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- padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -/* comment out next line and uncomment the following one for floating figright on ebookmaker output */ -.x-ebookmaker .figright {float: none; text-align: center; margin-left: 0;} -/* .x-ebookmaker .figright {float: right;} */ - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -.poetry {display: inline-block;} /* */ -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - -.antiqua {font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy", "Perpetua", "Times New Roman", - Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.25em;} - -.clrdata .tdr {text-align: right; padding-right: 0.75em;} - - -td {border: #000 solid 0px;} /* for testing show borders */ - -/* Poetry indents */ -.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} -.poetry .indent2 {text-indent: -2em;} -.poetry .indent26 {text-indent: 10em;} -.poetry .indent5 {text-indent: -0.5em;} - - - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The honey-bee; its nature, homes and products, by William Hetherington Harris</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The honey-bee; its nature, homes and products</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Hetherington Harris</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 18, 2022 [eBook #67435]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tom Cosmas produced from materials made available at The Internet Archive and placed in the Public Domain.</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HONEY-BEE; ITS NATURE, HOMES AND PRODUCTS ***</div> - - - - -<div class="figcenter" id="cover" style="width: 313px;"> - <img src="images/cover.png" width="313" height="482" alt="The Honey-Bee: Its Nature, Homes, and Products, W. H. Harris" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">- i -</span></p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="pmb4 chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak">THE HONEY-BEE:<br /> -<span class="smaller">ITS NATURE, HOMES, AND PRODUCTS.</span></h1> -</div> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">- iv -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="frontis" style="width: 674px;"> - <img src="images/frontis.png" width="674" height="427" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Comb, Showing Different Kinds of Cells.</span></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">- v -</span></p> - -<p class="nobreak vbig">THE HONEY-BEE</p> -</div> - -<p class="pmb4 caption2">ITS NATURE, HOMES, AND PRODUCTS.</p> - - -<p class="tdc">BY</p> - -<h2>W. H. HARRIS, B.A., B.Sc.</h2> - - - - - -<p class="pmt4 pmb4 tdc"> -LONDON:<br /> -<br /> -THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY,<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">56, Paternoster Row; 65, St. Paul's Churchyard,<br /> -<br /> -and 164, Piccadilly.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">- vi -</span></p> - -<p class="pmt4 pmb2 tdc smaller"> -LONDON:<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor, Printers,</span><br /> -<br /> -BREAD STREET HILL.<br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">- vii -</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="smaller tdr"> -PAGES<br /> -</p> - -<p class="bigger">INTRODUCTION.</p> - - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#INTRODUCTION">1-3</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER I.</p> - -<p class="tdc">HISTORIC SKETCH.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Holy Scriptures—Vedas—Egyptian Monuments—The Koran—Etymological -Considerations—Literature of Subject—Aristotle—Philiscus—Pliny—Vergil—Columella—Other -Classical Authors—Shakespeare—Modern Writers.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">4-9</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER II.</p> - -<p class="tdc">NATURAL HISTORY.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Orders of Insects—Stages of Development—Egg, Larva, Pupa, -Imago or Perfect Insect—Three Classes of Bees: Queen, -Drones, Workers.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_II">10-16</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER III.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE QUEEN-BEE.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Early Errors as to Sex—The "Mother Bee"—Distinguishing -Characteristics—Functions—Attentions paid her—Effects of -Loss; how Repaired by Bees—Enmity to Rivals—Length of -Life—Egg-laying.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_III">17-28</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">- viii -</span></p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER IV.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE DRONES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Distinguishing Characteristics—Time of Hatching—Numbers—Purposes -served by them—Destruction by Workers or other -means—Unusual Survival.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">29-34</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER V.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE WORKERS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Distinguishing Characteristics—Supposed Differences of Function -among them—Sir John Lubbock's Experiments—Fertile -Workers—Length of Life—"Black Bees"—Duties of -Workers.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_V">35-43</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER VI.</p> - -<p class="tdc">HONEY.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Origin—How Collected and Stored—Constitution—Poisonous -Honey—Best varieties of Honey—Distances traversed by -Bees in search of Honey—Uses</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">44-48</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER VII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">MEAD.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Nature—Method of Manufacture—Metheglin and Mead—Estimation -in former times—Queen Elizabeth's Recipe—Scandinavian -liking for Mead.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">49-52</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER VIII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">WAX.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Origin—Production—Chemical Constitution—Comb-Building—Detailed -Description—Amount of Wax in Hives—Commercial Value—Properties.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">53-71</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER IX.</p> - -<p class="tdc">POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Origin—Collection—Conveyance—Deposition—Quantity Stored—Uses—Artificial -Substitutes.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">72-75</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">- ix -</span></p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER X.</p> - -<p class="tdc">PROPOLIS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Derivation of Word—Sources—Nature—Purposes—Quantity Collected—Adaptation -of Materials to Wants of Bees.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_X">76-79</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XI.</p> - -<p class="tdc">PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BEE.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Nervous System—The Head—Eyes—Compound and Simple—Uses -and Powers—Sir John Lubbock's Experiments—The -Antennæ—Structure and Uses—Mouth—Detailed Description.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">80-100</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">HEARING, TASTE, AND SMELLING.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Hearing—Sir John Lubbock's Experiments—Sounds uttered by -Queen—Effects produced by them—Smell-Organs—Purposes—Liking -for, and Antipathy to, certain Effluvia—Discovery -by Bees of Nectar and Honey</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XII">101-108</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XIII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE THORAX.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Detailed Description—Legs—Wings—How used in Flight—Hooking -together—Employed for Ventilating.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">109-114</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XIV.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE ABDOMEN.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Respiratory Organs—Circulation of Nutritive Fluid—Digestion -and Nutrition—Secretion of Wax—Reproductive Organs—Detailed -description of Sting—Effects of Poison—Queen's -Sting.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">115-128</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">- x -</span></p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XV.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE DISEASES OF BEES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Dysentery: How Produced—Indications—Treatment. Foul-Brood: -two kinds—Nature—Propagation. Mr. Cheshire's -Discoveries and Treatment—Fatal Effects of Disease—Detection—Vertigo—Analogy -of Human and Bee Diseases.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XV">129-138</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XVI.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE ENEMIES OF BEES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Birds—Mice—Moths—<i>Braula cœca</i>—Hornets and Wasps—Spiders—Toads—"Robber -Bees"—Prevention of robbing.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">139-147</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XVII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">HIVES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Natural Abodes of Wild Bees—Taking Honey from Roof of -House—Straw Skeps—Cottager's Hive—Supering—Nutt's -Collateral Hive—Village Hive—Woodbury Hive—Abbott's -Hives—Sectional Supering—Stewarton Hive—Carr-Stewarton -Hive—Observatory Hives—Bee-houses.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">148-170</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XVIII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">NATURAL SWARMING.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>General Facts connected with Swarming—Reconnoitring—Settling—Hiving—Curious -Incidents—Transferring Swarms to -Bar-Frame Hives—Division of Swarms—Placing Swarm in -Permanent Position-Number of Bees in Swarming—"Casts" -and Later Swarms—Prevention of Swarming—Feeding of Swarms.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">171-186</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XIX.</p> - -<p class="tdc">ARTIFICIAL SWARMING.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Advantages—Driving: Close and Open—Transfer to Bar-Frame -Hive—Conditions of Successful Driving—Various Methods -of Artificial Swarming with Bar-Frame Hives.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">187-195</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">- xi -</span></p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XX.</p> - -<p class="tdc">QUEEN REARING.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Protection of Queen-cells—Nucleus Hives—Various Methods of -Queen Rearing—American Plan—Introduction of Stranger -Queens—Difficulties.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XX">196-200</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXI.</p> - -<p class="tdc">FEEDING.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Troughs—Dangers of this Method—Bottle Feeders—Cheshire's -Feeding Stage—Neighbour's Can Feeder—The "Round Feeder"—Autumn -Feeding—Spring Feeding—Uses of Precautions—Summer Feeding -of Swarms—Flour-cake—Barley-sugar or Sugar-cake—Mr. Hunter's Recipe.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">201-213</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">WINTERING BEES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>False and True Hybernation—Temperature of Hive in Winter—Necessity -for Quiet during Winter—Structure and Winter-packing -of Bar-Frame Hives—Prevention of Draught and -Condensation of Vapour—Supply of Water.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">214-220</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXIII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">BEE-STINGS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Gentleness necessary in Manipulation—Causes of Irritation of -Bees—Examination of Stocks—Treatment of Stings—Remedies—Effects -of Stings—Inoculation—Bee Dress—Smoke -and its Uses.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">221-228</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXIV.</p> - -<p class="tdc">PASSIONS AND EMOTIONS OF BEES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Affection for Queen and Brood—Recognition of Friends and -Strangers—Fear—Anger—Covetousness—Benevolence—Remorse—Hope—Instinctive -or Sense-action.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">229-233</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">- xii -</span></p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXV.</p> - -<p class="tdc">INTELLECT AND INSTINCT IN BEES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Intellect in Man and Animals as Related to Immortality—Memory—Judgment—Instances -of Attention—Prevision—Provision—Instinct—Manifestations—Bearing -on Evolution.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">234-243</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXVI.</p> - -<p class="tdc">BEES IN RELATION TO FLOWERS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Connection of Plant-life and Insect-life—Reproduction of Flowers—Intervention -of Insects—Hermaphrodite Flowers—Cross-fertilisation—Cucumbers, -Melons, &c.—Poplars—Firs—Epilobium -or Willow Herb—Cincerarias—Darwin's Experiments—Nasturtium—Foxglove—Figwort—Salvia—Heath—Strawberry, -Raspberry, and Blackberry—Apple and Pear—Altruism of Bees.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">244-258</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXVII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH BEES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Superstitions likely to gather around Bees—Unlucky to Buy Bees—Ill -Omen for a Swarm to Settle on a Dry Stick—"Have -the Bees been told?"—Turning Hives on the Death of the -Owner—Probable Origin of these Errors.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">259-267</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="bigger">CHAPTER XXVIII.</p> - -<p class="tdc">THE PROFITS OF BEE-KEEPING.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Methods of Honey-taking—Straw Caps—Bell-Glasses—Sections—Frames—Extractors—Run -Honey—Average Returns of Hives.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">268-272</a><br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">- xiii -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="tblcont" summary="illustrations"> -<tr> - <td class="smaller">Fig.</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Comb, Showing Different Kinds of Cells</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">1.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Eggs and Larva of Bees</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig01">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Larvæ</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig02">13</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sealed Cells</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig03">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">4.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, <span class="smcap">Larva full grown, viewed sideways</span>,<br /> - <i>b</i>, <span class="smcap">Larva preparing for Pupa state</span> </td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#fig04">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Worker Larva and Pupa in Comb</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig05">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Queen of the Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig06">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Queen Surrounded by Attendants</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig07">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Drone</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig08">29</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Worker Bee</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig09">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Worker Bee, showing the Scales of Wax</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig10">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Festoons of Bees Suspended from the Roof of the Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig11">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cluster of Bees</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig12">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wax-Worker commencing a Comb</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig13">59</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Diagram of Cells</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig14">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Supposed Circular Cells</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig15">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Arrangement of Cells</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig16">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">17.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Diagram showing Slope of Cells</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig17">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">18.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Arrangement of Combs in a Bell-Glass</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig18">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">19.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Queen Cell</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig19">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">20.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Queen Cells in situ</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig20">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">21.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hind-leg of a Bee</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig21">73</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nervous System of Privet Hawk Moth</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig22">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">23.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nervous System of Larva of Bee</span> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">- xiv -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig23">82</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">24.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nervous System of Perfect Insect</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig24">83</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">25.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Eyes of a Bee (greatly magnified)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig25">85</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">26.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Facets of Eye of a Bee</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig26">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">27.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Head of Bee, With Antennæ</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig27">98</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">28.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lower Segments of Hind-leg of Bee, considerably enlarged</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig28">110</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">29.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Complete Hind-leg of Bee</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig29">110</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">30.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wing of Bee</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig30">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">31.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hooklets of a Bee's Wing</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig31">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">32.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Abdomen of Bee, showing Respiratory Organs</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig32">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">33.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Air-sacs of Worker</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig33">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">34.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, <span class="smcap">Air-sacs</span>; <i>b</i>, <span class="smcap">Ovaries, of the Queen</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig34">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">35.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, <span class="smcap">Tracheæ</span>; <i>b</i>, <span class="smcap">Elastic Spiral of Tracheæ</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig35">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">36.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Under Side of Abdomen, showing Wax Scales</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig36">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">37.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Bee, showing the Wax Scales</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig37">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">38.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Scales</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig38">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">39.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ovaries and Spermatheca of Queen</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig39">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">40.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sting of a Bee (greatly magnified)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig40">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">41.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Barbs of a Bee's Sting (very highly magnified)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig41">126</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">42.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Enemies of Bees</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig42">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">43.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Straw Skep</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">44.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flat-topped Hive and Straw Super</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig44">151</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">45.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Neighbour's Improved Cottager's Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig45">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">46.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " "</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig46">153</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">47.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Modern Hives. Nutt's Collateral Hive in the Foreground</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">155</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">48.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Woodbury Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig48">157</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">49.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Woodbury Straw Bar-frame Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig49">157</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">50.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cheshire's Bar-frame Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig50">159</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">51.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cheshire's Bar-frame Hive (sectional view)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">52.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Abbott's Standard Frame</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig52">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">53.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " <span class="smcap">(top view)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig53">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">54.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Neighbour's Sectional Super (open)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig54">162</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">55.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Frame Super</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig55">162</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">56.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Glass Frame Hive, with Super</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig56">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">57.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Stewarton Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig57">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">58.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Carr-Stewarton Hive</span> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">- xv -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig58">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">59.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Unicomb Observatory Hive</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig59">168</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">60.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Swarm</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig60">173</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">61.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">"Tanging"</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig61">174</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">62.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hiving a Swarm</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig62">179</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">63.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Swarming Board</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig63">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">64.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Queen Cage over Sealed Cell</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig64">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">65.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Inserted Queen Cell</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig65">198</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">66.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Bottle Feeder</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig66">202</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">67.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cheshire's Feeding Stage</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig67">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">68.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Can Feeder</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig68">205</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">69.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Round Tin Feeder</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig69">205</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">70.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Epilobium Angustifolium. (Young Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig70">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">71.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " <span class="smcap">(Old Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig71">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">72.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cineraria (magnified)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig72">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">73.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Tropœolum Majus. (Young Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig73">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">74.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " <span class="smcap">(Old Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig74">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">75.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Section of Scrophularia Nodosa</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig75">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">76.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Scrophularia Nodosa. (Young Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig76">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">77.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " <span class="smcap">(Old Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig77">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">78.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Salvia Officinalis. (New Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig78">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">79.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " <span class="smcap">(Old Bloom)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig79">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">80.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, <span class="smcap">Erica Tetralix</span>. <i>b</i>, <span class="smcap">Anther of Tetralix</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig80">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">81.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Section of Strawberry Bloom</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig81">256</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">82.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Section of Apple Bloom</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig82">257</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">- xvi -</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">- xvii -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">THE HONEY-BEE.</p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">ERRATA.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - - <p><a href="#Page_22">p. 22</a>, ten lines from bottom, for "not full grown" read "not more - than two or three days old."</p> - - <p><a href="#Page_30">p. 30</a>, last line but one from the bottom, for "neuters" read - "strange workers."</p> - - <p><a href="#Page_55">p. 55</a>, line 10 from bottom, for "hind feet" read "pincers on the - hind legs."</p> - - <p><a href="#Page_110">p. 110</a>, bottom line, for "four anterior tarsi" read "in the hind - legs."</p> - - <p><a href="#Page_111">p. 111</a>, line 3, for "leg" read "hind leg."</p> - - <p> " line 6, for "This pocket" read "Above this, on the outside - of the tibia, is a pocket, lined, &c."</p> - - <p><a href="#Page_136">p. 136</a>, line 12, for "foul-breeding" read "foul-broody."</p> -</div> - -<p class="caption3nb">ADDENDA.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - <p><a href="#Page_126">p. 126</a>, three lines from bottom, add</p> - - <div style="padding-left: 4em;">"The most remarkable function of the sting-apparatus - has, in modern times, been discovered to be the insertion of - a minute drop of the poison in each honey-cell when filled. - This acts as an anti-septic, and prevents fermentation in - the sweet liquid."</div> - - <p><a href="#Page_136">p. 136</a>, after first paragraph, add</p> - - <div style="padding-left: 4em;">"It is now known that this treatment is by no means - always successful when the <i>bacilli</i> have reached the - "resting" or "spore" stage."</div> -</div> - -<p class="tdc">[Note: All above corrections and additions have been applied!]</p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">- 1 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="pmt2 pmb4 nobreak" id="THE_HONEY-BEE">THE HONEY-BEE:<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smaller">ITS NATURE, HOMES, AND PRODUCTS.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> these days of intense business-pressure, it is a -good thing for men to cultivate hobbies. We say -this, notwithstanding the fact that men with hobbies -are likely to become bores, from thinking and talking -too incessantly of their pet occupations, or are apt to -run into extravagant expenditure of time and money, -which could be better utilised. Now, in recommending -apiculture, or bee-keeping, as a recreation from -more serious pursuits, we feel that we incur little risk -of increasing the number of bores in society, or of -inducing an undue outlay of hours or pounds on the -part of those who follow our suggestions. For, on -the one hand, the facts likely to be spoken of by -enthusiastic apiarians to casual hearers could not fail -to interest; while the practical results of bee-keeping -will certainly, to say the least, repay in hard cash all -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">- 2 -</span> -reasonable outlay on the part of any one who is -possessed of ordinary good sense, and who learns -to manage his hives according to modern methods.</p> - -<p>In the following pages we hope to make good both -these statements. We are sure that comparatively -few people know what marvellous creatures bees are; -what constant pleasure may be found in watching -their work; what opportunities for skilful use of brain -and hand are afforded by an apiary; what a wide field -of study and information is displayed by these domesticated -insects: and though we shall not hold out -dazzling prospects of a large return of money from -the pursuit we are commending, we shall show by -facts that, in ordinary seasons, the yield of honey -should amply cover the cost of the bees, their homes, -and their requirements.</p> - -<p>Nor would we be understood to limit our recommendation -of bee-keeping to men alone. It is an -occupation eminently suited to women. It has none -of the manifest drawbacks of poultry or rabbit-rearing. -The needs of the hives are usually not so -pressing as to involve a disregard of weather or important -engagements. Many operations in apiculture -call for female dexterity of hand and finger. It is true -that a little courage, in which few ladies are deficient, -is necessary in making a beginning of skilful bee-management. -But, duly protected by veil and gloves, -even the timid need have no fear of being stung -or seriously incommoded.</p> - -<p>Intelligent boys and girls of fifteen years and -upwards will find a hive or two of bees quite within -their power of management, and the clever and industrious -insects will afford them a surprising amount -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">- 3 -</span> -of interest, and, it may be, some not unimportant -moral lessons.</p> - -<p>In the hope of enlarging popular knowledge of -these wonderful insects, and so of increasing apiculture, -we have written this book. It does not -profess to go exhaustively into the practical part of -bee-keeping; but enough information is given for -ordinary apiarian purposes.</p> - -<p>The excellent publications of Langstroth, Cowan, -Cheshire, Neighbour, Hunter, Taylor and Wood will -supply all details intentionally omitted from the present -treatise. To several of the above writers, and -to some others mentioned at the end of <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>., -the author desires to express his obligations for -numerous facts.</p> - -<p>Many of the most important illustrations in -Chapters <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a>, and the whole of those -in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">Chapter XXVI.</a> have been taken, by permission, -from the diagrams published by the British Bee-keepers' -Association. These diagrams are reductions -from drawings made by Mr. Frank Cheshire, who is -so well known as having devoted many years to the -study of apiculture, especially on its scientific side. -To the same gentleman is also due the discovery -of many of the physiological marvels given in -Chapters <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a>, and of the chief facts -embodied in the chapter on "Bees in relation to -Flowers."</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">- 4 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HISTORIC SKETCH.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Holy Scriptures—Vedas—Egyptian Monuments—The Koran—Etymological -Considerations—Literature of Subject—Aristotle—Philiscus—Pliny—Virgil—Columella—Other -Classical Authors—Shakespeare—Modern Writers.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Far</span> back in historic time there are records that -man had learnt the value of the bee. The book of -Job—probably the oldest of our sacred Scriptures—contains -a reference to honey. The Pentateuch, the -Chronicles of the Israelites, the Psalms, the works of -Solomon, and nearly all the later books of the Old -Testament, speak of these wonderful insects or their -produce. They are referred to in the Vedas of -Hindostan, the monuments of Egypt, the poems -of Homer and Euripides, and the narrative of -Xenophon's expedition into Persia.</p> - -<p>Throughout the ancient civilised world the virtues -of honey were celebrated, and the habits of the bee -served to point a moral for human conduct. It is -remarkable that in the Koran we find Mahomet -representing the Almighty as addressing this insect -alone of all the creatures He had made: "The Lord -spake by inspiration unto the bee, saying, 'Provide -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">- 5 -</span> -thee houses in the mountains and in the trees, and of -those materials wherewith men build hives for thee; -then eat of every kind of fruit, and walk in the beaten -paths of thy Lord.' There proceedeth from their -bellies a liquor of various colours, wherein is a -medicine for men. Verily, herein is a sign unto -people who consider."</p> - -<p>The ancient Egyptians must have known much of -the domestic economy of the hive, for they took the -figure of the insect to symbolise a people governed -by a sovereign, and this so far back as the twelfth -dynasty, or 2080-1920 B.C.</p> - -<p>It has been argued on etymological grounds that -in a much remoter period still, the human race had -domesticated the bee; for in Sanskrit <i>ma</i> means -honey, <i>madhupa</i> honey drinker, and <i>madhukara</i> -honey maker. <i>Madhu</i> is evidently the origin of our -word mead. Again, <i>mih</i> or <i>mat</i>, in Chinese, signifies -honey; and it can hardly be a mere coincidence which -has brought about so close a resemblance between the -Turanian and the Indo-European terms above mentioned. -We have rather the indication of the survival -of a name in two branches of a still older language -than either of the Asiatic tongues, from which so -large a proportion of modern speech has flowed, thus -carrying us back to an enormously remote period in -the history of man. The Latin <i>mel</i>, and French <i>miel</i>, -both meaning honey, are, of course, the offspring of -the Greek; and all the above words, according to -some authorities, point to the circumstance of the -constructive power of the insect having impressed -the minds of men emphatically.</p> - -<p>In the Teutonic languages <i>biene</i>, <i>bee</i>, &c., are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">- 6 -</span> -evidently connected with <i>by</i>—a termination met with -in many English towns, and signifying "a dwelling"; -and so we see that it was not so much the sweet -liquid procured and stored by the insects, as the skill -and beauty with which they fashioned their combs, -which struck their human observers; and though we -cannot with certainty affirm that men domesticated -them in these remote times, it seems probable that -races who, before the historic period, had learnt to -make use of most of the animals now under immediate -subjection to the wants and purposes of man, saw -the convenience and wisdom of turning to account -the nectar-collecting habits of the bee. Jacob, seventeen -centuries before Christ, told his sons to take -"a little honey" among their presents to the lord of -Egypt. Again, the land of Canaan was pictured by -God to Moses as "a land flowing with milk and -honey." We should, therefore, probably be justified -in inferring that, as the one liquid was derived from -herds under the people's control, so, too, the other -came from domesticated insects. It may be that -no hives were used at so early a period as the sixteenth -century before Christ, and the reference in -Ps. lxxxi. 16—"with honey out of the rock should I -have satisfied thee"—would seem to indicate that, at -a much later date, the bees were left at large in their -native haunts. Still, the numerous references of the -earlier Scriptures make it plain that honey was an -article of common use, and was obtainable at the -discretion of those in Palestine who wished for it.</p> - -<p>With regard to the ancient literature of our subject, -the first treatise on the bee now extant is that of -Aristotle in his <i>History of Animals</i>, written about -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">- 7 -</span> -330 B.C. Observations of a scientific kind had, -however, been made with regard to these insects by -a philosopher of Asia Minor, who is said to have -devoted a long lifetime to watching their habits. -Unfortunately, the records of his studies in this -department of entomology have not survived to our -day. We have also to regret that later ages lost the -benefit of the labours of Philiscus of Thasos, who is -said to have abandoned the abodes of men for a -forest life, that he might learn all that was possible -of the nature and work of these creatures, which -seemed to him so marvellous in their structure and -their doings. It is Pliny the Elder—the well-known -Roman man of science, who lived near the beginning -of the Christian era—to whom we are indebted for -notices of the workers in natural history just mentioned, -while he himself devotes some considerable -space in his own book to a description of the bee.</p> - -<p>Nearly a century earlier, Vergil, the poet of rural -life, as well as of loftier themes, wrote a charming -book—his <i>Fourth Georgic</i>—on the subject of these -our winged friends. We may smile at his wondrous -plan for securing a prodigious swarm, and modern -methods may claim far more reasonableness and -success than those he advocates in apiculture; but we -may rejoice to see how bewitching was the pursuit of -bee-keeping nearly two millenniums ago, and how -true it has been through all the centuries, as the -French writer Gelieu says, "<i>Beaucoup de gens aiment -les abeilles; je n'ai vu personne qui les aima médiocrement: -on se passionne pour elles.</i>"</p> - -<p>The orator Cicero makes frequent reference -to them in his charming treatise on <i>Old Age</i>, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">- 8 -</span> -and other classical writers allude not unfrequently -to these insects.</p> - -<p>Columella, who lived in the first century of the -Christian era, gave, in his work <i>De re rusticâ</i>, many -directions for apiarians; and though, of course, -abounding, like Vergil's work, in errors on certain -points, his book shows a decided advance beyond -the knowledge of preceding writers.</p> - -<p>We might speak of Theophrastus, Celsus, and -Varro as contributing to the literature of bee-lore, -but it would be beyond the scope of our design to -detail what they have written on the subject. -Coming, however, down to much more recent times, -and to our own country, we cannot resist the temptation -to quote the well-known lines of our most -marvellous poet Shakespeare, whose comprehensive -intellect almost rivalled that of Solomon, for "he -spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon, -even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall: -he spake also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping -things and of fishes." The passage to which -we now especially refer is to be found in his play -of Henry F., act i. sc. 2:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent5">"Therefore doth heaven divide</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The state of man in divers functions,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Setting endeavour in continual motion;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To which is fixed, as an aim or butt,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Obedience: for so work the honey-bees;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Creatures, that, by a rule in nature, teach</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The act of order to a peopled kingdom.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They have a king and officers of sorts:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where some, like magistrates, correct at home:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Others, like merchants, venture trade abroad;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Others, like soldiers, armed in their stings</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Make boot upon the summer's velvet buds;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Which pillage, they, with merry march, bring home - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">- 9 -</span></div> - <div class="verse indent0">To the tent-royal of their emperor:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who, busied in his majesty, surveys</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The singing masons building roofs of gold;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The civil citizens kneading up the honey;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The poor mechanic-porters crowding in</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Their heavy burdens at his narrow gate;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The sad-eyed justice, with his surly hum,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Delivering o'er to executors pale</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The lazy yawning drone."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Of more recent writers we may mention the French -Réaumur; the Swiss, Bonnet; and Huber, of Geneva, -who, with his assistant Burnens, gave the world so -many wondrous details of bee-life and habits. In -our own country, Dr. John Hunter, Dr. John Evans, -who has been called the "poet-laureate of bees," -Shuckard, Sir John Lubbock, Cowan, John Hunter, -Taylor, Cheshire, Alfred Neighbour, Pettigrew, -Abbott, and many writers in the <i>British Bee Journal</i>, -have largely added to our apiarian knowledge. Not -only in America, but universally, the Rev. L. L. -Langstroth, of Ohio, has a well-earned reputation -for his researches and his practical instructions -with regard to apiculture. In Germany, Dr. Dzierzon -of Carlsmarkt, in Silesia, and Baron von Berlepsch, -of Coburg, stand at the very head of authorities on -all that relates to bees and bee-keeping.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">- 10 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">NATURAL HISTORY.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Orders of Insects—Stages of Development—Egg, Larva, Pupa, Imago -or Perfect Insect—Three Classes of Bees: Queen, Drones, -Workers.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> will be observed from the title of this book that -it deals with the honey-bee. The necessity of this -restriction will become immediately evident when we -mention the fact that in Great Britain there are no -less than twenty-seven genera and 177 species of -native bees, none of which have been successfully -domesticated except <i>Apis mellifica</i>, or the ordinary -hive-bee.</p> - -<p>The term "insect" has unfortunately been loosely -employed in popular parlance to include such diverse -beings as coral-polyps and house-flies. As the name -itself indicates, it is properly applicable only to such -animals as are more or less distinctly divided into -segments. All true insects, in fact, are plainly divisible -in their perfect state into three portions, the head, -thorax, and abdomen. The most important classes in -this portion of the animal kingdom are distinguished -by the characteristics of their wings, and are—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">- 11 -</span></p> - -<p>I. <i>Coleoptera</i>, or those possessing crustaceous -<i>sheathing</i> wing-covers, including all the beetles.</p> - -<p>II. <i>Orthroptera</i>, having the wings when at rest in -<i>straight</i> longitudinal folds, comprising such families -as the earwigs, cockroaches, grasshoppers, and -locusts.</p> - -<p>III. <i>Neuroptera</i>, nerve-winged, characterised by -four naked, strongly reticulated organs of flight, -as seen in dragon-flies, may-flies, and white ants.</p> - -<p>IV. <i>Hymenoptera</i>, <i>membrane</i>-winged, resembling the -<i>Neuroptera</i> in some respects, but with fewer reticulations, -and their organs of flight when in use are hooked -together along the margins, so as to expose a continuous -surface. Another distinguishing character is -the appendage at the tail, in the form of either a sting -or an ovipositor. The chief representative families -are the bees, wasps, gad-flies, ants, and ichneumons.</p> - -<p>V. <i>Lepidoptera</i>, having the wings covered with a -<i>scale</i>-like powder, set like the tiles of a house. The -butterflies and moths all belong to this order.</p> - -<p>VI. <i>Diptera</i>, or <i>two</i>-winged insects, embracing the -gnats, "daddy-long-legs," blow-flies, and house-flies.</p> - -<p>Less important are the <i>Homoptera</i>, which have the -wings of the <i>same consistence</i> throughout, as the -aphides or blight-insects.</p> - -<p>The <i>Heteroptera</i>, having the fore-wings coriaceous -(or leathery) at the base and membranous towards -the extremity. These comprise the bug tribe; while -fleas belong to the <i>Aptera</i>, or <i>wingless</i> insects.</p> - -<p>Insects pass through four stages during their lifetime: -the <i>egg</i>, the <i>larva</i>, the <i>pupa</i>, and the <i>imago</i> -conditions. The honey-bee exists in each of these -states.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">- 12 -</span></p> - -<p><i>The egg.</i>—All the eggs of the community are laid -by the queen. The cells in which they are deposited -vary in size and in shape, according to whether -queens, drones, or workers are to be developed in -them. In length the eggs are about one-twelfth of -an inch; in shape, oblong, but a little broader at the -upper than at the lower end, and slightly curved; -in colour they are white, with a bluish tinge. Their -external coat is slightly glutinous when they are -first laid, and thus they adhere to the bottom of -the cell in which they are deposited.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig01" style="width: 182px;"> - <img src="images/fig01.png" width="182" height="138" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Egg's and Larva of Bees.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><i>The larva.</i>—Under the genial influence of the -heat of the hive, ranging from 66° to 70° Fahr., the -formation of the larva from the egg-contents immediately -begins; and, in the course of three days, a -tiny worm or grub has been developed, and makes -its way out of its delicate shell. It now lies curled -round, still at the base of its dwelling, and, fed by -the nurse-bees on a jelly-like mixture of pollen and -honey, it rapidly grows. Its food supply is made -strictly correspondent to its wants, and by the time -the larva is ready for its next change not a drop -of the jelly is unconsumed. The fleshy white grub -is in shape at first slightly, and afterwards strongly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">- 13 -</span> -curved, and a little pointed at each end. The future -segments of the insect now become gradually visible, -fifteen in number, and ten of them are furnished each -with a minute aperture on opposite sides of the body, -and connected with air-tubes, or spiracles, by which -respiration is carried on. The segments have also a -series of minute tubercles, whose office seems to be to -aid in the motions of the grub, which motions doubtless -contribute to the assimilation of food, and so to -growth. The head of the larva is small, is smooth -above, and is furnished with two little projecting horns, -from which will be developed the future antennæ.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig02" style="width: 440px;"> - <img src="images/fig02.png" width="440" height="265" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Larvæ.</span><br /> - <i>a.</i> Worker larvæ. <i>b.</i> Queen larva. <i>c.</i> Queen cell sealed.</div> -</div> - -<p>The jaws are small, and articulate below a narrow -lip. They are constantly in motion, probably -to reduce the pollen-grains existing in the so-called -bee-bread, which, with honey, as already mentioned, -constitute their food. Beneath the jaws, and centrally -between them, is a fleshy protuberance, which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">- 14 -</span> -has a perforation at its extremity, through which the -larva emits a sticky fluid, similar to that from which -spider's-web or silk is made. With this the grub -spins for itself a cocoon, in which a further and important -transformation takes place in the structure -of the insect.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig03" style="width: 334px;"> - <img src="images/fig03.png" width="334" height="270" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Sealed Cells.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The time occupied in making this silken dress is, -for drone- and worker-larvæ, thirty-six hours. Princesses, -who trouble themselves to make only half-cocoons, -finish theirs in twenty-four hours. So soon -as the grubs are ready for this process, the nurse-bees -form over the entrance to each cell a lid made of wax -and a sticky substance called propolis; leaving, however, -minute perforations for the admission of air. -These coverings are darker than the caps of the -honey-cells. They are also somewhat convex over -worker-larvæ, and over drone-grubs they stand out -almost hemispherically. Hence it is easy to distinguish -the look of brood cells from that of those -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">- 15 -</span> -containing food-stores. Moreover, the former are -situated usually in or near the centre of each comb, -while the latter, where the two co-exist, are found -near the top. It is very important to learn the -difference in appearance between the two, as several -points of successful manipulation depend upon the -knowledge.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig04" style="width: 307px;"> - <img src="images/fig04.png" width="307" height="118" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.—A. Larva full grown, viewed sideways. - B. Larva preparing for pupa state.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><i>The nymph or pupa.</i>—In this condition the insect -is at first semi-transparent, and white, with a yellowish -tinge. Hour by hour the various organs of the perfect -bee proceed in their development, and become -more and more discernible through the thin pellicle -enshrouding them. On the head, the eyes and antennæ -assume their ultimate size and marvellous -structure. The legs and wings are clearly seen -folded lengthwise along the thorax and abdomen. -The chitinous covering of the body attains increasing -firmness, and the colour of the exterior deepens to a -greyish brown.</p> - -<p>At length, in periods varying in the three classes of -inmates of the hive, maturity is reached. In the case -of queens, sixteen days suffice for complete metamorphosis -from the egg to the full-grown insect. Drones -require twenty-four days, and workers from nineteen -to twenty-two days, according to the warmth of the -weather, to go through all their changes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">- 16 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig05" style="width: 467px;"> - <img src="images/fig05.png" width="467" height="165" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.—Worker Larva and Pupa in Comb.