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diff --git a/old/67435-0.txt b/old/67435-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c1a8a6c..0000000 --- a/old/67435-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7421 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The honey-bee; its nature, homes and -products, by William Hetherington Harris - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The honey-bee; its nature, homes and products - -Author: William Hetherington Harris - -Release Date: February 18, 2022 [eBook #67435] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas produced from materials made available at The - Internet Archive and placed in the Public Domain. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HONEY-BEE; ITS NATURE, -HOMES AND PRODUCTS *** - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis denoted as _Italics_. Whole and fractional parts of -numbers as 123-4/5. The ERRATA and ADDENDA (p. xvii) have been applied. - - - - - THE HONEY-BEE: - - ITS NATURE, HOMES, AND PRODUCTS. - - -[Illustration: Comb, Showing Different Kinds of Cells.] - - - - - THE HONEY-BEE - - ITS NATURE, HOMES, AND PRODUCTS. - - - BY - - W. H. HARRIS, B.A., B.Sc. - - - - - - LONDON: - - THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, - - 56, Paternoster Row; 65, St. Paul's Churchyard, - - and 164, Piccadilly. - - - - - LONDON: - - R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor, Printers, - - BREAD STREET HILL. - - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PAGES - - INTRODUCTION. - - 1-3 - - - CHAPTER I. - - HISTORIC SKETCH. - - Holy Scriptures--Vedas--Egyptian Monuments--The Koran-- - Etymological Considerations--Literature of Subject-- - Aristotle--Philiscus--Pliny--Vergil--Columella--Other - Classical Authors--Shakespeare--Modern Writers. - - 4-9 - - - CHAPTER II. - - NATURAL HISTORY. - - Orders of Insects--Stages of Development--Egg, Larva, Pupa, - Imago or Perfect Insect--Three Classes of Bees: Queen, - Drones, Workers. - - 10-16 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE QUEEN-BEE. - - Early Errors as to Sex--The "Mother Bee"--Distinguishing - Characteristics--Functions--Attentions paid her--Effects - of Loss; how Repaired by Bees--Enmity to Rivals--Length of - Life--Egg-laying. - - 17-28 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE DRONES. - - Distinguishing Characteristics--Time of Hatching--Numbers-- - Purposes served by them--Destruction by Workers or other - means--Unusual Survival. - - 29-34 - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE WORKERS. - - Distinguishing Characteristics--Supposed Differences of - Function among them--Sir John Lubbock's Experiments-- - Fertile Workers--Length of Life--"Black Bees"--Duties - of Workers. - - 35-43 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - HONEY. - - Origin--How Collected and Stored--Constitution--Poisonous - Honey--Best varieties of Honey--Distances traversed by - Bees in search of Honey--Uses - - 44-48 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - MEAD. - - Nature--Method of Manufacture--Metheglin and Mead--Estimation - in former times--Queen Elizabeth's Recipe--Scandinavian - liking for Mead. - - 49-52 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - WAX. - - Origin--Production--Chemical Constitution--Comb-Building-- - Detailed Description--Amount of Wax in Hives--Commercial - Value--Properties. - - 53-71 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD. - - Origin--Collection--Conveyance--Deposition--Quantity - Stored--Uses--Artificial Substitutes. - - 72-75 - - - CHAPTER X. - - PROPOLIS. - - Derivation of Word--Sources--Nature--Purposes--Quantity - Collected--Adaptation of Materials to Wants of Bees. - - 76-79 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BEE. - - Nervous System--The Head--Eyes--Compound and Simple--Uses - and Powers--Sir John Lubbock's Experiments--The Antennæ - --Structure and Uses--Mouth--Detailed Description. - - 80-100 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - HEARING, TASTE, AND SMELLING. - - Hearing--Sir John Lubbock's Experiments--Sounds uttered by - Queen--Effects produced by them--Smell-Organs--Purposes - --Liking for, and Antipathy to, certain Effluvia-- - Discovery by Bees of Nectar and Honey - - 101-108 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE THORAX. - - Detailed Description--Legs--Wings--How used in Flight-- - Hooking together--Employed for Ventilating. - - 109-114 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - THE ABDOMEN. - - Respiratory Organs--Circulation of Nutritive