological law.” (John -M. Robertson.) We make no attempt as yet, to -prevent waste of energy, to focus the factors of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>meliorism, to mass them, to direct them straight -to the causes of evil and apply them effectively there—and -that, because we have no carefully constructed -scheme of thought and life whereby the -whole effort of individual men and societies of men -is concentrated in common and reciprocal activity -to the end of creating happiness for all.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Social regeneration is necessarily of a two-fold -character, embracing action without and action -within. The first—which I call objective, signifies -collective action on the physical plane adapted to -promote and sustain the healthful, happy vitality -of a race expected to grow steadily and uniformly -in physical, mental, moral and spiritual elevation. -The second, which I call subjective, signifies collective -action directed to the repression of all the -unsocial desires of man—those selfish emotions and -narrow affections that alloy the mental and moral -structure of human beings and render it impossible -to develop the spiritual side of Humanity. The -Darwinian laws—supposed by many to be still -applicable to man—had relation, not to happiness, -but to the preservation of life and the continuance -of the race in the genetic, unconscious period of -evolution. It is in the conscious period or stage -of evolution that happiness evolves. Our present -system of social life, if system it can be called, is -a chaos of conflicting interests, duties, thoughts, -feelings, actions—a prison-house in which the finer -qualities and attributes of man can scarcely exist.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Let us put forth all our strength to create out -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>of this chaos “the garden in which we may walk.” -Let us break down the walls of our prison-house -till it “opens at length on the sunlit world and the -winds of heaven.” (Edward Carpenter.)</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART I</em><br /> <span class='large'>ECONOMICS IN MODERN LIFE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>The only safety of nations lies in removing the unearned -increments of income from the possessing classes and adding -them to the wage-income of the working classes or to the -public income in order that they may be spent in raising -the standard of consumption.—J. A. <span class='sc'>Hobson</span>, <cite>Contemporary -Review</cite>, <em>August, 1902</em>.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>It is a leading thought in modern philosophy that in its -process of development, each institution tends to cancel -itself. The special function is born out of social necessities; -its progress is determined by attractions or repulsions -which arise in society, producing a certain effect which -tends to negate the original function.—<span class='sc'>William Clarke.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>If we view the physical aspects of existence in -relation to happiness, it is obvious that the satisfaction -of desires for food, clothing and shelter -stands first in order of urgency in the life of nations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That modern nationalities are very far from the -attainment of this satisfaction of primary wants -is lamentably evident to the eye of observers who -examine the conditions in which the great majority -of their members live. Food to the mass of the -people is excessively dear. In order to buy it for -his family, a workman has often to spend two-thirds -of his weekly wage, leaving one-third only -to meet the cost of shelter and clothing, and nothing -at all for recreation and instruction.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we add to this difficulty of satisfying the primary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>needs of a family on average wages, the frequent -lack of employment with the consequent lack of -any weekly income at all, and the prevalence of -low wages, rightly termed starvation-wages, we -have before us a picture of the utter inadequacy -of our present industrial system to subserve general -well-being.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is necessary to understand something of our -present industrial system, its foundations and -evolution in the past, if we are to forecast the changes -that will occur in the immediate future, when the -fast-growing recognition of its manifold failings -must inevitably bring about a different order of -industry. Private property in land and in other -essentials for the production of food, shelter, clothing, -etc., lies at the basis of the present system; -and since the direct object of private proprietors -is not to satisfy the primary needs of the people, -but to create individual profits, we cannot wonder -that a system thus motived by selfishness works -out in a miserable and wholly imperfect manner.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The industrial class may be broadly divided into -two sections, employers and employed, while a few -highly skilled workers, members of the professions -of law, medicine, arts, letters, and science stand -in a measure outside this category. Landlords and -shareholders as such are an idle section of the community. -They absorb the labour of a multitude -of workers, while giving no personal service in return. -Quite truly has it been said: “The modern form of -private property is simply a legal claim to take year -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>by year a share of the produce of the national -industry without working for it.” (<cite>Fabian Essays</cite>, -page 26).</p> - -<p class='c004'>In comparing past forms with the present forms -of industry, a distinguishing feature of the latter -is the number of great factories where workers toil -long hours, usually in the tending of machines, to -turn out for the private profit of their employers, -vast quantities of goods destined for retail distribution -all over the world. The large organizations -of industry, so familiar to us, are of quite recent -growth, and already show signs of a coming change -as sweeping in its scope as any changes that have -occurred in the past. Yet to listen to the expression -of opinions that prevail in literary and upper class -circles, one would suppose we had reached finality -in our social system, and that the conventional -tributes paid to proprietors of land and capital in -the shape of rent and interest would, as a matter -of course, remain legal to the end of time.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now let us glance at the history of the past. -For two centuries after the Norman conquest, -intestine war and feudal oppressions embittered -the life of the British labourer. He might be called -from the plough at any moment to take up arms in -his master’s quarrel, and if he sowed seed and saw -his fields ripen, the harvest of his hopes might still -be cut down by the sword of the forager, or trodden -by the hoof of the war-horse. He was bondsman -and slave, defenceless in the hands of the lords of -the soil, who at best, protected him only in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>barest necessities of a scanty livelihood—a hut -without a chimney, its furniture a great brass pot -and a bed valued at a few shillings. (Wade’s -<cite>History of the Working Classes</cite>.) A change for -the better came after the plague of 1348, and, -when by perpetual warfare with France, men -had become more valuable through diminution of -their number.</p> - -<p class='c004'>King Edward the Third freed the bondsmen to -recruit his armies, and enforced villeinry service -was exchanged for service paid by wages—these, -however, were ordinarily fixed by statute. In the -middle of the eighteenth century wages stood at -the ratio of about a bushel and a half of wheat for -one week’s labour; by the middle of the nineteenth -century they had fallen to what could only purchase -one bushel of wheat. (<cite>Threading my Way</cite>, R. D. -Owen, p. 220.) The cause of this change was that -meanwhile, two clever men—Arkwright and Watt—had -made discoveries which gave an impetus to -industry beyond all previous experience. Mechanical -aids to production were invented, and the consequent -cheapening of products created more and -more demand. Machinery and human labour side -by side were under stress and strain to meet the -call of new desires. Cotton and wool and flax were -woven into fabrics and poured out of Great Britain -to every quarter of the globe; capital was amassed, -and wealthy capitalists bid against each other -for more labour still. Agriculturists flocked into -towns, factories sprang up in all directions, population -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>rapidly increased, and children were sucked -into the industrial maelstrom, for health and happiness -were in no way considered when remunerative -work was offered.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Outwardly the British world had altered. Internal -warfare had passed away, and the war-horse was -no longer visible in harvest-fields. The scene now -presents a resemblance to a huge hive of bees -industriously secreting and amassing honey for future -use. Great Britain has assumed beyond her own -shores a foremost place among civilized nations. -The resources of her newly-created wealth seem -boundless, and everywhere her power is felt. She -can thin the ranks of her population, and swell her -army to conquer and suppress the tyrant Napoleon, -while keeping at work the enormous leviathan of -her own trade and commerce by the deft fingers of -her little children. Summer and winter find her -tiny bees—infants of seven or eight—at labour in -the factories from six a.m. to noon. One hour for -dinner is allowed, and they toil on once more till -eight o’clock at night.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Were these, then, the “good old times” of which -we are proud? At all events they <em>were</em> the times -in which England’s greatness was established and -vast fortunes were built up, founded upon the -industry of young children sweating in factories -for thirteen hours a day.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“It was not in exceptional cases,” wrote Robert -Dale Owen, when on a tour of inspection of factories -with his father in 1815, “but as a rule, that we -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>found children of ten years old worked regularly -fourteen hours a day, with but half an hour’s -interval for the midday meal, eaten in the factory.” -In the fine yarn cotton mills, the “temperature -usually exceeded 75 degrees,” and in all factories -the atmosphere was more or less injurious to the -lungs. In some cases “greed of gain had impelled -mill-owners to still greater extremes of inhumanity, -utterly disgraceful to a civilized nation.” Their -mills were run fifteen, sometimes sixteen, hours a -day, and children were employed even under the -age of eight. “In some large factories, from one-fourth -to one-fifth of the children were cripples or -otherwise deformed. Most of the overseers openly -carried stout leather thongs, and frequently we -saw even the youngest children severely beaten.” -(<cite>Threading my Way</cite>, p. 102.) At that period -Robert Owen the elder expressed himself thus to -the Earl of Liverpool: “It would be clearly unjust -to blame manufacturers for practices with which -they have been familiar from childhood, or to -suppose that they have less humanity than any -other class of men.” The system was what Robert -Owen condemned, and he strained every nerve to -bring about some alterations in the system. He -wrote and spoke and agitated for the protection -of children by law, and for their compulsory education, -and he publicly exposed the ghastly evils -that spring from competition unchecked by law, -while left free to regulate itself at any amount of -cost to life, health, and happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>After the lapse of about four years, the first point -aimed at by Robert Owen was gained, and infants -became protected by statute from gross oppression. -His second point was gained in 1870, when the -Government Bill for National Education was -passed. And ever since the period of that noble, -unselfish life, minds have everywhere been awakening -to the truth of his third point, viz., that frightful -evils inalienably belong to free industrial competition.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Owen proved that in the year 1816, the machine-saved -labour in producing English fabrics—cotton, -woollen, flax, and silk—exceeded the work which -two hundred million of operatives could have turned -out previous to the year 1760. (<cite>Threading my -Way</cite>, p. 218.) The world was richer then to the -extent of all this enormous producing power—a -power, he thought, surely sent down from Heaven -to set man free from the ancient curse that in the -sweat of his brow should he eat bread. But what -were the actual facts? There was no respite from -toil for the workers, no freedom from the curse! -Throughout the old and new world, senseless -machinery competed with the living sons of toil, -or, as Robert Owen expressed it, “a contest goes -on between wood and iron on the one hand, human -thews and sinews on the other—a dreadful contest, -at which humanity shudders, and reason turns -astonished away.” (<cite>Threading my Way</cite>, p. 218.) -The problem presented was this: A recent rapid -growth of wealth had enriched the few and left many -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>in misery; nay more, it had lowered and pressed -down the many to depths of degradation previously -unknown. Were there no means by which mankind -could <em>unitedly</em> work for the benefit of all, and -all be made happy as the world grew richer? -Political Economy suggested none, and Robert Owen -turned from its futile study to that of the facts -themselves. He was a manufacturer, in sympathy -with employers as well as with employed. He had -every opportunity for a practical understanding of -the interests involved, and he gave years to the -study of this question in a spirit of keen inquiry -and ardent devotion to the cause. His ultimate -conclusion was that in <em>some form of socialism alone</em> -could a remedy for the existent evils of industrial -life be found.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Henceforth he laboured to give to the world an -object lesson in socialism. He embarked his fortune -in bold experiments, which proved—as in the -case of New Harmony—financial failures. Into -the details of these failures I cannot now enter, nor -have we to deal just yet with socialism as a remedy. -My present purpose is to show the origin and -reality of the evils inherent in the individualistic -system of industry—evils on which the argument -for socialism is based. And I must reiterate the -statement made by John Stuart Mill in 1869, that -the fundamental questions relating to property, -and to the best methods of production and distribution—questions -involved in socialism—require -to be thoroughly investigated. Mr. Mill’s opinion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>regarding socialism was that in some future time -communistic production might prove well-adapted -to the wants and the nature of man, but a high -standard of moral and intellectual education would -first be necessary, and the passage to that state -could only be slow.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Meanwhile the sufferings of the proletariat are -as intense as in the days of Robert Owen. The -problem which absorbed his energies and wrecked -his fortunes remains as yet unsolved, and we, who -live when a twentieth century has been entered -upon, are daily surrounded by a mass of workers -tied hand and foot by poverty and often weighed -down by despair. And this is the case, notwithstanding -the lapse of a long intermediate period of -national prosperity; in spite, also, of the powers of -science to enlighten manual labour, the intellectual -efforts to advance education, and a boundless -benevolence and sympathy ready to embrace all -mankind, and give happiness to all, were only the -right means devised wherewith to accomplish that -end.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. In the <cite>Scotsman</cite> of March 16, 1897, this paragraph -occurs: “At the meeting of Edinburgh Parish Council -yesterday, it was stated that pauperism is increasing, and -pointed out that for the month ending 15th ult. there was -an increase of 114 applications for individuals for relief, -compared with the corresponding period last year!”</p> - -<p class='c004'>It was stated by Mr. Rowntree (whose investigations of -this subject are widely known and respected) that one-fourth -of the population of Great Britain lives in poverty, -either primary or secondary; while 52 per cent. of the cases -of primary poverty are due to the principal wage-earner -receiving too low a wage to maintain his family in physical -efficiency. (<cite>Evening News</cite> Report, March 22, 1903.)</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Individual benevolence has failed, and that as -completely as Robert Owen’s socialism, to cope -with general poverty, and the method of Poor Laws -has accomplished almost nothing.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In Robert Owen’s day the evils described in factory -life belonged specially to Great Britain. That -is not the limit, however, now. I need only refer -my reader to Henry George’s picture of poverty -dogging the footsteps of progress in America and to -Professor Goldwin Smith’s corroborative words: -“It is a melancholy fact, that everywhere in -America we are looking forward to the necessity of -a public provision for the poor.” And again: -“There will in time be an educated proletariat -of a very miserable and perhaps dangerous kind, -for nothing can be more wretched and explosive -than destitution with the social humiliation -which attends it, in men whose sensibilities -have been quickened and whose ambition has -been aroused.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The problem respecting appalling poverty in the -midst of wealth (it is a poverty marring the happiness -of the rich as well as the poor) cries out for -solution. It forces itself upon public attention in -the old world as in the new. There is no escape -from it. The problem must be grappled with by -educated reason, and solved by means of the patient -exercise of a cold calculation of natural forces. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>Happily it is recognized in its evolutional aspects -by many thinkers all over the world. Twenty years -ago Charles Letourneau in his <cite>Sociology</cite> wrote: -“In every country which enjoys the European -system of civilization, the right of property has ever -been in a state of evolution, always tending to give -a greater degree of independence to the individual -owner; in other words, the evolution is always -worked in favour of individual egotism. Who can -say that the evolution is now complete, or that we -have yet realized the highest ideal system in the -disposition of our property? A progressive evolution -is, for every society, one of the conditions of -existence. The right of proprietorship cannot, -therefore, remain stationary.” The period that -has elapsed since that passage was written has -witnessed a widespread and strong growth of opinion -upon these lines.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the <cite>Contemporary Review</cite> of February, 1902, -Mr. J. A. Hobson thus writes: “... The idea of -natural individual rights as the basis of democracy -disappears. A clear grasp of society as an economic -organism completely explodes the notion of property -as an inherent individual right, for it shows -that no individual can make or appropriate anything -of value without the direct continuous assistance -of society.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The right of proprietorship in land is the first -principle to examine. The relation between land -and life in its simpler aspects is clear and definite. -All classes of land animals—man included—are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>immediately dependent for subsistence upon the -produce of land, and when man emerges from -slavery, another element, namely, labour, enters -into the conditions of his life and becomes, with -land, essential to his existence. Of food, fitted for -the nourishment of man, uncultivated land produces -little save some wild fruits and edible roots, -and many wild animals, which he may eat if in -hunting them down they do not eat him. But -land placed under the additional forces of man’s -physical and intellectual energies produces an immense -variety of objects—a perfect wealth of raw -material, vegetable, animal, mineral—which, yielding -to further elaboration through his efforts and -genius, all help to create for him a civilized life. -This raw material, in short, supplied man with food, -shelter, clothing, with the comforts and luxuries -his developing nature demands, and with all necessaries -to the existence of literature, science, and art.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Passing over the primitive forms of associated -life—the nomad and pastoral—we come to the -agricultural stage, when labourers on the land are -manifestly the all-important social units. They -sow, till, and reap the fields. They tend domestic -animals, whose skins and wool are made into garments -by other members of the group. But the -latter depend for food and the raw materials of -their industry on the cultivators, who are, if I may -so express it, the foundation stones of the simple -social structure. To whom does the land belong? -To the whole group, and an annual division amongst -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>the families for purposes of cultivation takes place, -whilst weapons, fishing-boats, tools and other -movables are the property of individuals.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now observe, a change gradually occurs, a change -from the communal possession of land to a system -of the individual possession of land, and force is the -sole cause of this change. External aggression has -initiated militant activity, while, in the process of -frequent resistance to invasion, and frequent aggression -upon others, there is produced the class inequalities -which distinguish a militant type of -society and a system allowing of individual land-ownership. -Land becomes private property in -the hands of the bold and crafty, who compel the -cultivation of the soil by the landless men of the -group, and by prisoners of war spared on condition -that they perform hard labour. The institution of -slavery thus becomes established, and it is a leading -factor in the promotion of civilization. Lords of -the soil spend their energies in warlike activities, -whilst protecting their slaves and serfs at labour. -The produce of that labour is appropriated by the -dominant class, and used for its own particular -benefit. Its requirements extend much beyond -the mere necessaries of existence that it yields to -the workers, and slowly there uprises a new form of -labour and a large class of labourers, producing a -variety of commodities to gratify the desires of -pomp-loving, barbaric chiefs.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now this class, the labour of which is wholly -absorbed by the chiefs, must be fed from the produce -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>of the land. How is this accomplished? The -chiefs, while exacting hard labour from the slaves -and serfs, yield them only a bare living. But the -proceeds of their labour, over and above the bare -living of the producers, is very considerable. There -is therefore a large surplus, which, appropriated -by the chiefs as rent, is the source of their power. -With it they support a large class of landless men -engaged in ministering to their own specific wants. -Moreover, this class groups itself around the castle -of the chiefs, which are filled with military retainers, -and here we have the beginnings of towns.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The town population increases steadily with the -increase of the surplus produce from land under -better conditions of cultivation. Markets and -stores are instituted, and a commercial system is -introduced. Barter gives way to the use of money, -and the entire social organism expands and becomes -more complex.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Anon, slavery disappears. But workers on the -land—always the most necessary social units—remain -poor as before. Competitors for work, in -danger of starving, drive no hard bargain with -masters who are in full possession of the soil, and -able to forbid their growing even the simple fruits -and grain required for a meagre living. For food -enough to live, they readily pledge the labour of -their whole lives, and since nature’s recompense -for labour is liberal, there is an abundant surplus -produce for landowners to grasp and employ as -they choose. Into the towns it is sent, and there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>it stimulates progress—mental and material—and -creates new departures in social life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Class inequalities among town workers increase, -and labour becomes organized. The mentally -stronger dominate the weaker in the new fields of -industry. They direct and control the production -of commodities for the use of the dominant class, -and succeed in acquiring a greater reward for their -work than a meagre living. Out of the surplus -produce of the land they become able to secure -from their lords a portion which forms the foundation -of wealth in a new social class—a class of landless -capitalists who, possessing brain power and -later money-power, become the supreme factors in -altering social conditions. These men promote -manufacture and commerce by action similar to -the landholders’ methods of promoting agriculture. -They press down their workers to a bare living, and -take as profits all that competition permits of the -results of the joint labour. These profits they -apply to the satisfaction of their personal desires -and the carrying out of their schemes of manufacturing -and commercial enterprise. Finally, they -indulge in luxurious living and emulate landholders -in the purchase of valuable commodities, thus -stimulating certain trades.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Meanwhile, through the intercourse of urban -life, mental activity rapidly augments. Education -is initiated, aptitude and skill are more and more -prized and rewarded. Invention profoundly modifies -the primitive modes of production, and genius -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>aspires to understand and govern the forces of -nature. One direction taken by mental activity -eventuates in an important social force, viz., the -Church, or religious organization. Many of the -best minds in early ages were allied with the priesthood, -and the Church’s desire for stately temples, -gorgeous shrines, and decorative worship have -enormously aided the outward development of -architecture, sculpture, painting, and music, and -the inward growth of aesthetic capacity. But -priests and all whose labour is absorbed by the requirements -of religious worship and the constructing -of temples, must be fed on the produce of the -land. The priesthood is maintained in leisure -by rents, tithes, or the voluntary offerings of the -people. It is freed from the necessity of industrial -labour and military activity, and members within -this large class have devoted their leisure to literature, -history, philosophy, and art, thereby greatly -advancing civilization.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Under increased stability of governments the -organization becomes of a mainly industrial type. -Nations now possess enormous wealth in the form -of material commodities, wealth in the form of -intellectual literature and the educational institutions -that promote knowledge; wealth in the form -of ornament—all that embellishes and makes -beautiful the surroundings of human life; and all -this wealth has come into existence through the -natural action of evolutionary forces—an action -creative, step by step, of a system of social interdependence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>and regulation. The prominent features -of the system are: First, private property in land; -second, great social inequality; third, poverty of -manual labourers; fourth, a large town population, -and a small or minimum peasant population. Its -less prominent but no less decisive feature is the -complete social subjugation of the poor by the rich.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The supports of the system through the whole -process of its growth have been labourers on the -land, and these labourers have scarcely at all partaken -of the national wealth. The food they reaped -formed the motor force vitalizing and energizing -the evolving social organism. Food was the ruling -power deciding the growth and extent of economic -life, as well as the form of its development. But -food-producers have never determined the destination -of the surplus food, and in this fact lies the key -to a great social problem which students of social -science are bound to comprehend. The landholders—and -these as a rule have not been workers on the -land—have decided the destination of the surplus -produce. Up to the present-day landlords—including -the proprietors of coal, iron and other mines, -capitalist employers of labour, the churches of the -nation, and hereditary rulers—are at the fountainhead -of modern civilization. It is through their -action—caused mainly by selfishness, tyranny, -pride, greed—that cultivators and operatives have -been kept at maximum toil and been limited in -number, while at the same time the land’s resources -have developed and improved until land and labour -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>united serve to support an enormous mass of population—individuals -of entirely distinctive character, -activities, social position and social worth, all alike -in this one particular—they are daily and hourly -consumers of the produce of the land.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A good harvest that is general over the world -sends activity like an electric current through the -economic system. A bad harvest, if universal, -would cause universal depression; not agriculture -alone must suffer, but manufacture, commerce, -science, art, literature, education, recreation—for -on the production of food depends the buying -power of the whole trading world. It is true that -modern countries are not maintained from their -own food resources alone. Also, it is true that the -machinery of exchange—money and our vast credit -system—enter into the phenomena and confuse -the student’s mind. Nevertheless, an all-important -fact discloses itself on close investigation, viz., -this—the relation of landlordism to modern civilization -is not accidental, it is essential and causal.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As already shown, the general drift of the produce -of the land has been into the towns; and thither -also have migrated the labourers. Machinery and -science applied to land cultivation lowered the -amount of peasant labour required, but it did not -lower the birth-rate. Surplus peasants have been -driven by necessity from their homes to the centres -of manufacturing industry, and, competing for -work there with the operative class, have kept -wages low and facilitated the enriching of capitalist -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>employers. These men, actuated by personal desires, -selfish ambition, and a tendency to mercantile -speculation, use their wealth in extending the production -of objects that minister to a life of luxury -and refinement.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The older political economists mistakenly taught -that “all capital, with a trifling exception, was -originally the result of saving.” (J. S. Mill’s <cite>Political -Economy</cite>, book 1, chap. 5.) Attention to the history -of social evolution, however, proves the fact -to be otherwise. Not individual saving, but social -seizure, created capital. Its origin, as we have -shown, was the surplus produce taken from producers -and disposed of by a dominant class. It -originated through the selfish quality of rapacity -and not through the respectable virtue of prudence, -as some capitalists would have us believe. The -growth of capital has been enormous since the -beginning of the industrial revolution; and at the -present moment the riches of a comparatively -small number of the owners of our land and capital -are colossal and increasing. At the same time, -there is no diminution of poverty among workers. -Thirty per cent. of the five million inhabitants of -London are inadequately supplied with the bare -necessaries of life, and about a fourth of the entire -community become paupers at sixty-five. I refer -my reader to Sidney Webb’s pamphlet, <cite>The Difficulties -of Individualism</cite>.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The supersession of the small by the great -industry has given the main fruits of invention -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>and the new power over nature to a small proprietary -class, upon whom the mass of the people -are dependent for leave to earn their living. The -rent and interest claimed by that class absorbs, on -an average, one-third of the product of labour. -The remaining 8<em>d.</em> of the 1<em>s.</em> is then shared between -the various classes co-operating in the production, -but in such a way that at least 4<em>d.</em> goes to a set of -educated workers numbering less than one-fifth of -the whole, leaving four-fifths to divide less than -4<em>d.</em> out of the 1<em>s.</em> between them. “The consequence -is the social condition we see around us.” -(Ibid.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Thus four out of five of the whole population—the -weekly wage-earners—toil perpetually for less -than a third of the aggregate product of labour, at -an annual wage averaging at most £40 per adult, -and are hurried into early graves by the severity of -their lives, dying, as regards at least one-third of -them, destitute, or actually in receipt of poor law -relief.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In town and country, the operatives and peasants, -who, united, form one large class engaged in manual -labour, resemble Sinbad the Sailor, on whose -shoulders rides the Old Man of the Sea. It is they -who maintain our leisured classes. The proletariat -carries on its back all the rich and their innumerable -dependents, more than 300,000 soldiers, an immense -navy, a million of paupers, a number of State pensioners, -a multitude of criminals, His Majesty and -the Royal Family, all Government officials and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>ecclesiastics—a vast host of unproductive consumers -throughout society.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Slavery of the many for the comfort and enjoyment -of the few! That is all man has attained to, -so far, in the evolution of society. And no one -who studies the facts of life can deny this impeachment -of civilization: “All over the world the -beauty, glory, and grace of civilization rests on -human lives crushed into misery and distortion.” -(Henry George.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>The extremity of contrast between rich and poor -has no ethical justification. Under purely ethical -conditions, every child born into a nation should -have equal chances of life, comforts, and luxuries, -with every other child. But, as we know, one -British babe may be born to an income of £100,000 -a year, and another to no income, but to a constant -struggle for bare subsistence and a pauper’s grave -at last. The system permitting this is <em>ethically -odious</em>. Nevertheless, we have to recognize that, -under non-ethical conditions, development has -taken place, and we must accept the process as the -natural, inevitable result of all prior conditions.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Man’s ethical nature itself is the product of a -slow evolution, not yet so advanced as to require -and create purely ethical social conditions. Changes -in the future will proceed on lines of natural growth, -as in the past, but with this supreme difference—the -issues will be favourable to general happiness, -the advance infinitely more rapid, because aided -by conscious human effort.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>All schemes of social reform that are revolutionary -are widely chimerical to the thoughtful evolutionist, -for were we suddenly to deprive our richer classes -of property, privilege, and power, we should simply -create a general abasement of our national civilization. -Our upper classes, rendered effeminate by -ill-spent leisure and all the artificial pleasures of a -voluptuous and inane life, are incapable of directing -civilization to the highest and noblest ends. Yet -it is out of their midst that springs the demand -for commodities ministering to all the amenities -and refinements of a civilized life. It is refinement -alone that demands refinement, culture that demands -culture; and were the control of human -labour to pass <em>suddenly</em> from the hands of the upper -into those of the lower classes, which are still, in -the mass, degraded and unenlightened, there would -be no effective demand for these commodities, and -the science and art implicated in their production -would inevitably, though gradually, disappear.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Progressive evolution culminates in social justice, -and the principle of private property in land, which -implies an injurious monopoly in what is essential -to human life (and is therefore socially unjust), is -certain to be consciously relinquished at a given -stage of the nation’s intellectual and moral advance.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Having traced the evolution of the individualistic -system of industry, and seen that the inherent -evils of the system have their source in the private -ownership of land and capital, which “necessarily -involves the complete exclusion of the mere worker, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>as such, from most of the economic advantages of -the soil on which he is born, and the buildings, -machinery, and railways he finds around him” -(Sidney Webb), let me now sum up and state the -paramount evils that have to be overcome. For -the workers these are—low wages, long hours of -toil, difficulty of obtaining work, and, when it is -obtained, uncertainty of being permitted to retain -it. For the community generally there are further -evils, viz., first, the mal-production of commodities -made manifest in food adulteration and in a perpetual -output of objects that, instead of promoting -and conserving civilization, debase and corrupt -public taste and morals; and, second, the mal-production -of human life, for poverty is a social -force that directly tends to racial degeneration. A -population born and bred in our city slums becomes -physically, mentally, and morally unfit.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The facts of poverty and the unemployed are -impossible to deny. Frederick Harrison’s picture -is accurate; ninety per cent. of the actual producers -of wealth have no home they can call their own -beyond the end of the week, have no bit of soil or -so much as a room that belongs to them, have -nothing of any kind except so much of old furniture -as will go in a cart; have the precarious chance of -weekly wages, which barely suffice to keep them in -health; are separated by so narrow a margin from -destitution that a month of bad trade, sickness or -unexpected loss brings them face to face with hunger -and pauperism. This is the normal state of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>average workman in town or country. (<cite>Report of -Ind. Ref. Congress</cite>, 1886.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>As regards the children of these workmen, fifty -per cent. die before they reach five years of age, -while eighteen per cent. only of upper class children -die at the same age. The industrial evolution of -the last 150 years, with its labour-saving machinery -and highly organized masses of wage-workers, has -done nothing at all to lessen poverty. Poverty -has steadily kept pace with the increase of population.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But observe in the present day there is one significant -feature that forces itself upon public attention—a -feature revealing to the social student our -approach to that stage of evolution spoken of by -William Clarke in the passage I quote as motto to -this chapter: “Each institution tends to cancel -itself.... Its special function and progress produce -effects tending to negate the original function.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we look minutely into the latest developments -of large businesses, we find that the diminution in -the number of competitors does not as a rule lead -to an easing of the competitive struggle. As Mr. -J. A. Hobson observes and demonstrates: “It is -precisely in those trades which are most highly -organized, provided with the most advanced -machinery, and composed of the largest units of -capital, that the fiercest and most unscrupulous -competition has shown itself.” (<cite>Evolution of Capital</cite>, -p. 120.) There is an increase, in short, of the -elements destined to destroy competition. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>anxiety, arduousness, and wastefulness of strife -among the rival competitors, becomes so intolerable -that a mutual truce and amalgamation is sought -after as a release. When fully realized, the amalgamation -becomes a monopoly, and competition, that -much vaunted check to counteract the natural -rapacity of private capitalists, ceases altogether. -Let industrial monopoly be fairly established, and -behold! competition, with all its merits, real or -assumed, is abrogated.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But industrial monopoly <em>in private hands</em> becomes -intolerable to the public, so that invariably, in the -long run, the community either puts a forcible stop -to the monopoly, or assumes it, and administers it -as a State function.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We may confidently assert that as large industries -approach to the stage of absorption into monopolies -of federated groups of wealthy capitalists, the more -general and widespread grows dissatisfaction and -resentment on the part of the dispossessed smaller -capitalists who have been beaten out of the field.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now, the trend of movement to-day, through -the whole fields of production and distribution, is -from business on a small scale to business on a large -scale, and the formation of limited companies, -rings, trusts, etc. By purchasing raw material in -greater quantities an immense saving is effected, -and the same occurs in the advertising of goods and -in organizing numerous workers instead of a few. -These savings make it possible to lower the price -of the finished commodity to the public. Hence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>the change from smaller to larger commercial -enterprises is favourable to public interests up to a -certain point. But the moment monopoly point -is reached, the position straightway becomes reversed. -Henceforward the public have no protection -from a sudden raising of prices, for, the competitive -check having been withdrawn, monopolists -dominate their respective fields of production and -distribution, and the individually selfish forces -alone hold sway.</p> - -<p class='c004'>This tendency, then, to larger and larger industrial -organization, with its wasteful warfare and other -attendant evils, implies a certain advance. It -indicates competition working out to its last expression -and final breakdown. It points to the supersession -of the individualistic industrial system by -a collectivist industrial system requiring democratic -state-ownership of land and the means of -production and distribution of all commodities.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In process of civilizing man has made himself -acquainted with many laws of nature, and has -learnt so to handle matter as to direct its forces into -channels carrying benefit to himself. He has thus -become the controller of natural forces in as far as -they lie within reach of his mental comprehension -and physical activities. It is by this method, and no -other, that our advance along the line of material -civilization has been accomplished, and all further -extension of the comforts and amenities of economic -and social life is certain to be obtained through -persistence in this available and satisfactory course.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>Now, throughout the domain of non-material -civilization, man has never constituted himself -controller of natural forces, although, in orders of -life inferior to his own, he has guided many vital -forces. For instance, there are vegetable and -animal forces—all subject to natural law—that he -has enlisted in his service and made submissive to -his dominion. The forms of vegetable life around -us to-day—cereals, fruit-trees, plants, and flowers -of infinitely varied tint—bear witness to the art -and skill of man; and the animal kingdom, ruled -by mysterious biological laws, has provided him -with faithful servants obedient to his will, in a life -which to dogs and horses is largely artificial.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the order of his own social life man’s position -is wholly different. What we behold, if we take an -objective view of a so-called civilized society, is a -marvellous variety of complicated movements. -These are the outcome of forces pursuing an unbridled -course; and that course is always the path -of least resistance. As yet there is no intervening -force of a collective, mental nature to adapt that -course to an ultimate definite aim and purpose, or -to harmonize broadly those lines of least resistance -with the line of permanent and universal advantage -to mankind. As Professor Lester F. Ward expresses -it, “Man has made the winds, the waters, fire, steam -and electricity do his bidding. All nature, both -animate and inanimate, has been reduced to his -service.... One class of natural forces still remains -the play of chance, and from it, instead of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>aid, he is constantly receiving the most serious -checks. This field is that of society itself, these -unreclaimed forces are the social forces of whose -nature man seems to possess no knowledge, whose -very existence he persistently ignores, and which -he consequently is powerless to control.” (<cite>Dynamic -Sociology</cite>, vol. I. p. 35.) These unreclaimed social -forces—selfishness, rapacity, pride—give activity -to the competitive system, and run riot on the basis -of private property in land and the means of production. -But the present condition of things -cannot much longer persist, and a new industrial -system, the outcome of far more elevated social -forces, is shaping itself rapidly in many minds -throughout Europe, America, and the whole civilized -world; that system of co-operative industry we -have now to consider.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>ORGANIZED INDUSTRY</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>The true organic formula of political as of economic -justice is—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“From each according to his powers,</div> - <div class='line'>To each according to his needs.”</div> - <div class='line in28'><span class='sc'>J. A. Hobson.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Whilst bearing in mind that the present economic -system—a system unconsciously produced through -the play of selfish forces—was a necessary stage -of evolution, and tended to progress so long as -savage proclivities in the mass of the people made -a closer social union impossible, we have also to -recognize the changes, outward and inward, occurring -under that system. First, a rise of co-operation, -both voluntary and involuntary—in factories and -throughout business generally—has taken place, -causing evolution to proceed on wider lines. Second, -a slow, silent, unstudied, half-unconscious movement -has advanced, and in these days eventuated -in the conception of a new system which purports -to be the form that industrial evolution must -assume in the near future. And inasmuch as this -new system is less egoistic and more social than -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>any system of competition, it will move on ethical -lines of progress.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The present system, as we have seen, is based -on private property in land and the instruments -of production and distribution. In opposition -to this, socialism implies that the State or people -collectively should own the land and instruments -of production and distribution. Further, that -the State should organize routine labour and direct -the distribution of produce upon this basis, and -that throughout society social equality should -be established and maintained.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The sentiment of justice and the feelings of -sympathy and solidarity, without which no socialized -society could exist, are prominent everywhere -to-day. They manifest in philanthropic action -all over the country, in constant efforts to adjust -political and economic forces to lines of social -equality and in the revolt of wage-workers, throughout -the civilized world, from conditions they are -finding intolerable and will not much longer endure.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A wholly unselfish order of life is impossible -still, but under any intelligent collectivist system, -individual selfishness becomes modified and controlled. -Hence we may confidently expect that -the strong anti-social feelings fostered by the private -property and competitive system of industry will -largely subside in the greater fraternity of an -organized socialism.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is significant that ignorant opponents, in -their wildly erroneous interpretation of the theory -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>of socialism as an equal division of money to all, -recognize the gross injustice of the present distribution -of wealth. The wrong and misery accruing -from the individualistic system of industry are -widely felt and freely admitted, while the underlying -causes of the evil and the true remedies are -not yet understood.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As regards the connexion of socialism with the -theories of political economy, I must shortly explain: -Political economy is the science of wealth—its -production and distribution. But as the science -relates exclusively to the present competitive -system, the socialist finds in it a full exposure of -the evils involved in that system, and ample grounds -for striving to bring about its supersession by a -system of co-operation on a socialized property -basis. There is not and there cannot be any conflict -between a true political economy and a scientific -socialism. The one describes what is, the other -what may be and ought to be. Both recognize -that wealth is produced (and it is the only possible -way) by the application of labour to land, and its -products. In the present system, the individual -possession of land and the instruments of production -forms the ruling factor, producing inequality -in the distribution of wealth and gives -the basis on which commercial competition rests. -In referring to laws of political economy, it is -not unusual to speak as if they were laws of nature, -no more to be banished than the law of gravitation. -On this assumption there is raised the argument -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>that society is forever bound to the present system, -with its payments of rent, interest and profits out -of the surplus proceeds of labour. Nevertheless, -it is easy to see that the so-called laws of economics -are only rules of social living springing from motives -of human self-seeking exercised within the generally -accepted conditions of private property in the -essentials of life. It is not necessary for the socialist -to contend against any single generalization of -political economy; each may be true on its own -basis, but, <em>with that basis</em> socialism is at war. Let -society relinquish the property basis, and political -economy remains applicable only to the past, while -in the future the motives of human self-seeking -enter upon a fresh career in a more altruistic system.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We must grasp the true nature of the various -tributes imposed upon labour—rent, interest, -profits and rent of ability—to comprehend their -economic bearing. A farm is the private property -of a landlord, while it is cultivated by a farmer -and his labourers. The proceeds of the industry -of the two latter is divided into three portions—the -labourers’ wages, the landlord’s rent and the -farmer’s profits. The first, dependent on demand -and supply in the labour market, is kept down to -what will cover the expense of a bare subsistence; -and the second is always the highest amount the -landlord can extract above the portion the farmer -consents to live upon after paying the subsistence -wage to his labourers. A landlord’s rapacity, -however, is no longer the only factor in determining -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>rent, since State interference has been found -necessary for protection of farmers in the public -interests. The economic bearing of rent is this: -it gives effect to the demands of the landlord class -for the results of an immense amount of labour -applied to the production of varied commodities. -As already explained, the produce sold in towns -by farmers to pay rent goes, in large measure, to -the support of workers who are manufacturing -luxuries, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">objets de luxe</span></i>, and many meretricious -wares that minister to the depraved taste of men -and women whose happiness is destroyed by a life -of idleness and ennui.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is not land only, but capital in the shape of -railways, factories, workshops, machinery, etc., -that are held as private property. For the use -of these, therefore, workers pay a tribute called -interest on capital. This interest gives effective -demand to the wants of a large class of comparatively -idle shareholders, who further absorb the -services and produce of another great army of -workers. The next tribute, namely profits, is a -claim connected with the organizing of labour. It -represents a prodigious tax levied upon workers, -a tax that enables employers and managers—more -or less wealthy—to enjoy comforts and luxuries -their employés can never command. The fourth -tribute has been called the rent of ability. It -rests on the non-ethical principle that some people -deserve from society a great reward for work they -have pleasure in doing, while the toilers engaged -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>in irksome, dangerous, dirty, distasteful work—however -necessary to the whole community—are -only entitled to a pittance wage.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Let us look at the proportional value of rent, -interest, profits and rent of ability in their relation -to the reward of manual labour. Out of the yearly -income of the nation, recently computed at -£1,450,000,000, £510,000,000 goes in rent and -interest and £410,000,000 in profits and salaries -to the ruling classes, while £530,000,000 only is -available for payment of wages to manual workers. -But when we consider that the latter compose -the great mass of the population, and the former -a small section or fraction of it only, the enormities -involved in the working of our property -institutions exhibit their true colours, and the -growing sense of justice within civilized humanity -revolts wholly from the system. The facts, -roughly speaking, are that one-third of the total -income of the nation goes to four-fifths of the -population, while the remaining one-fifth pockets -two-thirds of the income. (See Sidney Webb in -<cite>Fabian Tract No. 69</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the Census of 1891 there were 543,038 adult -men who entered themselves as not working for -a living. We may assume these belonged chiefly -to the wealthy classes, and if we reckon their -average incomes at £500 per annum, there emerges -a sum of £271,519,000 as approximately the value -of the labour they exact each year from workers -to whom they render no services in return. Again, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>if we add to the number of these idle men the women -and children now living on rent and interest, the -above computation falls far short of the reality. -And, need it be said, the more there is taken from -workers by non-workers, the less must remain for -the workers themselves.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To people ignorant of economic principles, the -man who spends a good income on personal gratifications -appears—in his relations to society—either -passive, or active beneficially, inasmuch -as he “gives employment,” and his “giving” -on these lines is lavish. Moreover, it is considered -that the difference between rich and poor is one -of <em>natural</em> inequality, of which, if workers complain, -they are considered as unreasonable as the -invalid who complains that other people are healthy. -But the facts admit of no such analogy. The rich -owe everything to the poor. They are simply -a parasitic class, and the money they spend represents -a power (socially permitted) to command -and absorb the labour of their fellows. They -exact life-long services, for which they bestow no -personal service in return. Were we to place a -rich man with all his money on an uninhabited -island, however fertile, he would at once be reduced -to his natural stature. No money would cause -his daily comforts to spring up around him, and -still less the many luxuries without which he feels -his existence has no charm. In order to live he -himself must work, for he is the sole representative -of the scores of fellow-men on whose labour he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>has hitherto wholly depended for necessaries and -all the amenities of a civilized life. The absorption -by one of the labour of many is a social arrangement -of genetic origin, and is immoral or non-ethical -in character.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Socialism is the philosophy of a pure, wholesome, -progressive industrial life, to be initiated and -maintained by human effort—nay more, it is a -veritable Gospel of Peace. And I use the word -Gospel advisedly, for the finest religious quality -of human nature is not in those beings who calmly -pursue a course of spiritual development for themselves, -unmindful that the physical part of their -fellows craves the food and rest without which -the latent soul within cannot manifest itself.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We have seen that in the domain of feeling the -stirrings of socialism have for years been agitating -the bosom of society, and although the outcome -in philanthropic action issues usually in failure, -none the less does it spring from the highest and -holiest motives of man. But while philanthropy -chiefly represents love’s labour lost, there are other -and more virile forces in action that are indicative -of a coming organic democracy. Observe, for -instance, the constant efforts of the people to -alter the political and economic strain by State -interference. This agitation is a very significant -fact. It betrays a hunger for social justice which -will certainly increase with the growth of knowledge, -public spirit and sensitiveness to personal -rights. This hunger can never be fully appeased -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>under any system that permits wealth to flow to -the lucky, the clever, the cunning, the greedy, -and be handed down by inheritance and bequest -from generation to generation. No modification -of individualism and not even socialism will banish -all popular agitation. Communism is the far-distant -goal to which it points, for communism -alone sets forth as attainable a satisfying equality -in all the comforts of life, and since evolution -must eventuate in social justice, whatever falls -short of this will inevitably contain some conditions -of discontent.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But whilst a craving for justice among the masses -cries out for State interference, from whence comes -the modern view of what justice means? Among -the classes it has been considered that the man -who is clever, i.e. mentally strong, has a right to -a greater reward for labour than the man who is -stupid. The origin of this notion is simply the -fact that in a competitive system he is able to -obtain that superior reward. Power, and not any -ethical idea, is the foundation of the notion. The -notions of justice prevailing throughout society -have all arisen naturally in the past amid the -strong and privileged few, and readily have they -been accepted by the docile and oppressed many. -The clever, not the stupid, have formed public -opinion, and that under a purely egoistic impulse. -Nevertheless, as evolution passes from the unconscious -to the self-conscious stage, reason unites -with altruistic feeling to give birth to new conceptions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>that are moulding public opinion to a -higher and truer form, and working out on the -plane of practical action. The conception of -justice involved in socialism is naturally unpalatable -to the privileged few, but it goes far to prove -the truth of socialism, that the conception is the -fruit of the most advanced study of our social -organism <em>as a whole</em>, while it coincides precisely -with the blindly instinctive pulsations of the central -mass of the people.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Turning now from the moral and emotional to -the economic and practical side of the question, -we are bound to inquire by what methods transition -from the present competitive commercial system -of industry to the socialism of the future will take -effect. For, be it observed, supporters of the -latter system not only assert its ethical superiority, -but further assert that it is both practicable and -economically inevitable.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There are two, and only two, general directions -of popular reform: first, the revolutionary—the -driving straight at established institutions with -the intention of overthrowing them; second, the -legislative—the aiming to improve the existing -system by co-operative methods and the modification -and gradual destruction of its worst features, -i.e. its extremes of injustice and inequality. I -have to point out how retrograde and futile for the -promotion of happiness is sudden revolution. -It is the spontaneous method of human passion -where intellect is unenlightened on natural evolution -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>and causation. It seeks to overturn what, for the -time being, is the highest product of evolution, -and it would blindly substitute that, which although -ethically superior, the society of the time is unable -to support. The method of legislative reform, -national and municipal, is the rational one; and -no other, we may confidently hope, will be tried -in the civilized countries of Europe so long as -socialists are not harassed and persecuted for -their opinion beyond the point of endurance.