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>When ready to emerge from the cell, the young bee -nibbles round the lid of its abode, and bursting its -cocoon along the back, it crawls forth in its imago or -perfect condition. Forthwith the busy nurses clean -it from any remains of its silken covering; brush -its legs and antennæ; pull its wings and fuss about -it, as if to urge it to action and to arouse it to a -due sense of its newly acquired powers. Speedily -awakened to its responsibilities, the young bee assumes, -as its earliest duties, the tending of the brood-cells, -the feeding of the larvæ, and the various offices -so recently performed for itself by its slightly older -sisters. Then, as strength increases, the wings are -tried in flight; the locality of its home is reconnoitred, -and in two or three days after its emergence into its -complete condition it issues forth on journeys, nearer -or more remote, in search of stores for the perpetually -recurring wants of the succession of children continually -being reared in the hive.</p> - -<p>Each complete community of bees consists of three -classes; first, the queen, who is the parent of all the -offspring; second, the drones, or males; and third, -the workers, which are really undeveloped females.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">- 17 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE QUEEN-BEE</span></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Early Errors as to Sex—The "Mother Bee"—Distinguishing Characteristics—Functions—Attentions -paid her—Effects of Loss; how -Repaired by Bees—Enmity to Rivals—Length of Life—Egg-laying.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the earliest facts ascertained in the study -of bees was that there existed in each colony one -individual differing considerably from all the rest in -appearance and in functions. Early observers, it is -true, mistook even the sex of the one so distinguished. -Vergil says:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Et circa regem atque ipsa ad prætoria densæ</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Miscentur."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>And, again,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Rege incolumi mens omnibus una est."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Shakespeare, in the passage quoted in a previous -chapter, talks of "a king," and other writers were -equally ignorant of the true state of the case. The -headship of the hive is, in fact, held by a solitary -female, to whom the name of "queen" has been -given, both on account of the respect she receives, -and the controlling influence she appears to exercise -over the other inmates of her domain. The Germans, -on perfectly safe grounds, call her "the mother-bee"; -and it is, doubtless, owing to the all-important -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">- 18 -</span> -circumstance of the continued existence of the race -depending upon her, that she is the object of such -intense affection, attention, and devotion.</p> - -<p>This is corroborated by the circumstance that it is -only after she has been fertilised, and begins to lay, -that she is much honoured. As princess merely, not -the slightest respect is paid to her. She is not even -fed by the workers, but has to help herself, and in -doing so must scramble over the busy crowd in her -way, not one of whom will trouble to move out of -her path.</p> - -<p>Two or three prominent characteristics serve readily -to distinguish the queen from the rest of the bees. -In the first place, her body is much longer and more -tapering towards its lower extremity. Her wings are -shorter in comparison with her length. The upper -surface of her body is of a darker and more glossy -hue than that of her subjects. Her movements are -slower and less anxious in appearance than those -of the workers, except at swarming time, when excitement -quickens her steps, and gives' her an air -of purposeless solicitude; though, in reality, her -anxiety is caused by the desire to slay a royal and -rival daughter, whose co-existence in the hive she -cannot tolerate.</p> - -<p>A closer examination reveals several other points -of difference. In our English species, of which we -are now especially speaking, her colour is yellowish -underneath; her head is rounder, her legs are longer, -her tongue is more slender and not so extensile as -that of the other bees; and her sting is curved instead -of being straight, like the formidable weapon of the -workers. It is asserted by some writers that she -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">- 19 -</span> -has a peculiar odour readily distinguishable, and so -powerfully attractive to her people, that they will -alight on the finger of any one who has been -handling their queen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig06" style="width: 220px;"> - <img src="images/fig06.png" width="170" height="154" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.—The Queen of the Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Several characteristics of a negative kind may also -be noted. Her proboscis is not fitted for extracting the -nectar of flowers, and she can only lap food, or take -it from the tongues of her attendants. She, moreover -has no expansion of the gullet for a honey-bag, -since she never requires to collect and carry home -the sweet liquid. She possesses no cysts for the -elaboration of wax, as she takes no part in contributing -to the materials of her dwelling. The last -pair of legs are convex on the outside, containing no -pocket for carrying pollen or propolis; and the other -legs are without the brushes of the workers, which -enable them to clear their bodies of the powdery -discharge of the anthers of flowers, for she never -visits plants. All her wants in the way of nourishment -are supplied by her subjects.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">- 20 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig07" style="width: 450px;"> - <img src="images/fig07.png" width="350" height="227" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.—Queen Surrounded by Attendants.</span><br /> - The Queen, or Mother-Bee, as in nature, surrounded by her ladies-in-waiting, and - exhibited in a glass hive to the royal visitors at the British Bee-Keepers' Association - Show at Kilburn, 1879, by Abbott Bros., Southall.</div> -</div> - -<p>She mates once in her life, when she is a few days -old, with a single drone, and on the wing. That is -the only occasion of her leaving the hive, except -when she leads forth a swarm. Her grand function -is to lay eggs, and every part of her structure and -every power she has is more or less related to this -all-important duty. She is, as we have implied, -freed from every other office. The hatching, the -tending, the rearing, the instruction of her progeny, -are entirely taken out of her hands, and it is doubtful -whether she has any affection for her children. She -is constantly attended by a retinue of ten or twelve -"maids of honour," who all keep their heads turned -towards her, clear the way for her, prevent all crowding -round her, and supply her with the most -nutritious food, previously half digested by themselves. -They caress her with their antennæ, and -seem to find a real joy in mere proximity to their -monarch. Should she, by more rapid movements -than usual, outstrip her retiring attendants, the -bees with whom she thus unexpectedly comes in -contact appear excited and alarmed, and move -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">- 21 -</span> -hastily from her path. So long as she remains sound -and well in the hive, all the varied works go on -peacefully and incessantly. Should she die or be -removed, immediate consternation is manifested. -Her subjects rush about in excitement and distress. -They buzz around the neighbourhood of the hive, but -all active and productive work ceases. They know -that unless the disastrous loss can be repaired, their -community must perish for lack of new progeny, and -when despair seizes them, they seem to act upon the -motto, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die."</p> - -<p>But the skilled bee-keeper comes to the rescue -when he has ascertained the death or loss of a queen, -and introduces another monarch to the distressed -community. Care and caution, however, have to be -exercised in this operation; for, until convinced that -there is no hope of the restoration of their rightful -sovereign, the workers will not tolerate a substitute -for her. Even when their hopes are extinguished, it -is much safer to cage the new queen, for thirty-six or -forty-eight hours, on a comb, so that a gradual -acquaintance with one another may be formed before -free intercourse is allowed. Otherwise, it will frequently -happen that the introduced mother-bee will -come to grief by stings or by suffocation. Cases, -indeed, have occurred in which it has been found -impossible to induce a hive to receive a stranger -queen, and it has become necessary to amalgamate -such a community with another already possessed of -a monarch.</p> - -<p>But, under certain circumstances, the bees will, -in a marvellous way, provide themselves with a -sovereign. If at the time of discovering their loss -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">- 22 -</span> -there are worker-eggs in the hive, and these are only -two or three days old, a cell containing one such egg -is selected, and enlarged by breaking down the surrounding -partitions. The shape and direction of the -cell are also altered, being made pyriform, or like a -pear, and with its open end downwards. The royal -cradle, in fact, is made to look like a small acorn-cup -inverted. In this abode is deposited a certain amount -of so-called "royal jelly," a more pungent and stimulating -food than that supplied to other larvæ, -and consisting of a mixture of honey and partially -digested pollen. Under the influence of this nourishment, -the grub, instead of becoming a worker-bee, as -it would have done in the usual course of events, -undergoes all those important modifications which -distinguish the queen from her ordinary offspring; -and, moreover, the necessary transformations from -the larval to the perfect condition of the insect are -so expedited as to take only sixteen, instead of -twenty-one, days. We have said that, if newly-laid -eggs exist, these are preferred by the workers for their -purpose of queen manufacture; but they will, if shut -up to the necessity, thus transform worker-larvæ, if -not more than two or three days old. Usually, when prompted in this -way to provide themselves with a hive-mother, they -begin, not one only, but several, apparently to secure -themselves against all danger of failure. But the -first which comes to maturity assumes the sovereignty, -and, unless the condition of the stock requires the -speedy emission of a swarm, she will be allowed to -gratify her instinctive enmity to rivals, and will destroy -them as they are ready to emerge from their cells.</p> - -<p>This hatred of equals is an extraordinary fact, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">- 23 -</span> -when we consider that the queen knowingly lays -eggs under conditions in which they will, in the -ordinary course of events, become princesses. Then -another circumstance of peculiar significance, and -very marvellous, is that, notwithstanding the absolute -authority possessed by the queen under other conditions, -and in spite of the usual subjection and -subservience of the workers, they will not allow their -monarch complete liberty in the destruction of her -royal progeny. If the crowded state of their dwelling -makes it evident that the emission of a colony is -necessary, the workers-in-waiting forcibly restrain -their sovereign from indulging in her strong desire to -slay her fully-developed daughters. She resents the -interference, but no assumption of her dignity and -authority will avail, and her absolutism is in this -direction distinctly limited. Incensed at length -beyond endurance, she quits the hive at the head -of a swarm of her faithful subjects, and establishes a -community where again she will have sole sway. -If, on the other hand, circumstances do not necessitate -a division of the population, the old queen is -allowed to destroy the young ones as they issue from -the pupa state.</p> - -<p>It is said that the only other condition in which -the workers rebel against their monarch is when she -is growing worn out with age, and seems likely to -fail in power of egg-laying. Then she is believed, in -some instances, to be supplanted; but it is not -known with certainty whether natural death may not -account for her removal, or whether she is slain by -her subjects, or by a young queen preserved by their -intervention.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">- 24 -</span></p> - -<p>Should the loss of the queen take place when -there is no brood-comb in the hive, from the season -of the year, or from other circumstances, such as the -cessation of egg-laying, the bees often manifest a -series of almost frantic efforts to repair their loss. -Sometimes they will try to develop a female from -drone eggs. They have been known even to take a -lump of pollen and surround it with a queen cell, in -the absurd hope of getting a monarch so. It sometimes -happens that one of the workers develops the -power of laying eggs, all of which turn to drones—a -marvellous fact in parthenogenesis—and the workers -treat some of these to a royal abode and royal jelly, -in the futile hope of thus raising a sovereign. In -fact, as has been wittily but truly said, "when bees -have lost their queen they lose their <i>head</i>." This -close connection of queen and people is reciprocal, -for the sovereign who is forcibly separated from her -subjects refuses food, pines away, and speedily dies.</p> - -<p>It is only in very rare instances (such as those we -have mentioned when speaking of the introduction -of a stranger-queen) that the workers attack and -kill royalty. Queens, on the other hand, are never -known to use their stings against their subjects. -They reserve them for combats with their equals, -thus realising the salutary arrangement, which might -have such practically important political consequences -if adopted in human affairs, "Let those -who make the quarrels be the only ones to fight."</p> - -<p>The queen, though developed more rapidly than -the drones and the workers, enjoys a much longer -life than her subjects. In some instances this period -has been known to extend to five or even six years; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">- 25 -</span> -but her fecundity is said to diminish after her second -year, or, if it continues, she will in her old age lay a -majority of drone eggs, to the serious weakening -of the community. The skilled apiarian, therefore, -takes care that every hive shall have a queen of an -age when her fertility is greatest.</p> - -<p>The process of egg-laying begins from two to four -days after the flight for mating, depending somewhat -on the preparation of cells for that purpose. The -queen, on finding comb adapted to her needs, thrusts -her head into a cell, apparently to ascertain if it is -empty, and of the right depth and size for one of the -two different kinds of eggs—those for workers, and -those to become drones. Satisfied on these points, -she withdraws her head, and, curving herself downwards, -inserts her abdomen, and giving the lower part -of her body a half-turn towards the thorax, she -expels an egg from her oviduct, and then retires in -search of other cells in which to make similar deposits. -She rarely, and only by mistake, lays more -than one egg in a cell. If she falls into the error, the -worker-bees immediately remove all but one.</p> - -<p>The examination of each cell by the queen to -ascertain its fitness for the two kinds of eggs is an -essential point; for, in the first place, the nature of -drone-eggs is radically different from that of those -which will produce workers; and the size of the cells -in which the former are hatched is considerably -greater than that in which the latter will be developed, -nineteen ends of the larger covering a -square inch of surface, while twenty-seven of the -smaller will occupy the same space.</p> - -<p>It seems an indisputable fact that the queen has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">- 26 -</span> -the power of laying which of the two kinds of eggs -she pleases. The essential difference between the -two seems to be, that those which will become drones -are not fertilised by spermatozoa just previous to -leaving the oviduct, while the worker-eggs are thus -specially vivified, and the operation appears to be -under volitional control.</p> - -<p>A further remarkable circumstance is that the rate -of egg-laying is also a matter of determination, and -not of necessity, on the part of the queen; for when -a transfer has been made from a weak to a strong -hive, the number of eggs deposited has been known -to vary, within two days, from none to two thousand -in twenty-four hours. In the one case the mother-bee -knew her colony was not strong enough to keep -up the requisite warmth for hatching and developing -her progeny; in the other, she proceeded vigorously -with her functions, the further progress of the young -being secured by the abundance of the population -sufficing to keep up the proper temperature, and to -render all needed attention to the larvæ in their -further development.</p> - -<p>The ordinary rate of laying, under favourable -conditions, varies from 600 to 800 eggs a day; but, -under pressure of specially suitable conditions, from -i,000 to 1,200 are not unfrequently deposited. -Langstroth and Von Berlepsch have seen six laid in -a minute; and the latter observer, on supplying a -queen with some new empty comb, found after -twenty-four hours more than 3,000 eggs had been -laid. If this queen on the average got rid of five -eggs per minute, the total number just mentioned -would have been deposited in ten hours, so that she -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">- 27 -</span> -would have had fourteen hours for rest. The queen -kept up her rate for twenty days, in which time she -had filled 57,000 cells, and, what is very remarkable, -her fecundity is said to have continued for five years, -during which period she must have laid nearly a -million and a-half of eggs. Dzierzon says, "<i>Most</i> -queens, in spacious hives, and in a favourable season, -lay 60,000 in a month, and a specially fertile queen, -in the four years which she on an average lives, -lays over a million eggs." These numbers will give -some idea of the immense expenditure of life that is -continually going on.</p> - -<p>To keep up these very great productive energies, -it is evident that large quantities of food must be -consumed by the mother-bee, and, as we should -expect, the amount taken varies in the ratio of the -vigour of egg-laying.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens that, in the very height of -her duties, sufficient cells are not forthcoming as -places of deposit for eggs; and, in that case, the -queen leaves some on the combs, or at the bottom -of the hive. Strange to say, the worker-bees greedily -devour such waifs and strays. In this respect we -observe a great difference between ants and bees. -Among the latter we do not find that passionate -love and care for the eggs and larvæ which so -strongly mark the former. Other circumstances -of a similar kind, to be noted later on, show, on the -part of bees, an intense regard for stores rather than -progeny, notwithstanding their affection and devotion -to the mother-bee, whose functions they thus -acknowledge as all-important to the race.</p> - -<p>The egg-laying of the queen goes on more or less -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">- 28 -</span> -for nine or ten months of the year, under favouring -conditions; but the season of greatest activity is -during April, May, and June. Various circumstances -after that time cause a diminution of the number of -eggs, till in November, December, and January, as a -rule, the queen ceases her motherly functions.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">- 29 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE DRONES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Distinguishing Characteristics—Time of Hatching—Numbers—Purposes -served by them—Destruction by Workers or other means—Unusual Survival.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig08" style="width: 228px;"> - <img src="images/fig08.png" width="228" height="145" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.—A Drone.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> drones are the male population of the bee-community. -In general form they are more cylindrical -than the queens or workers. They are shorter -than the former, but larger and more robust than the -latter. Their colour is of a deeper brown, and they -are much more hairy, especially at the lower extremity. -Their wings are strong, and greater in -proportion to the length of their bodies than those of -the females or neuters, reaching, indeed, to the full -extent of their abdomen. The posterior expansion -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">- 30 -</span> -of the lower pair gives a broad backward sweep, and -enables the heavy body of the drone to fly with great -rapidity, and to rise very freely in the air. Another -peculiarity of structure is the vertical enlargement of -the compound eyes. By the meeting of these eyes -over the brow, the drone is able more readily to see -the virgin queen when she issues for her one bridal -excursion. Drones have a strong odour, which -becomes very perceptible when several are confined -together in a box. Their proboscis is not fit for the -collection of honey; moreover they have no receptacle -for carrying the liquid, and, in fact, show no inclination -even to feed themselves from flowers. They -take their nourishment from what is stored in the -cells. As Evans accurately and concisely says of -them, they</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent26">"wheel around</div> - <div class="verse indent0">On heavier wing, and hum a deeper sound.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">No sharpened sting they boast; yet, buzzing loud,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Before the hive, in threatening circles, crowd</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The unwieldy drones. Their short proboscis sips</div> - <div class="verse indent0">No luscious nectar from the wild thyme's lips;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">From the lime's leaf no amber drops they steal,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Nor bear their grooveless thighs the foodful meal;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">On others' toils, in pampered leisure, thrive</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The lazy fathers of the industrious hive."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This inability to feed themselves from Nature's -sources makes them almost unique among the fully -developed creatures of the animal world. Their -consumption of the stores of the hive is not resented -by the workers till the swarming season is over, and -what is further remarkable is, that they are permitted -to enter without molestation communities other than -that in which they were bred, though strange workers would -be strictly prohibited from such trespassing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">- 31 -</span></p> - -<p>The first drones of the season appear generally -about the middle of April, but they are most numerously -hatched in May and June. The actual number -in a hive varies from 500 to 2,000. Only one or two -of these will become the mates of as many young -queens, and the question is often asked, What can be -the use of such an immense superfluity of males? The -best answer that can be given is, that it is extremely -important, considering the dangers to which a virgin -queen is exposed in her flight from the hive, that -there should be no difficulty for her in meeting with -a spouse. When drones are scarce, and a very early -swarm has issued from a hive, it happens sometimes -that the young queen remaining at the head of the -stock has to make several flights before finding a -mate. As she is liable to be snapped up by birds, -or driven away by gusts of wind, or lost through not -knowing her own hive, it is manifestly far safer for -the supply of drones to be large enough to insure a -meeting on the first occasion of her flying.</p> - -<p>It has been suggested by some bee-keepers that -the eggs are fertilised in the cells by the drones, after -the manner of the ova of fishes; but this theory is -utterly untenable in view of the fact that much -brood is found in the hives at seasons when, as a -rule, no drones exist, <i>i.e.</i> in the early spring and -late autumn.</p> - -<p>From a reference to drones in the <i>Troades</i> of -Euripides (lines 191-195), it would almost seem that -the ancient Greeks, five centuries before Christ, had -an idea that the male bees were the door-keepers of -the hives, and the guardians of the young. We -know, however, that this is not the case.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">- 32 -</span></p> - -<p>Again, certain Polish writers have asserted that -the drones are the water-carriers of the community; -but this notion is as fanciful and groundless as the -preceding idea.</p> - -<p>A more sensible supposition is that by their -numbers the warmth of the hive necessary for the -hatching and development of the larvæ is promoted, -and that, in consequence, more of the workers are -freed for honey-getting and pollen-gathering. One -objection to this theory has been made on the score -that, when there is most need for the heat of the hive -to be maintained, viz., in the winter, all the drones -are dead; but the reply to this is, that at that season -there are no stores to be collected, and therefore no -need for the workers to be liberated from indoor -duties.</p> - -<p>It is certain that bee-keepers who have taken the -trouble to catch or to destroy hundreds of drones -from their hives, have not found themselves rewarded -by a greater amount of produce or by stronger stocks -through saving what the murdered drones would -have eaten. At the same time, where a honey-harvest -is desired, there is little doubt it is well for -some control to be exercised over the number of -drones hatched in the hive. This can be governed, -to a considerable extent, by furnishing the bees with -"foundation comb," the rudimentary cells of which -are of the size adapted only for workers. Still, there -is no doubt of the practical importance of having a -good supply of males in the hives during the swarming -time. When they are no longer of use, the -workers expel them. By many it has been asserted -that the drones are stung to death; but any one who -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">- 33 -</span> -takes the trouble to watch what goes on in July and -August, will see that, for the most part, the neuters -seize their brethren by the wing, and drag them -from the entrance of the home. If much resistance -is made, they will persevere in trying to keep them -away; but, at last, when patience is exhausted, they -will bite the wings underneath, and so render them -almost powerless. Harassed in these ways, and -prevented from taking food from the cells, the drones -die of starvation in large numbers. A few may be -stung to death. Many will creep to unfrequented -parts of the comb, in hope of escaping notice; and if -a side box, or unoccupied back of a wooden hive, be -opened for them, they will congregate there. Mr. -Henry Taylor mentions in his <i>Bee-Keepers Manual</i>, -that, on one occasion, he found as many as 2,200 -which had thus clustered in an empty side box. He -took them away, and the other bees went to work -with more vigour after having been thus relieved of -their useless population, as if they were glad to be -rid of those who were consumers, but non-producers.</p> - -<p>In many instances, especially when food-supplies -are running short, and are not easily replaceable, the -workers will drag out the just emerging drones from -their cells, together with pupæ and larvæ, and will -cast them forth to die.</p> - -<p>If no necessity for swarming occurs, through there -being plenty of room in the hive for the extension of -the colony, or for any other reason, either no royal -cells will be made, or the young princesses will be -destroyed as they approach maturity. In this case, -an unusually early destruction of the males will -occur, as the workers instinctively know there is little -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">- 34 -</span> -use in permitting them to continue alive. Still, some -will be allowed to exist, for the sake of other communities, -as it is now maintained, with much show of -reason, that a young queen selects for her consort -a drone not belonging to her own hive. The importance -of this crossing of breed, for keeping up the -vigour of the race, is one of the best ascertained facts -in natural history. While, then, we cannot suppose -the bees to be aware of the benefits to be derived from -this "selection before marriage," we see in it one more -circumstance indicating the marvellous capabilities of -so-called "instinct"—we would prefer very much to -say one more proof of the all-pervading superintendence -of a Divine Mind, which works throughout -what we call Nature. We might, indeed, expect that -He, without whose supervision not a sparrow alights -on the ground in search of its food, would show to -our intelligent inquiries equally plain evidence of His -universal working, and of His infinitely wise determination -of all that has to do with the welfare and -the permanence of the various classes of the animal -and vegetable worlds.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">- 35 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WORKERS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Distinguishing Characteristics—Supposed Differences of Function -among them—Sir John Lubbock's Experiments—Fertile Workers—Length -of Life—"Black Bees"—Duties of Workers.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig09" style="width: 288px;"> - <img src="images/fig09.png" width="288" height="126" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.—A Worker Bee.</span><br/> - <i>a.</i> Natural size. <i>b.</i> Magnified.</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> workers are by far the most numerous, and, -in some sense, the most important party in the commonwealth -of bees. They are smaller in size than -either queens or drones. Microscopic examination, -and the fact of their occasionally developing the -power of laying eggs, prove that they are really -undeveloped females. It is hardly correct, therefore, -to call them, as has been so often done, <i>neuters</i>. The -chief structural differences to be noted in them, as -compared with the other two classes in the hive, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">- 36 -</span> -are, the possession of a long proboscis for gathering -honey, of receptacles for carrying pollen, of a very -formidable straight and barbed sting, and brushes on -the legs for clearing different parts of the body from -the farina of flowers or from dust.</p> - -<p>The worker-eggs are deposited by the queen in the -smaller-sized cells of the combs, and are the first -laid in a new colony, or in the spring of the year.</p> - -<p>Certain observers have thought they noticed -differences in the size of the full-grown workers, and -supposed that these variations were connected with -diversity of occupations and duties. But as all have -their several organs and their whole structure precisely -alike, and as little direct evidence of special -functions has been adduced, it is tolerably certain -that any peculiarities in regard to size must be otherwise -explained. Nor is it difficult to discover how -these may have been brought about. For, since each -pupa leaves behind it some portion of the silken -cocoon it had spun, it is clear that after a succession -of young bees from the same cells, these must become -sensibly contracted in extent, so that the later -progeny will not have had as much space in which -to grow as their elder-born sisters had, and hence -are, at least when they emerge, smaller in size.</p> - -<p>Huber, without reference to the above-mentioned -fact, supposed that separate duties were undertaken -by special bees, at least so far as the gathering of -stores and the care of the young were concerned. -Subsequent observations, however, tend to show that -the latter office is undertaken by the most recently -born young, till they themselves have become strong -enough to fly abroad in search of honey and pollen. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">- 37 -</span> -It is said they also see to the making of wax, the -building of comb, and the cleansing of the hive, -during the first two or three weeks of their life. -Some corroboration of this idea is given by the -circumstance that, if there be not sufficient room for -the extension of a very strong population in their -abode, and the conditions for swarming are not satisfactory, -the older bees will remain idle in clusters, -often outside the hive, leaving to the younger ones -the execution of the internal work.</p> - -<p>Sir John Lubbock has recorded a series of observations -which seem to indicate that certain individuals -are stationed near the entrances as sentinels. In his -most interesting work on <i>Ants, Bees, and Wasps</i>, he -says:—</p> - -<p>"On October 5th I called out the bees by placing -some eau-de-Cologne in the entrance, and marked -the first three bees that came out. At 5 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> I called -them out again. About twenty came, including the -three marked ones. I marked three more.</p> - -<p>"October 6. Called them out again. Out of the -first twelve, five were marked ones. I marked three -more.</p> - -<p>"October 7. Called them out at 7.30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> as -before. Out of the first nine seven were marked ones. -At 5.30 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> called them out again. Out of six, five -were marked ones.</p> - -<p>"Octobers. Called them out at 7.15. Six came -out, all marked ones.</p> - -<p>"October 9. Called them out at 6.40. Out of the -first ten, eight were marked ones. Called them out -at 11.30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> Out of six, three were marked. I -marked other three. Called them out at 1.30 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">- 38 -</span> -Out of ten, six were marked. Called them out at -4.30. Out often, seven were marked.</p> - -<p>"October 10. Called them out at 6.5 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> Out -of six, five were marked. Shortly afterwards I did -the same again, when out of eleven, seven were -marked ones. 5.30 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> called them out again. Out -of seven, five were marked.</p> - -<p>"October 11. 6.30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> called them out again. -Out of nine, seven were marked. 5 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> called them -out again. Out of seven, five were marked. After -this they took hardly any notice of the scents.</p> - -<p>"Thus in these nine experiments, out of the ninety-seven -bees which came out first, no less than seventy-one -were marked ones."</p> - -<p>Many interesting questions connected with the -workers remain for future investigation: such, for -instance, as whether the same bee returns to the same -part of the hive after each foraging expedition; -whether the same bees go out in search of stores day -after day, or sometimes take holidays or rest from -out-door fatigues, by applying themselves to some of -the internal labours of the hive; whether those who -become more or less exhausted from long-continued -flights die, for the most part, on their journeys, or -come back home to end their lives.</p> - -<p>One point not known to general readers is, that a -bee on each separate going out for stores confines -herself to one particular kind of flower for that expedition. -That is to say, a worker who begins on -violets, will not visit any other flowers than violets -before returning to the hive. If lime-blossoms are -chosen, they will be adhered to. If a bee searching -white-clover heads be watched, she will be seen to go -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">- 39 -</span> -only to similar sources of supply. This fact may be -verified by any one who will take the trouble to notice -in field or garden the customs of the hive-bee. It -does not seem to be the habit of wild bees thus to -confine themselves to particular flowers for each -journey they make. The importance of this circumstance -in the case of our domesticated species, and its -influence on the vegetable world, will be noted in a -later chapter, when we discuss the relation of bees to -flowers.</p> - -<p>We have before alluded to the very remarkable -phenomenon occasionally occurring to the great -annoyance of the bee-keeper, namely, the development -in a worker of the power of laying eggs, which -eggs will produce nothing but drones, so that the -population of the hive dwindles, and becomes extinct. -Various suggestions have been made as to the reason -of this faculty appearing. A very plausible idea is -that some of the "royal jelly" is occasionally, and -possibly by mistake, given to a larva in the neighbourhood -of a queen-cell, and this stimulating food produces -a partial development of laying power. A -second possibility is that sometimes a worker-larva -in too forward a condition is transferred to a queen-cell, -and owing to the difference of treatment not -having been begun early enough, an imperfect and -nondescript kind of bee results. Some corroboration -of this may perhaps be found in a curious fact, which -has been several times noted, and published in -the <i>British Bee-Journal</i>, viz., the finding of workers -hatched in queen-cells. It would be difficult to -imagine such an abnormal event, unless unusual -circumstances had occurred to the young larva.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">- 40 -</span></p> - -<p>The birth of a fertile worker in a hive is a great -misfortune; for, not merely will the population -diminish, and at length altogether fail, from the -production of drone-brood only, but, as it is impossible -to distinguish the offending worker, it is -difficult to get rid of her. It has been recommended, -on the discovery that she exists, to amalgamate the -stock with another having a queen. This may -answer, but there is a danger that when the battle -comes to be fought between the actual sovereign -and the fertile worker, who will try to maintain her -prerogative, the latter, as the more active, and as -possessed of a more formidable sting, may prove -victorious. A safer plan, therefore, is to turn out the -whole stock from their hive, comb by comb, if the -bar-frame system is used, and allow them to return -to the old place where the cleared combs may be -put to receive them. The fertile worker, never -having left the colony, will not know her way back, -and so will be happily got rid of, and will probably -perish. Her place must, of course, be supplied by -an introduced queen, or the stock must be united -with another.</p> - -<p>The age to which the workers live varies according -to the amount of labour they undergo. During -the winter and the early spring, when little or no -work is done, there is small drain on their vital force, -and they may live for six or seven months. In the -height of summer, when long days and abundant -supplies invite them to many hours of continuous -toil, the industrious insects are believed to exhaust -themselves very rapidly, and to perish, as if prematurely -old, in about five or six weeks. It is quite -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">- 41 -</span> -evident that the mortality during the middle of the -year must be very great, seeing that egg-laying and -hatching go on at the rate of several hundreds a -day, and during weeks and months in succession: -and yet it frequently happens, where room sufficient -for the growing stores is provided, no swarm will -be thrown off, from which we infer that a period is -reached when the birth-rate and death-rate pretty -closely approach each other.</p> - -<p>The older workers are distinguishable from the -younger by their deeper and more glossy colour. -The grey bloom of youth has been worn off, and -frequently their wings, notched or broken in places, -betray the veterans in the battle of life, who, amidst -rains, hail, and wind, have suffered more or less -severely.</p> - -<p>Some observers have called attention to certain -individuals in the community, which have been -spoken of as "black bees,"<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and which have been -supposed to possess special functions. Von Berlepsch -ascertained from his countryman Leuckart that no -anatomical differences existed between these and -ordinary workers; and, from subsequent experiments, -came to the conclusion that the difference in colour -was due to the accidental absence or the loss of the -hairs or down with which bees are ordinarily covered. -This loss may have occurred through getting -smeared with honey, or from stifling, or fright, or -creeping constantly through apertures too small to -admit their bodies readily. Dzierzon, another great -authority, corroborates the above explanation, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">- 42 -</span> -further adds, "as a rule, the glossy black bees are -<i>robbers</i>, which have been pursuing their trade for -some time."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> This term is also used for all English bees, in distinction from the -<i>Ligurian</i>, <i>Cyprian</i>, and other varieties with yellow bands.</p> - -</div> - -<p>A similar difference in size and colour has been -often noticed in the case of drones; and the explanation -of their occurrence seems to be that such -smaller individuals have been hatched in the cells -intermediate between the normal drone and worker -varieties, a tier or two of such intermediate cells -being frequently made, to shade off the difference of -size between the two kinds.</p> - -<p>The duties undertaken by the workers constitute -a series of operations indicating marvellous skill and -apparent reasoning power. It is true that what we -call "instinct"—a word which merely covers our -ignorance—seems to play a large part in the direction -of the doings of bees; but the readiness with -which they adapt themselves to circumstances, the -expedients they adopt to remedy defects in their -dwellings or surroundings, the efforts they make to -repair losses and to provide for the continuance of -the race, appear to transcend the limits of a power -actuated by blind impulse alone.</p> - -<p>We have spoken of the brooding over and feeding -of the larvæ, the sealing of the pupæ, the cleansing -of the newly-hatched young, as the special duties of -the workers. All these offices are performed by the -most juvenile members of the family, who thus -become gradually initiated into the responsibilities of -bee-life, and daily gather strength for the next and -more extended duties of citizenship. These consist -of the gathering of supplies of honey, pollen, and -propolis, the elaboration of wax, the making of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">- 43 -</span> -combs, the storing and sealing up of produce, the -cleansing and ventilation of the hive, the guarding -of the entrance, and the driving off or slaughter of -intruders of various kinds.</p> - -<p>These various operations are worthy of separate -notice, and we will proceed to give some details -relating to each.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">- 44 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HONEY.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Origin—How Collected and Stored—Constitution—Poisonous Honey—Best -varieties of Honey—Distances traversed by Bees in search of -Honey—Uses.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Honey</span> is mainly derived from the nectar of flowers. -We say mainly, because bees are able to make use of -many sweet liquids, such as the juices of ripe fruits, -the substances constituting what is called "honey-dew," -the syrup of sugar, and the solid material of -sweetmeats. Still, by far the larger proportion of -honey is derived from flowers. By means of its long -flexible tongue the bee sucks from the nectaries of -various plants the sweet liquid they contain. In an -expansion of the gullet, which somewhat resembles -the crop of birds, some slight, but important, chemical -changes appear to take place, and while a portion of -the fluid passes into the true stomach for the nourishment -of the insect, the rest is regurgitated into a -cell of one of the combs. At first the honey thus deposited -is very thin, but by evaporation under the -warmth of the hive, a portion of the water passes -off, and a process of what apiarians call "ripening" -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">- 45 -</span> -goes on, after which the remaining liquid is less liable -to fermentation, when extracted from the comb.</p> - -<p>Honey appears to consist mainly of two kinds of -sugar, one of which is closely allied to that contained -in the grape, and which by spontaneous change is -apt to crystallise in contact with air. The other is -uncrystallisable, like the purest treacle, and mingled -with it are slight quantities of colouring matter and -mucilage. These sugars are somewhat apt to undergo -a vinous fermentation, of which advantage has been -taken in the manufacture of mead—a drink much -used by the inhabitants of these islands in ancient -times as a stimulant, and even intoxicant.</p> - -<p>The taste of honey varies according to the flowers -or other sources from which it has been chiefly derived. -That procured from flowers, especially those -of the labiate family—from the clovers, the lime-blossoms, -and the heaths—is most esteemed. That -which has been derived from sugar-syrup differs but -slightly from the liquid of its origin. That procured -from what is called honey-dew, or the secretion of -various sorts of aphides, is very worthless in quality, -though bees are extremely fond of the liquid.</p> - -<p>It is a remarkable and unfortunate fact, that the -honey collected from certain flowers is, though innocuous -to bees, more or less injurious to the human -body. Xenophon tells us in his <i>Anabasis</i> that his -soldiers found many hives in the neighbourhood of -Trebizonde, and, after eating of the contents, the -men were seized with violent purging and vomiting, -stupefaction, and inability to stand. Those who ate -little became like men very drunk, and those who ate -much, like madmen, and some like dying persons. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">- 46 -</span> -In this condition great numbers lay upon the ground, -as if there had been a defeat. None of them died, -and in about twenty-four hours they recovered consciousness. -On the third or fourth day after the -seizure they got up, but were like men who had -taken powerful physic.</p> - -<p>Tournefort, when travelling in Asia Minor, recollecting -these historical circumstances, made careful -investigations as to the probabilities of the case. -Two kinds of shrubs were pointed out to him as -bearing flowers, the honey from which was deleterious, -and the very odour of which is still said to produce -headache. These plants were the <i>rhododendron -Ponticum</i>, and <i>azalea Pontica</i>, nearly allied species, -growing abundantly in that part of the world. -Father Lamberti corroborates Xenophon's description, -by stating that similar effects have been -produced by the honey of Colchis, where these -shrubs are common.</p> - -<p>We learn from an account published by Dr. Barton -in the <i>American Philosophical Transactions</i>, that, in -the autumn of 1790, several fatal cases occurred near -Philadelphia, from eating honey collected in the -neighbourhood. An official investigation into the -circumstances led to the conviction that the source of -the mischief lay in the flowers of the <i>kalmia latifolia</i> -Still more recently, some persons in New York lost -their lives from, as it was supposed, eating honey -derived from the flowers of a species of dwarf laurel, -common in the vicinity. A further instance of the -influence of the kalmia tribe of flowers is given in the -fact that honey drawn chiefly from the species <i>latifolia</i>, -in New Jersey, is unsaleable, from its intoxicating -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">- 47 -</span> -qualities, though the bees themselves thrive prodigiously -upon it.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the colour is said to indicate the nature -of the liquid, that which is mischievous being distinguished -by a reddish or brown tinge; but this is by -no means a sure indication of quality, for, in Florida -and Carolina, the wild honey having harmful properties -is so like in appearance that which is perfectly -wholesome, that the hunters at first eat very sparingly -of their newly-found treasures, till they have proved, by -experimenting on themselves, what its properties are. -Again, some "blood-red honey," found in Abyssinia, -is said to be quite free from objectionable elements; -and Linnæus tells us that the Swedish honey from -the heath-flowers is of a reddish hue, but excellent in -quality. That obtained in the Highlands of Scotland -is occasionally observed to have a brownish tinge, -but no ill effects are found to result from the use of -it, though some have asserted that it has a soporific -influence.</p> - -<p>There is little doubt that the colours of honey from -different localities vary according to the prevalence -of flowers most frequently visited by the bees. Its -aroma and taste are influenced, as we might suppose, -by the same circumstances. As a natural result, we -find also that the excellence of the liquid depends -much on the season at which it is collected. The -primest is the produce of the early summer. That -which is stored in spring excels what is gleaned in -autumn. The produce of the earlier part of the -harvest is better than that which is stored when -flowers grow scarce and fruits are ripening.</p> - -<p>The distances to which bees will travel in search of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">- 48 -</span> -their food-supplies are very astonishing. They have -been proved to fly four or five miles to favourite pasturage. -A gentleman, wishing to test this fact, dusted -with fine flour his bees as they emerged from a hive. -Then driving to a heath five miles distant, which he -knew to be much frequented by the insects, he soon -found many of those which he had sprinkled at -home. Their instinct, indeed, appears to lead them -considerably afield, and hence it is of slight use to -plant, as recommended by some writers, particular -flowers near an apiary. Moreover, unless such -flowers are grown for seed purposes, or in very -large quantities, the amount of nutriment they will -afford is almost inappreciable.</p> - -<p>Fields where the white or Dutch clover abounds, -and heath districts, are, perhaps, the finest sources -of honey-supply. Our fruit blossoms of almost all -kinds also furnish abundant stores to the busy -insects.</p> - -<p>The uses of honey hardly require to be pointed -out. Besides being an agreeable addition to the -breakfast or tea-table, as a substitute for butter, it is -often very serviceable as a laxative, when taken in -moderate quantity. It is frequently employed in -medical confections, as a vehicle for the administration -of certain drugs; and its generally wholesome -properties have been thoroughly ascertained. Its use -for the manufacture of metheglin, or mead, is not -now extensive, but in earlier periods of British -history this beverage was held in high esteem.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">- 49 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">MEAD.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Nature—Method of Manufacture—Metheglin and Mead—Estimation -in former times—Queen Elizabeth's Recipe—Scandinavian liking -for Mead.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> sugar of various vegetables is susceptible of -alcoholic fermentation; so from the sugar of malt we -get beer, from that of the grape, wine. Honey is, -as we have said, a substance containing sugar, which -may also be made to yield a vinous liquor. Usually -only the washings of drained combs are used up for -the manufacture of mead. The saccharine extract -is skimmed, strained, and boiled. Then a certain -proportion of raisins is added, together with a little -ground ginger, and a few bay or laurel leaves for -flavouring. A small quantity of brewer's yeast sets -up the necessary fermentation, and after the liquor -has been put into a barrel, and allowed to "work" -for two or three days, it is bunged up, and at the end -of six months may be bottled, and soon afterwards -will be fit for use. Of course, run honey may be -used for the purpose, but its employment is a more -expensive mode of manufacture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">- 50 -</span></p> - -<p>Properly speaking, the word "metheglin" was -applied to the superior sorts of mead, the two -beverages being related much in the same way as -effervescing bottled cider and the ordinary draught -cider.</p> - -<p>Mead-making seems anciently to have been considered -a matter of great interest and importance, -and we are told by old authors that the Court -brewer of this beverage for Princes of Wales was -the physician of the household, and ranked eleventh -in point of dignity. Æthelstan, King of Kent in -the tenth century, on paying a visit to his relative -Æthelfleda, expressed his satisfaction that there was -no stint of mead. According to an antique rule of -the Welsh Court, there were "three things which -must be communicated to the king before they were -imparted to any other person. First, every sentence -of the judge; second, every new song; and third, -every cask of mead."</p> - -<p>Queen Elizabeth was so fond of this beverage as to -have it made regularly every year; and her recipe -has been preserved to our own day. It may interest -our readers to give it entire: "Take of sweetbriar -leaves and thyme each one bushel, rosemary half a -bushel, bay leaves one peck. Seethe these ingredients -in a furnace full of water [containing probably not -less than 120 gallons], boil for half an hour; pour -the whole into a vat, and when cooled to a proper -temperature [about 75° Fahr.], strain. Add to every -six gallons of the strained liquor a gallon of fine -honey, and work the mixture together for half an -hour. Repeat the stirring occasionally for two days; -then boil the liquor afresh, skim it till it becomes -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">- 51 -</span> -clear, and return it to the vat to cool. When reduced -again to a proper temperature [about 80° Fahr.], -pour it into a vessel from which fresh ale or beer has -just been emptied; let it work for three days, and -then barrel it. When fit [after fermentation] to be -stopped down, tie up a bag of beaten cloves and -mace [half an ounce of each], and suspend it in the -liquor from the bung-hole. When it has stood for -half a year, it will be fit for use."</p> - -<p>Mead remained in favour long after the introduction -of malt liquors, and the northern inhabitants of -Europe drank it habitually till comparatively modern -times. Even so late as Dryden's day, it would appear -to have been in much more common use than -now: for he says of its employment for tempering -strong wines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"T'allay the strength and hardness of the wine,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Let with old Bacchus new metheglin join."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It was probably the liquor called by Ossian the -joy and strength of skulls, and which so much -delighted his heroes. It was the ideal nectar of the -Scandinavian nations, which they expected to drink -in heaven, using the skulls of their enemies for -goblets, while they were to regale themselves also -on boars' flesh. So we read in Penrose's <i>Carousal -of Odin</i>:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Fill the honeyed beverage high,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Fill the skulls, 'tis Odin's cry!