Fluid-- - Digestion and Nutrition--Secretion of Wax--Reproductive - Organs--Detailed description of Sting--Effects of - Poison--Queen's Sting. - - 115-128 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE DISEASES OF BEES. - - Dysentery: How Produced--Indications--Treatment. - Foul-Brood: two kinds--Nature--Propagation. Mr. - Cheshire's Discoveries and Treatment--Fatal Effects of - Disease--Detection--Vertigo--Analogy of Human and Bee - Diseases. - - 129-138 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE ENEMIES OF BEES. - - Birds--Mice--Moths--_Braula cœca_--Hornets and Wasps-- - Spiders--Toads--"Robber Bees"--Prevention of robbing. - - 139-147 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - HIVES. - - Natural Abodes of Wild Bees--Taking Honey from Roof of - House--Straw Skeps--Cottager's Hive--Supering--Nutt's - Collateral Hive--Village Hive--Woodbury Hive-- - Abbott's Hives--Sectional Supering--Stewarton Hive-- - Carr-Stewarton Hive--Observatory Hives--Bee-houses. - - 148-170 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - NATURAL SWARMING. - - General Facts connected with Swarming--Reconnoitring-- - Settling--Hiving--Curious Incidents--Transferring - Swarms to Bar-Frame Hives--Division of Swarms--Placing - Swarm in Permanent Position-Number of Bees in Swarming - --"Casts" and Later Swarms--Prevention of Swarming-- - Feeding of Swarms. - - 171-186 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. - - Advantages--Driving: Close and Open--Transfer to - Bar-Frame Hive--Conditions of Successful Driving-- - Various Methods of Artificial Swarming with - Bar-Frame Hives. - - 187-195 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - QUEEN REARING. - - Protection of Queen-cells--Nucleus Hives--Various Methods - of Queen Rearing--American Plan--Introduction of - Stranger Queens--Difficulties. - - 196-200 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - FEEDING. - - Troughs--Dangers of this Method--Bottle Feeders--Cheshire's - Feeding Stage--Neighbour's Can Feeder--The "Round Feeder" - --Autumn Feeding--Spring Feeding--Uses of Precautions-- - Summer Feeding of Swarms--Flour-cake--Barley-sugar or - Sugar-cake--Mr. Hunter's Recipe. - - 201-213 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - WINTERING BEES. - - False and True Hybernation--Temperature of Hive in - Winter--Necessity for Quiet during Winter--Structure and - Winter-packing of Bar-Frame Hives--Prevention of Draught - and Condensation of Vapour--Supply of Water. - - 214-220 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - BEE-STINGS. - - Gentleness necessary in Manipulation--Causes of Irritation - of Bees--Examination of Stocks--Treatment of Stings-- - Remedies--Effects of Stings--Inoculation--Bee Dress-- - Smoke and its Uses. - - 221-228 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - PASSIONS AND EMOTIONS OF BEES. - - Affection for Queen and Brood--Recognition of Friends and - Strangers--Fear--Anger--Covetousness--Benevolence-- - Remorse--Hope--Instinctive or Sense-action. - - 229-233 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - INTELLECT AND INSTINCT IN BEES. - - Intellect in Man and Animals as Related to Immortality-- - Memory--Judgment--Instances of Attention--Prevision-- - Provision--Instinct--Manifestations--Bearing on - Evolution. - - 234-243 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - BEES IN RELATION TO FLOWERS. - - Connection of Plant-life and Insect-life--Reproduction of - Flowers--Intervention of Insects--Hermaphrodite Flowers - --Cross-fertilisation--Cucumbers, Melons, &c.--Poplars - --Firs--Epilobium or Willow Herb--Cincerarias--Darwin's - Experiments--Nasturtium--Foxglove--Figwort--Salvia-- - Heath--Strawberry, Raspberry, and Blackberry--Apple and - Pear--Altruism of Bees. - - 244-258 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH BEES. - - Superstitions likely to gather around Bees--Unlucky to Buy - Bees--Ill Omen for a Swarm to Settle on a Dry Stick-- - "Have the Bees been told?"