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Already, as regards legislation in this country, -the power of the Demos—the mass of the people—is -acutely felt. Step by step our rulers have been -compelled to lower the political franchise in order -to quell revolutionary tendency and maintain -their position. Fear-forces within the social organism -have changed direction unnoted at the -surface. The classes are secretly more afraid of -the people than the people are of the classes; yet -the actual burdens borne by the people are in no -way lightened. And why is this so? Because -the people generally are ignorant of their political -power, and still more ignorant of how to wield it -favourably to their own interests. As has truly -been said: “The difficulty in England is not to -secure more political power for the people, but -to persuade them to make any sensible use of the -power they already have.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>But social forces of persuasion and enlightenment -are ready prepared for their guidance. In -the upper and lower sections of the middle class, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>men and women whose culture is scientific and -whose moral sentiment is advanced, are ranging -themselves in the van of the world’s progress, -and chiefly through their efforts there is pouring -into and penetrating the darkness of the masses -a flood of intellectual enlightenment. This process -begun has its definite bearings. A growing intelligence -in the people will cause the displacement -of all authority that is irresponsible. A -better selection of legislators will be made, and -these, constrained by judicious criticism, will -study the principles of social science and learn -how best to attain the clear ends of government.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As our masses rise to the full exercise of their -political power and the democratic trend of the -nation goes forward, no higher motive force than -that of self-seeking is required to secure better -social conditions. Not only does the ignorant -self-seeking of the masses carry weight commanding -attention, but the intelligent self-seeking of rulers -is a force set in similar direction. To please the -majority of constituents is their highest policy; -and since food and leisure and education are the -essential needs of that majority, such available -intellect as the legislative body possesses will be -honestly applied to promoting the increase and -better distribution of these various necessaries -of a civilized life; in short, to promoting the -general well-being in so far as the exigencies of -the times permit.</p> - -<p class='c004'>I do not deny that self-seeking in rulers has hitherto -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>mainly led to the clever hoodwinking of ignorant -constituents. I merely assert that we have rounded -the point of Cape Danger in that regard. Every -step we take on democratic lines, every advance -we make in educating the people, removes us -further from that danger point. Moreover, I -assert that extending the Parliamentary franchise -to women of every social class will equally work -for good. The new altruistic or philanthropic -spirit of the age has laid firm hold of the so-called -educated women of to-day. When public responsibility -presses these women to self-education -in politics, the myriad injustices revealed will -cause them to turn from futile individualist charities -and concentrate their energies on works of real -and lasting social reform. We may confidently -anticipate that the British Parliament will become -an excellent instrument of Democratic Government -when certain reforms—that are already widely -agitated—have been carried out. These reforms -are that: “The House of Commons should be -freed from the veto of the House of Lords, and -should be thrown open to candidates from all -classes by a system of payment of representatives -and a more rational method of election.” (See -<cite>Fabian Tract No. 70</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>There are two lines of action certain to be pursued -by a Parliament growing yearly more democratic. -One is the line of protection of labour, the other -is that of an active service of the people. Now -State interference with trade—in the interests of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>workers—is condemned by the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</span></i> school -of economists. Such action is scoffingly termed -“grandmotherly legislation.” It is deprecated as -injurious to society as a whole, as an outrage on -the liberty of the British subject, and an impious -desecration of the capitalistic fetish, “Freedom -of Contract.” But when the knowledge of facts -proves that on one side this so-called freedom -signifies freedom of choice between dire starvation -and the distasteful terms of an absolute master, -surprise is not felt that intelligent men prefer what -the ignorant may regard as a species of State bondage. -This preference is a feature of the times -clearly visible. No doubt, where social equality -reigns, individual liberty is a noble attainment; -but with inequality in the means of life and the -fundamental conditions of social happiness, a -State that is honestly striving to restore the balance -is a very <em>fount of justice</em>. The quest of the workers -is not that of individual liberty, but of a collective -liberty, embracing every man, woman and child -within the ranks of their own order.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is no moral principle that condemns State -interference, although we may admit that occasionally -it has wrought evil instead of good. Failures -have been caused by ignorance alike in the rulers -and the ruled. But as knowledge of the real -problem advances, errors in governing will become -less frequent, and the action of the State be marked -by a wise adaptation to human needs in view of -the greatest happiness possible.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>State regulation is simply a matter of power -and expediency. At the present low stage of -civilization, for just so long as the ruling power -is exercised by a propertied minority, it will prove -injurious to the majority; but when the power -passes over to the people the evils from which -the majority suffer—in so far as they are remediable -by society—will be slowly and surely redressed. -Our County, District and Parish Councils are important -instalments of democracy. These elected -bodies, with their increasing powers, are potent -to make of the community an ever larger and -larger employer of labour, until, at the will of the -people, all industries become absorbed, and the -collectivist system of labour organization is gradually -established. It is evident that the instruments -of a thoroughly democratic administration -are rapidly perfecting in Great Britain; and when -the ideal of socialism dominates the national mind, -these will present a ready means of realizing the -ideal in practice. Ignorance of the ideal leads -many minds into the false assumption that the -raising of wages, and to do this the impoverishing -of capitalists, is the socialistic <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sine quâ non</span></i> in -State action. But as Mrs. Bosanquet explains: -“In our nineteenth century cry for higher wages -we are apt to lose sight of the fact that many things -are more important to the working-man than a -few shillings added to his weekly income. A good -supply of water, well-paved and lighted streets, -a market in which he can always obtain wholesome -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>food, and properly guarded sanitary conditions, -will do more to raise his standard of living above -that of his ancestors than any increase of mere -money income. With those he can lead a healthy, -orderly life on comparatively small wages; without -them no rise in wages, however desirable in itself, -will enable him to escape danger and disease.” -(<cite>Rich and Poor</cite>, by Mrs. Bernard Bosanquet.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>This puts the case for municipal socialism in -a nutshell. No amount of philanthropy, no -amount of individual action is likely to provide -a parish with a good water supply, properly paved -and lighted streets, sanitary dwellings and a well-managed -market. (<cite>Fabian News.</cite>) Yet these are -fundamental requisites of general well-being, and -another requisite for well-being and progress, -dependent upon State action, is education of the -people. If the power of the masses and their -independence of arbitrary authority grow out of -accord with their real knowledge of things, disastrous -and bloody revolutions become possible. -That in some sort the State must educate the -masses is a principle already acknowledged and -acted upon. We know, too, with how little success! -But as Government loses its evil characteristics -and grows enlightened, our State education will -be directed to new ends. Its aim will be to impress -such knowledge on the rising generations as will -prepare them for social life, and instruct them in -the means of averting misery and increasing happiness. -It will educate them in the science of society -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>and true meliorism, in the best methods for repressing -anti-social feelings, in the formation of -noble ideals of conduct, and in that religion which -unites mankind in the region of the heart and -makes of their union a living and growing social -organism.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But while this is the aim of State education, -the exact means adopted may vary. Where -parents are superior much may be left in their -hands, but inferior parents can never be permitted -to train up children in inferior ways at the risk -of lowering social purity and health.</p> - -<p class='c004'>I believe the time will arrive when Government, -acting on its right of force and expediency, will -take up and sequestrate the small class of social -units who, defective by nature and evil conditions, -are unable to control the injurious tendency to -propagate their kind. This degraded minority -will be kindly dealt with and allowed all liberty -not inconsistent with the careful guarding of public -safety. The object to attain would be simply the -putting an end to their evil stock.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the matter of State education, as well as in -that of State interference with trade, objections -are made on the ground of injustice. “Why,” -it is asked, “should a man without children be -taxed to educate the children of others? Is it -not unjust that the earnings of the prudent should -be taken to save the imprudent from the consequences -of their own folly?” My answer is that -besides being expedient, it is not socially unjust -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>and the argument rests on the fact that the rewards -of life depend upon the economic conditions of -society much more than upon individual effort -or merit. The amount of a man’s income is determined -by forces not created by justice, and over -which he has no personal control. A clever -physician may command the fee of a guinea a visit. -Let another competent man appear in the neighbourhood -and charge half a guinea, the first has -to lower his fee or lose his patients, and if he lowers -his fee, the sum of the incomes of the two physicians -sharing the patients between them will be less -than the amount of the single income originally -derived from that source. A man’s gains are what -the competitive system ordained by society permits -him to seize, whether he be working hard or not -at all. Within these non-moral conditions an -appeal to justice is irrelevant. Outside the non-moral -conditions, what justice requires is that all -men should be socially equal in respect of two -things, viz. liberty and the ordinary comforts of -life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If employers do not deem it unjust to lower -wages, neither should they deem it unjust were -the State to lower their incomes to the precise -amount their employés receive. Society has in -the past arbitrarily arranged conditions that favour -the few; why should it not now arbitrarily rearrange -these conditions favourably to the many? -If we take the average amount of all incomes to -represent the sum each worker might justly receive, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>we find that a number of people have far more -than this sum. The surplus represents then an -“unearned increment” obtained by force of circumstance. -A still larger number of people, on -the other hand, are wholly unable to win, by any -effort they may make, the above average amount, -even if they work hard and well all their lives. Is -it not just and reasonable that the more fortunate -are required to give up a portion of their “unearned -increment” in order that in the interests of society -the children of the less fortunate should be -educated? And, again, the improvident and immoral -are nature’s defective children. Does not -the highest religion demand that they should be -tenderly dealt with and spared—if that be possible—all -the tortures that nature unaided would bring -upon them.</p> - -<p class='c004'>I believe that, under conscious evolution, the -State will become in its action more and more -philanthropic, simply for this reason—its members -will become more and more humane and public-spirited.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Voluntary and State agency, however, will continue -to co-exist. Each has its peculiar merits -and demerits, and each individual case to be dealt -with has its peculiar conditions. Science and -experience must in each case therefore decide -which agency applies best. There is no foregone -conclusion that under State Socialism all private -industries will collapse. The principle of the -system is that no method of industry, hurtful to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>society as a whole, may exist, and the power of -the State shall be rigorously used to protect the -interests of the whole, as against conflicting individual -interests. Even now it is felt, through -the growing democratic spirit, that for our public -bodies to take advantage of the struggle for employment -of starving, hard-pressed men and -women, is a national disgrace. It will soon be a -point of honour with the nation to fix a minimum -wage for public employés much above the competitive -rate. Some County Councils have already -been moved to direct that workers employed by -them, or under their contracts, should be paid -trade-union wages. Parliament has in some cases -acted similarly, and when we remember that Government -at this moment is the largest employer of -labour in the kingdom, we realize that its example -in giving wages determined more by equity than -by competition will have a raising effect upon -wages in private employment.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is not any danger, however, that the -movement of taking over the industries of the -country by the State will stop short of the most -favourable point. As I write this chapter, the -following paragraph has appeared in a socialist -journal of to-day: “It is proposed to establish -a gigantic trust to control the entire iron-producing -interests of the United States. This, of course, -is eminently proper from an economic view, as -it is a clearly demonstrated fact that production -on a large scale is cheaper than production on a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>small scale. Carnegie, Rockefeller and Morgan, -proposers of the iron trust, are, from a certain -standpoint, benefactors of the race, inasmuch as -they will demonstrate the practicability of the -co-operative idea on a national scale in production. -In due time the people will recognize the folly of -allowing these men to reap the whole profits, and -the system will be readjusted.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Another important public event was the introduction -into the British Parliament of an Employer’s -Liability Bill. “This Bill proceeds,” said -its introducer, “on the principle that when a -person for his own profit sets in motion agencies -which create risks for others, he ought to be civilly -responsible.” (<cite>The Scotsman</cite> Report, May 4, 1897.) -Now it goes without saying that the iron trust, and -all trusts and commercial rings and monopolies, -create the risk of a disastrous rise of prices to the -general public, and a consequent greater inequality -of wealth possession than even that from which -we are suffering acutely to-day. A logical executive, -holding the above principle, will inevitably -annex to the State these huge outgrowths of the -competitive system, will keep down prices to the -level required by the general interests, and apply -profits to the good of all.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That the time is not far distant when nationalization -of the land will take place, appears from the -fact that many others besides socialists advocate -the measure. But we must not suppose that rent -will be abrogated. The State will impose a charge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>on the fertile and well situated lands to create -conditions that are fair not only to consumers -but to cultivators, whose labour in view of a given -result must vary according to the superiority or -inferiority of soils and situations. District Councils -will in all probability organize agricultural labour, -the State only drawing a rent; while to present -owners of the land compensation will be made, -and, if accustomed to work on the land, salaried -positions in the new order offered.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The rent exacted by the State may become the -single form of taxation necessary for purposes of -administration and for organized labour engaged -on such service of the people as does not bring in -any profit. But when routine industries bearing -on universal needs belong to the State, profits will -flow into the national exchequer. It will be possible -to gradually increase the State’s payment for -labour as the workers become more capable of -elevating their standard of life and consuming -wisely; while the surplus profits will be available -for the organizing of new services to be rendered -free.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The carriage and distribution of letters is a comparatively -long established State industry. The -carriage of human beings should equally become -so. The State’s taking over of railways and the -municipalities’ taking over of tramways cannot -be much longer delayed.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Bread baking and distributing by Government -employés is pre-eminently desirable, to put an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>end to adulteration in a primary necessary of life -and to prevent the waste of energy which takes -place in the present disorganized system. Already -there is such a general complaint of the quality -of bakers’ bread, that an approved method of -baking from pure flour under State control would -be welcomed by all who perceive how the racial -blood is more or less poisoned and its vitality -lowered by what is called “the staff of life.” -(A prolonged process of baking breaks up the -starch granules, and renders bread more digestible. -The extra expense and trouble precludes the -adoption of this method by private bakers.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Again, the health of the nation suffers cruelly -from poison germs carried in the medium of milk. -But when district councils have organized agricultural -labour, dairy produce will be distributed -under strict Government control. Emulation will -spring up among local authorities all over the -country to excel one another in the arts of rapidly -acquiring and skilfully managing all industries -that affect general health, and thus raising the tide -of life within the bounds of their jurisdiction. -With this aim broadly accomplished, the minor -industries might safely be left for some time in -private hands and under a competition modified -in a greater degree than now by State inspection -for the benefit of workers and consumers.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Among services to be made free to the public, -those of transit bulk largely and should probably -come first—free railway and steamship service, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>free tramway and cable-car service, to be followed -in time by a more or less complete service of -free entertainments calculated to develop art and -promote a happy, joyous life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we cast our thoughts forward and try to realize -the action and interaction of these altered social -conditions upon society, we can hardly mistake -the nature of the changes humanity itself will -undergo. With the destruction of the frightful -incubus of poverty, human hearts will no longer -be wrung by anguish, bitterness, despair. With -opportunity freely afforded for regular employment -and its ample reward, for decent and wholesome -living, and a civic life brightened by many pure -pleasures, the degrading and false excitements -will cease to allure. Drunkenness, vice, crime -will greatly diminish. Instead of the desperate -struggle for bread and all that appertains to an -animal life pure and simple, a new struggle will -arise—a benign, inspiring emulation to attain to -and acquire the noble qualities of humanity, the -distinctive characteristics of, not the lower animal, -but the higher spiritual man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Respecting the form of government in a Socialistic -State, I cannot do better than quote Mr. J. A. -Hobson: “A developed organic democracy will -have evolved a specialized ‘head,’ an expert official -class, which shall draft laws upon information -that comes to them from innumerable sources -through class and local representation, and shall -administer the government, subject to protests -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>similarly conveyed.” “The conditions of a really -effective expert officialism are two: such real -equality of educational opportunities as shall -draw competent officials from the whole people; -and such a growth of public intelligence and conscience -as shall establish the real final control of -government for society in its full organic structure.” -(<cite>Contemporary Review</cite>, February, 1902.)</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART II</em><br /> <span class='large'>THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE SUBJECT</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>The laws of heredity constitute the most important -agency whereby the vital forces, the vigour and soundness -of the physical system, are changed for better or worse.—<span class='sc'>Nathan -Allen</span>, M.D., LL.D.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE LAW OF POPULATION</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The population question is the real riddle of the Sphinx, -to which no political Oedipus has as yet found the answer. -In view of the ravages of the terrible monster over-multiplication -all other riddles sink into insignificance.—<span class='sc'>Huxley.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>No human life can be maintained without food, -and no healthy individual life can be maintained -without good food in sufficient quantity; therefore, -the relation of numbers to the actual food supply—in -other words, the Population Question—stands -at the threshold of our social inquiries and at the -base of all social reform.</p> - -<p class='c004'>At the beginning of last century, Malthus, who -knew nothing of evolution, expounded the doctrine -that man tends to increase more rapidly than the -means of subsistence; that population and food, -like two runners of unequal swiftness chained together, -advance side by side, but the pace or natural -rate of increase of the former is so immensely -superior to that of the latter that it is necessarily -greatly checked. And the checks are of two kinds. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>They are either positive—that is, deaths occur from -famine, accident, war or disease, and keep down -the population so that the means of subsistence -are just sufficient to enable the poorer classes barely -to exist; or they are preventive—that is, fewer -births take place than man is capable of causing.</p> - -<p class='c004'>This doctrine was a fertile germ of thought in the -mind of Charles Darwin. He, while conscious to -some extent of the process of evolution, was grappling -with the great problems of differentiation and -genesis of species. How came it that the life which -is assumed to develop from low and simple to the -highest and most complex forms everywhere exhibited -breaks, or sudden changes, in the apparently -natural order? Darwin perceived that a key to the -enigma lay in the marvellous fecundity of organisms. -Each group reproduced its kind in overflowing -numbers, and accidental conditions destroyed individuals -and groups that failed to secure sufficient -food or to protect themselves from enemies. Here -were factors of progress, but factors by no means -admirable—a murderous slaughter of the weak, a -frantic struggle for existence, culminating in violent -death or slow starvation, ultimately in extinction. -Nevertheless, the medal had two sides, for the race -is to the swift, the battle to the strong; bread is -the portion of the wise, favour the reward of skill. -Should we feel surprise that in a semi-theological -and metaphysical era, rather than a scientific one, -Darwin formulated his great discovery in terms -suggesting not a cruel, but a beneficent Nature? -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>His law of natural selection, or survival of the fittest, -established itself in many minds as a sacred principle -that man could neither deny nor seek to counteract.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now this conception, carried into the field of -economics, confused the minds of men engaged in -the study of facts and problems of human life and -progress. Political economists had to contemplate -a social strife and struggle for existence among men -as fierce and relentless as that holding sway in the -brute kingdom. And in this struggle society as a -whole stood on the side of external nature as opposed -to the mass of striving individuals. A genetic, -spontaneously developed system of industry favoured -a high birth-rate that kept wages low, an unscrupulous -exploitation of labour in the interests of capital, -a wholesale slaughter of infants, a crushing out or -trampling down of the weak, and a perpetual grinding -of the face of the poor, while, simultaneously, -wealth was multiplying and capital becoming concentrated -and easy of control by the so-called -princes of industry. Conditions of life to the great -mass of the people were fraught with constant -misery; yet, since Darwin had demonstrated—in -his <cite>Origin of Species</cite>, published in 1858—that a -struggle for existence eventuates in the survival of -the fittest, enlightened thinkers, with a few rare -exceptions, accepted the cruel facts of industrial -life without any conscious moral revolt from the -system.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Laissez-faire</span></i>” was the logical outcome of -Darwinian law applied to human affairs, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>Darwin’s authority dominated the public mind of -the period. Christianity was teaching the principle -that the poor would be with us always; a poet -cheerfully sang “God’s in His Heaven; All’s right -with the world; All’s love and all’s law,” and -political economists expounded the laws of demand -and supply, of rent, of wages, of profits, of interest, -etc., without one hint or surmise that man himself -was bound to interfere with the action of derivative -laws, to modify or even annul them.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Meanwhile an instinct of sympathy, rudimentary -in primitive man, was steadily growing and strengthening -during all the transitions of tribal, village-communal, -feudal and national life, in the stormy -militant epoch, till the moment arrived when it -compelled man’s interference. Spontaneously, -impulsively, individual philanthropy interposed -between a suffering humanity on the one hand, and -on the other external nature and a social system that -were alike relentless. It supported the weak and -helped the unfit to survive. It deliberately selected -the half-starved, the diseased, the criminals, and -enabled them to exist and propagate. Finally it -forced society to make laws subversive of the policy -of “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</span></i>,” thereby introducing a new order -of things, irrespective of all doctrinaire principles -or authoritative teaching. That new order of -things is socialism, and the genesis of socialism is -distinctly to be traced to the vital element in human -nature—unselfish sympathy.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The rise and progress of philanthropic action -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>carries momentous issues in various directions, both -unfavourable and favourable to human welfare. -It has made the law of natural selection and survival -of the fittest obsolete for us as applied to man. -It tends to a lowering of the level of average health -and a gradual <em>degenerating of the race</em> through selection -of the unfit, and through the power of hereditary -transmission. It counteracts the positive or -destructive checks to the increase of population, -and thereby extends the area of general misery. -Nevertheless, at the same time, it increases the -strength and the solidarity of human society, and -becomes a new law of life. That law may be called -“Sympathetic Selection” and “Survival of the -Gentle.” Darwin in 1878 acknowledged its existence. -He recognized it as a law in human society -superseding that of Natural Selection and Survival -of the Fittest.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In 1801 the population of England and Wales -was 8,892,536, or let us say about nine millions. -Eighty years later it had risen to about twenty-six -millions! The increase showed an accelerated rate -according to the census returns. Whereas in the -ten years between 1841 and 1851 the percentage of -increase was 12·65, in those from 1861 to 1871 it -was 13·19, and between 1871 and 1881 it was 14·34. -In the United Kingdom in 1900 there has been an -increase of 18 per cent. since 1880.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now Malthus had pointed out that with conditions -of life comparatively favourable, and an increase -of food supply comparatively easy, population -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>was found to double itself in twenty-five years -or less. Our numbers during these eighty years had -been, roughly speaking, trebled! and the increase -took place under conditions not favourable but -unfavourable to the bulk of the nation. Manufacturing -industries had enabled us to purchase food -from abroad, and consequently a larger number of -children survived. Food, however, cannot always -be forthcoming in greater and greater abundance -from countries that need more and more of their own -food supply, and which, by manufacturing for -themselves, are gradually reducing their demand -for our manufactured commodities.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Notwithstanding this patent fact, there are social -reformers to-day who persist in ignoring the population -difficulty, and there are thinkers who, basing -their views on Herbert Spencer’s dictum that -“man’s fertility will be checked by his individuation,” -pass it over lightly. Generally speaking, -however, the public conscience is now aroused, and -enlightened men and women are tolerably well alive -to the fundamental nature and the grave importance -of the population question.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“In some parts of the United States of America,” -says an able writer, “population has actually doubled -itself, apart from immigration, in twenty-five years; -and this in the face of the ordinary retarding influences. -If such a rate of increase upon the present -population of the whole globe were to prevail for -only 250 years, there would be left but one square -yard of standing room for each individual.”</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>Again: “If we grant that a scientific treatment -of crops would enable food supplies to keep pace -with population, and for this purpose supposing -that all the land in the planet Jupiter were available -for a market garden, it would not ultimately be -want of food but want of room that would put a stop -to the increase of the multitude.” But further, the -above author—a mathematician—examines what -the potentiality of increase represents on the -supposition that each individual merely died the -natural death of old age. “Under such favourable -conditions as the absence of war, famine and disease, -the race might treble its numbers in thirty years. -To show the significance of the numerical law, let -us imagine it to operate undisturbed 3,000 years -upon the progeny of a single pair. The number of -human beings finally existing would be expressed by -twice the 100th power of 3. An easy computation -will show that if these people were packed together, -allowing six cubic feet of space for each person, they -would fill up the whole solar system in every direction, -and extend beyond it to a distance 430 times -that of the planet Neptune. In fact, a solid sphere -of human beings would be formed having a diameter -of 2,400,000,000,000 miles. Such considerations -lead us to realize the absolute inevitableness of -Nature’s checks upon reproduction.” (<cite>Social Evolution -and the Evolution of Socialism</cite>, by George -Shoobridge Carr, M.A., Cantab.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Turning now from scientific speculation to recognized -authority in practical politics, let me quote -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>from a paper read at the Registrar-General’s office -on March 18, 1890, by Dr. William Ogle, Superintendent -of Statistics: “The population of England -and Wales is, as we all know, growing in a most -formidable manner, and though persons may differ -in their estimates of the time when that growth will -have reached its permissible limits, no one can doubt -that, if the present rate of increase be maintained, -the date of that event cannot possibly be very -remote.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Premising that the rate of increase is not due to -the birth-rate only, but also to a fall in the death-rate, -and that voluntary philanthropy and State -interference influence the latter, we pass to the -consideration of conditions that affect the marriage-rate—consequently -the birth-rate—in the artisan -and labouring classes, composing the bulk of the -nation. The Registrar-General, in his report for -the year 1876, wrote as follows: “The state of trade -and national industry is strikingly exhibited in the -fluctuations of the marriage-rate of the last nine years.... -The period of commercial distress, which -began about the middle of 1866 and continued -during five years ... influenced the marriage-rates -of these years, which were 17·5, 16·5, 16·1, -15·9, 16·1 and 16·7 (in the 1,000) respectively. In -1872 and 1873 the working classes became excited -under the rapid advance of wages and the diminution -of the hours of labour, and the marriage-rates -rose to 17·5 and 17·6 respectively.” In his report -for 1881 the Registrar-General again accentuated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>this important point: “The marriage-rate reflects -with much accuracy the condition of public welfare.” -And further on: “The birth-rate was at its maximum -in 1876, and fell uninterruptedly from that -date year by year in natural accordance with the -corresponding decline in the marriage-rate.” These -years represented another period of commercial -depression. We have here then incontrovertible -proof of the national tendency. The mass of our -people increase their numbers so soon as they are -more comfortable, and the marriage-rate for each -year may be called the pulse or indicator of the -nation’s economic well-being. Its fluctuations coincide -with the upward and downward movements of -commercial activity.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In this connexion we have also to note that the -most rapid growth of our population is taking place -in the great industrial centres, the mining, manufacturing -and trading districts; and the type that -there prevails is necessarily affecting the British -race.</p> - -<p class='c004'>By the Parliamentary return of marriages, births -and deaths registered in England and Wales in the -year 1881, it appeared that in different districts the -percentages of marriages varied considerably. It -was greater in the mining, manufacturing and -trading districts than in the farming districts, and -much higher in London than in the provinces. In -the district comprising Hertford, Buckingham, -Oxford, Bedford, Cambridge, the rate equalled -twelve persons per annum for each thousand of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>population. In London it was eighteen persons -for each thousand, and in the divisions which comprise -Yorkshire and Lancashire the rate was sixteen -and seventeen persons to each thousand. As regards -births, the proportions stated were somewhat -similar. In London there were thirty-five births to -one thousand of the population, whilst in the southeastern -division there were only thirty-one; but -the rate rose again to thirty-five and thirty-six in -the great manufacturing districts of the Midlands -and the North.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Dr. Ogle’s examination of statistics on the subject -shows that this state of things has continued, -in its main features, up to the present day. “Men -marry,” he says, “in greater numbers when trade -is brisk. The fluctuations in the marriage-rate -follow the fluctuations in the amount of industrial -employment.” “The rates vary very greatly in -the different registration counties.” “In London -the rate is invariably high. Almost all the counties -in which the marriage-rate is high are counties in -which the population is also high of women engaged -in industrial occupations, and therefore presumably -in receipt of independent wages, while all the -counties in which the marriage-rate is very low are -also counties in which but a very small population -of the women are industrially occupied.” The -general drift of the figures leads to the conclusion -that early marriage is most common where there is -the largest amount of employment for women.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The age at which marriage takes place is examined -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>by Dr. Ogle as “a subject of scarcely less importance -than the rate in its bearing upon the growth of the -population.” And the point is of special interest -in view of the fact that delayed marriage was valued -by Malthus as a desirable preventive check. Dr. -Ogle finds that the lowest average age at marriage -for both bachelors and spinsters, viz., 25·6 and 24·2 -respectively, was in 1873, the year in which the -marriage-rate was highest; and from that date to -the present time the ages have gone up gradually -but progressively in harmony with the general -decline in the marriage-rate. In 1888 the average -age of bachelors at marriage was 26·3 years, and of -spinsters was 24·7.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Observe of late years there has been a slight -decline of the marriage-rate and a certain retardation -of marriage, consequently the birth-rate has -fallen, but says Dr. Ogle, “so also has the death-rate, -and almost in equal amount; so that the balance -between the two, or natural increment of the population, -has practically scarcely changed. We may,” -he observes, “dismiss altogether the notion that -any adequate check to the increase of population -is hereafter to be found in retardation of marriage. -Such retardation may defer the day when a stationary -population will be necessary, but, when that -day has come, will be insufficient to prevent further -growth. If a stationary population is to be obtained -by simple diminution of the marriage-rate, -that rate would have to be reduced 45 per cent. -below the lowest point it has ever yet reached. In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>short, almost one-half of those who marry would -have to remain permanently celibate. This seems -as hopeless a remedy as the retardation.” He makes -clearer still this important matter: “If one-quarter -of the women who now marry were to remain permanently -celibate, and the remaining three-quarters -were to retard their marriages for five years, the -birth-rate would be reduced to the level of the -present death-rate. It is manifest that if the growth -of population is hereafter to be arrested ... by -increase of permanent celibacy, or by retardation of -marriage, these remedies will have to be applied on -a scale so enormously in excess of any experience -as to amount to a social revolution.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>What, then, is the present position?</p> - -<p class='c004'>Population tends to increase faster than actual -subsistence. Obviously it cannot outrun the supply -of food because people cannot live upon nothing. -There ensues therefore a state of chronic starvation -among the most helpless, and premature deaths -keep population reduced to the means of subsistence.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Let us glance at facts concerning London alone. -London now contains over 4,300,000 persons. Three -hundred thousand of these earn less than 18s. per -week per family, and live in a chronic state of want. -One person in every five will die in the workhouse, -hospital, or lunatic asylum. Moreover, the percentage -is increasing. Considering that comparatively -few of the deaths are those of children, it is -probable that one of every four London adults will -be driven into these refuges to die.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>One in every eleven of the whole population is a -pauper. One in every five of persons over 65 is a -pauper. The appalling statistics of the pauperism -of the aged are carefully concealed in all official -returns. In 1885 Canon Blackley found that 42·7 -per cent. of deaths of persons over 60 in twenty-five -rural parishes were those of paupers. Very -many children in the Board Schools go to school -without sufficient food unless supplied gratuitously. -Over 30,000 persons in London have no home but -the fourpenny “doss-house” or the causal ward. -(<cite>Fabian Tracts</cite>, Nos. 10 and 17.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>The death-rate of children in the poorest districts -of the East End of London is three times as great -as among the rich at the West End. In barbarous -ages the death-rate was, as far as we can learn, far -higher than now, and even now the death-rate of -children in Russia is extremely high.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We have little cause to rejoice in the absence of -famine, pestilence and war so long as the lowering -of the death-rate—by sanitation, the hospital -system and the outcome generally of sympathetic -feeling—increases the proportion of human beings -in a state of chronic want, and produces a gradual -enfeeblement and deterioration of the human race. -Yet it is inconceivable that rationalized man could -withhold his efforts to reduce the death-rate in the -future because of the fatal effects of his philanthropic -action in the past.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Darwin acknowledged this dilemma. In the year -1878 he somewhat sadly wrote: “The evils that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>would follow by checking benevolence and sympathy -in not fostering the weak and diseased would -be greater than by allowing them to survive and -procreate.” Ten years later Professor Huxley -wrote: “So long as unlimited multiplication goes -on, no social organization which has ever been devised, -no fiddle-faddling with the distribution of -wealth, will deliver society from the tendency to -be destroyed by the reproduction within itself in -its intensest form of that struggle for existence, the -limitation of which is the object of society.” (<cite>Nineteenth -Century</cite>, February, 1888.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Further than this he did not go; Huxley, like -Darwin, brings us up to the dilemma and leaves us -there. Not such, however, is the position of all -scientific men in the present day. “We stand on -the threshold of a new departure in social evolution,” -says the author already quoted, “a new and -potent factor in the process is about to make itself -felt. This factor is man’s intellect.... The intelligence -of man will act intelligently; population -will not be subjected to mere haphazard restriction; -it will be regulated with a wise adaptation of means -to an end.” (<cite>Social Evolution and the Evolution of -Socialism</cite>, G. S. Carr, pp. 65, 66.) Man’s intelligence -already perceives the right policy to pursue. It is -to lower the birth-rate, to limit births to a proportion -conformable with the food supply; in other words, -to create a painless, instead of a painful, equalization -of births and deaths.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Is there any other means of escape from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>existent dilemma? I answer, there is none. -Emigration has sometimes been regarded as an -efficient check to over-population, and Dr. Ogle -allows that “hitherto some of the excess of births -over deaths has been met by emigration, or rather -by excess of emigration over immigration; but -never on such a scale as to free the country from more -than one-twentieth part of its redundant growth.” -Moreover, this minimum of good is counterbalanced -by evil, for emigration “carries off the more vigorous -and enterprising of our working men to the necessary -deterioration of the residue left at home.” And -further: “The facilities for successful emigration -are yearly diminishing; the time must inevitably -come—sooner or later—when this means of reducing -our population will altogether fail us.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>In view of the obvious tendency of better conditions—when -brought about—to create a reduction -of the death-rate and an acceleration of the birth-rate, -eventuating in an increase of general misery, -neither Malthus, Darwin, Huxley, nor any other -great teacher of the past, has given us applicable -and available counsel. There only remains for us -now to consider Herbert Spencer’s opinion regarding -this all-important matter. He is credited with the -demonstration of a law of population wider than -the laws discerned by Malthus and Darwin. The -law is this: “Other things equal, multiplication -and individuation vary inversely, i.e. the rate of -reproduction of all living things becomes lowered -as the development is raised, and conversely.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>(Lecture on “Claims of Labour,” Edin., 1886, -Patrick Geddes.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>We have to do with this so-called law in respect -only of its bearing on practical action. The corollary -deduced from it is: Individuate, educate and -refine your masses, for the rate of increase will fall -as organisms rise in the scale of culture.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now what are our prospects of any rapid advance -in individuation (development and culture) among -the seething masses of a people who are helpless -and frightfully overcrowded by the action of the -very law which individuation is to counteract? -In how long a period will the process be likely to -take effect? It is on the answer to these questions -that the worth of the principle as a law of practical -guidance for humanity must depend.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Accepting it as a fact that in the families of our -higher classes the average number is distinctly -smaller than in the families of our lower classes, -let us look for a moment at some of the causes -creating this difference. First, in the higher classes -men may have mistresses whose children are unacknowledged; -and frequently they form the -marriage tie with heiresses whose hereditary tendency -is necessarily—as expounded by Francis -Galton—towards sterility. Second, women of the -higher classes are often delicate. They cannot -support the strain of frequent maternity. Is this -a condition that, in an advancing civilization, will -persist? By no means. The ideal of womanhood, -as of manhood, points to strength, not weakness—“a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>combination of brain power and skill with bodily -health and vigour. Many intellectual men are -physically robust and capable in a polygamous state -of patriarchal propagation.” (<cite>Over-population</cite>, John -M. Robertson.) And it is impossible to doubt that -a rational education, embracing free play to activities -hitherto denied to the sex, and promoting -physical development, will lift women to a superior -level of health and of physiological capacity. Third, -the higher classes avail themselves to some extent -of neo-Malthusian preventive checks, whereas the -mass of the people are either ignorant of them or -opposed to their use. Fourth, enforced celibacy -in the case of a large proportion of women of the -cultured classes is a cause of relatively fewer numbers. -Obviously it is from the “warrens of the -poor” that prolific life persistently springs. There -we have the highest rate of genesis; and as the -refined restrain propagation and limit their numbers, -the poor enter the breach and fill up the ranks from -their own inferior stock. Now, mark the result. -The individuating process is checked, and ultimately -fails, through the crowding out of the individuated. -What occurs, naturally, inevitably, by -the action of the process is a gradual subsidence, -finally a limiting of the individuating factor, the -very social force to which Herbert Spencer directs -attention! Surely it suffices to point out “that -no theory of the ultimate effects of mere refinement -on rate of increase can give us help while nine-tenths -of the human race are not refined, and not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>visibly in the way of becoming so.” (<cite>Over-population</cite>, -John M. Robertson.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>We are compelled to dismiss Herbert Spencer’s -“law of population” as irrelevant to the situation, -and to declare that he has no more solved the riddle -of the Sphinx than have Malthus, Darwin and -Huxley.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The population problem, as it faces us to-day, is -serious beyond all comparison. It is impossible to -over-estimate the importance of finding its true -solution. But while thousands of men and women -are ready now to admit the seriousness, nowhere as -yet has a movement appeared of united action -applicable and adequate to the exigency.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>THE PROBLEM OF SEX</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>How glorious will be the awakening when man’s desires -will be honoured, his passions utilized, his labour exalted, -whilst life is loved, and ever and ever creates love afresh.—<span class='sc'>Zola.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>The Law of Population derives its force from -an innate, powerful instinct or passion in man, the -unguarded exercise of which brings about reproduction -of the species. The thing therefore of greatest -importance to general well-being is the discovery -of means whereby to prevent this imperious instinct -dominating and controlling the reproductive conditions—which -imperatively need to be governed by -reason and moral sense.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The sexual instinct, irresponsibly exercised, keeps -population up to the margin of the means of subsistence—whatever -that may be at the time—perpetuates -disease, constitutional weakness and inherited -taint, and frustrates the community’s best efforts to -make life easier and happier to all.</p> - -<p class='c004'>My immediate purpose is to show that the prevention -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>of all this evil is possible, for rational man may -slowly and surely guide the above vital instinct -into a new course—a course that will lead to the -redemption of his physical nature, the purifying -and elevating of his intellectual and emotional -nature, and the direct creation of social virtue and -happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>I must first point out the obstacles standing in the -way of this fundamental far-reaching readjustment. -There is a fatal ignorance of the true nature of the -instinct in question, there is an obstinate prejudice -that prevents frank discussion of the subject, there -is Puritan or ascetic feeling that shuns pleasure as -evil, and there is an optimistic fatalism which, basing -itself on Darwinian law—already superseded by -man’s interference—persists in the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</span></i> -policy, however suicidal.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Sexual relations form the background of human -life and are the primary sources of our finest emotions. -Therefore the instinct that prompts to -sex-union ought to hold a supremely honourable -place in public estimation, and be carefully guarded -from reproach and every hurtful or degrading -condition. This great factor in physical and emotional -life stands, at present, in disgrace. It is -ignominiously repressed, it produces heart-rending -misery and unmitigated evil. Publicly and in -current literature, either it is ignored (hypocritically) -or misjudged and condemned; and all the time -privately it is intensely felt; and in every direction -throughout society its licentious, furtive indulgence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>swirls into the vicious circles of destruction, the -broken hearts and lives of women, the fallen dignity -and besmirched consciences of men.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we look at the matter of sexual intercourse -calmly and in the light of pure reason alone, we -must perceive that its intrinsic qualities are good, -not evil. It creates happiness in the giving and -receiving of pleasure, and the physiological exaltation -connected with pleasure promotes individual -health and buoyancy. To quote Herbert Spencer: -“Pleasure increases vitality and raises the tide -of life.” If man “eats and drinks immoderately,” -said W. R. Greg, “nature punishes him with dyspepsia -and disease; but nature never forbids him -to eat when he is hungry and to drink when he is -thirsty, provided he does so with discretion. Indeed, -she punishes him equally if he abstains, as if he -exceeds.” Mr. Greg further showed that the -action of nature is precisely similar in respect of the -sexual function. If man indulges to excess, he -is punished by premature exhaustion, with appropriate -maladies, not otherwise however. On the -contrary, enforced and total abstinence is punished -often, if not habitually, by “nervous disturbance -and suffering and by functional disorder.” (<cite>Enigmas -of Life</cite>, Chapter II.) Observe also the sexual desire -“is the especial one of all our animal wants which -is redeemed from animalism by being blended -with our strongest and least selfish affections; -which is ennobled by its associations in a way in which -the appetites of eating and drinking and sleeping can -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>never be ennobled in a degree to which the pleasures -of the eye and ear can be ennobled only by assiduous -and lofty culture.” (<cite>Enigmas of Life.</cite> W. R. -Greg, p. 71.) We have no fastidious recoil from -eating and drinking because these are merely animal -functions. We take pains to improve our methods -of preparing food, and we embellish our repasts -with super-sensual surroundings in order to elevate -the nutritive functions and free them from grossness -or brutality. The fundamentally animal nature -of sexual passion does not imply brutality, it is -sociable to a far greater degree than eating or drinking, -and this element of sociality purifies and ennobles, -causing the function to become the basis of tender -unselfish love. In its physiological aspect we may -rest assured that the average normal human being -has as little inherent tendency to sexual excess as to -gluttony or drunkenness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But apart from the question of excess, an attitude -of mind towards the whole subject is common which -must be condemned. This attitude consists of an -element of shame, misnamed delicacy, and a sense -of moral superiority. Women chiefly cherish the -feeling, but men pay homage to it, with the result -that in no friendly communion of men and women -does it seem compatible with good taste to discuss -questions of sex.</p> - -<p class='c004'>All vulgar allusions to love, all flippant talk on -the subject of sex are distinctly contrary to good -taste, they dishonour human nature, but I submit -that it is an outrage on common sense, and an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>immoral action, when students of the Population—or -any other grave social question—allow this -spurious delicacy to interfere with their facing the -whole facts of life, or to bias judgment in reasoning -from the facts.</p> - -<p class='c004'>On the publication of my previous volume, -<cite>Scientific Meliorism and the Evolution of Happiness</cite>, -in 1885, a woman of superior intellect and -attainments reviewed the book. One passage in her -criticism stands thus: “A certain instinct that -in such matters the instinct of reprobation is as -healthy as it is superficially unreasonable, may -make one sicken at the suggestions of neo-Malthusianism.” -(<cite>The Academy</cite> of May 15th, 1886.) -Such squeamishness is no indication of health or -good taste. Its unreasonableness condemns it, and -the source from which it springs is prejudice induced -through specific conditions. The reviewer appears -to suspect as much, for, later she remarks: “One -cannot put down the book without a greatly increased -sense of the supreme necessity of criticizing -all established theories and institutions and of the -supreme duty of refraining from precipitate -action.” This is a sentiment one can endorse, and -I appeal to all my readers, especially to women, to -refrain from forming any judgment on any part of -this difficult, all-important problem, until they -have mastered the subject in all its aspects. To -pursue the opposite course is to act irrationally and -immorally. It causes to spring up in other minds -the prejudice which distorts and disguises truth.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>In nutritive functions, all repulsive animalism -becomes overborne, as human nature refines and -civilizes, and in a profounder sense the brutality -of sex-passion vanishes through the growth of a -higher love, which has for its dominant quality—not -eagerness for possession—but unselfish tenderness. -This tenderness, permeating the individual -and extending its benign influence into society, -issues in the gentle manners and virtuous actions -that seem to spring directly from a universal principle -of sympathy and love.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The scientific exposition of the phenomena has -long been before the public. G. H. Lewes, in his -<cite>Problems of Life and Mind</cite>, demonstrated that -whilst the individual functions of man (alimentation -being one of these) arise in relation to the cosmos, -his general functions, including sex-appetite, arise -in relation to the social medium, and “animal -impulses become blended with human emotions,” -until “in process of evolution, starting from the -merely animal appetite of sexuality, we arrive at the -purest and most far-reaching tenderness.” The -social instincts, which he calls analogues of the -individual instincts, tend more and more to make -“sociality dominate animality and thus subordinate -personality to humanity.” (<cite>Problems of -Life and Mind</cite>, vol. 1, p. 159.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is only recently that the full significance of -these facts has begun to influence general thought -and to create a revolt against the unscientific attitude -of mind that covers the sexual instinct with contumely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>and hypocritical disdain. There dawns -in consequence a new light upon the afflicting -problem of our social impurity. It is seen that the -horrible struggle for existence which makes grief -and pain, exhausting mental effort and physical -restraint, enter so largely into the lot of unhappy -man, is the paramount evil to cast out. “The -wonderful cycles of normal life are for ever clean -and pure.” (<cite>The New Spirit</cite>, Havelock Ellis.) -And with far more of sex-union—especially for the -young—and all the tender social joys that emanate -from that union, and far more of ease and happiness -in life, there becomes possible a great increase of -goodness.<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. It is well to know moments of material happiness, since -they teach us where to look for loftier joys.—<cite>Wisdom and -Destiny</cite>, by Maurice Maeterlinck.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>The late James Hinton spoke truly of the matter -when he said: “Sensuous pleasure will be to the -moral life of the future as sense-impressions are to -the knowledge of the present, and with the same -history. It will not be a thing put aside as evil -or degrading or misleading, but recognized as the -very basis and means of the life, and used with -enhancements and multiplied powers undreamt -of by us.” And again, “This is what sets the soul -on fire—the union of goodness and pleasure. It is -a new possibility, a hope we never saw before, a -means whereby all may be brought into goodness.” -(<cite>The Law Breaker</cite>, pp. 275, 236.) The key to the -position, he points out, is the taking of pleasure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>unselfishly and with complete regard to the happiness -of others.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The region of sex is indeed to this day unreclaimed, -but, as Mr. Ellis asks: “Why should the sweetening -breath of science be guarded from this spot? Our -attitude towards this part of life affects profoundly -our attitude towards life altogether.” (<cite>The New -Spirit</cite>, pp. 127, 125). Which of us has not felt the -truth of that deep saying of Thoreau’s that “for him -to whom sex is impure there are no flowers in -nature.