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Heard ye not the powerful call,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Thundering through the vaulted hall?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Fill the meath, and spread the board,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Vassals of the grisly lord!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The feast begins, the skull goes round,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Laughter shouts the shouts resound."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">- 52 -</span></p> -<p>A quantity of mead sufficient for the very -mundane tastes of these celestial heroes was supposed -to be daily supplied by a goat, called -Heidruna, of whom Cottle says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Whose spacious horn would fill the bowl</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That raised to rapture Odin's soul;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And ever drinking—ever dry—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Still the copious stream supply."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">- 53 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">WAX.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Origin—Production—Chemical Constitution—Comb Building—Detailed -Description—Amount of Wax in Hives—Commercial Value—Properties.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig10" style="width: 216px;"> - <img src="images/fig10.png" width="216" height="163" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.—A Worker Bee, showing the Scales of Wax.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> was long thought that wax was a product -derived, like honey, immediately from flowers. Not -only did popular ignorance suppose that the pellets -of pollen carried on the thighs of the worker-bees -consisted of this substance, but even some authors -on apiculture fell into the same error. It is now -ascertained with certainty that wax is a sort of -animal fat, elaborated from honey by certain internal -organs of the bee. It exudes in a liquid form from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">- 54 -</span> -sacklets on the under side of each of the four intermediate -ventral segments of the abdomen. There -are two of these pockets to each segment, one on -either side of the <i>carina</i> or elevated central part. -They are trapeziform in shape, and impart the same -form to the tiny plates which emerge from them. -On reaching the air the liquid thickens, and dries in -flakes like fish-scales. The secretion of wax is carried -on by the workers only, queens and drones being -destitute of the apparatus necessary for the purpose. -No direct communication has been traced between -the stomach and the wax-sacks, but it has been conjectured -by Hunter that the secretion is effected by -the network of vessels lining the receptacles as a -membrane covered with hexagonal cells, somewhat -like the second stomach of ruminating quadrupeds.</p> - -<p>Chemically considered, wax consists entirely of -carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen; and, as before mentioned, -is elaborated wholly from honey. Some -authors have maintained that pollen is necessary for -its production, but this is the case probably only -indirectly; that is to say, the nitrogenous constituent -of pollen may be necessary for the nutriment and -stimulation of the secreting organs. It certainly -does not enter into the constitution of the wax -itself.</p> - -<p>The quantity of honey required for this process of -wax-making is very large. It is generally believed, -in fact, to be from fifteen to twenty times the weight -of the material derived from it; in other words, for -every ounce of wax produced, at least a pound of -honey is consumed by the bees. During the oxygenation -of so large a quantity of saccharine matter, much -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">- 55 -</span> -heat is evolved a fact frequently noticed when comb-building -is going on rapidly in a hive.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig11" style="width: 266px;"> - <img src="images/fig11.png" width="266" height="232" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.—Festoons of Bees Suspended from the Roof of the Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>When wax is required for the abode of a fresh -swarm, or for filling up vacant spaces with comb, -the bees hang in festoons or chains, crossing the hive -in different directions. Remaining almost motionless -for about twenty-four hours, the wax-makers -proceed with their business. Then, as soon as the -little scales are of the proper consistency, they are -withdrawn by the pincers on the hind legs of the bee, and carried -between the fore-legs to the mouth. There, worked -up with a small quantity of saliva, the substance is -softened ready for use, and being conveyed away by -those who have prepared it, and deposited in small -masses, it furnishes the materials from which the -comb-builders do their share of the duties of the -hive. Possibly some of the individuals of the lower -parts of the festoons, or clusters, may pass up their -portions of wax to those above them for transmission -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">- 56 -</span> -to the top of the hive; but the fact is not thoroughly -ascertained. Evans graphically says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Lo, filtered through yon flutterer's folded mail,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Clings the cooled wax, and hardens to a scale.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Swift, at her well-known call, the ready train</div> - <div class="verse indent0">(For not a buzz boon Nature breathes in vain)</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Spring to each falling flake, and bear along</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Their glossy burdens to the builder-throng."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It often happens that the fine scales fall by accident, -or perhaps, when superabundant in quantity, -on to the floor-boards of hives, and it does not -appear, from our observation, that those bees who -happen to come upon these little portions of material -carry them up for employment in cell-formation.</p> - -<p>The wax is used in comb-building, and the subject -is one of great interest on many accounts, but -especially from the following considerations: the -nature of the material; the organs by which it is -produced; the implements with which it is fashioned -into shape; the manner in which the work is done; -the form of the cells, the mathematical characters of -which are most surprising; their different sizes and -shapes, according to the purposes for which they -are destined; their perfect adaptation to the needs -of the bee community.</p> - -<p>With regard to the nature of the material, in addition -to the facts already mentioned, we may note -that it is a substance easily moulded, especially when -exposed to a gentle heat, such as is generated in a -hive. It is light, so as to add little to the weight of -the contents which will be stored in the cells. It is -also a very slow conductor of heat, a matter of great -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">- 57 -</span> -importance both in summer and in winter. For, if it -readily both absorbed and radiated heat, the temperature -would, in the former season, become too high; -while, in the winter, too great effort, and a large -additional amount of food, would be needed by the -bees to keep up the temperature of the hive to a -point of safety for its inhabitants. Again, wax is a -material which, by means of <i>propolis</i> (of which we -shall presently speak), admits of being fastened in -position so securely as to be able to bear a great -weight of brood, honey, and bee-bread, in the -cells.</p> - -<p>The organs by which wax is secreted, and the -implements with which it is fashioned, will be described -fully in the chapter devoted to the physiology -and anatomy of the bee; but we may say here that -they are exceedingly simple, and that it is wonderful -such beautiful work can be accomplished by means -of them.</p> - -<p>But the manner in which comb-building is done -is so marvellous, that it merits a detailed description. -It is to Huber that we are indebted for the full -exposition of this subject, and we cannot do better -than quote his account of the process, as given by -Kirby and Spence. We must premise, however, that -the great naturalist thought there were two distinct -classes of workers, the one of which he called the -wax-makers; the other, the nurse-bees. Observations -continued since his day have rendered it certain that -this is a mistaken distinction. As a general rule -the care of the young devolves, as we have already -said, on the most recently hatched of the community, -who are unfit, for some days after emerging from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">- 58 -</span> -cell, to take distant flight in search of stores from -flowers. The older and stronger workers, on the -other hand, go abroad for supplies, and then, on -their return, secrete whatever wax is needed in the -economy of the hive.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig12" style="width: 241px;"> - <img src="images/fig12.png" width="241" height="463" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.—Cluster of Bees.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The process of comb-building is described by -Huber as follows:—"The wax-makers having taken -a due portion of honey or sugar, from either of which -wax can be elaborated, suspend themselves to each -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">- 59 -</span> -other, the claws of the fore-legs of the lowermost -being attached to those of the hind pair of the -uppermost, and form themselves into a cluster, the -exterior layer of which looks like a kind of curtain. -This cluster consists of a series of festoons or garlands, -which cross each other in all directions, and -in which most of the bees turn their back upon the -observer.... The wax-makers remain immovable -for about twenty-four hours, during which period -the formation of wax takes place, and thin laminæ of -this material may be generally perceived under their -abdomen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig13" style="width: 220px;"> - <img src="images/fig13.png" width="161" height="82" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.—Wax-Worker Commencing a Comb.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>"One of these bees is now seen to detach -itself from one of the central garlands of the cluster, -to make a way amongst its companions to the middle -of the vault, or top of the hive, and by turning itself -round to form a kind of void, in which it can move -itself freely. It then suspends itself to the centre of -the space which it has cleared, the diameter of which -is about an inch. It next seizes one of the laminæ -of wax with a pincer formed by the posterior metatarsus -(last joint of the leg), and tibia (last joint but -two), and drawing it from beneath the abdominal -segments, one of the anterior legs takes it with its -claws and carries it to the mouth. This leg holds -the lamina with its claws vertically, the tongue -rolled up serving for a support, and by elevating it -or depressing it at will, causes the whole of its -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">- 60 -</span> -circumference to be exposed to the action of its mandibles -(or jaws), so that the margin is soon gnawed -into pieces, which drop as they are detached into the -double cavity, bordered with hairs, of the mandibles -(jaws). These fragments, pressed by others newly -separated, fall on one side of the mouth, and issue -from it in the form of a narrow riband. They are -then presented to the tongue, which impregnates -them with a frothy liquor like a <i>bouilli</i>. During this -operation the tongue assumes all sorts of forms; -sometimes it is flattened like a spatula, then like a -trowel, which applies itself to the riband of wax. At -other times it resembles a pencil terminating in a -point. After having moistened the whole of the -riband, the tongue pushes it to make it re-enter the -mandibles, but in an opposite direction, where it is -worked up anew. The liquor mixed with the wax -communicates to it a whiteness and opacity which it -had not before; and the object of this mixture, which -did not escape the observation of Réaumur, is, -doubtless, to give it that ductility and tenacity which -it possesses in its perfect state.</p> - -<p>"The foundress-bee—the name which this first beginner -of a comb deserves—next applies these prepared -parcels of wax against the vault (or top of a -frame) of the hive, disposing them with the point of her -mandibles in the direction which she wishes them to -take; and she continues these manœuvres until she -has employed the whole lamina that she had separated -from her body, when she takes a second, proceeding -in the same manner. She gives herself no care to -compress the molecules of wax which she has heaped -together. She is satisfied if they adhere to each -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">- 61 -</span> -other. At length she leaves her work, and is lost in -the crowd of her companions. Another succeeds and -resumes the employment, then a third. All follow -the same plan of placing their little masses, and if -any one, by chance, gives them a contrary direction, -another coming removes them to their proper place.</p> - -<p>"The result of all these operations is a mass or -little wall of wax, with uneven surfaces, five or six -lines (twelfths of an inch) long, two lines high, and -half a line thick, which descends perpendicularly. In -this first work is no angle nor any trace of the figure -of the cells. It is a simple partition in a right line -without any inflection.</p> - -<p>"The wax-makers having thus laid a foundation -of a comb, are succeeded by the nurse-bees [here -Huber is wrong<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>], which are alone competent to -model and perfect the work. The former are the -labourers, who convey the stone and mortar; the -latter the masons, who work them up into the form -which the intended structure requires. One of these -bees now places itself horizontally on the vault (or -bar-frame) of the hive, its head corresponding to the -centre of the mass or wall which the wax-makers -have left, and which is to form the partition of the -comb into two opposite assemblages of cells; and -with its mandibles (jaws), rapidly moving its head, it -moulds in that side of the wall a cavity which is to -form the base of one of the cells, to the diameter of -which it is equal. When it has worked some minutes -it departs, and another takes its place, deepening the -cavity, heightening its lateral margins by heaping up -the wax to right and left, by means of its teeth and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">- 62 -</span> -fore-feet, and giving to them a more upright form. -More than twenty bees successively employ themselves -in this work.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> See remark immediately preceding the quotation.</p> - -</div> - -<p>"When arrived at a certain point, other bees begin -on the yet untouched and opposite side of the mass, -and commencing the bottom of two cells, are in turn -relieved by others. While still engaged in this -labour the wax-makers return, and add to the mass, -augmenting its extent in every way, the builders -again continuing their operations. After having -worked the bottom of the cells of the first row into -their proper forms, they polish them, and give them -their finish, while others begin the outline of a new -series.</p> - -<p>"The cells themselves, or prisms, which result from -the reunion and meeting of the sides, are next -constructed. These are engrafted on the borders of -the cavities hollowed in the mass. The bees begin -them by making the contour of the bottoms, which -is at first unequal, of equal height. Thus all the -margins of the cells offer an uniformly level surface -from their first origin, and until they have acquired -their proper length. The sides are heightened in an -order analogous to that which the insects follow in -finishing the bottom of the cells, and the length of -these tubes is so perfectly proportioned that there is -no observable inequality between them."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Thus writes the great Swiss observer of bees. -Without quoting at greater length from his published -observations, we may give some additional -particulars relating to the geometrical characters of -honey-comb.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">- 63 -</span></p> - -<p>The cells of the first row laid down are pentagonal -in shape. This gives them a stronger attachment to -the hive than if they had had the hexagonal figure -of the succeeding rows. But no form besides the six-sided -prism would have answered all the conditions -of the problem "how with the least expenditure of -material to secure the greatest available space with -the best arrangement for the purposes to be served."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig14" style="width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/fig14.png" width="163" height="160" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.—Diagram of Cells.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig15" style="width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/fig15.png" width="107" height="91" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.—Supposed Circular Cells.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Approached from the purely theoretical side, the -question has been investigated by mathematicians. -It requires no great acumen to determine that a -hexagon of some sort is the geometrical figure which -must be adopted. An equilateral triangle would -make a very unsuitable abode for an insect with a -nearly round body. A square cell would hardly be -more convenient. A series of circles would, of course, -leave interstices between them, causing a useless -expenditure of space, material, time and strength. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">- 64 -</span> -A further difficulty would arise with regard to the -storage of the honey, which finds points of attachment -in the angles of a hexagon, and so is less liable to -run out of the cells.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig16" style="width: 275px;"> - <img src="images/fig16.png" width="275" height="268" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.—Arrangement of Cells.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The next matter then to settle -is, the magnitude of the angles at which the sides of -the hexagon should slope towards each other, so as -to be the most advantageous. Réaumur put the -problem in mathematical language before M. König, -a skilful geometrician, thus:—"To determine by calculations -what ought to be the angle of a hexagonal -cell, with a pyramidal bottom, formed of three similar -and equal rhomboid plates, so that the least matter -possible might enter into its construction." The result -of his investigations was that the angles of the rhombs -must be 109° 26′ and 70° 34′. Cramer, professor of -mathematics in the University of Geneva, also undertook -the problem. His calculations, made on somewhat -different principles from König's, gave for the -angles 109° 28′ 16″, and 70° 31′ 44″. Maraldi, a third -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">- 65 -</span> -mathematician, assuming the equality of the angles -of the trapezia forming the sides of the hexagon -adjacent to the rhombs and those of the rhombs -themselves, and that the solid angle at the apex of -the pyramid, composed of equal obtuse angles, is precisely -equal to each of the three angles at the base, -also composed of three equal obtuse angles, came to -the conclusion that the angles must be 109° 28′ and -70° 32′.</p> - -<p>These three sets of results, so remarkably accordant, -when we consider the minuteness of the differences -between them, in figures so small as the actual -honey-comb cells, show the closest correspondence to -the actual measurements of the work of the bees. -Maraldi found the angles of the latter to be 110° and -70°, as nearly as could be ascertained. We have -dwelt at some length upon this point, because it illustrates, -in a most marvellous manner, the power of -that inborn faculty we call instinct, which arrives, -without training, at results so precisely agreeing -with those of the highest efforts of our intellectual -reasonings. To the devout mind, the conclusion is -inevitable that Divine Wisdom is the inspiring force -which energizes the mental operations of the bees in -their cell-building.</p> - -<p>A further advantage of the actual shape of the -honey-comb prisms is that, thereby, strength is combined -with economy. No other form would so efficiently -have carried the heavy weights constantly -stored in the forms of honey, brood, and bee-bread.</p> - -<p>The bottoms and sides of the cells are made of wax -as thin as a sheet of writing-paper; but as walls of -this thinness at the entrances would break down -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">- 66 -</span> -under the weight of the constantly passing insects, -the margin at the opening of each cell is made four -or five times thicker than the walls. Then, as the -cells are lengthened, this thickness is reduced, always -remaining the same, however, at the actual margins. -Dr. Barclay also discovered that, though the tenuity of -the divisions is so great, each, in point of fact, consists -of two distinct layers agglutinated together. This -gives, again, an increase of strength, as any practical -builder would know who, in his "bressummers," -adopts the same method of attaining lightness and -power of sustaining great weights.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig17" style="width: 439px;"> - <img src="images/fig17.png" width="439" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.—Diagram Showing Slope of Cells.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The actual size of the cells in a hive varies considerably, -as we might expect. Without regarding -those for queen-progeny, we should anticipate that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">- 67 -</span> -those in which young drones are to be developed -would be considerably larger than those prepared for -workers. This is, indeed, the case. But as an abrupt -change from the one kind to the other would be -impossible without waste, the bees prudently graduate -the difference by interposing a suitable series of -intermediate sizes, whose bottoms, of course, have to -depart from the normal conditions, and sometimes -consist of two rhomboids and two hexagons, varying -in size and form, and corresponding with four, instead -of three, opposite cells. In these, stores are often -found, instead of brood. If eggs are laid in them, -they are generally those which will develop into -males, and the space for development being smaller -than usual, the drones occupying such cells are not -so large as the average size.</p> - -<p>As a rule, the hexagonal ends of twenty-seven -worker cells, or nineteen drone cells, occupy a -surface of one square inch. All the cells lie not -quite horizontally, but sloping slightly downwards -from the mouth towards the bases. This arrangement -is designed to prevent the honey from easily -flowing out. As the cells are filled with the liquid, -the lower edge of each is first raised, and, in due -time, the whole of the once open end is sealed over -with a coating of wax mixed with a little propolis. -This covering not only keeps the contents from running -out, but prevents fermentation or candying, from -contact with the air.</p> - -<p>Each comb consists of a double layer of cells, back -to back, and forming a sort of flat cake. At first -this is lenticular in shape, the middle part being -advanced rather more rapidly than the ends.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">- 68 -</span></p> - -<p>It is a curious fact that the bees do not, on being -put into a hive, or when working in a bell-glass, begin -several combs at once; but, having thoroughly laid -the foundation of one, and having made some progress -with this, they then start one on each side of -the first, and, after a time, one on the outer side of -each of the last begun. Usually, therefore, the combs -hang in parallel series. If any obstruction occurs, a -deviation from the normal direction takes place, but, -manifest intelligence is shown in surmounting the -difficulty, whatever it may be.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig18" style="width: 210px;"> - <img src="images/fig18.png" width="207" height="218" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.—Arrangement of Combs in a Bell-Glass.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>At first, the substance of the cells is of a dull, semi-transparent, -white colour, soft, and very brittle. After -a time, a yellow tinge spreads over the comb, and, -with age, this hue deepens to brown, and if some -years old, becomes almost black. The colour, therefore, -furnishes a tolerably safe guide as to the age of -comb. The darkening seems due, partly to a chemical -change from contact with the air, but still more to -the constant traffic of the bees over it, and its getting -smeared with dirt and propolis.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">- 69 -</span></p> - -<p>It occasionally happens that, owing to a great -in-flow of honey, the weight of the combs endangers -their security, and the bees, seeing the danger of -their breaking down, resort to a most clever method -of rendering their treasures safe. Gnawing away a -small part of the topmost row of the combs on one -side, they lay a broader foundation, and then, with a -strongly glutinous mixture of wax and propolis, they -fasten afresh the upper cells to their points of attachment. -Having completed one side, they then proceed -in the same way with the other, till they are satisfied -of the firmness of the whole structure.</p> - -<p>Again, if the supply of food outruns the capacity -of their store-houses as first made, they will often -lengthen the cells, till, especially in the case of -<i>supers</i>, they reach the length of even two inches—more -than twice the normal size.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig19" style="width: 210px;"> - <img src="images/fig19.png" width="123" height="167" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.—The Queen Cell.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The <i>queen-cells</i> are remarkably distinguished from -those for workers or drones, in respect to size, direction, -shape, and amount of material. They occupy -at least as much space as half a dozen ordinary cells. -They are directed downwards, instead of lying horizontally. -They are irregularly oval or pyriform in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">- 70 -</span> -shape, and are made up of a sort of mosaic of wax, -which material, so sparingly used elsewhere, seems -lavished on the royal nurseries. The reasons for this -are, probably, to secure the young queens from -danger while passing through the larval and pupal -conditions, and to keep up the warmth necessary for -their more rapid development. Wax being a very -bad conductor of heat, the thick walls prevent the -chilling of the brood, and, at the same time, allow of -considerable clustering of nurse-bees, and consequent -generation of warmth, without the danger of the cells -being broken down by the pressure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig20" style="width: 230px;"> - <img src="images/fig20.png" width="230" height="307" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.—Queen Cells in Situ.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Bees-wax forms a not unimportant article of -commerce. From Germany, Greece, Cyprus, and -still more largely from North America, we derive -what is needed to make up the deficiency in our -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">- 71 -</span> -home production of it. Its uses are numerous. For -household purposes, especially for polishing furniture, -for some varnishes and unguents, for candles and -matches, for modelling, particularly in dentistry, it is -consumed in great quantities. Since the introduction -of paraffin and similar substances for lighting purposes, -the amount used for candles has diminished, though -the demand for it in other directions does not appear -to have fallen off. Bee-keepers now use it greatly -for "foundation-comb."</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">- 72 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Origin—Collection—Conveyance—Deposition—Quantity Stored—Uses—Artificial -Substitutes.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Honey</span> consists, like most saccharine substances, -of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. It is fitted, therefore, -as a food to supply the waste in the body of the -bee produced by respiration; but for the nourishment -of muscular tissue, and so for the growth of the -larvæ and pupæ, some nitrogenous material is required. -This is obtained by the insects from the -pollen of flowers. This substance, we need hardly -say, is the fertilising powder necessary for the production -of seeds in plants, and growing on the -anthers, or tops of the stamens, within the corolla -of most flowers. The workers in search of honey -rub off this farina with their hairy bodies and with -the bristles of their legs. Then, on taking wing, they -clear it off by rapid combings of their limbs; and -rolling the powder into little pellets, they deposit it -in pockets situated on the outside of the middle -joint of the hindmost pair of legs. When filled, -these receptacles with their loads appear like coloured -balls on the laden workers. Sometimes the bees get -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">- 73 -</span> -so covered with pollen from plants containing large -quantities of it, that they cannot clear themselves of -the powder till they return to their homes; and, in -some cases, they need the assistance of their fellows -to brush off what adheres too tightly, or in places -not easily reached by the individual herself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig21" style="width: 421px;"> - <img src="images/fig21.png" width="421" height="265" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.—Hind-leg of a Bee.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>When the pollen-laden bee has reached the combs, -she searches for a cell already containing the same -material as that she is carrying, or which is suitable -for her purpose. Then, having found what she wants, -she inserts her hindmost legs into the cell, and, by a -dexterous movement, detaches the little balls, and, -on retiring, gives herself some vigorous shakes, as if -to clear herself of still adherent flower-dust. Then -another worker, whose duty it is to see to the proper -storing of the bee-bread, rams it down with her head -into a compact mass, and the process goes on till the -cell is filled.</p> - -<p>No particular portion of the combs seems selected -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">- 74 -</span> -for the deposit of this substance, nor is it ascertained -that what is procured from any particular kind of -plant is placed apart; but a mixture of various -pollens appears to be made, though during the prevalence -of any special flower yielding the material, -certain colours predominate, as might be expected, in -the stores of bee-bread.</p> - -<p>The quantities collected by a prosperous colony -must be very great. Some writers put the amount -at twenty pounds in the course of a season. The -carrying in of this produce is usually a sure sign that -there is brood in the hive. The absence of a supply -going in generally raises the suspicion that no young -are developing, owing to the loss of the queen. The -amount seen to be carried in is, therefore, a rough -indication of the prosperity of the community.</p> - -<p>In early seasons its collection begins as soon as -February. During April and May, <i>i.e.</i> in the height -of the blossoming time, the largest quantities are -stored; and this period corresponds with the most -rapid and extensive increase of the population of -the hive.</p> - -<p>The nurse-bees take some portion of the pollen -immediately it is brought in, and, working it up with -honey and saliva, prepare the food for the larvæ. In -some cases, they partially digest it before giving it to -the young brood. It is believed that the queen, -when laying her thousands of eggs, needs copious -supplies of nitrogenous nutriment, and that her -attendants diligently feed her with honey mixed with -bee-bread, which has been partly prepared in their -stomachs for quick assimilation in the body of their -monarch.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">- 75 -</span></p> - -<p>When plant-blossoms are scarce, the skilful apiarian -supplies his stock with some substitute for pollen. -Dr. Dzierzon was the first to propose fine rye-meal for -this purpose; and he was led to make the suggestion -by having noticed, that, in the early spring, before -flowers were blooming in sufficient quantity to satisfy -the wants of his bees, they entered a neighbouring -mill, and returned to their hives well powdered with -rye-flour. Pea-meal has been tried with much success -for this purpose. The method of using it recommended -is to put the meal into a soup-plate, or -shallow dish or trough, among shavings. The bees -may be enticed to take to it by a little honey placed -on the rim of the receptacle, or by showing a few -individuals the way to it. When once the treasure -has been discovered by the workers, they make -abundant visits to it. They, indeed, prefer the pea-flour -to the old stores of bee-bread remaining in the -hive; but, so soon as the natural supplies of the -plant-blossoms are sufficient in amount for the wants -of the brood, the substitute is quite neglected.</p> - -<p>In extracting honey from combs by pressure, it is -well to avoid any admixture of the bee-bread, as its -taste is by no means a pleasant addition to the -flavour of the sweet liquid. By using any of the -"extractor" machines now in vogue, all danger of -having the pollen mingled with the honey is -avoided.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">- 76 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">PROPOLIS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Derivation of Word—Sources—Nature—Purposes—Quantity Collected—Adaptation -of Materials to Wants of Bees.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> substance carried in, and largely used -by the bees, is an exceedingly sticky material called -propolis, from two Greek words signifying "before -the city," as it was observed, in early times, that it -was employed in strengthening the outworks of their -fortress-home, or, at least, in firmly securing the rim -of their hives to their floor-boards.</p> - -<p>It was formerly a matter of considerable discussion -whether this substance was a natural vegetable product, -or whether it was elaborated, as wax is. There -is now little doubt that it is chiefly a sort of resin -derived from plants, and especially from the leaf-buds -of certain kinds, like the horse-chestnut, the alder, -birch, willow, and hollyhock. Huber, to whom we -are indebted for so many interesting and careful -observations on apiculture, tried the experiment of -placing in pots branches of the poplar, before the -buds had opened, and these he put near his apiary. -The bees, settling on them, separated the folds of -the largest buds, extracted the resinous matter in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">- 77 -</span> -threads, loaded it on their thighs, as they do pollen, -and carried it to their hives. In the spring one may -often notice a loud humming round the foliage of -deodars, firs, and other coniferæ; and some wonder -may, at first, be felt as to what the busy insects can -want from such absolutely honeyless trees. When -we remember the turpentinous exudations which are -so abundant in these cone-bearers, all difficulty disappears. -It is for supplies of propolis the workers -are searching. Evans says on this subject:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"With merry hum the willow's copse they scale,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The fir's dark pyramid, or poplar pale;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Scoop from the alder's leaf its oozy flood,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Or strip the chestnut's resin-coated bud,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Skim the light tear that tips Narcissus' ray,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Or round the hollyhock's hoar fragrance play."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It is most probable that, with the resinous substances -collected from trees, they knead up a certain -proportion of wax, to increase the tenacity. The -resulting product is one of extraordinarily glutinous -quality. With it the bees stop every chink and crack -and cranny in their abodes. With it they stick down -skeps to floor-boards, fasten, if they can, frames to -the top of bar-hives, firmly fix the combs to their -points of attachment, strengthen weak places in their -dwellings, and, in some cases, where glass has been -inserted in the walls of hives for observation purposes, -the panes are found completely coated with -propolis, so as to exclude the light.</p> - -<p>In colour, this cement is greenish yellow, darkening -with age to brown. Its odour is balsamic and somewhat -powerful, resembling that of storax. It was -formerly supposed to possess medicinal properties, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">- 78 -</span> -and was kept in the shop of the apothecary. When -smeared on the fingers, it is very difficult of removal. -Soap has no effect upon it; water fails to wash it off; -but spirits of wine readily dissolve it, and are the -most easy and effectual means of getting it off -the skin.</p> - -<p>Bees usually choose the middle of the day for -gathering this substance, as the warmth of the air, -by softening the resinous material, facilitates the -obtaining of it from the trees, and prevents its too -speedy hardening before it reaches the hives. Sometimes, -indeed, the resin becomes so firm in consistency -by the time the collectors of it get home, that they -require the assistance of their fellow-workers to -detach it from their thighs.</p> - -<p>One very remarkable use to which propolis is -occasionally put by the bees, is for the covering up -of mice, snails, frogs, or other intruders, whose expulsion -is impossible, or who have died after entering -the hives. Réaumur relates that, on one occasion, he -observed a snail thus glued down to a piece of glass -in one of his hives; and, in another instance, where a -slug had been stung to death, and was far too large -for removal by the insects, these clever sanitarians -completely enveloped the mollusc with a coating of -propolis-varnish, to prevent the emanation of any -noxious vapours when decomposition set in. It was, -in fact, a distinct instance of embalming. Huish -mentions that a mouse was similarly treated by one -of his stocks of bees.</p> - -<p>The quantity of propolis collected is sometimes -very large, particularly where spaces are left at the -top, sides, or bottoms of bee-dwellings. At present, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">- 79 -</span> -this substance has not been turned to any serviceable -human use.</p> - -<p>In reviewing these various products gathered or -elaborated by bees, we cannot fail to be struck with -the marvellous adaptation of different materials to -the wants of the community, the skill displayed in -the application of them to the general purposes of -the commonwealth; and, above all, the wondrous -suitability of means to ends, shown by the workers -of the hive. If we refuse to allow the possession -of reason to these extraordinary insects, we must -admit the existence in them of some faculty almost -more to be admired; and, in any case, we can but -bow in reverence before the all-comprehensive Divine -wisdom and goodness, which have endowed creatures -so small with powers so surprising which have made -them subservient to human needs or comfort, and -which have enabled the bees to work even to better -advantage under the tutelage of man, than when left -to their natural habits and surroundings.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">- 80 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BEE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Nervous System—The Head—Eyes—Compound and Simple—Uses -and Powers—Sir John Lubbock's Experiments—The -Antennæ—Structure and Uses—Mouth—Detailed Description.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Before</span> proceeding to detail the most important -facts connected with the internal economy of the -hive, it will be desirable to describe with some minuteness -the physiology and anatomy of the inhabitants, -so that it may be more easy to understand the -means by which various processes are accomplished, -and the most important events of the community are -brought about. Much that has been hitherto said -will become more readily comprehended by attention -to the structure of the various organs we are now -about to describe.</p> - -<p>It will hardly be necessary to enter into a more -minute account, than we have already given, of the -egg, the larva, and the pupa. We shall, therefore, -confine ourselves to detailing the most interesting -points in the physiology of the perfect insect.</p> - -<p>It has been noted, in an earlier chapter, that the -members of this division of the animal kingdom are -characterised by having three very distinct segments -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">- 81 -</span> -in their bodies the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. -As the nature and arrangement of the nervous -system forms one of the soundest bases of classification -in the highest of the three kingdoms in nature, -we shall first direct attention, in each case, to this all-important -matter of detail.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig22" style="width: 269px;"> - <img src="images/fig22.png" width="269" height="527" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.—Nervous System of Privet Hawk-moth.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig23" style="width: 204px;"> - <img src="images/fig23.png" width="204" height="335" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.—Nervous System of Larva of Bee.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The general arrangement of the nerve-matter in the sub-kingdom -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">- 82 -</span> -<i>Articulata</i>, to which all true insects belong, is that of -a double cord, with knot-like protuberances, called -<i>ganglia</i>, at more or less regular intervals. The two -filaments are in some cases close together: in others, -quite distinct; while the larger nerve-masses—the -previously mentioned <i>ganglia</i>—also vary in juxtaposition, -according to the greater or less importance -of the functions they regulate. In the illustration of -the larva of <i>Sphinx ligustri</i> (the privet hawk-moth) -(<a href="#fig22">Fig. 22</a>), the nervous cord is nearly uniform throughout -its length, though at its upper portion a separation -takes place into three loops. The ganglia also occur -at almost equal distances. A very similar disposition -of the nerve-structure is seen in the larval condition -of the bee; but we may note the absence of loops, the -larger development of the cephalic masses, without -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">- 83 -</span> -the separation of their filaments to inclose the gullet -together with a more plainly-defined distance between -the cords which run parallel through the rest -of the body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig24" style="width: 357px;"> - <img src="images/fig24.png" width="357" height="448" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.—Nervous System of Perfect Insect.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In the perfect insect we observe some decided -modifications to have taken place. The head portions -have grown proportionally larger, and show a -loop for the passage of the œsophagus, while two -large ganglia in the thorax indicate the seat of impressions -and impulses connected with the organs of -motion—wings and legs—which had no existence in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">- 84 -</span> -the larval condition. As the functions of the abdominal -region, viz., those of digestion and circulation -chiefly, remain much the same in the different states -through which the individual passes after the hatching -of the egg, we find, as we might expect, little -change in the nervous system of the posterior -segment of the body.</p> - -<p>From each nerve-mass will be observed filaments -branching on either side to the outer edges of the -body. By means of these communication is kept -up between all parts of the frame. Sensations are -received and conveyed to the sensorial organs, and -return-stimuli are sent to the organs whose movements -depend for regulation on the different ganglia. -This branching of the nerve-fibre is directly proportional -to the variety and force of the several functions -subserved by the various structures to which they -proceed.</p> - -<p><i>The Head.</i>—We will now describe in some detail -the structure and functions of the highly-important -organs contained in the anterior segment, or head. -And first in order let us take the</p> - -<p><i>Eyes.</i>—On either side of the head may be observed -an oval lobe, convexly rounded and immovable, -brown in colour, covered with a horny tunicle, and -exhibiting to the unassisted eye a vast number of -distinct points. These points, under a high-power -magnifying-glass, are seen to be facets, hexagonal in -shape, so as to occupy all available space, without -interstices, and each connected with a minute tube -and a thread of nerve-matter leading to the cephalic -ganglia or brain. These compound eyes, as they are -called, are common to most true insects. They may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">- 85 -</span> -be easily seen in flies, bluebottles, moths, butterflies, -&c. The numbers of the facets vary greatly in -different families of the <i>Articulata</i>. In the common -house-fly there are, it is stated, about 4,000; in the -white cabbage-butterfly, 17,000; in the dragon-fly, -24,000. It has been computed that in each compound -eye of the bee there are about 3,500 of them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig25" style="width: 328px;"> - <img src="images/fig25.png" width="328" height="264" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.—Eyes of a Bee, Greatly Magnified.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Behind the horny covering, or cornea, which consists -of two plano-convex lenses, is a layer of dark -pigment, which gives the characteristic colour to -these eyes. This is pointed like the neck of a vase, -and serves the purpose of the iris in the higher -animals. This is traversed by a minute aperture or -pupil, through which the rays pass by a longer -conical lens to the optic nerve. A vertical section -shows that each ocellus (or <i>little eye</i>) is the frustum of -a pyramid, the large end or base of which is bounded -by the cornea, while the other and pointed end -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">- 86 -</span> -terminates against an expansion of the optic nerve. -The eminent physiologist, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, says, -in describing the minute structure of these organs: -"The interior of this pyramid is occupied by a transparent -substance, which represents the vitreous -humour (of the eyes of vertebrates), and the pyramids -are separated from each other by a layer of dark -pigment, which completely incloses them, save at -the pupillary apertures, and also at a corresponding -set of apertures at their smaller ends, where the -pigment is perforated by the fibres of the optic nerve, -of which one proceeds to each separate eye.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig26" style="width: 152px;"> - <img src="images/fig26.png" width="152" height="111" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.—Facets of Eye of a Bee.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>"Each facet, or 'corneule' of the common cornea, is convex -on both its surfaces, and thus acts as a lens, the focus -of which has been ascertained, by experiment, to be -equivalent to the length of the transparent pyramid -behind it; so that the image produced by the lens -will fall upon the extremity of the filament of the -optic nerve, which passes to its truncated end. The -rays which have passed through the several 'corneules' -are prevented from mixing with each other -by means of the layer of black pigment which surrounds -each cone; and thus, no rays, except those -which correspond with the axis of the cone, can reach -the fibres of the optic nerve. Hence it is evident -that each separate eye must have an extremely -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">- 87 -</span> -limited range of vision, being adapted to receive but -a very small pencil of rays proceeding from a single -point in any object; and as these eyes are immovable, -they would afford but very imperfect information of -the position of surrounding objects, were it not for -their enormous multiplication, by which a separate eye, -so to speak, is provided for each point to be viewed. -No two of these, save those upon the opposite sides of -the head, which are directed exactly forwards, can form -an image of the same point at the same time; but -the combined action of all of them may give to the -insect, it may be imagined, as distinct a picture as -that we obtain by a very different organisation." We -venture to suggest that another reason for the vast -multiplication of the numbers of "ocelli" is to enable -the insects to see in what would be to us darkness. -Nearly all the operations carried on in the interior of -the hives are done, during the day-time, in very dim -light; and in the night-time, when work is by no -means intermitted, there would, to <i>our</i> eyes, be absolute -darkness. To the bees, however, the scanty -rays received by so many sensitive points may be -sufficient to enable them to see with considerable -clearness. If the simple enlargement of a single -pupil, such as takes place in us on emerging from a -strong into a dim light, makes so great a difference -in our power of vision a fact with which we are -all familiar on going from a well-lighted room into -what seems for the first few seconds complete darkness -we may well believe that the permanent means -of entry into the sensorium of an immense number of -separate rays may give greatly enlarged powers of -seeing scantily illuminated objects.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">- 88 -</span></p> - -<p>Still, an opposite view is held by many naturalists, -for it seems very doubtful whether there is any power -in the bee of focusing these eyes, so as to adapt their -range to different distances. The probability is that -no such faculty of adjustment exists in them. We -should expect this from the structure of the visual -apparatus. Yet it seems possible that the compound -eyes act as telescopes, and serve for great range of -vision, but not for near objects. For, while bees dart -homewards from far-off fields with the directness of -an arrow, they will frequently fly against persons or -things in the direct line of their course, without -apparently having seen them at a little distance off. -Moreover, when they have alighted within an inch or -two of the entrance to their hives, they often fail to -perceive its position, and constantly wander to one -side or the other, searching for their way in. We -might conclude, therefore, that these compound eyes -confer distinctness of vision afar, and possibly ability -to use up scanty light, rather than any great discernment -of objects near at hand.</p> - -<p>In addition to these "facetted" eyes, bees have, -on the top of the head, three simple ones, called by -some writers "coronets," by others "stemmata." -Their position and arrangement are shown at <i>g</i> in -<a href="#fig27">Fig. 27, p. 98</a>. The focal length of their lens is said -to be short, and they are supplied with numerous -filaments from the optic ganglia. The special -purpose of these simple organs is not well ascertained. -If their focal length is short, this would -seem to imply that their range of vision is also very -limited. But it is very possible they may possess -a focusing power, which would adapt them for seeing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">- 89 -</span> -at all distances. Réaumur thinks they may, with their -hemispherical lens, act as microscopes. This point -needs further investigation, as the subject of the uses -of these two kinds of visual apparatus is, at present, -very far from satisfactorily elucidated. One remarkable -fact relating to the "stemmata" must be -mentioned. It is that, if they be covered with a -little opaque paint, the bee, on being let go, will fly -continually upwards. Dr. W. B. Carpenter considers -this curious fact due to automatic movements initiated -by the ganglia connected with flight, uncontrolled -by the visual impressions which the simple eyes -convey in their natural condition. Neither kind of -eye has a lid, but both are protected from dust by -numerous small hairs growing round them, and in -the points of junction of the facets.</p> - -<p>How far the eyes of bees enable them to distinguish -colours is still a moot point. On <i>a priori</i> grounds -we should expect that one very definite object in the -hues of flowers is to attract the notice of insects, -just as we have strong reason to believe that odours -exhaled in the vegetable world serve this purpose. -Sir John Lubbock has detailed a series of experiments -on this point, the following summary of which -is abstracted from his work on <i>Ants, Bees, and Wasps</i>. -He says, p. 304: "In recording the results I marked -down successively the order in which the bee went -to the different-coloured glasses (on which honey -was placed). For instance, in the first journey from -the nest, as recorded below, the bee lit first on the -blue, which accordingly I marked I; when the blue -was removed, she flew about a little, and then lit on -the white; when the white was removed she settled -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">- 90 -</span> -on the green; and so on successively on the orange, -yellow, plain, and red. I repeated the experiment a -hundred times, using two different hives one in -Kent, and one in Middlesex and spreading the -observations over some time, so as to experiment -with different bees, and under varied circumstances. -Adding the numbers together, it, of course, follows -that the greater the preference shown for each colour, -the lower will be the number standing against it.</p> - -<p>"The following table gives the first day's observations -<i>in extenso</i>:—</p> - -<table class="clrdata" summary="color preference"> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Journeys.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Blue.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Green.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Plain<br />Glass.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Orange.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Red.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">White.</td> - <td class="bdl bdr bdt bdr bdb tdc">Yellow.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">7</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">8</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">9</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">10</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">1</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">11</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">7</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">3</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr"></td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">26</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">39</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">65</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">51</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">55</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">35</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr bdb bdr tdr">37</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>"In the next series of experiments the bees had -been trained for three weeks to come to a particular -spot on a large lawn, by placing from time to time -honey on a piece of plain glass. This naturally -gave the plain glass an advantage; nevertheless, as -will be seen, the blue still retained its pre-eminence. -It seems hardly necessary to give the observations -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">- 91 -</span> -in detail. The following table shows the general -result:—</p> - -<table class="clrdata" summary="color preference"> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc" colspan="3">Series.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">No. of<br />Exp.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Blue.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Green.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Orange.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Plain.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc">Red.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdc"> White.</td> - <td class="bdl bdr bdt bdr bdb tdc">Yellow.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdr">1st.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl tdr">11</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">26</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">39</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">51</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">65</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">55</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">35</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">37</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">2nd.</td> - <td class="tdc">May</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">15</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">38</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">57</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">59</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">72</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">66</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">58</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">70</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">3rd.</td> - <td class="tdc">July</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">16</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">44</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">76</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">82</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">73</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">53</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">53</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">67</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">4th.</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">15</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">43</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">61</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">64</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">80</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">66</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">50</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">56</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">5th.</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">10</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">36</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">47</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">39</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">40</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">40</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">36</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">42</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">6th.</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">2</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">8</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">9</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">10</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">14</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">7</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">7th.</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">11</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">33</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">39</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">50</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">47</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">49</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">41</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">49</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">8th.</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">10</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">31</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">46</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">48</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">52</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">37</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">35</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">31</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl tdl">9th.</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">10</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">22</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">54</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">38</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">52</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">33</td> - <td class="bdl tdr">35</td> - <td class="bdl bdr tdr">46</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="3"></td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">100</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">275</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">427</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">440</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">491</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">413</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb tdr">349</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr bdb tdr">405</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>"The precautions taken seem to me to have placed -the colours on an equal footing; while the number -of experiments appears sufficient to give a fair -average." As this table differs in form from the -other, it may be as well to explain the first <i>line</i> of -figures in illustration of the whole. The first series -consisted of eleven experiments. The preferences -were noted as before, and when the numbers indicating -these were added up, the results were that -twenty-six represented the total for the blue glass, -thirty-nine for the green, fifty-one for the orange, -sixty-five for the plain glass, fifty-five for the red, -thirty-five for the white, and thirty-seven for the -yellow the blue being again manifestly the most -attractive colour to the bees. Some practical bee-keepers -consider the question by no means settled. -The field is doubtless open for further exploration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">- 92 -</span></p> - -<p><i>The Antennæ.</i> In the front part of the head are two -organs, which appear to supplement, in some remarkable -way, probably by touch-sensations, the power of -vision, and also to possess other capabilities constituting -a sense to which <i>we</i> have nothing strictly -analogous. These organs are called <i>antennæ</i>. They -spring from origins near together, at equal distances -from the medial and anterior point of the head, and -are connected, by distinct and somewhat large filaments, -with the nerve matter forming the cephalic -ganglia. Externally they consist, first, of one segment -nearest the head, much longer than the rest. This -part is called the <i>scape</i>. Then, forming a sort of elbow -with it, is the <i>flagellum</i>, consisting of eleven joints in -queens and workers, and of twelve in the drones. -These segments are tubular, and so attached to each -other as to give the greatest possible freedom of -motion. Their extremities are wonderfully sensitive, -and it is probable that there is a very delicate power -of feeling in each of the joints. For the cleansing -of these organs, special provision is made in the -construction of the fourth and fifth joints of the -most forward pair of legs. At the anterior part of the -tibia, or fourth joint, is a spur, within, and at the -base of, which is a small angular projection, called the -<i>velum</i> or <i>sail</i>. At the base of the next joint, and -opposite the play of this <i>velum</i>, is found a deep notch. -From the fact of its being fringed with hairs, this is -called the <i>curry-comb</i>. Upon this notch the velum -can act at the will of the insect, and, when shut over -one another, they form a circular orifice, just large -enough to take the antennæ. When the latter organ -needs cleansing, it is laid within the notch: the velum -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">- 93 -</span> -is pressed over it, and being drawn through the round -space, dust and other soilures are removed from its -surface. So particular are the bees about keeping -their antennæ thoroughly clean, that they may often -be observed continuing this operation of drawing -them through the curry-comb till perfectly satisfied -with their condition. Doubtless, the delicate nature -of the impressions to which these organs are susceptible, -supplies the reason for the care taken in -freeing them from all extraneous substances.</p> - -<p>The uses served by the antennæ are various and -very remarkable. Their first function seems to be -to supplement vision. Endowed with exceeding -flexibility, they are kept by the insects in constant -motion; and when their eyes fail to guide them to -particular spots, such as the entrance to the hive, or -as to the nature of objects with which they come -into contact, the antennæ appear to supply the -necessary information. There is little doubt that -these "horns" or "feelers," as they are commonly -called, are sensitive, also, to impressions from objects -at some distance. Vibrations of the air too feeble -to affect our organs affect them. It may even be -that other qualities of the atmosphere are apprehended -by them. The shape of the cells; the -suitability of these for brood of various kinds, for -honey or for bee-bread, is ascertained by the antennæ. -Every want and every duty is recognised by them; -the presence or absence of the queen is discovered -by their use, and intelligence is conveyed from one -individual to another by means of them.</p> - -<p>Of these facts, Huber has given the following -striking evidence. He divided a stock hive into two -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">- 94 -</span> -parts by metal network, sufficiently fine to prevent -the passage of the bees, but with meshes wide enough -to allow the antennæ to be passed through. At first, -by a pair of such gratings at a little distance apart, -he separated the two portions, so that no communication -whatever could take place between them. -Very soon that half from which the queen was -excluded showed signs of commotion and distress, -and even began to prepare queen-cells, to supply -themselves with a new sovereign; but when, by the -removal of one grating, Huber allowed the feelers to -be used to convey intelligence between the bees on -opposite sides of the remaining division, he saw -the insects by hundreds making inquiries as to what -had happened. Then the queen was observed on -the grating, and the bees being assured, by crossing -antennæ with her, that their mother was still in the -hive, though shut off from free access to one set of -her subjects, they all quieted down, left off making -the royal cells, and resumed their various avocations.</p> - -<p>Huber tried the further experiment of depriving -two queens of their antennæ, and introducing both -into the same hive. The population did not seem -able to recognise their own sovereign from the -stranger, and both were let alone; but, directly he -put in a third queen, unmutilated in these organs, -the workers fell upon her, and slaughtered her.</p> - -<p>The antennæless queens lost all purpose, laid eggs -at random, and wandered about the hives as if they -had "lost their heads."</p> - -<p>Another very curious fact is, that if a worker is -deprived of her feelers, and then allowed to fly, she -becomes incapable of recognising her hive, even -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">- 95 -</span> -when near to it, and is hopelessly lost as to her whereabouts. -From this circumstance we are inclined to -conclude that the antennæ are possessed of sensibilities -to which we have nothing strictly analogous—that, -in fact, there resides in them a sense, or senses, -with which mankind is not endowed, one of which -we are disposed to call the "homing-sense."</p> - -<p>Numerous observations show that by the antennæ, -also, distinct information can be given. We have -ourselves tried the following experiment in confirmation -of this point. Having placed near the -entrance of a hive a dead humble-bee, we first -noticed one of the sentinels rush to the body, and -with her feelers investigate its nature. Finding it -was a lifeless creature, and one, therefore, simply to -be got rid of, she began to tug at it, to move it -towards the edge of the floor-board. At once -discovering that the weight was too great for her -strength, she went to the entrance, and meeting a -friend, by crossing their feelers, the one was -made aware of the difficulty of the other. The -second then went to the aid of the first; but, as the -body was too great a burden for their united efforts, -the new-comer gave up her attempts to move it, as -if the duty did not concern her much. The first bee, -however, would not be baffled till she had fetched -several other individuals, one at a time, to the -work in hand. But, at length, as she could get no -combined action, and as no two were sufficiently -strong to haul away the large carcase of their distant -relative, she gave up the task in despair, and retired -to the hive in apparent disgust.</p> - -<p>On a moonlight night the sentries may be observed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">- 96 -</span> -marching eagerly about the entrances of their abodes, -and vigorously moving their antennæ, to ascertain -whether moths, or other unwelcome intruders, are -trying to get inside the hives. The presence of an -enemy being detected, he is soon chased away.</p> - -<p>By some naturalists the feelers have been thought -to afford the capacity of smell. It is, however, more -probable that this sense resides in the mouth itself, -or in its immediate neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>Whether or not bees appreciate sound, is another -moot point. It is, indeed, doubted by many observers -whether hearing is possessed at all by insects. Sir -John Lubbock records a series of experiments which -he conducted on this point, to which we shall make -reference a little later on. Those writers, who credit -bees with the ability to distinguish sound waves, -incline to the belief that the power resides in the -antennas. As modern science has shown that all -our physical impressions are modifications of vibration, -variously interpreted, according to the means -by which they are conveyed to the sensorium, we -may readily imagine that more than one faculty may -reside in these jointed organs of which we have been -speaking, and that each separate part may possibly -have its own specific function; while, by combined -action, such differences may be made as are analogous -to chords, and harmonies, or discords in music, -as compared with the striking of single notes.</p> - -<p>We have dwelt at considerable length on the -subject of the antennæ, not simply because what is -known of them is so remarkable, but because we -wish to draw attention to the fact that there is here -a most interesting field for further investigation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">- 97 -</span> -Much remains to be done to clear up the mysteries -still unsolved, and to harmonise the various observations -already made respecting the nature and properties -of these organs, which, not only in bees, but -in many other families of insects, play such an important -part in their life-history.</p> - -<p><i>The Mouth.</i>—Passing next to the mouth, we find a -somewhat complex structure; for it consists of many -parts, each of which has its ascertained function. -We find first, the <i>labrum</i>, or upper lip; the <i>epipharynx</i>, -or valve closing the aperture of the gullet; the -<i>pharynx</i>, or gullet, forming the true mouth, as well -as the entrance to the <i>œsophagus</i>, or food-pipe; -the <i>hypopharynx</i>, lying just below the gullet; the -<i>labium</i>, or lower lip; and the <i>proboscis</i>, or true -tongue. These are all single parts; but there are -also pairs of <i>mandibles</i>, or upper jaws, and <i>maxillæ</i>, or -lower jaws, besides <i>palpi</i>—certain jointed, sensiferous -organs, whose functions are not well understood, but -which are possibly connected with the sensation of -taste.</p> - -<p>The <i>labrum</i>, or upper lip, has a vertical motion, -and when not in use falls over the organs beneath it; -while it is covered, in its turn, by the <i>mandibles</i>, -which are jointed on to the cheeks, and act laterally.</p> - -<p>The <i>pharynx</i> is a cavity lying beneath the -<i>epipharynx</i>, and can be closed by the latter, over -which the two previously described parts lap, so that -the entrance to the œsophagus is trebly protected.</p> - -<p>The <i>labium</i>, or lower lip, is capable of being pushed -forward and retracted, and lies, when not in use, -within the under cavity of the head.</p> - -<p>On either side are the <i>maxillæ</i>, or so-called jaws, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">- 98 -</span> -which form the under sheath of the rest of the -lingual structures when in repose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig27" style="width: 288px;"> - <img src="images/fig27.png" width="288" height="400" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.—Head of Bee, With Antennæ.</span><br /> - <i>a.</i> Antennæ.<i>b.</i> Compound eyes. <i>c.</i> Jaws.<br /> - <i>d.</i> Maxillae. <i>e.</i> Labial palpi. <i>f.</i> Ligula,<br /> - or tongue. <i>g.</i> Stemmata.</div> -</div> - -<p>The true tongue is attached to the middle point -of the lower lip, having the labial palpi at its sides. -It is much elongated when thrust out in use. While -at rest, the anterior part folds back upon the posterior -portion, when it is covered by the maxillæ, which -seem then like a part of the tongue itself. The back -is much larger than the front. The whole is flattened, -when not sipping liquid. It is then much broader -than its thickness, but its edges are rounded. It -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">- 99 -</span> -narrows from its base to its extremity, at which there -is a slight inflation, which seems to have a perforation -in its centre, and is surrounded by hairs. The -tongue has also a large number of cartilaginous -rings, each bordered with minute hairs, which appear -to be the means used for sweeping up the last -remains of any fluid which has been almost exhausted. -The act of imbibition is performed, not -so much by suction, as by lapping. Its motions -being free in all directions, it can easily draw liquid -into the mouth on all sides. We notice, however, -that when the supply of food being taken is very -considerable, the segments of the abdomen have a -vibratory motion, or, rather, are alternately lengthened -and shortened, as if fluid were being pumped into -the body. It is, therefore, possible that, under some -circumstances, suction as well as lapping may go on. -Still, it is remarkable that a bee does not insert the -tip of its proboscis into a drop of honey or other -saccharine material, as it would do if it intended to -draw liquid through a tube. It much rather uses the -middle of the upper surface of the tongue, curving -round the point as if not to employ it. If, however, -the honey or syrup be very thick, the fore-part of the -tongue is thrust into it, possibly to dilute the liquid -with saliva, and thus to render it fit for lapping. In -all cases the insect tries to load the upper surface, -whence the fluid passes backward under the sheaths -to the gullet; and we see no reason to believe that the -proboscis constitutes a tube for imbibition. A further -confirmation of this conclusion is given by Shuckard, -who says, "By pressing towards its origin, I have -detected the liquid which gave it its extension; but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">- 100 -</span> -all my pressing would never make the liquid pass -through the extremity, although the pressure has -sometimes made it almost rend the membranes to -give it an opening to escape by."</p> - -<p>A further use of the tongue is for shaping the -pliant wax in comb-building; and it appears to be -employed much as a trowel is by a bricklayer, or, -perhaps, we should rather say, like a finger by a -moulder of plaster of Paris.</p> - -<p>As we have mentioned, the jaws open vertically; -but the mandibles and maxillæ work horizontally. -They are thus enabled to seize and tightly hold any -object they can grasp. The mandibles of the drone -and the queen have two notches or teeth. Those -of workers are not thus furnished, probably because, -for shaping and smoothing the cells, an unbroken -edge is much more convenient than a notched one. -These organs are, however, very strong, and enable -their possessor to grasp enemies, drones or queens; -to nibble hard kinds of food; to break away pieces -of damaged comb; and to mould wax for building -purposes. In the last of these operations they are, -doubtless, aided by the shear-like maxillæ.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">- 101 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HEARING, TASTE, AND SMELLING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Hearing—Sir John Lubbock's Experiments—Sounds uttered by -Queen—Effects produced by them—Smell-Organs—Purposes—Liking -for, and Antipathy to, certain Effluvia—Discovery -by Bees of Nectar and Honey</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">With</span> regard to the sense of hearing, Sir John -Lubbock says: "The result of my experiments on -the hearing of bees has surprised me very much. -It is generally considered that, to a certain extent, -the emotions of bees are expressed by the sounds -they make, which seems to imply that they possess -the power of hearing. I do not by any means intend -to deny that this is the case. Nevertheless, I never -found them take any notice of any noise which I -made, even when it was close to them. I tried one -of my bees with a violin. I made all the noise I -could, but, to my surprise, she took no notice. I -could not even see a twitch of the antennæ. The -next day I tried the same with another bee, but -could not see the slightest sign that she was conscious -of the noise. On August 31st I repeated the -experiment with another bee, with the same result. -On September 12th and 13th I tried several bees with -a dog-whistle and a shrill pipe, but they took no notice -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">- 102 -</span> -whatever; nor did a set of tuning-forks, which I tried -on a subsequent day, have any more effect. These -tuning-forks extended over three octaves, beginning -with A below the ledger-line. I also tried with my -voice, shouting, &c., close to the head of a bee; -but, in spite of my utmost efforts, the bees took no -notice. I repeated these experiments at night, when -the bees were quiet; but no noise that I could make -seemed to disturb them in the least. In this respect -the results of my observations on bees entirely -agreed with those on ants."</p> - -<p>These experiments do not appear by any means -conclusive. It may well be that sounds which are -merely loud or shrill would pass unnoticed by the -insects, as conveying no meaning to them. In like -manner, a clap of thunder, the firing of a cannon or -gun, the playing of a brass band, will produce no -manifest effect upon them; but, if the queen utters, -as she sometimes does, a peculiar sound, an instantaneous -and very remarkable recognition of it takes -place. The sound referred to is usually heard at the -time when the young princesses are ready to emerge -from the cells in which they have been developed. -When thus emitted by the young queens, no attention -appears to be paid to it by the workers, who, however, -restrain the mother-queen from destroying her royal -daughters. But, when these are released from their -natal captivity, and the queen, standing with her -thorax against a comb, makes, with her wings crossed -over her back and in rapid vibration, a certain sound, -it receives immediate attention. Huber tells us that -bees which had been plucking at, biting, and chasing -the queen, hung down their heads when this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">- 103 -</span> -peculiar noise was uttered, and remained altogether -motionless; and whenever she had recourse to this -assertion of authority, the same effects followed.</p> - -<p>Again, unless observers are fanciful in their interpretation -of the sounds to be heard at various times -in a hive, we must conclude that certain feelings, -such as those of anger, grief, consternation, satisfaction, -joy, &c., are expressed in distinct tones. If -this is the case, we can only conclude that, difficult -as it may be to localise the organ of hearing, such -an organ must exist. Nor, in all probability, shall -we be mistaken in assigning its position to the -antennæ; for recent investigations into the anatomy -of these organs in ants,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> lend much support to the -theory that an auditory apparatus is situated in them.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Vide p. 227 of <i>Ants, Bees, and Wasps</i>, by Sir John Lubbock.</p> - -</div> - -<p><i>Taste.</i>—Next as to taste. We have already -spoken of the close connection between this sense -and the preceding; but, whatever doubt may be entertained -as to the possession of the former, there can -be none as to the latter. Huber, indeed, from the -fact that bees are often seen lapping stable-liquid and -sewage, thought the sense of taste could exist in them -to only a very small degree. It must be remembered, -however, that, like many other creatures, they are -fond of certain salts, and to this, no doubt, may be -ascribed their visits to the above-mentioned liquids. -On <i>a priori</i> grounds we should conclude that the -possession of this faculty was most important, for the -detection of nectar suitable and unsuitable for the -purposes of the hive. Moreover, we find a marked -preference shown for flowers which produce the best -honey; and the eagerness with which they will lap up -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">- 104 -</span> -any thoroughly sweet liquid confirms the idea that -they taste very readily.</p> - -<p><i>Smell.</i> Probably of all the senses of bees none -is so acute as that of the perception of odours. Not -only do they distinguish the citizens of their own -hive from those of other communities; not only do -they discriminate between the fragrance of various -flowers; not only can they detect the aroma of honey -concealed from their sight, though not from their -olfactory nerves, but they show a marked antipathy -to certain human individuals, which can only be -accounted for by supposing that from these persons -proceeds an effluvium disagreeable to the bees, though -not perceptible by, or unpleasant to, man.</p> - -<p>A remarkable anecdote in confirmation of this well-known -fact is given by Bevan, on the authority of -M. de Hofer, Councillor of State to the Grand Duke -of Baden. This gentleman's father had for years -kept bees, and had devoted much personal attention -to them. He had, indeed, attained such familiarity -with them, and such skill in their manipulation, that -he could, without fear of being stung, search for and -find the queen, and take her in his fingers. Unfortunately, -he fell ill with a severe fever, which kept -him for a long time a prisoner to his house. After -his convalescence he visited his bees, returning to -them with his old confidence and pleasure. Greatly -to his surprise and dismay, he found their feelings -towards him entirely changed. They would no -longer allow him to approach the hives, much less -to perform any of his former manipulations; and -that this was not the effect of a change of the population, -through the natural perishing of the workers, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">- 105 -</span> -but was due to some alteration in him, was shown by -the fact that he was never again able to resume his -old familiarity with his favourites. Some change in -his blood, brought about by the fever, made the -emanations from his skin permanently offensive to -the bees, though no such difference was perceptible -to any of his human friends.</p> - -<p>M. Feburier and other observers assert that a -certain antipathy is manifested towards persons with -red or black hair. We have reason to doubt the -correctness of their opinion as to the latter class, -and we more strongly incline to think that fair-complexioned -people are less agreeable to bees than -those who are darker. As a corroboration of this, -we may mention the case of two brothers, one of -whom could always approach the hives with impunity, -while the other could not come near them without -danger of being stung. Though both of them were -dark, the obnoxious one was decidedly the fairer.</p> - -<p>A further evidence of their sense of smell is the -anger they manifest on the crushing of one of their -number. Like the terror inspired into an ox by the -smell of freshly-drawn blood in the slaughter-house, -is the odour of a bruised comrade to bees. Again, -the smell of the liquid from one of their poison bags -excites them strongly. A wound just made by a -sting rouses others to inflict more wounds; and, if the -fluid be presented to them at the entrance of their -homes, it at once stirs their fury. If, however, it be -allowed to crystallise, and thus to become incapable -of emitting any odour, it will be quite disregarded by -the bees. Sir John Lubbock tried various experiments -with eau-de-Cologne and rose-water, and found -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">- 106 -</span> -that, till the insects had become habituated by -frequent use to these liquids, they always came out -to the entrance, to ascertain the meaning of the -odours which had penetrated into the hives. It is -well known, also, that they dislike the smell of paint -so much, that it is not advisable to place a swarm in -a freshly painted box, lest they should forsake it, from -its unpleasant odour.</p> - -<p>We may well conclude that it is owing to the -keenness of this sense that they perceive the presence -of flowers containing nectar; and, guided by -it, they wing their flight to distant fields where the -white clover attracts them, or to more barren districts -where the heath promises them abundant pasturage. -It is very certain that the fragrant aroma of honey -is at once perceived by them at many feet from their -dwellings; and in taking their sweets from them it is, -for this reason, necessary to avoid all exposure of -broken combs, or the dripping of their contents. -Great trouble is, in fact, often occasioned by the -readiness with which they thus detect the presence -of their own produce. Within our personal knowledge, -at a provincial show of bees, hives, and honey, -the fragrance of the liquid attracted bees from the -neighbourhood in such immense numbers that they -carried off, during one afternoon, some seventy pounds -of honey from the tent in which it was being exhibited.</p> - -<p>The position of the organ of smell is not clearly -ascertained. By some, as we have said, the antennæ -have been credited with the power; but, -though many observations may seem to favour this -opinion, we must remember that we have on record -some striking facts, which would seem, at least, to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">- 107 -</span> -show that powerful odours are able to be recognised -by other portions of the body. Lehmann and -Cuvier came to the conclusion that the spiracles, connected -with the respiration of bees, are the means by -which the sense of smell is exercised. The idea was -based on the notion that odours can only be perceived -by the inhalation of air. This, of course, is -not a sufficient ground for the inference arrived at. -Kirby and Spence, again, inclined, as we have already -mentioned, to the belief that the organ of smell lay -in or near the mouth. This supposition was partly -founded on the close relation between taste and -smell. Huber's experiments lent some confirmation -to this theory. He presented a camel's-hair brush -with a little oil of turpentine on its tip to every -part successively of the abdomen, trunk, and head, -without producing any discomfort to the bee. He -then tried the eyes and antennæ, without any apparent -effect; but, as soon as he directed it a little -above the insertion of the proboscis and close to the -mouth, immediate signs of annoyance showed themselves. -This experiment, repeated with other strongly-smelling -liquids, gave similar results; but, when the -mouths of the insects experimented upon were -stopped with paste, the perception of odours appeared -no longer to exist.</p> - -<p>For the present, then, the matter remains in doubt; -but we may suggest to our readers that observations -on this point, carefully and patiently conducted, may -lead to much useful information being obtained.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to pass from an examination and -description of the head-apparatus of the bee, without -being struck with the marvellous beauty, and equally -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">- 108 -</span> -wonderful adaptation, of each of its parts to the varied -functions required of them. Whether observed by the -unassisted eye, or by a lens of low or high power, we -cannot fail to see how exquisitely each minutest -portion is fashioned; how remarkably the various -organs are protected according to their delicacy; -how supplied with nerve-fibre in proportion to the -sensitiveness required in them; how supplementary -one to another in their diverse duties; how harmonious -in their working; and how fitted as a whole -to the wants and the instincts of the insects to which -they belong. Nor, as it seems to us, is it possible to -believe that any force of evolution, unguided by -a distinctly controlling and Divine creative power, -could ever have elaborated organs so precisely what -might have been expected to result from the exercise -of infinite wisdom and manifest purpose.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">- 109 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE THORAX.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Detailed Description—Legs—Wings—How used in Flight—Hooking -together—Employed for Ventilating.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> thorax of the bee is divided into three sections, -or imperfect rings. Of these, that nearest the -head is called the <i>pro</i>-thorax, the middle one the -<i>meso</i>-thorax, and the hindmost the <i>meta</i>-thorax. To -the first of these are attached the most forward pair -of legs; to the second, another pair of legs and one -pair of wings; to the third, the last pair of legs and -the other pair of wings. These organs of locomotion -constitute, in fact, all that is worthy of special -interest in this segment of the body, and we will, -therefore, give a short account of them.</p> - -<p>The legs of all insects consist of five parts, or -joints, and in the case of the bee they are not only -the means of walking or crawling, but, like some of -the head organs of which we have spoken, serve -several purposes. The first of the leg-segments is -called the <i>coxa</i>, or hip, and is short and round, -appearing, indeed, to be little more than the joint -by which the limb is articulated to the body. The -second is named the <i>trochanter</i>, and is very similar -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">- 110 -</span> -to the <i>coxa</i>. One purpose effected by these two -portions is to give great freedom of motion to the -whole member. Next comes the <i>femur</i>, or thigh, a -longer and flatter division. This is followed by the -<i>tibia</i>, or shank, a stouter and thicker division, which, -especially in the hind-legs, becomes gradually wider -downwards, and in the workers is adapted to a very -special use, as we shall directly see. Then in succession -we have the <i>tarsus</i>, or foot, consisting of five -joints, the first very much stouter than the rest, and -as long as the remaining four. It is terminated by a -pair of hooked claws, with a cushion or <i>pulvillus</i>.</p> - -<table summary="Hind-leg Bee"> -<tr> - <td> - <div class="figcenter" id="fig28" style="width: 140px;"> - <img src="images/fig28.png" width="106" height="345" alt="" /></div> - </td> - <td> </td> - <td> - <div class="figcenter" id="fig29" style="width: 140px;"> - <img src="images/fig29.png" width="116" height="366" alt="" /></div> - </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td style="width: 140px;"> - <div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.—Lower Segments of Hind-Leg - of Bee, Considerably Enlarged.</span></div> - </td> - <td> </td> - <td class="vtop" style="width: 140px;"> - <div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.—Complete Hind-leg - Of Bee.</span></div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>We have already spoken of the remarkable apparatus -found in the in the hind legs, adapted to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">- 111 -</span> -the purpose of cleansing the antennæ. At the junction -of the fourth and fifth segments (the <i>tibia</i> and the -<i>tarsus</i>) of the hind leg of a worker a cavity is formed -by the uppermost edge of the latter and the lower -of the former. The cavity can be opened or closed -at the will of the insect. Above this, on the outside of -the tibia, is a pocket, or pollen-basket, -lined along its upper edge with a row of -lancet-shaped hairs, which aid in detaining the tiny -balls of pollen, as they are successively deposited on -the leg. Like a series of prong-tines, they can be -pressed into the yielding bee-bread, and keep it from -falling off; while, as <i>they point downwards</i>, they -present no obstacle to the brushing off of the whole -mass by the bee, on its return to the hive. The -slight hollowing of the <i>tibia</i> and the <i>tarsus</i> at the -approximating ends, affords more space for the -gathered pollen, and also assists in its safe carriage -to the cells.</p> - -<p>The last joint of the <i>tarsus</i> is armed with a pair of -double claws, and between them lies a hollow cup-shaped -cushion, somewhat like that which enables -the house-fly to walk on glass or other very smooth -surfaces, only that the <i>pulvillus</i> of the fly is double. -The edge of the cup is fringed with <i>ciliæ</i>, or very -minute hairs, of such delicacy that a powerful lens -is required to see them. Under the microscope, the -object is one of great interest.</p> - -<p>The claws serve for hanging from the roof or sides -of hives, and for clinging to each other at swarming -or wax-making times, the cushion for walking on -smooth surfaces. It is worthy of remark that all the -joints of the legs are covered with hairs more or less -stiff, and all pointing downwards. Their uses are to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">- 112 -</span> -collect pollen, and to act as brushes and combs to all -the external parts of the body, which need constant -cleansing from flower-dust, and other matters less -useful to the bee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig30" style="width: 294px;"> - <img src="images/fig30.png" width="294" height="164" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.—Wing of Bee.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Passing now to the wings, new marvels and beauties -await our observation. These organs are four in -number, the forward pair being considerably larger -than the hinder. Each wing consists of a double -membrane, dotted all over with fine hairs, whose -purposes are to protect the delicate structure from -wet, and from particles of various kinds which -would adhere to it, and injure its surface. As a -support for this expanded tissue, there is a ramification -of stronger material, constituting nervures, and -acting like the ribs of an umbrella. With these are -associated air-vessels, or <i>tracheæ</i>, for the circulation -of air, and, possibly, to assist in giving buoyancy to -the organ. By another set of tubes a portion of -the nutritive fluid is conveyed to certain parts of the -wing, though no general circulation seems to take -place in it. The substance of which the expanded -portion, as well as the nervures, is composed, is -very tough, and, as our readers may remember, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">- 113 -</span> -natural order to which the bees are assigned is named -<i>Hymenoptera</i>, from the strongly <i>membranous wings</i> -they possess.</p> - -<p>We can readily understand the importance to these -insects of having their organs of flight powerful, and -yet not weighty, tough without being clumsy. Considering -the length of their daily journeys, and the -constant and rapid movements they require to make, -we easily discern how well suited to their needs is -the structure of their wings. But we must call -attention to a remarkable provision for the further -utility of these organs. Under a lens of medium -power may be seen, along the anterior edges of the -hind wings, a series of booklets of hair, while on the -posterior edge of the front wings is a rib, or bar, -which the booklets can grasp. By this means the -two wings, when used for flight, become practically -one, thus presenting unbroken resistance to the air, -and, in consequence, greatly increasing the power -of propelling the body. When at rest, the unhooking -of the edges enables the wings to be folded out -of the way—no mean advantage in the crowded -hive.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">- 114 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig31" style="width: 201px;"> - <img src="images/fig31.png" width="201" height="181" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.—Hooklets of a Bee's Wing.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>But there is a further benefit thus conferred on the -insect. During hot weather, and when the population -is very dense, ventilation is constantly and vigorously -carried on by the workers, who, fixing themselves -firmly by their claws to the floor-board at the entrance, -some outside and some just within their homes, direct -numerous currents of air into the hive. Of course -there must issue a quantity corresponding to what -is driven in, and thus a perpetual and free circulation -is kept up. Now, if the wings worked independently, -not only would a smaller quantity of air be affected -by each stroke, but the two sets of motions would, to -some extent, counteract each other. As it is, the -hooked wings act like well-constructed and well-used -fans. By the simple experiment of slitting such an -implement down the middle, the comparative advantages -of a broken and an unbroken surface, for -fanning purposes, can easily be put to the proof.</p> - -<p>Thus, again, we are struck with the fact that the -more closely we examine the organs of any segment -of the body of the insect, the more reason do we find -to admire the skill, and the care for His creatures, -manifested by the infinitely wise and the infinitely -good Maker of them all. Beauty, adaptation, perfection, -are the words which are continually suggested -to our minds by the contemplation of the structure -of the bee.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">- 115 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ABDOMEN.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Respiratory Organs—Circulation of Nutritive Fluid—Digestion -and Nutrition—Secretion of Wax—Reproductive Organs—Detailed -description of Sting—Effects of Poison—Queen's Sting.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> abdomen constitutes the largest and hindmost -segment of the body, and is important as containing -several structures which have most essential functions -in the economy of the insect. Among these are the -chief parts of the respiratory apparatus, the digestive, -the wax-making, the reproductive, and stinging -organs.</p> - -<p>First, it must be noted that the bee has nothing -strictly analogous to our lungs, heart, liver, and other -structures making up a true circulating-system. At -the same time there is a real oxygenation of the -fluids of the body, with a consequent evolution of -heat, water, and carbonic acid gas.</p> - -<p>The breathing apparatus has not its aperture for -inspiration and expiration situated in the head, as is -the case in the higher animals; but air is admitted -and expelled through apertures along both sides of -the body. In the thorax are two pairs of such -openings, and there is a pair on each ring of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">- 116 -</span> -abdomen. These air-holes are called <i>spiracles</i>, or -<i>stigmata</i>, and lead into two minute chambers, one -behind the other, the outer being provided with a -number of short hairs, to prevent the entry of -foreign particles likely to obstruct the important -passages.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig32" style="width: 205px;"> - <img src="images/fig32.png" width="205" height="316" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.—Abdomen of Bee, Showing Respiratory Organs.</span><br /> - <i>a</i>, Air-sac. <i>b b b</i>, Spiracles.</div> -</div> - -<p>From these vestibules the air is conducted by -tubes, or <i>tracheæ</i>, into sacs or bladders communicating -with each other. The largest pair of these -cavities is found in the abdomen, and from these two -main trunks lead, one into the thorax, and the -other to the termination of the abdomen. From the -latter there branch out subsidiary tubes, leading into -the minuter chambers, called <i>sacculi</i>, or little sacs. -Those going upwards do not subdivide till they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">- 117 -</span> -reach the head, in which are found two air-chambers -of considerable size. Reasons for this distribution of -the secreting vessels may be found, on the one hand, -in the need of the oxygenation of the tissues, -especially those connected with the nutrition of the -ganglia of highest functions; and, on the other, in -the requirements of buoyancy in the segments -relatively the heaviest, and destitute of organs of -support in the atmosphere, such as the wings furnish. -A confirmation of the second of these purposes is -derived from the remarkable fact, that in the queen -bee, who does not fly more than once or twice in her -life, the great air-sacs of the abdomen are almost -obliterated, their space being needed for the large -ovaries.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig33" style="width: 178px;"> - <img src="images/fig33.png" width="178" height="283" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.—Air-sacs of Worker.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The structure of the <i>tracheæ</i> is very remarkable. -Under a powerful microscope they are seen to consist -of a double membrane, between the two coats of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">- 118 -</span> -which are coils of an elastic thread, which act like the -spiral wire frequently used for keeping open and -strengthening india-rubber tubing. By means of this -structure the air-pipes are maintained in a condition -for the free passage of the atmosphere, and if closed -by pressure, the elastic fibre reopens them directly -the pressure is removed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig34" style="width: 241px;"> - <img src="images/fig34.png" width="241" height="343" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—<i>a</i>, <span class="smcap">Air-sacs</span>, -<i>b</i>, <span class="smcap">Ovaries, of the Queen</span>.</div> -</div> - -<p>With regard to the circulation of the nutritive -fluid in the system, considerable obscurity prevails. -What is known is, that along the back of the insect -runs a vessel called, from its position, the <i>dorsal</i> -vessel, attached to the outer covering of the body by -bands of ligamentous tissue. The portion of this -tube contained in the abdomen is enlarged at -intervals into chambers communicating with each -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">- 119 -</span> -other by valves, which allow the fluid to go forward -to the head, but not back towards the other extremity. -Passing by a simple elastic tube through the -thorax, the blood, if we may so call it, is propelled to -the anterior segment of the body. Its subsequent -course is not very clear; for, while some anatomists -speak of a small vessel leading back to the hinder part -of the body, others consider that the sanguineous, or -nutritive, liquid finds its way from the cephalic parts -to other vital organs, and after bathing them, returns -to the dorsal vessel by a second set of valves permitting -its ingress only.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig35" style="width: 305px;"> - <img src="images/fig35.png" width="305" height="346" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—<i>a</i>, <span class="smcap">Tracheæ</span>; -<i>b</i>, <span class="smcap">Elastic Spiral of Tracheæ</span>.</div> -</div> - -<p>Turning next to the nutritive organs, we have -already spoken at sufficient length of the mouth and -its appendages, and have mentioned that the nectar -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">- 120 -</span> -of flowers is conveyed first to an enlargement of the -gullet, analogous to the crop of birds. From this, -some is regurgitated by the workers into the cells, for -storage, while another portion passes on to the true -stomach.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> A certain amount of nitrogenous food, -chiefly pollen, also finds its way to this cavity, and -there undergoes a second mastication by the so-called -<i>gastric</i> teeth. These consist of silica, and are -therefore very hard.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Pastor Schönfeld has recently made some most interesting -researches into the anatomy and communication of the two stomachs. -A translation of his articles may be found in <i>The British Bee Journal</i> -for July, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<p>After undergoing considerable digestion in the -stomach, the chyle, as we may now consider it, passes -into a short intestine, where it receives fluid from the -so-called "biliary ducts." Further on is an expansion, -called the <i>colon</i>, after traversing which the -portions of food not absorbed into the system, together -with the waste products brought to the -intestines, are expelled from the body. It is probable -that the nutritive parts of the aliment find their -way through the walls of the intestine, and mingling -with the sanguineous liquid returned from the -cephalic extremity, pass with it into the dorsal vessel.</p> - -<p>Closely connected with the digestive apparatus is -that which is concerned in the making of wax. By -pressing the abdomen of the bee, so as to cause its -extension, there can be seen, on the under side of the -four medial ventral segments, two trapeziform whitish -pockets, one on either side of the <i>carinæ</i>, or elevated -central part. These are of a membranous texture, -and are covered with a reticulation of hexagonal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">- 121 -</span> -meshes, reminding one of the inner coat of the -second stomach of the sheep, and other ruminating -animals. There is no direct communication between -the stomach and these pockets; but Hunter suggested -that the secreting surface is in the membrane just -alluded to.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig36" style="width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/fig36.png" width="195" height="288" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.—Under Side of Abdomen, Showing Wax Scales.</span></div> -</div> - -<table summary="Wax Scales"> -<tr> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig37" style="width: 276px;"> - <img src="images/fig37.png" width="276" height="224" alt="" /></div> - </td> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig38" style="width: 137px;"> - <img src="images/fig38.png" width="137" height="82" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.—Scales.</span></div> - </div> - </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> - <div class="tdc figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.—Bee, Showing the Wax Scales.</span></div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>We cannot follow the process by which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">- 122 -</span> -the change from honey to wax is effected, any more -than we can account for the elaboration of bile, -saliva, and the pancreatic liquid, from our blood by -the different organs connected with their production. -All we can say is, that the membrane of the wax-receptacles -is endowed with the peculiar power of -transforming the nectar of flowers into an oil. The -actual chemical change may be stated in general -terms thus: Honey and sugar contain, roughly -speaking, equal chemical equivalents of oxygen, -carbon, and hydrogen. In wax, the quantities of the -first of these elements is diminished to about an -eighth part, while the carbon and hydrogen are more -than quadrupled. In other words, the saccharine -material suffers very great de-oxidation in passing -into the condition of wax.</p> - -<p>The wax-oil, when it has filled the pocket in which -it is secreted, passes out of the body of the insect in -<i>laminæ</i> or scales, which take the shape of the bags in -which they have been produced. In contact with the -air, the wax absorbs a small quantity of oxygen, and -loses an equal amount of carbon. When about to be -used by the bee, it is picked off the under segments -of the body by the hind-legs, passed on to the fore-feet, -and by them is conveyed to the mouth, where, -by being mixed with saliva and well kneaded, it is -rendered pliant, ductile, and more tenacious.</p> - -<p>The reproductive organs of the queen consist, first, -of two large bags, one on each side of the abdomen, -and called ovaries, in which the eggs are generated. -When mature, these eggs pass by a tube from each -ovary to a common duct, on one side of which is -found a small yellow vesicle, called the <i>spermatheca</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">- 123 -</span> -On examination under the microscope, this is found -to be filled with a viscous fluid, in which, with a lens -of high power, may be seen moving thousands of -spermatozoa derived from the drone.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig39" style="width: 324px;"> - <img src="images/fig39.png" width="324" height="367" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.—Ovaries and Spermatheca of Queen.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>By voluntary effort on the part of the queen, each egg, as it passes -this vesicle, may be touched with a most minute drop -of the fluid just mentioned. Then this very marvellous -fact results. An egg thus fertilised develops -into a queen or a worker, according to the conditions -under which it is hatched; while those eggs which -are not brought in their passage into contact with -the fluid, and receive no spermatozoa, become -drones. Herein lies the explanation of fertile -workers giving birth to drones only, and of queens, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">- 124 -</span> -hatched after the drones of a season are dead, also -laying eggs which will develop only into male bees. -We are absolutely unable to account for these most -extraordinary circumstances, which open up interesting -fields for future investigation. Not the -least wonderful point is the exercise of will, on the -part of the queen, in the production of the particular -kind of egg which, without making mistakes, she lays -in the cells specially provided for the three classes of -her offspring.