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is precisely here that development in the sense -of purity gives a sure hope of moral regeneration. -And very remarkable is it that as in the old days -when prophetic poetry took the lead in all religious -reforms so now we have art in the van of social reform -boldly confronting the great enemies of progress—ignorance, -pride, prejudice and malicious insinuation. -When Ibsen’s “Ghosts” was first put upon the -stage of a London theatre, a dramatic critic delivered -himself thus: “It is a dream of revolt—the -revolt of the ‘joy of life’ against the gloom -of hidebound, conventional morality, the revolt of -the natural man and woman, the revolt of the individual -against the oppression of social prejudice. -The joy of life, the joy of life—it rings like a clarion -through the play.” (<cite>Star</cite> of March 14th, 1891.) -The fine women of Ibsen’s creation speak out -upon questions of sex with a pure, earnest candour -that breathes a new morality, and this moral element -is one of the central features in Whitman’s attitude -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>towards sex. For the lover, there is nothing in -the loved one impure or unclean; a breath of passion -has passed over, and all things are sweet. For -most of us this influence spreads no farther, for the -man of strong moral instinct it covers all human -things in infinitely widening circles; his heart goes -out to every creature that shares the loved one’s -delicious humanity, henceforth there is nothing -human that he cannot touch with reverence and love. -<cite>Leaves of Grass</cite> is penetrated by this moral -element. (<cite>The New Spirit</cite>, Havelock Ellis, p. -123.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Walt Whitman himself says: “Difficult as it -will be, it has become, in my opinion, imperative -to achieve a shifted attitude from superior men -and women towards the thought and fact of sexuality -as an element in character, personality, the emotions, -and a theme in literature.” (<cite>How I made a -Book.</cite> An Essay by Walt Whitman.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>The principles underlying the new morality may -be thus stated: Goodness does not consist in -starving or denying any normal animal appetite, -therefore chastity in the sense of total abstinence is -essentially immoral. Life is not so prodigal of -joys that man can wisely forego any source of -innocent happiness, hence asceticism has no place -in a rational theory and code of morals. The -course for rational man to adopt in reference to -sexual appetite is duly to satisfy and regulate it; -and by removing every loathsome condition that -superinduces degradation, to compel it to raise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>the tide of life in promoting individual comfort -and general virtue.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To the reader who grasps the population problem -it may seem that this moral code would place society -on the horns of a painful dilemma, for while morality -is said to require a closer union between the sexes -than has hitherto prevailed, propagation—which -is the actual result of that union—must be limited -to an extent hitherto unknown, and by many -people deemed impossible of attainment. By its -patient investigations of nature, however, science here -comes to the rescue of those whose standpoint in viewing -the sexual problem is one of ardent sympathy -with the essential needs and the moral aspirations -of man in a social position truly pathetic.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Physiology has revealed that sexual organs are -naturally divided into amative and reproductive -organs, each class functionally distinct from the -other. Amative organs relate primarily to sexual -union, while reproductive organs relate primarily -to impregnation and gestation. The process of -reproduction may take place without use of the -amative organs by simply bringing spermatozoa -to ova (this has been done), and on the other hand -the amative organs can be exercised without effecting -reproduction. Sexual intercourse and procreation -are not vitally related, as they are ordinarily assumed -to be.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Moreover, the instincts connected with sexual -union and with offspring are separate and distinct. -In popular, confused thought, a reproductive -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>instinct is attributed to animals and man. In -reality, no direct instinct to reproduce the species -exists. Animals unite sexually from an instinct -directed to a pleasurable exercise of function; -and although, in man, the relation has been made -complex by his knowledge of the facts of reproduction -and of social life, the sexual instinct is connected -solely with pleasure and social feeling—not with -reproduction. On the other hand, instincts associated -with the presence and nurture of the young are -not sexual or related to sexual passion. Therefore -any doctrine requiring man’s exercise of the sexual -function to be restricted to the end of reproduction -is without justification in nature and directly -conflicts with the facts of life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The sexual act, in the natural order of things, -is only occasionally in accidental relation to the -reproductive process, for with married people in -a thousand acts only a dozen may be reproductive. -If social morality then requires the satisfaction -of normal sexual feeling—and I think I have shown -this to be the case—the desideratum is to prevent -at will instead of leaving to accident the above -occasional relation, and make the separation between -amative and reproductive conditions as complete -as their functional separation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>An American writer has well said: “If there -is one social phenomenon which human ingenuity -ought to bring completely under the control of the -will, it is the phenomenon of procreation.” “Just -as everyone is his own judge of how much he shall -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>eat and drink, of what commodities he wants to -render life enjoyable, so everyone should be his -own judge of how large a family he desires, and -should have power in the same degree to leave -off when the requisite number is reached.” (Lester -F. Ward. <cite>Dynamic Sociology</cite>, vol. 2, p. 465.) -The Bible Communists of Oneida Creek practised -voluntary control over the propagative function -during thirty years with marked success. The -number of births was regulated in accordance -with the wishes of the community, and such careful -attention was paid to the laws of heredity that no -children of defective organisms or unsound constitutions -were born. Were man universally intelligent -and morally self-controlled, the knowledge of -physiological facts and of invention applied to those -facts would suffice to create general spontaneous -limitation of the birth-rate and hygienic propagation -of species. But one has only to think of the battered -humanity in the back slums of every great city—the -physical, mental and moral weaklings of our -degraded populace—to realize that it is fantastic -folly to expect individual intelligence under vicious -and utterly depressing conditions, to counteract -habit and save society from a rising tide of overwhelming -numbers, the product of random pregnancy -and sportive chance.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It cannot be a solution nor even a relief to the -population difficulty that the intelligent—comparatively -few—should limit their families so long as -the masses refuse or fail to limit theirs. When -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>society, becoming fully alive to the imminent danger -of a too rapid birth-rate solves the population and -social problems combined—in the only way possible—it -will facilitate and promote the use of -scientific checks to conception, and, if necessary, -exact their adoption by some legislative device. -(See <cite>Social Control of the Birth-rate</cite>, by G. A. -Gaskell.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>By the aid of these personal means of avoiding -or preventing conception the desired complete -separation of amative and reproductive conditions -is effected. Love is set free to rule in its own -domain, and reason controls procreation to the -infinite benefit of all future generations. In an -article by Mr. J. Holt Schooling in the <cite>Contemporary -Review</cite> for February, 1902, entitled “The Natural -Increase of Three Populations,” it is shown how -widely in the United Kingdom the use of preventive -checks has spread within the last twenty years. -The writer says in comparing the birth-rates of -Germany, England and France since 1880: “There -has been a fall in the birth-rate during each period -in each country. But England’s fall has been -larger than all; larger than the fall in the French -birth-rate. During 1880–1884 there were 323 births -per year per 10,000 of our population; during -1895–1899 there were only 291 births per year -per 10,000 of population—a yearly fall of 32 births -per 10,000 of population. France’s fall was 28 -births and Germany’s fall was only 10 births, -although Germany’s birth-rate was higher throughout -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>than that of England or of France.” This is -very satisfactory, and in regard to the strength -of a nation that depends upon the adults, and -there are more adults in a population where the -children are fewer. The death-rate in England -during the last twenty years has been always the -lowest of the three countries.</p> - -<p class='c004'>At the present moment, society has no scientific -sex-philosophy whatever. It affects to be governed -by Puritanism—a vague doctrine belonging to the -past history of the race and not in connexion -with any ethical code directed to the development -of goodness through a careful regard to the happiness -of man and the satisfaction of his normal -human nature. Puritanism, whether affected or -real, spreads abroad hypocrisy, deceit, lying; it -tends to licentiousness in men and the utter defilement -of women, to social disorder and decay. -Above all, it frustrates the development of that -higher love, which, having animalism allied, but -subordinate, fills the mind with exquisite emotion -and creates unselfish delights.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Many years ago Miss Martineau wrote: “A -thing to be carefully remembered is that asceticism -and licentiousness universally co-exist. All experience -proves this, and every principle of human -nature might prophesy the proof. Passions and -emotions cannot be extinguished by general rules.” -(<cite>How to observe Morals and Manners</cite>, p. 169.) -Puritanism ignores the sexual needs of the young. -In a scientific age man is bound to recognize physiological -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>reasons for early satisfaction of the sexual -appetite and physiological reasons for delayed -parentage.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Of the former, I have here to say that an early -moderate stimulation of the female sexual organs -(after puberty is reached) tends, by the law of -exercise promoting development of structure, to -make parturition in mature life easy and safe; and -that the healthy functional and emotional life of -love and gratified passion is the best preventive -of hysteria, chlorosis, love melancholy, and other -unhappy ailments to which our young women are -cruelly and barbarously exposed, and which, I do -not hesitate to say, make them in many cases feel -their youth to be an almost insufferable martyrdom.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There are no less serious sexual evils which overtake -masculine youth, if continent, namely, persistent -and miserable cravings, abnormally directed instinct, -spermatorrhoea, self-abuse; and these are usually -hidden from sight and knowledge in consequence -of a feeling that, in sexual matters, adults have no -sympathy with the young.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In <cite>Lecky’s History of European Morals</cite>, -vol. 2, p. 301, prostitution is thus referred to:—“However -persistently society may ignore this form -of vice, it exists, nevertheless, and on the most -gigantic scale, and an evil rarely assumes such -inveterate and perverting forms as when it is -shrouded in obscurity and veiled by a hypocritical -appearance of unconsciousness. The existence in -England of unhappy women, sunk in the very -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>lowest depths of vice and misery ... shows -what an appalling amount of moral evil is festering -uncontrolled, undiscussed and unalleviated under -the fair surface of decorous society.” The number -of London prostitutes was estimated at 80,000 in the -year 1870. Since then, it has probably increased. -In Paris, according to Von Dettingen, the actual number -at that period was upwards of 60,000; in Berlin, -25,000 to 30,000. In Hamburg, in 1860, every -ninth woman above the age of 15 was a prostitute, -and in Leipzig the women depending principally -or exclusively on prostitution was estimated at -2,000. This field of prostitution encloses whole -armies of women finding there their only means -of earning a miserable livelihood and a corresponding -number of victims claimed by death and disease. -(<cite>Woman in the Past, Present and Future.</cite> August -Bebel, pp. 100–101.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>The prostitute, in her thousands; the married -drudge, weary of child-bearing; the desolate old -maid; these are all alike victims to social oppression. -They are compelled to abstain from, or compelled to -engage in, a specific function which is only natural, -pleasurable, healthful and virtuous in the absence -of all tyranny. Love to be real must be prompted -by personal desire, and free to express itself in -unhurtful conditions: I mean conditions that -involve individual liberty, social respect and human -dignity. The facts of prostitution alone would -amply suffice to put Puritanism out of court in -social reform. As a result of conduct, it has no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>control over vicious propensities, whilst it restrains -tormentingly impulses that are normal and virtuous, -that need only fitting conditions of healthful -freedom.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Discarding asceticism and conventional purism -as alike immoral, the social reforms that are based -on a knowledge of human nature and a knowledge -of the possibilities allied with conscious evolution, -will bring all the institutions of our social life into -accordance with the needs of the individual; and -one essential condition of happy life is sexual -love, with such union of the sexes as conforms to the -general or collective interests.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In view of the law of population, and the fact -that science has made plain how practically to -separate the amative from the reproductive conditions -of physical union, the love of the sexes can -harmonize with the highest interests of our collective -social life, and eugenics, <em>not sexual love</em>, may become -paramount in generation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>What social morality requires is that the forces -of philoprogenitiveness and a public conscience -combined should dominate the function of reproduction, -while love is left free from coercive control in -the sphere of individual life.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>EUGENICS OR STIRPICULTURE</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The first step towards the reduction of disease is beginning -at the beginning to provide for the health of the unborn.—Dr. -<span class='sc'>Richardson</span>.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The whole theory concerning heredity and its -marvellous influence for good or evil is a nauseous -draught for mankind to swallow. No wonder -we revolt instinctively from a doctrine that charges -tender parents with transmitting an evil heritage -to the offspring they passionately love. “Although -many important books draw attention to the -facts, as far as they are ascertained, these momentous -facts have as yet made no impression on the general -mind.” (<cite>Scientific Meliorism and the Evolution -of Happiness</cite>, p. 329.) This statement is no longer -true. It was written in 1884, and since then -immense strides have been made in the realization -of the action of heredity. The subject is frequently -and persistently brought forward now, and urged -upon the attention of the public. Zola’s <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mère idée</span></i> -is not found only in French fiction, the new Russian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>school of fiction is permeated by it; and even in -England some novelists, following in the footsteps of -George Eliot, are assuming a scientific attitude -towards life, and the facts of heredity are not -ignored.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Moreover, in science and in all high-class criticism -of life the doctrine of heredity is directly taught.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Apart from purely literary work, the examination -of criminal statistics as a whole, and the practical -observations of physicians, doctors, dentists, schoolmasters, -poor-guardians, systematized and made -public at congresses and stored in scientific handbooks -so inexpensive as to be well within reach -of all students—these, I say, combine to impress -upon the general mind the conviction that racial -degeneracy is a palpable fact; and that inheritance -is prime factor in the degenerating process. And -recently indeed a suspicion of danger in over-estimating -this factor has been publicly expressed. -Whereas formerly, it is said, a child was supposed to -be born with a mind like a clean sheet of paper, -on whose fair surface we might write what we chose, -opinion points in the present day to an opposite -extreme, viz., this, that the hereditary tendencies -born with the child determine its future career, -and that education cannot modify this destiny in any -essential respect. Now, to disallow the importance -of education as also a prime factor in progress -is an error of judgment; but so long as the human -race continues scourged by sickness, martyred by -pain, demoralized by disease and innate debility, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>and decimated by premature death, it is not possible -for thinkers to over-estimate the profound significance -for weal or woe of this question of heredity.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Where individual life is not menaced by poverty -or destitution, disease is the bane of existence, -the barrier to physical comfort and to both mental -and moral advance. Alas! how few of us have -any permanent possession of sound health. In -spite of medical science, sanitary protection, progress -made during the last hundred years in knowledge -of pathological conditions, and vast resources -now at our command for subduing and mitigating -every form of physical evil, disease dogs our footsteps -from infancy to maturity and onwards to the -grave. We have the young attacked by consumption, -the middle-aged suffering from failing health, -the aged struck by paralysis or bowed down by -rheumatism; and everywhere we meet husbands -and wives permanently saddened by the loss of the -chosen companion of their life, and mothers whose -light-hearted buoyancy died out for ever when the -babe, prized beyond all treasure, was snatched from -their arms to be laid in our appallingly numerous -children’s graves.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In order to form an approximately correct conception -of disease, we must glance for a moment -at the conditions of health. Life in all its forms, -physical or mental, morbid or healthy, is in close -relation to the individual organism and external -forces. Health, as the consequence and evidence -of a successful adaptation to the conditions of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>existence, implies the preservation, well-being and -development of the organism; while disease marks -a failure in organic adaptation to external conditions, -and leads to disorder, decay and death.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we could perceive all the conditions, outward -and inward, and take them into account, a distinct -line of causation would become apparent. We -should find disease no more an accident than the -storm that breaks upon the seaboard or the volcanic -flames that burst from the mountain top. The -extreme complexity and delicacy of biological -phenomena precludes a wide grasp of conditions -in individual cases, but scientific investigation -has established the point that of the antecedents -to disease the largest proportion is some heritage -of weakness transmitted from parents—some disabilities -for healthy life resulting from a bad descent.</p> - -<p class='c004'>When, for instance, mental anxiety produced by -adverse circumstances is said to have made a man -mad, there is implied some inherent infirmity -of nervous element which has co-operated. “Were -the nervous system in a state of perfect soundness -and in possession of that reserve power which it -then has of adapting itself, within certain limits, -to the varying external conditions, it is probable,” -says Maudsley, “that the most unfavourable -circumstances would not disturb permanently the -relation and initiate mental disease. But when -unfavourable action from without conspires with -an infirmity of nature within, then the conditions -of disorder are established and a discord or madness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>is produced.” (<cite>The Physiology and Pathology -of the Mind</cite>, p. 199.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Thus although outward circumstances often -decide the character of a disease, inherited infirmity -is its primary cause. A being liable to madness, -if subjected to anxiety, may, under different conditions, -acquire not madness but consumption. A -child may fall a victim to the special ailment from -which one or both parents suffered; but equally it is -possible that disease in him may assume a totally -different form. All that can be affirmed with -certainty is this: of diseased parents the offspring -invariably inherit a constitution liable to “some -kind of morbid degeneration, or a constitution -destitute of that reserve power necessary to meet -the trying occasions of life!”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The trying occasions of life have multiplied -with every new complexity in social structure; -and there has been no corresponding increase of -constitutional strength; but, on the contrary, a -growing feebleness of physique and instability of -nerve-function. “Our children in these times,” -remarks Dr. Richardson, “are our reproach. Where -is there a healthy child? You may put before -me a child showing to the unskilled mind no trace of -disease.... It is sure to have some inherited -failure. We are as yet unacquainted with all the -phenomena of disease that pass in the hereditary -line.... We admit, as proved, scrofula or struma, -cancer, consumption, epilepsy, rheumatism, gout. -It would be wrong to limit the hereditary proclivities -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>of disease to this list. The further my own observations -extend, the stronger is the impression made -on my mind that the majority of the phenomena -of disease have hereditariness of character.” (<cite>Diseases -of Modern Life</cite>, p. 38.) Sir James Paget and -Sir William Jenner gave evidence of a similar kind -before a Committee of the House of Lords in 1882. -From the former eminent physician’s speech I -may quote one passage: “We now know that -certain diseases of the lungs, liver and spleen are all -of syphilitic origin, and the mortality from syphilis -in its later forms is every year found to be larger -and larger, by its being found to be the source of -a number of diseases which previously were referred -to other origins.” (<cite>The Times</cite> Report, August 11th, -1882.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>In August Bebel’s work on <cite>Woman, her Position -in the Past, Present and Future</cite>, this passage occurs: -“With regard to the decimating effects of venereal -disease, we will only mention that in England -between 1857 and 1865 the authenticated cases -which ended fatally amounted to over 12,000, -among which no fewer than 69 per cent. were -children under twelve months, the victims of parental -infection.” (p. 101.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Of the original source from which syphilis sprang, -of its implication in the sex problem, and of the -ultimate eradication of its virus—to be attained -only by the true solution of the sex problem—we -cannot here speak; the point under immediate -consideration is the fact that the civilized races of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>mankind persist in propagating and perpetuating -disease. They unscrupulously bring into the -world individual organisms that are pre-destined -to failure because not endowed with the potential -qualities indispensable to complete and successful -life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In America the same conditions are noted and -publicly referred to. Mr. Nathan Allen, M.D., -before a medical society at Massachusetts, reported: -“A gradual change is taking place in the organization -of our New England people—a change which -has occurred principally within the last two or -three generations. The nervous temperament with -all its advantages and disadvantages is becoming too -predominant for other parts of the body. The -frame-work of the body generally is not so large ... -the countenance is paler, the features are more -pointed and not so expressive of health. We have -a larger class of diseases arising from general debility ... we have more disease of the brain and -nervous system, more sudden deaths from apoplexy, -paralysis, and also diseases of the heart. In sound -healthy stock we have in a far higher degree the -recuperative powers of nature; while the original -constitution is feeble, diseases of almost every kind -become complicated, and their treatment more -difficult as well as doubtful in result.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Laws of inheritance affect the moral as well as -the physical and mental health of the nation. -Their action is fatally legible in the public records -of crime. Not that many criminals inherit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>the actual attributes of crime—brutality, cruelty, -malignity, propensity to abnormal sexual practices—these -develop through the interaction of -external with internal forces—but the ordinary -criminal is born deficient in the elemental qualities -necessary to the establishment of the average -moral nature.</p> - -<p class='c004'>From observations carried on in English prisons, -it appears that in these days of careful school-board -education 25 per cent. of prisoners can neither -read nor write, and a certain number are quite -incapable of receiving and benefiting by school -instruction. “The memory and reasoning powers -are so utterly feeble that attempts to school them -is a waste of time.” (<cite>Crime and its Causes</cite>, William -Douglas Morrison, of H.M. Prison, Wandsworth, -p. 195.) Intellectually, criminals are “unquestionably -less gifted than the rest of the community”; -emotionally they “have the family sentiment -only feebly developed,” and morally the will -is “morbidly variable.” A prisoner may be animated -by good resolutions, anxious to do what is -right, often possessing a sense of moral responsibility, -yet may plunge again and again into crime from -the absence of a sustained power of volition. -“Persons afflicted in this way are generally convicted -for crimes of violence, such as assault, manslaughter, -murder. They experience real sentiments -of remorse, but neither remorse nor penitence -enables them to grapple with their evil star. The -will is stricken with disease, and the man is dashed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>hither and thither a helpless wreck on the sea of -life.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The harmony of the social organism depends -upon congruity of thought and feeling in its members -and upon action made promptly conformable -through exercise of the power of control centred in -the inner part or spiritual nature of man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A criminal is an unsocial man, an undeveloped -being, one, generally speaking, whose pregenital stock -was below par, and failed in the conservation, -development and transmission of a physical, mental -and moral capacity equalling that of the average -of his race. The physical debility or inherited -tendency to nerve weakness—so universal in the -present day—has clearly a causal relation with -the increase of crime deplored by the principal -authorities on the subject in Europe and America.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the United States we are told by Mr. D. A. -Wells and by Mr. Howard Wines, an eminent -specialist in criminal matters, that crime is steadily -increasing at a faster rate than in due proportion to -the increase of population. Nearly all the chief -statisticians abroad tell the same tale. Dr. Mischler, -of Vienna, and Professor Von Liszt, of Marburg, -draw a deplorable picture of the increase of crime in -Germany. In France, the criminal problem is as -formidable and perplexing as in Germany. M. -Henri Joli estimates that crime has increased 133 -per cent. within the last half century, and is steadily -rising. Taking Victoria as a typical Australasian -colony, we find that even in the antipodes, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>are not vexed to the same extent as Europe with -social and economic difficulties, crime is persistently -raising its head ... it is a more menacing danger -among the Victorian Colonists than it is at home. -(<cite>Crime and its Causes</cite>, W. D. Morrison. Published -in 1891, pp. 12 and 13.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>While physical degeneracy creates crime, a non-moral -life on the other hand causes further physical -deterioration. The pursuit of wealth for purely -personal ends is pre-eminently anti-social. Breadth -of thought and social feeling grow impossible to the -man whose life is devoted to the business of amassing -riches; and Dr. Henry Maudsley gives it as his -conviction, based upon wide observation of family -life, that such men are extremely unlikely to beget -healthy children. In cases where the father has -toiled upwards from poverty to vast wealth, “I -have witnessed the results,” he says, “in a degeneracy -mental and physical of his offspring which -has sometimes gone as far as extinction of the family -in the third or fourth generation. I cannot but -think after what I have seen that the extreme -passion for getting rich does predispose to mental -degeneration in the offspring, either to moral defect -or to moral and intellectual deficiency, or to outbreaks -of positive insanity under the conditions of -life.” (<cite>The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind</cite>, -p. 206.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>This fact alone is amply sufficient to condemn an -industrial system that creates monopolies, concentrates -wealth, stimulates greed, degrades the upper -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>classes by superfluous luxury, the lower by envy, -poverty, despair, and tends generally to physical, -mental and moral decay. But were the entire -economic system judiciously reconstructed, fatal -elements would remain so long as man fails to grapple -with the biological problem and fails to bring the -great life forces of reproduction under conscientious -direction and control.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Gravitation and all well studied mechanical and -chemical forces have been adapted by man to special -purposes in relation with his civilized life; even so -must the sexual forces that belong to his basic -existence be in their turn dominated and made -conformable with his higher moral and spiritual -needs. In this regard his primary need is that there -shall be no transmission of disease or constitutional -debility from one generation to another; but that -the entire strength of the laws of heredity shall -create an improvement of stock and thereby lift -humanity to a higher level of physical health and -efficiency.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In seeking the true method of attaining this end, -it is our duty to look first to the teaching of the great -founders of social philosophy. Without their invaluable -services in discovering and setting forth the one -unbroken process of law which “connects all -phenomena from the motion of molecules and the -courses of the suns to the phenomena of human -thought and the destinies of nations” (J. M. Robertson), -no intellects could to-day grasp the causes of -misery and, conceiving the possibility of circumventing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>these causes, devise a scheme of scientific -action to reverse the trend of general movement -and evolve conditions of genuine and universal -happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In <em>this</em> sphere, however—the sphere of <em>eugenics</em>, -or improvement of the human stock, as also in -regard to the population and sex problems—Darwin -and Herbert Spencer have failed us. The -mind of the former, habituated to dwell on the -favourable aspects of the struggle for existence -during the early epochs of man’s history, was blind -to the consequences of the genesis and growth of -the broadly social element in man. Barbarous man -could let cosmic forces prevail to exterminate the -weak. Sympathetic man is compelled by virtue of -his enlarged subjective nature to institute a new -struggle, viz., a struggle against the struggle for -existence (a phrase used by Lange), and already his -triumph is everywhere visible in the survival of the -unfit to struggle.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Darwin opposed the proposal to restrain population -on the score that this would minimize the -struggle which had created civilization in the past -and which must needs, he thought, carry it on in -the future, and both Darwin and Herbert Spencer -“assumed that a generalization which sums up the -progressive forces of a collectively unconscious -society, i.e. a society without the conception of -evolution and of a universal sociology, must equally -sum up the progressive principles of a collectively -<em>conscious</em> society, a society which has realized -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>evolution and is constructing a universal sociology. -Though they themselves are our greatest helpers -towards such consciousness, they failed to realize -that our attainment of it must revolutionize human -history.” (<cite>Modern Humanists</cite>, J. M. Robertson, -p. 234).</p> - -<p class='c004'>Turning then to less illustrious men, Mr. Francis -Galton is our most advanced teacher in the field of -eugenics. He faces the problem of race regeneration -and has put forth a scheme or policy of action, -resting on Dr. Matthews Duncan’s alleged facts -regarding the relative fertility in early and late -marriages. He shows that a group of a hundred -mothers whose marriages and those of their daughters -should take place at the age of twenty, would, in the -course of a few generations, breed down a group of a -hundred mothers whose marriages and those of -their daughters were delayed until the age of twenty-nine. -Let us then, he reasons, promote by every -means in our power the early marriage of human -beings of superior quality, whilst we discountenance -early marriage in those social members who are less -favourably endowed. And “few,” he says, “would -deserve better of their country than those who -determine to live celibate lives through a reasonable -conviction that their issue would probably be less -fitted than the generality to play their part as -citizens.” (<cite>Inquiries into Human Faculty</cite>, p. 336.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>In examination for official appointments he would -have attention paid to a candidate’s ancestral qualifications -as well as his personal ability. The man of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>inherited sound constitution and average ability -should be preferred to the man of superior ability -who belongs to a delicate and short-lived family. -The former will in all probability become the more -valuable servant of the two. Some scheme should -be devised by which to bestow marks for family -merit, to put, as it were, a guinea stamp to the -sterling guinea’s worth of natural nobility; and this, -he conceives, might set a great social avalanche in -motion. It would open the eyes of every family, -and of society at large, to the importance of marriage -alliance with a good stock; it would introduce the -subject of race as a permanent topic of consideration, -and lead to a careful collecting of family histories -and noting of those facts which are absolutely -necessary for guidance in right conduct. Late -marriage, as advised by Malthus, Mr. Galton utterly -condemns. The prudent alone are influenced by -that doctrine, and it is, he says, a most pernicious -rule of conduct in its bearing upon race. His policy, -then, is early and fruitful marriage for the best -specimens of our race, and widespread celibacy in -the case of those less highly favoured, whilst everywhere -the sentiment should prevail that <em>eugenics</em>, or -the improvement of the human stock, is the primary -consideration in marriage and the guiding principle -in sex relations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>This theory I hold to be one-sided, and the policy -misleading and to some extent false. Mr. Galton -ignores the fundamental principle of social life, viz., -that the happiness of all, at all times, should be the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>aim and object of rational man, and he mistakes the -quality of human nature in highly civilized man. -To demand celibacy of men and women whose -defective organisms it is not desirable to perpetuate, -would be in hundreds and thousands of instances -to sacrifice unnecessarily present happiness to -future gain—to build up the comfort and enjoyment -of coming generations at the expense of the comfort -and enjoyment of our own generation. The sentiment -of justice repudiates this action as well as -condemns the reverse position of a reckless self-indulgent -procreating to the deterioration of the -human stock, whilst reason distinctly shows that -individual liberty, in respect of marriage, is a social -necessity perfectly compatible with the well-being -of all. Physical regeneration of race will not be -achieved by an overstrained morality that does -violence to the emotional human nature of the -normal and average man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Mr. Galton’s system of social reform accords in -some respects with that which it is the purpose of -this work to set forth. Both systems premise -teaching that it is man’s duty and within his power -to improve the physical, intellectual and moral -structure of his race. He may, in part, achieve this -by intelligent forethought and careful action in -exercising the function of propagating his kind. -Population must not be kept up by consumptives -or persons whose pedigree is tainted by any disease -known to be hereditary, and public opinion must -enforce the necessary restraints. (Temporary illness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>ought also to be considered. It is when parents are -in their best state of health only that they are -morally justified in bringing children into the -world.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Of these, celibacy is a restraint commended and -advised by Mr. Galton, whilst scientific meliorism -deliberately rejects it, for celibacy is a vital evil, -destroying individual happiness and tending obviously -to social disorder. Wherever love in its -highest form exists between two individuals, union -is eminently desirable; but if either or both be -afflicted by disease or hereditary taint, the sacrifice -demanded of them is to carefully abstain from -giving birth to children. Whether the means -adopted be those of natural self-control or of artificial -aids to self-control will depend on the views -of the individuals immediately concerned, and in -this matter society has no right of interference.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is the business, however, of society to sweep -away ignorance and make it possible for the poor as -well as the rich to enter on the right path voluntarily, -and where, from physical or moral degeneracy, -self-regulation is impossible, society must exercise -authority and coercively restrain the vital social -force of propagation. It will not be by means of the -lonely lives celibacy entails that civilized men and -women will refrain from having children disqualified -for useful citizenship. We shall, to quote the late -poet laureate’s words, “move upward, working out -the beast, and let the ape and tiger die,” by other -means more worthy of humanity, i.e. by socialized -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>freedom and sex equality; by intelligent self-control -voluntarily practised (with or without artificial -appliance), and by control, enforced wherever -necessary by the State in fulfilment of its responsible -duty—the careful guardianship of the congenital -blood of future generations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the savage epoch of our history, the force of -natural selection produced survival of the fittest. -From that epoch we have long since passed into a -semi-civilized epoch in which the force of sympathetic -selection produces a miserable state of indiscriminate -survival; we have now to pass forward to the epoch -in which the rational force of a wise, intelligent -selection will systematically secure the birth of the -physically fit.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>MARRIAGE</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Marriage is that union of the sexes which is most in -accordance with the moral and physical necessities of -human beings and which harmonizes best with their other -relations of life.—<span class='sc'>Richard Harte.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>It is of vast importance to bear clearly in mind that -all the great social institutions that confront us to-day -are of genetic origin and evolution. They have -not been devised by man to bring about the true -end of all intelligent effort—namely, happiness. -They are simply the undesigned, unforeseen results -of various natural and social forces of the past. They -survive through their tendency to maintain the -existence of the race. They subserve life, not happiness. -It is not my intention to treat marriage -historically and trace back the various forms of it -to their social origins. It is sufficient to bear in -mind the fact of the natural, undevised origin of -every form, including that form of monogamy which -prevails in the most civilized countries of to-day. -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A priori</span></i>, we should have expected that monogamy, -being the ideal sex-union of the civilized races of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>Western Europe, would have been everywhere the -last form to appear; that, in short, its fitness to -survive all other forms would be shown by lateness -of development as well as by superior qualifications -for satisfying the needs of a highly developed -humanity. This is not so, however. Mr. Herbert -Spencer gives reasons for believing that monogamy -dates as far back as any other marital relation. -“Indeed, certain modes of life necessitating wide -dispersion such as are pursued by the lowest forest -tribes in Brazil and the interior of Borneo—modes of -life which in earlier stages of human evolution must -have been commoner than now—hinder other relations -of the sexes.” (<cite>Sociology</cite>, vol. i. p. 698.) Two -of the lowest tribes of savages existing, the Wood-Veddahs -of Ceylon and the Bushmen of South Africa, -are customarily monogamous. It is plain, therefore, -that if monogamy is to be reckoned the final form of -sexual relations, no argument can be based on any -theory of its recent date in evolution. The opinion -must seek to rest upon different ground—upon the -quality of the institution, its fitness and adequateness, -not only to human needs in the present system of -society, but in the reformed system of the future.</p> - -<p class='c004'>While a number of primitive tribes are monogamous, -as also are certain monkeys and birds, many -civilized peoples have adopted polygamy, sometimes -openly, at other times in a masked form. Polyandry -is also a form of marriage not uncommon among -semi-civilized peoples, as the Nairs of Malabar, the -Kandyans of Ceylon and the Tibetans.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>The Nairs are especially interesting because there -is among them a regulated system of complex -marriage which will compare in its results very -favourably with the monogamous marriage of -Western nations. The rule of the Matriarchate prevails, -“inheritance is from mother to daughter and -from the uncle to the children of the eldest sister; -the household is directed by the mother or the eldest -girl; polyandry and polygamy exist side by side -or are inextricably mixed. Thus each woman is the -wife of several men, each of whom has in turn -several wives.” (Elisee Reclus, <cite>Primitive Folk</cite>, -p. 162.) The men are under well-understood -obligations to assist in the support of the domestic -establishments, while the children look up to their -mothers and uncles as their special protectors. -The result of these customs on the status of women -is most remarkable. It is said that “in no country -are women more influential and respected than in -Malabar.” (Ibid. p. 156.) The Nair lady may -possess property, choose her own husbands and rule -her own children. Marriage is not, as elsewhere, the -taking possession of a woman by the man, but is -really her emancipation from male thraldom. It -puts her as nearly on a footing of social equality -with the man as is possible in a semi-militant community. -What is it that has decided the selection -or unconscious choice—if we may call it so—of -matrimonial usage among the various races of mankind, -since no special form is necessarily connected -with the degree of general civilization? The conditions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>and exigencies of social life; and as those -conditions and exigencies change in the future, -matrimonial usages will also change. As a matter -of fact, every possible method, speaking generally, -has been adopted. Sometimes a regulated promiscuity—for -each man claimed his rights—sometimes -the mixed polyandric and polygamic household; -occasionally simple polyandry or polygamy; at -other times monogamy; marriage experimental also, -as with the Redskins of Canada, who pair and unite -for a few days, then quit each other if the trial has -not proved satisfactory to both parties; or temporary -marriage as in the case of the Jews in Morocco, -who unite for three or six months according to -agreement; or free marriages as those of the Hottentots -and Abyssinians, who marry, part, and remarry -at will; or partial, as the marriages of the -Assanyeh Arabs, which only bind the parties for -certain days of the week. Every possible general -method, I repeat, has been tried, and when the -practice hit upon has served human needs and also -promoted the solidarity and increase of the group, -it has tended to persist.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In tracing the evolution of the modern European -form of monogamous marriage, we become aware -that at a very early period, and for a long time subsequently, -the wife was regarded as the absolute -property of the husband. The wife was a bought -or a captured article, and like other articles of property -was at the entire disposal of the owner to use, -sell, lend or abuse as he thought fit. The Roman -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>law makes no essential difference between the -marital law and the law of property, and modern -marriage laws in the different States of Europe and -America treat the wife as if she were in a very large -degree a personal possession of her husband.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The history of modern marriage, in short, is the -history of man’s domination of woman and the -measures he has taken to assume, assert and establish -his rights of possession. Amid changing outward -conditions of life, he has made good his claim to -control her destiny in accordance with his own -varying desires.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In appraising the value of our much-vaunted -monogamy, we must clearly understand that its -legal basis is not, and never was, a strong personal -adhesion of sympathy and affection, but a compact -respecting personal property, involving in the cases -where the “contracting parties are possessed of -wealth, both property in person and in things.” It -is quite legal, and indeed quite respectable, for marriages -to be formed on a pecuniary and social -foundation, into which love does not enter. The -woman who sells herself in marriage to a man for the -sake of money and position is not regarded as a -prostitute, but as a respectable, “honest” woman -who has made a “fortunate” marriage.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To understand how thoroughly marriage is based -upon property and not upon love, it should suffice -to contemplate the grounds on which legal divorce -is granted. Divorce is not granted, in this country -at least, on proofs of incompatibility of nature and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>absence of affection, but on proof of adultery, in -which co-respondents may be compelled to pecuniarily -compensate the husband on account of having -made use of his wife without his permission as her -owner. Connivance by the husband precludes the -granting of a divorce. Man’s supremacy and -woman’s subjection become evident in the fact that -no amount of simple adultery in a husband can be -made the ground of a divorce, nor is a wife able to -claim any pecuniary compensation from the paramours -of a husband. Matrimony, at this epoch, is -for the most part a “commercial transaction,” but -in the words of Herbert Spencer, “already increased -facilities for obtaining divorce point to the probability -that whereas in those early stages during -which permanent monogamy was being evolved, -the union by law (originally the act of purchase) -was regarded as the essential part of marriage and -the union by affection non-essential; and whereas -at present the union by law is thought the more -important and the union by affection the less -important, there will come a time when the union by -affection will be held of primary moment, and the -union by law as of secondary moment; and hence -reprobation of marital relations in which the union -by affection has dissolved. That this conclusion -will seem unacceptable to most is probable, I -may say certain.” (<cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, vol. i. -p. 788.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Herbert Spencer strikes here at the very foundation -of modern marriage. Moreover, in making -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>affection rule sexual relations, he opens up all the -possibilities of other forms of marriage than the -monogamous, for affection may not only be transitory, -but unrestricted to one. In face of the barbarous -origin of marriage, there exists no reason -why people of liberal thought should make a dogged, -pious stand at monogamy while lightly dismissing -promiscuity, polygamy, polyandry as disreputable -forms of sex-union. Mr. Spencer holds that “the -monogamic form of the sexual relation is manifestly -the ultimate form,” but he gives no reasons to prove -his case that are not sufficiently disproved by the -form of marriage existing among the Nairs. Again, -the fact of the numerical equality of the sexes does -not make monogamy the only suitable form, although -it supplies a reasonable objection to pure polygamy -and pure polyandry. Mr. Spencer says that -“monogamy is a pre-requisite to a high position of -women.” Here he plainly overlooks the facts of -the respected and comparatively independent position -of women among peoples practising mixed -polygamy and polyandry under fixed rules and regulations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>With the actual facts of life before us, we are -forced to admit that under the régime of man’s -dominancy and woman’s subjection, monogamy has -been gross throughout all history, while with polyandry -it has not been so. Note, in this regard, one -fact alone—jealousy, that mean, selfish emotion -which destroys the happiness of so many lives, is not -in evidence among the simple polyandric Nairs. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>The associated husbands live on a good understanding -with one another, there is a complete absence of -jealousy. Which of us can say, in view of the monogamy -that surrounds us: Tolstoi’s graphic picture, -“the wild beast of jealousy began to roar in its den,” -applies only to a marriage in fiction? It is to -monogamy that we owe the typical domestic tyrant -and many tyrannous attributes that survive in -modern masculine human nature. Monogamy, too, -has always been accompanied by other sexual relations -in which both sexes are degraded and one sex -is socially and physically ruined. As Mr. W. E. H. -Lecky has pointed out, monogamy on one side of -the shield implies prostitution on the other.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In its normal form, monogamy signifies the -attachment of one man to one woman, involving—first, -permanent and exclusive sexual union; -second, conjoint domestic life; third, the generating -and rearing of a family; fourth, social intercourse -in the class of society to which the parties belong. -Beyond these features of marriage, the economic -and social forces of the age bring about in the vast -majority of marriages a constant subjection of the -wife to the husband, by reason of her being dependent -on him for her living, and a general freedom to -the husband but not to the wife to commit adultery. -There is usually compelled also lateness of marriage, -which implies unhealthful, painful conditions of life -in the celibate youth of both sexes. I will ask here: -Ought we to look upon permanency and exclusiveness -as essential elements in the form of sex-union best -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>suited to humanity at the present stage of its -evolving civilization? Permanency is necessarily -essential to our ideal of the final form of marriage, -for the strongest, most valuable bond of affection -implies it, and loss of love from whatever cause is a -real calamity. But where that calamity has already -befallen, for society to enforce a mere outward -permanency of the matrimonial bond is irrational—the -counterfeit union is productive only of private -misery and public disorder. And further, under our -present wretched economic conditions, the struggle -for bread and absence of leisure and freedom in the -case of the workers, and, amid the upper classes, -frequent financial difficulties, false notions and customs -of propriety and etiquette—all these combine -to make it rare indeed that a man or woman chances -to meet and unite with his or her counterpart or true -life companion.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Commercialism is no safe guide in the quest for a -vital, permanent sex-union, and until commercialism -wholly disappears, the exigencies of life demand -freedom of divorce to rectify unavoidable errors of -judgment in matrimony, and make more possible the -forming of ties that are truly and naturally permanent.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As human beings become more moral inwardly -and create the outward conditions in which they can -live a truly moral existence, Mr. Emerson’s principle -that the great essentials in human conduct are to -escape from all false ties and to reveal ourselves as -we are, will be more and more acknowledged and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>acted upon. Great thinkers like Milton in the past -and Herbert Spencer in the present, condemn as -contrary to religion and reason a permanency that -involves falsity or absence of love. “It is a less -breach of wedlock,” says Milton, “to part with -wise and quiet consent betimes, than still to foil and -profane that mystery of joy and union with a -polluting sadness and perpetual distemper; for it -is not the outward continuing of marriage that keeps -whole that covenant, but whatsoever does most -according to peace and love, whether in marriage or -in divorce, he it is that breaks marriage least, it -being so often written that ‘Love only is the fulfilment -of every commandment.’” (John Milton, <cite>The -Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce</cite>, chap. v.) Divorce -made attainable to all men and women, rich and -poor, without any disgraceful accompaniment, is a -necessary condition of progress. And in effect, each -nation of Western Europe accepts and facilitates -divorce concurrently with its advance in civilization.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Not long ago, in my hearing, a Roman Catholic -barrister, whose practice makes him familiar with all -that occurs in the Divorce Court, delivered himself -to this effect: “My church anathematises divorce, -and to my mind she is right. But I am not the fool -to think that the divorce law passed in our Statute -Books in the year 1858 will ever be annulled or -departed from. In the interests of morality, the -pressing desideratum is that the basis of divorce be -made the same for man and woman. It is a crying -iniquity that whereas a husband by avoiding -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>physical force, may legally be as unfaithful to his -marriage vows as he chooses, and may tyrannize -over and trample under his feet the feelings of his -wife, one single slip in an unguarded moment on her -part, one act of adultery committed, it may be in -a fit of despair, entitles him by law to repudiate her -summarily as barbarian husbands dismissed their -wives.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>While permanency is eminently valuable in sexual -relations, can we venture to say the same as regards -exclusiveness? This distinctive quality of exclusiveness -is not an extension of love, but a narrowing -of it down—a restraint upon personal feeling. When -woman wins her freedom and is no longer under any -circumstances man’s dependent and slave, but his -friend and comrade in the battle of life, will she -restrain the physical expression of sex-love, yet -fearlessly respond to all the tender ties certain to -unite her with the opposite sex? To give at present -a dogmatic reply is impossible. Personally, my -instincts—so far as I know them—accord with -Herbert Spencer’s dictum: the ultimate form of -sexual relation will be monogamic; but I recognize -my own limitations. Since the women of my -generation are children of bond-slaves, hampered -within and without by survivals from an epoch of -sex subjection wherein man’s dominancy superimposed -upon woman a chastity he repudiated for -himself, the standpoint from which the freed being -of the future will decide her sex-morality is not in -the grasp of my apprehension.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>Nevertheless, the immediate path of progress is -distinctly marked out. I agree with the author who -holds the opinion that: “Better indeed were a -Saturnalia of <em>free</em> men and women than the spectacle -which, as it is, our great cities present at night.” -(Edward Carpenter.) But set women free “from -the mere cash-nexus to a husband, from the money -slavery of the streets, from the nameless terrors of -social opinion, and from the threats of the choice of -perpetual virginity or perpetual bondage,” and we -need not fear for sex-morality. “Sex in man is an -organized passion, an individual need or impetus; -but in woman it may more properly be termed a -constructive instinct, with the larger signification -that that involves.... Nor does she often experience -that divorce between the sentiment of love and -the physical passion which is so common with men. -Sex with her is a deep and sacred instinct, carrying -with it a sense of natural purity.” (<cite>Woman</cite>, Edward -Carpenter, p. 9.) And from woman herself let me -quote a passage occurring in a women’s journal: -“Love is an emotion separate from sex-impulse, it -may or may not exist in co-relation to it. The -testimony easily taken from the lives of many -women is to the effect that love enters not into the -impulse which, active and unrestrained on the part -of those to whom they are yoked for life, has created -for them a life which can be called by no name save -slavery.” (<cite>Shafts</cite>, October, 1895.) Again, turning -to the opposite sex, Havelock Ellis states (in his -study of <cite>Man and Woman</cite>, Contemporary Science -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>Series) that: “In women men find beings who have -not wandered so far as men from the typical life of -earth’s creatures; women are for men the human -embodiments of the restful responsiveness of Nature.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>I am convinced that however polygamous the -male-sex—under a system of industrial commercialism -may appear—the great mass of our women are -not licentious and not polyandrous in tendency. While -a Saturnalia of free men and women would, as compared -with present sexual conditions, be a preferable -evil, we need not in our forecast of the future dread -such a Saturnalia, or face its possibility. It is a -libel on humanity to assume that no self-restraints -are inherent to withhold mankind from sexual -excesses when freed from control by Church and -State. And although it might be said that “the -growing complexity of man’s nature would be likely -to lead him into more rather than fewer sex relations, -on the other hand it is obvious that as the depth -and subtlety of any attachment that really holds -him increases, so does such attachment become -more permanent and durable and less likely to be -realized in a number of persons.... In man and -woman we find a distinct tendency towards the -formation of this double unit of wedded life ... and -while we do not want to stamp such natural unions -with any false irrevocability or dogmatic exclusiveness, -what we do want is a recognition to-day of the -tendency to their formation as a natural fact independent -of any artificial laws.” (<cite>Marriage</cite>, Edward -Carpenter, p. 31.)</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>The natural restraints or checks upon undue -indulgence in sex-intercourse extend from the physical -or material plane to the spiritual plane. These -are—considerations of health; feelings of unselfishness -and social duty; and a spiritual, i.e. an ideal, -conception of humanity and of all the manifold -relations of life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Unselfishness is pre-eminently the natural check -and regulator of sex relations, and not until love is -emancipated from selfishness will it reach an ideal -form. If we love unselfishly we desire the happiness -and freedom of the being loved even to the extent -of self-abnegation; tyranny and jealousy become -impossible. All natural checks will necessarily -strengthen and grow as humanity rises higher in the -scale of being; moreover, education is bound—under -racial progress—to become to each succeeding -generation a much more adequate guide than hitherto. -Even in the present day, it would not be difficult to -get youths and girls at the age of romance to understand -that “though they may have to contend with -some superfluity of passion in early years, the most -permanent and deeply-rooted desire within them -will, in all probability, lead them at last to find their -complete happiness and self-fulfilment only in a close -union with a life-mate”; to understand also that -“towards this end they must be prepared to use -self-control, to prevent the aimless straying of their -passions, and patience and tenderness towards the -realization of the union when its time comes.” -(Edward Carpenter.) This teaching would bring to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>the young a far truer conception of the sacredness -of marriage than our marriage laws and customs -give.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It must never be forgotten, however, that this -question of marriage and every other social question -must be viewed in relation to kindred topics. A -sectional treatment of society will surely mislead if -we fail to recall the changes going forward in every -department of life, and the close connexion that -exists between the forces of social and individual -evolution. Scientific meliorism implies a reconstruction -of domestic life; and, within the new -environment, the instructing of youth and its guidance -in sex-conduct will become comparatively easy. -Nor is it only by the training and guidance of youth -that marriage will be favourably affected in a new -domestic system. The tendency to tyranny within -the home—an abhorrent feature of past monogamy—will -have no opportunity to appear; and two -undesirable female types—the idle fine lady and the -household drudge—will become as extinct as the -dodo.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Outside the precincts of home, large social and -industrial changes will promote the disappearance -of the prostitute, and finally there will emerge the -truly emancipated woman, fearless and enlightened—a -capable guide to man in the task of consciously -subordinating passions that are selfish and transitory -to those deeper attachments and higher emotions -that give birth to spiritual love. “Is marriage a -failure?” has been boldly asked and widely discussed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>in comparatively recent years; and that the -audible answer—sadly re-echoed in thousands of -hearts—was in the affirmative, shows a wholesome -awakening to facts—an awakening that inevitably -precedes all real reforms in an epoch of conscious -evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'>So permeated with selfishness is the mental -atmosphere surrounding all questions of sex that the -rule of life I here indicate will be utterly distasteful -to those who accept the régime of custom. Yet -as regards morality or an ethical code, there are two, -and two only, logical attitudes of mind. Either we -must think of the stamping out of all sexual feeling -on the ground of its purely animal nature, and limiting -physical union to the utmost that is compatible -with perpetuation of species; or we must think of a -gradual elevating of sexual instinct and action to a -dignified position in human life with due consideration -for the desires and needs of every one after -puberty is reached. The first is practically impossible -to the vast majority of the race at its present -stage of development. They would simply refuse -submission to the intolerable restraints necessitated. -In effect, the ascetic answer to problems of sex is -no actual solution, but a shelving of the fundamental -question, with a tacit acceptance of the prodigious -evils around us in respect both of sex-union and the -advent of children. The only rational course is that -of elevating and regulating these relations in view -of human happiness. This implies a steady repression -of anti-social emotions and persistent cultivation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>of unselfishness. Our marital habits of selfish -appropriation and jealous control are in direct -opposition to the moral elevation of sexual instinct. -Selfishness degrades where it penetrates, and the -problem is to rescue our sexual forces from selfishness, -and utilize these forces, i.e. make them subserve -the interests of social virtue. Hitherto, they have -been ignored and neglected—a result of false thinking -and ascetic teaching, while in actual life they -have run riot, creating incalculable evils.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The British race publicly professes monogamy -and preaches to the young a Puritan doctrine. -Privately the drama enacted would disgrace a -civilization of the Middle Ages. In the lower classes -wife-beating and murder, in the upper classes the -hideous revelations of the Divorce Court, witness to -the impurity and the misery of our boasted monogamy. -We tolerate licence, we condemn and conceal -vicious propensities; we harbour a social evil -of gigantic magnitude, we permit hypocrisy to prevail, -we instigate the young to form self-interested -mercantile marriages. We are corrupt in our social -life and mentally debased, for we refuse to think out -a rational code of sex morals, and without that we -shall never attain to a lofty conception, a true ideal -of what life ought to be. Our modern monogamy -in its inwardness is not falsely pictured in this -indictment: “The commercialism which buys and -sells all human things; the narrow physical passion -of jealousy; the petty sense of private property in -another person; social opinions and legal enactments, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>have all converged to choke and suffocate -wedded love in egoism, lust and meanness.” -(Edward Carpenter’s <cite>Marriage</cite>, p. 38.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>In view of general happiness and virtue, we must -seek the abrogation of all laws based on or involving -sex-inequality. And, further, that marriage may -become transformed into a sacred, sympathetic and -permanent bond—a deeper and truer relation of -life—we must seek facilities for divorce or the abrogation -of the specific law that binds beings together -for life in ill-assorted or artificial unions.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>PARENTAGE</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The simple fact that the birth of a human being, the -image of God, as religious people say, is in so many cases -regarded as of very much less importance than that of -a domestic animal, proves the degraded condition in which -we live.—<span class='sc'>August Bebel.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>The reproduction of species yields to no other -special function of life in respect of importance -and the wide scope of its vital issues. Notwithstanding -that vast numbers of illegitimate children -are born in every civilized country where monogamy -reigns, this function of reproduction is popularly -regarded as allied with marriage in the order of -a natural and necessary consequence—a result -irrespective of human will. Now scientific meliorism -makes a clear distinction between marriage and -parentage on the ground that, while the former -comparatively is of insignificant importance to -the interests of humanity in general, parentage -is of vital moment to these interests; moreover, -between the two there exists no integral or essential -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>relation. On the one hand, progeny spring from -unions not legalized by marriage; on the other, -many married people, swayed by motives chiefly -egoistic, but sometimes altruistic, are consciously -exercising a voluntary restraint over propagation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The late Matthew Arnold tells us that when -gazing on one occasion in company with a benevolent -man upon a multitude of slum children eaten -up with disease, half-sized, half-fed, half-clothed, -neglected by their parents, without health, without -home, without hope, the good man said: “The -one thing really needful is to teach these little -ones to succour one another, if only with a cup of -cold water.” Mr. Arnold promptly rejected that -theory. “So long as the multitude of these poor -children is perpetually swelling,” said he, “they -must be charged with misery to themselves and -us, whether they help one another with a cup of -cold water or no, and the knowledge how to prevent -them accumulating is what we want.” That -knowledge is no longer inaccessible to man. There -are known rational methods by which to keep the -populating tendency within due limits, and at the -same time to promote individual prudence, foresight -and self-dependence.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Neo-Malthusianism, with its power of subjugating -the law of population and deferring parentage, -is a new key to the social position, and neo-Malthusian -practice has already taken root in -British society. The discovery is of vast significance, -so great are its latent possibilities of promoting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>universal happiness. But as long as reproduction -of human physical life is left to haphazard, -and the rule of private, personal interests alone, -without any honourable recognition, intelligent -guidance, or moral and economic support, the -immediate effect on national life is, and will continue -to be, the very reverse of beneficial.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Matthew Arnold’s exhortation in respect of -the slum children was: “We must let conscience -play freely and simply upon the facts of the case; -we must listen to what it tells us of the intelligible -law of things as concerns these children, and what -it tells us is that a man’s children are not really -sent any more than the pictures upon his walls -or the horses in his stable are sent, and that to -bring people into the world when one cannot afford -to keep them and oneself decently, or to bring -more of them into the world than one can afford -to keep thus, is by no means an accomplishment -of the Divine Will or a fulfilment of nature’s simplest -laws, but is contrary to reason and the will -of God.” (<cite>Culture and Anarchy</cite>, p. 246.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>This remonstrance addressed to the rich (these -alone have pictures on their walls and horses in -their stables) may have had some effect, for certain -it is that in the upper classes artificial checks to -conception are now widely used, while slum children -show no tendency to proportionately diminish -in number. Individuals whose standard of living -is high, and whose pecuniary means are small, -or who are thoughtful, intelligent, prudent, either -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>refrain from marriage, or, marrying, check propagation. -The natural result is that children of the -comparatively superior types are becoming -numerically weaker than children of the thoughtless, -reckless members of society who exercise -their reproductive powers to the utmost. It is -supremely important that we should recognize -how parentage bears upon human life and happiness -in far wider relations than either sexual union -alone or marriage alone.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Maintenance of species has hitherto been accomplished -at an enormous sacrifice of individual life. -The requirement that there shall arise a full number -of adults in successive generations is fulfilled by -means which subordinate the existing and next -succeeding members of the species in various -degrees. (See Herbert Spencer’s <cite>Principles of -Sociology</cite>, vol. i. p. 621.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Among low forms—inferior to the human organism—the -germs of new individuals are produced -in immense numbers, the larger part of -the parental substance being sometimes transformed -into these germs. Birth here may be -immediately followed by the death of the parent -organism, and an immense mortality of the young -may take place—consequent on defenceless exposure, -insufficient food and other untoward conditions. -“Of a million minute ova left uncared -for, the majority are destroyed before they are -hatched, so that very few have considerable amounts -of individual life.” (Ibid. p. 622.)</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>Throughout the course of evolution the natural -order in moving from higher to higher types is -a gradual decrease of this condition, viz. the sacrifice -of individual life to the life of the species, and -at the same time an increase of compensating -pleasures allied with the reproductive function. -When illustrating this natural order, Herbert -Spencer points to the methods among fishes and -amphibians contrasted with those among birds -and mammals. The spawn of the former when -safely deposited is generally left to its fate.<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a> There -is physical cost to adults with apparently no accompanying -gratifications. Birds and mammals, however, -carefully rear and tend their offspring. “The -activities of parenthood are sources of agreeable -emotions, just as are the activities which achieve -self-sustentation.”</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. There are exceptions to the rule, as in the case of the -male stickleback.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Passing from the less intelligent vertebrates -which produce many young at short intervals -and abandon them at an early age, to the more -intelligent higher vertebrates which produce few -young at longer intervals and aid them for longer -periods, this principle clearly emerges—“While -the rate of juvenile mortality is diminished, there -results both a lessened physical cost of maintaining -the species and an augmented satisfaction of the -affections.” (<cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, vol. i. p. 628.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is no reversal of this genetic order of nature -in the epoch of conscious evolution. The processes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>are different, because man possesses developed -intellect, aided by scientific knowledge and invention -as a new and skilled ally in the struggle -to maintain his species at less and less cost of -individual life and happiness; but the general -forward movement takes precisely the same course. -With the highest evolved type of man this sacrifice -of individual life to the species is reduced to -a minimum, while the interests of species are conserved -in a painless, a wholly superior manner. -And, further, the entire range of domestic feelings—parental, -filial, fraternal and intimately social, -become extended and increasingly capable of -bestowing enduring pleasure. The ultimate goal -is easy maintenance of species, without—to any -unpleasurable extent—subordinating single members -of species to that end.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Love of offspring, as already explained, has -no reproductive instinct at its base. It is a feeling—superimposed -on organic nature—dependent on -family life or arrangements that involve parental -care and more or less of adult activity directed to -the well-being of the young. This sentiment of -love of offspring or philoprogenitiveness, is well -established in the British race; but with rampant -poverty in our midst, can we wonder that in -hundreds of thousands of individual cases the -paternal relation—so capable of filling the heart -with tender emotions and joy—creates an actual -disgust, or a feeling of despair, malignancy, even -injustice, as is shown in the touching little satire, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span><cite>Ginx’s Baby</cite>. Ginx frankly gave his wife -notice that, as his utmost efforts could scarcely -maintain their existing family, if she ventured -to present him with any more, either single or -twins ... “he would most assuredly drown him.” -Later, when the arrival of number thirteen is -imminent—the wife being unable longer to hide -the impending event—Ginx fixed his determination -by much thought and a little extra drinking. He -argued thus: “He wouldn’t go on the parish. He -couldn’t keep another youngster to save his life. -He had never taken charity and never would. -There was nothink to do with it but drown it.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Nor is even the maternal relation proof against -bitterness in untoward conditions, although the -feelings will be differently expressed, and may -possibly assume a pious garb. “I’ve ’ad my -fifteen or my twenty on ’em, but, thank ’eaven, -the churchyard ’as stood my friend.” These or -similar words have often been heard in an English -factory town. The women speaking thus were -not otherwise callous or incapable of mother-love. -They were gentle, patient, toiling drudges, who -had had the philoprogenitiveness of average -human nature and the tender joys of maternity -perverted into secret care and open hypocritical -cant by the physical strain of a too-frequent child-bearing, -combined with the miseries of ceaseless -labour, pinched means, and comfortless, crowded -homes.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The frequent advent of children who are unwelcome -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>to their own parents in a society no longer -ignorant of the scientific means by which its weakest -members may avoid parentage, without any destruction -of life or any injury to sexual function, -is marvellously irrational, and it indicates divergence -from the well-marked path of evolutional -progress.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Opposition to neo-Malthusian practice arises -from primitive conceptions of life (conceptions -antecedent to evolutional theory), while all the -various undefined scruples painfully experienced -by individuals are survivals of the sentiment -allied with these false conceptions. Prejudice -dies slowly, as ignorance is dispelled by the -growing light of new knowledge.</p> - -<p class='c004'>I have shown that asceticism is an immoral -principle, the action of which tends to fill individual -life with gloom and depression, and to thwart or -counteract general happiness. I have also shown -the absolute necessity for retarding the multiplication -of human beings to suit the limits of -available subsistence. And now, after pointing -out that philoprogenitiveness—which is the groundwork -of domestic and social virtue, and ought to -be the mainspring of reproduction of species—is -continually liable to be strained, depressed or -perverted into anti-social bitterness in parental -bosoms among the lower classes, I must ask the -question: How otherwise than by the easiest -method known to science could the difficulties of -the position be met and overcome?</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>Messrs. Patrick Geddes and J. A. Thomson, in -their treatise on the <cite>Evolution of Sex</cite>, urge the -necessity of what they call “an ethical rather -than a mechanical prudence after marriage, of a -temperance recognized to be as binding on husband -and wife as chastity on the unmarried.” (<cite>The -Evolution of Sex</cite>, p. 297.) But what do these -gentlemen mean by the temperance here recommended? -It is surely well known that the birth -of a large family is perfectly consistent with a -sparing, most temperate exercise of the procreative -function; and surely also it would be folly on our -part to look for parental conduct controlled by -ethical motive in the warrens of the poor of our -large cities, from whence springs an important -section of the national life. (<cite>Social Control of the -Birth Rate</cite>, Pamphlet by G. A. Gaskell.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the homes of the upper classes, adorned with -all the amenities and refinements of civilization, -parental prudence results mainly from egoistic -motive. Practical reformers will hesitate to -assume that those—the less favoured social units—are -likely to surpass these in moral elevation, -and demean themselves generally in a superior -manner! But further, a parental prudence, dispensing -with mechanical methods of checking -propagation, may even prove the converse of -ethical conduct. Advanced sexual morality requires -a free and healthful exercise of sexual function. -That such freedom is not possible under present -social conditions is irrelevant to the question at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>issue; the point is that conduct unnecessarily -traversing this advanced sexual morality is not -in accordance with rationalized social ethics; it -has no scientific basis.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Parental morals must conform to the principle -indicated by Herbert Spencer—reduce to a minimum -the sacrifice of individual life and happiness to -the life of the species; augment to the maximum -the joys of affection involved in parental relations. -This is possible to a race among which are beings -of low intelligence and unrestrained passion only -by bringing into play the laws of heredity through -rational breeding. But rational breeding depends -on an appeal to ordinary egoistic motive and practical -resort to the painless mechanical means of -checking conception.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is no general unwillingness to limit their -families among the poor; what is lacking consists -simply in power of control over the physical conditions -of fertility. To see children half-starved -and wives sickly and miserable is no more pleasant -to parents of the Ginx order than to those of us -who view it from a safe distance; and there is -ample intelligence to perceive the connexion between, -on the one hand, discomfort and poverty -attendant on a family of ten or twelve, on the -other, comparative comfort allied with a family -of only three or four.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A code of ethics covering the interests of the -entire nation commands strenuous effort on the -part of all thoughtful, intelligent people to make -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>the artificial checks known to the thoughtless and -unintelligent. It is not by proudly rejecting -scientific invention in this matter that we shall -attain to development of higher and higher types -of man, but by skilfully using it as a powerful -ally in our struggle to maintain and regenerate -species at less and less cost to individual happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Apart altogether from man’s partial practice -of neo-Malthusian art, under egoistic motives, -civilization has created an interference with the -original order of race preservation under generous -or altruistic motive. Social feeling slowly developing -revolts—in detail—from the cruel method -of the law of natural selection. It spontaneously -supersedes that law by one of sympathetic selection. -But whereas the former law issued in survival -of the fittest, the latter issues day by day in indiscriminate -survival, and consequent race deterioration. -A controlled rate of increase is not therefore -the only position to which reason and science -must guide us; we have further to escape from -the disastrous consequences of the above law and -pass to conditions of life evolved under the benign -influence of a rational and moral law—a law of -social selection, resulting in appropriate birth, -or the birth of the socially fit.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There are thousands of our present day population -with whom family life is no whit superior -to that of birds, whose pairing is immediately -followed by rapid breeding and a complete scattering -of the brood when the young are barely fledged. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>A wise philanthropy in line with the march of -progressive evolution may lift these thousands -to the level of the higher vertebrates, “which -produce few young at longer intervals and give -them aid for longer periods.” The recalcitrant -minority refusing to practice parental prudence -must be treated by society as abnormal individuals, -incapable of rising to the standard of average -civilized human nature, and these must be subjected -to social restraint.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART III</em><br /> <span class='large'>ABNORMAL HUMANITY</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c016'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Men may rise on stepping-stones</div> - <div class='line'>Of their dead selves to higher things.</div> - <div class='line in26'>—From <cite>In Memoriam</cite>.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span> - <h3 class='c005'>THE ELIMINATION OF CRIME</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Many a man thinks that it is his goodness which keeps -him from crime, when it is only his full stomach. On half -allowance, he would be as ugly and knavish as anybody. -Don’t mistake potatoes for principles.—<span class='sc'>Carlyle.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>A normal child of five years once asked the meaning -of this expression—“hanging a murderer,” -and after explanation said eagerly, “But will -hanging the man make that other man alive -again?” On receiving a negative reply, the remonstrance -burst forth, “Then why kill him, -since when he is dead we can never make him -good again?”</p> - -<p class='c004'>This is a true picture of the thinking and feeling -about crime which is natural to the best types of -our present-day humanity. These demand that -our punishments shall either reform the criminal -or protect society effectively from his malfeasance. -As a matter of fact, our criminal code and whole -machinery and procedure relative to crime accomplish -neither, and this is freely admitted by men -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>whose position enables them to judge accurately -and entitles them to express an opinion.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Mr. Justice Matthew has said at the Birmingham -Assizes that the present state of the criminal law -is a hundred years behind the times. Sir Edmund -Du Cane, Chairman of the Directors of Convict -Prisons, says of the solitary system practised in -our penal prisons: “It is an artificial state of -existence, absolutely opposed to that which nature -points out as the condition of mental, moral and -physical health.... The minds of the prisoners -become enfeebled by long-continued isolation.” -In the Official Report of the Departmental Committee -on Prisons, 1895, these words occur: “The -prisoners have been treated too much as a hopeless -or worthless part of the community. The moral -condition in which a large number of prisoners -leave the prison, and the serious number of recommittals, -have led us to think there is ample -cause for a searching inquiry into the main features -of prison life.” The late Judge Fitz-Stephen -published his <cite>History of the Criminal Law</cite> in 1883, -and pointed there to “notorious evils of which -it is difficult,” said he, “to find a satisfactory -remedy.” Nevertheless, he put down his finger -on the crucial spot when he wrote “the law proceeds -upon the principle that it is morally right -to hate criminals. It confirms and justifies that -sentiment by inflicting upon criminals punishment -which expresses it.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>But it is not right to hate criminals. It is morally -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>wrong, i.e. it is contrary to these laws of nature, -by which alone an elevated and happy social life -may be attained. The emotion of hatred creates -vibrations producing evil on the moral plane, as -certainly as discordant sounds, acting on sensitive -ears, produce discomfort; and, if persisted in, -produce organic disorganization on the physical -plane. Hence, all punishment or legal procedure -directed against crime, having hatred at its foundation, -or historic base, must fail. On the negative -side, hatred has proved ineffectual in protecting -society from crime. On the positive side, it increases -the anti-social feelings, whose natural -outcome is crime, and frustrates, or annuls, the -human forces of love, which already widely existent, -and swaying humanity’s best types, are the true -evolutional factors by which to annihilate crime.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Mr. Justice Matthew was simply asserting a -fact of social science when he stated that the -criminal law is out of date. It consists with a -primitive stage of social life; but it is totally inconsistent -with even the semi-civilization of to-day. -The fundamental discord between our action and -feeling relative to crime declares itself in the uncertainty -of a criminal’s fate and the steady survival -of his type. But, my reader, while accepting -Justice Matthew’s premise, may doubt the conclusion -at which Judge Fitz-Stephen arrived—that -vindictiveness or hate lies at the root of our -criminal code, and that our punishments express -it. Moreover, he may condemn by anticipation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>a supposed tendency on my part to censure all -punishments, and rely solely on a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</span></i> -system of dealing with crime. Scientific meliorism, -however, does not imply anarchy or the absence -of governing law. Its methods repudiate the -<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</span></i> principle in every department of life, -for this reason: Our developed faculties and accumulated -knowledge make untenable the negative -or inert position. We are impelled in an epoch -of conscious evolution to take positive action -favourable to progress.</p> - -<p class='c004'>My contention is this: love of all men, not hatred -of any man or class of men ought to be the basis -of our criminal code. Modern science, experience -and skill are competent to redeem the criminal -class, speaking generally, and in exceptional cases, -where redemption is impossible, can render the -criminal innocuous to society, while giving him -throughout life such innocent happiness as a being -organically defective may enjoy.</p> - -<p class='c004'>This thesis embraces a very wide range of action. -It means the systematic rational treatment of -evil-doers, from the refractory infant and juvenile -pickpocket to the burglar, the fraudulent bankrupt, -the felon, the traitor, the murderer, and if any -exist, the born criminal. It signifies, in short, -a complete science complementary to that of true -education. For whereas the latter comprises all -manner of attractive stimuli to noble living, this -is the science of necessary social restraints -to be applied in nursery, school and prison with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>the universal gentleness which springs from universal -love. The purpose to be aimed at is, first, -improving character by restraining obnoxious tendencies; -second, reforming character already -become anti-social; third, protecting society from -all corrupt infusion that might proceed from -morally diseased character.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A leading principle of the criminal law of Great -Britain is that punishment be adjusted in proportion -to the supposed magnitude of each individual -offence. If we study this principle, we -must perceive the truth of Judge Fitz-Stephen’s -allegation, for what connexion has it with the -reformation of the criminal? A judge or a jury -makes no attempt to compute the amount of prison -restraint and discipline necessary to reformation, -nor are they possessed of facts for forming a judgment. -Their whole attention has been focussed -on the crime, not on the character of the criminal, -or the antecedent and future conditions affecting -the character. Neither does the judicial sentence -connect itself proportionately with the mischief -done to society. A fraudulent banker or commercial -speculator, whose downfall involves the -ruin of thousands, is not dealt with, as compared -with a petty thief, on a scale of severity expressive -of the magnitude of suffering entailed. And the -petty thief, who steals the rich man’s goods, as -compared with the criminal who beats and abuses -his wife, is adjudged a severer penalty—a measure -of punishment indicating the superior value of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>goods over wives, which is a sentiment appropriate -only to barbarous times.</p> - -<p class='c004'>These anomalies, however, are explainable. Our -laws have descended to us from a barbarous age, -when might was right, irrespective of justice; -and from a race whose punishments sprang from -revenge, and were roughly proportioned to the -feeling of revenge. They are little else than reactionary -forces, of which some are always present -in an inchoate society. Their inapplicability -to the task of reforming criminals is easily -proved.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In Scotland in a single year not fewer than “six -hundred and ninety persons were committed to -prison who had been in confinement at least ten -times before. Of these, three hundred and ninety-three -had been in prison at least twenty times -before, and twenty-three at least fifty times!” -(<cite>Hill on Crime</cite>, p. 28.) These figures speak for -themselves. Our whole system is glaringly unscientific. -We do not remove the conditions that -act as causes of crime. We punish, and sometimes -severely, yet we let loose again offenders not one -whit more prepared than before to withstand the -temptations of freedom. We calmly support and -approve an enormous expenditure of public funds -upon criminals and crime; we carefully select -good men to be prison managers, officers and chaplains; -we secure cleanliness and sanitation within -the prisons, and so forth; but these efforts are -utterly futile because the system is wrong—the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>criminal law of Great Britain is based upon a false, -an irrational principle.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The causes of crime within our province to deal -with are of a two-fold nature—objective and subjective. -Poverty, i.e. hunger and want, a slum -environment, rough handling in infancy and childhood, -a mischievous training and the absence of all -conditions favourable to gentle, virtuous life—these -are some of the objective causes creating -crime which society is bound to remove. Among -causes deciding the innate character of every -newly-born babe, the forces of heredity stand out -conspicuously. I have demonstrated that aggregate -humanity, in a scientific age, has the means of -controlling these forces and directing them to the -production of physical, mental and moral health -in the individual, and consequently in the community. -The born criminal type may become -gradually improved by careful and wise treatment -under life-long restraints. Meanwhile, to seek reformation -of this type, by prison discipline alone, -and treat it by methods adapted to corrigible culprits, -is a folly dishonouring to the developed -reason of man. We have abundant evidence that -the type exists. Mr. Frederick Hill, late Inspector -of Prisons, says: “Nothing has been more clearly -shown in the course of my inquiries than that -crime is hereditary to a considerable extent ... -it proceeds from father to son in a long line of succession.” -(<cite>Hill on Crime</cite>, p. 55.) Mr. J. B. -Thomson, Resident Surgeon of the Perth Prison, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>states of the facts of prison life: “They press -on my mind the conviction that crime in general -is a moral disease of a chronic and congenital -nature, intractable when transmitted from generation -to generation.” And Mr. George Combe, -speaking of prisons in the United States of America, -wrote: “I have put the question to many keepers -of prisons whether they believed in the possibility -of reforming all offenders. From those whose -minds were humane and penetrating, I have received -the answer—they did not, for experience -had convinced them that some criminals are incorrigible -by any human means hitherto discovered. -These incorrigibles,” says George Combe—and -this is the point to observe, “were always -found to have defective organizations; ... they -are morally idiotic; and justice, as well as humanity, -dictates our treating them as patients. They -labour under great natural defects; ... to punish -them for actions proceeding from these natural -defects is no more just or beneficial to society than -it would be to punish men for having crooked -spines or club feet.” (George Combe’s <cite>Moral -Philosophy</cite>, p. 306.) And I could refer to many -more authorities on the subject were it necessary.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Accepting the theory that our born-criminals -are victims of moral disease, the question arises—how -should we treat them? Fifty years ago we -sorely maltreated our victims to mental disease. -We bound them hand and foot, we punished them -sternly for their congenital defects, we shunned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>and hated them, and because they were martyrs -to a pitiful disease we made them also the victims -of unnecessary and cruel sufferings. Few men -to-day could glance without a shudder at the record -of our treatment of lunatics. We consign the -history gladly to oblivion, and point to changes -betokening the better feeling of to-day. “No -one thinks of sending a madman to a lunatic asylum -for a certain number of days, weeks or months. -We carefully ascertain that he is unfit to be at -large, and that those in whose hands we are about -to place him act under due inspection and have -the knowledge and skill which afford the best hope -for his cure; that they will be kind to him, and -inflict no more pain than is necessary for his secure -custody ... we leave it to them to determine if, -or when, he can be safely liberated.” (<cite>Hill on -Crime</cite>, p. 151.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>These are the lines on which also should run -our treatment of moral disease. If a man is unfit -morally to be at large, we must narrow the conditions -of his life, but make it as enjoyable within -the coercive restraints as is compatible with improvement. -And on no account must we restore -his liberty until those who professionally and -officially watch his daily conduct are convinced -that he will not again be likely to abuse that liberty.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But apart altogether from individual delinquents, -the subjective racial tendency to crime demands -special treatment, and in this regard I maintain -that the enlightened action of an advanced society -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>will be analogous to the ignorant action of an -earnest church in the Middle Ages with precisely -opposite results. “The long period of the Dark -Ages, under which Europe lay, was due, I believe, -in a very considerable degree,” says Francis Galton, -“to the celibacy enjoined by religious orders on -their votaries. Whenever a man or woman was -possessed of a gentle nature that fitted him or her -to deeds of charity, to meditation, to literature -or to art, the social condition of the time was such -that they had no refuge elsewhere than in the -bosom of the church. But the church preached -and exacted celibacy. The consequence was that -these gentle natures had no continuance, and by -a policy so singularly unwise and suicidal that -I am hardly able to speak of it without impatience, -the church brutalized the breed of our forefathers. -She acted as if she aimed at selecting the rudest -portion of the community to be alone the parents -of future generations. She practised the arts -which breeders would use who aimed at creating -ferocious, currish and stupid natures. No wonder -that club law prevailed for centuries over Europe; -the wonder is, that enough good remained in the -veins of Europeans to enable their race to rise -to its present very moderate level of natural -morality.” (<cite>Hereditary Genius</cite>, F. Galton, p. 356.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>A humane society, guided by rational forces -in the epoch of conscious evolution, will practise -the policy of the church of the Middle Ages on a -different class of subjects. It will gather poor -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>criminals into its bosom, and secure for them a -safe and happy refuge while exacting celibacy. -The racial blood shall not be poisoned by moral -disease. The guardians of the present-day social -life dare not be careless of future social life and -the happiness of generations unborn; therefore -the criminal breed must be forcibly restrained -from perpetuating its kind. Now mark the result. -Not gentle natures—as in the case of the church—but -the innately vicious natures will have no -continuance. The criminal type slowly but surely -disappears.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To promote the contentment and comfort of -congenital criminals within their asylum or prison -home an alternative to celibacy might be offered, -viz. surgical treatment, to render the male incapable -of reproduction. (The treatment indicated is not -the operation ordinarily performed upon some -domestic animals; this, applied to human beings, -would be morally and physically injurious. Particulars -of the appropriate method were published -in the <cite>British Medical Journal</cite> as early as May 2, -1874, at p. 586.) Were this course voluntarily -chosen, the sexes might intermingle without danger -to posterity; and since fuller social life tends to -make all human beings happier, these convicts -would become more manageable, and coercive -restraints cease to be indispensable.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But the criminal stock is not great when compared -with the actual crimes of to-day. Crime -in a vast measure is simply produced by the outward -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>accidental conditions of life—an evil environment -and a grossly inadequate training. -If we alter the environment of our masses—by -establishing a new industrial system that banishes -poverty from the land, by initiating a Malthusian -and neo-Malthusian practice that puts the physical -life on a healthy basis, by creating a family life -suitable to man’s emotional nature, and supplying -a true education that embraces scientific restraints -on all anti-social tendencies—then, but not till -then, will crime and the criminal type alike become -things of the past.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We are surrounded to-day in our reformatories -and board schools, in our homes and on our streets, -by children of naïvely-disobedient or rebellious -tendency. These are the embryo criminals of a -few years hence. When a clever romanticist -makes one his hero, and describes the development -of trickiness in the child, and how he uses -it as a weapon of defence against the “polissman” -whom he defies, trips up and otherwise evades -(<cite>Cleg Kelly</cite>, by Crockett), we read the account -without compunction, nay, we relish the humour -of the situation, and half approve the issue! Yet -this assuredly is no legitimate outcome of childish -bravery and sportiveness. Our levity arises from -the underlying conviction, or the universal feeling -begotten of genetic evolution, that the policeman’s -jurisdiction here is flagrantly inappropriate.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Infantile disobedience and full-fledged crime -seem far apart, but they are united by an inward -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>deteriorating process, an outward chain of trespasses -more or less petty. The links are all there, -connecting the tender babe and fascinating street-arab -with the thief and murderer. Similarly, -on the moral plane, flow the sequences of cause -and effect that bring retribution—that inalienable -feature of the law of evolution. The crime that -society deplores is the natural penalty for society’s -neglect of children; and there is no escape from -the penalty as long as the cause continues. Nor -can society plead ignorance here. Herbert Spencer -and Ruskin have spoken out plainly on this subject. -“What we need is cessation from all these antagonisms -which keep alive the brutal elements -of human nature, and persistence in a peaceful -life, giving unchequered play to the sympathies.” -(<cite>Herbert Spencer on Arbitration.</cite>) “It is,” says -Ruskin, “the lightest way of killing to stop a man’s -breath. But if you bind up his thoughts by lack -of true education, if you blind his eyes, if you blunt -his hopes, if you steal his joys, if you stunt his body -and blast his soul ... this you think no sin!” -Verily, there <em>is sin</em>, acknowledged by the noblest, -wisest of men, and brought home to us on the lips -of babes—“Why kill the man, since when he is -dead we can never make him good again!”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Society has to compass the task of making men -good from the beginning; and in exceptional cases, -where the task is impossible, the victims are simply -society’s patients, to be impounded without hurt. -We are as able to protect our social life from moral -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>as from mental lunatics. The initial step, however -(hardly yet taken), is to pass from the mental -attitude of a barbarous race, whose habits of defence -are those of arbitrary punishment, to that -of a civilized nation bent on reforming its criminals, -and treating its morally diseased members with -uniform humanity and brotherly love. As yet -the resources of man’s reason and scientific knowledge -and aptitude have never been called into -play to devise a system of consecutive restraints -on the “brutal elements,” a system to make men -good from the beginning by “working out the -beast.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The crux of the problem is how to imbue children -painlessly with the truth that social life has -responsibilities and limitations, obedience to which -is indispensable. And I submit that this may be -done in the homes and nurseries of the future, -under a scientifically adapted system of training. -Hard blows and even chiding tones of the human -voice must have no place in childhood’s environment, -but authority may be exercised through -the use of a simple appliance for limiting infant -freedom. When baby trespasses against some -natural law of health or social life, of which he -knows nothing, he is gently but promptly and -firmly placed in a baby-prison standing within -reach, viz. a goodly-sized basket, high at the sides, -softly cushioned all round and weighted, so that -it cannot be overturned by the infant culprit, who, -if refractory, may kick or scream in safety there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>till the paroxysm passes, and he falls asleep. On -waking he recalls vaguely, when older, more clearly -the occurrence, and he becomes lightly possessed -by a subtle sense of authority quite distinct from -individual kindness or unkindness. His human -relations are unhurt by the necessary training in -infancy. He has been checked in wrong-doing -without any wrong association of ideas, and without -an awakening of anti-social feeling.</p> - -<p class='c004'>I have seen an ignorant nurse teach a child to -seek solace for pain in an anti-social emotion! -“Beat the naughty chair that has hurt poor baby’s -head,” was the evil counsel, and the child held -out to the chair struck his tiny revengeful blows, -and was kissed and caressed in consequence. This -happened in a rich man’s nursery. Could one -blame the ignorant nurse? Her infancy was -passed in a city slum, and in every such locality -children swarm who freely strike out both in self-protection -and brutal aggressiveness. From birth -these little ones live more or less in an atmosphere -of savage assault. Tyranny and force -are the ruling conditions of their childhood, and -the natural result—under the unalterable law -of cause and effect—is this: vindictive, barbaric -feeling is carried hither and thither throughout -society at large, and degrades every social class.</p> - -<p class='c004'>When home-life in the middle classes has been -reorganized, and nursery training is the outcome -of scientific thought, children there at least will -escape this taint. They will pass from nursery -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>to schoolroom with nerves that have never been -unnecessarily jarred. They will be physically -stronger, and in temperament more serene. Reared -without harshness, they will know no craven fear; -and since the native attitude of childhood towards -elders never seen angry or cross is that of confiding -love, teachers will have no difficulty in -bringing into play the tender emotions that are -natural checks upon evil doing, and natural incentives -to effort in action that is right. If playfulness -intrudes, and the serious work of a class is hindered -by some little urchin’s fun, the master or mistress -needs neither to scold nor to cane the offender, -for unspoken satisfaction and dissatisfaction are -quickly perceived and responded to by children -unused to punishment or an elder’s frown.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But even in the schoolroom an appeal to -mechanism may sometimes prove useful. An -instrument called “a characterograph” was described -by its inventor to an Edinburgh audience -half a century ago. This instrument for registering -had been in use in Lady Byron’s Agricultural -School at Ealing Grove, with moral effects markedly -beneficial. There were many comments in the -press of that period. It supersedes all necessity -for prizes, place-taking, or any kind of reward or -punishment, and renders unnecessary the master’s -expressing anger or irritation—“the worst example -a teacher can set to his pupils.” (Mr. E. T. Craig -was inventor of the characterograph.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>If we bear in mind that the supreme object of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>training is <em>social solidarity</em>, and that social solidarity -rests fundamentally on tender relations between -the old, the young, and the middle-aged, we shall -recognize the wisdom of elders resigning at the -earliest possible moment all manifestations of -personal authority. The average boy and girl, -if well trained, has at fifteen, or about that age, -moral powers sufficiently developed to control -innate propensities. At that epoch to the young -themselves should be relegated the ruling of youthful -conduct in the interests of society. Not to the -young singly, however, but in their corporate -capacity. The organizing of juvenile committees -and conduct clubs will ensue. I need not, however, -treat of these here. They belong to the -subject of general education, and I am merely -touching on training in its relations to specific crime.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The point in social science to emphasize is this: -At every stage of the nation’s history its moral -health or disease is the actual resultant of previous -conditions of its child-life throughout the length -and breadth of the land. At the present moment -the public mind is astray on this subject. There -is no understanding of the restraints necessary -on infantile wrong-doing, the wholesome because -painless checks to apply to juvenile delinquents. -Science must guide us to the right path of action, -society must enlist parental authority, or, if need -be, coerce the child to take the indicated course. -By the absence of wholesome checks and the -presence of brutal conditions in childhood we suffer -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>a vast amount of preventible crime. We evolve -the criminal by sins of omission outside the prison; -we brutalize him further inside the prison by undue, -ill-adapted restraints.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Very significant was the experience of Mr. Obermair, -of the State Prison in Munich. When appointed -governor there, he found from six to seven -hundred prisoners in the worst state of insubordination, -and whose excesses he was told defied -the harshest, most stringent discipline. The -prisoners were chained together. The guard consisted -of about 100 soldiers, who did duty not only -at the gates and round the walls, but in the passages, -and even in the workshops and dormitories; -and, strangest of all, from twenty to thirty large -dogs of the bloodhound breed were let loose at -night in the passages and courts to keep watch -and ward. The place was a perfect pandemonium, -comprising the worst passions, the most slavish -vices, and the most heartless tyranny within the -limits of a few acres.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Mr. Obermair quickly dispensed with dogs, and -nearly all the guards. He gradually relaxed the -harsh system, and treated the prisoners with a -consideration that gained their confidence. In -the year 1852 Mr. Baillie Cochrane visited the -prison, and his account is as follows: “The gates -were wide open, without any sentinel at the door, -and a guard of only twenty men idling away their -time in a room off the entrance hall.... None of -the doors were provided with bolts and bars; the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>only security was an ordinary lock, and as in most -of the rooms the key was not turned, there was -no obstacle to the men walking into the passage.... -Over each workshop some of the prisoners with -the best characters were appointed overseers, and -Mr. Obermair assured me that when a prisoner -transgressed a regulation, his companions told -him ‘<i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">es ist verboten</span></i>,’ and it rarely happened that -he did not yield to the will of his fellow-prisoners. -Within the prison walls every description of work -is carried on ... each prisoner by occupation and -industry maintains himself. The surplus of his -earnings is given him on release, which avoids his -being parted with in a state of destitution.” (This -account is taken from Herbert Spencer’s <cite>Essay -on Prison Ethics</cite>.) It is then clearly proved by -actual experience that rough handling and brutal -words—bolts and bars and bloodhounds—are alike -unnecessary in the case of first offenders and in -the case of the “desperate gang.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>But, turning once more from the criminal to -the ultimate causes of crime, these are—destitution, -or more or less grinding poverty, inherited disease, -ignorance and all the degraded nurture that crushes -the humanities and develops the brutalities of -man. A scientific treatment of crime will eradicate -these various causes of crime. No summary -methods are applicable. There is no short cut -to the end in view; but by patient perseverance -in the scientific meliorism indicated in my chapters -on Industrial Life, Sex Relations and Parentage, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>and to be further explained in those on Education -and Home Life, the forces brought into play will -prove effective in social redemption. They are -essentially radical and all-embracing. Within -reformatories and prisons there may be partially -supplied the training for forming and reforming -character that is nowhere present in the homes -and schools of the lower classes to-day. Those -criminals who are not structurally defective may -recover moral health, and become virtuous or at -least harmless social units. In all such cases -liberty should be restored; but the State can -never be justified in discharging its rescued criminals -without resources and without protection. They -must be supplied with work, i.e. some means of -self-support, and guarded from dangers besetting -the critical period of liberation. The educating -of ignorant criminals, the reforming of corrigible -criminals, the restraining from further crime of -incurable criminals—these are duties of the State.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The time, however distant, will finally arrive -when science, applied for generations to the task -of skilfully removing all the causes of crime, will -accomplish that glorious aim. By attention to -the laws of heredity, by checking the too rapid -increase of population, by the moral training of -every member of the community, and by well-ordered, -happy, domestic, industrial and social -life, the criminal nature will die out, and crime -itself be simply historical—a thing to study with -interest, an extirpated social disease.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART IV</em><br /> <span class='large'>EVOLUTION OF THE EMOTIONS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>We must never forget that human aspirations, human -ideals, are as much a part of the phenomena which makes -up this causally-connected Universe as the instincts and -appetites that are common to man and the other animals.—<span class='sc'>David -G. Ritchie.</span></p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE SENTIMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND SOCIAL JUSTICE</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The dawning century will have to undertake a new -education of mankind if we are not to relapse.... New -inventions are less needed than new ethics.—Dr. <span class='sc'>Max -Nordau</span>.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Herbert Spencer tells us that: “Free institutions -can only be properly worked by men, each of whom -is jealous of his own rights and sympathetically -jealous of the rights of others—who will neither -himself aggress on his neighbour in small things or -great, nor tolerate aggression on them by others.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The state of mind or sentiment to which Mr. -Spencer here points is complex. It comprises an -egoism that is not anti-social, and an altruism that -is broadly social. The genesis of this sentiment is -intellectual, implying a recognition in some sort -of the laws of nature, by virtue of which individual -rights do not conflict with nature’s harmonies or its -fundamental organic unity. It is possible, therefore, -only to a race comparatively advanced, i.e. intellectually -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>endowed; but the children and children’s -children of that race may possess the sentiment of -individual rights as an instinct with no apprehension -whatever of its source or its justification. Its alliance -with, and perfect conformity to, natural law -are certainly not understood, and confusion is increased -in the public mind by the unscientific teaching -of the daily press. Here, for instance, is a paragraph -from a middle-class journal. “Law is command, -control. Nature is instinctive force, and can neither -give nor receive laws. There are no laws of nature, -and there are no rights of man. We are using -meaningless phrases when we speak of either. Man -has no natural rights any more than the wolf and -the bear. All rights are conventional.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now, before man had made a direct study of -nature, and, marking the invariability of sequence -in the precision of its phenomena, had attached to -that invariability the term “laws of nature,” the -word “law” denoted a lawgiver issuing arbitrary -commands. It is in this primitive sense that our -journalist uses the word “law.” He entirely ignores -its appropriation by science and the modern acceptation -of the term “laws of nature.” Nature has -no arbitrary commands, he says, and therefore infers -no laws. We admit the premise while denying the -inference. The laws of health are invariable, although -they do not necessarily dominate, since other -and opposing laws of disorganization may at any -moment get the upper hand. Man is competent to -disregard the laws of life; but if he so acts, another -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>course of natural order is initiated, and he becomes -subject to pathological laws which conduct him -steadily to the grave. Necessity without arbitrary -command rules in the cosmos; and if happiness, -which all humanity desires, is attained, it will be by -conforming to all the laws of nature that favour -that end. Within, there are the laws of human -organization, without, the laws of circumstance or -environment. The humanity that has intellect and -scientific knowledge may, by union and co-operation, -take a firm advantage of these laws or uniformities -of nature and march steadily forward, controlling -the forces of nature by a willing obedience to natural -law.</p> - -<p class='c004'>No sooner, observe, does this control become possible -than natural rights come into existence. Man -rises in the scale of being to a sphere of self-direction -and comparative liberty. The wolf and bear and -all wild animals are on the lower level, and have no -natural rights. They are controlled by forces external -to themselves, and the struggle for existence -and survival of the fittest is the law of destiny to -them. It is not so, however, with the horse, dog, -cat, etc., for man has lifted all domesticated animals -from under the rule of genetic forces, and placed -them under the rule of reasoned forces. He controls -their breeding, limits their numbers, and gives them -a happy life consistent with his own. Further, he -claims for them and concedes to them natural rights; -and note this point, the last phrase of our journalist’s -misleading paragraph is strictly true: “All rights are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>conventional.” Convention means by tacit agreement, -and it is by tacit agreement on the part of -civilized men that rights of men and rights of -animals exist and are respected. An impulse of -the higher life, viz., a law of sympathy, impels -civilized man to seek happiness for other beings as -well as himself, and intelligence shows him that -individual happiness promotes general happiness, -and further that no individual happiness is possible -without a certain amount of personal liberty.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Individual rights, then, are a claim for a certain -amount of personal liberty, and the sentiment of -individual rights is an unconscious inward preparedness -to defend that claim. It lies at the very -foundation of modern ethics, since from it there -springs the outward equipoise of egoistic and -altruistic forces, the inward, subtle, delicate sense -of equitable relations, in other words, <em>justice</em>—the -moral backbone of the modern conscience.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Let us see how we treat, in our nurseries, this -foundation of ethics, this sentiment of individual -rights. We enter a middle-class nursery where a -baby and his sister Jessie, a child of three years of -age, are side by side on the floor. An impulse -seizes baby to clutch the doll, which Jessie holds -firmly. Baby screams and nurse turns round and -lifts him in her arms. “See, Jessie,” she says, “he -wants your doll, surely you will be kind to baby -brother?” She takes the doll from Jessie and -gives it to the infant. Jessie throws herself on the -ground and kicks and screams. A paroxysm of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>emotion sweeps over her, and until the wave has -spent itself tranquillity in nerve or muscle is simply -impossible. But the nurse, ignorant of the fact -that the child is for the moment bereft of any power -of self-control, commands her to be still, and when -not obeyed, she scolds her severely. Finally she -puts her in a corner, and there poor Jessie sobs and -weeps till pure exhaustion brings her to passivity -and an abject state of mind which nurse calls “being -good again.” She signifies her approval of it by a -kiss of forgiveness as unmerited as the previous -anger.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now here we have an emotion supremely important -to the welfare of humanity rudely desecrated -in infancy. There was nothing base, sordid, -exclusive or even selfish in the tempest of feeling -that swept away the placidity of Jessie’s little soul. -Mingled together there was an impulse to defend her -personal rights and a hot indignation that any -infringement of these rights should occur. And the -whole was a wave of the complex forces destined to -weld society into an organic whole, capable of -maintaining free institutions. When the nurse -through ignorance punished the child for the -involuntary expression of a virtuous social-emotion, -she was opposing the very order of nature that -genetic evolution is striving to attain; she was -checking the progress of modern civilization.