</p> - -<p>The last of the abdominal organs we have now to -describe, is one which is not essential to the life of -the individual, but has been conferred by the Creator -as a means of offence and defence, viz., the sting. -Those who have frequently felt its effects have no -need to be told how formidable a weapon it is; but -few probably are fully acquainted with the structures -which give it such potent force. If a bee be irritated, -and made to thrust out its sting, we observe a dark -brown and sharply-pointed dart. This, when magnified, -is seen to be the sheath, in which the true sting -lies and is moved. The sheath is divided down the -centre, and between the two parts the real piercers -work, though the sheath itself is thrust into the -wound. It consists of two horny scales, smooth and -closely adherent to the true darts. These last are -stiff filaments, barbed along their outer edge. They -are not quite equal in length, so that the teeth of the -one do not lie exactly opposite those of the other. -They work side by side, and, possibly with alternate -motion, pierce deeper and deeper into the punctured -material. The teeth give a firm hold to the imbedded -weapon, and prevent its easy withdrawal. In fact, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">- 125 -</span> -when plunged into human flesh, or into thick leather -gloves, these barbs hold so tightly that the insect is -unable to free itself, and if forcibly detached, or if by -a vigorous effort it escapes, the sting is left behind, -and frequently attached to it are portions of the -viscera. The bee thus loses its life, and the injury -it inflicts is the more severe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig40" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/fig40.png" width="218" height="297" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.—Sting of a Bee, greatly magnified.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The mere puncture of -the weapon, however, would be a quite unimportant -matter, were it not that, connected with the groove -in which the dart works, is a short tube leading from -a bag containing a liquid of the most acrid and -poisonous nature. By powerful muscles, attached to -the upper part of the sting, the barbs are thrust out; -the sheath follows them into the pierced substance, -and then, by the pressure of other muscles, a drop of -the poison-liquid runs down into the wound, and -immediately sets up a violent pain and inflammation -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">- 126 -</span> -of the surrounding parts. So powerful is the action -of the irritant, that numerous cases are on record of -death ensuing through its influence. We are, however, -bound to say that, by many authorities, such -fatal consequences are considered to result from -syncope produced by fright, rather than from the -<i>direct</i> effect of the poison on the nervous system. -Still, there is no doubt of the very formidable nature -of the liquid, as may be generally seen in the amount -of swelling and discomfort caused by the exceedingly -minute portion injected by the sting of a -bee.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig41" style="width: 125px;"> - <img src="images/fig41.png" width="84" height="330" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.—Barbs of a Bee's Sting, very highly magnified.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The most remarkable function of the sting-apparatus -has, in modern times, been discovered to be the insertion of -a minute drop of the poison in each honey-cell when filled. -This acts as an anti-septic, and prevents fermentation in -the sweet liquid.</p> - -<p>The poison is secreted by tiny glands, from which -it is conveyed, by tubes or ducts, into the reservoir, -where it is stored ready for use. Chemically, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">- 127 -</span> -liquid is said to have an acid reaction. Hence the -application of ammonia, and other alkaline solutions, -will most effectually counteract its effects.</p> - -<p>The sting of the queen differs from that of the -worker, in having its barbs curved, instead of straight. -This modification makes it a much less formidable implement. -Moreover, it is very seldom employed. It -is, indeed, almost impossible to make a queen sting -the hand, even by great provocation. Almost the -only circumstances in which her majesty employs -the weapon are, first, for mortal combat with a rival, -and second, for murdering, if permitted by the -workers, the princesses before they emerge from the -cells in which they have developed.</p> - -<p>The drone is without a sting, and, indeed, seems -never to show fight at all. Its jaws might furnish no -despicable weapons, but the insect seems to lack -spirit to use them, even in self-defence, and when -attacked by the mandibles only of the workers, -manifests no inclination to employ its own against -its tormentors. Struggles to escape, and haste to -flee, seem to betray its absence of courage; though, -possibly, an instinctive knowledge that its assailants -have in reserve a more deadly piece of armour than -strong jaws may make "discretion the better part -of valour."</p> - -<p>With regard to the sting of the bee, Paley aptly -remarks that it "affords a beautiful example of the -union of chemistry and mechanism: of chemistry in -respect to the venom, which, in so small a quantity, -can produce such powerful effects; of mechanism, as -the sting is not a simple but a compound instrument. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">- 128 -</span> -The machinery would have been useless, had it not -been for the chemical process, by which, in the insect's -body, honey is converted into poison; and, on the -other hand, the poison would have been ineffectual -without an instrument to wound, and a syringe to -inject the fluid."</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">- 129 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE DISEASES OF BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Dysentery: How Produced—Indications—Treatment. Foul-Brood: -two kinds—Nature—Propagation. Mr. Cheshire's -Discoveries and Treatment—Fatal Effects of Disease—Detection—Vertigo—Analogy -of Human and Bee Diseases.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">How</span> far the diseases of domesticated animals are -due to the conditions to which they are subjected by -man, and which are always, to some extent, contrary -to the natural mode of life of the creatures, we are -at present unable to say. We can, however, point -with some certainty to cases in which birds and -quadrupeds, which are made subservient to our needs -or our convenience, suffer in consequence of our -treatment. In some degree, this is true with regard -to bees. In a wild state their habitations may, -indeed, expose them to risks they do not run in -hives, but these artificial dwellings, on the other -hand, tend to the development, or the extension of, -at least two maladies to which their occupants are -subject. These are the deadly evils of dysentery -and so-called "foul-brood."</p> - -<p>Dysentery has been known in apiaries from the -time of Columella, in the first century of our era, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">- 130 -</span> -who attributed it to the effect of food derived by the -bees from the elm and the spurge. Other more -recent writers have ascribed it to over-indulgence in -spring-honey, wheresoever derived: others, again, to -the consumption of stores which had candied in the -cells during the winter. More recent investigations -show that there are several means by which this -trouble may be generated. In the first place, ineffective -ventilation, by permitting the condensation -of moisture on the combs, and its admixture with -the food stores, is a prolific source of the mischief. -During the winter, the low temperature is constantly -reducing to a watery condition the aqueous vapour -given off by respiration. This vapour, like our own -perspiration, contains matter derived from impurities -in the circulating fluid, and is the natural vehicle for -their removal. If, then, such moisture again enters -the body of the bee, it is simply a poison, whose -effects become manifest by producing diarrhœa, -distension of the abdomen, and more or less speedy -death.</p> - -<p>Again, if the stocks be supplied in the late autumn -with syrup too watery for the bees to seal over in the -cells, contact with air sets up a chemical change, and -a certain amount of acid is generated, which makes -the honey most prejudicial to the health of the -stock, by deranging their digestive functions.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, if during the winter time, when the insects -are closely confined to their dwellings by the weather, -and when they are, under ordinary conditions, very -quiescent, they be disturbed and excited, they are apt -to gorge themselves with food; and having no natural -means of working off the extra quantity they have -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">- 131 -</span> -taken, the system is overloaded, and the stomach and -intestines suffer from the too great burden thrown -on them.</p> - -<p>The occurrence of this malady is indicated by the -altered appearance and odour of the excrement, -which, instead of being reddish yellow, becomes of -a muddy black colour, and has an intolerably foul -smell. It is, moreover, deposited by the weakened -insects, contrary to their cleanly habits, on the combs, -the inner walls of the hives, on the floor-board, and -at the entrance of their dwellings.</p> - -<p>The avoidance of the causes of the generation of -the disease is a comparatively easy matter. The -means of cure are, first, the removal of the reasons -for its occurrence, and, secondly, the immediate and -thorough cleansing of all parts of a hive soiled by -the sick bees. It is still better, if possible, to remove -the stock into a perfectly fresh dwelling; and it is -advisable to take away all combs with unsealed -honey, and substitute sealed stores, or to feed the -bees with barley-sugar.</p> - -<p>"Foul-brood" is a much more formidable malady, -and is often encountered. It is, indeed, a terror to -apiarians, for not only is it very fatal to any stock in -which it appears, but, from its ready contagiousness, -it may depopulate any number of previously healthy -communities, and may extend from one apiary to -several others in the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>As the name implies, it has been thought to be a -disease of the larvæ, and there are said to be two -kinds, called respectively the <i>dry</i> and the <i>wet</i>. The -former of these is much less serious, and is not -contagious. The young merely die in their cells; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">- 132 -</span> -their bodies desiccate, and there is an end of the -matter. In the other variety, the brood remains -dark and shiny in the hatching-places, and emits a -most offensive odour, perceptible at some distance -from the hive. When the mischief is very great, -combs are sometimes removed which are masses of -corruption and fœtor.</p> - -<p>Microscopical investigations led to the belief that -the source of this dire pest was a microbe, allied to -<i>micrococcus</i>. If the germs of this lowly organism -find a lodgment on the tender skin of a larva, they -propagate with immense rapidity, and cause the -death of the young insect. Then, wafted about the -hive by the currents produced in ventilation, they -pass from one part to another; or, attaching themselves -to the bodies of adult bees, they are carried -from cell to cell, and each of these thus infected, in -its turn, becomes a new centre of deadly plague.</p> - -<p>Dr. Schönfeld in Germany made a series of interesting -experiments, which he considered conclusive -on the question of the origin and spread of this -disease. From a small piece of foul-brood he propagated, -by suitable means, large quantities of the -fatal so-called <i>micrococcus</i>, and with it he was able to -infect a healthy stock. He, moreover, established the -fact that the dried germs float readily in the air. -Placing some of the foul-brood in a bell-glass, in -which he inserted lightly a plug of cotton-wool, he -caused a gentle atmospheric current to pass into the -glass, and out by the tube. Then, moistening the -cotton-wool with water, and putting some of the -liquid under a microscope, he detected what he -concluded to be numerous spores.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">- 133 -</span></p> - -<p>This circumstance throws a light on the contamination -of the different hives in an apiary, through one -that has become infected; as, no doubt, during the -process of ventilation, many germs of the disease find -their way out of the entrances. It is probable that -robber-bees are also very frequently the carriers of -contagion. Taking advantage of the dwindling down -of a stock suffering from the disease, these plunderers -pilfer the honey, and, in so doing, receive on their -bodies the fatal seeds of the malady, which they -then carry to their own stocks. In this way the -existence of the pest in one community may become -the cause of its extension throughout a neighbourhood. -It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that -the signs of the appearance of the evil should be -constantly watched, and very stringent measures -applied whenever its existence is ascertained.</p> - -<p>Until quite lately it was thought that no means of -cure, strictly so called, existed. The germs are so -minute, and are capable of such diffusion and adherence -in a hive, that half-measures proved, as usual, of -no avail. The removal of the combs and bees to a -fresh hive, and thoroughly sprinkling them with salicilic -acid and water, has been recommended as a remedial -course; but bee-keepers found that nothing short of -the complete destruction of the infected community -was likely to be really effective, and the first loss, in -such a case, might save the entire destruction of all -the stocks in the apiary. The very honey stored in -the combs had to be sacrificed also; for in it the -dangerous germs settle, and being used by the nurse-bees -for feeding the larvæ, become the continued, and -possibly unsuspected, source of mischief to any hive -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">- 134 -</span> -to which it is imparted. If the disease appeared in -a straw skep, it was considered desirable to destroy -it with fire. If it found its way into a bar-frame -hive, every frame, every portion, even every crevice, -must be treated. Thorough boiling in a copper has -been found helpful in eradicating the mischief, but -could not alone be relied upon. A strong mixture -of chloride of lime and water, or of salicilic acid and -water, applied carefully to every part, has been found -more effective. The important facts to be remembered -are that, owing to the extreme minuteness of -the germs, their multitudes, and their great vitality, -it is very easy for some to escape destruction, and -to become the sources of future mischief, unless the -most radical methods of destruction are applied -to them.</p> - -<p>A new light has, however, just been thrown on this -important subject by Mr. Frank Cheshire, of Acton, -who has done so much good work in the anatomy of -bees, and in their practical management. He has -now satisfied himself, by long-continued and careful -microscopic investigation, that the origin of foul-brood -is a <i>bacillus</i>, not a <i>micrococcus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and that the -disease extends to all the inmates of the hive. But -what is of far greater moment to apiarians is, that -Mr. Cheshire claims to have discovered a means of -completely curing the dire plague. This consists in -the administration of <i>phenol</i>, which is one of the -components of carbolic acid. Syrup is made with -3 lbs. of loaf-sugar to a quart of water, and to this is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">- 135 -</span> -added <sup>1</sup>/<sub>500</sub> part of pure <i>phenol</i>. By removing the -stored honey, and pouring the syrup into cells around -the infected parts of combs containing foul-brood, the -bees are induced to consume the medicated food. -The "nurses" supply it also to the larvæ, and the -result is, that not only is the progress of the disease -stopped, but renewed courage and hope are infused -into the community, who remove the dead larvæ, -clear out the polluted cells, and bring about an entire -renewal of healthy conditions. Should further facts -prove all that Mr. Cheshire expects, he will be regarded -by apiarians in future with as much admiration -as Jenner, the introducer of vaccination, is -looked upon by the medical world. His generous -publication of his discoveries, so that all interested -may have the benefit of them, lays all bee-keepers -under great obligations to him.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Those who wish for details on this and other points should read -Mr. Cheshire's admirable papers in the <i>British Bee-Journal</i> for -August, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<p>As an example of the terrible results of this pest -to the bee-keeper, the case of the well-known German -bee-master, Dzierzon, may be mentioned. In the -year 1848 the disease broke out in his apiary, and -more than 500 stocks were destroyed by it; in fact, -only ten hives escaped the pestilence. John Hunter—the -author of a good <i>Manual of Bee-Keeping</i>—records -that from a friend, who had complained of -not finding his bees profitable, he purchased all his -stocks, some twenty in number, and removed them -to his garden. They proved to have foul-brood in -them, and not only did the whole of them perish, but -all Mr. Hunter's own stocks, and, in addition, two or -three years of trouble were required to eradicate the -mischief from the apiary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">- 136 -</span></p> - -<p>The late Mr. Woodbury, whose name is "a household -word" among bee-keepers, was unfortunate -enough to have this disease among his hives in the -spring and summer of 1863. He published a graphic -account of his trouble in the <i>Journal of Horticulture</i> -of July 21st, 1863, entitled, "A Dwindling Apiary." -By very vigorous measures he was able to get rid of -the pest; but the conclusions to which he came were -the following: "First let me endorse the opinions of -both Dzierzon and Rothe, that, except under very -especial circumstances, it is unadvisable to attempt -the cure of a foul-broody stock: better, far better, -to consign its inhabitants to the brimstone-pit: the -hive itself, if a straw one, to the flames: the comb to -the melting-pot: and appropriate the honey to any -purpose except that of feeding bees."</p> - -<p>It is now known that this treatment is by no means -always successful when the <i>bacilli</i> have reached the -"resting" or "spore" stage.</p> - -<p>The detection of signs of the disease is not very -difficult, especially in hives with movable frames. -If, during the working season, a stock seems not -only not to increase, but to diminish in numbers; -if fewer and fewer bees appear active about the -entrance; and if, above all, a peculiarly disagreeable -odour is perceptible, at even one or two feet from -the entrance, it is time to look to the condition of -the interior. An infected comb, on examination, is -seen to be dark and unwholesome-looking. If the -caps covering the brood be distinctly sunk, so as to -show a concave surface, the existence of the disease -is almost a certainty; and if the covering of one or -more of these cells be removed, there will be found -dark coffee-coloured, slimy liquid, the remains of the -larvæ destroyed by the <i>bacillus</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">- 137 -</span></p> - -<p>From what we have said of this disease it will be -seen that it is most important for any one about to -commence bee-keeping to be sure the stocks he may -purchase are not only themselves free from disease, -but come from an apiary absolutely uninfected -by it. Many a beginner in apiculture has been so -disheartened, and has suffered such severe loss from -foul-brood in his hives, that he has given up bee-keeping -in disgust. We need hardly say that any -man who knowingly sold hives with foul-brood in -them, would deserve to be visited with penalties for -damages, which we have no doubt his victim could -obtain by legal process.</p> - -<p>Some writers enumerate <i>vertigo</i>, or giddiness and -staggering, among the diseases of bees. We incline -to the belief that cases of the kind observed were -due to the individuals having been stung in fighting, -though it is possible that mistakes in pasturage <i>may</i> -occasionally be made, and that the nectar of certain -flowers may induce disorder in the bee-constitution. -We, however, doubt the likelihood of the quick senses -of the insect being at fault with regard to food which -will prove hurtful.</p> - -<p>One other malady has been occasionally noticed, -viz., the swelling of the terminal segments of the -antennæ. The occurrence of this mischief is too rare -to need further remark, beyond the suggestion that -it may be the result of <i>microbe</i> germs having made -a lodgment in the tender organs affected.</p> - -<p>There is a striking analogy in the results of insanitary -conditions, and the propagation of zymotic -disease among the human family and among bees. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">- 138 -</span> -Unwholesome food, defective ventilation, the diffusion -of poisonous germs, produce, among both orders of -beings, similar disastrous effects; and this sketch of -the diseases of one class of domesticated insects may -serve to point a moral for the guidance of mankind -in social economy. The same inexorable laws of -health and sickness prevail in the highest and the -inferior orders of animal existences, and with unvarying -steadfastness is proclaimed the solemn warning -"Be not deceived: God is not mocked. Whatsoever -a man soweth that shall he also reap."</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">- 139 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ENEMIES OF BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Birds—Mice—Moths—<i>Braula cœca</i>—Hornets and Wasps—Spiders—Toads—"Robber -Bees"—Prevention of robbing.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> might well be imagined that creatures armed with -such deadly weapons as bees, would have few enemies -who would dare to contend with them. The fact is, -however, that they are exposed to dangers from -numerous sources. Various kinds of wild birds, -domestic fowls, mice, certain species of moths, hornets, -wasps, ants, spiders and toads, are more or less -destructive to them.</p> - -<p>Among the common birds fond of these insects -as food, may be mentioned the titmouse tribe. Mr. -Hunter says he has found hundreds of stings of bees -adhering to a fence, evidently extracted by these -active and clever little birds previous to swallowing -their prey. Their depredations, however, are usually -not great, and they are often satisfied to regale themselves -on the dead insects which are carried out of -the hive. In America, the King-bird (<i>Tyrannus -muscicapa</i>) is mentioned by Langstroth as devouring -scores of our winged friends, which he does not -hesitate to seize on flower-blossoms, showing, indeed, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">- 140 -</span> -a sensible preference for those who are distending -their honey-bags with nectar. The swallow was -credited by the Greeks with being a robber of -apiaries, as the address of the old poet indicates:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Attic maiden, honey-fed,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Chirping warbler, bear'st away</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Thou the busy buzzing bee,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">To thy callow brood a prey?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Warbler, thou a warbler seize?</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Winged, one with lovely wings?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Guest thyself, by summer brought,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Yellow guests whom summer brings?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wilt not quickly let it drop?</div> - <div class="verse indent2">'Tis not fair; indeed, 'tis wrong,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That the ceaseless warbler should</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Die by mouth of ceaseless song." <a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Translation given in <i>Langstroth on the Honey-Bee</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<p>We have no reason to charge our swallows with -the crime of bee-eating. Domestic fowls will sometimes -regale themselves with a meal of live bees, it -they can reach the entrances to the hives, so that it is -advisable to forbid their access to them. Mice occasionally -effect an entrance, especially into skeps, and -annoy the inhabitants by their disagreeable odour, -and by gnawing the combs, and eating brood and -honey. The winter is the time when there is most -danger from these plunderers, as the bees are then -too torpid with the cold to notice and to attack the -intruders. It is easy to prohibit their inroads, by -sufficiently contracting the entrances, and preventing -their gnawing the rims of the hives, or getting under -the top coverings.</p> - -<p>Moths, being active at night, require constant -watchfulness on the part of the bee-sentinels to -exclude them from their abodes. Attracted partly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">- 141 -</span> -by the favourable conditions for egg-hatching, through -the steady warmth kept up in the hives, they lay their -eggs in crevices, and along the borders of bee-homes. -The larvæ, when able to crawl, make their way over -the combs, which, with their contents, they greedily -devour, and if attacking in large numbers they sometimes -prove fatal to a stock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig42" style="width: 414px;"> - <img src="images/fig42.png" width="414" height="327" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.—The Enemies of Bees.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The two kinds most destructive are the British -wax-moth, <i>Achroia grisella</i>, and the <i>Galleria mellonella</i>. -The latter is more troublesome in Italy than in our -own country. If the population of a hive be strong -and in thoroughly sound condition, there is not -much danger to be apprehended from either of these -foes. Should, however, a colony be weak, and still -more if queenless, such a hold may be gained by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">- 142 -</span> -these their lepidopterous enemies, as will be wholly -ruinous. Combs in store are yet more liable to their -attacks, but the moths may be dislodged, and their -eggs or larvæ destroyed, by exposing such combs to -the fumes of burning brimstone. An examination of -hive-coverings and floor-boards in the spring and -autumn, and the destruction of all grubs found about -them, will often save much trouble from the moths. -The presence of these intruders among the combs -may be detected by the occurrence of their excrement, -resembling grains of very fine gunpowder, on -the floor-boards.</p> - -<p>The death's-head moth, <i>Acherontia Atropos</i>, is also -said, by some writers, to be troublesome to apiarians; -but it is too rare an insect to be seriously destructive. -A parasitic louse, called <i>Braula cœca</i>, is occasionally -found in considerable numbers in hives on -the Continent. Happily, the English climate does -not appear to suit its constitution well, so that its -occurrence is not very frequent, and is generally the -result of the introduction of Ligurians and other -foreign varieties into an apiary.</p> - -<p>Pre-eminent among the enemies of bees stand -hornets and wasps, particularly the latter in the -autumn of the year. They are active, courageous, -and persistent robbers; and, unless the hive-entrance -be well guarded, they will slip in, and, escaping -notice, will pilfer the honey without stint. So determined -are their attacks, that they will utterly ruin -weak colonies, and will sometimes so dishearten even -tolerably vigorous ones, as to make them desert their -hives. When once they have learnt there are stores -to be plundered, they do not fail to come in numbers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">- 143 -</span> -if they know that only a feeble resistance will be -offered to them. Various means of stopping their -depredations may be adopted. The most radical -measure is to destroy queen-wasps in the spring. -They are the only ones in existence then, and are -considerably larger than their worker-daughters. -Again, every wasp's nest in the neighbourhood of an -apiary should be got rid of, by pouring gas-tar into -the entrances, and ramming earth over it. Thirdly, -by hanging a narrow-necked bottle of sweetened -beer near the bee-hives, many wasps will be attracted -to the liquid; and, becoming surfeited and silly, will -be unable to escape, and will be drowned. A fourth -precaution is to narrow the entrances of the hives, so -that one or two bees can defend them. The sentinels -are able to master these their enemies in fair fight; -indeed, the wasps rarely show any inclination for a -battle. They trust to their activity and boldness, -rather than to any real courage. The best preventive -measure is to keep the stocks of bees strong. It is -usually only the weak who suffer serious attacks -from their insect enemies.</p> - -<p>Spiders prove a nuisance and destructive, chiefly -by spinning webs into which the weary workers fall -when returning home, or into which they unwarily -rush on emerging from their abodes. Care in sweeping -away the cobwebs will remove danger from this -source.</p> - -<p>Toads are credited, or charged, with a love of -honey-filled bees, and may sometimes be seen watching -their opportunity of making a meal near the -entrances, where they are said to pick up many a -dainty morsel with honey-sauce ready made. These -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">- 144 -</span> -slowly-moving creatures may easily be caught and -taken away, so as to do no more mischief.</p> - -<p>We must not pass from this part of our subject -without speaking of the aptness of bees to rob one -another. If an unfortunate individual makes the -mistake of going to a hive not its own, it will immediately -be seized as an intruder. In the hope of -propitiating the assailants, it will extend its proboscis, -and offer some of its internal honey-store. -Nor will the custodians refuse to accept what is -evidently intended as a peace-offering; but they will -not cease their attempt to drag off or to kill the -interloper, who is happy if able to escape from the -onslaught. This kind of robbery is, in a manner, -to be regarded as justifiable.</p> - -<p>Such is not the case, however, with the organised -or desultory pillage which frequently goes on when -the inability of a stock to defend itself has been -discovered by its neighbours. We have known the -contents of a hive completely cleared out by "robber-bees" -in a few hours, crowds of them rushing in and -filling themselves. Then, having carried the spoil to -their own homes, they will return again and again, -till there is nothing left for them to plunder. Of -course the community attacked wholly perishes in the -battle or from starvation. Nor is this the worst of -such an occurrence; for, when once these unhallowed -sweets have been tasted, when these insects—it must -be confessed, of very low morality—have discovered -that robbery is much more easy and more productive -of results than honest work, they appear seized with -a perfect mania for living as freebooters, and will -attempt hive after hive, when their first onslaught -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">- 145 -</span> -has been effective. Terrible mischief is often the -result; for, not only is the habit of ordinary nectar-seeking -broken off, but fierce battles are fought with -strong stocks, and many hundreds of the combatants -perish. Moreover, the ordinary avocations of an -assailed colony are completely interrupted, and general -disturbance, if not complete disorganisation, prevails.</p> - -<p>Such a disastrous state of things is sometimes -begun by carelessness on the part of the bee-keeper, -in allowing pieces of honey-comb to lie about within -reach of any of his stocks. The taste of the sweet -liquid, for which they have a perfect passion, seems -to act like a glass of gin on an abstainer who has -formerly been a drunkard. Their thirst for more is -fired, and, once enkindled, will not easily subside. It -is particularly necessary, therefore, especially in the -late summer and the autumn, when supplies from -flowers begin to fall short, to take care not to provoke -the lust of having honey at all hazards, by allowing -any to be exposed to the smelling or other perceptive -powers of the bees. It is equally important in feeding -stocks to prevent any exposure of the syrup, and not -to permit stranger-bees to get at the feeding-bottles.</p> - -<p>If the mischief of robbing is detected in its early -stage, much may be done to stop it by narrowing -the hive entrances, so that only one bee at a time -can get in. This will enable the sentinels to examine -each one who tries to enter, and to turn back -strangers. If, however, the evil has taken a serious -hold, it is better to close the attacked hive altogether -for a time, and to hang near the entrance a sponge -or cloth soaked in diluted carbolic acid, or some -liquid potent and disagreeable in its odour. If these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">- 146 -</span> -methods are of no avail, it will be better to remove -the colony to a distance, or to a dark cellar; and by -taking care to secure ventilation, and to give a supply -of syrup, the community, which would otherwise -surely perish, may be rescued. If returned in three -or four days to its former stand, it is well to take the -precaution of placing a sloping board before the -entrance, so that its exact position may escape the -notice of would-be robbers. These can often be -detected early in their operations by their hovering -restlessly in front of a hive, without the courage to -settle, or, perhaps, because they do not know precisely -where the opening is. A shower from a -watering-pot will sometimes send them about their -own proper business.</p> - -<p>Another method for stopping robber-bees from their -plundering is to put at night into the hive attacked -a small quantity of some strongly-smelling substance—a -little musk, for example. The unwonted odour -seems to rouse the inhabitants, and if they have a -healthy queen, they will, in the morning, resolutely -meet the robbers. Moreover, if any of these get in, -the musk will so scent them that when they return -to their own hives they will not be recognised by -their own people, but will be put to death; and thus -a double check is put on their depredations.</p> - -<p>It is a remarkable fact that, if a robbed colony be -queenless, or if the queen is killed in the <i>mélée</i>, -survivors from the fight will often fall to on the -remnants of the stores, and, joining the forces of the -conquerors, will convey the honey to the hive whose -inhabitants are the plunderers, and will be peacefully -accepted as citizens among its population. Of course -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">- 147 -</span> -the absence or the slaughter of a queen much more -readily exposes her disheartened subjects to attacks -from other bees; and this is another reason for seeing -that no such calamity as queenlessness has befallen -any stock when food is scarce.</p> - -<p>In the facts recorded in this chapter we have -striking evidence of "the struggle for existence" -which seems to have been ordained as "a law of -nature" in this world. We can readily discern some -useful purposes connected with it, both as regards -conquerors and vanquished. For, on the one hand, -it is for the benefit of the race that the strongest -individuals should, as a rule, survive to propagate -it; and, on the other, it is better for a sharp and -speedy end to occur to a weak community, rather -than that it should perish by the slow pangs of -hunger, or from inability to continue the rearing of -a progeny. But, even in this respect, as in several -others, bees furnish a serious difficulty to the theory -of evolution. For it is not the strong and victorious -community which propagates the race, but the -individual queen; and she, of course, may be weaker -than the one whose stock has been destroyed by the -more numerous robbers. The case evidently is not -a genuine one of "survival of the fittest," so far as -the succeeding generations are concerned; nor do -we find any special adaptation for future advantages -secured. The battle is lost and won, but there can -be no impress made, even by successive victories, on -the general physical condition of the stronger party; -for the fight is never undertaken by a single drone -or queen, who alone can transmit any qualities to -posterity.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">- 148 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HIVES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Natural Abodes of Wild Bees—Taking Honey from Roof of -House—Straw Skeps—Cottager's Hive—Supering—Nutt's -Collateral Hive—Village Hive—Woodbury Hive—Abbott's -Hives—Sectional Supering—Stewarton Hive—Carr-Stewarton -Hive—Observatory Hives—Bee-houses.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> a state of nature bees avail themselves of hollow -trees, crevices in rocks, or other cavities of various -kinds. Swarms escaped from apiaries will frequently -find an entrance to the space between the roof and -upper ceilings of houses, and extraordinary quantities -of comb, brood, and bees have been taken from -such places. Two gentlemen, well known to the -writer, have given the following account in <i>The Bee -Journal</i> for July 1, 1882, of their successful taking of -bees, brood, comb, and honey, from the roof of a -house at Lockinge, near Wantage, Berks.</p> - -<p>"The house is very old, and built of lath and -plaster in the old style, with gables. There was a -bricklayer at our service to open walls where suggested. -We commenced at the back gable, and the -bees were situated, one lot in the roof, and two others -in the walls.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">- 149 -</span></p> - -<div class="figright" id="page149" style="width: 105px;"> - <img src="images/page149.png" width="105" height="162" alt="House - Bee Locations in walls" /> -</div> - -<p>"No. 1 in the wall was the first opened. There was -a space eight or nine inches wide, and five feet long, -and there was disclosed to us a wonderful -sight In front of us were continuous -honey and brood-combs, four feet six -inches long, and as wide as the opening. -The combs were four in number. Then -we took No. 2 (next above), and in a -similar opening found a quantity of brood, -honey, and bees, the combs being smaller. -Then we ascended to No. 3, where -the bees entered by the eaves. After taking some -splendid honey, some gathered by a swarm a month -old, the bees took a turn further in the roof, and we -left them. In the front gable we commenced cutting -away the lath and plaster of the top lot, and opened -a space six feet long and eight or nine feet wide; -and here we were surprised in the extreme: a comb five -feet six inches long (exactly one foot more than the -other) was in front, and the combs were three feet -deep, nearly as wide as the opening. We captured two -queens and a large quantity of bees, and brought -away a lot of brood as well. The whole of this work -was done from a ladder; and had not our time been -precious, we should have liked another day at it, as -there were a quantity of bees, &c., still left behind. -The combs were measured in the presence of the -host and a friend, as well as ourselves, and I vouch -for the correctness of my statement."</p> - -<p>From the time that man learnt the value of the -bee as a domesticated insect, habitations more or -less suitable for securing honey have been furnished -to the industrious workers. It is unnecessary to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">- 150 -</span> -detail the various kinds of abodes which have been, -or still are, in use for the purpose in different -countries. It will be more interesting to our readers -to know what are the principal forms of hives -at present in use among us. Of these the most -antiquated, and, we fear we must say, still the commonest, -is the old-fashioned dome-shaped straw skep. -We shall not enlarge upon its merits, though we are -prepared to admit some; but, as it is almost universally -condemned in its primitive form by skilled -apiarians, we prefer to speak of some easy modifications -of it which render it less objectionable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig43" style="width: 183px;"> - <img src="images/fig43.png" width="183" height="154" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.—Straw Skep.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In the first place, it must be borne in mind that -every system which requires the slaughter of the -bees for securing honey from them, is radically bad, -and therefore <i>wholly</i> to be discountenanced. At the -same time, every bee-keeper expects, and rightly, that -he should get honey; and this can be managed even -with straw hives, if they have a flat top and a perforation -in it sufficient to allow the population to -go up into supers, wherein to store their produce. -<a href="#fig44">Fig. 44</a> shows such an adaptation. The lower and -larger receptacle is for brood and the maintenance of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">- 151 -</span> -the stock. The top one, much smaller, and not so high, -is for the surplus honey, which the bees will carry up -when the population is becoming crowded below. -The middle and smallest is merely a covering for the -other two, and for the sake of keeping all warm, -dry, and snug.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig44" style="width: 249px;"> - <img src="images/fig44.png" width="249" height="400" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.—Flat-topped Hive and Straw Super.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>An improved Cottager's Hive (<a href="#fig45">Fig. 45</a>) differs from -the preceding chiefly in the substitution of a glass for -a straw super, and the addition of a window at the -back,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> closed by a door, for observing the internal -conditions of the stock portion.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> In the illustration the hive is turned round on the floor-board, to -show the window.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">- 152 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig45" style="width: 179px;"> - <img src="images/fig45.png" width="179" height="299" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.—Neighbour's Improved Cottager's Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>A still better modification is shown on the opposite -page (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a>), and is called, from the inventor and -maker, "Neighbour's improved Cottager's Hive." In -this the lower part has a stout wooden top with -three perforations, which may be closed, at the will -of the owner, by a metal slide. Over each opening is -placed a bell-glass, and admission to these is given -to the bees either singly, or by two or all three apertures. -In use, the bell-glasses are encased with flannel, -felt, or some other good non-conducting substance, -and then the upper hive is let down over the glasses -on to the board. There are three windows in the -lower hive, each closed by a hinged shutter, so that -inspection may be afforded at more points than one.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">- 153 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig46" style="width: 319px;"> - <img src="images/fig46.png" width="319" height="639" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.—Neighbour's Improved Cottager's Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">- 154 -</span></p> - -<p>Each bell-glass is furnished with a ventilating tube -of perforated zinc, and a ventilating cap is fitted -to the top cover. There is also in the middle of -the back window a thermometer fixed, for ascertaining -the temperature of the stock-hive. By these arrangements -the affairs of the community may, to a certain -extent, be regulated by the master, and pure honey, -free from bee-bread or brood, may be secured without -the destruction of any of the workers.</p> - -<p>The three hives now described are, perhaps, the -best for those who have not the requisite time and -skill for the more approved methods of apiculture. -But they should, in other cases, be looked upon as -merely the stepping-stones to systems of bee-management -of a really scientific character.</p> - -<p>Passing now to the notice of some of these, we will -draw attention first to "Nutt's Collateral Hive"—named -from its first maker, who may be considered -a pioneer in the improved modern methods.</p> - -<p>It consists of three boxes side by side, and having -thin wooden partitions, with six or seven perforations, -to admit of the passage of the bees from one compartment -to another. These may be stopped by -zinc slides. In the centre of the top is a wooden -cover, to contain a bell-glass for supering. A ventilator -over each of the side-boxes secures the proper -temperature of these. "The grand object," as explained -by Mr. Nutt, "is to keep the end boxes and -the bell-glass cooler than the pavilion or middle -box, so as to induce the queen to propagate her -species there only, and not in the depriving (<i>i.e.</i> -honey-storing) part of the hive. By this means the -side and upper combs are in no way discoloured by -brood. The queen requires a considerable degree of -warmth. The bees enjoy coolness in the side-boxes, -and thereby the whiteness and purity of the luscious -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">- 155 -</span> -store are increased." When the centre box is filled, -access to the super and one side-box may be given -by opening the slides. The glass is likely to be -filled first, if kept warm by suitable coverings, and -can be removed when the honey is sealed in the -combs. If the season be very productive, one or -both of the side-boxes may also be taken before the -end of the summer, if sufficient stores are left in the -central stock-portion, or if any deficiency be made -up by judicious feeding.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig47" style="width: 389px;"> - <img src="images/fig47.png" width="389" height="308" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.—Modern Hives. Nutt's Collateral Hive in the Foreground.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The next and most important modification to -which we come is the introduction of movable frames -into hives, admitting of separate removal, either for examination -as to conditions, or for the taking of honey. -Bevan whose admirable work on <i>The Honey Bee</i>, -published nearly half a century ago, is the foundation -of modern systems of apiculture in this country—speaks -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">- 156 -</span> -of a straw hive with bars, instead of a solid -top, invented by Mr. Golding, and named by him -"The Village Hive." Even now we consider this -variety might well be the cottager's introduction to -the more enlightened methods of procedure; and it -would, at the same time, satisfy, in large measure, -old-fashioned prejudices in favour of straw for the -material of the stock-hive. If the bars are properly -furnished with "guides," straight and symmetrical -combs may be secured, and the depriving of surplus -honey-stores may be easily effected without murdering -the workers.</p> - -<p>Previous to this invention, Réaumur, Bonnet, and -Huber had suggested, and tried, the use of boxes -with movable bar-frames. The last named apiarian -is said to have borrowed his idea from the inhabitants -of Candia, and he called it the "leaf-hive." In its -original form it had eight frames, secured to each -other by hooks and eyes, the external ones being -glazed, and covered with a shutter.</p> - -<p>The idea of frames removable separately having -once been established, various improvements were -speedily effected. In 1841 Major Munn, an English-man, -obtained a patent in France for his Bar-and-frame -Hive, an account of which was published in -this country in 1844. In America, the distinguished -apiarian Langstroth made known his modifications -of Huber's hive, and Dzierzon, in Germany, a little -while before, and quite independently, had adopted -the same principle of bars with certain special features, -while Von Berlepsch, in 1853, added frames to -his countryman's bars. In England the <i>bar-frame</i> -system was not really known till its re-introduction -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">- 157 -</span> -by Tegetmeier, in 1860. Mr. Woodbury, to whom -reference has been already made more than once, -afterwards brought out the frame-hive which met -with the first general acceptance by apiarians in -this country.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig48" style="width: 225px;"> - <img src="images/fig48.png" width="225" height="172" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.—The Woodbury Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig49" style="width: 273px;"> - <img src="images/fig49.png" width="273" height="185" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.—Woodbury Straw Bar-Frame Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>As originally made, it consisted of a wooden box, -14<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches square on the inside, and 9 inches deep. -The frames were ten in number, each 13 inches long -by 7<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches high. The ends projected, and fitted -into notches at the back and front; but this arrangement -was found to be objectionable, from the secure -manner in which the bees were able to glue them -down with propolis. As facility of lifting without -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">- 158 -</span> -jarring the frames is of great importance, better -means of keeping them in place had to be, and have -been, devised.</p> - -<p>Subsequently to his first introduction of the above-described -hive, Mr. Woodbury suggested that the -sides, back, and front should be made of straw, as -being a better non-conductor of heat, affording a -little ventilation, and absorbing the moisture of -respiration more readily than wood. We give a -figure on <a href="#Page_157">page 157</a> of this modification.</p> - -<p>Various improvements on the original of Mr. Woodbury's -pattern have been made. Of these we will -mention first Mr. Cheshire's bar-frame hive, and we -had better, perhaps, describe it in his own words:—"It -consists of two main portions—the super-cover, -the upper half of what may be denominated the -body, and the hive proper, in the lower portion of -which breeding is carried on, and where the bees pass -the winter. In front of the lower part may be seen -the porch, with its roof consisting of a stout piece of -pine, about three inches wide, and running completely -along the hive-face. This is chamfered off towards -the end, the more effectually to carry away drip, and -has a channel near its front edge, which acts as a -gutter, by which the rain is conveyed to its ends. -This gutter is shown in the cross-section at <span class="allsmcap">E</span>. The -bottom board of the hive projects 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches along the -front, so as to form a very convenient alighting board. -Ten inches of the central part of this is grooved, -so that, should it be reached by driving rain, the -convex parts remain free of water, affording the bees -a dry passage to the interior. The flight-hole is ten -inches in length, and is formed by cutting from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">- 159 -</span> -hive-wall a piece a full quarter of an inch deep. There -are two sliding shutters (shown in <a href="#fig50">Fig. 50</a>), by which -the entrance-way may be regulated as occasion may -require. The super-cover is hinged, and so contrived -by the aid of a chain, that it can only open until its -lines, horizontal when <i>in situ</i>, become perpendicular, -and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig50" style="width: 287px;"> - <img src="images/fig50.png" width="287" height="380" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.—Cheshire's Bar-Frame Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>"The walls of the hive are double, -and have between them a space containing dead air. -As heat is conducted by air with extreme slowness, -these means prevent the escape of that generated by -the bees during rigorous weather, while they also -exclude the ardour of the sun's rays during summer. -In order to give room for the ears of the frames, the -inner skin, front and back, is made an inch shallower -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">- 160 -</span> -than the outer one. Standing three-eighths of an inch -above the former are two strips of zinc (<a href="#fig51">1 and 2 Fig. 51</a>) -each about an inch wide, and which serve to carry -the frames so that they cannot be propolised, while -they can be slid backwards and forwards with the -greatest ease during manipulation. The depth of -the hive is 8<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches, the width 14<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches inside. -The length will vary with the number of frames used." -Fuller details are to be found in Mr. Cheshire's -excellent book called <i>Practical Bee-keeping</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig51" style="width: 304px;"> - <img src="images/fig51.png" width="304" height="396" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.—Cheshire's Bar-Frame Hive (sectional view).</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Mr. Abbott, the well-known maker of apparatus -of all kinds for apiculture, who was the editor and -proprietor of <i>The Bee Journal</i> for many years, has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">- 161 -</span> -also made various arrangements and improvements -to secure advantages beyond those of the original -Woodbury hive. We cannot detail all these modifications; -but among them may be mentioned that -the ends of his frames are so notched as to -render them easily held by the fingers when it is -required to lift them, and to replace them. Mr. -Abbott also makes hives of various degrees of cheapness, -according to the conveniences required and the -neatness of workmanship demanded. We may safely -attribute to him a vast influence on scientific bee-keeping, -and a visit to his works and apiary at -Southall, not far from London, on the Great Western -Railway, will well repay any one interested in -apiculture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig52" style="width: 212px;"> - <img src="images/fig52.png" width="212" height="127" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.—Abbott's Standard Frame.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig53" style="width: 284px;"> - <img src="images/fig53.png" width="284" height="195" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.—Abbott's Standard Frame (top view).</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">- 162 -</span></p> - -<p>All the hives we have just been describing are -adapted for supering, <i>i.e.</i> for getting honey stored in -receptacles above the stock portion. The usual and -most convenient form of such receptacles is that of -small oblong cases, without front or back, cut in one -flat piece of wood, and easily folded into shape, their -slotted ends fitting, by pressure, tightly into one -another. At the top of each, when folded, a small -piece of guide comb is attached, as a help and an -attraction to the bees in beginning their work -in them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig54" style="width: 328px;"> - <img src="images/fig54.png" width="328" height="235" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.