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Later in the day Jessie with her doll restored to -her arms is happy again. Baby plays with his -rattle on nurse’s knee; but Jessie thinks, “My -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>dolly is a baby too and wants a rattle.” She takes -the rattle out of baby’s hands to give to dolly. -Baby shouts and kicks, and nurse is furious. She -slaps Jessie and calls her a “naughty child.” There -is no ebullition of anger this time, although the -tender little fingers ache from the rude blow. -Jessie shrinks aside with a subdued air. Had her -former rebellion been an impulse of pure vindictiveness -it would have repeated itself now. It had no -such feature. It revealed the fact that Jessie was -the offspring of a self-dependent, self-protective -race preparing for a new stage of social evolution, -and her aspect at the present crisis reveals the same. -She did not know she was in the wrong; but -vaguely she felt it. She had trespassed on baby’s -rights, and conscience dumbly stirred in her infant -bosom. If intelligence is strong the child questions -silently, “Why may baby take my doll when I may -not take his rattle?” The nurse will give no -answer. Her province is to feed and cleanse and -clothe her charges, and, if need be, punish action. -But the motive springs of action lie quite beyond -her range, and what is the consequence? If Jessie’s -intellect predominates over her emotional quality, -her conscience may develop, although under adverse -conditions; but if the balance tends the other way -the position is fatal. The child gathers her ideas -of right and wrong from the frowns and smiles, the -slaps or kisses of an ignorant woman who is ruling -the nursery with an authority purely barbaric, and -the budding conscience of a modern civilization -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>adapts itself to the archaic environment and reverts -or lapses backward.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Further, observe, the nurse strove to create—in -this case, at least—sympathy towards a baby -brother. Was this wise? It was not wise, although -well-intentioned. Sympathy never develops under -command, and to order a child to be kind at the -moment when an aggression has been made on his -or her rights is like commanding a steam-engine to -move forward without turning on the steam! -Moreover, baby, young as he was, suffered mentally -and morally by the event. He learned an evil -lesson, viz., that if he cried he would probably get -what he wanted. Vigorously, though unconsciously, -he will pursue that vicious course and act -up to the principle.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Does my reader inquire “What should the nurse -have done?” She should have instantly removed -the baby, saying gently to Jessie, “Children must -never take things from one another. Not even a -baby can be permitted to do that, and we must -teach him better. But see he is so young, he does -not know the doll is yours, not his. Would you like -to lend it to him for a little? No? Ah, well he -cannot have it then, but come and help me to -amuse him that he may forget the doll.” The -older child puts down her treasure to fondle her -baby brother, and there are ten chances to one that -by-and-bye her sympathy—called out naturally and -not by command—carries her a step further, and -she says: “Nurse, baby may hold my doll for a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>little now.” Later, when the brilliant idea occurs -that dolly would enjoy the rattle, Jessie understands—she -does not blindly, vaguely feel, she knows—that -she must not trespass on baby’s rights. She -restrains her impulse therefore to snatch the rattle, -and in this self-control she is exercising the noblest -faculty of her nature under the dominion of a moral -conscience—a sense of justice or equivalence of -rights.</p> - -<p class='c004'>And now we pass from an upper middle-class -nursery to any British boys’ school or playground. -We find that quarrels there arise not so much from -the simple barbarous impulses of cruelty, hatred, -revenge, fear, as from a different source—an effective -sense of personal rights unbalanced by an equally -effective sense of sympathy with the rights of others. -The phenomenon here is justice in embryo, self-conscious, -but lacking development on the altruistic -side. “It isn’t” or “it wasn’t fair” is a -phrase frequently upon a schoolboy’s lips, and it is -remarkable with what courage and dignity an -urchin of ten or twelve will criticize a master’s -treatment of him, and perhaps tell the man of fifty -to his face that this or that “wasn’t fair.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Were every boy as eager that all human beings—schoolmasters -included—should be as fairly treated -as he himself, the only further regulation of conduct -necessary would be a clear intelligence to discern -truth from falsehood in every case of misdemeanour. -Instructed intelligence is however a minus quantity, -and the sympathetic jealousy for the rights of others -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>that exists here and there amongst boys in minor -quantity, gets deflected from its true course. It -links boys of one age together in a mutual fellowship -that excludes masters and all others. Nor is this -difficult to understand. Mutual interests is the soil -in which sympathy grows; but with arbitrary -authority in the field, also conflicting desires, and no -distinct teaching on the subject, the deeper relations -of life, I mean the mutual interests of teacher and -taught and of the whole school as a social unity, -are often ignored. To shield a companion from -punishment, at all hazards, becomes virtue in a -schoolboy’s eyes, and antagonisms spring up with -confused notions of right and wrong, and a general -impulse to falsehood and deceit in special directions. -These are menacing features of character for the -social life of the future. Men of introspection have -recognized in themselves the baneful after-effects of -the clannishness engendered at school. Robert -Louis Stevenson bewailed the extreme difficulty he -had in forcing himself to perform a distinct public -duty. It involved some exposure dishonourable -to a former schoolmate! “I felt,” he said, “like a -cad!”</p> - -<p class='c004'>From middle-class nurseries where authority is -chiefly barbaric and the budding conscience is hurt, -children destined to become the élite of a future -society and its rulers, pass into schools where there -is no clear and definite training for the emotional -nature, no scientific development of the social, and -repression of the anti-social impulses. From school -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>the student passes to college or university, and is -emancipated more or less from outward control. -When he enters upon the duties and pleasures of -adult life he presents, in many ways, an element of -social danger, for this simple reason, his native -bumptiousness, his sense of individual rights is not -held in check by an intelligent understanding of, and -feeling of sympathy with, the equal rights of others. -The groundwork of the modern conscience has been -tampered with while authority—propelled by genetic -forces of evolution—has gradually relaxed and -fallen back before the free-born British schoolboy. -By our present system of education we destroy -infant virtue in the nursery and in the school. We -dwarf that sympathy which should grow and expand -till it bursts forth in manhood into deeds of rectitude, -justice, love, manifesting the threefold quality of -human nature which alone is competent to lift the -whole area of man’s existence into line with cosmic -order. Our schools are yearly pouring into the -busy world a rich harvest of human aptitudes that -are quickly absorbed in activities mercantile, -professional, legislative, but the outcome of these -activities is not tuning life into social harmony, it is -merely increasing national wealth, and that without -any marked increase of plenty and pleasure to the -nation at large. The picture presented is one of -perpetual warfare—an outward struggle in money-making -for oneself and family, an inward contentious -spirit that reveals itself abroad in our blatant -imperialism, at home in class antagonisms—the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>whole re-acting fatally on individual character and -lowering the general standard of civilized life. -Generous enthusiasms die down, the emotional -nature hardens, till intelligence itself is dimmed and -becomes incapable of any wide outlook that entails -unselfish effort.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As a rule—though with honourable exceptions—our -compatriots advanced in life do not fulfil the -promise of their youth; and with forces of nature -amenable to man’s will, if wisely directed, real -progress in this scientific age is wofully sluggish. -We focus attention on environments that press on -adults only, and in seeking reform overlook the -environments that vitally effect our infant population, -therefore the adult life of the future.</p> - -<p class='c004'>How different is our action in other directions. In -horticultural nurseries, for instance, progress is not -sluggish. Scientific discovery and methods of -practice are applied and promptly produce definite -results. The composite plants are distinguished -from simple plants, and while all are secured in -necessary conditions of healthy life—good soil, air, -light, etc.—those receive from the gardener a special -fostering care. He studies the laws of differentiation, -the peculiarities of each organism with its -hidden possibilities of varied efflorescence, and by -fitting environment to wider issues, watching them -day by day, nourishing every tendency favourable, -checking every tendency unfavourable, he induces an -outburst of blossom as varied in colour and form as -it is marvellous in beauty or grace, and that in spite -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>of the fact that unaided by natural forces he is -utterly powerless to make a blade of grass grow.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That human plants give promise of blossoming -into a <em>moral</em> beauty as yet undreamed of by the -British public is patent to any wise observer of the -confused social life of to-day. Our greatest realists -in fiction note the point. We have George Meredith -putting into the mouth of his hero, Matthew -Weyburn, these significant words: “Eminent -station among men doesn’t give a larger outlook ... -I have come now and then across people we call -common, slow-minded, but hard in their grasp of -facts and ready to learn and logical. They were at -the bottom of wisdom, for they had in their heads -the delicate sense of justice upon which wisdom is -founded ... that is what their rulers lack. Unless -we have the sense of justice abroad like a common -air there’s no peace and no steady advance. But -these humble people had it. I felt them to be my -superiors. On the other hand, I have not felt the -same with our senators, rulers and lawgivers. They -are for the most part deficient in the liberal mind.” -(<cite>Lord Ormont and his Aminta.</cite>)</p> - -<p class='c004'>As regards physical health, I have shown the -necessity for stirpiculture and the birth of the fit; -as regards mental and moral health, i.e. Humanity’s -efflorescence on higher planes—the need of the times -is less eugenics than education and training. Germs -of truth, justice, love, lie latent in the basic structure -of our half-civilized race, and so long as we neglect -or destroy these germs it were folly to desire material -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>of finer quality. “Our raw material is of the very -best,” said the headmistress of a London Board -School, “our children are full of generous impulses -and fearless spontaneity. I sometimes think the -no-rule in the homes of the masses a better preparation -for life than the factitious training given in -homes of the classes. But our teachers are so few -and so seldom scientifically enlightened that we spoil -very much of the good material.” On behalf of the -classes my reader might argue that susceptibility to -beauty or the aesthetic sentiment with its creative -expression in art belongs almost exclusively to the -upper section of society, and is deemed by some -social reformers the very foundation of moral life, -the basis of the ethical temper.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is not my purpose to provoke comparison -between the classes and the masses, and I fully -recognize the value of the fine arts as factors in the -general elevation of life and character, but I submit -that evolution does not pursue the same line of -development in the various races of mankind, and in -the British race an advanced ethical temper is in -process of formation quite irrespective of the fine -arts and the aesthetic sentiment.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Dr. Le Bon laid before the French Geographical -Society an account of a primitive group of people, -numbering several hundred thousand, who inhabit -a remote region high up among the Carpathian -mountains. Of this people, the Podhalians, he -says, “they are born improvisatori, poets and -musicians, singing their own songs, set to music -<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>of their own composition. Their poetry is tender -and artless in sentiment, generous and elevated -in style.” He attributes these qualities to the -wealth of spontaneous resources possessed by -natures which neither know violent passions nor -unnatural excitements. The British race, moulded -by different conditions—geographical and historical—has -developed differently. Great masses -of our population are wholly insensitive to the -influences of art. The picture drawn by Wordsworth -of his Peter Bell comes nearer to our native -uncultured type—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>A primrose by the river’s brim</div> - <div class='line'>A yellow primrose was to him,</div> - <div class='line'>And it was nothing more.</div> - <div class='line'>The soft blue sky did never melt</div> - <div class='line'>Into his heart, he never felt</div> - <div class='line'>The witchery of the soft blue sky.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>Nevertheless, through another channel he was -touched to the quick. Thrilled into sudden sweetness -and pathos by the sight of a widow’s tears—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>In agony of silent grief</div> - <div class='line'>From his own thoughts did Peter start;</div> - <div class='line'>He longs to press her to his heart</div> - <div class='line'>From love that cannot find relief.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>The hard life of our workers has undoubtedly -deprived them, as yet, of any widespread aesthetic -development, but the chords of their vital part, -if played upon, produce a sentient state far removed -from the rudimentary stage. It is a product of -centuries of evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>This humanity will move forward to higher planes -of existence, and a spiritual plenitude—of which -aestheticism is by no means the crown and glory, -but only an imperfect foretaste—by two convergent -paths trodden concurrently. These are a steady -growth in social qualities and the happiness that -flows from these qualities, the creation, in short, -of organic socialism; and the opening up outwardly -of channels of sympathy and community of interests -throughout the whole nation, causing the banishment -of class distinctions, the establishment of -an organized socialism. Perfection in art is not -the appropriate ideal for this age, but perfection in -social life, and it is not from a love of art to a love -of mankind and the practices of moral rectitude -that our masses will advance. It is by the practice -of all the humanities on ever broader, deeper lines, -until the nation, vibrating with harmonized life, -frames new visions of art, and strengthens all the -well-springs of art’s creation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The aestheticism that belongs exclusively to -one social class neither elevates general morals -nor produces the noblest art. Its narrowing influences -are exemplified in Lord Chesterfield’s -advice to his son: “If you love music, go to operas, -concerts, and pay fiddlers to play to you; but I -insist on your neither piping nor fiddling yourself. -It puts a gentleman in a contemptible light; ... few things would mortify me more than to see -you bearing a part in a concert with a fiddle under -your chin.” Lord Chesterfield belonged to a past -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>century, but the spirit of his thought is not dead; -it manifests prominently to-day. In my own -experience a lady novelist was invited to a London -At Home, and accepted conditionally. If evening -costume were necessary she must decline, but if -less ceremonious dress were permissible she would -gladly appear, and the hostess consenting, she -did so. Now I heard a large group of middle-class -ladies passionately condemning this action, -on the ground that aestheticism had been outraged -and the rules of society set at nought by -a blot in rooms otherwise beautiful. Yet the -novelist had been tastefully attired, that was -freely admitted. She had sinned merely in nonconformity -to fashion and in covering her neck -and arms. Can we seriously believe that the -type of humanity to which these ladies belong -is developing the liberal mind which alone may -create and support the highest morality, the noblest -art? Are we not compelled to recognize the -truth of Mr. J. H. Levy’s profound remark: “In -the present stage of human progress the aesthetic -and the moral are conterminate at neither end. -Aesthetic emotion may be roused in us by that -which is ethically odious, and moral feeling may -be called up by that which is artistically ugly.” -(<cite>The National Reformer.</cite>)</p> - -<p class='c004'>The true ethical temper is engendered by a -complexity of social attractions issuing in an inward -sense of justice and the delicate equipoise -of natural rights between <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">meum</span></i> and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuum</span></i>. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>task before us is to unite the half-conscious, instinctive -justice already existent with an intellectual -apprehension and clear understanding of -right and wrong, in other words, to complete -the modern conscience; and in view of this task -we must distinctly realize that the sentiment of -what is proper and improper in conventional -society has no ethical value, and is a false guide -to conduct.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>RAPACITY, PRIDE, LOVE OF PROPERTY</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The facts which it is at once most important and most -difficult to appreciate are what may be called the facts of -feeling.—<span class='sc'>Lecky.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>The area of man’s emotional life is one of vast -magnitude. It lies behind the scenes of his outward -existence, yet it interpenetrates the social -structure throughout, and stretches beyond it to -distances we know not whence or whither. Mysterious -as this region is, no sooner does man aspire -to control the social forces of collective life, as he -already largely controls the natural forces of -physical life, than he is compelled to apply his -reason scientifically to the phenomena of human -emotions, and to contemplate, trace out and master -there the general features of the process of evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the case of personal development the task -is comparatively easy. A child’s feelings are -simple, not compound. For the most part they -seem vague and indefinite, always fleeting and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>evanescent; but as the child grows his powers -of feeling grow likewise and alter in character. -Their childish simplicity passes away; they augment -in mass, they become complex, more permanent -and coherent in their nature, and far -more delicate in susceptibility. Consequently the -breadth of range, the depth and richness of emotion -possible in an adult, as compared with the emotions -of a child, are as the music of an organ to the sweet -notes that lie within the compass of a penny whistle.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In racial development evolution of feeling has -not pursued one invariable course. Distinctive -sentiments and modes of feeling characterize the -different races of mankind as well as distinctive -outward features, and the impressing on a plastic -race of these divergent states of feeling is mainly, -though not entirely, due to external conditions—not -climatic and geographical conditions only, -but also the form of civilization that had taken -root and moulded the habits and customs of the -race. Greek civilization, for instance, tended to -develop largely the aesthetic group of feelings, -while in Scotland these feelings, through outward -influences I must not pause to consider, have been -stunted in growth, and moral sentiments have had -a deeper and firmer development.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Amongst barbarous tribes of men the violent -emotions—anger, fear, jealousy, revenge—generally -speaking, hold sway; but there are also in various -parts of the world uncivilized communities where -these fierce passions are little known, and where, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>in consequence of the absence of warlike surroundings, -the gentle, tender sentiments that have for -their foundation family ties and peaceful social -life, prevail, and are considerably developed.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The conditions of emotional evolution in a given -race, then, are complex. We have to bear in -mind a threefold environment—cosmic, planetary, -social—pressing upon individual life and powerfully -swaying the emotional part of it. Social -environment is pre-eminently potent in modifying -emotional characteristics; yet the prime factor -of change in social environment springs from this -region of feeling, and this factor may, under -rational guidance, take a path of direct and rapid -progression.</p> - -<p class='c004'>British civilization is the product of a turbulent, -militant stage of evolution, an epoch of military -glory, followed by a long period of industrial development -and commercial activity. We inherit -a survival of virtues and vices from each of these -evolutional stages. To the first we attribute our -courage, independence and proper pride, both -national and individual; and we are apt to suppose -that without the experience of military glory -our manly John Bull would have been a milk-sop. -That may or may not be true; but when we infer -that the above characteristics depend fundamentally -and absolutely upon a military environment -we are vastly mistaken. Observe what is -said by travellers and missionaries of certain unwarlike -tribes found in India and the Malay Peninsula. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>The Jakuns are inclined, we are told, to -gratitude and beneficence, their tendency being -not to ask favours, but to confer them. The -Arifuras have a very excusable ambition to gain the -name of rich men by paying the debts of their -poorer fellow-villagers! One gentle Arifura, who -had hoped to be chosen chief of his village and -was not, met his disappointment with the spirit -of a philosopher and philanthropist, saying: -“What reason have I to grieve? I still have it -in my power to assist my fellow-villagers.” When -brought into contact with men of an opposite -type—hardy, fierce and turbulent, they have no -tendency to show the white feather. The amiable -Dhimal is independent and courageous, and resists -“with dogged obstinacy” injunctions that are -urged injudiciously. The Jakun is extremely -proud—his pride showing itself in refusals to be -domesticated and made useful to men of a different -race and therefore alien to himself. The simple-minded -Santal has a “strong natural sense of -justice, and should any attempt be made to coerce -him, he flies the country. The Santal is courteous -and hospitable, whilst at the same time he is free -from cringing.” Dalton writes of the Hos—a -tribe belonging to the same group as the Santals—“a -reflection on a man’s honesty or veracity -may be sufficient to send him to self-destruction”; -and of the Lepchas, Hooker says, “In all my dealings -with them they have proved scrupulously -honest.... They cheer on the traveller by their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>unostentatious zeal in his service, and when a -present is given to them, it is divided equally -among many without a syllable of discontent or -a grudging look or word.”<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. Herbert Spencer, <cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, vol. 2, pp. 628, -630, 631.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>From these facts we gather that a number of -virtues associated in our minds with Western -civilization are present amid barbarous tribes, -and that the vices associated by us with barbarism—cruelty, -dishonesty, treachery, selfishness—are -in some cases glaringly absent. Human nature -is not dependent on culture or Christianity to -humanize and make it lovable. There is that in -the very groundwork of its nature which renders -it capable of developing, under favourable conditions, -into what is admirable, pure and gracious. -The traits given us of these peoples show virtue, -truth, generosity, moral courage and justice, and -what nobler, more elevated sentiments have as -yet been found in civilized man?</p> - -<p class='c004'>The favourable conditions are an entire absence -of warlike surroundings and warlike training, -hence an absence also of any inheritance of warlike -proclivities. These tribes “have remained unmolested -for generation after generation; they -have inflicted no injuries on others.” Their social -or unselfish feelings have been fostered and nourished -by the sympathetic intercourse of a peaceful -life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In a purely military state unselfish feelings are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>necessarily repressed, whilst the bold, keen, hard -and cruel side of human nature is liberally developed. -To hate an enemy and avenge an injury are manly -virtues. The predatory instincts are useful and -approved. Treachery is not discredited, and the -man clever enough to take advantage of an enemy -and successfully intrigue against him may be -ranked among the gods! The plunderer who -falters not in keen pursuit of prey and in the hour -of victory shows relentless cruelty is deemed heroic. -No thought of happiness or misery to others gives -him pause; military glory is his absorbing aim, -and in the intervals of peace his callous nature -manifests in ruling with tyrannic power slavish -subordinates, who bend and cringe before him.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now let us glance at two of these militant -characteristics, viz. rapacity and personal pride, -with a view to observe how their survival into -our industrial epoch has vitiated the national -life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The purely militant stage of British development -has passed, and the outward form of our collective -life is industrial, not military. A sanguinary -path of glory has no intrinsic fascination for our -people, and there is no national desire to conquer -and rule over races established on other parts -of the earth’s surface, however superior to ours -may be their climate and quarters. Nevertheless, -within the last half century we have fought battles -and shed blood copiously in China, Persia, Afghanistan, -Abyssinia, Egypt, South Africa and elsewhere. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>Seldom, however, has the nation itself -clamoured for war. In the year 1854 a relapse -into militant mood occurred, and, in spite of unwillingness -on the part of individual rulers, the -Government yielded to a sinister wave of barbaric -feeling in the nation—a martial frenzy that -impelled to the Crimean War. Since that period -wars have originated from other causes than the -will of the nation. Our people, immersed in a -painful struggle for livelihood at home, are indifferent -to the rights and wrongs of the many -squabbles into which we flounder abroad. General -malevolence has no part in this matter; our real -collective attitude towards foreigners is one of -friendliness, combined with an impulse to the -peaceful exchange of commodities, kind words and -gentle arts—the whole provocative of love, not -hatred.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The fundamental causes of war, then, have -been: first, the commercial interests of a capitalist -class, or, if expressed in terms of feeling, the desire -in that class for increased wealth—a desire partly -the product of inherited rapacity, a sentiment -descended to us from our militant epoch; second, -national pride—a pride which has kindled animosities, -embroiled us in disputes and dragged us -into wars, the pettiness of whose small beginnings -is only matched by the pettiness of British conduct -throughout their whole extent. But both this -rapacity and this national pride belong almost -exclusively to our ruling classes. Their existence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>is explained by the action of outward conditions -on special sections of the community. The British -passed suddenly out of a period of constant fighting -and feud into a period of frantic industrial activity. -Feudal chiefs and their descendants became grasping -landlords. There also sprang up a class of -sharp-witted, keen-sighted men, whose native -rapacity strengthened in the genial hot-bed of -our brilliant commercial success. A tremendous -start in the international race after wealth was -secured to Great Britain by her possession of iron, -coal, etc. She absorbed riches from every quarter -of the globe, and mercantile triumph swelled the -pride already deeply implanted in our industrial -organizers, our politicians and plenipotentiaries. -The great mass of the people were differently -affected by industrial conditions. Workers of -every description, packed together in towns and -factories, rapidly developed the qualities of intimate -social life, and out-grew, in the main, the -savage instincts of militancy. Our commercial -wars and Imperialistic policy are fruits—not of -the nation’s brutality, its greed, or its pride, but -of its simple ignorance and its blind trust in individuals -peculiarly unfitted by inheritance and -personal bias to guide it aright in relations with -other, and especially with weaker, nations. All -the wars of recent times—a record of cruel bloodshed -causing needless sorrow and suffering to the -innocent—have been instigated by the ruling -classes under the dominion of rapacity and pride. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>When these ruling classes are dispossessed of -supreme power, and civilized democracies assume -public responsibility with political supremacy, the -day of disarming of nations will dawn. The world’s -workers who, apart from their rulers, have no tendency -to undue accumulation or national pride, -but whose bias, on the contrary, is towards sympathetic -co-operation in industry, will strenuously -seek the joys and blessings of universal peace.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But although the war-spirit of the ancient Briton -dies out and general brutality declines, individual -brutality, practised privately, is common enough. -Class tyranny, sex tyranny, and much of domestic -tyranny are rampant; and the co-relative feelings, -viz. abject fear giving rise to hatred, anger, malice, -cunning and despicable meanness of soul, are all -strongly in evidence.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The industrial system that succeeded our military -system is of no genuinely social type. It is distinctly -contentious, and when we consider how -it has pressed for about a century upon a plastic -race inwardly prone to every vice engendered by -militancy, the matter for surprise perhaps is that -we are as good as we are.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In classifying emotional states there is a sentiment -which, if not begotten, has at least been -bred, nourished and widely diffused during our -industrial epoch—I mean the sentiment, love of -property. On no subject are opposite opinions -more strongly and disputatiously held than on -the question of the nature and value of this sentiment. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>It is claimed by some as not only the chief -support of present-day society, but the prime -evolutional factor of our entire civilization. A -savage only cares to secure the things he is in -immediate need of. He lacks imagination to -picture what he may want to-morrow, also intelligence -to provide for future contingencies and -sympathetic desire to provide for the wants of -others.</p> - -<p class='c004'>No sooner, however, does an established government -give safe protection to individual property -than prudence and forethought appear. The man -who acquires property soon surrounds himself -with comforts, and inspires in others the desire -to follow his example. Social wealth accumulates, -and energies are set free for further development. -Some social units become complex, intellectual -tastes and love of travel arise, and works -of art—the treasure-trove of earlier civilizations—are -impounded to lay the foundation of artistic -life in the later civilization. Aesthetic culture -now grows rapidly. Painting, poetry, music -abound, and men may be lifted above the meaner -cares of existence to an inward freedom, where -sympathy expands through the exercise of elevated -thought and feeling. Is not love of property, -then, a sentiment to honour and conserve? Its -genesis and history certainly command respect; -but the already quoted case of the Podhalians -proves that by no means is it an essential in human -evolution. To that primitive people, as Dr. Le Bon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>has shown, riches have no charms; they are poor, -living principally upon oats made into cakes and -goat’s milk. They enjoy perfect health and live -long. They are quick in apprehension, fond of -dancing, singing, music and poetry. There is -clearly no development here of the property-sense, -yet the Podhalians have a very considerable development -of that group of emotions we term -aesthetic and regard as an evidence of high refinement -and culture. We are not therefore logically -entitled to claim that were British love of property -and British cupidity greatly diminished, art as a -consequence must needs decay and the race revert -into barbarism.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Herbert Spencer tells us “that in some established -societies there has been a constant exercise -of the feeling which is satisfied by a provision for -the future, and a growth of this feeling so great -that it now prompts accumulation to an extent -beyond what is needful.” (1st vol. of <cite>Essays</cite>, -2nd series, p. 132.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>That point has been overpassed by the British. -What we have now to struggle against are varied -evils arising from a glut of national wealth (but -I do not mean by this term commodities of intrinsic -value, only wealth representing an acknowledged -claim on the labour of others) and a frightful -inflation of the sentiments allied with wealth, -which at one time were useful, but for generations -have been producing outward vice and inward -misery and corruption.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>The British merchant goes on accumulating long -after he has amply provided for himself and family, -and many a poor man feels towards that other’s -wealth precisely as a savage feels towards his -fetish. He is filled with reverence, admiration, -desire and a sense of distance from the golden calf -that makes him hopeless, abject, despairing.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The American millionaire, as depicted by Mr. -Howells, will, “on a hot day, when the mortal -glare of the sun blazes in upon heart and brain, -plot and plan in his New York office till he swoons -at the desk.” Such a man is as much a victim -to over-development of acquisitiveness as the -drunkard is victim to an undue development of -the love of stimulants, and in each case the depraved -taste carries ruin to the individual and -havoc into society. Social unity is rent in twain. -A life of exuberant wealth and extravagant expenditure -runs parallel with one of constant, inescapable -poverty, and so long as the nation continues -to heap up riches in private possession, -just so long must we reap an emotional harvest -of envy, malice, private animosities, class hatreds -and a subtle estrangement of heart throughout the -length and breadth of the land. Yet even the -great poet Tennyson in his writings exalts into a -worthy motive for holy wedlock this sentiment—love -of property. An affectionate father, in the -poem, “The Sisters,” exhorts his daughters thus: -“One should marry, or ... all the broad lands -will pass collaterally”!</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>The small accumulator whose petty hoard of gold -was gloated over piece by piece has long been -labelled miser. He is publicly condemned, and -in literature derided. But the merchant-prince -who, already wealthy, devotes days and years -and his whole mind and heart to business; the -proprietor of broad lands who adds acre to acre, -and anxiously meditates on their passing collaterally; -the rich capitalist who craftily seeks to lower -wages in the interests of employers; the gambler -on the Stock Exchange; the market manipulator -whose predatory instincts are so pleasurably excited -by risks and gains that he will hazard in the game -all that nobler men hold precious—these beings, -I say, are as worthy of scorn and infinitely more -baneful than the miser. They must take their -true place by his side in public estimation. They -are social deformities, morally diseased. In other -words, these men are incapable of moral duty, -which consists in “the observance of those rules -of conduct that contribute to the welfare of society—the -end of society being peace and mutual protection, -so that the individual may reach the fullest -and highest life attainable by man.” (<cite>Huxley’s -Life</cite>, vol. ii. p. 305.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the preceding chapter I have shown that -the self-regarding sentiment exercised with due -consideration for the welfare of others is a social -virtue. It promotes national prosperity and personal -improvement. But self-regarding actions, -induced by this master-passion over-acquisitiveness, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>invariably issue in automatic selfishness and -general deterioration.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In regard to aesthetic emotions also the cleavage -between rich and poor has a fatal significance. A -luxurious, idle, for the most part, inane, life led -by the rich, profoundly influences the poor; not -by creating anti-social feeling only, but by checking -aesthetic development. In the city of many -slums there is also a west-end of gay shops filled -with objects <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">de luxe</span></i>, of showily dressed women, -profligate men, theatre, music-hall and ball-room -entrances, at which to stand gazing as into a -fairy peep-show. Suggestion here plays a mischievous -part. Poverty hinders the purchase of -all commodities that possess any real artistic value, -but commercial enterprise has flooded the markets -with meretricious imitations. East-end shops reflect -the glitter and glow of west-end attractions, -and the ignorant, spell-bound by suggestion, become -possessors of that which degrades and vulgarizes -taste or the sense of the beautiful. Now -that science partially dominates thought, our -eyes have been opened to the fact of essential -unity in human groups. We may trace the cause -of a social evil to a special section or class, but -the effects of that cause radiate forth till they touch -<em>every</em> section or class. Dwellers in the west-end -cannot escape disease propagated by the vilely -unwholesome conditions of life at the east-end. -Micro-organisms of disease are wafted from hither -to thither, and on the physical plane social unity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>is recognized. A like continuity exists on the -non-physical side. Minds are as closely united -by psychical law as bodies by physical law. The -experienced facts of hypnotism make this clear, -and the logical inference is that in Western civilization -the vices of wealthy classes infect and corrupt -the masses.</p> - -<p class='c004'>That the imagination of the great mass of our -people should be snared and their evolutional -progress thwarted by mental suggestion from a -banal, vicious life led by a comparatively small -portion of the nation, is an outrage on civilization. -It renders it imperative that the cause of this evil, -viz., our contentious, i.e. our competitive system -of industry, should be fundamentally changed.</p> - -<p class='c004'>For every group of human beings the steady -growth of those social qualities which create happiness -and the steady advance in intellectual, -aesthetic and spiritual life, depend on a close community -of interests and the constant opening up -of fresh channels of sympathy throughout the -group. But the British racial group has lost this -community of interests—this primary condition -of steady growth. It is split up into, first, a class -of property possessors made effeminate by ill-spent -leisure, often inflated by pride, and at all -times demanding the artificial pleasures of a -luxurious life; second, a class striving to amass -property, a class whose thoughts and desires circle -round and centre in property, and who to acquire -it often sacrifice serenity of mind, health of body, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>and even life itself; and third, the mass of the -people who, having no property, are yet enslaved -by it, and who on the emotional side of their human -nature are debased and corrupted by the mental -state of the classes.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As evolution approaches the era of manhood -of human reason it becomes conscious, and demands -a national effort to improve. That effort -first appears in the strenuous, scientific study of -life as it is, in attempts at social reconstruction, -and at improvement in public and private education. -It is seen to be necessary to stamp out all -the militant and predatory instincts of mankind -by ethical nurture and training, while all the gentle, -gracious qualities of mankind must be carefully -guarded and nourished, until, in every social unit -the effort to improve is habitual, i.e. has become -“the essential mode of its being.” (J. McGavin -Sloan.)</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>PERSONAL JEALOUSY—NATIONAL PATRIOTISM</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c006'> - <div>“Jealousy is cruel as the grave.”</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c018'>We shall progress faster by diligent striving to fashion -the feeling of the time and stir it from the intellectual -apathy which is the chiefest curse of the State.—<span class='sc'>Alex. M. -Thomson.</span></p> - -<p class='c018'>The danger that confronts the new century is the recrudescence -of racial antipathies and national animosities.—<span class='sc'>Hermann -Adler.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>The passion of jealousy has a long and significant -history, and a pedigree more ancient than the -allied sentiment, love of property, which has just -been considered. The passion was useful to the -welfare of the tribe at an early period, but it survives -as purely a vice in the midst of consolidated -nations, for it is essentially anti-social, not necessary -to general welfare, and impossible to be exercised -sympathetically or for the good of others. -If I am jealous it means that I have a source of -personal delight that I would guard from others -and monopolise if I could. The happiness may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>be self-produced or rest on a being whom I love. -In both cases it causes within me fears of interference, -suspicion of my fellows, and a general -tendency to dislike, nay, even to hate them if -they dare to meddle with my secret joy. The -emotion is fundamentally selfish, and when an -individual is sympathetic all round he becomes -incapable of it. He has risen above the egoistic -passion of jealousy.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Mr. Darwin tells us that amongst savages addicted -to “intemperance, utter licentiousness and unnatural -crimes, no sooner does marriage, whether -polygamous or monogamous, become common than -jealousy leads to the inculcation of female virtue.” -This gives the clue to the problem of jealousy’s -evolutional value. It has played a part in the -destiny of woman, and tended to shape her -emotional nature. Its history is inextricably intertwined -with hers, in all the varying degrees of -servitude that mark her slow advance from a -condition of absolute chattelism to one of rational -equality with man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>By virtue of superior strength man has acted -on the theory that he was made for God, and -woman for him! and in the process of establishing -his dominancy jealousy appeared and aided powerfully -the gradual development of a new emotion—constancy, -a social grace and virtue as certain to -wax and grow as jealousy is to wane and slowly -disappear.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In literature one finds a reflection of the entire -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>history of jealousy and all its consecutive changes -from barbarous times through the ages, when frequent -duels witnessed to the honourable place -it held in public estimation down to the present -day, when it is somewhat discredited, and duelling—in -Great Britain at least—has ceased altogether. -To track this history were impossible here; I -can only point to one or two significant pictures.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The play of “Othello” depicts the barbarous social -conditions in which jealousy flourishes. Shakespeare -reveals both the anti-social nature of the -passion and the intellectual weakness of the mind -that harbours it. “Trifles light as air,” says Iago, -“are to the jealous confirmation strong as proofs -of holy writ.” And in effect Othello is incapable -of sifting evidence. The poor device of the stolen -handkerchief seals the fate of Desdemona! -Woman’s subject position is plainly set forth, and -the foundations of the passion in masculine master-hood -and pride of power are fully exposed. Othello’s -wife must be his slave and puppet. “Out of my -sight,” he cries, and patiently she goes. “Mistress,” -he calls, and she returns. “You did wish,” -he says to Lodovico, “that I would make her -turn.” Desdemona is the very type of patient, -gentle, enslaved womanhood, the ideal woman -of a rough, brutal age. Her father describes her -as—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>A maiden never bold;</div> - <div class='line'>Of spirit so still and quiet, that her motion</div> - <div class='line'>Blush’d at herself.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>Observe, however, inwardly she is more advanced -than the men. She perceives the low -nature of jealousy, and to Emilia says touchingly, -“My noble Moor is true of mind, and made of no -such baseness as jealous creatures are.” Alas, -for her generous confidence! And when the base -passion transforms her “noble Moor” into a -monster of cruelty, she, true to the type of her -sex at the period, resembles a pet dog that fawns -upon and licks the hand that strikes him. This -patient moan is all her utterance—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>’Tis meet I should be used so, very meet,</div> - <div class='line'>How have I been behaved that he might stick</div> - <div class='line'>The small’st opinion on my least misuse.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>The only dignity she shows is in her refusal to -display her sorrow before Emilia:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in4'>Do not talk to me, Emilia;</div> - <div class='line'>I cannot weep, nor answer I have none.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Jealousy and duelling flourished long after the -Shakesperian period. Prose fiction in the eighteenth -century is full of the subject of masculine -rivalry in the appropriation of the female sex. -The woman passionately desired is the prize or -reward of a victory in which the hero has manifested -adroitness in arts of bloodshed. Feminine -will plays no part in the decision to which man -the heroine shall belong, and the rivals for her -possession make no pretence of superior character -as a claim on her favour. The gentle spiritual -qualities that alone create union of heart and mind -seem unknown. Master-hood, an apotheosis of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>force, is the key to the drama; and the rapid rise -of the novel in public esteem shows that pleasurable -sensations were closely allied with the barbarous -actions and feelings that belong to a militant age.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Early in the nineteenth century George Eliot -draws the hero of her first great novel (<cite>Adam Bede</cite>) -in the act of picking a quarrel with a rival for a -woman’s love. She shows jealousy in him springing -chiefly from a sense of property in Hetty. -The wounded pride and self-importance of a too -despotic nature finds relief in fighting Arthur -Donnithorne. In <cite>Middlemarch</cite> the transition to -a higher stage of evolution is marked. She gives -us there a graphic picture of a woman wrestling -with jealousy in the secrecy of her own chamber, -and correctly places in the tenderly emotional -nature of that sex the primary impulse to subdue -the vile passion. Female jealousy made no appeal -to arms, but in a thousand subtle ways it was -sending forth currents of anti-social force, and -without a widespread feminine repudiation of -jealousy no clear advance to higher social life was -possible. Dorothea is a true type of progressing -womanhood. She gains a victory in the noble -warfare we see her waging inwardly, and, rising -far above the vile passion, she goes forth to her -rival in a glow of generous emotion that not only -compels the confidence of the latter, but for the -time draws that selfish, narrow nature up to the -level of her own.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is no false note in this picture, and if we -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>glance at the transcript of real life at the period -we may easily find its counterpart. The well-known -writer, Mrs. Jamieson (in her <cite>Commonplace -Book</cite>) relates: “I was not more than six years -old when I suffered, from the fear of not being -loved, and from the idea that another was preferred -before me, such anguish as had nearly killed -me! Whether those around me regarded it as -a fit of ill-temper or a fit of illness I do not know. -I could not then have given a name to the pang -that fevered me, but I never forgot that suffering. -It left a deep impression, and the recollection was -so far salutary that in after life I guarded myself -against the approaches of that hateful, deformed, -agonizing thing which men call jealousy, as I -would from an attack of cramp or cholera. If -such self-knowledge has not saved me from the -pain, at least it has saved me from the demoralizing -effects of the passion, by a wholesome terror and -even a sort of disgust.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The knell of a departing phase of inner life was -sounding when womanhood acquired the power -to sift evidence from childish recollections, to -detect the utter uselessness of the suffering jealousy -creates and the ignominy of allowing it to become -a cause of suffering at all.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Mrs. Jamieson stands on the threshold of a new -era, for critical intellect here enters the sphere -of the emotions, and these, yielding to guidance -and control, human reason is henceforth a prime -factor in emotional evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>But further, sympathy when developed to a -certain point inevitably leads men astray if not -guided by reason. Let me here relate a sequence -of events that occurred in my own experience.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Two girls became deeply attached; they worked -and studied together, and their friendship was a -source of constant joy. In course of time, however, -one married, and the other girl felt forsaken. -She suffered from jealousy, and imagined that the -husband would suffer similarly if she kept her -place in her friend’s affections. A husband’s -right amounted, in her view, to a monopoly of -a wife’s tenderness. She strove, therefore, to -loosen the bond of friendship; to cool her own -ardent affection and make no claims, lest it should -disturb conjugal bliss. The action was brave and -prompted by sympathy, but it did not make for -happiness. In a few short years the wife on her -deathbed spoke thus to her former friend: “Why -did you separate yourself from me? How could -you think my love would change? I have been -happy in my husband and child, but love never -narrowed, it widened me. There was plenty of -room for friendship, too. I sorely missed you, -and felt your loss threw a shadow over my married -life.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Sympathy alone, then, is no unerring guide to -conduct. Nevertheless, in a society permeated -by true knowledge of the nature of the emotions -and their significance in evolution primitive good-feeling -may evolve, passing through each stage -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>from the basic or simple to the complex, and every -generous emotion prove accordant with the truth -of things, and therefore productive of inward joy -and outward right action, i.e. action tending to -general welfare even in all the labyrinthine complexities -of a high civilization. <em>Emotion accordant -with the truth of things</em>—that is the crux of the -position; and again I can best illustrate the point -by reference to events that occurred within my -own knowledge—events, too, by no means uncommon. -During eight years a girl was engaged -to marry a man we shall call Roger. He was in -India and she in England. They corresponded, -but meanwhile an intimacy sprang up between -the girl and another man—we may call him Mark—to -whom unwittingly her heart went out more -warmly than it had ever done to Roger. She -thought the relation to Mark was one of pure -friendship, and he knew nothing of her engagement -to Roger. The latter’s approaching return -to England, however, opened the girl’s eyes to -her true position, and on Mark it fell as a cruel -blow. He had courted affection and responded -to it in all sincerity, and was merely withheld from -an open avowal by the consciousness of, as yet, -insufficient means to justify his suit in the eyes of -her parents. When concealment was at an end -the problem to him seemed simple enough. -“Which do you love best?” he asked, and added -dominantly, “he is the man you should marry.” -The girl was not convinced. The knowledge that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>she could not love Roger best filled her with tenderness -towards him. Her emotional nature—wide -enough to embrace both rivals with sympathy—could -give no decision, and intellect was confused -by false teaching in childhood. “Duty,” she -thought, “is always difficult; ought I not then -to choose the hardest path of the two before me, -and give up Mark?” In this grave dilemma -she turned for advice to an elderly man on whose -judgment she felt reliance. Bravely and truthfully -she stated her case, innocently betraying -that ignorance and the wish to do right were dangerously -near carrying her into action that was -wrong. “Let us reverse the position,” said her -mentor. “Roger, we shall suppose, has written -to you to come out to India and marry him, the -fact being he has fallen in love with another girl. -He did not mean to do that. His heart slipped -away from you to her unconsciously, and he is -shocked, and blames himself, not wholly without -cause. But being an honourable man, he reasons -with himself thus: ‘I am bound to keep my engagement -to Mary; I will do so, and strive to -make her happy.’ He meets you then with a lie -in his heart, not on his tongue, for he will say -nothing of your rival and of his sacrifice and pain. -Would you be happy, think you? Would you -miss nothing? And if later you discovered the -truth, would you feel that the generous action was -a just one to you?” “No, no,” she cried, “I -never could wish him to sacrifice his happiness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>to mine; I would infinitely rather he told me the -truth, and married the other girl.” “Precisely -so,” said her friend, “the truth is always best; -but I see you think Roger is less unselfish than -you are! Is that just to him?” “I hardly -know,” she murmured, “men are jealous, are -they not?” “Jealous, ah, well, we men are -frail, no doubt! But were I Roger, I tell you -frankly, it would not mend matters to me that -I had won my wife without the priceless jewel of -her love. Be true to yourself, my young friend, -that means also justice to him, and fling to the -winds all fears that make you swerve from the path -of open rectitude.” The girl fulfilled her difficult -task. She relinquished the heroic mood, met -her first lover with perfect candour, and a short -time later became Mark’s wife. “Roger freed -me at once,” she said to her wise mentor; “he’d -rather have my friendship, which is perfectly -sincere, than love with a strain of falseness. Oh, -I am glad, and yet I know he grieves; I would -give much to be able to console him!” “Ah,” -said her friend, “beware of sentimentality and -self-importance there. Roger’s consolation will -come through his own true heart. In time he -will love again. See to it that you ‘let the dead -past bury its dead.’”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Loyalty to truth is not firmly rooted in humanity, -while without truth as its guiding principle social -feeling, constantly rising, overflows old channels -and floods with new dangers the semi-civilization -<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>of the present. There is no escape at this juncture -from the absolute necessity of developing the -critical faculty and applying it to the social questions -of the day; in other words, using reason, -intelligence, knowledge, as the guides and controllers -of feeling.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We turn now from personal emotions to an -emotion that sways mankind collectively, and manifests -itself in still more direful results than those of -individual jealousy. Patriotism, like jealousy, is -of ancient origin, and at one time possessed social -utility. Without it there could hardly have occurred -the transformation of vagrant tribes into -massive communities solidly established on one -portion of the earth’s surface and sectionally -swarming to other portions as occasion requires.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The original element holding a tribe together -has been termed by a recent sociologist “consciousness -of kind,” i.e. a feeling not dependent on -intellectual congeniality or emotional sympathy, -but simply on nearness in place, time and blood. -With tribal growth cohesion proves necessary to -self-protection from adverse environments, whether -of natural forces, wild animals or human foes. -Experience reveals that union is strength, and -hostility to other tribes fosters union in opposition. -The inward attitude becomes complex; it embraces -cohesion and repulsion; it is essentially -a <em>union in enmity</em>. Now we have seen how in -boyhood an innocent camaraderie or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de -corps</span></i> begets injustice to schoolmasters, and balks -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>the development of the modern conscience; similarly -here there are ethical dangers inseparable -from a sentiment that beginning in “consciousness -of kind” expands into sociality, yet has a -converse side of hostility and hate. At the present -day patriotism and international warfare are -closely combined. The student of life who knows -that the general trend of evolution is towards a -reign of universal peace, recognizes that although -nations have been consolidated by outward warfare -and inward patriotism, this sentiment, so limited -in range and so largely anti-social, can be no virtue -for all time. Patriotism belongs to the militant -stage of national history, and as regards Great -Britain it is plainly out of date. Its action is -not good, but evil.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The war in South Africa begun in 1899 was not -caused by racial enmity, but by mercantile enterprise. -Economic forces involved in Great Britain’s -competitive commercial system were the prime -factors in its creation, but without the existence -of a vague unintelligent patriotic sentiment in -the country generally the Government would not -have been supported by the people in the prosecution -of that war. Our enfranchised masses, -fired by a sudden enthusiasm and racked by sympathy -in the brave deeds and cruel sufferings of -our soldiers and sailors, saw the phantasmagoria -of modern warfare in false colours. Imagination -was grasped and controlled by a press working—though -half-unconsciously—in the interests of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>special mercantile class; and while tender emotions -overflowed in generous help to one’s own kind, -a sympathy stimulated by public laudation, the -reverse side of the picture was ignored. But in -this, as in all wars, sympathy had its counterpoise -in antagonism and rancorous enmity. All the -brutal instincts latent in a race that had fought -its way to supremacy among European Powers -were roused afresh and stirred into fatal activity, -and the evolving modern conscience and sentiments -of justice, honour, truth towards all men, -were checked and overborne by a loyalty that -condones the fierce primitive passions. Hatred -and uncharitableness were even voiced from some -pulpits, and the term Pro-Boer was opprobriously -launched at those lovers of peace who tried to -defend their country’s foes from exaggerated blame. -It was skilfully handled to promote militant enthusiasm, -and discountenance all criticism of -militant action and feeling.</p> - -<p class='c004'>On the emotional side of human nature inimical -effects of warfare were wholly disregarded, and -opinions on the subject of war given forth by a -so-called educated class of men and eagerly imbibed -by an ignorant public were confused, often -false and shamefully misleading. One of these -pseudo-teachers alleged that the wars of past -times indicated chronic disease, but militarism -in the present was useful, because in the home-life -of the nation the restraints of authority are -becoming weak (Capt. Mahan). And an eminent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>statesman announced his impression that the -South African war was “designed to build up those -moral qualities which are after all the only solid -and the only permanent foundation on which any -empire can be built”! (Mr. Balfour’s speech at -Manchester; <cite>Scotsman’s</cite> Report, January 9, 1900.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>But the true method of judging an event is to -exercise comparison, taking into account a far -greater mass of social phenomena than that of -the immediate present. Now the careful study -of past history has proved that an outbreak of -militant fraternity, combined with indulgence in -the principle of enmity, leaves a society less fraternal -than before in regard to the labours of peace and -of building up; and against the claim that military -training is a good preparation for civic life there -lies the whole testimony of civilization. Further, -the survival of militancy frustrates the solving -of our great social problems, and the recent relapse -to the militarist ideal is a grave hindrance to that -social science which would provide the true ways -of humanizing defective types. (I refer my reader -for a fuller statement on these lines to Mr. J. M. -Robertson’s <cite>Patriotism and Empire</cite>.) “After -Waterloo,” says Mr. Robertson, “it seems to -have been realized by the intelligence of Europe -that militarism and imperialism had alike pierced -the hands that leant on them.” Nevertheless, -they reappeared, as we know, galvanized into -fatal activity in human affairs, at the close of the -nineteenth century.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>Again, the action of international capitalism -and the ideal of imperialism have been analysed -from the standpoint of social philosophy by -Mr. J. A. Hobson, an advanced and logical thinker -on economic questions. His conclusion is that -the driving forces of aggressive imperialism are -the organized influences of certain professional -and commercial classes which have definite economic -advantages to gain by assuming a spurious -patriotism, and the most potent of all these influences -emanates from the financier. The power -of financiers, exerted directly upon politicians -and indirectly through the press upon public -opinion, is, perhaps, so says Mr. Hobson, the most -serious problem in public life to-day.<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. The <cite>Contemporary Review</cite> of January, 1900.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>It is not by sanguinary conflicts in which victory -turns on superior numbers, superior arms, and -superior cunning in military tactics, that a nation’s -greatness is built up at this period of the world’s -history. What progress demands is not more -of national wealth and international power; it -is a better system of industrial life and a finer type -of humanity—men and women of clear intellectual -insight, high moral courage, unselfish instincts -and humane sentiments guiltless of narrow exclusiveness. -These men and women, discerning -ideally the best methods of building up a nation’s -greatness <em>on the happiness of its people</em>, will aid -our half-civilized races to embody that ideal on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>the physical plane, and to educate their children -to live up to it and show forth all its beauty.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the mental basis of a high spiritual life even -now our children are a reproach, for here and -there they emit sparks indicative of embryonic -sentiment in advance of practice around them. -At the height of the Boer War a child in his nursery -on being told that his nurse was opening a tin -of boar’s head for breakfast, exclaimed, every -feature quivering with sudden disgust, “Catch -me eat my enemy’s head.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>When a nation repudiates with similar disgust -that wholesale destruction of life, which is no whit -less evil than the cannibalism of an earlier date, -then will war and patriotism cease to be—their -place taken by a civilization standing firm on the -foundation of human happiness and love.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Given such outward conditions of life as are -favourable to a freer exercise of the noblest social -attributes and impulses of man, and the ethical -temper will prevail. By ethical temper I mean -not only the absence of all animosities that engender -conflict, but the presence of a strong sense -of personal rights and an equally strong protectiveness -over the rights of others—a national impulse, -in short, to an equivalence of liberty and social -comfort for all mankind. But this justice is a -supremely complex emotion—the one of all others -that demands most of human capacity. It rests -upon mental development, i.e. a universal enlargement -of mind.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>Industrial changes there must be, but these -alone will not secure progress; we need <em>true -education</em>, for in the deeper strata of existence—the -region of feeling, the movements of change -must be guided from the old order to the new. -Hence the vital importance of moral education—an -education that will create an intelligent appreciation -of truth wherever presented, and bind all -men together in loyalty to truth.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART V</em><br /> <span class='large'>EDUCATION</span><br /> <span class='small'>OR</span><br /> <span class='large'>DIRECT TRAINING OF CHILDHOOD TO THE CIVILIZED HABIT OF MIND</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c016'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>We acquire the virtues by doing the acts.</div> - <div class='line'>We become builders by building.</div> - <div class='line in38'><span class='sc'>Aristotle.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span> - <h3 class='c005'>EDUCATION</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Next in importance to the inborn nature is the acquired -nature which a person owes to his education and training; -not alone to the education which is called learning, but to -that development of character which has been evoked by -the conditions of life.—Dr. H. <span class='sc'>Maudsley</span>.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We are beginning to realize the responsibilities that -rest on each generation of adults in respect of the -life evolving around us. It is not merely the -structure and texture of civilization that is affected -by every passing generation, it is the intrinsic quality -of the human life to follow.</p> - -<p class='c004'>We have seen how the laws of heredity largely -decide the physical embodiment of the coming lives -as a resultant of the reproductive action of parents -whether motived by ethical principle or by unrestrained -animal passion. We have now to consider -the second great human factor in man’s evolution, -viz. nurture or education, which depends in its -highest terms upon sound knowledge and the -application of that knowledge by men and women -of the period. In an advanced scientific age, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>reproductive forces of man will be socially controlled -and guided to the creation of normal, i.e. healthy, -physical life; while the whole apparatus of nurture, -or the entire range of influence, playing upon childhood, -will manifest a rational adaptation of means -to a special end, namely, the elevation of humanity.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Adaptation necessarily becomes more difficult -with the growing complexities of evolving humanity, -but never has man’s intellect been stronger than -to-day to grapple with difficult problems, or so -furnished with the facts required in dealing with -this problem of education.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The marvellous scientific discoveries of the nineteenth -century and the practical uses to which these -discoveries are put, have created in man a new -attitude towards external nature. All Western -nations partake of the scientific bent. They are -interpenetrated by reverence for science, and are -conscious that its method of close observation and -study of nature is the direct road to material progress. -This bent is influencing school education. -There are few thoughtful teachers to-day who do -not recognize that some hours spent at intervals in -country lanes and fields, on the sea-shore, or in a -farm-yard, with children free to observe according -to native impulse, when followed by careful instruction -concerning the objects observed, are of -far more value than weeks of book-learning indoors.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In many parts of America “nature-studies” on -this plan are worked into the public school curriculum.<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>But adaptation implies also a fuller knowledge -of the rudimentary faculties which are to be -scientifically nurtured, and here again America has -taken the lead. In its “child-study” movement, -now spreading in this country, an effort is made to -apprehend nature’s processes in unfolding mental -powers; and the inference is that teachers may -thwart progress by traversing the true order of -mental development. This clearly indicates the -entrance of a scientific spirit into the field of education. -It shows regard for the order of nature, -willingness to be guided by knowledge of that order, -and a conviction that the laws of a child’s inner -being must be respected and no arbitrary compulsion -exercised in bringing him into harmony with the -laws of the environment.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. The schools of to-day are made more and more into -miniature worlds where children are taught how to live. -The actual industries of the world as well as its art galleries, -museums and parks are being utilized as part of public -school equipment. The children are taken to the shops, -the markets, the gardens, etc. <cite>The New Spirit of Education</cite>, -by Arthur Henry, <cite>Munsey’s Magazine</cite>, 1902.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>A child’s capacities, however, are not centred in -his intellect. On the passional side of his being, his -spontaneous impulses of desire, fear, joy, grief, love, -hatred, jealousy, etc., have to be studied, and -educative forces found for their guidance and -control. Moreover, the ultimate aim is not his -subjection to fixed rules of life, but the establishment -within the heart of the child of a supreme rule over -all his passions. And again, every child has characteristics -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>indicative of the course of development -undergone by the special race to which he belongs. -The geographical position and primitive industry -of that race, its conquests and failures in struggling -upwards from savagery to a measure of civilization—all -have left an impress in specific effects.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In respect of our formal methods of giving -instruction there is much that is open to discussion; -but the points usually raised are the best means of -teaching grammar, history, geography, arithmetic, -and so forth, not the far more important question of -how best to achieve an all-round development in -face of the organic unity and marvellous multiplicity -of qualities in the child of a civilized race. -Great improvement has taken place in every branch -of school teaching both as regards the knowledge of -teachers and the methods they adopt in imparting -the knowledge; nevertheless, these improvements -are minor matters as compared with the general -question before us.</p> - -<p class='c004'>During the rise and progress of our industrial -system based on individualism, the constant -fluctuations of trade, the competing of machinery -against human labour, the perpetual danger of -getting thrown out of work, the utter failure of -thrift as any protection from intermittent poverty—have -been factors eminently calculated to produce -a highly nervous type of humanity. Children of -that type may happily prove bright and eager amid -wretched surroundings, but it were folly to expect -them to show any impulse towards a high standard -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>of living, any outlook beyond the immediate present, -or any inherent check upon action socially immoral.</p> - -<p class='c004'>On the other hand, our city workers have sprung -mainly from an agricultural class whose scattered -families presented the defects of a low order of life -reared in isolation. Many of these defects have -been counteracted by segregation within towns, -however unfavourable in other directions that may -have proved. The close proximity of beings -affected by the same fateful conditions, the actual -sorrowing and rejoicing together have expanded -the emotional nature and engendered true sympathy. -Professor Huxley once said, “It is futile to expect a -hungry and squalid population to be anything but -violent and gross.” Yet we have an immense -population of workers, often hungry, and at all times -environed more or less by squalor, whose average -character is not violent and gross, but distinctly -humane.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Turning from the masses to the classes we find -some points of difference between the rich and the -poor, viz. differences following from the diverse -industrial conditions. Leisure, as commanded by -the rich, has made mental development possible -wherever desire prompted intellectual effort, and -the magnificent record of last century’s achievements -in discovery of truth, acquisition of knowledge, and -promotion of artistic skill, is a gain to the world at -large—a gain made possible by accumulation of -wealth unequally distributed. But intellectual -faculty has frequently been depraved through its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>devotion to wealth production. The true aims of -life are lost sight of by chiefs of industry whose -emotional nature has hardened under the daily -spectacle of struggling fellow-beings, on whose labour -their fortunes are built up. The dignity of useful -labour has had no vogue in general education. An -opposite principle—that the highest dignity consists -in being served by others and in possessing -the means of constraining and exploiting the labour -of others, is impressed on the children of our -classes by the whole play of circumstance around -them. The property-sense has become unduly -developed, and a selfish mammon-worship holds the -place which an altruistic public spirit ought to hold -in the inner life of a civilized people. It is true that -a showy charity—a patronage by the rich of the -poor—is everywhere present throughout society, but -that which creates and supports it is a sentiment -wholly different from the simple kindness of the -poor to the poor. It is without the essential features -of that charity that “vaunteth not itself, is not puffed -up, seeketh not her own ... thinketh no evil.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now the scientific spirit of to-day, in observing -the uncontrolled play of middle-class children, has -discovered how great is their interest and joy in the -spontaneous exercise of the faculty of make-believe. -Costly toys will readily be thrown aside to take part -in a game of “pretended” housekeeping or shopkeeping, -or acting the part of father, mother, nursemaid, -or cook. And herein there lies, says one of -our advanced teachers, “a powerful hint how to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>keep children’s attention alive while cultivating -to the utmost their imaginative, observing, constructive -and correlating faculties. We must dramatize -our school education and connect school ideally -with real life.” (Mr. Howard Swan; his introductory -lecture at the opening of Bedford Park School.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>But the “powerful hint” goes deeper. It points -to an instinct or a deeply implanted desire and -capacity for actual work on the part of children of -a practical race. To play at work is pleasurable, -to do work more pleasurable still. Yet in blindness -to the fact that in drawing out into action every -rudimentary faculty favourable to happy life lies the -true path of education or an all-round development, -society has shut off middle and upper-class children -from the sight and hearing of household labour. In -nurseries, amid artificial toys, their daily routine is -to seek amusement self-centred; and as in these -days of small rather than large families, nursery -children are often solitary, there is a systematic -repression both of natural activities and infolded -natural emotions. The same repressions are carried -forward into school life. Dramatized teaching may -connect school ideally with real life, but it cannot -satisfy a child’s cravings for the real, and the -companionship of children of similar age will never -call out the complex forces of a many-sided emotional -nature. It is not playing at life that is -required for education, it is the sharing of life’s -duties of service, and constant opportunity given -for the practice of varied humanities.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>The children of our superior workers may perchance -fare better if the mother is a capable woman, -and the home not overcrowded. The lighter parts -of her work are shared by the little ones, and to help -mother in sweeping and dusting, washing cups and -saucers, and placing them neatly in the cupboard, -etc., are not only interesting and useful occupations, -they are educative, for they imply a simultaneous -training of the eye, the fingers, the mental faculties -and the heart. But overcrowding, the miserable -housing of the poor, and the early age at which -infant school-life begins, makes such home-training -difficult even to the best of mothers, while to the -upper classes—frost-bound in artificial domestic -customs, all home-training seems impossible.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Nothing, however, should deter a student of -evolution from proclaiming that the home-life of our -people will largely decide the nation’s future. -Unless the great problem of the housing of the poor -is rightly solved, and unless educated women become -roused to the necessity of a changed home-life in the -interests of their children, and set themselves voluntarily -to the task of domestic reform within their -own circle, the social state can never be greatly -improved.</p> - -<p class='c004'>All children born in a civilized nation have a right -to education. That this principle has been fully -acknowledged is evidenced by our Educational Acts -and the innumerable Board Schools that stud the -country. But as long as population among the -masses rises without check, the highest aim of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>education, viz. the development and elevation of -individual character must, as regards their children, -remain in abeyance. The only practicable line of -action is to gather them together into large schools, -and while bestowing general instruction in reading, -writing, arithmetic, etc., to subject them to some -hours of systematic guidance and control. This -signifies obedience to rule and order—a useful -discipline to juveniles of Bohemian nature, and it is -the only method of restraining tendencies to licence, -without rousing a spirit of revolt. Fresh air, wholesome -food, ample bathing, and the play of sunlight -and colour upon nerves of sensation—these stimulate -bodily health, while music, and the personal -influence of high-minded teachers, throw into -vibration finer nerves of sensibility, and elevate the -mental and moral tone. But beyond this point, -large schools are incapable of scientific adaptation -to the needs of a modern education in a rapidly -socializing community.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It was in the year 1837 that there issued from the -press a work on education written by Isaac Taylor, -who there lays down this proposition: “If large -schools were granted to be generally better adapted -to the practical ends of education than private -instruction, the welfare of society on the whole -demands also the other method. The school-bred -man is of one sort, the home-bred man of another—the -community has need of both. Hence no -tyranny of fashion is more to be resisted than such -as would render a public education compulsory and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>universal.”<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a> Notwithstanding this warning, the -tyranny of fashion is carrying us yearly more and -more into the production of school-bred women, as -well as school-bred men. Our girls’ high schools -are replicas of our boys’ public schools, and society -suffers still more from the loss of the home-bred -woman than the home-bred man.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. <cite>Home Education</cite>, p. 22.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Again, the late Professor D’Arcy W. Thompson, -in his charmingly-written <cite>Day-dreams of a Schoolmaster</cite>, -gives us the fruits of a ripe experience gained -during twelve years of boyhood in a large public -school, and many years of manhood as teacher of -classics in schools and university. His boyhood, -he tells us, was dreary because of the monotonous -routine. He was “fed on dull books, and the -manuals were in many cases mere tramways to -pedantry. His mental training was a continuous -sensation of obstruction and pain. His spiritual parts -were furrowed.” (Observe, there were no nature-studies -at that period.) The incitement to effort -was the cane or the tawse, and flogging, he believes, -never instils courage, it has transformed many a -boy into a sneak. “Let us discard punishment,” -says the Professor, “and endeavour to make our -pupils <em>love</em> work.” The whole educational system in -his day was mechanical and artificial, yet when he -strove to initiate new methods the boys were withdrawn -from his charge. Parents understood little -of true education. They were slaves to custom. -“How is it,” he asks, “that fathers with a personal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>experience like my own send their boys to school?” -He answers: “They say to themselves, ‘Depend -upon it if there were no virtue in birching and -caning, in Latin verses and Greek what-you-may-call-’ems, -they would not have held their ground so -long amongst a practical people like ourselves!’ -So Johnnie is sent to the town grammar school and -the great time-honoured gerund-stone turns as -before, and will turn to the last syllable of recorded -time.” For the gerund-stone he would substitute -an easy <i><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">vivâ voce</span></i> conversational method of instruction -in all elementary classes, and throughout the -school; for coercion, the more than hydraulic -pressure of a persistent, continuous gentleness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Thirty years before the <cite>Day-dreams</cite> was published, -one writer at least was open-eyed to the defects of -school education. He charged parents with adopting -the new boarding-school system because it -spared them some responsibility, and children were -apt to be teasing and importunate. “Boys advance -at school quickly,” he said, “in knowledge of the -auxiliary verbs, the mysteries of syntax and the -stories of gods and goddesses; but I am confident -that the reason why women generally are so much -better disposed than men is this: they live domestically -and familiarly. They are penetrated with the -home-spirit, they are imbued with all its influences, -their memory is not fed to plethora while the heart -is left to waste and perish. No daughter of mine -shall ever be sent to school; at home the heart, -wherein are the issues of all good, develops itself -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>from day to day. There children ripen in their -affections. There they learn their humanities, not -in the academic sense, but in the natural and true -one.”<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. <cite>Self-Formation</cite>, by Capel Lofft, vol. 1, p. 42.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Where, alas! do we find to-day the daughters of -the classes who are not sent to school? Our girls’ -high schools overflow; and that, not by the action -of State control, but by the voluntarily assumed -yoke and tyranny of fashion. Girls emerging from -these schools are not “so much better disposed -than men.” They are certainly not domesticated -and imbued with a home-spirit. They may have -gained in refinement—even to fastidiousness! and -in the knowledge of Latin and Greek, or what is -called the higher culture, but they are characterized -generally by a spirit of pleasure-seeking. They -become, in many cases, what has aptly been called -“nonsense women, prepared only to lead butterfly -lives.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now, parents who shirk the responsibility and -effort entailed in shaping their children’s characters -to the best of their ability can only expect their own -self-indulgence to become intensified in the lives of -their children. Let me not, however, be here misunderstood. -The movement for the higher education -of women is a step forward in civilization. -Many women are born with great mental capacity, -and without the specific intellectual culture now -obtainable the world would lose much, while the nonexercise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>of such native powers creates inward misery. -But culture, according to Matthew Arnold, implies -the study of perfection, and the late Professor -Huxley’s ideal is expressed as follows:—“That man -has had a liberal education who has been so trained -in youth that his body is the ready servant of his -will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work -that as a mechanism it is capable of; whose intellect -is clear, with all its parts of equal strength -and in smooth working order; whose mind is stored -with a knowledge of the great and fundamental -truths of Nature and of the laws of her operations; -one who—no stunted ascetic—is full of life and fire, -but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a -vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; -who has learnt to love all beauty, to hate all vileness, -and to respect others as himself. Such an one and -no other has had a liberal education, for he is as -completely as man can be in harmony with nature.” -(An Address at South London Working Men’s -College, January, 1869.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Childhood is characterized by sensational activity. -The reflective and reasoning powers lie comparatively -dormant. Mobile sensibility is the distinguishing -feature of childhood, and parents and -teachers taking advantage of the law of nature -whereby pleasurable sensation stimulates growth -should train children step by step to the enjoyment -of <em>useful</em> activities, to physical and manual dexterity; -to simple efforts in pursuit of knowledge; to -infantile firmness in discharge of duty; to unconstrained -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>dignity in defence of the right, and sympathetic -jealousy over the rights of others; to gentleness -towards all mankind; to admiration of all that -is noble in character, to veneration of age, experience -and virtue; and to the love of truth and justice and -personal devotion to both. These are the qualities -of human nature that make for real civilization; -and further progress requires their steady development -in the race.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now, these qualities cannot be evoked by school -methods nor even by the easy <i><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">vivâ voce</span></i> conversational -instruction proposed by Professor Thompson. An -indispensable factor in the process is a rich, full, -domestic environment, an atmosphere suffused -with affection and vibrating with varied activities—<em>a -home-life</em>, in short, where the delicate qualities of -noble character will not be commanded to come -forth, but will come of themselves through the play -of circumstance, i.e. by the action of example and -gentle sympathetic co-operation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In upper-class houses, even where wealth and -luxury abound, there are none of the diverse and -liberal domestic surroundings conducive to early -training. The first essential is that the nurseries -be freed from all physical, mental and moral forces -that belong to a comparatively primitive stage of -evolution. Nurses drawn from the masses—however -carefully selected—are incompetent by nurture -for training infants in the best way. The authority -they have known has been archaic, and elements of -barbarism have been near them from babyhood, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>while education as yet has done little to raise their -intelligence to the plane of civilized thought. -Hence an ordinary nurse, of kindly and affectionate -disposition, may seriously misdirect the -budding conscience of a babe, as I have shown in -my chapters on Emotional Life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To women of great attainments and culture the -training of infancy properly belongs, and that training -in the homes of the classes will be of the highest -value to the State. The problem of how to create -in childhood a ready obedience to authority without -jarring the nerves, or checking freedom unnecessarily, -is a very difficult one. It requires a cultured -intelligence to grasp the problem and carry out the -true method of its solution. The aim in the training -of infancy is to develop superior types of men and -women by evoking the higher qualities of human -nature <em>in a sphere of comparative liberty</em>. A babe in -the nursery, let us say, has had his attention caught -by the flames leaping up in the well-guarded grate. -He creeps towards them and pushes his fingers -through the wires of the guard. The educated -nurse gently lifts him to a safe distance, but he starts -creeping again to the fire. Now there are in the -nursery some baskets of different size and depth, all -softly lined and weighted. Baby is put into one of -these to amuse himself with a toy until the fascinating -flames are forgotten.</p> - -<p class='c004'>An older child flings her ball in another child’s -face. Nurse tells her the ball might hurt, but on -persistence in the selfish amusement she, too, is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>firmly placed in a larger basket or nursery prison, -and must stay there till the impulse to be disobedient -has passed off; for the principle which -guides nurse in the training of these infants is this: -liberty abused must be abridged.</p> - -<p class='c004'>After a few such experiences the little ones feel -that a network is around them—a network of -authority never physically painful and that has no -connection with anger.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As the reasoning powers develop they feel that -liberty is theirs in the straight course of obedience -to authority, and later they find that this authority -represents a knowledge of the laws of nature, for -when in garden and field they join in the nature-study -lessons, they discover that if plants creep -into unfavourable conditions, they languish; if -animals run counter to laws of health, they suffer -and die.</p> - -<p class='c004'>From nursery to home-training the infants pass -forward. Their nerves have never been irritated -by harshness, nor their affections repressed, and -their impulses to unhurtful activities are of normal -strength. In the more advanced training now -given, the aim is no longer to impress automatically, -but rationally to guide the growing intelligence. -Blind obedience is not required, but every command -is explained and related to the facts of happy and -healthful life. At this point a discriminating -judgment is profoundly necessary, and the child -should be studied individually, for to each there -comes the right moment when self-rule is possible, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>and unless outward restraints are wisely withdrawn -that power of self-rule may be injured.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The human types to be desired are not slavish, -but independent beings, capable of noble service to -God and man; and choosing to do right because -they know true happiness lies that way.</p> - -<p class='c004'>At sixteen or upwards the young thus trained may -safely leave home for high school or university, in -pursuit of the special instruction required for their -future career. An education that has laid the -foundation of noble character, comes to no abrupt -conclusion. The love of truth when firmly implanted -prompts to the acquisition of new knowledge, -and knowledge is boundless as the universe. -Fields of science become the happy hunting-ground -of minds that are markedly intellectual, and although -self-culture supersedes formal instruction, and -original research supersedes the following of authority, -education moves continuously and steadily -forward.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“The environment,” says Clifford Harrison, -“that lies open to men rationally developed is as -vast as the ideal that lies before them. This -environment is not a spiritual matter merely; not -of the soul alone, but of body, mind, soul and spirit; -not of heaven only, but of earth as well; not of -eternity and a beyond, but of time and here.”</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART VI</em><br /> <span class='large'>CONDITIONS IN AID OF HAPPY LIFE IN A DEVELOPING CIVILIZATION</span></h2> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE NEEDS OF ADOLESCENCE</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>The woman’s cause is man’s: they rise or sink</div> - <div class='line'>Together, dwarf’d, or godlike, bond or free:</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'> · · · · ·</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>If she be small, slight-natured, miserable,</div> - <div class='line'>How shall men grow?</div> - <div class='line in36'>—<span class='sc'>Tennyson.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Adolescence is a critical period in the life of an -individual. At that period, character, speaking -generally, fully manifests, and the life is decided for -good or evil. What advanced ethics requires is -that each adult generation should deliberately -examine its inheritance from the previous, less -conscious, less informed epoch, in order to detect -and destroy every social snare that entangles unwary -feet in adolescence; and to devise the best methods -of bringing to the young the wisdom and sympathy -of their seniors.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the autobiography of the late Anthony Trollope -(vol. 1, p. 69), some facts of his own adolescence -are stated in a spirit as generous as it is candid. -His fate, like that of thousands of young men in his -day, and in the present day, was to live at that critical -time in a town, surrounded by all the attractions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>that a keen competitive commercialism has created -to supplement profits—though at the expense of -young men’s money and morals—and with no private -retreat save a solitary lodging, a shelter, but in no -sense a home. “No allurement to decent respectability,” -he says, “came in my way.” For the spending -of his evenings, the choice lay between what he -calls “questionable resorts” and sitting alone -reading or drinking tea. “There was no house -in which I could habitually see a lady’s face and hear -a lady’s voice, and in these circumstances the temptations -of loose life will almost certainly prevail with -a young man; at any rate they prevailed with me.”<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a> -Similar evidence may be found in a realistic, powerful -novel, <cite>Jude the Obscure</cite>. Mr. Thomas Hardy -there depicts the tragedy of unfulfilled aims, the -shipwreck of what might have been a noble life; -and the cause of shipwreck is pointed out in the -words of the dying Jude: “My impulses and affections -were too strong ... a man without advantages -should be as cold-blooded as a fish and as -selfish as a pig to have a really good chance of being -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>one of his country’s worthies.” Now, affection -and the impulse to love purely can never be too strong -for the interests of general evolution, therefore we -are entitled to assume that the environment is at -fault. The fact that thousands of young men deprived -of healthy home-life succumb to the temptations -of city-life, condemns our industrial competition. -Public consciousness has not grasped the needs -and dangers of adolescence, and the slowly evolving -community-conscience disregards the terrible penalty -paid in general degradation for retaining a system -of industry that produces among other evils “questionable -resorts where young men see life in false, -delusive colours.” These and all other injurious -outcomes of our tragic struggle for the necessaries -and amenities of life, will persist until the individualistic -system of industry disappears, i.e. is superseded -by a rational collectivist system. Standing as we -do on the verge of conscious evolution, that time is -not yet, but something may be done by parents and -guardians of youth to counteract the evils of a -transitional epoch.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. More recently still the world has been afforded a glance -into the inner history of a life destined to noble uses and high -achievements. In the meridian of his fame Professor -Huxley wrote thus to Charles Kingsley: “Kicked into the -world a boy without guide or training, or with worse than -none, I confess to my shame that few men have drunk deeper -of all kinds of sin than I. Happily my course was arrested -in time—before I had earned absolute destruction—and -for long years I have been slowly and painfully climbing, -with many a fall, towards better things.”—<cite>Life of Professor -Huxley</cite>, vol. 1, p. 220.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Progress in an evolving society largely depends -upon true union, i.e. mental, emotional and spiritual -union of the sexes. But a careful examination of -the prominent movements in society, and especially -the various divisions of the woman’s emancipation -movement, reveals that all are defective through -inattention to this fundamental need. They do not -aim at social conditions in which solidarity of heart -and soul will naturally ensue.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>The woman movement is the issue in great -measure of pent-up forces of youth in the female -sex of the upper classes. It is less the revolt of -labour against poverty, injustice, and overtaxed -strength, than a revolt from enforced idleness on the -part of the victims of wealth. The position is -graphically put before us by the late Charles Reade -in his amusing tale <cite>The Woman Hater</cite>.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Fanny Dover, a common enough type of upper-class -femininity, appears to the woman-hater a mere -shallow-minded, selfish coquette, till suddenly at an -unexpected emergency she assumes new and very -different colours. “How is this?” he exclaims. -“You were always a bright girl and no fool, but not -exactly what humdrum people call good ... you -are not offended?” “The idea,” says Fanny, -“why I have publicly denounced goodness again -and again.” “Yes, and yet you turn out as good as -gold!... I have watched you; you are all over -the house to serve two suffering women. You are -cook, housemaid, nurse and friend to both of them. -In an interval of your time so creditably employed -you cheer me up with your bright little face and give -me wise advice! Explain the phenomenon.” “My -dear Harrington, if you cannot read so shallow a -character as I am, how will you get on with those -ladies upstairs ... but there, I will have pity on -you. You shall understand one woman before you -die ... give me a cigarette.... What women love -and can’t do without if they are young and spirited, -is excitement. I am one who pines for it. Society -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>is so constructed that to get excitement you must -be naughty. Waltzing ... flirting, etc., are excitement, ... dining <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en famille</span></i>, going to bed at -ten, etc., are stagnation; good girls mean stagnant -girls; I hate and despise these tame little wretches; -I never was one and never will be. But look here, -we have two ladies in love with one villain—that is -exciting. One gets nearly killed in the house—that -is gloriously exciting; the other is broken-hearted. -If I were to be a bad girl and say: ‘It is not my -business; I will leave them to themselves and go -my little mill-round of selfishness as before, why -what a fool I must be! I should lose excitement. -Instead of that I run and get things for the Klosking—excitement. -I cook for her and nurse her and sit -up half the night—excitement. Then I run to Zoe -and do my best for her or get snubbed—excitement. -Then I sit at the head of your table and -order you—excitement. Oh! it is lovely.’ ‘Shall -you be sorry when they both get well and routine -re-commences?’ Of course I shall; that is the sort -of good girl I am.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>This youthful exuberance or restlessness is favourable -to social advance, and the woman movement -has accomplished good service in claiming and turning -it to useful account. But here, as in all partial -reforms, new evils dog the footsteps of the new good -effected. To-day we have numerous city workers -of the female as well as the male sex, compelled by -the exigencies of their labour to live far apart from -their nearest and dearest, in solitary lodgings like -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>Anthony Trollope, or at best in the make-believe -homes limited to inmates of one sex. I do not -infer that these girls fall under any special temptations -to licence, but, deprived as they are of the -immediate influences of early associations and the -subtle tendernesses of home-life, I hold it impossible -that their emotional human nature should not suffer -loss. Their need for the happy and useful exercise -of activities which were running into mischievous -courses, is satisfactorily met, but at the expense of -domestic traits, and these are precisely what lie -at the root of human fellowship—that union of -heart and soul which is indispensable to true -progress.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Some social reformers regard the higher education -of women movement as a potent factor in -uniting men and women through the mutual interests -of cultured thought. A knowledge, however, of -Greek, Latin, the classics, etc., accomplishes little -so long as the sexes are not educated together, and -this form of culture has no <em>direct</em> bearing on elevation -of character and development of the emotional side -of human nature. Cricket, golf, and all our fashionable -out-door sports have done more, in creating -mutual interests and furthering progress by securing -for girls greater social freedom than was previously -theirs, and Mr. H. W. Massingham spoke truly when -he said: “No special complications have followed -in any marked degree the vast extension that has -taken place in the field of girls’ free companionship -with men. Yet what would our fathers have thought -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>of it?”<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c015'><sup>[10]</sup></a> But sports are for the hours of leisure, -and ample leisure belongs only to the idle or to a -minor section of female workers. Meanwhile we -have thousands of young women, of different calibre -to Fanny Dover, whose noblest attribute, viz. their -innate capacity for all the finer vibrations of social -feeling, is never called into play.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. <cite>Ethical World</cite>, June, 1900.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Amid all the kaleidoscopic scenes of our transition -period, a new figure of womanhood has undoubtedly -appeared—a type not characterized by frivolity -or love of excitement, but by strenuousness, sincerity, -refinement, moral courage, a will-force in -short, that breaking through selfish limitations -seeks nobler spheres of action. This will-force is -subject to constant recoil. It is thrown back on -itself by adverse conditions of society, of industry, -of private individual life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In <cite>Jude the Obscure</cite> this new type of woman is -skilfully sketched. Susan Bridehead is a creature -of high aspiration, rich inward resources and manifold -imperfections. She has foibles and feminine -vanities, but the human nature is essentially large-minded, -generous, truthful. “I did not flirt,” she -says to Jude, “but a craving to attract and captivate, -regardless of the injury it might do, was in me ... -my liking for you is not as some women’s perhaps, -but it is a delight in being with you of a supremely -delicate kind ... I did want and long to ennoble -some man to high aims.” Here we have love transferred -from the lower reaches of pure sensation to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>a higher level of tender sentiment, and energized -from the intellectual plane. This denotes a slow evolution -of ages during which all the grossness, i.e. the -coarser vibrations of primitive love, are transmuted -into the finer vibrations of sympathetic, altruistic -feeling.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is important to see clearly the distinction -between primitive and modern love, in order that -no confusion may arise in contemplating the ideal -social life that scientific meliorism forecasts. The -intrinsic quality of primitive love is illustrated in -Mrs. Bishop’s description of her favourite horse’s -attachment. “I am to him an embodiment of -melons, cucumbers, grapes, pears, peaches, biscuits -and sugar, with a good deal of petting and ear-rubbing -thrown in!” Human attachments based -on these pleasurable sensations or simple animal -appetites and passions, form the main soldering -ingredients in humanity’s mass; but love’s development -has marched concurrently with true civilization, -and to men and women in the van of civilization -one chief cause of misery to-day is repression of the -normal, healthy impulse to pure and unselfish love.</p> - -<p class='c004'><em>Unselfishness</em> is the distinguishing feature of -higher forms of love, and an unselfishness that had -its origin not in conjugal union but in motherhood. -Mr. Finck, in his study of love’s evolution, puts it -thus: “The helpless infant could not survive -without a mother’s self-sacrificing care, hence there -was an important use for womanly sympathy which -caused it to survive and grow while man immersed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>in wars and struggles remained hard of heart and -knew not tenderness.... Selfishness in a man is -perhaps less offensive because competition and the -struggle for existence necessarily foster it.” (Henry -Finck’s <cite>Primitive Love</cite>, pp. 160–161.) The social -need for a specialized unselfishness has tended to -differentiate the sexes emotionally, and in process of -building up the entire structure of social life the -pressure of outward forces has carried this differentiation -further. I am not then traversing the natural -laws of evolution when I assume that all questions -relating to women are at this date pre-eminently -important.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The population problem, as I have shown, can -only be solved through a diminution of the birth-rate, -and throughout the British nation the family -group is breaking up. It is disintegrating especially -in the upper and middle classes.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The movement towards industrial socialism is -the outcome of masculine thought and energy. Man -is its mainspring, although many thoughtful women -take part in it. Conversely, the house-ruler, woman, -must be the mainspring of a movement towards -domestic socialism, although no success will accrue -without the steadfast aid and co-operation of man. -That some women are already fitted to begin this -great work is evident from much of our female -public service. Let me quote some words recently -spoken of lady-workers by a male critic, Mr. -H. W. Massingham: “They have moral courage and -refinement. They do not tire more easily than men; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>they do not shirk the detail work; they take to -drudgery.” Pioneers of the new movement must be -religious in the best sense, i.e. their philosophy must -bring into touch the worlds seen and unseen, inspiring -action conducive to personal and universal happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The task before them is of double intent, viz. -of immediate utility and of far-reaching benefit. It -will attract inferior natures as well as the superior, -for a well-organized modern home will present more -convenience, comforts and embellishments than the -family homes of the past or present, and at smaller -expense. Herein a certain danger lurks. Pioneers -will have to guard against dropping out of the -enterprise its supreme purpose and main evolutional -value, viz. the raising humanity on to higher levels -of happiness. There is no other policy to this end -than that of domestically uniting the sexes from -infancy, in order that in the idealistic period of -adolescence soul may meet soul with fearless unreserve -and young men and women realize by -experience that in the pure realms of thought and -feeling the closest union is possible. It is this union -manifesting in dual sympathy that will become the -liberating force of the world, and in it and through -it woman’s emancipation will be complete.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in4'>Woman is not undevelopt man</div> - <div class='line'>But diverse ...</div> - <div class='line'>Yet in the long years liker must they grow;</div> - <div class='line'>The man be more of woman, she of man;</div> - <div class='line'>He gain in sweetness and in moral height,</div> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>She mental breadth, nor fail in child-ward care</div> - <div class='line'>Till at the last she set herself to man,</div> - <div class='line'>Like perfect music unto noble words;</div> - <div class='line'>And so these twain upon the skirts of time,</div> - <div class='line'>Sit side by side ...</div> - <div class='line'>Dispensing harvest, sowing the To-be,</div> - <div class='line'>Self-reverent each and reverencing each</div> - <div class='line'>Distinct in individualities,</div> - <div class='line'>But like each other ev’n as those who love.</div> - <div class='line'>Then comes the statelier Eden back to men;</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'> · · · · ·</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Then springs the crowning race of humankind,</div> - <div class='line'>May these things be!</div> - <div class='line in22'><cite>The Princess.</cite>—<span class='sc'>Tennyson.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span> - <h3 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>DOMESTIC REFORM</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The animating spring of all improvement in individuals -and in societies is not the knowledge of the actual but the -conception of the possible.—<span class='sc'>H. Martineau.</span></p> - -<p class='c018'>How shall the new era be inaugurated? By ceasing to -strive for self and family; by thinking of both only as -instruments of the common weal.—<span class='sc'>Prof. A. W. Bickerton.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>The model family home of the British middle class -half a century ago comprised a father and mother -of sound constitution and domestic habits with a -group of children of both sexes—a group large -enough to supply companionship to one another, -and a family income sufficient for comfortable -maintenance and recreation, occasional travel and -the free exercise of hospitality. If homes of this -type were widely and firmly established throughout -the land they might be competent to breed, nurture -and send forth into the world a good average material -of human life for repairing waste and building up -the British nation. But in the present epoch such -homes are exceedingly rare, and the trend of social -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>forces and modern ideas alike make for their becoming -still rarer.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To speak only of the more obvious factors of -change, State action in reference to the education -of the young lifts children of the masses at almost -an infantile age out of the effective control of -family life, and in our centres of national industry -economic forces bring about a hasty pairing and -breeding, with an abrupt scattering of the brood -that resembles the nesting of birds rather than the -home-making of rational beings; while so immature -are the heads of these evanescent family homes that -the break-up is by no means an unmitigated evil.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Among the classes, forces of a higher, more penetrative -order are working similarly. Prudence is -acting towards the restraint of population in a -manner that narrows the basis of family groups -and shortens the natural term of their existence; -and under a new impulse of right reason and high -resolve the educated section of the female sex is -deliberately forsaking the domestic hearth to share -the world’s labour with man. These concurrent -movements in society are destroying family life -on the old lines, and by the homes of the present, -individual needs are met only temporarily and provisionally.</p> - -<p class='c004'>One conspicuous result is an ever-increasing -discomfort to the aged. They are stranded in homes -become empty, or wander abroad seeking touch -with their kind. Distinctly are they shunted off -the rails of busy life before a lowered vitality -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>prompts to inertia. The British “Philistine” -lacks sentiment. Old age makes no special appeal -to him, and he is content to bestow on relatives -no longer young a brief moment of his precious -time, a fragment of his tenderness. At an earlier -stage of our social evolution the mature in years -were centres of a rich, full, domestic life, and pivots -on which turned the wider social life encircling it. -At the present stage of that evolution the young -and the comparatively young focus and absorb the -whole sunshine of life, while the guardians of their -infancy pass into declining years enveloped in -gloom.</p> - -<p class='c004'>This premature effacement entails on society -a double loss—first, the loss interiorly of that individual -happiness which intensifies and raises the -tide of life; second, the loss of activities guided by -and based upon <em>mellow experience</em>.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Society is too materialistic to recognize that -human beings physically on the down-grade may -be psychically on the up-grade, and pre-eminently -fitted to inspire and promote progress. But in thinking -of latent possibilities realizable in a better -environment we are bound not to judge by average -humanity, but by the superior types of the preceding -generation. The old age of W. E. Gladstone, -Harriet Martineau, Mary Somerville, and others -was neither gloomy nor unproductive. The last-mentioned -at the age of eighty-one turned her -attention to writing a book on microscopic science. -“I seemed,” she says, “to resume the perseverance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>and energy of my youth. I began it with courage, -though I did not think I could live to finish it.” -She did, however, finish it, and lived to the age of -ninety-two, maintaining at all times her habits of -study and a full social intercourse with many friends. -(From <cite>Personal Recollections</cite>, by her Daughter.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is not intellectual powers only that are running -to waste. Under the double pressure of competition -in trade and competition in the labour market, -good manual workers are found ineffective and -dismissed at an earlier age than formerly.</p> - -<p class='c004'>An immense mass of our industrial population -is forced by circumstance into the workhouse when -still comparatively active, and life there is but a -gloomy vacant existence—a complete suppression -of the best faculties of body and mind.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Comparing the past with the present in respect -of the old age of workers, we are told by Professor -Thorold Rodgers that village homes were centres -of multifarious occupations, in which naturally the -aged, if able, would take part. And in towns, -although streets were narrow, at the rear of the -houses there were gardens where old and young -together spent the long summer evenings. “Not -long ago,” says the American Social Science Committee -Report of 1878, “the farm found constant -employment for the men of the family—the women -had abundant employment in the home, there was -carding, spinning, weaving.” “And the neverending -labour of our grandmothers must not be -forgotten, who with nimble needle knit our stockings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>and mittens. The knitting-needle was in as constant -play as their tongues, whose music only ceased -under the power of sleep.... Now no more does -the knitting-needle keep time to the music of their -tongues, for the knitting-machine in the hands of -one little girl will do more work than fifty grandmothers. -Labour-saving machinery has broken up -and destroyed our whole system of household and -family manufacture, when all took part in the labour -and shared in the product to the comfort of all.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The system that has superseded that of “household -and family manufacture” has been adverse -to the aged from the first, and neglect of old age -has become a wrong-doing that eats like a canker -into our social life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As Professor Bickerton well remarks: “Unhappiness -is the disease of social life, and misery is an -indication that there is something wrong with our -social system. Just as it is unreasonable to expect -bodily health under insanitary conditions, so we cannot -look for social concord and joy unless mankind -be placed in circumstances that suit his social nature. -Man has been considered too exclusively as a producing -machine with subsidiary mental capacity, -whereas he is essentially a moral being with deep -emotions and universal sympathies. The cure for -the uncleanliness of society is not difficult. The -plans for the edifice of human life are obtainable. -What are the plans? Those laws of nature which -are concerned in the development of mankind. -What is the cure? Such understanding of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>principles of evolution and such consonant action -as shall restore to the race an environment befitting -its humanity.” (<cite>The Romance of the Earth.</cite>)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Nevertheless, we cannot return to a system of -household and family manufacture. To relinquish -mechanical aids to production would be contrary -to, not consonant with, evolution. A civilized race -outgrows its primitive conditions of life and industry—new -wine must be put into new bottles.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The immediate step of advance as regards manual -labour is this—in our centres of local administration -there should be organized municipal employment -with shortened hours for elderly people, the wage -to be supplemented by pensions ample enough to -secure for these workers an honourable social standing -instead of a pauper’s dole. But a closer adaptation -to humanity’s needs may be quickly achieved -by the classes where poverty plays a less part in the -social phenomena. Of present conditions Mr. Escott, -in his <cite>England, its People, Polity and Pursuits</cite>, -thus speaks: “The nation is only an aggregate of -households. Modern society is possessed by a -nomadic spirit which is the sure destroyer of home -ties. The English aristocracy flit from mansion to -mansion during the country-house season; they -know no peace during the London season. Existence -for the wealthy is one unending whirl of excitement, -admitting small opportunity for the cultivation of -the domestic affections. The claims of society have -continually acquired precedence of the duties of -home.”</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>In the middle class, however, wedged in between -the rich and the poor, the greatest factor of change -is the servant difficulty, and this difficulty we must -glance at in its causal relations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Civilized communities divide broadly into two -parts—productive units whose labour supplies what -is needful for existence, and unproductive units -whose existence depends on the labour of others. -The latter have been correctly termed “parasites.” -M. Jean Massart explains in his scientific scrutiny -of social phenomena,<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c015'><sup>[11]</sup></a> that during the period of our -industrial development a force of integration has -gradually strengthened the main body of the social -organism, giving it power to resist in some degree -the burden of parasitism. Consequently arbitrary -authority and slavish subserviency have abated, -and two movements affecting family life in the middle -class are discernible—first, there is an increasing -revolt from domestic service as a form of labour -directly opposed to the spirit of independence that -is growing in workers and to the force of integration -which by ranging them shoulder to shoulder is -preparing them for a new form of industrial life; -second, sons of the aristocracy and daughters of the -middle class are joining the ranks of producers -with some sense of the dignity of labour and the -degradation of a purely parasitic existence. Social -parasitism is not organic. It is an extraneous condition -induced in a society developing its civilization. -No man is necessarily a parasite; he acquires the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>character in the course of his life history, and happily -the young are refusing to acquire it.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. <cite>Parasitism, Organic and Social</cite>, p. 121.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Observe, then, it is not in one or two sections of -our community life, but in all sections that diverse -causes are producing one uniform result—the break-up -of the family home; and behind all the more -superficial causes there is working a profound factor -of change in the centripetal or constructive and the -centrifugal or destructive forces of nature. Whilst -the latter destroys old forms, the former prepares for -the new form—prepares, not only by an integration -of workers, but by a fresh inspiration of love and -desire for work. Hence women and men endowed -with reason, knowledge and practical skill may -bring the life of their own immediate circle into -express and positive line with this constructive, -profoundly evolutional, movement.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Domestic reform implies the relinquishment of -that whole system of household labour that requires -the combination of a subject with a parasitic class. -Co-operation among equals takes the place of -masterful authority and slavish subjection, and -heavy labour will be relieved by scientific appliance. -Labour-saving contrivances in family homes hardly -exist. There has been little spur to invention on -these lines. But, as in industrial fields, a saving of -money, material and labour by the use of machinery -has followed the introduction of organized co-operation, -so, doubtlessly, a similar process will -follow the gradual adoption of organized co-operation -within the home. This is not the solution -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>of the servant problem merely. It has a far wider -significance. Many educated women who are now -seeking useful work and economic independence -outside of home-life will find these within the -domestic circle, and further will find that it is -possible to combine such necessary conditions of -dignified life with fulfilment of duty alike to the -aged and to the young.