—Neighbour's Sectional Super (Open).</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig55" style="width: 243px;"> - <img src="images/fig55.png" width="243" height="124" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.—Frame Super.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">- 163 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig56" style="width: 458px;"> - <img src="images/fig56.png" width="458" height="601" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.—Glass Frame Hive, with Super.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>It is usual now to pack a certain number of these -into a frame or "crate," so that they may conveniently -be placed upon, or removed from, the top -of a hive. If kept properly warm, and well protected -by their cover, not only do the bees, when -needing room for storage, readily take to them, but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">- 164 -</span> -they afford means of collecting, in a very neat, -attractive, and convenient form, large quantities of -purest and sealed honey. Thousands of hundred-weights -are now annually secured in this manner in -our own country, and tons of such filled sections -are every year imported from America, from which -country, we believe, was derived this ingenious little -invention, which has done so much towards the -promotion of the pleasure and profit of bee-keeping -among us.</p> - -<p>Some people, however, still prefer to secure their -super-honey in bar-frames similar, except in point -of depth, to those of the stock hive. Such an -arrangement may be seen on the preceding page, -which represents one made by Messrs. Neighbour -and Son.</p> - -<p>A form of hive first brought out at Stewarton, in -Scotland, and named after the place of its original -manufacture, is a great favourite with many bee-keepers, -and certainly often yields admirable results -in the way of super-honey. We are warranted, -therefore, in giving some account of it.</p> - -<p>It consists (see <a href="#fig57">Fig. 57</a>) ordinarily of four octagonal -boxes. Three of these, <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, and <i>C</i>, are called -"body-boxes," and serve as abodes for the bees, for nurseries -and supplies of food, for rearing the young and for -winter use. Each is fourteen inches in diameter in the -widest parts, and five and a-half inches deep inside. -Nine bars range along the top of each. These are -not movable, but serve as guides to the bees for -building straight combs. Between them, and beyond -the outer ones, are ten narrow strips made to slide -in grooves in the bars, so that the top is completely -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">- 165 -</span> -and securely covered. The figure represents the way -in which the slides shift. The top box <i>D</i> is that in -which the honey to be taken by the bee-master is -stored. It is four inches in depth, its other dimensions -being similar to those of the boxes below it. It is -furnished with only seven or eight, instead of nine -bars, the object being to induce the bees to build longer -cells for depositing honey in. This not only secures -a greater quantity for less expenditure of wax, but -prevents the queen laying eggs in them, if she should -go up into the top box.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig57" style="width: 183px;"> - <img src="images/fig57.png" width="183" height="310" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.—Stewarton Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>For her majesty, finding -it impossible to reach the bottom of the cells to -place her eggs as she has been accustomed to do, -will retire to the lower boxes, where she finds places -perfectly adapted to her instincts or her needs. The -honey is thus kept free from brood, and it presents -a massive and rich appearance. Bees seem greatly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">- 166 -</span> -to appreciate this form of hive, and a strong swarm -will often fill the two lower boxes with comb in ten -days. To get the full advantage, however, of this -system, it is best to put a swarm into each of the -lower compartments, or in the first and third, if two -colonies of bees cannot be procured on the same -day. If they be kept asunder a few days by slides -with perforations, to let their odours commingle, -they may be allowed to join their forces, and the -queens will settle the sovereignty by a battle, ending -in the death of the weaker. When the stock-boxes -have become well filled with bees, admission may be -given to the honey-box, and, in a good season, splendid -combs of honey may be secured in this way. We -have seen supers of great weight and beauty taken -from the Stewarton hive. Its merits have been well -described from time to time in <i>The Journal of -Horticulture</i> and <i>The Bee Journal</i>, by a -"A Renfrewshire Bee-keeper."</p> - -<p>Mr. C. W. Smith designed a modification of the -above hives which he named the Carr-Stewarton. In -it the square form is substituted for the octagonal, -so as to secure the interchangeability of all combs—an -important matter in the practical affairs of -an apiary.</p> - -<p>The chief points of recommendation in the Stewarton -hive seem to be, its excellence as winter -quarters for its inhabitants, and the readiness with -which large quantities of super-honey are stored -in it.</p> - -<p>In order that some of the wonders of bee-work -may be seen in the process of performance, various -arrangements have been made, constituting what are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">- 167 -</span> -called "Observatory Hives." In these glass is substituted -for wood in the sides, shutters being fixed -over them to exclude the light. In some cases -Venetian blinds are used instead of shutters. The -frames with the combs are sometimes arranged -vertically in one or two series, and sometimes -laterally a dozen or more standing one behind -another. In the latter instance both the top and -the sides are of glass.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig58" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/fig58.png" width="231" height="295" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.—The Carr-stewarton Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The whole hive may be made -to revolve by means of two iron wheels, the one fixed -to its bottom, the other to a stout board running its -whole length. In the centre of the floor-board there -is an opening into a passage below, which leads to -the open air. This arrangement enables the hive to -be turned in any direction without interfering with -the egress and ingress of the bees. If the queen -with her attendants cannot be found on one side of -the combs, the other side may be brought into view -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">- 168 -</span> -by rotating the hive, and the different classes of the -population can be studied, and their work surveyed -in security and continuously.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig59" style="width: 397px;"> - <img src="images/fig59.png" width="397" height="291" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.—Unicomb Observatory Hive.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The unicomb hive may be stocked in various ways. -The simplest plan is to take from a bar-frame hive -the comb on which the queen is, and put it into the -unicomb hive with as many more empty frames as -will fill all the space intended for their reception. -In this way new clean comb will be made, giving a -much better appearance to the colony. Another -plan is to take brood-comb in frames sufficient in -number to fill the hive at once. The bees will then -make a queen for themselves, and the interesting -process may be watched in all its stages, provided, of -course, that there are some freshly-laid worker-eggs -in the cells.</p> - -<p>It is not advisable to try to keep the bees alive -in an observatory hive during the winter, because so -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">- 169 -</span> -much heat is lost by absorption through the glass -sides and top. It is best, therefore, to replace the -frames and their tenants, early in the autumn, in the -ordinary wooden hives.</p> - -<p>Much discussion has taken place among apiarians -as to the merits of bee-houses. Those who advocate -their use do so on the following grounds: Firstly, -the protection afforded by a permanent building to -contain the stocks, secures them from dangers of -severe storms of wind, hail, rain, and snow. The -first kind of tempest is apt to overthrow hives; the -second to terrify the bees by the violence of the -impact of the ice-drops; the third to saturate the -floor-boards, and even to penetrate the top coverings; -and the last will sometimes choke up the entrance-holes, -and cause the suffocation of the bees. -Secondly, for manipulating purposes in all weathers -the shelter of a bee-house is very convenient, beside -diminishing the danger of chilling the brood under -examination. Thirdly, hives under cover of a roof -are less affected by sun and moisture, and last -longer without requiring paint, than if exposed -to all weathers.</p> - -<p>Those who advocate the placing of each hive on a -separate stand in the open air, allege the following -objections to bee-houses: Firstly, that of expense. -Secondly, that they form a shelter for mice, moths, -spiders, &c. Thirdly, that they promote dampness. -Fourthly, that they encourage robbing by the bees. -Fifthly, that they are inconvenient for manipulating, -by causing disturbance in neighbouring hives while -operations are going on. Sixthly, that they tend -to the loss of young queens returning from their -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">- 170 -</span> -marriage flight, by the sameness of appearance in -the entrances, and the nearness of the hives to -each other.</p> - -<p>We cannot discuss the replies given to most, if not -all of these objections; but must content ourselves -with saying that we advise all who have a shed which -can be converted into a bee-house, or who do not -mind the expense of putting up a building, to secure -the advantages of such a shelter, and to take the -easy precautions against possible inconveniences.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> An able paper, on this subject, by the Rev. G. Raynor, may be -found in The Bee Journal for February 1st, 1882.</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">- 171 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">NATURAL SWARMING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>General Facts connected with Swarming—Reconnoitring—Settling—Hiving—Curious -Incidents—Transferring Swarms to -Bar-Frame Hives—Division of Swarms—Placing Swarm in -Permanent Position-Number of Bees in Swarming—"Casts" -and Later Swarms—Prevention of Swarming—Feeding of Swarms.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> facts detailed up to this point will enable the -subject of swarming both natural and artificial to -be understood very clearly, and we will now speak of -this most important matter in its various bearings.</p> - -<p>Firstly, it must be mentioned that swarming is the -result of so great an increase in the population of a -hive that work cannot efficiently be carried on, in -consequence of the crowd of bees. In ordinarily -good seasons the queen has produced so large a -progeny by the second or third week in May, that a -colony will be ready to start. The workers, being -previously impelled by the growing numbers of the -hive, will have prepared some royal cells. As the -time for the emerging of the princesses approaches, -the old queen, in her rage at the thought of coming -rivals, attempts to destroy her future compeers. -In this, however, she is thwarted by her otherwise -obsequious attendants. In her wrath, she utters a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">- 172 -</span> -succession of shrill, angry notes, having the sound of -"peep, peep." To this one or more of the unhatched -queens will reply in similar tones; and these constitute -what is known to bee-keepers as "piping." It -is especially noticeable previous to the issue of -swarms after the first, and may be heard, particularly -in the morning and evening, on placing the ear to -the side or back of a hive about to send off another -colony, and especially about the eighth day after the -first issue.</p> - -<p>Another indication of the approach of swarming is -the clustering of bees in idleness near and outside the -entrance of the hive. This is specially observable -if, through unfavourable weather, an enforced delay -occurs in the departure of the colony.</p> - -<p>When the old queen has become sensible that -she must depart with a portion of her subjects, she -usually chooses a fine morning for her exodus; and, -under ordinary circumstances, takes her flight between -the hours of ten and one in the day. Occasionally, -however, from some cause, she will delay her start, -and the writer has had one instance in his own experience -in which the swarm came out at the unusually -late hour of a few minutes after five in the afternoon.</p> - -<p>All the bees who are about to accompany their -sovereign, take the precaution of securing a supply of -food sufficient to last them several days; for they -instinctively know they will be so occupied in wax-making -and the internal preparations of their new -home, that there will be no opportunity for them -to get supplies out of doors, while, of course, they -expect to tenant an empty dwelling. When all is -ready, and their honey-bags are distended to the full, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">- 173 -</span> -they rush to the entrance, from which they excitedly -pour by hundreds and thousands. Among them is -their proper sovereign; for, as we have already -hinted, it is always, except in the rarest cases, that -the old queen heads, or rather accompanies, the -swarm. Dzierzon records one case in which the old -queen refused to quit the hive, and three strong -swarms were led forth, within a few days of each other, -by her royal daughters.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig60" style="width: 322px;"> - <img src="images/fig60.png" width="322" height="269" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.—A Swarm.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p>And now, when the main body of the emigrants -has issued from their quarters, the whole air seems -alive with the excited, flitting, buzzing insects. The -noise of their humming can be heard for many yards -away, and a novice may well wonder what is to be the -end of the commotion. Ordinarily, however, within a -few minutes, after their exodus, it will be observed that -a gathering of a thicker crowd is taking place at some -particular spot most frequently on some low tree or -bush. There her majesty has settled, and at once -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">- 174 -</span> -her loyal subjects assemble around her, and form a -living cluster. Quickly, from all sides, they continue -to gather, and in a quarter of an hour or twenty -minutes a dense mass will be hanging one to the -other, till it seems wonderful the queen and those in -the interior of the living ball are not suffocated.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig61" style="width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/fig61.png" width="350" height="439" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.—"Tanging."</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In country places it is still the custom to beat -warming-pans, tin kettles, frying-pans, or other -unmusical vessels, with keys or sticks or hammers, -while the bees are swarming, under the idea that the -noise makes them settle the more quickly. That any -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">- 175 -</span> -effect is produced on the insects is not any longer -believed by apiarians; and there is good reason for -thinking that the origin of the practice was altogether -different from its supposed use. The probability is, -that it indicated at first nothing more than that some -one wished to proclaim to the neighbours the fact of -his bees having swarmed, so that he might lay claim -to them wherever they might settle.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens that the inclination to cease -flying is delayed beyond the usual time. It is said -by Langstroth that the throwing of a few handfuls of -dust into the air, or the flashing of sunlight by a -mirror among the bees, will have the effect of -bringing them down. Vergil, nineteen centuries ago, -pointed out that, in what he called their battles, but -which were probably only the confusions of swarming, -the flinging of dust or earth among them would -have a quieting effect.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, unfortunately, a strong and wayward -queen will lead off her colony far beyond the precincts -of the apiary in which she has been living. -The writer has, during the past season (1883), had to -regret the vagaries of such a queen, who, the previous -year, came into his possession through her abandoning -her former master, without giving any clue as to -her ownership; and this year, after twice settling, -and being once hived, within some two hundred -yards of the apiary, took wing again, and was entirely -lost, though followed more than half a mile. Few -things are more vexing to the bee-keeper than such -mishaps; and it becomes necessary to take all precautions -which are possible against them. When, -therefore, a swarm has once decidedly gathered into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">- 176 -</span> -a cluster, it should be shaded from the direct rays of -the sun; for the excitement, the close massing, combined -with the natural warmth of the surrounding -air, will raise greatly the temperature of the mass; -and, to escape suffocation, a second flight is sometimes -undertaken. A wet sheet, an umbrella, a sack -supported on stout sticks, and many another simple -expedient will answer the purpose of promoting a -requisite coolness.</p> - -<p>Next, immediate preparations should be made for -hiving. As a rule, bees, when swarming, are very -good-tempered, because they are gorged; and, like -Englishmen, improve in disposition under the influence -of good food. Some curious stories, indeed, -have been told of the perfect inoffensiveness of these -insects when thus forming a colony. We will give -two of these, narrated by Bevan.</p> - -<p>A gentleman wishing to hive a swarm that had -settled on the branch of an apple-tree, gave the hive -in which he was going to place them into the hands -of a maid-servant She, being a novice, and somewhat -timid, covered her head and shoulders with a -cloth, to protect her face. On shaking the tree, most -of the bees fell upon the cloth, and quickly crept -under it, covering the girl's chest and neck up to her -very chin. Her master instantly impressed her with -the necessity of being perfectly quiet, and refraining -from all buffeting, while he began to search for the -queen. Having found her majesty, he gently removed -her; but, to his disappointment, the swarm showed -no signs of following her. Suspecting at once that -there was a second queen in the cluster, he made -another search, and found his supposition was correct. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">- 177 -</span> -On securing her, and placing her with a small cluster -of bees in the hive, the rest followed in crowds, till, -in two or three minutes, not a single one was left -on the girl, who was thus relieved from her anxious, -and what might have proved most dangerous position, -had she excited and alarmed the insects.</p> - -<p>The other incident is no less striking. A skilled -bee-master had a little friend who was very much -afraid of being stung. One day, a swarm having -come off, the queen was observed to settle by herself -at a short distance from the cluster. The gentleman -at once called the child to him, that he might show -her the queen. Becoming interested in the somewhat -uncommon sight, the girl desired to observe -the royal insect more closely; so the bee-master, -having made her put on gloves, placed the queen in -her hand. Immediately the whole of the bees in the -swarm thronged around. With an admonition to the -child to remain motionless and speechless, and without -fear to retain her self-possession, the gentleman -quietly covered her head and shoulders with a very -thin handkerchief, and made her stretch out her -right hand, in which the queen was. The swarm at -once began to settle, and hung from the girl's hand -and arm as if from the branch of a tree. Delighted -at the novelty of the affair, and finding herself -unstung, the child then requested to have her head -uncovered. After a while, when the bees were all -quiet, a hive was brought. By a vigorous shake the -swarm was made to fall into their abode, and every -one of the insects was got rid of without the infliction -of a single wound.</p> - -<p>Probably it would not often happen that such -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">- 178 -</span> -completely harmless results would follow such -occurrences: for, it is not unfrequently the case that -a few bees, perhaps having joined the swarm without -having had the opportunity to fill themselves -with honey, prove somewhat spiteful; and, notwithstanding -the general quietness of a just-emerged -colony, even experienced apiarians by no means -always escape punishment when dislodging a swarm. -It is, however, quite easy to secure complete protection -by means of a properly made veil to guard the -face and neck, and gloves to cover the hands. We -strongly advise all novices, therefore, to make use of -these preservatives from stings, when proceeding to -get the bees into the hive intended to receive them.</p> - -<p>Some persons advise that the skep into which the -swarm is to be brushed or shaken, should be dressed -with a mixture of beer and sugar, applied with a -wisp of elder-branch and leaves. It is just possible -that the sweetened liquid may be drunk by some of -those not quite satiated with honey, and that thus -an increased quieting influence is exerted upon the -whole mass; but the most skilled apiarians have -given up the practice, in the belief that it is useless, -if not positively mischievous, by wetting the bees, -rendering many of them helpless, and probably -destroying numbers of them.</p> - -<p>The facility of hiving depends altogether upon the -place chosen by the cluster for settling. From the -end of a bough, or from a low shrub or bush, there -is no difficulty in securing the swarm. Taking a -clean skep in one hand, and holding it just under -the mass of insects, a sharp shake is given with the -other hand to the branch, and nearly the whole of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">- 179 -</span> -bees will fall into the hive. Comparatively few will -fly, the vastly larger proportion having clung too -tightly to one another readily to disengage themselves. -As soon as possible, a floor-board should be -quietly and gently placed over the open end of the -skep, which must now be inverted, so as to rest on -the board. One side may be slightly propped, to -afford the flying bees opportunity of more speedy -admission to the interior than the ordinary entrance -hole would give them. Another quarter of an hour -or twenty minutes will suffice for all but a small -number of stragglers to join their companions inside. -Meantime, a shade should be again provided, till all -have entered.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig62" style="width: 358px;"> - <img src="images/fig62.png" width="358" height="368" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.—Hiving a Swarm.</span></div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">- 180 -</span></p> -<p>If it is intended to locate the colony in a bar-frame -hive, this should have been also previously -made ready, the frames being furnished with sheets -of guide-comb. The coverings being then removed -from the top, and the skep containing the bees held -above the frames, by a sharp jerk downwards, and a -rap or two on the top and sides of the straw hive, -all the bees may be made to fall on the bars of the -frames. They will speedily crawl down on to the -sheets of guide-comb, especially if a light cloth be -gently laid above them.</p> - -<p>Another method of transferring them from the -skep is to spread a sheet, or newspaper, in front of -the bar-frame hive, which should be slightly raised -in front from the floor-board. Then, by a smart -jerk, as before, the bees are thrown on to the sheet -or newspaper, close to the entrance, and they will -immediately run in and up on to the comb-foundation.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a swarm will divide into two parts, -each of which will settle separately. In such a case, -it is tolerably certain that two queens have emerged -together, as very often happens with second or later -swarms. When such a division of forces occurs, -unless each portion is sufficiently large to form a -stock by itself, it will be advisable to hive them -separately, and then speedily to unite them, leaving -the rival sovereigns to fight for the supremacy.</p> - -<p>Occasionally a colony settles around the stem of a -tree, or some place equally inconvenient for being -detached. The difficulty may sometimes be met by -brushing as many bees as can be got at into a hive, -or by holding a hive above the place of settling, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">- 181 -</span> -by smoke driving the insects upwards, till they learn -the whereabouts of comfortable quarters. At other -times there is no resource but making the swarm -take to flight, in the hope that a more suitable place -will be chosen by them for their next assemblage. -There is a danger, however, that if thus compelled -to move, a too distant excursion may be made, and -the whole colony thus be lost.</p> - -<p>As soon as all, or very nearly all, the bees have -gone up into the skep, or into the quarters they -are to occupy, it is advisable to move them to the -stand intended for their permanent position. Some -apiarians, however, recommend waiting till evening -for taking this step. We must dissent from their -opinion for two reasons: firstly, because it often -happens that, in a place away from the apiary, -something may occur to disturb the bees, and they -will forsake the hive. In fact, last season (1883) we -have ourselves lost a valuable colony, which, through -not being brought home at once from the place -where they had settled, were meddled with by a -passing dog, and took another flight far away, and, -though followed long and diligently inquired after, -they were not again discovered. Then, too, the -sooner the bees are placed in their proper position, -the sooner will those going in quest of supplies learn -their new home. If left so little as six or eight -hours in the spot at which they first settle, many -will continue to hover about it all the succeeding -day, and even longer. For these reasons, therefore, -we advocate a speedy carrying of a swarm to the -site selected for it.</p> - -<p>It is an established fact that, previously to swarming, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">- 182 -</span> -bees often send forth scouts to select a place for -settling. Neighbour records a curious instance of -this kind. He says: "A lady, who lived about a -quarter of a mile from our apiary, sent to us to say -that a swarm had gone in at a hole over her stable, -and to ask us to come and hive them. On our going -to do so, her gardener told us that he had seen, three -days previous, two or three bees as if reconnoitring; -next day several came, and about eleven o'clock on -the third day the whole swarm went in, and took up -their position between the rafters [? joists] under the -flooring. The difficulty was now to get at them. A -carpenter was sent for, the boards were taken up, a -hive was set over, with a brood-comb placed in it -attract them, and by dint of smoke and brushing -to with a feather, the queen and her retinue were -coaxed to ascend into the hive. Some of the bees -had already gone out to forage, and there were many -flying about that had not settled; so, to secure these, -and to make it easy for them, we brought the hive -out, and erected a sort of platform on a pair of steps -close to the hole, which we stopped. By night-time -all the out-flying bees had joined the swarm, and -were easily removed."</p> - -<p>The number of bees in a swarm varies considerably, -but the usual amount is from 10,000 to 15,000. -In rarer cases, there will be from 20,000 to 25,000. -Von Berlepsch, by careful experiments, estimated -that about 4,000 gorged bees weighed 1 lb.: so that -a good swarm will weigh from 3 lbs. to 5 lbs. As -may be easily understood, the more numerous the -bees, the better for the future of the colony, provided -there is space in the hive for them to work in.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">- 183 -</span></p> - -<p>The hive which has sent forth a colony usually -contains large quantities of brood and eggs, and -some cells in which princesses are more or less -developed, so that queens would be provided in -proportional succession. If the stock has been so -weakened that it is not intended, by the workers -remaining, that another colony should issue during -the season, the first queen who emerges is allowed -to destroy all her royal sisters remaining in the cells, -and she, at once, avails herself of the opportunity of -so doing. If, on the other hand, the amount of the -on-coming brood is very large, and it is manifest that -again the hive will become too crowded, the queen is -restrained from her murderous propensities. She -resents this interference by uttering the sharp cries of -"peep-peep," previously mentioned, and is answered -in similar tones by her still imprisoned rival sisters. -This is a sure sign of the approaching emergence of -a second colony. Within two or three days of the -piping being heard, the expected event takes place, -though occasionally it may be delayed, by cloudy or -wet or cold weather, till the fifth day. Such a second -exodus is called a "cast." Sometimes in the excitement -of "casting" several young queens, who have -been under guard, will escape; and as many as five -have been known thus to issue with a second swarm: -indeed, Langstroth mentions one instance of <i>eight</i> -queens having thus left the parent stock at one time. -Of course, when such an event occurs, if all are -hived with the general cluster, they will fight till -one only is left to enjoy supremacy in the community. -If the settling of the swarm takes place in -two or three places, it is pretty sure that more than -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">- 184 -</span> -one queen has come forth. It is best then to search -for one or more, and to remove them, to be used, if -necessary, in other hives, and then to unite the -separate clusters.</p> - -<p>To third and later swarms from the same hive, -the fanciful names of "colts" and "fillies" have been -given, but they are going out of general use.</p> - -<p>Swarms subsequent to the first are usually less -than it in amount of bees. For this reason it is -advisable not to make them into separate stocks, -unless very strong, but either, after removing the -queen, to return them to the parent hive, or to unite -two or more casts, so as to form one strong colony. -It may be remarked that there is this advantage -about a cast, that all the bees, queen included, are -young, and so are likely to work with vigour; and -if sent off early in the season, and naturally or -artificially strong in numbers, they may become a -powerful community: but everything will depend -upon the two conditions just mentioned.</p> - -<p>Where it is not really wished to increase the -number of stocks, it is much better to prevent -"casting," by cutting out all queen-cells five or -six days after the first swarm. The reason of the -delay in the operation is, that, by that time, all eggs -and larvæ left by the old queen will have advanced -to a stage at which the workers cannot convert them -into queens, even if they desire to do so.</p> - -<p>Another reason, besides the weakness of after -swarms, why efforts should be made to prevent -casting is, that the old stock often becomes, by the -swarming mania, too greatly diminished in population -to prosper, and a double loss is incurred—loss -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">- 185 -</span> -of honey, which would be stored largely by a stock -restrained from self-diminution, and loss of general -strength, through there not being bees enough to -collect food for store, and to look after the constantly -hatching brood.</p> - -<p>A curious illustration of sagacity in the workers -is, that casts and after-swarms, if allowed to build -in a box as they please, select a corner, instead -of the middle, for beginning, knowing that, through -the smallness of their numbers, they are unlikely -to fill their abode with comb, and so taking -the precaution to secure the snuggest and warmest -position for such combs as they will be able to -construct. They feel that their only chance of surviving -as a colony is their being able to keep up -sufficient heat to hatch the eggs, and to bring forward -the brood in the early autumn and the next -spring. First swarms, confident in their strength, -commence their work in the middle of a hive.</p> - -<p>We have already mentioned that the bees, in -swarming, start with their honey-bags full. This -supply will last them about three days. If, at the -end of that time, the weather should be dull and -unfavourable for flying abroad, great benefit will be -conferred on the young colony by giving a supply -of syrup. We shall speak later on of the method -in which it is to be administered. As bees waste -nothing, and never remain idle because they have a -store of food, whatever is given them will be economically -used. Moreover, they prefer their natural -sources of supply, and will not take advantage of -their owner's generosity in giving them syrup, if they -can gather honey. At the same time, the needs of a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">- 186 -</span> -new stock are great during the first two or three -weeks, since much wax has to be made, and homes -and provender for the coming young have to be in -readiness. It is, therefore, a wise and benevolent and -<i>paying</i> plan to feed all swarms whom the weather -prevents from gathering abundant supplies in the -fields. By this means no time is lost in comb-building: -all the workers remain vigorous for flight and -indoor duties: the queen, encouraged by finding no -lack of food for her future offspring, will get on with -laying as fast as the cells are ready to receive her -eggs; and thus all the elements of a prosperous -community will be secured.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">- 187 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">ARTIFICIAL SWARMING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Advantages—Driving: Close and Open—Transfer to Bar-Frame -Hive—Conditions of Successful Driving—Various Methods -of Artificial Swarming with Bar-Frame Hives.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are some mortifying incidents connected with -natural swarming, which the skilled apiarian will endeavour -to avoid, by taking the matter of the making -of colonies into his own hands. We have spoken -already of the annoyance and trouble often caused -by the flying away of a swarm. This accident at -the beginning of the honey-season means, at least, a -loss of what would be worth from a sovereign to -thirty shillings, either in stock or honey. Another, -but minor, disappointment comes from seeing the -bees hanging outside a hive in handfuls, idle and -useless, waiting for the queen to come forth with a -swarm. In this way the work of some thousands of -bees for several days is lost, and that often at a time -when honey is most plentiful in the fields. Now, -both these difficulties may be met with complete -success by what is called artificial swarming—an -operation which is conducted in different ways, -according to the kind of hive to be operated upon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">- 188 -</span></p> - -<p>We will speak of the process called <i>driving</i>. This -is the method adopted with the ordinary skep, and -is practised as <i>close</i> or <i>open</i> driving. In the first case, -the plan pursued is as follows: Into the entrance-hole -of the hive to be operated upon a few good -puffs of tobacco, or other smoke, are blown. This -frightens the bees, and they immediately rush to the -cells, and gorge themselves with honey. After giving -them a couple of minutes for this purpose, they -become much more quiet and tractable. If this precaution -be not taken, many of the workers will fly -in anger at the operator, and, though he may be -protected by veil and gloves, will greatly disturb the -comfort of his manipulations. The hive is then -lifted from its floor-board, and inverted, <i>i.e.</i> turned -upside down, on a tub, pail, or pan, partly filled with -water, to keep it firm. Upon it is placed an empty -hive of the same diameter, and round the junction -of their rims is tied carefully a round-towel, or a -bandage of some kind, so as to prevent the escape -of any of the bees. At the same time, or as soon -as possible, another empty hive, with a little syrup -sprinkled on the interior, is put on the stand from -which the stock has been brought, so that the bees, -who were abroad when their home was removed, may -be amused, or, at least, diverted from going to other -hives, where they would be attacked and slain as -robbers. Returning then to the hive from which the -swarm is to be driven, it must be beaten smartly, -but not sharply enough to shake down the combs. -A tolerably stout stick in each hand, or the hands -themselves, may be used for the purpose. It is best -to begin gently, and to increase the force of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">- 189 -</span> -blows, letting the drumming be continuous, but not -violent. The bees, already terrified by the smoke -blown amongst them, will in the course of a few -minutes begin to run into the upper hive, and a -large enough proportion, together with the queen, -will have gone up within ten minutes or a quarter of -an hour. Their passage up may be ascertained by -the buzzing sound of the multitude of vibrating -wings; and when this has subsided the cloth may -be taken away, and a large cluster of the driven -insects will be found in the top hive. This should -then be placed on the stand from which the stock -was taken, so as to be reinforced by many of the -population who were abroad for supplies. If it is -intended to transfer the new colony to a bar-frame -hive, they can be introduced either by being shaken -on to the tops of the frames, to run down between, -or thrown on a sheet in front of the bar-frame hive, -which should be slightly propped up, as already -described in speaking of natural swarms thus put -into wooden hives. The old stock, containing much -brood and a fair residue of bees, may be placed at -a short distance from its former stand. It will be -sure to have an attraction for many of the adults of -its population so unceremoniously ejected, and some -of the most recently hatched will have refused to -quit it. These combined forces will suffice to tend -the brood; and in a few weeks, with a young queen, -the tenants will be almost as numerous as before the -driving took place.</p> - -<p><i>Open</i> driving is performed in a similar way, except -that the hive, into which the bees are to be made -to ascend, is placed over the other at an angle, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">- 190 -</span> -only resting upon it for three or four inches. It -is supported in this sloping position by skewers or -iron wires thrust through both hives where they -touch, and with others to prop them well open in -front. This arrangement frees the hands of the -operator: enables him, in many cases, to watch the -going up of the queen an all-important matter for -the success of the artificial swarm: and gives him the -opportunity of judging when a sufficient number of -the stock have been frightened out of their abode -to form a satisfactory colony. The terrified insects -make no attempt to escape by the wide opening free -to them, but rush in a continuous stream up the -connected portions of the hives, and form a cluster -in the roof of the upper one. They have filled themselves -with honey, and, between repletion and fright, -are as inoffensive as so many flies. We have ourselves -had the opportunity of displaying to two -members of the Royal Family the harmlessness of -driven bees, by taking some hundreds with an ungloved -hand, and holding them to the view of Prince -Christian and Princess Beatrice. To the Prince's -inquiry, "Why do they not sting?" the reply was, -that they became like Englishmen after a hearty -meal—very good-tempered, an answer which not -only amused His Royal Highness, but was correct -as an explanation.</p> - -<p>The best time for the operation of driving is near -the middle of the day, when many of the workers -are abroad in the fields. Should the weather be -cold, it is advisable to warm the skep into which -the driving is to take place. A further detail of -great use in quieting and reconciling the ejected -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">- 191 -</span> -colony is, to sprinkle between the combs, a quarter -of an hour before driving, some weak syrup, made -of one pound of sugar to one pint of water. A wine-glassful -will be enough to use for one hive, as too -large a quantity might seriously wet the bees, and -perhaps glue their wings and limbs harmfully. After -settling down in their new home, they will be -occupied with clearing themselves and each other -of the syrup, which will serve also the purpose of -still further replenishing their honey-bags.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to get the bees to leave by drumming -a hive only partly filled with comb. They will cluster -about the unoccupied portions, and resolutely refuse -to go. In this case they may be ejected on to a -sheet, spread to receive them, by three or four sharp -jerks in a downward direction.</p> - -<p>It is advisable not to drive a colony after very hot -weather, and when there is a great in-take of honey: -otherwise some of the liquid will begin to flow out of -the cells when the-skep is inverted, and will cause -much trouble and waste, and possibly the destruction -of many bees by drowning them in their trickling -stores. It will be better to wait till the next morning, -when evaporation and the coolness of the night -will have thickened the liquid sufficiently for it to -remain in the cells during the manipulation. The -combs, also, will have become firmer, and less liable -to fall, with the diminished temperature.</p> - -<p>The operation of driving from skeps is abundantly -practised by apiarians, in the autumn, among the -hives of those cottagers who would otherwise follow -the old and most barbarous plan of killing their -bees to take the honey. Several stocks of bees thus -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">- 192 -</span> -drummed out of house and home may be united to -form a strong colony. If supplied with frames of -comb, or "foundation," and fed with syrup (made -with 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> lbs. of sugar to each pint of water, with a -dessert-spoonful of vinegar boiled up with it, to -prevent crystallisation), they may be brought safely -through the winter, and become, by the spring-time, -well worth the expense and trouble they have cost.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig63" style="width: 453px;"> - <img src="images/fig63.png" width="453" height="271" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.—Swarming Board.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>With bar-frame hives the making of artificial -swarms becomes an easy matter, and more than one -plan may be adopted. In the first place, suppose it -is desired to transfer into a skep a swarm from a -wooden hive, for sending to a distance. The preliminary -operations are as follows: Towards evening, -remove the stock a few yards from its stand, and -have ready the skep on a wide board, and propped -up two or three inches in front. Next puff smoke -into the midst of the bees, to quiet them, and to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">- 193 -</span> -induce them to fill their honey-bags. Then lift the -frames one after another, and search for the queen -till found. Take her gently between the first finger -and thumb, seizing her by the wings, place her at -the entrance of the skep, and see that she runs in. -Shake on to the board, close to the skep, the bees -from the frame on which the queen is found, and, after -replacing it in its own hive, take out and shake off -bees from other frames in succession, till a sufficient -amount to make a swarm has been let run into the -skep. They, with their sovereign, will ascend to the -crown of their abode, and then may be secured by -tying a cloth over the open part of the straw hive, -and despatched to their destination. Of course the -frames must be replaced in the stock hive as they -are cleared. The remaining bees will soon make a -new queen for themselves, and will care for the -developing brood. Judgment must be exercised, so -as not to weaken too greatly the population of the -parent-hive.</p> - -<p>Another method, still simpler, is to begin operations -in the morning of a bright day, and to shake off the -queen and bees from two frames only, and put the -colony on to the old stand, removing the stock to a -distance of a few yards. The bees abroad for supplies -will, on their return, remain with their queen, -and make up a sufficiently strong community; while -the young, and those who prefer the old stock, will be -sufficient to meet its requirements.</p> - -<p>A third plan is to take the frame on which the -queen is, with bees and brood, and place it, with two -or three other frames from the same stock in another -hive, which should be placed on the old stand. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">- 194 -</span> -Foragers returning from the fields will, as in the -preceding case, reinforce the new colony, while the -stock, moved to a little distance, will soon repair the -loss of their queen, and hatch out young bees in place -of those transferred to another home.</p> - -<p>A fourth method is to take two combs from each -of several strong stocks, brushing off all bees with -a feather or goose-wing. Then placing the hive thus -filled with comb and brood, on the stand of a strong -stock, the returning bees will take to the home thus -presented to them, and will speedily raise a queen -for themselves from one of the many eggs contained -in the brood cells. The displaced hive must, -as in previous instances, be removed a few yards -from its old position. The reason for filling the -abode of the new community with frames of worker-brood, -is to prevent the bees from building drone-comb, -and raising males only, as they are apt to do -when they have to manufacture a queen, at least till -she is not only hatched but begins to lay eggs.</p> - -<p>There are three or four important precautions -which are to be remembered when making artificial -swarms. Firstly—swarming should not be artificially -attempted till drones are tolerably numerous, unless -a fertile queen is to be given to the new colony -Secondly—honey should be abundant when the -swarm is made, unless a good deal is stored in the -combs removed. If syrup, however, be supplied, -all danger from scanty sources outside will be removed. -Thirdly—swarms should be taken only from -the strongest stocks, otherwise both old and new -communities will be, perhaps irretrievably, ruined. -Fourthly—it is an immense advantage to introduce -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">- 195 -</span> -a queen into the hive that has been deprived of its -mother-bee; and with suitable precautions, especially -that of caging the supplied sovereign for thirty-six -hours in a receptacle made for the purpose, there -is usually little difficulty in getting the substitute -amicably received by the mourning workers. This -plan not only prevents the loss of two or three -weeks of very valuable time in the rearing and fertilising -of a queen, but obviates the danger of the -young queen, when raised, perishing on her wedding-flight, -through being snapped up by a bird, or mistaking -the entrance of her hive on her return.</p> - -<p>Various modifications of the above plans may be -found in Langstroth, but enough has been said to -indicate the ordinary and simplest modes of procedure.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">- 196 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">QUEEN REARING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Protection of Queen-cells—Nucleus Hives—Various Methods of -Queen Rearing—American Plan—Introduction of Stranger -Queens—Difficulties.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> breeding of queens can only be done with ease -and complete success in bar-frame hives. If, on -examination of the frames of a stock, queen-cells -with brood in them are found, these may be protected -by means of little wire cages from the animosity of -the mother-bee, and in due course the princesses, as -they hatch out, may be transferred to a small box, -with a piece of comb and a few bees belonging to the -hive. Care must be taken not to let the cage touch -the cell over which it is placed, and it should be -thrust into the comb only to the base of one set of -cells. The best time for thus affording protection is -when the larva is six or seven days old.</p> - -<p>A second plan is to take from a hive, late in the -afternoon, a comb containing worker-eggs, with -brood in more advanced stages, and a sufficient -number of bees to keep up warmth enough to promote -the development of the larvæ. These must all -be put into a very small hive, and a supply of honey -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">- 197 -</span> -and water should be given. In the course of a few -days a queen-cell, or cells, will be formed, worker-eggs -transferred into them, and these, in process of -time, will come forth as princesses. When fertilised -they will be ready for using in other hives.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig64" style="width: 260px;"> - <img src="images/fig64.png" width="245" height="297" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.—Queen Cage over Sealed Cell.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>A third method is to set a small empty hive over -a full stock, and, when the bees using the entrance of -the upper one are sufficiently numerous, a brood-comb -with eggs and adhering bees may be placed -in the top hive. Then, in a day or two, the aperture -between the two may be closed, and the nucleus -being removed, another can be put in its place, and -the process repeated till as many queens as are -required have been raised.</p> - -<p>Fourthly. Two or three combs with brood and -honey may be taken from a hive, and having cut -out a nearly triangular piece of comb, a queen-cell -with comb, nearly equal in size to the hole, may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">- 198 -</span> -be inserted, as shown in the figure. This will expedite -the rearing of the princess. The bees will soon -fill up the intervening spaces, and the daily emerging -young bees will make subjects enough for the young -monarch, till she is needed for the sovereignty of a -larger population. If the miniature stock should -dwindle before the young queen lays and replenishes -the numbers, young bees, which have never flown, -may be introduced from other hives, and these will -be received with pleasure by the remaining workers. -Or another frame with plenty of bees may be exchanged -for one of the empty ones. This latter plan -involves some danger of fighting, which is avoided by -supplying the newly-hatched young.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig65" style="width: 247px;"> - <img src="images/fig65.png" width="247" height="285" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.—Inserted Queen Cell.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The American bee-keepers manage, it is said, to -hatch royal larvæ and pupæ in little boxes heated -carefully by a small lamp. We have not heard of any -English apiarians who have pursued this method; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">- 199 -</span> -and the probability is that the difficulty of regulating -the warmth accurately, makes the results so uncertain -and disappointing as not to tend to the adoption of -the method among us. Like the "incubators" for -the artificial hatching of poultry, so many circumstances -combine to mar hopes cherished in the use of -them, that it is altogether more satisfactory to rely -on natural processes for the production of the young -of both fowls and bees.</p> - -<p>In all the processes of queen rearing described, we -cannot but be struck with the inextinguishable love -shown to the undeveloped young, and the passionate -yearning for a mother-bee displayed by the workers. -It matters not whether the brood presented to them -be taken from their own stock or from another -community; they will at once cluster upon the cells -containing larvæ, and devotedly tend them till they -come forth as perfect insects. The emerging progeny -may even belong to another variety, Ligurian, -Cyprian, or Carniolan; still the same complete devotion -will be displayed. Nor is the willingness of -a colony to receive an introduced queen affected by -the fact of her belonging to a different race from -the subjects to whom she is given. Yet, we do -observe strange differences in the readiness with -which a stranger sovereign is acknowledged. In -some instances there is no hostility manifested to an -uncaged queen, who is allowed to run down among -the combs of a community which is without a -mother. This is especially the case with a stock -just mourning its discovered loss. At other times, -even with careful introduction, and caging for from -twenty-four to forty-eight hours, so unamiable a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">- 200 -</span> -temper is displayed, that the supplied queen is -refused; and she is either stung, or, more frequently, -is so thickly clustered around and upon as to be -suffocated. Occasionally, indeed, such a resolute -determination is shown to have no monarch but one -of their own raising, that the only course is to supply -brood-comb with eggs to such a community, or to -unite them with another stock which has a queen. -We can no more account for these vagaries of so-called -instinct, than we can for those displayed -among human beings endowed with what we consider -the higher faculty of reason.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">- 201 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">FEEDING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Troughs—Dangers of this Method—Bottle Feeders—Cheshire's -Feeding Stage—Neighbour's Can Feeder—The "Round Feeder"—Autumn -Feeding—Spring Feeding—Uses of Precautions—Summer Feeding -of Swarms—Flour-cake—Barley-sugar or Sugar-cake—Mr. Hunter's Recipe.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have already spoken of the advantages consequent -on feeding swarms for a few days after they -emerge, especially if the weather should be wet, cold, -or dull. It is even more important to see that in -spring and autumn, if the stocks require food, it is -given to them. With the old-fashioned skep there -are difficulties in the successful supply of nourishment. -The ordinary plan used to be to take a piece -of elder-wood, and having cut it down the middle, -and having removed the pith, to stop the open -ends, or manage to have a knot at each, and then, -having filled these long narrow troughs with syrup, -to insert them into the hive by the entrance hole. -Several disadvantages attend this plan. Firstly, -there is the danger of spilling some of the liquid, -and so inducing visits of bees from near hives, and -setting up "robbing," with its disasters. Next, it -is almost impossible, without constant attention, to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">- 202 -</span> -give a proper amount of food thus. Thirdly, -the bees being attracted to the floor of the hive, -often become numbed in cold weather, and perish. -Fourthly, where considerable feeding is necessary, -and has to be rapidly done, it is impossible to -accomplish it by this method, except at the cost -of immense trouble.