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Pioneers who aim at social solidarity must in -practice recognize labour as the indispensable basis -of social life and social institutions. All methods -of wage-payment dependent on industrial competition -will be repudiated for a system that acknowledges -every form of useful work as entitling the -worker to financial independence; and in the emotional -sphere, with its possibilities of inner union and -solidarity, who can measure the impetus towards -the desired goal that will be given by the setting of -the solitary in families and the re-gathering of the -old into the bosom of a rich, full, domestic life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Let us suppose that from fifteen to twenty groups—they -may be families or groups of friends—combine -and pass out from their numerous separate -houses into one large commodious dwelling built -for them or bought and adapted to their purpose. -The bedrooms are furnished on the continental plan -with accommodation for writing, reading, solitary -study, or rest by day, and all the latest improvements -in lighting, heating and ventilating, etc. By the -rules of the house—except for cleaning—no one -enters these rooms uninvited by the inmate, who has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>there at all times, if wished, perfect privacy and the -most thorough personal comfort. Two eating -apartments are placed contiguous to the kitchens, -and by taking advantage of every invention to -facilitate cooking and serving, the lady-cooks and -attendants may place prepared food on the table -and sit down to partake of it with their friends. One -wing of the house is set apart for nurseries and -nursery training, another for school teaching, inclusive -of indoor kindergarten; a music-room well-deafened -enables the musical to practise many -instruments without jarring the nerves of others; -a playroom for the young and a recreation-room set -apart for whist and chess, etc., a billiard room, and -if desired, a smoking room; a large drawing-room -where social enjoyment is carefully promoted every -evening, a library or silent room where no interruption -to reading is permitted, these, and a few -small boudoirs for intercourse with special friends -form the chief outer requirements of the ideal -collectivist home.</p> - -<p class='c004'>All the details of household management may -safely be left to pioneers of the new woman movement; -it belongs only to scientific meliorism to -point out the general features and structure of the -reformed domestic system and to show its vitally -important position in relation to any rational -scheme of wide-reaching social reform.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Humanity as a whole has to climb upward in the -scale of being and to leave behind it the individual -or family selfishness allied with animal passions that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>are purely anti-social; it has further to develop that -self-respect that allied with heart-fellowship brings -in its train all the social virtues that distinguish the -man from the brute. Germs of that self-respecting -life are with us even now, but the soil in which they -will spring up to vigorous growth must be created, -i.e. brought together by man himself. The fitting -of character to a new domestic system should not be -difficult in the case of children under wise training, -for it is as easy to acquire good habits in childhood as -bad habits, and the wholesome atmosphere of a -well-regulated superior home will powerfully and -painlessly aid in shaping the young. But for the -grown-up to alter personal habits, and adapt thought -and feeling to a new order of every-day life, the -task is not easy. It may press heavily on the -ordinary adult at the initial stage of the movement. -Happily that task may be rendered easier by -mutual criticism kindly and gravely exercised. The -method was practised for upwards of thirty years in -the Oneida Creek Community with a marked success. -Criticism, says one of the members, is a boon to those -who seek to live a higher life and only a bugbear to -those who lack ambition to improve. It was to the -community a bond of love and an appeal to all that -is noblest, most refined and elevated in human -nature; it helped a man out of his selfishness in the -easiest, most kindly way possible. Whereas in -ordinary life the interference of the busybody, the -tongue of the tale-bearer, the shaft of ridicule, the -venom of malice, are unavoidable—in the Community -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>such criticizing was almost unknown. It -was bad form for anybody to speak complainingly -of anyone else, because criticism was the prerogative -of the Community, and was instituted to supersede -all evil-speaking or back-biting. Nor was it an -occasion for direct fault-finding merely. Those -criticizing were always glad to dilate on the good -qualities of their subject, and to express their love -and appreciation of what they saw to commend. -(Abel Easton, Member of the Oneida Community.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Another member, Allan Estlake, thus speaks: -“Criticism was a barrier to the approach of unworthy -people from without, and equally a bar to -the development of evil influences within.” The -practice was not original. Mr. Noyes found it -established in a select society of missionaries he had -joined previous to his forming the Oneida Community.</p> - -<p class='c004'>One of the weekly exercises of this society, he -tells us, was a frank criticism of each other’s -character for the purpose of improvement. The -mode of proceeding was this: At each meeting the -member whose turn it was, according to alphabetic -order, to submit to criticism, held his peace while -the others one by one told him his faults. This -exercise sometimes crucified self-complacency, but -it was contrary to the rules of society for any one to -complain. I found much benefit in submitting to -this ordeal both while I was at Andover and afterward.<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c015'><sup>[12]</sup></a> -If a number of young men adopted criticism -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>as a means of improvement it should not be more -difficult to pioneers of the new domestic life, young -and old, provided they have the same desire to -improve. It might be irksome to the young, until -they had learned to profit by it, as all discipline is at -first, but when “our young people,” says Mr. Estlake, -“had formed habits in harmony with their means -of improvement they learned to love the means by -which they had progressed and to rejoice in the -results of sufferings that were incident only to their -inexperience.”<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c015'><sup>[13]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. <cite>The Oneida Community</cite>, Allan Estlake, p. 65.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. <cite>The Oneida Community</cite>, Allan Estlake, p. 66.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Personal habits in the new domestic life will be -judged in their relation to the general interests of -the household, and regulations made to safeguard -these interests. Cleanliness, orderliness, punctuality -are essential to home comfort, but conventional -etiquette destroys the geniality of domestic freedom. -While simple rules of a positive kind are strictly -observed, the negative rule of non-interference with -personal habits that are unhurtful to others will be -the most stringent of all, and for this reason—happiness -is the great object to attain, and a supreme -condition of happiness is the free interaction of -social units without intrusive interference.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Committees will be necessary—for organizing labour -on a method that will ensure variety to workers -and frequent leisure—for consultation on the best -means to adopt in training children individually—for -management of the finances—for recreative -<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>arrangements—and for purposes of general direction -and control.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Authority will of course devolve on these committees -chosen by members of the household from -among themselves. Every relic of primitive despotism -must be banished from the home: it is a self-acting -republic. Since children reared in the home -will be one day responsible citizens of a republican -state, it were well to enlist them early in the work -of committees. They will learn thereby to subordinate -personal desire to the will of the majority, -and to co-operate in action for the common weal. -The amusements and conduct of children are well -within range of their own understanding, and -although supervision by adults is necessary, great -freedom should be allowed them in the management -of their conduct clubs and amusement committees.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The relinquishment of personal property is not -desirable at the present stage of social evolution; -for individuals—and there may be some—who, -however willing, are unable to adapt themselves -to the new system, should possess the power to -return to the old system without let or hindrance.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Nevertheless, be it sooner or later, the ideal -collectivist home of the future will realize, though -at first imperfectly, the beautiful conception held -by Isaac Taylor of the ideal family home of the -past. Here is the picture: “Home is a garden, high-walled -towards the blighting northeast of selfish -care. In the home we possess a main means of -raising the happiest feelings to a high pitch and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>keeping them there. No disparagement, no privation -is to be endured by some for the aggrandizement -or ease of others. Along with great inequalities -of dignity, power and merit, there is yet a -perfect and unconscious equality in regard to -comforts, enjoyments and personal consideration. -There is no room for grudges or individual solicitude. -Whatever may be the measure of good for the whole -the sum is distributed without a thought of distinction -between one and another. Refined and -generous emotions may thus have room to expand, -and may become the fixed habits of the mind. -Within the circle of home each is known to all, and -all respect the same principles of justice and love. -There is therefore no need for that caution, reserve -or suspicion that in the open world are safeguards -against the guile, lawlessness and ferocity of a -few.”<a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c015'><sup>[14]</sup></a> There, too, may be wholly discarded that -reticence with which, as with a cloak, the modern, -civilized man, says Lucas Mallet, strives to hide -the noblest and purest of his thought.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. <cite>Home Education</cite>, Isaac Taylor, pp. 33 and 34.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>The new system fully worked out will make -homes permanent instead of transitory. It will -check the premature sending of girls out into the -world and the tendency of young life generally to -drift. It will develop industrial activities and give -effective household labour. It will lessen the sordid -cares of humanity and increase its social joys. It -will create an environment calculated to restrain -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>tempestuous youth and cause every selfish passion -to subside in the presence of mutual love. It will -perfect education by co-ordinating the life of the -young and securing that the entire juvenile orbit is -governed by forces of fixed congruity. It will -provide every comfort for old age and garner its -dearly-bought experience. It will promote healthy -propagation causing the birth of the fit; it will -facilitate marriage of the affections and make early -marriage possible. It will tend infancy in a wholly -superior manner, and by scientific breeding, rearing, -training, produce future citizens of the State of a -higher intellectual, moral and spiritual type.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span> - <h2 class='c007'><em>PART VII</em><br /> <span class='large'>RELIGION AND THE RELIGIOUS LIFE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span> - <h3 class='c005'>PRIMAL ELEMENTS IN HUMANITY’S EVOLUTION</h3> -</div> - -<h4 class='c019'><span class='sc'>Section 1</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Is this material universe self-sufficient and self-contained, -or is not the “other conception,” the true one, viz. “that -of a universe lying open to all manner of spiritual influences, -permeated through and through with a divine spirit, -guided and watched by living minds acting through the -medium of law indeed, but with intelligence and love behind -the law; a universe by no means self-sufficient or self-contained, -but with feelers at every pore groping into another -supersensuous order of existence where reigns laws hitherto -unimagined by science, but laws as real and as mighty as -those by which the material universe is governed?”—<span class='sc'>Sir -Oliver Lodge</span>, “The Outstanding Controversy between -Science and Faith,” <cite>Hibbert Journal</cite> for October, 1902.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the man of Western civilization, whose -environment in youth was a domestic atmosphere -of Sabbath-day Christian orthodoxy and week-day -religious indifference along with a social atmosphere -of commercial individualism and the steady pursuit -of sense pleasures, it is no easy task to form a -correct judgment regarding the true position of -religion and its relative worth in evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A study of the subject reveals that not only the -more and less civilized races of mankind have each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>some specialized form of religion, but the non-civilized -savage tribes of the earth are similarly -endowed. Their worship may be degraded to the -last degree, but it holds them in its grasp, and in -studying these facts we are compelled to believe -that humanity is so constituted that its deepest -needs are only to be expressed through and by -religion.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The various religions of the world must have -been essential to evolution, since evolution, as -applied to man, signifies the ample, thorough -development of every integral part of human nature -in each individual. But while recognizing religion -as a necessary expression of human nature and a -supreme characteristic of man, we have also to -realize that its forms are as various as the distinctive -differences amongst men, and that changes -from time to time inevitably occur for good or evil -in every religion. None are stationary, none are -perfect. And the spiritual verities which lie at the -base of all are constantly overlaid by superstitions, -while the external forms harden and grow inoperative -for good.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now, on the theory that religion is in effect necessary -to evolution, and further, that it represents -fundamentally an emanation from the plane of -spirit, i.e. from a region transcending our phenomenal -existence, what would nineteenth century -intelligence <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</span></i> expect of the various divergent -religious systems? That amid variations, some -striking similarities would exist to indicate the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>identity of their original source. It would expect -also to find some statement of facts in nature not -otherwise known to man, some recognition of the -stupendous movement of evolution—the elucidation -of which in its physical aspect is the grand achievement -of modern science—and some hint of the laws -governing that movement. Further, it would -expect to find guidance to right conduct and some -indications of the paramount purpose and end of -universal life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Hitherto, as it happens, the investigating spirit -of modern science has concerned itself little with -theological matters; and the recognized exponents -of our own racial theology are incompetent judges -here. Their training has made of them religious -specialists so interpenetrated by sectarian dogma -that they are incapable of assuming the mental -attitude of a genuine criticism claiming no superiority -for Christianity over other great religions, save -such value of position as lies in its later birth and -development. Outside the churches, however, -comparative theology is not neglected, and it is -freely admitted now by many earnest students of -the subject that all the great religions of the world -possess spiritual, ethical and philosophical ideas in -common.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Hinduism deals with startling facts of the invisible -world. In the Vedas<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c015'><sup>[15]</sup></a> it teaches that consciousness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>is the foundation or groundwork of all nature, -that matter and force are instinct with conscious -life. Behind these is the great unmanifested -Deity—the “Unknowable” of our own Spencerian -philosophy—the Illimitable, Eternal, Absolute, -Unconditioned Source of the Universe, incognizable -and inconceivable to the finite faculties of man. -With manifestation there appears the threefold -aspect of Deity—the supreme Logos of the Universe—a -Unity in Trinity and a Trinity in Unity, the -reflection of which as Consciousness, Substance, -Force, runs throughout nature, and is also shown -in the Christian and other creeds and the Pauline -description of man’s triune constitution—body, -soul and spirit. The doctrine of evolution is -taught in Hinduism on far wider lines than the -modern intellectual conception lays down. The -latter, dealing with outward appearance, bases -itself on physical phenomena. The former transcends -phenomenal existence and human experience. -It embraces the superlatively great, the infinitely -small and complex, and presents a cosmogony -evolutional throughout, while it points to a spiritual -development for the individual so extensive and -sublime that the Western mind, unused to metaphysical -thought, is unable to grasp and clothe it in -words. In this philosophy there is no stultifying -of human endeavour by the view of the soul’s -opportunities as confined to three score years and -ten. That span of life makes but a single page in -the soul’s vast evolutional history, for at the centre -<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>of Hinduism lies a rock-bed of belief in re-incarnation—that -process of nature which accomplishes -the gradual growth and spiritual elevation of -humanity by means of the individual soul’s successive -returns to physical life, with intervening periods -of spiritual rest or latency. The threefold nature -of man gives him touch with three levels of existence, -and Hindu religion represents him bound to a wheel -unceasingly turning in three worlds, viz. a world of -waking consciousness or the physical body, and of -two other worlds to which he passes successively -at and after death, and in which he works out his -latest earthly experience and assimilates all its -fruit, then returns through the gateway of -birth to begin a fresh course of discipline and -learning.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. It is from the study of the Vedas that the educated -Hindu seeks to derive his creed. I refer my reader to -Mr. J. E. Slater’s <cite>Higher Hinduism in relation to Christianity</cite>.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Turning from the transcendental to the scientific -and practical sides of Hinduism, we find an external -worship and broad polity calculated to regulate -human conduct in every relation of life, religious, -national, social, family and personal—the entire -system founded on the law of causation on all -planes of being. By our own scientists, that law is -recognized on the physical plane as the invariable -sequence of cause and effect. Hinduism regards -it as working also on higher planes, and terms it the -law of action or Karma—the moral retribution -which brings out inexorably in one life the results -following from causes arising in previous lives. -Responsibility therefore rests with every self-conscious, -reflective being, and divine justice is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>shown reconcilable with the free-will of man through -the union of Karma and re-incarnation. “God is -not mocked; whatsoever a man soweth that shall -he also reap.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The religion of the Parsis, i.e. the modern form -of Zoroastrianism, has equally with Hinduism a -metaphysical philosophy, and an outward worship, -while mingled with all there is an astronomical -teaching based on the same conception of nature as -is found in Hinduism, viz. that it is the manifestation, -in infinitely varied forms, of the one universal -consciousness or mind. The constitution of humanity -is two-fold. Spirit and matter are two distinct -and different principles, both are in man; and he is -capable of siding definitely with either. The ethic -of Zoroastrian faith is based on the belief that he will -throw himself on the side of the pure, that he will -battle for it and maintain it. To be at all times -actively on the side of purity is a clear personal duty. -The devout Zoroastrian must keep the earth pure -and till it religiously. He must perform the -functions of agriculture as a service to the gods, for -the earth is the pure creature of Ahura Mazdao—the -Supreme Spirit to be guarded from all pollution. -And passing from the outer to the inner life of the -individual, the constantly-repeated maxim is this: -I withdraw from all sins by pure thoughts, pure -deeds, pure words.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In Taoism, a religion of China of earlier date than -Hinduism or Zoroastrianism, there exists a fragment -of ancient scripture called the Classic of Purity, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>wherein man is regarded as a trinity, viz. spirit, -mind, body. To quote from Mr. Legge’s translation: -“Now the spirit of man loves purity, but his -mind disturbs it. The mind of man loves stillness, -but his desires draw it away. If he could always -send his desires away, his mind would of itself become -still. Let his mind be made clean, and his spirit -will of itself become pure.” (Here we have the idea, -expressed in all religions, of the conflict between the -higher and lower nature in man and the necessity -for spirit to dominate mind and body. Refer to -St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, vii. 15, 21, 22 -and 23.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Again, Buddhism has absorbed the attention of -modern Oriental scholars through the fascination -of the Buddha’s purity and elevation of thought. -There are two divisions of this faith, viz., the -Mahayana, that of the Northern Church, found in -Tibet, Nepaul, China, Corea, and Japan, and the -Hinayana, that of the Southern Church, found in -Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, etc. The Mahayana -(Greater Vehicle) is closely allied to Hinduism in its -teachings regarding the spiritual world, the continuing -ego of individual man, the life after death, -the rites and ceremonies of worship, and the mystic -side of personal religion. In the Hinayana (Lesser -Vehicle) of the Southern Church, much of this -mystic teaching has been dropped, nevertheless it -retains a wonderful system of ethics, with appeals -made to human reason, and a constant attempt to -justify and render intelligible the foundations on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>which the morals are built. Buddhism is clearly -the daughter of the more ancient Hinduism. Its -scriptures are the echo of the Hindu scriptures, and -the general teachings, while thrown into a less -metaphysical form, are penetrated with the Hindu -spirit. Causation is in both an unbroken law. In -the Dhammapada, for instance, it is written: “If -a man speaks or acts with a pure thought, happiness -follows him like a shadow that never leaves him. -If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain -follows him as the wheel follows the foot of the ox -that draws the carriage. He who has done what is -evil cannot free himself of it, he may have done it -long ago or afar off, he may have done it in solitude, -but he cannot cast it off.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Buddha taught that evil is overcome only by its -opposite, i.e. good: “Let every man overcome -anger by love, let him overcome the greedy by -liberality, the liar by truth,” etc., etc. And here -the religion is closely in touch with Christian ethics: -“Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do -good to them that hate you,” etc. “Love is the -fulfilling of the Law.” With regard to man’s -destiny, Buddha’s teachings build on his hearers’ -acceptance of the Hindu doctrine of re-incarnation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>(In the Pali Canon occur these words: “The -Bhikshee [the disciple] sees, with eye divine, beings -dropping away and reappearing, he knows them -reaping according to their several karma, degraded -and ennobled, beautiful and ugly, well-placed and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>ill-placed.” From this and many other passages of -the Pali Canon “it is clear and evident and beyond -a shadow of doubt,” says J. C. Chatterji, “that the -Buddha taught the identity of the re-incarnating -ego, though he did not give it that name. He -called it Consciousness or Vignana.”—<cite>Theosophical -Review</cite>, Jan., 1898, p. 415.) Without that his -system falls to the ground. The path of salvation -he points to implies a persistent course of personal -effort, and he who would tread that path must open -his mind to discriminate between things that are -transitory and those that are real and permanent. -To the former belong all the pleasures of sense, every -earthly desire and ambition, and every selfish -thought.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Deep within man’s nature, however, there lies hid -a germ or seed of the permanent. This will persist -throughout all the ages amid the fleeting phantasmagoria -of many lives, and this he must cherish, -nourish, develop. He must resist and renounce the -corrupting influences of the flesh. He must master -his passions, steady his mind, and control, enlighten -and elevate his thoughts. Further, he must purify -his emotions and actions, pervading the world with -a “heart of love, far-reaching, grown great and -beyond measure.” (The Tevijja Sutta.) Finally, -the individual consciousness will expand, until, able -to function in subtler vehicles than those of physical -matter, the man passes out of the chrysalis state -of formal existence to emerge upon higher levels of -life and reach at length the Buddhist Nirvana—that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>supreme crown of immortality and acme of conscious -bliss.</p> - -<p class='c004'>This pilgrimage of the soul through many births -and deaths, with its steadfast struggles and gradual -liberation from all earthly debasing entanglements, -forms a striking contrast to certain teachings of the -modern Christian Churches. Dogma there presents -to us an undeveloped helpless soul, as playing—within -a circumscribed area of earth’s surface—its -one little game of experimental life. The fate -of the soul for all eternity hangs in the balance, all -its chances for weal or woe depending on a single -throw of the dice. And what are the terms of the -game? Conditions of life so adverse, in millions of -cases, that defeat is a foregone conclusion. No -wonder civilized men with a seedling of justice in -the soul, reject the whole scheme of nature allied -with this dogma, and frankly disavow religious -faith.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But the question arises, how does it happen that -Christianity, with an ethic fundamentally the same -as that of every other great religion of the world, -diverges so completely here? Is it conceivable that -Christianity, while of Divine origin, has become in -process of time dwarfed and deformed to the extent -even of losing some <em>essential</em> features? It holds, as -sectarian pulpits represent it, no doctrine of re-incarnation, -and appears to have no clear basis of -metaphysical or philosophic thought. Moreover, -it has elements impossible to reconcile with the -mental and emotional developments of a scientific -<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>and intellectual age. The anthropomorphic conception -of Deity, the almost literal interpretation of -the Jewish allegory of creation, the personalization -of the metaphysical and mystic Trinity; the -approval of the barbarous sacrifices and vengeful -Deity of the Old Testament; the anti-evolutional -doctrine of the vicarious Atonement in the New -Testament; the crude ideas concerning the soul, -heaven and hell; and the absence of any evolutional -theory applied to human destiny—all these, and -above all the ignorance and pride that claim for -this particular form of religion a unique position in -the world’s history, and assume that it alone and no -other religion is the revelation of God to man, show -an ample justification for the fact that the most -intelligent men and women of Western civilization -stand outside the Christian Churches to-day, or are -in them from motives that have nothing to do with -devout religious feeling.</p> - -<p class='c004'>If, however, we turn to the history of the Church -and search its ancient records, or if unable ourselves -to grapple with the problem, we place confidence in -the evidence of students who have done so, we find -that an entirely new light is thrown on Christianity -and its real position. In the writings of the Christian -Fathers, there is a constant reference made -to grades of members and teaching within the early -Church. First, the general members, and from -those the pure in life went into a second grade. The -latter formed the “few chosen” from the many -called. But beyond these were the “chosen of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>chosen,” who, “with perfect knowledge lived in -perfection of righteousness according to the law.” -Clement of Alexandria, one of the greatest of the -Fathers of the Church, wrote: “It is not to be -wished that all things should be exposed indiscriminately -to all and sundry, or the benefits of wisdom -communicated to those who have not, even in a -dream, been purified in soul ... nor are the -mysteries of the word to be expounded to the -profane.” Origen tells us that Jesus conversed with -His disciples in private, and especially in their most -secret retreats, concerning the Gospel of God; but -the words He uttered have not been preserved. And -when Celsus assailed Christianity as a secret system, -Origen replied such a notion was absurd, “but that -there should be certain doctrines not made known -to the multitude and which are revealed after the -exoteric doctrines have been taught, is not a peculiarity -of Christianity alone, but also of philosophic -systems, in which certain truths are exoteric and -others esoteric.” Elsewhere he explains that -Scripture is threefold in meaning, that it is the -“flesh” for simple men, the “soul” for the more -instructed, the “spirit” for the “perfect,” and in -corroboration he quotes from Scripture the words of -St. Paul, “We speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, -even the hidden wisdom,” and “we speak wisdom -amongst them that are perfect.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>We have here, then, more than a trace of some -deeper teaching than appears on the surface of -Christianity, some mine of hidden truth too sacred -<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>and profound for open display to the undiscerning -multitude. Is it not evident that Christianity -contains at its centre, known only to the few, the -same transcendental and spiritual conceptions, the -same supra-physical and mystical philosophy as the -ancient religions contain? But if this be so, how -came the most precious truths of religion to be -apparently lost?</p> - -<p class='c004'>They were lost through the uncomprehending -ignorance of the early followers of the Master, Christ, -and the sectarian bigotry of ecclesiastics who cut -themselves apart from the holders of the inner -teaching and, becoming a majority, overcame the -learned few, stamping as heretics the last remnants -known as Christian Gnostics, Manicheans, Pelasgians, -and Arians, all of whom, counted schismatics, -were eventually crushed out through cruel persecution -by the victorious orthodox Latin and Greek -Churches. Nevertheless, some fragments of the -hidden wisdom of the early teaching have survived -in the uncomprehended symbols of the creeds and -ceremonies of the Churches. (I refer my reader to -Mr. C. W. Leadbeater’s work, <cite>The Christian Creed</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>That re-incarnation and Karma formed part of -the original teaching is, I think, abundantly evident. -In Gnosticism and Manicheism they were apparent. -The Christian Fathers speak plainly of these doctrines, -and Origen refers to Pythagoras, Plato and -Empedocles as holding them. Moreover, Jesus -Christ is made to utter a clear statement concerning -John the Baptist, that implies the doctrine of re-incarnation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>and his answer to the question about a -blind man, “who did sin, this man or his parents, -that he was born blind?” shows the acceptance in -the early Church of both doctrines. The whole -incident reveals that the subject of re-incarnation -was familiar to the followers of Christ, and Josephus -expressly states that the Pharisees held the doctrine -of re-birth. There is then little doubt that in the -<em>early</em> Church the belief was widely spread, but later -at a General Council—a Council held after darkness -had begun its reign—it was formally condemned -and stamped as a heresy.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Bearing in mind the view that all the great -religions come from the same spiritual source, it is -significant to find the following in the writings of a -rigid Roman Catholic historian, viz. A. F. Ozanam: -“Having burst over the borders of the country to -which it had once been confined, Buddhism at the -year 61 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> made a new appearance on the scene, -and invaded all Northern Asia.... This great -movement could not but influence the West. It -effected its entrance (into Christendom) through -the Gnostic sects. The Gnosis was the designation -of a higher science or initiation reserved for a handful -of chosen spirits.” Again, speaking of the Manicheans, -he says: “It is difficult to decide whether -Manes drew his system originally from these -Buddhist sources or found the teaching which he -handed down to his disciples held by former Gnostic -sects, themselves impregnated with the Oriental -doctrine.” (Ozanam’s <cite>History of Civilization in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>the Fifth Century</cite>, vol. i. pp. 247 and 254.) It is easy -to see that this Oriental doctrine was none other -than the hidden wisdom of Jesus and Paul as -well as of Buddha.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The special doctrine of re-incarnation is said to -be absent in the fragments of the Avesta and in the -Zend commentaries, and absent also in the latter -Pahlavi doctrines. It is not held by the modern -Parsis. “On the other hand,” says G. R. S. Mead, -B.A., M.R.A.S., “Greek writers emphatically assert -that the doctrine of re-incarnation was one of the -main tenets of the Magian tradition.” The same -author elsewhere remarks: “Since Bardaisan, like -all the great Gnostics, believed in re-incarnation, -such a conception as the resurrection of the physical -body was nothing but a gross superstition of the -ignorant.” (The <cite>Theosophical Review</cite> for March, -1898, p. 17.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>To judge Christianity fairly, it was necessary to -know something of its origin, its antecedents and the -early phases of its life. We had to follow the history -of its early sects and observe the changes effected -in the Church by forces playing upon it from without. -The Church gradually rose into a position of social -influence and authority, from which it again declined, -and it was during the latter condition that in its -struggles to maintain power and supremacy amid -adverse forces it dropped out the mystic beliefs -difficult of apprehension by Western minds; it -ceased to order and classify its adherents, and it -ultimately adapted its doctrines to the materialistic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>spirit of the dawning era of modern science.<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c015'><sup>[16]</sup></a> -Nevertheless, the Church retained its pure <em>ethical</em> -teaching. It has held up to view the noble unselfish -life of its founder Jesus of Nazareth. No one could -deny that during the period even of its degradation, -this religion has proved to millions of human beings -a source of vital comfort and joy, and to some extent -of spiritual light.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. Tertullian complains: “They have all access alike; -they hear alike, they pray alike, even heathens if any such -happen to come among them.”</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>The tendency of Protestantism was to assert the -claims of all men—the weak and childish as well as -the thoughtful and intellectually strong—to a clear -understanding of the Church’s whole teaching. In -pursuance of a policy to meet this demand, the -Church gave forth a simplified presentation of God -and Nature that contradicts the plainest facts of -science, and creates within minds of deeper, more -expanded faculty, a conscientious revolt from the -Christian faith to an attitude of honest scepticism. -Outside the Church, however, other forces of evolution -have prevailed to carry man forward, and to-day -there exists an earnest and devout spirit of inquiry, -and a strong dissatisfaction with the purely materialistic -theory of Nature.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Conspicuous among the forces of change are, first, -the study of physical phenomena on scientific -methods, a study which, by convincing the Western -mind of a profound mystery behind all phenomena, -gives fresh impulse to speculative thought, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>rouses effort to reach and apprehend the law of -evolution. Second, the study of psychic phenomena -revealing modes of consciousness hitherto ignored, -and impelling science to penetrate the hidden -recesses of our psychic activities and investigate -some of the heights and depths of man’s inner constitution. -Third, the historical studies that throw -new light on the marvellous civilizations of the past -and those religions that are more ancient than -Christianity.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Whatever the ultimate outcome of these studies -may prove, it is clear that the perspective of early -faiths—their range and reach—was vaster than -that of current Christianity, and this perception is -creeping into our popular literature and laying hold -of public thought. For instance, a recent writer -remarks: “The modern scientific revelation of -stellar evolution and dissolution seems a prodigious -confirmation of Buddhist theories of cosmical law.” -And again, “With the acceptance of the doctrine -of evolution old forms of thought crumbled, new -ideas arose to take the place of worn-out dogmas, -and we have a general intellectual movement in -directions strangely parallel with Oriental philosophy.” -(Lafcadio Hearn’s <cite>Hints and Echoes of -Japanese Inner Life</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>This movement necessarily will advance only by -carrying with it, i.e. convincing step by step, the -reason of man, and seeing that Oriental philosophy -has the doctrines of re-incarnation and Karma at its -foundation, these must be tested and the fact ascertained -<span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>whether or not they are consistent with the -laws of phenomenal existence already discovered -and believed in by the Occidental mind. “To-day,” -says Lafcadio Hearn, “for the student of scientific -psychology, the idea of pre-existence passes out of -the realm of theory into the realm of fact,” and -he quotes in corroboration of this statement Professor -Huxley’s opinion of the theory—“None but -very hasty thinkers will reject it on the ground of -inherent absurdity. Like the doctrine of evolution -itself, that of transmigration has its roots in the -world of reality, and it may claim such support as -the great argument from analogy is capable of -supplying.” (<cite>Evolution and Ethics</cite>, p. 61, Ed. -1894.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>At this epoch of the world’s history, the humanity -that exists is of an infinitely varied character. At -one end of the scale, we have in savages the simplest -forms of racial types, at the other the most complex -forms, and between these every conceivable variant. -The distinctions go deeper as we ascend the scale, -and there are no two beings alike in their powers of -abstract thinking, the nature of their intellectual, -emotional and moral qualities, and the groupings -of these qualities—in a word, their individualities. -Now one thing demanded by the developed intellects -of this age is a generalization that will cover and -explain these perplexing differences. The law of -heredity does this to a very limited extent only. So -far as the physical structure is concerned it explains -much; but when we come to the mental and moral -<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>developments, its insufficiency is apparent. Genius -and idiocy may be found springing up from the same -parent stock and under identical conditions of training -in childhood. Variety of character will appear -in children of the same family from almost the -moment of birth. One infant comes into the world -handicapped by a sullen temper and vicious disposition, -another with the most lovable traits. It is -inconceivable that these incongruous effects flow -from congruous causes on the physical plane. And -were we able to logically accept these physical causes -as adequate, no civilized being could morally respect -the ordering of a universe wherein innocent souls -newly created enter life handicapped by vicious -propensities. Either the Power behind all phenomena -is a malevolent Power, or the universe is a -chaos—the inconsequent outcome of random chance.</p> - -<p class='c004'>These painful alternatives cease their troubling, -however, and all perplexities gradually disappear as -the mind of man grows into a clear apprehension of -evolution in its full significance. The basic law of -evolution is that all existence proceeds in cycles, -each having its objective and subjective arc. In -other words, there is a constant flow of motion and -consciousness from without within and from within -without. On the lowlier levels of life, this law is -observed and science based upon it. In the -vegetable kingdom, the leaves, stalk and flower of a -specific plant perish as completely as though they -had never existed; but the subjective entity -remains, and in due course it reappears, clothed in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>a different vestment of cells, the same in all the -details of its intricate form.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the insect kingdom, all the wonderful changes -that transform a crawling slimy caterpillar into a -glorious vision of beauty and grace takes place in -silence and darkness—from within without. Here -the law of evolution takes a wider range than in the -vegetable kingdom. Form, function, habit, all are -changed, yet we know by actual observation that -the soaring butterfly and crawling caterpillar are -intrinsically one and the same. Moreover, the -whole process of change is accomplished in the pupa -stage independently of that food supply which—to -the scientific conception—seems indispensable in -the generation and continuation of vital force. (I -must here refer my reader to the full discussion of -this subject in chapters v. and vi. of Dr. Jerome -A. Anderson’s <cite>Re-incarnation—A Study of the Human -Soul</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now in our habit of regarding humanity in its -higher aspect as the acme or crown of terrestrial life, -we are apt to forget the potent connexions that link -it with life in general. But re-incarnation, if we -would judge it philosophically, must not be wrenched -from its place in the order of nature and studied as -an isolated fragment.</p> - -<p class='c004'>“All evolution consists,” says Mrs. Besant, “of -an evolving life passing from form to form as it -evolves, and storing up the experience gained -through the forms; the re-incarnation of the human -soul is not the introduction of a new principle into -<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>evolution, but the adaptation of the universal -principle to meet conditions rendered necessary by -the individualization of the continually evolving -life.” (<cite>The Ancient Wisdom</cite>, p. 234.) The doctrine -of human evolution summed up in the term re-incarnation -cannot be proved in the same sense as a -new discovery in physics can be proved—that goes -without saying. But we may claim that it can be -so nearly proved by reasoning that no intelligent -being who correctly apprehends the idea and applies -it with patience to the experience of existence, -whether in or out of the body, can fail to believe it -as fully, for example, as the modern scientific world -believes in the electro-magnetic theory of light. -That theory is no longer argued about. It is the -only theory that will explain all the facts. And of -re-incarnation in a higher domain we may equally -affirm it is the only theory that explains the facts -and is consonant with all the known laws of nature. -It is luminous with a truly scientific aspect. It -satisfactorily accounts for the inherent differences -in character that heredity leaves unexplained, and -it renews our faith in love and wisdom as underlying -the phenomena of earthly existence, notwithstanding -present appearances.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But add to this the fact that every great religion -of the world, except modern Christianity, holds it -more or less completely, whilst Christianity also -originally held it; and if a spiritual and ethical -theory of the universe be tenable, then cultured -minds rejecting re-incarnation must either have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>failed to study the subject in its antecedents and -bearings, or they must be by constitution profoundly -unphilosophical. (I refer my reader here to -chap. iii. of Mr. A. P. Sinnett’s <cite>Growth of the -Soul</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>After all, it is a comparatively few men and women -who seek intellectual clearness of vision, and are -restless of soul till they grasp a theory of the universe -and an interpretation of life that alike may -satisfy head and heart—the mass of mankind is -unthinking. And as we contemplate the stupendous -task of evolution in developing each individual soul -out of the embryonic condition of the savage to a -conscious control and exercise of all the divine -potencies of a perfected spiritual man, we feel no -surprise that the major part of humanity stands yet -in its childhood. Unequal development is the -natural corollary of general evolution. The heart -of modern man, however, is for the most part in -advance of his head, and it is here, viz. on the -emotional side of human nature, that religion—no -matter what the specific form may have been—has -ministered to man’s needs and proved an all-important -factor of evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Revelation, as Lessing (who believed in re-incarnation) -declares, has been the education of the -human race. “It did not,” he says, “give anything -that human reason left to itself would not arrive at, -but it gave the most important of these things -earlier”—that is, before the reasoning faculties were -fully developed in man. (Lessing’s Treatise: <cite>The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>Education of the Human Race</cite>, translated by the -Rev. F. W. Robertson.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>The founders of every religion—the great and -wise ones of the earth—have guided the race in its -slow and gradual ascent from infancy to manhood, -and even through the degeneration to which every -religion has been subjected from human ignorance -and selfishness.</p> - -<h4 class='c019'><span class='sc'>Section 2</span></h4> - -<p class='c020'>We have now to turn from racial religions to -personal religion, and as the springs of individual -conduct lie earlier in the heart than in the head, -spiritual developments begin there. It is in accordance -with natural order that the right conduct and -simple devotion of millions of human beings, -intellectually blind, should yet aid the steady -advance of evolution towards its highest goal.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The pilgrim soul pressing forward through a long -series of births and deaths has a chequered career of -conquest and defeat, until, experience guiding effort -and overcoming waywardness, the animal stage of -existence has been distanced and left behind. But -each of these pilgrim souls pursues a path specifically -its own, that is, differing from that of every other -pilgrim soul. The paths pursued are divided by -Eastern thought into three distinct classes. First, -that of action; second, that of devotion; third, that -of wisdom. In the first class are to be found men -and women of infinitely varied powers taking part -<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>in all the activities of the world, and striving with -keenness to attain certain desired results. Commencing, -it may be, with low, selfish, narrow motives -of action, these gradually alter and improve, till -motive and action alike have become pure, unselfish -and directed to the widest beneficence. Such types -of humanity tread the first path, that of action, and -in it are harvesting precious experience. They are -developing interiorly the powers that make for -righteousness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To the second class belong all the world’s sincere -religionists, those beings whose regard—whether -of fear or love—goes out to an ideal person. The -person, observe, may be of low or of high grade in -accordance with the subjective development of the -individual worshipper. As the object of devotion -becomes purified, love casts out fear, and advance -on this path proceeds. Men and women adoring -their conception of Krishna, or Buddha, of Ahura -Mazdao, or of Jesus Christ, are treading the path of -devotion, and may rise to the highest emotions of -altruism, the most selfless service of the Supreme, -thus harmonizing ever more and more the human -will and the Divine will.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Pilgrims of the third and smallest class are men -and women whose constant desire and endeavour is -to search out the truth of things. In the earlier -grades of this path will be found scientific investigators -of physical phenomena; more advanced on -the path are materialist philosophers and all -individuals directing their efforts to an examination -<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>of man in the regions of emotion and mind. Above -these again are the men and women whose search -is into the innermost nature of things, and who, in -the intensity of that search, lose more and more -their feeling of self, and merge themselves in Divine -knowledge.</p> - -<p class='c004'>To summarise the three paths: The first is a -progress through human activities from motives of -self to motives of highest altruism. The second is -a progress through religious emotions, from fear of -an invisible demon, to the most selfless love of an -ideal person and unswerving devotion to true ideals. -The third is a progress from the simplest efforts to -discover truth to the acquisition of Divine wisdom -by means of the immensely increased faculties of the -perfected man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>These three paths, like different ways up a -mountain, meet at the top, where pilgrims attain to -the qualities of all, and not only of the one path -mainly traversed by each. All attain in the end to -the fullest development of human power and faculty, -and to complete liberation from the chain of births -and deaths. That personal goodness and religious -zeal are the measure of spiritual development is -only the Church’s view, and it ignores a large part -of human efforts and activities. Without personal -goodness certainly no spiritual life is possible, but -beyond the acme of personal goodness to lofty -heights of knowledge, of wisdom, of transcendent -love and benevolence, rises the pilgrim human soul -under Divine tuition.</p> - -<p class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>We have now to inquire wherein the pilgrims -resemble one another? The feature common to all -is the inner attitude of self-surrender. It may -spring from impulse or a half-unconscious sense of -duty. Or, it may result from the reasoning faculty, -from reason controlling and directing conduct with -a full consciousness of responsibility. Again, it may -be allied with all the sacred aspirations and inspirations -that follow upon a long course of development, -but whatever the cause and degree, this attitude of -mind makes it possible for the spiritual forces -working in and through humanity as a whole to -manifest there, expanding the heart and mind, and -creating a further soul-evolution.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is a law in nature which has been well called -the pulse of our planetary system, a law of giving -out. It involves no absolute and ultimate sacrifice; -and it is the only law by which progress and exaltation -in nature can be actually achieved. Now this -law is a central part of the teaching of every great -religion. The Logos, we are told, in bringing into -existence an infinitude of centres of consciousness, -made the voluntary sacrifice of limiting His own -boundless life. This thought is expressed in the -Christian Scriptures thus: “The Lamb slain from -the foundation of the world.” This first great outbreathing -of the life of the Logos is the earliest -presentation of the law of sacrifice—that law which -prescribes that at every stage of evolution life and -energy shall be given out for the benefit of some -consciousness on a lower grade than the giver. This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>great principle of evolution is manifest in the unselfish -benevolence of all good men and women; -even when they are working as yet in blind obedience -to the scarcely articulate impulses of their awakening -spiritual natures. (I refer my reader to p. 452 of -Mr. A. P. Sinnett’s <cite>The Growth of the Soul</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>To our minds pain seems necessarily connected -with sacrifice, but pain proceeds wholly from discord -within the sacrificer, i.e. from antagonism between -the higher part of his nature which is willing to give, -and the lower part whose satisfaction lies in grasping -and keeping. The process required in each case is -a turning from the selfish, individualistic attitude -to that of a social, altruistic giving—a giving joyfully -for love’s sake. The transition naturally -involves some pain, for the conscious will has to -gradually master the animal part of the nature, and -subordinate it to the higher self.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Man is, in the order of evolution, primarily subject -to animal desires. His consciousness moves on the -sensuous plane of existence, and he clings to the -physical elements in nature. By-and-bye he learns -to relinquish an immediate material good for a -future good equally material—it may be a greater -worldly prosperity for himself or his family. This -sacrifice is not essentially noble, but it prepares the -way for a harder lesson, and one that calls out a -deeper faculty within him. Here again the process -is one of exchange, but not of one form of sensuous -good for another. It is the exchange of material -possessions or sense pleasures for something of an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>entirely different order in nature—a reward not -visible, nay, possibly far off beyond the tomb.</p> - -<p class='c004'>When humanity was in its childhood, religion -inculcated and pressed upon it this form of sacrifice; -and as we ponder the martyr lives that stud the -pages of history we recognize the fact that thousands -of human beings practised the precept, and learned -to endure, as seeing the invisible, to stand morally -upright without earthly prop, to value spiritual -companionship and joy in an inner life of purity and -peace when outward conditions were adverse and -dark.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A later, far higher phase of the law of sacrifice, is -that wherein no reward is thought of, or desired. -Reaching manhood, humanity grapples with the -duties and accepts all the grave responsibilities of -an advanced evolutional stage. Duty becomes the -motor of action, self-mastery and love of one’s -fellows the very keynotes of man’s music. The -animal part of his nature becomes subordinate to -the higher self. The third great lesson of sacrifice -works within, the lesson, viz. to do right simply -because it is right, to give because giving is owed -by each to all, and not because giving will in any -shape be pleasing to or rewarded by God.</p> - -<p class='c004'>During the various stages of progress, the pain -aspect of sacrifice is clearly seen. Nevertheless, a -soul’s passionate grip upon things physical and -sensuous relaxes, and a day arrives when to give -spontaneously, freely, lavishly, is purest joy. Then -is man’s life merging into Divine life, and sacrifice -<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>is no more pain. Vital dissonances cease to rend -man’s heart, for his inner consciousness has soared -above the selfish separateness of phenomenal existence -into realms of nature where unity and love -are the all-prevailing principles of life. We know -these principles in action through the beautiful, -selfless earthly pilgrimage of Him we call the -Saviour of Mankind, whose whole career was an -At-one-ment with the Divine.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The “Vicarious Atonement” doctrine of -Western faiths to-day is both an ecclesiastical -device for increasing priestly power and a misapprehension -of the law we have been considering—the -law of sacrifice, by which the worlds are made, -by which the worlds are living now, and by which -alone the union of man with God is brought about. -That noble doctrine of antiquity was changed by -Mediæval Christianity into a picture of the Godhead—Father -and Son, in opposition to one another—a -picture that “shocks all reverence, and outrages -reason by bringing all manner of legal quibbles into -the relationship between the Spirit of God and man.” -(<cite>Four Ancient Religions</cite>, Annie Besant, p. 166.) -Again, a race whose reasoning faculties are developed -must needs repudiate the Church’s dogma of -“Imputed Righteousness”—a righteousness not -inwrought or attained to, but applied externally—a -covering to what is corrupt and base, yet deemed -sufficient to secure a perfunctory pardon of sin, a -non-merited Divine favour.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The real At-one-ment with the Divine, whereof -<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>Jesus the Christ is our Archetype, admits of no -substitutions, no subterfuges, makes no fictitious -claims. It signifies an actual transformation or -process of change, the inner consciousness passing -from the lower to function on higher levels of being.</p> - -<p class='c004'>It is easy, however, to apprehend how the necessity -of thinking of all supra-physical things, i.e. the -finer phenomena of existence, by means of analogies -and figures of speech that are purely physical, led -to much of error in the earlier stages of human -development; and there is a sense in which the -“robe of righteousness” is a not inapt analogy -or figure. When speaking of the pilgrimage of the -soul, the picture presented is that of a concrete -toiler, ascending slowly, breathing heavily, sighing -and evidencing effort to all our outer senses, yet we -know that the soul’s best efforts are mostly hidden -from sight and hearing and touch. But no confusion -arises. The mental conception to which the -figure points is that of efforts as great though -directed to evils that are chiefly mental, emotional, -moral, not physical. Similarly, the “robe of righteousness” -figure must not be overstrained. Man’s -soul is clothed upon by, or clothes itself in (it matters -not which, we say) robes or garments of flesh, and -of finer physical elements than flesh, elements intangible -to his five senses. The flesh garment or -body is constantly changing, and so are the bodies -of desire and of thought. The changes occur -through the action and interplay of diverse subtle -forces. Fresh elemental matter is borne in from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>without to replace the atoms of structures tending -to decompose, while a process of selection, determination -and assimilation proceeds through the -action of forces within.</p> - -<p class='c004'>But the same laws of growth apply to realms of -nature less open to observation, and a careful selection -and choice of material is as potent and necessary -in building the bodies of desire and thought as in -building the body of solid flesh. And what are the -available materials here? In the hidden life of our -own thought and feeling we are conscious of an -unceasing flow of transient states, or we may express -it, currents of emotional and mental vibrations -reaching us from we know not whence, waves -breaking upon us from without. If we deliberately -choose the elevated moods, the purest, swiftest -vibrations, and seek habitually to retain these and -make them our own, sweetness and light must -inevitably characterize the habitation we are slowly -building for our inner consciousness. In other -words, the vehicles of our feeling and thought will -become as “robes of righteousness.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>Desires, passions, emotions form what has been -called the astral body;<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c015'><sup>[17]</sup></a> aspiration and thought -or the action of reason, imagination and the artistic -faculties, create a still subtler, or mind-body, while -the blend of the two is what we are accustomed to -observe as ruling character. And when the physical -is cast off at death, man’s consciousness passes into -<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>his subtle bodies and into regions of bliss whither -we may not follow, but of which St. Paul gives us a -glimpse when he says “we have a building of God, -a house not made with hands, Eternal in the -Heavens.”</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. A real body of subtle matter interpenetrating the flesh -body and visible to some clairvoyants.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>Now, to minds permeated by cruder ideas of -man’s body and soul the above will seem mystical -and unreal. Nevertheless, there are many minds, -scientifically trained to a close observation of the -manifold phenomena of life with all the finer forces -and elements in nature, that are ready to accept a -truer conception of the complex constitution of man. -To all such, the proof of the actual existence of these -transcendental vehicles of consciousness lies in -hypnotic and other psychic phenomena, and in the -evidence of experience. For, given a certain amount -of intimate intercourse, and the man within the -man shows himself to the eye of his friend through -expression, attitude, gesture. But what the mental -eye sees behind the veil of flesh must exist in some -form. Hence the eye discerns not the consciousness, -but its phenomenal garment or vehicle, and -the texture organized is coarse, brutal, degraded or -animal, sensuous, selfish, or of a finer and purer -nature, divinely human, indicating the grade and -quality of the animating principle or soul within.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span> - <h2 class='c007'>SUMMARY</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Passing back once more from personal religion, -or the rise and purification of the inner nature of -the individual man, to the great subject of religion -in general, we must again have recourse to physical -analogies or figures of speech. A mighty stream or -current of spiritual vibrations has flowed from the -beginning behind the circumstances of history; and -each branch of the human family has caught up, -retained, and manifested a portion thereof. But -the manifestations have at all times been governed -by the receptive capacity of the particular race and -its inherent distinctions. Every formulated religion -is of dual complexion: first, the initial motive, -which is spiritual; second, the expression, which -is due to ideas, and these are furnished by the -mind. The creeds, dogmas, rituals, are outgrowths -of the age, civilization and locality.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Christianity has ostensibly been the religion of -Western Europe during a long period of development -in all the material appliances of a civilized life -when mental and physical forces, engaged in accumulating -wealth, have dominated this development -<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>and tended to depress and destroy the higher impulses -and aspirations of man. Christianity, already -weakened by errors that had crept in, was -unable to withstand the corrupting influences of -a money-making age. It adapted itself to the -sternly practical business-like son of the West, and -dropped out much of the imaginative and reflective -side of its teaching. But the “old order changeth,” -and, as has been shown in previous chapters, one -great department of civilized life, viz. the prevailing -system of industry, is hastening to its dissolution. -That system has been tried in the furnace of a longsuffering, -patient experience, and found to create -national wealth in abundance, while utterly failing -to subserve general well-being, and bring about a -just arrangement of social conditions.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Through all the channels of the nation’s best -thinking there has sounded low, but clear as a -clarion note, a call to social reform, and now, in the -depths of industrial confusion, amid dumb despair -and loud-voiced public discontent, the still small -voice of conscience speaks audibly, and a stirring of -dry bones over the whole field of action, betokens -the awakening to a new era of existence. Spiritual -vibrations have loosened the foundations of our -materialized, selfish life, and pierced through the -crust of callous indifference to the heart of the nation. -A new tenderness lurks there. It prompts to the -entire overthrow of our hideous industrial warfare -and the substitution of a well-ordered system based, -reared and maintained through the action of wide-reaching -<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>love. But love was the distinguishing -feature of early Christianity, and the genius of its -teaching. Through the figure of family life, with its -tender ties, unselfish actions and unity of interests -and feeling, did Christianity strive to allure to the -broader, higher, deeper love that embraces all mankind -and manifests throughout all human relations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Pioneers of the social revolution may abjure the -churches, creeds and rituals, and boast themselves -agnostic, but none the less are they aiding the reembodiment, -on this material plane, of the true -religious spirit, or the birth of a religion fitted for -the nation’s age and civilization.<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c015'><sup>[18]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. Mr. Lester F. Ward (in his new work published in 1903) -formulates a distinction between human and animal -societies by saying that the environment transforms the -animal while man transforms the environment. This -transformation constitutes what he calls “achievement,” -and is the characteristic feature in human progress. The -products of “achievement” are not material things. They -are methods, ways, principles, devices, arts, systems, -institutions.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>The Church, it is true, gives no formal countenance -to the industrial revolution, but that does not disprove -my contention that it is the <em>distinctive religious -movement of this age</em>, and that it is in line and -harmony with the religious movements of former -ages. These may seem to have been less secular -than this, but they always embraced a reformation -of social and individual life. The actual distinction -arises from the Church’s own deficiencies, and from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>the greater elaboration of modern society, causing -an almost undue prominence to be given to the -outward changes necessary at the beginning of a -modern reformation. The Church must inevitably -conform itself to the industrial revolution. It -must reform itself from within; and this is clearly -perceived by many of its members.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Whilst I write a conference of the Young Men’s -Christian Association is taking place. A question -discussed was: “What is the cause of young men’s -drifting away from the Church?” One speaker -remarked that to his mind the cause was the want -of fixity of opinion on the great fundamentals of -their common Christianity. Young men found -that ministers were not agreed upon what they -preached, and until the Church made up its mind -as to what was really the truth, there could be no -remedy for this drifting. Another speaker said he -knew young men who hated the Church, and said it -was not consistent. They pointed to the slum -dwellings in their great cities, and asked what the -Church was doing to remedy the state of affairs -there disclosed. In fact, they said: “Salvation -is hardly worth the taking, it’s so mixed up with -money-making. If the Church was to reach young -men, it must take up a more consistent attitude -with regard to all social questions.” (From the -<cite>Scotsman</cite>.)</p> - -<p class='c004'>But religion is not of the Church alone, religion -appertains to the <em>totality</em> of life; and the right ordering -of all the conditions of the nation’s material -<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>existence is the first step in the attainment of a -national religious life. For, observe, the broad -current of spiritual vibrations encompassing the -race can have no free course and ingress to thrill -the nerves and quicken the pulse of the nation so -long as there endures a fierce, brutal struggle for the -means of potential life—a struggle that hardens the -heart and coarsens the fibre of rich and poor alike. -The movement we call Economic Socialism is a -veritable recurrence of the cry of the Prophet -Esaias: “Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make -His paths straight.”<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c015'><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c004'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. What profits it to the human Prometheus that he has -stolen the fire of heaven to be his servant, and that the -spirits of the earth and of the air obey him, if the vulture of -pauperism is eternally to tear his very vitals and keep him -on the brink of destruction?—<span class='sc'>Huxley.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>The Church militant must adjust itself without -and within to the social industrial revolution, to a -wider development than hitherto in man’s reasoning -powers, and to a profound impulse in man—an -impulse born of experience—that is carrying him -towards the vast region of philosophic mysticism -which lies behind the common Christian creeds and -doctrines. The poet caught the shadow of coming -events when he wrote—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>So all intolerable wrong shall fade,</div> - <div class='line'>No brother shall a brother’s rights invade,</div> - <div class='line'>But all shall champion all:</div> - <div class='line'>Then shall men bear with an unconquered will</div> - <div class='line'>And iron heart the inevitable ill;</div> - <div class='line'>O’er pain, wrong, passion, death, victorious still</div> - <div class='line'>And calm, though suns should fall.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>Oh priests who mourn that reverence is dead,</div> - <div class='line'>Man quits a fading faith, and asks instead</div> - <div class='line'>A worship great and true.</div> - <div class='line'>I know that there was once a church where men</div> - <div class='line'>Caught glimpses of the gods believed in then:</div> - <div class='line'>I dream that there shall be such church again—</div> - <div class='line'>O dream, come true, come true.</div> - <div class='line in32'>—<span class='sc'>W. M. W. Call.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span> - <h2 class='c007'>SYNOPSIS</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>The world has a purpose.... That purpose aims not at -man as an end, but works through him to greater issues.—<span class='sc'>H. -G. Wells.</span></p> - -<p class='c018'>Man has already furthered evolution very considerably, -half unconsciously and for his own personal advantage, -but he has not yet risen to the conviction that it is his -religious duty to do so deliberately and systematically.—<span class='sc'>Francis -Galton.</span></p> - -<p class='c008'>More than a century has elapsed since Pope’s line -was written: “The proper study of mankind is -man,” yet it is only of recent years that physiology -has entered upon the proper method of that study. -Discoveries made in the last century have thrown -fresh light on individual human nature. The marvellous -potency of thought has been demonstrated, -and the momentous fact of diverse states of basic -consciousness made apparent—the fact, namely, -that the mind of individual man is not functionally -limited to his physical consciousness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Again, that every human being should have freedom -to be happy was realized by many at an earlier -epoch; but what the essential nature might be of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>a happiness that could satisfy the conflicting desires -of humanity differentiated in all its units—seemed -an insoluble problem. Psychology, however, indicates -the solution of that problem, for it shows that -individual happiness is intimately bound up with, -and dependent upon, <em>general happiness</em>. The “subliminal -or unconscious mind,” otherwise termed the -super-physical consciousness that is common to all -mankind knows no settled peace and comfort while -the areas of physically conscious life are scenes -of perpetual conflict. Man to be truly happy must -be so collectively and not merely individually or -sectionally.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Now the scheme of social reform I advocate points -the way to a unification of thought that working -itself out through the diverse channels of visible -life will eject the causes of evil, bring order where -chaos has reigned, and slowly but surely establish -the foundations of universal peace. As Richard -Harte has well said: “Human beings at present -are like a number of little magnets thrown promiscuously -into a heap, with their poles pointing in -every direction, and wasting their strength in -opposing each other. These little magnets have -to point in the same direction that they may -become bound together into one great magnet, all -powerful to attract good, all powerful to repel -evil.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>The new system of action bases its thought on the -complexity of human nature. It recognizes that -the component cells of the physical body are lives -<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>which must suffer if the laws of their well-being are -not subserved, and the suffering translates itself -into pain or into sub-conscious distressful melancholy. -It perceives that the social instincts of man -hitherto thrust back and crushed are: “the various -needs of universal attraction all tending towards -unity, striving to meet and mingle in final harmony” -(Zola). And further it apprehends that a lofty -aspiration—a divine impulse—hovers on the threshold -of consciousness waiting to enter as brutal -passions and vicious propensities are conquered and -dispossessed.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The evils that infest and corrupt our social life -and that man must deliberately uproot and eliminate -before general happiness becomes possible are—poverty, -i.e. a life-long struggle to obtain food, -shelter, clothing; the birth of individuals weak and -unfit; disease, premature death; enforced celibacy; -late marriage; drunkenness; disorganization of -family life; prostitution; war; and industrial competition; -social injustice and inequality; individual -tyranny; crime; barbarous treatment of criminals; -disrespect of natural function and consequent injury -to health; conventional folly; social repression of -innocent enjoyment; religious bigotry; the feebleness -of religious guidance and confusion of religious -thought.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Partial views of society as well as of individual -human nature have hitherto prevailed and given -birth to specifics of all kinds for the cure of the -diseases of society, and these in the growing tenderness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>of humanity, have been eagerly adopted and -applied, to prove disappointing in the main. The -new system deals with society as a whole and throughout -all its parts. It requires a full comprehension of -each and all the groups or classes of social phenomena -and their inter-relations.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Viewing society as a whole, we realize that there -are no remedial specifics in the case, that general -happiness will be obtained only by a process of -evolution, and that the process is one of continual -readjustment of multitudinous relations, or unceasing -adaptation of individual human life to a -social environment, and of social environment to -individual human life. The evolution of social -environment proceeds towards the highest ethical -state which implies a system of society based upon -justice and equality. But the realization of this -state requires a perfected humanity, hence the path -of progress is also in the gradual improvement of -individuals—the creation of a superior race whose -spontaneous impulses will construct and support -a perfected social system.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Unconscious evolution has carried us forward -from savagery through many transitions to a state -of civilization which, though grossly imperfect, -contains within it a new element of advance. Here -and there throughout society the power of love and -reason combined has become strong, and aided by a -scientific knowledge of man and the conditions of his -life, it is capable of design, and of intensifying the -action of evolutionary forces and immensely increasing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>their momentum. Reason, however, must -invent an effective policy of meliorism which so -unites the practical methods of reform as that each -will add strength to all, and the result prove a -powerful factor of change in the society on which it -is brought to bear.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The strife of competition throughout the whole -sphere of industrial life gives free play to selfishness -and the passion of militancy, and permeates society -with the warlike spirit.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Advance in morals is the sure step to a better -and happier future; but man’s moral nature is -largely conditioned by heredity, training and environment, -while these, at present, are all unfavourable -to a high moral state. A progressive system -of general reform therefore has to embrace and -combine rational breeding, rational training and a -rational order of life in which sympathy and co-operation -will take the place of individual competition, -and general happiness—not wealth—be the -clear aim of man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The conscious element in evolution is as yet too -weak to alter society much or rapidly, but in all -civilized countries—Germany, France, Belgium, etc., -as well as Great Britain,—changes towards the collective -control of land and capital and the reorganization -of industry on collectivist principles, have -begun, and it is of supreme importance that other -changes, equally necessary, should be initiated to -advance <i><span lang="co" xml:lang="co">pari-passu</span></i> with those.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A central source of corruption is to be found in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>the disintegration of the ancient family group—the -unfitness of an archaic domestic system to -achieve the ends of rational training and the acquiring -of habits of rational breeding. At the same -time there is a growth in social feeling and a spread -of public opinion in favour of industrial socialism -with some legislative and local action to carry it -out, that together, present conditions propitious -to change in domestic living and sexual custom. -Consequently a reconstruction of domestic life -on modern principles among educated people fitted -to adapt life to moral ends is pre-eminently a feature -of the new order.</p> - -<p class='c004'>At present excessive labour on the part of the -proletariat, and enforced idleness on the part of -many men and women within the classes, are fatal -to progress. Vital forces are exhausted on the one -hand, repressed on the other, while the sub-conscious -feeling that craves unity and solidarity is -outraged and restrained. To restore <em>work</em> to its -legitimate place in human life is a primary aim of the -new domestic system. That system must be built -up on the principle that work for the benefit of all -is the duty and privilege of each, and without a due -share of social labour no normal man or woman in -health can attain to inward peace.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As regards religion, man’s abstract thought must -purge itself from materialized ideals, his concrete -thought from selfish aims, for he is essentially a -religious being and psychical studies affirm that -within him there lie latent faculties that relate him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>to worlds unseen—worlds as yet unrealizable in -human consciousness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the visible world religious forces must be -directed to the great work of social reform. To -unselfishly promote the welfare of generations unborn -is a profoundly religious course of action. -The purest, noblest feelings of man may be enlisted -in the cause of progress through union—for social -reconstruction, scientific education, gentle training -of the young, associated domestic life, facilitation -of happy marriage—and for the comfort of all mankind, -whether good or bad, clever or dull, fortunate -or unfortunate.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Co-operation in work to the banishment of idleness -and its accompanying misery <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ennui</span></i> is the primary -object of the new domestic system, but other ends -to attain are—economy, by means of joint labour -and joint expense to the relief of monetary anxieties -and domestic worries; stability of social position, -i.e. no member needing to fear that his home will -break up independently of his wishes; social intercourse -and enjoyment relieved of conventional -etiquette or tyranny; freedom for friendship between -the sexes and such conditions of family union -as will promote mental capacity and altruistic sentiment -in each individual; early marriage without -disregard of social responsibility and based upon -mutual knowledge of character, habits and tastes; -a fitting refuge for old age, rendering impossible the -premature destruction of valuable social forces -which age alone can supply, and securing the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>material, intellectual and emotional surroundings -necessary for comfort up to the last moment of -life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the lower social strata where any reconstruction -of family life is not yet possible, what is immediately -required is a gradual rise of wages with -steady improvement in all the conditions of industrial -labour. Society also must relinquish such -patronage of the poor as fosters their too rapid -increase, undermines their self-dependence and -tends generally to deterioration of race. Parental -responsibility must be strongly inculcated and -strictly upheld. Public teaching should be given -in all natural laws affecting society, especially the -laws of health, increase, and heredity; and, under -conditions respectful to human dignity, Malthusian -doctrine should be taught, and a knowledge of -neo-Malthusian method very carefully imparted.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the higher social strata within the newly constructed -modern homes sexual conduct and parentage -with its far-reaching results for good or evil must -be controlled or guided into the path of racial -regeneration. The scientific study of man’s nature -gives sexual passion an honourable position relatively -to human life. It rests on the conscience of each -adult generation as an imperative social duty -to influence the young generation in such wise as -that this great passion shall subserve physical and -social health and cease to create degradation.</p> - -<p class='c004'>A due activity in growing organs strengthens -organic function; therefore, with early marriages -<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>and freedom to young love, checked only by scientific -knowledge of the laws of health, propagation at the -age of maturity is bound to put forth vitality of -good quality. In conscious evolution sexual functions -are no longer regarded as essentially allied -with propagation. They are regarded, however, -as properly subject in youth to parental and social -control; and that control acts as a perpetual restraint -upon licentious, dissolute tendencies and a -shield to the young love that seeks personal happiness -consistent with domestic purity.</p> - -<p class='c004'>No less potent is the action of control in another -direction. Physiology of sex and the laws of -inheritance are carefully studied by guardians -of domestic peace who, rejecting the ordinary and -vulgar conception accept the teaching of science, -and science points to philoprogenitiveness, or love -of offspring, as the proper motor force in reproduction. -Were this force the antecedent cause of -parentage throughout the nation, disease and premature -death would be undermined and gradually -subside. “Indiscriminate survival” gives way -before that “rational selection and birth of the fit” -which is a fundamental condition of social well-being—the -master-spring to a rapid evolution of -general happiness.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The transition, however, from our present state -of confused sentiment, illogical thought, and disastrous -action in the field of <em>eugenics</em> or stirpiculture, -to clearness of purpose and consistency of life, must -necessarily be a work of extreme delicacy and patient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>endeavour. Its achievement requires the nuclei of -collectivist homes. Its nurture must take place -in the bosom of a superior domestic life. The process, -in short, implies an alteration in humanity -itself, to be brought about by such preparatory -alteration in outward conditions as will set up and -bring into play the constant interaction of new social -forces.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Individualism in domestic life vitiates the movement -towards socialism outside domestic life, for -it gives us misshapen units unfit for a better social -system—a system that seeks to banish tyranny, -despotism, pride, self-will and every anti-social -emotion in order to establish the perfect justice -and equality that are essential to the highest ethical -state. It is a necessity of socialism to lay hold of -the family and fashion it anew so that it may produce -a superior material of human life, i.e. individual -men and women whose enjoyments lie chiefly -in sympathy and whose spontaneous impulses are -towards an essentially social life.</p> - -<p class='c004'>And further, not only is our present domestic -system wholly incapable of dealing with sex relations -so as to adapt them to stirpiculture, not only is it -so feeble as to be absolutely impotent in the regulation -of the conduct of masculine youth outside its -boundaries, but it is destitute also of elements -required in the organizing of a progressive educational -system.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Home education has almost disappeared in the -disintegration of family life, while in society the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>strong forces of aggregation which under diverse -conditions of industry and convention group mankind -in sections have moulded schools to massive -proportions. The youth of the nation is in a great -measure cut off from the home influences which are -calculated to teach mankind “humanities, not in -the academic but in the real sense.” It is congregated -in universities and large schools for superior -culture and day schools for culture of a less exalted -order. In the former, young men and maidens are -separated. Domesticity—the quality in human -nature on which depends the consolidation of -society, is disregarded, whilst to the development -of mutual interests, affinity of tastes, harmony of -habits and unanimity of social aims between the -sexes no attention is paid during the plastic period -of life when individual character is in process of -determination. In day schools boys and girls are -often associated, but under such conditions of -mechanical routine, cramming, conflicting and -alternating authorities, irregular and erratic forces -of moral control, as to make these schools provocative -of evil, fostering every anti-social instinct -of man.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Co-ordination in the life of the young is the demand -of the new system of general reform. The nursery, -school and playground must be harmonized, and -the entire juvenile orbit, within and without the -home, governed by intellectual and moral forces -of fixed congruity. The object and aim of true -education is the fullest development of an individual’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>best powers of thought, feeling, action, -by means of their happy exercise at every stage of -growth from childhood to maturity. Now book-learning -or culture in schools accomplishes very -little, but a direct study of nature is an incomparable -aid to this end. Each object and process in nature -from that of the infinitely great to the infinitely -small—if fittingly dealt with by teachers—is instinct -with charm for the young of an intelligent -race. It excites imagination, awakens thought, -kindles enthusiasm, stimulates every latent mental -faculty, while the endless variation of beauty in -nature—under training to close observation—makes -aesthetic appeal to the sense perceptions, and in calling -forth wonder, admiration, delight adds richness -immeasurably to the quality of human life. Nevertheless -the springs and checks of a true education -lie deep in a world of feeling. For their exercise -home-life is indispensable. Family love is the -primary motor force in the education of the feelings, -and without the presence of a wide domestic circle -habitually fostering the sympathetic and repressing -the selfish emotions no high water-mark of civilization -will be reached.</p> - -<p class='c004'>There is in man a group of emotions of comparatively -recent origin requiring scientific treatment -of the utmost delicacy and precision. On the -further development of that group depends in a -very special manner the rapid evolution of an ethical -social system. The group is threefold—egoistic, -altruistic, moral. It comprises a sense of personal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>rights, a sympathetic jealousy for the rights of -others, an intellectual and moral sentiment of -justice, or equivalence of liberty and social comfort -for all mankind. The first element is already very -perceptible throughout society. The second is more -rare; it must be strengthened or assiduously created -in the nursery, schoolroom and domestic circle -by a system of training whose characteristic is -extreme gentleness. The tender shoots of sympathetic -jealousy are incapable of growth in an -environment of harsh sound or brutal force. Hence -the authority that begets antagonism has no place -in the perfected education of the future.</p> - -<p class='c004'>As the young emerge from childhood the responsibilities -of life become aids in education, and immensely -develop the above emotions. Discipline -of conduct within their own order appertains to the -young; whilst society, within and without the -domestic circle, demands the thorough regulation -of young life. Conduct clubs and combinations -for a variety of social ends, both sexes taking part, -arise among the young; and these promote in the -highest degree the healthy growth of such virtuous -emotion and habits in the individual as are indispensable -to ethical socialism. The method adopted -is a just and intelligent criticism to which the youthful -mind has previously been trained.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Since pride of birth, pride of wealth and habits -of domination and luxury are all unfavourable to -the growth of a moral sentiment of social justice, -it is not in the upper ranks of society we need look -<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>for the public spirit that will devise methods of -gradually equalizing the labour of life and its rewards -and undermining present class distinctions. As -little likely is the sentiment of social justice to spring -spontaneously in a fortunate capitalist class where -pride of acquisition strongly opposes the principle -that reward should not be proportioned to personal -capacity—that mental labour has no title to -inordinate distinction, but that other useful exertion -ethically requires fullness of reward. Reconstruction -is necessarily a growth from below. From the -proletariat comes the impulse towards industrial -reconstruction, and it is in the middle class—and the -less wealthy section of that class—that the beings -exist who by segregation may form collectivist -homes capable of by-and-bye aggregating into the -solid foundation of a pure and elevated republican -society.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Education in these homes where mixture of ages, -from the white-haired centenarian to the infant in -arms, creates all manner of tender ties, where gentleness -and love are the main stimuli in training, where -authority is exercised consistently and reasonably, -and replaced at maturity by reason and self-control—must -eventuate in the production of a superior -moral and intellectual type.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The order of social evolution, computed roughly, -is as follows: In the first stage, social equality -exists; it is an epoch of savagery. In the second -stage, differentiation issuing in class distinctions -takes place; the birth of social inequality and injustice -<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>arising naturally through exercise of superior -brute force and cunning. Civilization has here its -genesis; and coercion, tyranny, robbery, injustice, -avarice, love of power, inequality, are stimuli of -civilization and prime elements in the formation of -strong nations. Individuals who are inferior, then -whole classes socially weak, are compelled by forces, -individual and social, to minister to the wants of -the strong and superior. Civilization nurtured by -inequality and injustice develops in the superior -classes of society and slowly spreads downwards. -In the third stage, reaction occurs, prompted by -civilization itself! Justice and liberty develop -in the lower or inferior social classes and spread very -slowly upwards without destroying a civilization, -become inherent in the superior type of man. The -fourth stage is one of readjustment in which civilization -becomes general and there is a gradual return -to social equality. Ultimately society will have no -class distinctions of the present order, no idlers -or parasites, no poor and no coercive government. -Voluntary co-operation or concerted action for -social ends is a self-regulating, self-controlling force -which, when fully developed in the new domestic -and industrial systems is able to dominate society -throughout its length and breadth.</p> - -<p class='c004'>The path of social reform I advocate has now, -in its main features, been placed before my readers.</p> - -<p class='c004'>Outside the general policy that will cause the -direct action of the system to become a great factor -of social change, however, there are sundry courses -<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>of less direct action, it is bound to pursue. These -bear relation to, first, pauperism and patronage of -the poor; second, the proletariat; third, the criminal -classes; fourth, the position of woman; fifth, -the young; sixth, conventionalism; seventh, -political action.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the first relation the specific policy is to carefully -discriminate between benevolence that is -beneficial and benevolence that is mischievous in its -results on social well-being. Whilst exercising the -former, it gives no support to charities that hurt -the independence of the poor, or relieve them of -parental responsibility. In reproduction it discountenances -and opposes the social force of <em>indiscriminate -selection</em> which results in survival of the -unfit. It seeks to initiate and press forward the -counteracting social force of <em>intelligent selection</em>, -which brings about the birth of the fit.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the second relation, the specific policy -strenuously supports combinations of workers -for the raising of wages, mutual help and democratic -political aims preparatory to general -socialism.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the third relation, the specific policy strives to -enlighten public opinion upon the nature of crime -and the philosophic principles of its treatment. -It elaborates a new method in which vindictiveness, -the essence of punishment, has no existence; but -gentleness towards all evil-doers issues in, first, the -effectual protection of society; second, the reform -of corrigible criminals; third, the gradual extinction -<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>of crime. It urges upon government a cautious -deliberate adoption of this method.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the fourth relation, the action of the policy -is to promote the enfranchisement of women, and -at every point aid the movement of advance to the -position of social equality of sex.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the fifth and sixth relations, it inculcates by admonition -and example, and especially among the -young, a return to simplicity of manners, habits -and dress. It repudiates conventional etiquette, -and opposes the tyranny of fashion. It promotes -the association of the sexes in youth under condition -of adult control, whether the union be that of -marriage, of friendship or of simple intercourse -and companionship. It discountenances and takes -no part in the excitements of an artificial, frivolous -society, but it creates and fosters the vigorating -excitements of useful labour, alternating with unconstrained -and “tranquil delights.”</p> - -<p class='c004'>In the seventh relation, the specific policy agitates -for alteration of the marriage laws, the laws of -inheritance of property and the land laws. Equality -of sex is required as the basis of the marriage law, -accompanied by the condition of easy divorce in -order to facilitate the dissolution of false ties in -favour of the true. The laws affecting children -require adaptation to the ethics of social justice -and sex equality. Laxity must give way to strictness -in respect of parentage; and child-birth be -recognized as an event bearing directly upon the -interests of the general public. Hence modification -<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>here entails the recognition of illegitimate children -and the counteracting of the vicious tendency to -shirk parental duty and social responsibility. The -land and property laws must be adjusted to a -levelling process—the action of paring down large -estates and diminishing the massive proportions -of private property so slowly as to create no individual -suffering or social confusion, such legislative -measures being directed, however, to land nationalization -and nationalization of capital as their final -aim.</p> - -<p class='c004'>In conclusion, let me add, I claim to have shown -that “science in the economic field gives certain -facts from which a line of social evolution may be -foreshadowed,” and that religion and science give, -in wider fields, facts and principles that point to lines -of illimitable progression for man. “Whether these -lines will be followed depends not upon immutable -laws beyond our control, but upon the <em>human will</em>.” -The general policy I advocate is distinctly reliable -so long as it rests on scientific methods and knowledge, -but no question is finally exhausted. In the -sphere of rational reform free-thought must ever -be considered and respected.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c006'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>New occasions teach new duties;</div> - <div class='line'>Time makes ancient good uncouth;</div> - <div class='line'>They must upward still and onward,</div> - <div class='line'>Who would keep abreast of truth.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span> - <h2 class='c007'>INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<ul class='index c002'> - <li class='c021'>%center%A</li> - <li class='c021'>Abyssinians, The, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Acquisitiveness, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Adler, Hermann, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Adolescence, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>–266, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Adulteration, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Aesthetic sentiment, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>–200, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Aged, The, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>–272, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Allen, Dr. Nathan, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Amiel, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Anderson, Dr. J. A., <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Anxiety, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Arabs, The, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Arians, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Arifura, The, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Aristotle, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Arkwright, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Arnold, Matthew, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Asceticism, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Associated Homes, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>–283</li> - <li class='c021'>Association, Young Men’s Christian, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Astral body, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Atonement doctrine, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%B</li> - <li class='c021'>Balfour, A. J., <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bardaisan, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bebel, August, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Besant, Annie, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bickerton, A. W., <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Birth-rate, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>–93, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bishop, Mrs., <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Blackley, Canon, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bon, Dr. Le, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bosanquet, Mrs. B., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bread-baking, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Buddhism, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>–295, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Bushmen, The, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%C</li> - <li class='c021'>Capital, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Capitalists, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Carlyle, Thomas, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Carpenter, Edward, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>–144, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Carr, G. Shoobridge, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Celibacy, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>–129, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Celsus, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Chatterji, J. C., <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Chesterfield, Lord, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Children, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>–253, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Children, Training of, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>–179, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>–194, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>–253, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>–338</li> - <li class='c021'>Church, The, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>–323</li> - <li class='c021'>Civilization, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>–40, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Clairvoyance, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Clarke, William, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Clement of Alexandria, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Cochrane, Baillie, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Combe, George, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Communism, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Consciousness, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>–295, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>–318, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Co-operation, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Craig, E. T., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Criticism, Personal, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Crime, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>–182, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>Criminals, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>–182, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Crockett, S. R., <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Culture, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%D</li> - <li class='c021'>Dairy produce, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Dalton, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Darwin, Charles, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Death-rate, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>–93, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Degeneration of race, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Dhimal, The, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Disease, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>–120, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Divorce, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Domestic reform, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>–283, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Du Cane, Sir E., <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Duncan, Mathews, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%E</li> - <li class='c021'>Easton, Abel, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Economics, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>–75</li> - <li class='c021'>Education, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>–179, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>–253, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>–338</li> - <li class='c021'>Education, State, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>–69, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Ellis, Havelock, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>–105, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Eliot, George, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Emerson, R. W., <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Emigration, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Empedocles, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Environment, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Escott, T. H. S., <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Estlake, Allan, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Eugenics, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>–130, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%F</li> - <li class='c021'>Fabian Essays, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Factories, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>–30, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Fashion, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Finck, Henry, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Fitz-Stephen, Judge, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Food, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Freedom, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Free-will, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%G</li> - <li class='c021'>Galton, Francis, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>–129, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Gaskell, G. A., <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Geddes, Patrick, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li> - <li class='c021'>George, Henry, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> - <li class='c021'><cite>Ginx’s Baby</cite>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Gnostics, The, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>–301</li> - <li class='c021'>Goodness, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Government, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Greg, W. Rathbone, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%H</li> - <li class='c021'>Happiness, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>–19, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>–329</li> - <li class='c021'>Hardy, Thomas, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Harmony, New, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Harrison, Clifford, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Harrison, Frederic, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Harte, Richard, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Health, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hearn, Lafcadio, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Henry, Arthur, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Heredity, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>–124,158, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hill, Frederick, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hinduism, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hinton, James, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hobson, John A., <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hooker, Sir W., <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Horticulture, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hos, The, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Hottentots, The, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Howells, W. D., <a href='#Page_213'>213</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Huxley, T. H., <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%I</li> - <li class='c021'>Ibsen, H., <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>Individual Rights, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>–200, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Industry, Organized, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>–75, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Industrial Revolution, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>–50</li> - <li class='c021'>Industries, Routine, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Interest, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%J</li> - <li class='c021'>Jakuns, The, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Jamieson, Mrs., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Jealousy, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>–228, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Jews, The, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Joli, Henri, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Josephus, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Justice, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>–196, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%K</li> - <li class='c021'>Kandyans, The, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Karma, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%L</li> - <li class='c021'>Labourers, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>–43, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> - <li class='c021'>“Laissez-faire,” <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lange, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Landlords, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>–44, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Land Problem, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>–44, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Laveleye, Emil de, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Law of Causation, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Leadbeater, C. W., <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lecky, W. E. H., <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Legge, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Legislation, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>–65, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lepchas, The, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lessing, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Letourneau, Charles, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Levy, J. H., <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lewes, G. H., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Liszt, Von, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lodge, Sir Oliver, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Lofft, Capel, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Logos, The, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Luxury, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%M</li> - <li class='c021'>Machinery, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Maeterlinck, M., <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mahan, Captain, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mallet, Lucas, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Malthus, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Manicheans, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Marriage, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>–128, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>–148, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Marriage-rate, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>–90, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Martineau, Harriet, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Massart, Jean, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Massingham, H. W., <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mathews, Justice, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Maudsley, Dr. Henry, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mead, G. R. S., <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Meredith, George, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Militancy, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>–210, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mill, John Stuart, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Milton, John, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mischler, Dr., <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Morrison, W. D., <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Municipalism, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Mysticism, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>–303, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%N</li> - <li class='c021'>Nairs, The, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Natural Selection, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Nirvana, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Nordau, Max, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Noyes, J. H., <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%O</li> - <li class='c021'>Obermair, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Ogle, Dr. Wm., <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Oneida Community, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>–280</li> - <li class='c021'>Origen, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Owen, Robert, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>–32</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>Owen, R. Dale, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–29</li> - <li class='c021'>Ozanam, A. F., <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%P</li> - <li class='c021'>Paget, Sir James, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Parasitism, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Parentage, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>–160, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Parsis, The, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Paths of the Soul, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>–311</li> - <li class='c021'>Patriotism, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>–233</li> - <li class='c021'>Patronage, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Pauperism, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Peace, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Pelasgians, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Pharisees, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Philanthropy, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Plato, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Pleasure, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Podhalians, The, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Political Economy, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Population, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>–96, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Positivism, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>–12</li> - <li class='c021'>Poverty, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>–32, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Priesthood, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Profits, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>–56</li> - <li class='c021'>Property, Private, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>–217, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Prostitution, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Protestantism, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Psychic phenomena, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Punishment, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>–168, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>–178, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Puritanism, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Pythagoras, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%R</li> - <li class='c021'>Rapacity, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>–210</li> - <li class='c021'>Reade, Chas., <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Reclus, Elisee, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Redskins, The, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Re-incarnation, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>–308</li> - <li class='c021'>Religion, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>–323, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Rent, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>–57</li> - <li class='c021'>Responsibility, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Richardson, Dr. W. B., <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Rights, Individual, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>–194</li> - <li class='c021'>Ritchie, David G., <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Robertson, John M., <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Robertson, F. W., <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Robe of Righteousness, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Rogers, Thorold, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Rowntree, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Ruskin, John, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%S</li> - <li class='c021'>Sacrifice, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>–315</li> - <li class='c021'>Santals, The, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Schooling, J. Holt, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Science, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c021'>“Scientific Meliorism”—Preface, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Servant problem, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>–277</li> - <li class='c021'>Sexual instinct, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>–113, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Shakespeare, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Shareholders, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Sinnett, A. P., <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Slater, J. E., <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Slavery, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Sloan, J. McGavin, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Smith, Goldwin, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Socialism, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>–60, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Social justice, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>–200, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Somerville, Mary, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Spencer, Herbert, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>–1, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Stephenson, R. L., <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Stirpiculture, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>–130, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>–334, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Swan, Howard, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Sympathetic Selection, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>Sympathy, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Syphilis, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%T</li> - <li class='c021'>Taoism, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Taylor, Isaac, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Telepathy, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Tennyson, Alfred, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Tertullian, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Thompson, D’Arcy W., <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Thompson, A. M., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Thomson, J. B., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Thoreau, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Tibetans, The, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Tolstoi, Leo, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Trinity, The, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Trollope, Anthony, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Trusts, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Tyranny, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%U</li> - <li class='c021'>Unitary Homes, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>–283</li> - <li class='c021'>Unknowable, The, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%V</li> - <li class='c021'>Vedas, The, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Vedas, The, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Venereal disease, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%W</li> - <li class='c021'>Wade, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Wages, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Ward, Lester F., <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Watt, James, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Wealth, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>–216, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Webb, Sidney, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Wells, D. A., <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Wells, H. G., <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Whitman, Walt, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Wines, Howard, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Woman, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>–227, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Wordsworth, William, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Worship, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a></li> - <li class='c002'>%center%Z</li> - <li class='c021'>Zola, Emile, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li> - <li class='c021'>Zoroastrianism, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='small'>Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> - -<div class='chapter ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling. - - </li> - <li>Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A VISION OF THE FUTURE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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