</p> - -<p>Skeps which have a flat or broad top, with a hole -fitted with a cork, can be supplied in a much better -manner by one of the various kinds of apparatus -we shall now describe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig66" style="width: 220px;"> - <img src="images/fig66.png" width="139" height="211" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.—Bottle Feeder.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>First, the "bottle feeder" consists of a glass jar -(such as pickles, French plums, jams, marmalade, &c., -are sold in), resting on a block, square or round, as -may be convenient, and having a hole cut to receive -the neck of the bottle. Over the hole is fastened a -piece of perforated zinc with very fine meshes. Over -the mouth of the battle a piece of fine net or muslin -should be secured by a band round the neck, after -the syrup has been poured In. Then the block -having been put over the hole in the top of the hive, -the bottle of syrup may be inverted and stood in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">- 203 -</span> -the hollow prepared for it. The bees will soon -become aware of the fact that food is within their -reach, and poking their tongues through the zinc -and muslin, they will draw what supplies they need. -As no air can get through the syrup, the liquid -will run only as fast as it is imbibed by the bees, -unless, through sun-heat, the bottle should become -so warmed as to cause the air inside to expand, and -thrust out the food faster than it can be drunk. -It is easy to avoid this danger by properly covering -the bottle. Another, and still more important, reason -for protecting it is to prevent any bees from another -hive getting at it; for should they do so, robbing is -very likely to ensue, stolen sweets having a most -demoralising effect on bees, as well as on human -beings; and this trouble once started, it is difficult -to stop it before all the weak stocks have been plundered -and destroyed by their stronger neighbours.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig67" style="width: 297px;"> - <img src="images/fig67.png" width="297" height="251" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.—Cheshire's Feeding Stage.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In order to regulate precisely the quantity of food -it may be desirable to give to a stock, Mr. Cheshire -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">- 204 -</span> -has devised, instead of the muslin cover, a piece of -vulcanite pierced with holes in a particular pattern, -and rotating round a screw in such a way that one, -two, three, or any required number of holes may be -open at the same time. He also uses, and recommends, -a small shovel, in which the bottle of syrup -is first inverted. Then, when placed just over the -vulcanite plate, the shovel is quickly withdrawn -without the loss of any of the liquid.</p> - -<p>This matter of carefully controlling the quantity -of food allowed, is very important in the spring, when -it is desired not only to save impoverished stocks -from dying of hunger, but to stimulate well-doing -stocks to early breeding. For, if too abundant -supplies of syrup are given, the bees, in their determination -not to miss any opportunity of storing -at a time when there is no honey to be got out of -doors, will fill the middle cells which are nearest the -bottle, instead of leaving them for the queen to -deposit eggs in, as she would naturally do, to secure -them the full warmth of the cluster of her subjects.</p> - -<p>Another method of supplying food is by means -of a tin bottle or can. Mr. Neighbour describes the -one invented by him for continuous supply, as "six -inches wide by six high, with five small holes -at the bottom, and closed by a sliding valve and a -screw-top. The can is filled from the top, with the -valve closed, and when the screw-top is made firm, -this valve is drawn back by moving the pin in front. -The can is placed over the feeding-hole at the top of -the stock hive, and the bees have access to it by small -holes. The can is on the principle of a fountain; -the screw-top rendering it air-tight, the liquid only -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">- 205 -</span> -escapes as drawn down by the probosces of the bees. -A glass side is let in, to show when the feeder is -empty. It need not be removed for refilling. The -capacity of the vessel is over a quart." The advantages -of this apparatus are, its security against -robber-bees; the fact that it can be filled <i>in situ</i>, thus -avoiding all escape of warm air in cold weather, and -chilling of the brood; and the facility with which its -condition can be inspected and its store replenished. -In addition, it is strong and not likely to get out -of order.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig68" style="width: 148px;"> - <img src="images/fig68.png" width="148" height="164" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.—Can Feeder.</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig69" style="width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/fig69.png" width="122" height="85" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.—Round Tin Feeder.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The "round feeder" is made of zinc or earthen-ware, -eight inches across, and three deep. It is -filled by a sloping aperture from the outside. The -bees come up through an opening in the crown of -the hives on to a piece of wood, under a close-fitting -tin cap, which keeps in the heat, and the bees are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">- 206 -</span> -able to feed without the possibility of being drowned. -The outer lid has to be raised; the liquid food is -then poured into the trough, and is gradually drawn -in and consumed. There is a danger in open troughs -or pans, especially of zinc, which must not be overlooked, -and that is the turning acid of the food by -great exposure to the air, and the difficulty of -thorough cleanliness without the waste of a good -deal of food.</p> - -<p>Of these various plans, the bottle is by far the -cheapest, and, with a little care, it is quite effectual. -Various makers of bee-apparatus have introduced -slight modifications in their method, tending to -convenience and safety.</p> - -<p>The two special seasons when it may be advisable -to give supplies, are the spring and autumn. When, -at the end of February or early in March, some -warm days have promoted activity in the hive, and -its inhabitants are coming forth for flight after their -long winter imprisonment, and are going in search -of pollen and other food, it is desirable to examine -the internal condition of affairs, so as to ascertain -whether unwonted activity means scantiness of stores, -and the need of searching outside for food. Should -the supply of sealed honey be almost exhausted, it -will be necessary to give a moderate, but continuous, -quantity of syrup to avert starvation. For the reason -previously mentioned, it is well not to err on the -side of too great liberality. Let the bees have little -more than enough for their probable daily wants—say, -for a strong stock, about three ounces a day.</p> - -<p>It is also important not to fill large bottles with -syrup, otherwise there will be danger of the liquid -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">- 207 -</span> -running too freely, if a very warm day succeed a cold -night, as the air in the bottle will expand too rapidly -from the heat, and force out the syrup, to the imminent -danger of the bees.</p> - -<p>But, it is not only starving or much impoverished -stocks which may be advantageously supplied with -food early in the spring. If left to themselves, the -wise insects will not promote breeding, till they can -see their way to a constant in-flow of new nourishment -for the rearing of the young. If, then, the -queen is encouraged to lay, by an artificial supply, -she will begin depositing her eggs much earlier than -she otherwise would. Moreover, if the mass of the -population are induced to remain at home, instead of -going out for honey and pollen, the warmth of the -hive will be better maintained, and the developing -young will have more attendants about them. The -most experienced apiarians, therefore, strongly recommend -<i>careful</i> spring feeding; and one point in -the carefulness is the constancy of the supply once -begun, unless there is plenty of honey in the hive. -In cases where this precaution is overlooked, the -hungry workers will consume hundreds of newly-laid -eggs, and will drag the young larvæ from the cells, -thinking that their coming to maturity would involve -a general starvation. On the other hand, it is necessary -to see that no storage is going on in the brood -part of the combs, through too liberal feeding. In -points of this kind experience is the best teacher, -and here the skilfulness of the bee-master is shown.</p> - -<p>Another matter of great importance in spring -feeding, is to see that the syrup supplied is not too -thin, otherwise there will be danger of dysentery. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">- 208 -</span> -Again, it must be well boiled and properly prepared, -or what happens to be deposited in the cells will -crystallise, and become worse than useless, as the -bees can only with great difficulty consume or remove -it in that state. The following is the proper -method of preparation: Take of loaf sugar 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> lbs., -and boil in a quart of water. While boiling, add -a table-spoonful of vinegar, and continue the boiling -for ten minutes more. Strain the liquid, and it is -ready for use. It may, with advantage, be supplied -to the bees while it is lukewarm. The addition of -the vinegar is an important point, as it converts the -cane-sugar into glucose, or grape-sugar, which is -much less liable to crystallisation.</p> - -<p>In bad weather throughout the spring, the watchful -apiarian will give his bees some artificial food, unless -they have abundant stores in their hives.</p> - -<p>Nor must it be forgotten that, if the production of -brood is to be stimulated, some nitrogenous food will -be necessary. When crocuses and willow-blossom -are plentiful in the early spring, the bees will collect -sufficient pollen from these sources, to provide for -their wants in the above respect. But, failing a -natural supply of such azotised material, pea-meal -forms a good substitute, and is readily made use -of by the workers.</p> - -<p>In summer, it is only swarms or casts, as a rule, -that ought to be in any need of this kind of help; -but, as autumn comes on, especially if the bees have -been seriously deprived of their hardly-earned supplies, -it will be necessary to make up to them some -of that of which they have been denuded. With -skeps, the only guide as to the condition of food -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">- 209 -</span> -stores is the weighing-machine. If this indicates a -less total than from twenty-five to thirty pounds, it -will be advisable to supply syrup till the requisite -weight is attained. With bar-frame hives an examination -of the state of affairs is perfectly easy, -and there is no difficulty in removing combs which -are quite empty, and are not needed for the clustering -of the bees. Those which are left should each contain -six or seven inches square of sealed honey, some -two square feet, as a total, being considered about -the proper quantity for a fairly strong stock to -winter on.</p> - -<p>For ascertaining the state of the hives in autumn, -there should be an inspection of them about the -middle of September; and, if necessary, the feeding -should then be begun. It may be continued through -October, but not later; otherwise there are dangers to -be incurred. The first is, lest the evaporation of a -certain amount of water from the stored syrup should -not take place, and consequently, being left unsealed -in the cells, it should ferment, and produce dysentery -among the bees. The second is, lest there should not -be sufficient warmth in the hive for the elaboration -of the wax needed for sealing the filled cells; in -which case, also, dysentery is likely to occur, when -the immatured syrup is consumed.</p> - -<p>Syrup given in autumn must be thicker than -that supplied in spring, and should be made of five -pounds of sugar to one quart of water, a table-spoonful -of vinegar being added, and the mixture -well, but carefully, boiled.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, when bee-keepers have neglected the -feeding of their stocks till late in autumn, they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">- 210 -</span> -try to atone for their remissness by giving a supply -of flour-cake—a baked mixture of sugar and pea-meal—on -the top of the frames. This practice is -not advisable, as the nitrogenous food is almost -certain to stimulate breeding; and if this happens -when the temperature is too low for the development -of eggs and larvæ, great mischief may be done. -The danger from this source will be very much in -proportion to the weakness of the stock.</p> - -<p>If proper attention has been given to the bees in -autumn, they should be left quite undisturbed during -the winter; for each time of excitement causes a -considerable consumption of honey, to make up for -the exertion to which the insects have been aroused. -There is, also, the risk of chilling the hive, and -lowering the temperature to a point fatal to many -of its inhabitants. If, however, it becomes known -to the bee-keeper that any stock is in a starving -condition, no liquid food must be given, but barley-sugar, -or sugar-cake, may be laid on the frames. -One evil of the former of these is, that it is apt to -deliquesce faster than the bees can consume it, and -running down the combs, makes a mess; while, if -supplied too sparingly, it will not afford enough -nourishment to the whole population to avert their -starving. To obviate these dangers, it has been -recommended to let it liquefy to a condition of -toughness, and then, having put it into a bottle -tied over the mouth with close canvas, to supply -it in the same way as syrup.</p> - -<p>Mr. Hunter gives the following directions for -making sugar-cake, of a kind superior to barley-sugar -of the shops for bee-feeding purposes:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">- 211 -</span></p> - -<p>"Break up three pounds of loaf-sugar, place it in -a saucepan or preserving-pan and pour half a pint of -cold water upon it and half a wine-glass of vinegar. -These are all the ingredients required. Prepare a -fire in a grate, the top bar of which will let down in -a similar way to that in an ordinary kitchen grate, -taking care, however, that, at the commencement of -the operation, the bar is up in its place, and the grate -full to the top with glowing cinders or wood embers, -so that a great heat may be obtained without any -flame. Place upon the fire the saucepan containing -the sugar, and stir it without ceasing. In a few -minutes it will begin to assume the character of dirty -broth, which will have anything but a nice appearance, -but presently a thick scum will rise, and the -mass will try to boil over. As soon as this is -observed the saucepan should be removed from the -fire, until the ingredients have cooled a little, when it -should be set on the grate again, in such a way -that only a small part of it is over the fire. The -boiling will then go on on the exposed side, and as -the ebullition takes place the scum will be forced to -the side not over the fire, whence it may easily be -removed with a spoon. Thus, the saucepan is held -in the left hand, the spoon in the right, and the -saucepan being on the left-hand side of the grate, -with its right side exposed to the action of the fire, -the scum will retreat to the left or cooler side, and -will be in the handiest position for removal, as will -be evident in a few minutes to any one trying it. -After a quarter of an hour of this treatment the -mixture will have become in a great degree clarified, -when it should be removed from the fire while the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">- 212 -</span> -top bar of the grate is let down, so as to permit of its -nearer approach to a greater heat. Should there be -any irregularity of the fire, it should now be corrected, -but flame should be prevented, as the mixture, having -parted with its water, will be liable to take fire if -brought into contact with flame. It will be well -here to remark that so long as the scum remains on -the syrup there was a tendency in the whole to boil -over, since the water evolved in the form of steam -while the boiling was going on, accumulating in a -body, would lift the scum above the saucepan to -enable it to escape, but when the scum was <i>gone</i> -the water would be evolved in bubbles of steam, -which would <i>crackle</i> but not boil over unless a very -intense heat were applied. The duration of the -boiling of the clarified syrup, before it becomes -liquid barley-sugar, will depend upon the amount of -heat and the consequent evolution of water to which -it is subjected; but trials may from time to time be -made by dropping a little on some cold surfaces, to -see if it becomes brittle, and when that state is arrived -at it is done. Pour it into a tin dish, set it in a dry -cool place until it becomes hard, and then', by striking -the tin on its under side, the whole of the barley-sugar -will be splintered into fragments, when it may be -placed in bottles and corked up for use as required."</p> - -<p>We have thought it advisable to quote these -directions <i>in extenso</i>, as the feeding material thus -made is cheaper—by about half the cost—than what -is bought in shops, and being, moreover, not twisted -like ordinary barley-sugar, it can more conveniently -be placed on the top of frames, or over the feeding-hole -of a skep.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">- 213 -</span></p> - -<p>The deliquescence of solid sugar-food is a source -of some trouble. It may, in part, be obviated by -laying the cake on coarse canvas, which will keep -pieces from falling between the combs, and will help -to delay liquid drops till the bees can consume them. -But the most effectual plan to be rid of all these -inconveniences, is to see to the proper amount of -food being stored in the hives by the end of -October.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">- 214 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">WINTERING BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>False and True Hybernation—Temperature of Hive in Winter—Necessity -for Quiet during Winter—Structure and Winter-packing -of Bar-Frame Hives—Prevention of Draught and -Condensation of Vapour—Supply of Water.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> honey-bee differs from nearly all the wild -varieties, as well as from hornets and wasps, in being -adapted to live always in societies. Most other -insects of the hymenopterous order become torpid -in winter, or perish, with the exception of some -queens, who survive to continue the race. Those -which really hybernate are able to endure a considerable -degree of cold; and, thawing under the -influence of warmth, they can resume the functions -of life. It is not so, however, with bees. Queens -alone would be quite unable to continue the race, as -they could neither build comb, nor supply food to -the larvæ, nor keep up the heat required for the -development of the young. For all these purposes, -workers in considerable numbers are necessary. But -this very concourse implies the production of heat -by respiration; and, as a matter of fact, we find that -all through the coldest weather of winter a temperature -of over 60° Fahr. is maintained in the hive. As -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">- 215 -</span> -a result of this, bees do not really hybernate, or -even become dormant. When cold is very intense, -they maintain a constant tremulous motion, as if -they knew that the expenditure of muscular fibre -would, by the consequent oxygenation, cause the -evolution of heat; or, as if cognisant of the most -modern theories of "heat as a mode of motion," -they were aware that the very flapping of their -wings would tend to raise the temperature of their -dwelling.</p> - -<p>A bee is chilled by a less degree of warmth than -50° Fahr.; and if actually frozen, or exposed to cold -at or near the freezing point of water, it cannot be -revived. These facts have a very important bearing -on the art of apiculture. For, in the first place, it -may easily be understood that, if bees are tempted -abroad by sunshine in winter, or when a bitter wind -is blowing, they may perish by hundreds, through -becoming torpid with cold while resting a few -minutes in some shade, or by being chilled in the ungenial -air. For this reason it is advisable to shelter -hives from the mid-day and afternoon sun, as the -danger just alluded to increases with the lateness of -the hour at which the bees may be enticed abroad -by the sunshine.</p> - -<p>Then, secondly, it must be remembered that, as -the bees are animate all through the winter, a constant -consumption of stores is going on, and that -disastrous consequences may ensue from mistaken -notions as to their remaining torpid, and needing -no more food than do hybernating dormice or -polar bears.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, as an easy deduction from the foregoing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">- 216 -</span> -facts, everything which stirs the bees to activity, -such as supplying fresh food, or disturbing the -hives for any other purpose, means an increased -consumption of nutriment, proportional to the activity -aroused.</p> - -<p>Fourthly, any general excitement in cold weather, -leading to the wandering of individuals from the -cluster, entails the risk of their being chilled, and -rendered so inactive as not to be able to return -to the warmest part of the hive, and consequently -perishing.</p> - -<p>These facts further suggest the importance of -taking measures to prevent, as far as possible, the -escape of warmth from the hive. Various precautions -are adopted for this purpose. The straw skep -is, in itself, a bad conductor of heat, and if made -thick and strong, will usually enable the bees to -maintain a sufficiently high temperature. Still, in -excessively cold seasons, it is advisable to wrap -straw hives round with matting, sacking, or some -other material, in order still further to guard against -chilling.</p> - -<p>With bar-frame hives several points should be -attended to. In the first place, it is a great advantage -to have their walls double, with an air-space -between them. It is even better to fill this space -with cork-dust, saw-dust, bran, or chaff, to prevent any -circulation of air between the outer and inner walls.</p> - -<p>Then, it is important to remove empty combs at -the beginning of the cold season, and to confine the -bees in as small a space as possible, so that their -number, constantly diminishing in winter, may suffice -to keep up the necessary temperature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">- 217 -</span></p> - -<p>Again, it is of some moment to see that there are -no considerable apertures in the coverings of the -frames, or in the corners of the hive, by which a -current of warm air out of, and cold air into, the -hive may be set up.</p> - -<p>Once more, if cushions of chaff be placed behind -the frames, to fill up some of the empty parts of the -hive, an additional security will be furnished against -the lowering of the temperature.</p> - -<p>In order still further to prevent separation from -the cluster, and unnecessary activity, the most skilled -apiarians recommend that, in autumn, holes should -be made through the combs, near their tops, to serve -as passages from one to another, as they are emptied -of honey, without the necessity of the bees going -down to the bottoms of the combs, in order to reach -the other sides or different combs.</p> - -<p>Another point of great importance in wintering -bees, is the prevention of the moisture, produced by -their breathing, from condensing in the hive. It -should either be allowed to escape by upward ventilation, -as strongly recommended by Langstroth, or -by laying over the frames of wooden hives a porous -material, which at the same time prevents the escape -of heat. Light matting, covered with thicknesses of -house-flannel or old blanketing, will answer the -purpose very well. The constant evaporation from -the upper surface will prevent dampness to any -serious degree in the lower thicknesses of material. -For ourselves, we prefer the method which most -effectually prevents the escape of heat, while also -securing that vapour shall not be unduly condensed.</p> - -<p>The question of ventilation, especially in winter, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">- 218 -</span> -is still under debate. It is alleged, on the one hand, -that it must be of advantage to get rid of all products -of respiration, and that this can only be done -effectually, by leaving a passage for the air supposed -to be vitiated by the breathing of the bees. On the -other hand, it is asserted, and the fact is incontrovertible, -that the insects themselves most sedulously -stop every crack and cranny, above all, in the tops -of their hives; and seem to strive, by all means in -their power, to prevent the escape of air, which -would carry away warmth. The argument is that -their natural instinct is certain to be right that it -can only have arisen, or been bestowed, for the -benefit of the bees. We must acknowledge there is -great force in this reasoning; and we prefer, therefore, -to secure both the theoretical point relating to -sufficient ventilation, and the practical recognition of -the preference of the bees for complete coverings, -by using the materials we have recommended above, -leaving no apertures for the direct escape of air and -warmth at the top of the hives.</p> - -<p>The German apiarians lay considerable stress on -the necessity of supplying the stocks with water so -long as any breeding is going on. Von Berlepsch -and G. Eberhardt, in an article in the <i>Bienenzeitung</i>, -write as follows: "The Creator has given the bee an -instinct to store up honey and pollen, which are not -always to be procured, but not water, which is always -accessible in her native regions. In northern latitudes, -when confined to the hive, often for months together, -they can obtain the water they need only from the -watery particles contained in the honey, the perspiration -which condenses on the colder parts of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">- 219 -</span> -the hive, or the humidity of the air which enters -their hives.</p> - -<p>"Vital energy in the bee is at its lowest point in -November and December. If, at this time, an unusual -degree of cold does not force her to resort to -muscular action, she remains almost motionless, a -deathlike silence prevailing in the hive; and we know -by actual experiment, that much less food is consumed -than at any other time. Breeding having -ceased, the weather-bound bees have no demands -made on their vital action, and we have never known -them at this time suffer from want of water. As -soon, however, as the queen begins to lay, which -occurs in many colonies early in January, and in -some by Christmas, the workers must eat more freely, -both of honey and pollen, to supply jelly for the -larvæ, and wax for sealing their cells. Much more -water is needed for these purposes than when they -can procure the fresh nectar of flowers, and the want -of it begins to be felt about the middle of January. -<i>The unmistakable signs of the dearth of water in a -colony, are found in the granules of candied honey -on the bottom of the hive</i>." These authors go on -further to say: "After protracted and severe winters, -of every six bees that perish, five die for want of -water, and not, as was hitherto supposed, from undue -accumulation of fæces. Dysentery is one of the -direct consequences of water-dearth, the bees in dire -need of water consuming honey immoderately, and -taking cold by roaming about the combs."</p> - -<p>In our climate there is, usually, throughout the -winter such an abundance of moisture in the air, -that the point of complete saturation is often reached, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">- 220 -</span> -and, except in very exceptional seasons, there will -be little need to supply water to the hive before -March. As a precautionary measure, however, we -see no reason why some may not be given earlier, if -great care is taken against its escape among the -combs. For safety on this point, it would be best to -give it in shallow troughs or pans at the bottom of -the hive.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">- 221 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">BEE-STINGS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Gentleness necessary in Manipulation—Causes of Irritation of -Bees—Examination of Stocks—Treatment of Stings—Remedies—Effects -of Stings—Inoculation—Bee Dress—Smoke and its Uses.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are some personal requisites, in addition to -what is called "bee-dress," if immunity from attack -is to be secured. The first of these are, calmness and -self-control. Many persons become so much alarmed -by a single bee buzzing about them, that they begin -fighting and buffeting the insect, with the idea of -driving it away. No surer method can be devised -for inciting its anger and its persistent efforts to -wound. If, on the other hand, perfect quietness is -maintained, it will rarely happen that a buzzing bee -will sting. When mischief is really meant, the attack -is usually delivered with great speed and directness. -Even if stung, it is much the best policy to be as -self-possessed as possible, lest violent movements -and angry acts should invite other bees to use their -weapons; and they are the more likely to do so, if -the first offender be crushed; for the smell of the -sting poison and of murdered comrades readily stirs -the wrath of the insects.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">- 222 -</span></p> - -<p>As a rule, those who are accustomed to manipulate -hives gently and fearlessly, may do so without the -protection of veil and gloves. We have, however, -mentioned the exceptional cases of persons who -appear to be naturally offensive to bees; and such -individuals must either clothe themselves against -the possibility of being stung, or altogether avoid -apiculture.</p> - -<p>It is also true that, under some circumstances, bees -become, like human beings, unaccountably irritable; -and then it is better to keep at a safe distance from -them, or to approach them clad in bee-dress. It is -especially maddening to them to become entangled -in the hair of the head or face, and if one of them -has unwarily thus ensnared itself, it is advisable to -extricate it as speedily as possible, or it will assuredly -inflict a wound.</p> - -<p>Woollen gloves, and some kinds of leather ones, -seem also to be very objectionable to the insects; -anything, in fact, which obstructs their freedom of -motion, immediately throws them into a passion.</p> - -<p>One simple, but very necessary precaution, is, to -avoid breathing upon them, when observing them or -examining the combs of a bar-frame hive. Blowing -at them infuriates them, and they will savagely -fly at the face of any one attempting it. Particular -electrical conditions of the atmosphere are said to -make them irascible. On very hot days, also, they -are liable to get out of temper; and showery weather, -which drives them frequently home from work, -appears to put them in bad humour.</p> - -<p>Again, if they have lost their queen, or if she is -absent on her nuptial excursion, or if any other event -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">- 223 -</span> -has thrown a hive into excitement, the workers will -be likely to show their feeling by some passionate -onslaught on the innocent onlooker. There is no -disguising the fact that they are very quick-tempered -creatures, and often act with an utter want of discrimination -in the matter of stinging.</p> - -<p>The time most suitable for the examination of -stocks, and for any other processes of manipulation, -is when the weather is fine, without being sultry or -oppressive, and when very large numbers of the older -bees are out at work. It is these who are most pugnacious, -the young ones being comparatively gentle.</p> - -<p>If several, or even one, apparently intent on -mischief, should angrily buzz round, the best plan is -to thrust one's head into some bush. This, for the -most part, baffles the assailant, who seems unable to -find its intended victim, and very soon flies away.</p> - -<p>When actually stung, the first thing to be done is -to extract the weapon, which the unfortunate insect -almost invariably tears out of its body, with the -poison-bag and muscles, as it flies off. If left in the -flesh, the muscles, by their automatic action, drive -the barbs in deeper and deeper, the poison also -flowing more copiously into the wound. Directly -the sting is removed, <i>avoid all rubbing of the part -affected</i>, but at once press upon the puncture a hollow -key, taking care that the exact spot pierced comes in -the centre of the opening of the key-tube. By this -means the poison will be prevented from extending in -the surrounding capillaries, and from being carried to -the neighbouring parts. Moreover, some of the acrid -matter will be squeezed out, and so comparatively -little inconvenience will follow. The pain will be much -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">- 224 -</span> -relieved if a strong solution of ammonia be forthwith -applied; or, failing this, carbonate of soda or of potass, -all of which alkaline substances will counteract the -acid poison. Should none of these be at hand, bathing -with cold water, after the use of the key, will wash -away the liquid squeezed out, and will dilute what -remains in the wound. The application of dry earth -is also recommended, and may do good, both by -absorbing any of the fluid expressed from the -puncture, and by its alkaline reaction destroying -the potency of the poison.</p> - -<p>There is, indeed, a long catalogue of remedies -vaunted by various apiarians as certain palliatives, if -not absolute cures, of the pain and swelling induced -by the stings of bees. Among these may be enumerated -the following: the juice of the ripe berry of -the honeysuckle; the milky liquid of the white -poppy stalk; the juice of tobacco; the leaves of the -plantain, or of the dock, bruised and applied to the -wound. Bevan recommends spirits of hartshorn, -of which ammonia is the chief component. Sliced -onion or leek is very strongly praised as an antidote -by some writers in our bee journals.</p> - -<p>The principles of chemistry undoubtedly point to -alkaline solutions as the proper kind of application. -There can be no doubt that the poison is acid in its -reaction. Any one may test this by collecting a -drop or two, and putting the liquid on to litmus-paper. -The characteristic change of the blue colour -to red will, at once, indicate the nature of the substance. -Consequently, the natural neutraliser of its -properties will be an alkali of some sort.</p> - -<p>Should faintness and prostration come on in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">- 225 -</span> -consequence of one or more stings, as happens in the -case of certain constitutions, smelling-salts (ammonia), -or other usual stimulants to the nervous system and -heart-action, must be applied, and medical aid should -be summoned; but the cases in which such steps -become necessary are comparatively rare. Certainly -not one person in a thousand need be terrified from -bee-keeping by the fear of serious consequences from -being stung.</p> - -<p>It is true the effects of the poison are, in most -cases, very unpleasant, severe pain being felt for a few -minutes, succeeded later by swelling, smarting, and -irritation; but these symptoms soon subside, and -leave no ill consequences. Moreover, it is a well-ascertained -fact that, after numerous stings, some -effect is produced on the blood—a sort of inoculation—which -renders the result of the poison less and less -severe. Many bee-keepers, indeed, pay almost no -attention to punctures from their pets, as pain and -swelling are quite insignificant in their cases. Herr -Klein, in fact, recommends apiarians to get purposely -stung, so that, as speedily as possible, they may secure -to themselves this immunity from discomfort. We -doubt whether many persons will have the hardihood -to accept his advice, or will consider such a violently -homœopathic remedy less objectionable than an -occasional attack of the malady.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> We may remark in passing that we have been informed the poison -of the bee is used under the name of <i>Apis</i> as a recognised and potent -medicine by homoeopathic practitioners.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Our advice, on the contrary, is that the bee-keeper, -especially if timid about being stung, should take -all reasonable precautions against attack. For this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">- 226 -</span> -purpose he should provide himself with a bee-dress, -consisting of a sort of bag of <i>black net</i>, which will -slip over the head and shoulders, and may be fastened -round the waist by an elastic band. It should -be large enough to admit of wearing a hat with a -tolerably broad brim. This will cause the veil to -stand away from the face sufficiently to prevent -any angry bee from getting at the flesh. Sleeves -of black calico should be attached to it, and may be -secured at the wrists by tying, or by elastic bands. -Such a dress is best worn without a coat but over -a waistcoat, as greater coolness and freedom of movement -will thus be attained. The hands may be protected -by cotton or india-rubber gloves, and the -sleeves should be fastened over these round the -wrists. If, in conducting any extensive manipulations, -bees, half-stupefied or weak from their youthfulness, -are likely to be crawling about the ground, -it is advisable to tuck the trousers inside the boots, -or to tie them round the ankles, or in some way -to prevent the ascent of any insects beneath the -clothes.</p> - -<p>Thus protected, the novice may, with perfect confidence, -conduct such operations among his hives as -he may deem necessary. He should be careful, however, -not to let his security induce any roughness or -carelessness in handling the insects or their combs -and hive-frames. As much quietness and gentle -treatment should be used, as if freedom from attack -depended entirely on such methods; for, it is certain -that by great tenderness in handling, bees become -accustomed to those who have to do with them; -whereas, a hive once enraged by accidental or rough -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">- 227 -</span> -manipulation will remain ill-tempered and passionate -for a long period, and will consequently become very -difficult to deal with. If, by any means, a stock has -thus been excited, it is advisable to leave it alone, -and let it quiet down as speedily and thoroughly -as possible.</p> - -<p>The use of smoke must not be forgotten, as one of -the most potent means of controlling the passion of -bees, and causing them to gorge themselves, in which -condition of repletion they are much better-tempered -than under any other circumstances.</p> - -<p>Various kinds of "smokers" are in use among -apiarians, and different substances to be burnt for -producing the smoke are recommended. Among the -former we may mention the apparatus of Messrs. -Abbott of Southall, Neighbour of London, and Blow -of Welwyn, Herts: while brown paper, old sacking, -touchwood, puff-ball, rags moistened with a solution -of nitre and dried, will afford sufficiently satisfactory -means of fumigating stocks. Bee-keepers will -find a few vigorous puffs of tobacco very effectual -in alarming the bees, and driving them to fill their -honey-bags. There will, however, be some risk of -being stung, as one cannot conveniently smoke with -a veil on, and where lengthened manipulations are -required, it is often necessary to repeat the fumigating -process, if the bees seem recovering from their -first dose, or if many, absent at its administration, -have returned to their homes while these are being -disturbed. We recommend, therefore, the presence -of some kind of fumigating apparatus in every apiary, -and in the selection of one it will be found very convenient -to have amongst its advantages the ability -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">- 228 -</span> -of retaining in a smouldering condition, by a gentle -through-draught, the materials inserted for burning. -The "smoker" should always be properly filled -with the stuff from which smoke is to be generated, -and smouldering should go on continuously in the -material when laid aside in the intervals of more -active use. Great trouble and inconvenience arise -from having repeatedly to re-light the paper, rag, or -other articles used. One means of obviating this, -is to stand the apparatus point upwards, when the -funnel will act as a chimney, and aid in keeping up -a quiet current of air.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">- 229 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">PASSIONS AND EMOTIONS OF BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Affection for Queen and Brood—Recognition of Friends and -Strangers—Fear—Anger—Covetousness—Benevolence—Remorse—Hope—Instinctive -or Sense-action.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Certain</span> difficulties surround the question of the -emotions exhibited by the lower orders of animals; -since it is easy for imagination, or, at least, the -interpretative faculty of observers, to lend so special -a colouring to actions, that the significance given -to appearances will vary exceedingly, according to -the subjectivity of the individual recording and explaining -phenomena. There can, however, be little -doubt that a feeling of <i>affection</i> exists between the -workers and the queen, and is reciprocally manifested. -The symptoms of distress at the loss of the -hive-mother; the reverent attention paid to her by -her special attendants; the joy at her restoration -after temporary removal; resentment shown to a -substitute while any hope of recovering their rightful -monarch remains; the devoted following of her when -a swarm issues, all tend unmistakably, we think, to -show that genuine love is the bond between the undeveloped -females and the one fully developed in the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">- 230 -</span> -community. As to the drones, we can give credit to -one only—the royal spouse—for any share in this -emotion, and, indeed, we should be inclined to place -the one exception in a different category.</p> - -<p>As to affection for all belonging to one community, -the facts are very conflicting. In the first place, -drones appear to have the <i>entrée</i> of any stock. We -can see that the obvious benefit of cross-breeding is -thus more likely to be secured; but it is impossible to -imagine this advantage to influence the bees. Again, -the manifest hostility shown by one colony of -workers to individuals from any other, is doubtless -the result of the fear of stores being robbed; while -drones are allowed free passage, because they do not -transfer honey from one hive to another, and take no -more than suffices for their personal needs. But, -while there is no doubt of exclusiveness being shown -by the workers towards other workers, we have little -evidence of any actual affection existing among the -members of the same community. It is true that -the crushing of one bee enrages others who become -aware of the circumstance, but the anger is probably -the result of fear of further destruction, rather than -grief at the loss of a friend. The death of individuals -in the ordinary course of nature, does not seem to -excite any emotion beyond the desire to get rid of -the body, which is unceremoniously taken in the -jaws, aided by the legs, of some enterprising survivor, -carried to a distance from the hive, and then let fall. -Bees never attempt to extricate co-workers from imprisonment -in spider-webs, or from any other difficulty -into which they have fallen.</p> - -<p>We must, however, acknowledge that an intense -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">- 231 -</span> -affection for the developing brood is shown by the -workers. It matters not whether the combs containing -it belong to their own hives or to others. -They will cluster upon the cells to maintain the -required warmth, will supply the larvæ with food, and -render every attention required by the young. When -the offspring have come forth, some rather rough, -but manifestly kindly meant offices, are performed, -in clearing away the remains of the cocoon, combing -out the imperfectly expanded wings, &c., but -loving care ceases with the need for it; and, in adult -life, the most we can predicate is a placid indifference -to each other's presence, unless, indeed, anger should -be aroused by some accident, when a more or less -serious battle will take place.</p> - -<p>That bees are susceptible of <i>fear</i> we have made -evident in what has been said about the effect produced -on them by smoke, by drumming, and by any -sharp vibration of their combs.</p> - -<p>The passion of <i>anger</i> is decidedly prominent in -their nature. It is, indeed, apt to rise to an uncontrollable -degree on very slight provocation, particularly, -as we have mentioned, under certain conditions -of weather, and especially of temperature. Moreover, -the exhibition of it is frequently unrestrained -by the fact that the use of the sting generally means -the death of the aggressor, owing to the impossibility -of withdrawing the barbed weapon, without tearing -away part of the vital organs also.</p> - -<p><i>Covetousness</i> is also a powerful emotion with these -insects. We have already spoken of the dangers of -allowing bees a taste of sweets from other hives than -their own, and of the almost ineradicable longing for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">- 232 -</span> -the honey stored in other communities, if once pilfering -has begun. And yet we can hardly ascribe sheer -selfishness as the motive for robbing. We see, in -fact, that the life of the worker is one long series of -labours on behalf of a progeny not its own, and for a -community in which its own existence is of very -short duration. While, therefore, we allow that there -is shown a desire to avoid honest toil, if dishonest -courses will yield supplies more readily, still we must -admit that the good, not of the individual but of -the state, is the actually impelling principle of the -plunderer. The amount of infatuation shown in the -eagerness of bees for sweets is well described by Dr. -Langstroth: "No one can understand the extent of -it until he has seen a confectioner's shop assailed -myriads of hungry bees. I have seen thousands -by strained out from the syrup in which they had -perished, thousands more alighting even upon the -boiling sweets, the floor covered and the windows -darkened with bees, some crawling, others flying, and -others still so completely besmeared as to be able -neither to crawl nor fly—not one in ten able to carry -home its ill-gotten spoils, and yet the air filled with -new hosts of thoughtless comers." They appear, -indeed, unable to perceive the disasters of companions, -and rush heedlessly on to destruction, the -victims of which lie all around them.</p> - -<p>From what has been previously said, it will be seen -that we cannot with any show of reason assign to bees -such complex emotions as <i>benevolence</i> or <i>remorse</i>. -They are incapable, on the one hand, of appreciating -the combination of circumstances involved in the distress -or need of a friend, and the means of aid suitable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">- 233 -</span> -for relief; and, on the other, having apparently no -distinct knowledge of how the doing or omission of -any action will affect other individuals, they cannot -be sensible of regret or satisfaction in having done, -or neglected to do, any specific deed.</p> - -<p>We might, probably, with equal assurance deny -to bees the possession of <i>hope</i>. It is true they -prepare combs, store honey and pollen, attend upon -the queen when laying, and carefully nurture the -larvæ, as if they anticipated the rearing of a progeny; -but it is difficult to conceive that these various duties -are carried out with any definite notion of the future. -We incline rather to the belief that a series of sensations -promotes a corresponding series of actions, -the combination, correspondence, and harmonising of -which, for the general welfare, is wrought out by laws -of which we know nothing, or, we would much rather -say, by the operation of the infinite and Divine Will, -without the direct control of which we cannot imagine -this complex universe could hold on its way. Nor -need we hesitate to assign its working to such comparatively -insignificant objects as hives of bees, when -we have the emphatic declaration of our Lord that -not one sparrow lights upon the ground for its food -without the knowledge of God; that He feeds the -ravens, clothes the lilies with beauty, and numbers -the very hairs of our heads.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">- 234 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">INTELLECT AND INSTINCT IN BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Intellect in Man and Animals as Related to Immortality—Memory—Judgment—Instances -of Attention—Prevision—Provision—Instinct—Manifestations—Bearing -on Evolution.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> has been a singular unwillingness on the -part of many religious writers to acknowledge among -animals inferior to man the possession of true intellectual -faculties. This has arisen, partly from the -desire to keep man on a pedestal immensely exalted -above the rest of the creatures more or less allied to -him, and partly from the fear that the concession of -high faculties might seem to imply the immortality -of all living beings or of none.</p> - -<p>The first of these reasons which have influenced -writers may be dismissed with the remark, that the -position of superiority which man has held, and more -than ever holds, depends, not entirely upon his -powers of mind, but upon a combination of faculties, -physical, mental, moral, and, above all, spiritual; so -that there need be no grudging of endowments of -intellect to other creatures on earth beside ourselves. -As to the second point, we see no necessity to consider -that it supplies a dilemma. Man and all other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">- 235 -</span> -animals may be immortal, for aught we know; or -man may, according to current opinion, stand alone -in this respect; but the yea or nay of the question -need not rest upon the foundation of the gift of -intellect. We know, indeed, so little of the actual -connection between mind and body, the senses and -the intellect, that it becomes quite unsafe to base -upon our knowledge any theories as to the conscious -possession of power when the body ceases to live. -The discussion of this subject must rest on other -and higher grounds altogether, and so will lie outside -the limits of our work. But we may well inquire -how far true intellectual processes go on in bees. -And the best way to do this will be to take some -of the strictly intellectual faculties, and see whether -they really exist among these insects.</p> - -<p>Firstly, with regard to <i>memory</i>. Without entering -upon theories as to the simple or complex nature of -the means by which we recall feelings, events, sensations, -or ideas, we may take it for granted that -memory is a sign and an attribute of considerable -mental endowment. Now that bees distinctly remember, -there can be not the slightest doubt. Whatever -may be our opinion as to the faculty by which -they find their way back to their hives from long -distances, there is clear evidence of their recollecting -particular places, in the circumstance that, for a day -or two after the securing of a swarm, certain bees -will hover round the spot from which the hiving -took place. Again, it is possible to train these insects -to come day after day to a particular place, -by supplying them with food under conditions in -which their senses of sight and smell would not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">- 236 -</span> -inform them of its continued presence. Moreover, -after being seriously disturbed, a stock appears to -remember, for many days, the molestation, and to -be eager to resent further intrusion, unless peaceable -behaviour is strongly enforced by smoke or an -anæsthetic.</p> - -<p>Secondly, as to <i>judgment</i>. This involves the previous -conception of two ideas at least, the comparison -of these, or their connection, at all events, and a decision -founded on their connection. That these processes -take place in the bee-mind, we are apparently -warranted in concluding from several circumstances -to which allusion has already been made. Let us -recall, for instance, the fact that if, owing to an -unusual influx of honey, the attachments of the -combs seem insufficiently strong to bear the weight -dependent on them, the workers proceed to make a -new connecting layer, at the top of the hive, and of -greater holding power. This they do by gnawing -away the original one, and replacing it, <i>one side at a -time</i>, by new work, the security of which is assured -before the other side is proceeded with. Now, in -this case there is a perception of an unusual, or, at -least, an unexpected influx of stores, as well as of -a certain strength being required to sustain the -weight of them. Furthermore, there is a calculation, -or comparison, founded on the two perceptions -or conceptions, and an act of decision resulting -from such comparison—apparently a clear case of -judgment.</p> - -<p>Again, let us revert to the manufacture of queens -by the workers. If at the time of the removal or -loss of the mother-bee in any way, there should be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">- 237 -</span> -unhatched princesses in the hive, no attempt will be -made to follow the course adopted in the absence -of such royal progeny. In the <i>latter</i> case—<i>i.e.</i> when -there is no royal brood—there must be a distinct -conception, first of their bereavement; secondly, of -the hopelessness of a sovereign appearing in the -ordinary way. Then a judgment is formed of the -proceedings necessary for making a queen, and -action immediately follows. Not only so, but, as -if to secure themselves against the repetition of -their calamity, they prepare not <i>one</i> queen only, but -<i>several</i>, so that, if the first which comes to maturity -be lost, there may be others in reserve. A further -act of definite judgment appears in this; for, if one -only were produced and lost, they would be powerless -to repeat the process, as all the rest of the -worker brood would, in the mean time, have advanced -far beyond the stage at which its transformation -would be possible. The bees, then, with -admirable prevision, forbear to risk all the future -of their community on one hope of a queen.</p> - -<p>Once more, we may notice the remarkable fact that, -if a queen be removed or lost late in the summer, at -the time when the destruction of the drones is drawing -to a close, the males of that particular hive will be -spared as long as there is any hope that a royal -spouse may be needed. In this instance, too, we -have what seems a distinct judgment of the necessity -that there should be drones spared for the renewal -of the progeny of the stock, and their consequent -immunity from the death or banishment they would -have undergone in a community possessing a fertile -sovereign.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">- 238 -</span></p> - -<p>Again, in the late summer, when supplies of honey -from the fields begin to fail, the workers, even in a -flourishing hive, will not only worry to death, or drive -away to destruction, all the males which are adult, -but will pull out of the cells the immature drones, and -carry them from the hive. In this case we have two -independent judgments. First, that, having a fertile -queen, but no probability of further swarming, no -<i>raison d'être</i> exists for the males among them; and -secondly, that the unhatched males would, on emerging -from the cells, be useless consumers of precious -stores, and consequently are better destroyed.</p> - -<p>Numerous other evidences of judgment might be -adduced, such, for instance, as building drone-comb, -<i>i.e.</i> cells of large size, when unusual space is required -for quick storing of food, the different expedients -for repairing, refixing, and giving direction to combs, -in view of various difficulties to be encountered. But -we have said, we believe, sufficient to make good the -special point in question.</p> - -<p>We might, perhaps, with advantage, have spoken -of the faculty of <i>attention</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the direction of the -mental powers to a particular end by the determinate -action of the will. At every moment we may see, in -a busy hive, evidences of this power. Indeed, in so -complex a community, where so many operations are -constantly going forward, where so many stages of -social development are being passed through, where -so many separate interests have to be regarded, and -where the harmonious co-operation of individuals is -of supreme importance to the general welfare, it is -impossible that this faculty of attention should be -wanting or unexercised.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">- 239 -</span></p> - -<p>We have hinted at the prevision shown by bees. -Now, if this really exists in them, we must acknowledge -it to be one of the very highest endowments of -intellect It is that which in man removes him from -the sport of circumstances, and gives him large control -over his own earthly destinies. It is that which, -when applied to events more or less unascertainable -by the majority of men, proportionately awakes -their astonishment, and creates a reputation for ability -and high endowment. Now, that the faculty is possessed -by bees is, we think, evident from many considerations. -When, for instance, a hive has lost its -queen, and has no hope of a successor, despair comes -over the community, as the workers feel they have -no longer an object in their toil. They seem to foresee -the speedy end of their colony, and the consequent -uselessness of collecting stores, or proceeding -with comb-building.</p> - -<p>Again, the destruction of the drones and drone-brood, -when no longer of possible service, implies a -knowledge that the males, if spared, will produce a -scarcity of food, by uselessly consuming the stores, -while the preservation, to a late period, of drones in a -hive whose queen is lost near the end of summer, -indicates a foresight of the possible need of males to -mate with a young queen, whose advent is hoped -for.</p> - -<p>Without much risk of straining this line of argument, -we might consider the storage of honey and -bee-bread as a prevision, and not merely as a <i>provision</i> -for the needs of winter. In like manner, the -encasing in propolis of slugs, mice, or other intruders, -when dead in the hives, may be looked upon as a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">- 240 -</span> -safeguard against expected putrefaction. The cessation -from grief for loss of a queen, when new royal -cells are preparing, may be regarded as evidence of -anticipated joy in a coming monarch. We acknowledge, -however, that here the dividing line between -reason and instinct becomes very narrow, and it is -exceedingly difficult to determine the strict limits of -either.</p> - -<p>At this point, also, comes in the remarkable question -of heredity. The causes and determining circumstances -of this quality are at present very imperfectly -understood; nor is it probable that anything like a -complete explanation of the subject will be forthcoming. -That it is, however, a most potent element -in the subject of mental, as well as physical, characters -cannot be disputed. To it, in fact, the possession -of what we call instinct must be entirely -referred, though it leaves untouched the actual -nature of this endowment.</p> - -<p>The definition of instinct is not a very simple matter, -but we may consider it as a power, appearing in -generation after generation of animals, by which, without -instruction, they perform certain actions, or series -of actions, tending to the welfare of the individual or -of the race. We usually regard the purely intellectual -operations as improvable by education. Instinct, on -the other hand, neither requires, nor, in general, is -aided by teaching. It is true that man has taken -advantage of certain qualities, apparently instinctive, -in particular animals, and has seemed to improve -them by schooling them, as, for instance, in the case -of pointers and setters among dogs; but it is rather, -as it appears to us, the mental processes of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">- 241 -</span> -creature, which have been controlled and modified, -and then the tendency to the reproduction of these -has been transmitted by heredity. Pure instinct we, -therefore, continue to regard as outside the plane of -education.</p> - -<p>The faculty as exhibited by bees is most astonishing. -We have already enumerated many circumstances, -which evidently have had their origin in this -power, but we may well recall certain of these in -illustration of this point.</p> - -<p>Firstly, then, the shaping of the cells with definite -and constantly repeated angles of the sides; the -arrangement of them, so that the base of each is -formed by the junction of the bottoms of three cells -on the opposite side of the comb; the preparation of -abodes suitable in size, and in other special respects, -for the larvæ of queens, drones, and workers; and the -careful transition from one to the other of the last -two—all these and other circumstances connected -with the construction of their dwellings, attest the -possession of an innate faculty needing no instruction -from the elders of the hive.</p> - -<p>Again, the gathering, in due proportion and according -to varying needs, of honey, pollen, and propolis, -must be attributed to this same occult endowment. -The proper admixture of the different kinds -of food, adapted to the varying ages of the larvæ; the -preparation and administration of the "royal jelly," -necessary for the development of queen-larvæ; the -covering of the cells with waxen lids of different -shapes, according to the nature of their contents -convex on the male cells, nearly flat on those of -workers, and somewhat concave on the honey stores—are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">- 242 -</span> -other manifestations of an internal guide towards -useful labour.</p> - -<p>Once more, the series of remarkable facts connected -with their respect and attention and service to -their sovereign; their treatment of queens introduced -into hives possessing a queen, or without one; the -permission, and even urging, of rival monarchs to -fight <i>à outrance</i>; the expedients adopted to repair, if -by any means it is possible, the loss of a queen—all -these facts point, still further, to a power, by whose -almost unerring operation extraordinary results are -secured for the well-being and the very continuance -of the race.</p> - -<p>Nor is it easy to see how, on the principles of -evolution alone, this faculty can have been acquired; -for the remarkable point, and one apparently inexplicable -on the development-theory, is this, that the -two portions of the community alone concerned in -the actual propagation of the race are absolutely -without the special endowment of which we have -been speaking, at least so far as the particular -directions of its manifestation just mentioned enable -us to conclude. The queen among bees, unlike her -representative among wasps, is quite unable to -perform any of the processes preliminary to egg-laying. -She cannot secrete wax or build comb. She -cannot fly abroad to collect honey. She has no -means of gathering pollen. She can neither procure -nor use propolis. So helpless, indeed, is she, that, -bereft of attendants, she is unable to feed herself -sufficiently to maintain life. The drones, if not so -absolutely helpless, are equally incapable of all -constructive work, of the power of collecting honey, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">- 243 -</span> -making wax, building comb, guarding the stores -against robbers, or even tending and nurturing the -young brood. We see, then, the endowments of -instinct in all their higher manifestations are conferred -alone on the members of the community who -cannot transmit them to posterity. Nor does the -fact of the occasional appearance of fertile workers at -all explain away the difficulty; for, as has been -shown, such abnormal mothers produce only male -offspring, which never inherit the special faculties of -the undeveloped females, and consequently cannot -transmit what they have never possessed.</p> - -<p>If asked what solution of the difficulty we are -prepared to offer, we confess, with satisfaction, to the -retention of the undisproved theory that the Creator -has, in His own inscrutable, but all-beneficent, way, -specially gifted these insects with powers of a kind -adapted to the highest welfare of their race, as we -also believe He has given to other orders of beings, -from the ant up to man, and on to angels, faculties to -be used, not only for the benefit of the individual, the -species, or the genus, but for the harmonious working -of the universe He has called into being. To those, -at least, who rejoice to believe in a personal God, -who find an atheistic cosmos the most unthinkable -of notions; who see a thousand mysteries inexplicable -on any theory of unintelligent "natural -selection," the study of the honey-bee provides -reason for, and evokes the sentiment of, sublime -adoration of an infinite First Cause, <i>i.e.</i> the Deity.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">- 244 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">BEES IN RELATION TO FLOWERS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Connection of Plant-life and Insect-life—Reproduction of Flowers—Intervention -of Insects—Hermaphrodite Flowers—Cross-fertilisation—Cucumbers, -Melons, &c.—Poplars—Firs—Epilobium -or Willow Herb—Cincerarias—Darwin's Experiments—Nasturtium—Foxglove—Figwort—Salvia—Heath—Strawberry, -Raspberry, and Blackberry—Apple and Pear—Altruism of Bees.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> connection between insects and the plant-world, -and the mutual benefits they render, have long been -known to man. While the one kingdom is almost -entirely dependent on the other for sustenance, and -this, not only as regards food, but for dwelling-places -also: the organic, but (so far as we can judge) inanimate, -one of the two, requires the aid of the -animate for the continued reproduction of many of -its members.</p> - -<p>It would lead us too far from the subject of this -book to enter at all fully into the question of the -complete interaction of plant-life and insect-life. In -dealing with the relations of bees to flowers we shall, -therefore, confine our remarks almost entirely to the -important part played by these creatures in the -reproduction of certain kinds of plants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">- 245 -</span></p> - -<p>It may, perhaps, be necessary, previously to -entering on this subject, to say that in flowers we -have organs analogous to, though widely differing -from, those indicative of sex in the animal world. -The functions, at least, are the same; and the combined -action of the two sets is essential to the -propagation of the race by seed. Unless pollen from -the anthers is conveyed to the pistil, and, germinating -there, imparts to the ovules vivifying nourishment, -no seed will come to perfection, or will be capable of -growing. While most flowers are hermaphrodite, <i>i.e.</i> -produce both stamens (or anther-bearers) and pistils, -it happens, in not a few instances, that certain flowers -have anthers, and no pistils: while others, on the -same plant, have pistils, but no anthers. Again, the -antheriferous and pistiliferous flowers, in certain -species, are found on different individual plants, so -that, unless some agency were provided for the transference -of the pollen, these species would inevitably -die out. Now, the two means for this conveyance -are the wind and insects. It is evident that the -former can have only a very limited action, and would -need for its effective service a great abundance of any -particular flower, lest the fructifying grains should -become the mere sport of the breezes, and fail to -reach their all-important goal, and accomplish their -all-needful function.</p> - -<p>Moreover, in many cases, the position of the -anthers in the flower entirely excludes the possibility -of any currents of air assisting in the carrying of the -pollen-dust to the pistil of the same or of different -flowers. Hence there is a necessity for the intervention -of insects; and that they may be induced to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">- 246 -</span> -visit such flowers, and unconsciously effect the -essential operation of fertilising them, nectar is -secreted near the base of the stamens or the ovary, -or in some position which will involve, in the gathering -of it, the brushing off and conveying away of -some of the pollen-grains. It is, indeed, a remarkable -fact that fragrance and honey-bearing are -scarcely ever associated with plants which can easily -be wind-fertilised. Such flowers are, also, for the -most part, inconspicuous; while those which need -the agency of insects to aid in their reproduction are -bright in colour, sweet in perfume, and more or less -prolific in honey.</p> - -<p>It must not be supposed, however, that even the -hermaphrodite, or double-sexed, flowers are independent -of the visits of bees and other insects. In -all of them cross-fertilisation, as Darwin has abundantly -proved,<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> is a most important factor in the -continued vitality of any species, and cross-breeding -gives an immense advantage in "the struggle for -existence," where the conditions of life are not wholly -favourable. Indeed, in many instances, special provision -has been made by the Creator against self-fertilisation: -in some cases, by the anthers and pistil -coming to maturity, in the same flower, at different -times; in others, by the placing of the stamens in -such a position relatively to the stigma (or top of the -pistil) that it is not possible for the pollen-grains of -the one set of organs to fall on the surface of the -other. It cannot but be interesting to give examples -of these various facts, and so to show the marvellous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">- 247 -</span> -and necessary connection between the two kingdoms -of nature.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> For full and most interesting information on this point, vide <i>Cross -and Self-Fertilisation of Plants</i>, by Charles Darwin. Murray.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Firstly, then, as well-known instances of pistil-bearing -and stamen-bearing flowers occurring separately -on the same plant, we may mention cucumbers, -melons, marrows, <i>et hoc genus omne</i>. Now, when -these vegetables are grown under glass, whether in -greenhouses or in pits, to which bees and other -insects have little or no access, gardeners find it -necessary themselves to apply the pollen-bearing -portions of the one kind of flower to the pistil of -the other. If this is neglected to be done, the fruit -makes no progress, turns yellow, and dies. Where, -however, the plants are grown in the open air, or are -not so shut up as to exclude insects, they will be -fertilised without the intervention of man; for bees -of various kinds will certainly visit the flowers, and -carry the life-giving dust where it is needed. In fact, -we believe it might be asserted with confidence, -that in all plants, where this separation of, what we -may call, the sexes takes place, the flowers possess -special attractiveness to the tenants of our hives; -and it is well that this is the case, otherwise the -continued existence of such plants would be seriously -endangered.</p> - -<p>As examples of diœcious genera, or those having -pollen-bearing flowers on one plant and pistiliferous -flowers on another, we may note the willows, the -poplars, and the firs; and it is remarkable that these -all are special favourites with bees. In the early -spring, when breeding has been going on in the -hives, and when the demands of the advancing larvæ -require considerable supplies of pollen, the catkins -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">- 248 -</span> -of the willow are abundantly visited, and the diffusion -of their fertilising powder is thus greatly promoted. -The same may be said about the poplar, -and, in all probability, the gathering of propolis from -trees of the fir-tribe makes the bee the unconscious, -but useful, instrument of carrying pollen from the -catkins to the cones, though, from the abundance of -the powder, and the openness of the scales of the -cones r the wind is a sufficiently effective agent for -its conveyance in this order of trees.</p> - -<table summary="Epilobium"> -<tr> - <td style="width: 250px;"> - <div class="figcenter" id="fig70"> - <img src="images/fig70.png" width="231" height="190" alt="" /></div></td> - <td style="width: 250px;"> - <div class="figcenter" id="fig71" style="width: 173px;"> - <img src="images/fig71.png" width="173" height="233" alt="" /></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><div class="tdc figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.—Epilobium Angustifolium.</span> (Young bloom.)</div></td> - <td><div class="tdc figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.—Epilobium Angustifolium.</span> (Old bloom.)</div></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Passing next to cases in which the stamens and -pistils of the same flower come to maturity at different -times, so as to make cross-breeding a necessity, -we may mention first some plants in which the -pollen ripens before the stigma is ready to receive -it. We have such a condition of things in the <i>willow-herb</i>, -or <i>epilobium tribe</i>. The pretty pink blossoms -of a large variety of this genus are to be found, in -summer, along the banks of brooks and running -ditches. We will confine our remarks to the species -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">- 249 -</span> -distinguished by its narrow leaves, and hence named -<i>angustifolium</i>. When the flower has fully opened, -the eight stamens spread out, and their anthers shed -the pollen. Bees visit the blossoms, and getting dusted -with the grains, carry these away to other flowers of -the same kind. And here, in passing, we may recall -the fact of bees keeping to one species of plant -during the whole of any one journey from the hive. -The importance of this can be now better appreciated, -when its influence on the fructification of blossoms is -observed. But to return, the pistil of the willow-herb -remains, till the stamens have withered, curved -round out of the way, and unable to receive any of -their pollen. Then, after they are dead, it comes into -such a position that it can take what pollen may be -brought to it from younger flowers. For the conveyance -of this it is dependent chiefly on bees, who do -not fail to carry enough for the required purpose. -In this way each blossom, by the agency of these -insects, both gives and gets what is necessary for the -continued life of the species; and without these -unconsciously conferred benefits from insect life, no -seeds of this kind of <i>epilobium</i> would mature.</p> - -<p>Another instance, equally interesting, is seen in -the well-known <i>cineraria</i> tribe. The plants of this -genus belong to the <i>composite</i> order, in which what is -usually called the blossom, consists of many flowers, -grouped together on one head. In the example before -us, there are nearly 200 thus aggregated. These florets -separately open at different times, those of the outer -circles coming before those nearer the centre. The -pollen-tube of each is formed by five anthers, fastened -together at their edges, and discharging their -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">- 250 -</span> -pollen into the space between them. At the lower -part of this inclosure the pistil is growing, but is not -in a condition to receive usefully the fertilising -powder. It, however, as it advances, sweeps out, -and carries up with it, the pollen-grains, so that they -may be conveyed to other florets of the same or -other blossoms, to effect their vitalising work. At -length the pistil, with its brush on its summit, comes -into view, but, even yet, is not sufficiently developed -for fertilisation. In due course, however, the upper -end splits, and exposes the surface of the stigma -ready for the pollen, which must be brought from -some other floret, and probably from some other -blossom. Thus cross-breeding is effectually secured.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig72" style="width: 334px;"> - <img src="images/fig72.png" width="334" height="277" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.—Cineraria.</span> (Magnified.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Another point for attaining this end is worthy of -remark. The outer ring of florets is distinguished -by long, coloured petals, which make up, in common -parlance, the flower of the cineraria. These serve -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">- 251 -</span> -to render the composite head conspicuous, and -attractive to insects. Some varieties, moreover, emit -fragrant odours, and thus present further inducements -for visitation. It is remarkable that, in these florets of -the outer edge, the gay-coloured petals are developed -at the expense of the anthers. Consequently, they -produce no pollen, and their pistils have no brushes, -as there would be no office for them to perform. -The bright rays have accomplished their own special -purpose, and the florets may well depend on others -for pollen.</p> - -<p>Now, as to the great importance of cross-fertilisation -in this species, we may quote the experiments -made by Dr. Darwin.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> He says: "Two purple-flowered -varieties (of cineraria) were placed under -a net in the greenhouse, and four corymbs (or -bunches of flowers) on each were repeatedly brushed -with flowers from the other plant, so that their -stigmas were well covered with each other's pollen. -Two of the eight corymbs thus treated produced -very few seeds, but the other six produced on an -average 41.3 seeds per corymb, and these germinated -well. The stigmas on four other corymbs on both -plants were well smeared with pollen from the -flowers on their own corymbs; these eight corymbs -produced altogether ten extremely poor seeds, which -proved incapable of germinating. I examined many -flowers on both plants, and found the stigmas spontaneously -covered with pollen; but they produced -not a single seed. These plants were afterwards left -uncovered in the same house, where many other -cinerarias were in flower; and the flowers were -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">- 252 -</span> -frequently visited by bees. They then produced -plenty of seed, but one of the two plants less than -the other, as this species shows some tendency to -be diœcious.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> See <i>Cross and Self-Fertilisation of Plants</i>, p. 335.</p> - -</div> - -<p>"The trial was repeated on another variety with -white petals tipped with red. Many stigmas on two -corymbs were covered with pollen from the foregoing -purple variety, and these produced eleven and -twenty-two seeds, which germinated well. A large -number of the stigmas on several of the other -corymbs were repeatedly smeared with pollen from -their own corymb; but they yielded only five very -poor seeds, which were incapable of germination. -Therefore the above three plants, belonging to two -varieties, though growing vigorously and fertile with -pollen from either of the other two plants, were -utterly sterile with pollen from other flowers on the -same plant."</p> - -<table summary="Blooms"> -<tr> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig73" style="width: 194px;"> - <img src="images/fig73.png" width="194" height="207" alt="" /></div></td> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig74" style="width: 200px;"> - <img src="images/fig74.png" width="200" height="226" alt="" /></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><div class="tdc figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.—Tropœolum Majus.</span><br />(Young bloom.)</div></td> - <td><div class="tdc figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.—Tropœolum Majus.</span><br />(Old bloom.)</div></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>A condition similar to that described in the -cineraria is found in the nasturtium (<i>Tropœolum -majus</i>). In the young blossom may be observed the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">- 253 -</span> -five stamens fully developed, while the stigma remains -quite out of their reach. Later, when all the pollen -is discharged from the anthers, the pistil throws -up its style and stigma, now ready for fertilisation, -which must be effected by the transfer of pollen from -some other blossom of the same or another plant -of the species. This transfer is effected, usually, by -the bees.</p> - -<p>Another example of this non-coincidence in the -times of development of the stamens and pistil is -found in the foxglove (<i>Digitalis purpurea</i>), but the -fertilisation is effected by the larger humble-bees. -The two upper and longer stamens shed their pollen -before the two lower and shorter ones. This -arrangement partly avoids the risk of self-fertilisation, -while their position, which changes just when -the anthers are ripe, enables them to smear the -under side of any entering bee; while they also shed -their pollen abundantly on the thickly-set hairs -lining the mouth of the corolla. A second use is -served by these hairs, viz., that of obstructing the -entrance of the smaller kinds of bees, which could not -so effectually fertilise the ovules. The larger sorts, -in their raids upon the nectar, carry pollen from -flower to flower, thus in the best manner bringing -about the most desirable result of cross-breeding.</p> - -<p>Passing now to plants in which the pistil develops -earlier than the stamens, we may note the knotted -figwort (<i>Scrophularia nodosa</i>). On making a section -of a recently opened flower, the style, with its stigma, -may be observed protruding just beyond the lip of -the corolla, while the stamens are hiding away, as it -were, in a little pouch below the entrance of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">- 254 -</span> -blossom. When fertilisation by pollen from another -flower has taken place, the pistil droops and withers; -while the anthers grow upwards to the mouth of the -corolla, and present their nectar to the honey-seekers, -for conveyance to other flowers of the species.</p> - -<table summary="Blooms"> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> - <div class="figcenter" id="fig75" style="width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/fig75.png" width="109" height="188" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.—Section of Scrophularia Nodosa.</span></div> - </div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig76" style="width: 117px;"> - <img src="images/fig76.png" width="117" height="194" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.—Scrophularia Nodosa.</span><br />(Young bloom.)</div> - </div></td> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig77" style="width: 122px;"> - <img src="images/fig77.png" width="122" height="188" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.—Scrophularia Nodosa.</span><br />(Old bloom.)</div> - </div></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In the common sage (<i>Salvia officinalis</i>) we find a -very remarkable contrivance, by means of which the -anthers, through a sort of hinge-like connective, are -brought down on the back of a bee entering the -flower. The pollen thus discharged is carried by the -insect to other blossoms, in which the place of the -withered stamens has been occupied by the stigma -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">- 255 -</span> -now ready to receive the grains. Thus again inter-breeding -is secured.</p> - -<table summary="Blooms"> -<tr> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig78" style="width: 203px;"> - <img src="images/fig78.png" width="203" height="154" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.—Salvia Officinalis.</span><br />(New bloom.)</div> - </div></td> - <td><div class="figcenter" id="fig79" style="width: 209px;"> - <img src="images/fig79.png" width="209" height="156" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.—Salvia Officinalis.</span><br />(Old bloom.)</div> - </div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> - <div class="figcenter" id="fig80" style="width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/fig80.png" width="297" height="221" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.—a. Erica Tetralix. b. Anther of Tetralix.</span></p></div> - </div></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The next figure represents the very curious -arrangement of the stamens in the <i>Erica tetralix</i>, or -common heath. These, eight in number, are seen -standing round the style, at about half its length. -Each is held by a long filament (only one of which -is shown in the figure), and is armed with a horn-like -process. When the anthers are ripe, the pollen -would escape from openings in their sides, were it -not that the little slits abut on each other. When, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">- 256 -</span> -however, a bee visits the flower, and thrusts up her -proboscis, this strikes against one of the little horns, -and pulls apart its anther from the rest. Pollen then -drops on the bee's head, to be carried by it to other -blossoms, which, while receiving a portion brought -to them, in their turn give the bee a supply to carry -to other flowers. It is a very salutary thing for -the propagation of the heath that bees have such a -strong liking for its nectar, and are thus induced -to perform, albeit unconsciously, the process of -fertilisation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig81" style="width: 311px;"> - <img src="images/fig81.png" width="311" height="177" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.—Section of Strawberry Bloom.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In the strawberry the stigmas are ripe long before -the pollen is ready; and hence we understand why -the Creator has arranged that the nectar of these -blossoms should be so attractive to the bees, whose -visits are so necessary for the development of the -fruit. When fertilisation takes place, growth proceeds -in the ordinary manner, and with results so satisfactory -to mankind. Where pollen fails to fall on -any of the multitudinous stigmas, we have a shrunken, -hard, greenish mass. Any dish of strawberries will -show where this has happened. It is said that to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">- 257 -</span> -produce one perfect specimen of the fruit, from 100 -to 300 separate fertilisations must be effected.</p> - -<p>In the raspberry and blackberry again, each drupel, -or little fleshy portion, of which very many make up -one so-called berry, has had its own stigma, which an -insect has visited; and hence again, we understand -how it is that the flowers have been so largely -endowed with nectar, as to entice the bees most -freely to visit them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig82" style="width: 252px;"> - <img src="images/fig82.png" width="252" height="189" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.—Section of Apple Bloom.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In apple and pear blossoms we have other instances -of the stigmas coming to maturity before the anthers; -and, therefore, they require the intervention of bees -for their fertilisation. Peaches, apricots, nectarines, -plums, greengages, and, we might almost venture to -assert, all our choicest and most valuable fruits, are -dependent for their perfection upon the busy searchers -after honey; and many a market-gardener would -greatly increase his chances of good crops of fruit, -were he to maintain a few stocks of bees in his -orchards, and allow access for the active workers to -his trees blossoming under glass-houses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">- 258 -</span></p> - -<p>From the vegetable world we might adduce many -other evidences of the marvellous interdependence of -the two great kingdoms of organic nature. Enough, -however, has been said to illustrate this point, and we -trust that some of our readers may be led to further -investigation in this field, which opens up such -wonders, and such pleasurable surprises, for all who -care to trace evidences of the Creator's infinite -resources, wisdom, and care for all that He has -made.</p> - -<p>Everywhere, also, on earth may be seen at work -the grand law of self-sacrifice for others' needs. Very -many facts which we have detailed in the natural -history of bees, illustrate this most thoroughly. We -may, indeed, say that the life of a worker, who will -neither have progeny of her own, nor see many of -the race for whom she spends her powers, is one -continued offering of herself for the welfare of the -community. As the Latin poet says, <i>Sic vos non -vobis, mellificatis apes</i>; and thus these unselfish -toilers, beside teaching us many another lesson, seem -to foreshadow, and to lead our thoughts to, the -infinite gift of Him "who gave Himself for us" that -we in and through Him might have life.</p> - -<p>God has written tokens of His wisdom and love -around us everywhere. None who reverently observe -any of His works can fail to see His attributes -embodied throughout all nature.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">- 259 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Superstitions likely to gather around Bees—Unlucky to Buy Bees—Ill -Omen for a Swarm to Settle on a Dry Stick—"Have -the Bees been told?"—Turning Hives on the Death of the -Owner—Probable Origin of these Errors.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> <i>a priori</i> grounds it is only to be expected that -various superstitions would arise at different times -and in various countries with regard to bees. Insects -displaying such marvellous instincts, such apparent -adaptation of means to ends, such indications of -reasoning and special intelligence, were sure to be -credited with powers beyond those generally recognised -in them. Hence we may account for some of -the curious ideas about bees which have prevailed -in certain localities.</p> - -<p>There are other notions, however, the origin of -which is more difficult to discover. Such, for -instance, is the prejudice among ignorant bee-keepers -against selling for coin swarms or stocks. -A purchase thus made is supposed to be likely to -lead to misfortune for one of the two parties concerned. -By some occult process, lying outside the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">- 260 -</span> -range of reason or imagination, ill luck is thought -to be attracted by bargains of this sort.</p> - -<p>A correspondent of the <i>Journal of Horticulture</i> -thus narrates the following incidents: "Last August -I purchased a swarm, for which I paid ten shillings. -So far as I could judge from my limited experience -with bees, for the first fortnight they appeared to be -doing well, but one night, about eight o'clock, I -found they had deserted the hive, and were on the -ground in a cluster the size of a large plate. I -gently lifted the hive and placed it over the cluster. -About ten o'clock I found most of the bees had gone -up into the hive, which I then returned to its stand. -For a short time the bees appeared to work, but one -day, thinking they appeared very quiet, I lifted the -hive, and discovered that it was quite empty of bees. -There were three nice pieces of empty comb. I -think the bees were teased by wasps. Our parishioners -tell me I did two things wrong, and that in -consequence my bees could not thrive. One was to -give money for them, which is always unlucky; the -other was, that I did not have them at the right -time of the year. I ought to have had them on -Old Christmas Day. Is there anything in these -ideas?"</p> - -<p>The correspondent signed herself "A Clergyman's -Wife," and the explanation of her want of success was -not far to seek. She had been taken in by the -vendor of her bees. A poor swarm had been palmed -off upon her, and one so manifestly weak, and having, -so late in the comb-making and honey-gathering -time as August, only three small combs, was doomed -to perish with cold and starvation. The poor insects, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">- 261 -</span> -as a forlorn hope, had deserted their hive for what -they trusted might be better quarters. The fallacy -of the coin having had anything to do with their -destruction, takes rank with the disinclination of some -people to accept from a friend the present of a pocket-knife, -unless the donor will take a halfpenny in exchange; -or with the old saying "Helping to salt is -helping to sorrow." We can hardly suppose that the -kindly sort of freemasonry, which now exists among -bee-keepers, has ever proceeded so far as to make -any one always willing to <i>give</i> his swarms or stocks -to another. If so, the benevolence once current has -degenerated into a willingness, even among the -devotees to the superstition of which we are speaking, -to accept full value in the way of barter if not in -cash. Whatever its origin, we feel satisfied the days -of this prejudice are numbered. With the immense -spread of apiculture now taking place experience and -common sense will sweep away this psychological -cobweb, as so many others have been made to disappear -under the same powerful agencies.</p> - -<p>As to the other superstition about "Old Christmas -Day" being the proper time for procuring a stock, -the probability is that seasons sacred to the memory -of events in the life of our Lord Jesus Christ would -have special attributes of good fortune attributed to -them. But the actual reason why stocks purchased -at the above-named period would be pretty sure to -do well is, that by Old Christmas Day they would -have passed the perils of early winter, and would -be hardly likely to find a buyer unless their weight -indicated that they had food supplies sufficient to -last till the flowers came again.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">- 262 -</span></p> - -<p>A second notion of this kind is, that if a swarm -settles on a dry stick or dead tree, the bees will not -long survive. Doubtless, many persons could be found -to state that in their own apiaries they had seen -instances in which the one event had followed the -other. We, indeed, have had one such coincidence—a -case in which a swarm settled on a stake supporting -an espalier apple-tree, and died during the ensuing -winter. Still, we are unable to believe that there is any -real connection between the incidents. Living trees -offer so many inducements to a swarm on the wing -for settling—the benefit of shade above all—that it is -not to be wondered at that branches with foliage are, -if accessible, almost always chosen by the insects -for alighting on. It is just possible that an old and -feeble queen may occasionally, when heading a swarm, -be unable to fly farther than a very short distance, -and, through fatigue, may settle on a post or other -leafless wood. Of course such a queen would be -likely to die within a few months at most, and thus -involve the loss of the colony during the next winter. -Hence the idea we are speaking of <i>may</i> have arisen.</p> - -<p>We come now to a notion more widely prevalent -than either of the preceding, and perhaps even more -absurd. We allude to the supposed necessity of -informing the bees of the death of their owner or of -any member of his family. So strongly is this fallacy -held, that in many country districts, especially among -the cottagers, the question after a decease in the -household "Have the bees been told?" is almost as -much a matter of course as an inquiry whether the -undertaker has been sent for. Even in the depth of -winter, it is thought by believers in this superstition -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">- 263 -</span> -needful to "wake the bees," albeit we know that -they are not asleep, and tell them of the sad event, -in which they are supposed to have so profound an -interest. In Maude's <i>Antiquities</i> we read of the -following case in point: "A gentleman at a dinner -table happened to mention that he was surprised, on -the death of a relative, by his servant inquiring -whether his master would inform the bees of the -event, or whether he should do so. On asking the -meaning of so strange a question, the servant assured -him that bees ought always to be informed of a death -in the family, or they would resent the neglect by -deserting the hive. This gentleman resides in the -Isle of Ely, and the anecdote was told in Suffolk. -One of the party present, a few days afterwards took -the opportunity of testing the prevalence of this -strange notion, by inquiring of a cottager, who had -lately lost a relative, and happened to complain of -the loss of her bees, whether she had told them all -she ought to do. She immediately replied, 'Oh! -yes, when my aunt died I told every skep myself, and -put them into mourning.' I have since ascertained -the existence of the same superstition in Cornwall, -Devonshire, Gloucestershire (where I have seen black -crape put round the hive or on a small stick by its -side), and Yorkshire. There are many other singular -notions afloat as to these insects. In Oxfordshire -I was told that, if man and wife quarrelled, the bees -would leave them.</p> - -<p>"In the <i>Living Librairie</i>, Englished by John -Molle, 1621, page 283, we read, 'Who would beleeve -without superstition (if experience did not make it -credible) that most commonly all the bees die in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">- 264 -</span> -their hives if the master or mistress of the house -chance to die, except the hives be presently removed -into some other place? And yet I know this hath -hapned to folke no way stained with superstition.' A -vulgar prejudice prevails in many places of England -that, when bees remove or go away from their hives, -the owner of them will die soon after."</p> - -<p>A correspondent of <i>The Bee Journal</i> writes under -the head of "Norfolk Bee-Superstition": "A neighbour -of mine had bought a hive of bees at an auction -of the goods of a farmer, who had recently died. The -bees seemed very sickly, and not likely to thrive; -when my neighbour's servant bethought him they had -never been put in mourning for their late master. On -this he got a piece of crape and tied it to a stick, -which he fastened to a hive. After this the bees -recovered; and when I saw them they were in a very -flourishing state—a result which was unhesitatingly -attributed to their having been put into mourning."</p> - -<p>It is more difficult to suggest the possible origin of -these curious fancies than to explain those previously -mentioned. We may, perhaps, be on the right track -in supposing that it has often happened, when the -master or mistress of the bees has been ill or has -died, the insects have missed, especially in autumn or -early spring, the attention required for their welfare, -and have, in consequence, perished. Then other -persons of the household, unacquainted with the -actual connection—in many instances a <i>vital</i> connection—between -the bees and their owner, have -attributed to them a bond not actually existing; -and so, being led to the silly notion of the insects -grieving, or needing to be informed, and to have their -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">- 265 -</span> -hive put in mourning, they have easily diffused a -superstition in which each favouring coincidence -would tell widely for its extended belief.</p> - -<p>In the Norfolk case, narrated in <i>The Bee Journal</i>, -several possible explanations suggest themselves. In -the first place, if the deceased farmer was an inhabitant -of the same village as the buyer of his bees, and -the hives were removed to a new home near their old -one, most of the bees which had previously flown -would return to their accustomed spot, and perish, -not knowing their way to their changed abode. -Then, in the course of a fortnight or three weeks, a -good number of freshly-hatched insects would have -strengthened the community, and these, naturally, -would return with their supplies to the fresh -domicile, and soon put matters into a flourishing -condition.</p> - -<p>Again, if dull gloomy weather followed the purchase -of the bees, and was succeeded by brighter -days, coincidently with the fastening of the stick and -crape to the hives, the improved appearances would, -of course, be due to warmer temperature and sunnier -hours, without any change in the feelings of the -insects from their abode being duly adorned with -the emblems of mourning.</p> - -<p>Lastly, the explanation may be simply that, when -the stock was bought it was in poor condition, but -that in two or three weeks, by the hatching of brood -in the natural course of events, a greatly improved -condition of affairs had come about. The first of these -explanations, however, is probably the correct one.</p> - -<p>One more superstitious custom is said to prevail -in Devonshire, viz., at the funeral of a deceased bee -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">- 266 -</span> -keeper, the turning round of every hive that belonged -to the departed, and this just at the moment the -corpse is being carried out of the house. We do not -pretend to explain this curious fancy. It may have -originated in an experiment to avert the supposed -disastrous connection between the bees and the death -of their owner. Anything would seem to do for a -charm to minds imbued with superstition.</p> - -<p>Borlase, in his <i>Antiquities of Cornwall</i>, mentions -one other superstition of apiarians of that county. -He says: "The Cornish to this day invoke the -spirit Browny when their bees swarm; and think -that their crying 'Browny, Browny,' will prevent -their returning to their former hive, and make them -pitch and form a new colony."</p> - -<p>It is not wonderful that the many extraordinary -facts connected with bees, coming at various times -under human observation, should have led to notions -of marvels, founded, not on observation, but on -fancy. There is a strong tendency in the human -mind to desire explanations of phenomena, and -where there has been no scientific training in observation, -false deductions are easily arrived at, or -guesses as to causes are made, which have no -foundation in fact. Bee-keeping has, for the most -part, till in quite recent times, been chiefly in the -hands of people of the more ignorant classes, among -whom wonderful stories easily arise, are rapidly -propagated, and tenaciously believed. Any circumstances -seeming to support a previously established -fancy would serve to increase the strength of superstition; -while any number of instances not corroborating -prevailing ideas would be disregarded. But, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">- 267 -</span> -when once the spirit of sound investigation is applied -to these vulgar errors, they become so manifestly -absurd, that the marvel is how they can possibly -have arisen.</p> - -<p>Without doubt, there are many extraordinary facts -connected with bees still awaiting the observation -and the explanation of explorers in this department -of natural history. Problems connected with the -working of mind in the lower animals; the relations -between reason and instinct; the functions of particular -organs in these and other insects; the transmission -of faculties not possessed by either parent in -particular races; the direction and variation in the -working of inherent faculties, through the agency of -man, are subjects opening up most interesting fields of -inquiry, which we would point out to those who have -the inclination, leisure, and opportunities for pursuing -investigations. We are satisfied that efforts and time -thus devoted will be well repaid by the pleasure -which springs from knowledge, and will lead in all -devout minds to enlarged admiration of the wisdom -and beneficence of Him, from whose creative power -the varied structures of animal life have come, and -from whose infinite resources have been bestowed all -those faculties which call forth our astonishment and -delight as we study the facts of insect life. The -deepest impression on mind and heart will be that -embodied in the exclamation of the ancient Hebrew -poet, "O Lord, how manifold are Thy works: in -wisdom hast Thou made them all."</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">- 268 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PROFITS OF BEE-KEEPING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Methods of Honey-taking—Straw Caps—Bell-Glasses—Sections—Frames—Extractors—Run -Honey—Average Returns of Hives.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> our introduction, reference was made to the -money-returns likely to be derived from bee-keeping -by persons of ordinary good sense, who learn to -manage their hives according to modern methods. -Some few facts relating to this point may be advantageously -added.</p> - -<p>With the different straw-skeps in use, three methods -of honey-taking may be adopted, without killing the -bees. Among cottagers the usual plan is to put on -to the stock-hive a "cap" or smaller straw-hive, and -to remove this when full. Others, more wisely, induce -their bees to work in bell-glasses of various sizes -and these, when nicely filled, are very saleable, at a -shilling or fifteen pence per lb. A third plan is to -fit a certain number of the "sections" described in -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Chapter XVII.</a> into a box or crate, and to place these -on a strong stock. In the height of a good season, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">- 269 -</span> -from 12 lbs. to 15 lbs. of the purest honey ought to -be gathered in three or four weeks, by any of these -methods.</p> - -<p>With the bar-frame hives, either bell-glasses, or -"sections," may be still more advantageously filled; -because, by judicious examination and treatment of -the stocks, these may be strengthened and helped, -so as to be in the most favourable condition for -storing honey in large quantities. It is no uncommon -thing for 40 lbs. or 50 lbs. to be taken in "sections" -from a single flourishing hive; and, in an ordinary -season, the average amount from each stock ought -not to be less than 20 lbs. Much, however, will -depend on the control exercised over swarming. Of -course the more numerous the population is kept, -the greater will be the quantity of stores secured. -If colony after colony is allowed to be sent off, the -less will be the strength of the parent-community -for food-gathering. Still, one swarm and 20 lbs. of -honey in the season is not an unreasonable amount -to expect from a really good hive.</p> - -<p>Again, from the modern wooden hives, frames of -well-filled and sealed comb may be taken, and after -this has been cut out, the frames may be put back -into their places, having been first supplied with -"foundation," to give help and direction to the bees -in working out new combs for refilling. One such -frame of sealed honey should weigh 5 lbs. or 6 lbs.</p> - -<p>Another plan, yielding by far the largest results, -is to throw out the honey from the combs as they -are filled. By means of "extractors," of which there -are several kinds, the operation is very easy. The -sealed cells of one side must be uncapped, and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">- 270 -</span> -frame then subjected to rapid rotation, which will -cause the liquid to fly out through centrifugal tendency. -Having cleared one side, the other must be -operated upon in the same manner, and then the -emptied combs should be put back into the hive, in -the same order as that in which they have been taken -out. In this way very large quantities of honey may -be obtained; for the bees, having no fresh comb to -make, throw all their energies into repairing and -refilling the cells from which their stores have been -extracted. The liquid from the unsealed portions -of the comb is apt to be thin, and is then called -"unripe." It requires to have some of its water -evaporated, either by exposure to the air or to heat. -If this precaution is neglected, this dilute honey is -liable to ferment and turn sour. The bees never -seal any in the cells till it is of the proper consistency -for keeping. It is curious they should know -when it is in suitable condition for covering up from -the air.</p> - -<p>Marvellous accounts are received from time to time -of the quantities of honey obtained by bee-keepers -who make free use of the "extractor." Single hives -have been known to yield in one season over 80 lbs. -in weight. The most satisfactory results are, probably, -secured by a selection of one of the various -methods of honey-taking to which we have alluded. -The nature of the hive; the strength of the stock; -the prevention of swarming, or its permission; the -supply of food required for the honeyless part of the -year,—all have to be taken into consideration in -deciding upon the method of removing honey, and -the amount which shall be abstracted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">- 271 -</span></p> - -<p>For ordinary home use, run honey is most serviceable. -As it can be sold, moreover, at only a less price -than that in sections or frames, there is this further -inducement for its consumption rather than its sale. -Ordinarily, not more than tenpence or a shilling a -pound, at most, can be obtained for it; while sealed -honey in sections, or in frames, is worth considerably -more.</p> - -<p>We need hardly say that the weather is a most -important factor in the success or failure of bee-keeping, -in any particular year. Apiculturists, like -agriculturists, are subject to many and great alternations -of hope and fear. The brightest prospects of -a bountiful honey-harvest are often blighted by rainy -or ungenial days in May and June; and if these are -succeeded by a cloudy, cold July, the bees will not -only not store any more honey than they will themselves -require, but may very possibly need liberal -supplies of syrup in the autumn to carry them -through the winter.</p> - -<p>Speaking in general terms of the profit to be made -by amateur bee-keepers, we may safely say that, in -a series of years, the average returns ought to be -sufficient to pay the expenses of maintenance, and to -yield, in addition, swarms and honey to the value of, -at least, 1<i>l.</i> per hive. Such results will, of course, -not be attained without patient and careful attention -to the apiary; but such attention will be further rewarded -by the pleasures derivable from a knowledge -of the habits of the wonderful insects; from the successful -pursuit of a rational and inexpensive hobby; -from the ability to interest and instruct other people -in this department of natural history; and lastly, but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">- 272 -</span> -not least, from enlarged conceptions of the attributes -of the Creator, whose almighty power and wisdom -are proclaimed alike by "sun and moon, and stars -of light; mountains and all hills; fruitful trees and -all cedars; beasts and all cattle; creeping things and -flying fowl."</p> - - - -<p class="pmt4 pmb4 caption3nb">THE END.</p> - - - -<p class="bdt smaller tdc pmb4">LONDON: K. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p class="caption3nb">Transcriber Note</p> - -<p>Minor typos corrected. In order to accommodate placement of some Figures, -paragraphs were split at logical break points.</p> - -</div> - - - - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HONEY-BEE; ITS NATURE, HOMES AND PRODUCTS ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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