--Turning Hives on the Death - of the Owner--Probable Origin of these Errors. - - 259-267 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - THE PROFITS OF BEE-KEEPING. - - Methods of Honey-taking--Straw Caps--Bell-Glasses-- - Sections--Frames--Extractors--Run Honey--Average - Returns of Hives. - - 268-272 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Fig. PAGE - - Comb, Showing Different Kinds of Cells _Frontispiece_ - - 1. Eggs and Larva of Bees 12 - - 2. Larvæ 13 - - 3. Sealed Cells 14 - - 4. _a_, Larva full grown, viewed sideways, - _b_, Larva preparing for Pupa state 15 - - 5. Worker Larva and Pupa in Comb 16 - - 6. The Queen of the Hive 19 - - 7. Queen Surrounded by Attendants 20 - - 8. A Drone 29 - - 9. A Worker Bee 35 - - 10. A Worker Bee, showing the Scales of Wax 53 - - 11. Festoons of Bees Suspended from the Roof of the Hive 55 - - 12. Cluster of Bees 58 - - 13. Wax-Worker commencing a Comb 59 - - 14. Diagram of Cells 63 - - 15. Supposed Circular Cells 63 - - 16. Arrangement of Cells 64 - - 17. Diagram showing Slope of Cells 66 - - 18. Arrangement of Combs in a Bell-Glass 68 - - 19. The Queen Cell 69 - - 20. Queen Cells in situ 70 - - 21. Hind-leg of a Bee 73 - - 22. Nervous System of Privet Hawk Moth 81 - - 23. Nervous System of Larva of Bee 82 - - 24. Nervous System of Perfect Insect 83 - - 25. Eyes of a Bee (greatly magnified) 85 - - 26. Facets of Eye of a Bee 86 - - 27. Head of Bee, With Antennæ 98 - - 28. Lower Segments of Hind-leg of Bee, considerably enlarged 110 - - 29. Complete Hind-leg of Bee 110 - - 30. Wing of Bee 112 - - 31. Hooklets of a Bee's Wing 113 - - 32. Abdomen of Bee, showing Respiratory Organs 116 - - 33. Air-sacs of Worker 117 - - 34. _a_, Air-sacs; _b_, Ovaries, of the Queen 118 - - 35. _a_, Tracheæ; _b_, Elastic Spiral of Tracheæ 119 - - 36. Under Side of Abdomen, showing Wax Scales 121 - - 37. Bee, showing the Wax Scales 121 - - 38. Scales 121 - - 39. Ovaries and Spermatheca of Queen 123 - - 40. Sting of a Bee (greatly magnified) 125 - - 41. Barbs of a Bee's Sting (very highly magnified) 126 - - 42. The Enemies of Bees 141 - - 43. Straw Skep 150 - - 44. Flat-topped Hive and Straw Super 151 - - 45. Neighbour's Improved Cottager's Hive 152 - - 46. " " " 153 - - 47. Modern Hives. Nutt's Collateral Hive in the Foreground 155 - - 48. The Woodbury Hive 157 - - 49. Woodbury Straw Bar-frame Hive 157 - - 50. Cheshire's Bar-frame Hive 159 - - 51. Cheshire's Bar-frame Hive (sectional view) 160 - - 52. Abbott's Standard Frame 161 - - 53. " " (top view) 161 - - 54. Neighbour's Sectional Super (open) 162 - - 55. Frame Super 162 - - 56. Glass Frame Hive, with Super 163 - - 57. Stewarton Hive 165 - - 58. The Carr-Stewarton Hive 167 - - 59. Unicomb Observatory Hive 168 - - 60. A Swarm 173 - - 61. "Tanging" 174 - - 62. Hiving a Swarm 179 - - 63. Swarming Board 192 - - 64. Queen Cage over Sealed Cell 197 - - 65. Inserted Queen Cell 198 - - 66. Bottle Feeder 202 - - 67. Cheshire's Feeding Stage 203 - - 68. Can Feeder 205 - - 69. Round Tin Feeder 205 - - 70. Epilobium Angustifolium. (Young Bloom) 248 - - 71. " " (Old Bloom) 248 - - 72. Cineraria (magnified) 250 - - 73. Tropœolum Majus. (Young Bloom) 252 - - 74. " " (Old Bloom) 252 - - 75. Section of Scrophularia Nodosa 254 - - 76. Scrophularia Nodosa. (Young Bloom) 254 - - 77. " " (Old Bloom) 254 - - 78. Salvia Officinalis. (New Bloom) 255 - - 79. " " (Old Bloom) 255 - - 80. _a_, Erica Tetralix. _b_, Anther of Tetralix 255 - - 81. Section of Strawberry Bloom 256 - - 82. Section of Apple Bloom 257 - - -THE HONEY-BEE. - - -ERRATA. - - p. 22, ten lines from bottom, for "not full grown" read "not more - than two or three days old." - - p. 30, last line but one from the bottom, for "neuters" read - "strange workers." - - p. 55, line 10 from bottom, for "hind feet" read "pincers on the - hind legs." - - p. 110, bottom line, for "four anterior tarsi" read "in the hind - legs." - - p. 111, line 3, for "leg" read "hind leg." - - " line 6, for "This pocket" read "Above this, on the outside - of the tibia, is a pocket, lined, &c." - - p. 136, line 12, for "foul-breeding" read "foul-broody." - -ADDENDA. - - p. 126, three lines from bottom, add - - "The most remarkable function of the sting-apparatus - has, in modern times, been discovered to be the insertion of - a minute drop of the poison in each honey-cell when filled. - This acts as an anti-septic, and prevents fermentation in - the sweet liquid." - - p. 136, after first paragraph, add - - "It is now known that this treatment is by no means - always successful when the _bacilli_ have reached the - "resting" or "spore" stage." - -[Note: All above corrections and additions have been applied!] - - - - - -THE HONEY-BEE: - -ITS NATURE, HOMES, AND PRODUCTS. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -In these days of intense business-pressure, it is a good thing for -men to cultivate hobbies. We say this, notwithstanding the fact -that men with hobbies are likely to become bores, from thinking and -talking too incessantly of their pet occupations, or are apt to run -into extravagant expenditure of time and money, which could be better -utilised. Now, in recommending apiculture, or bee-keeping, as a -recreation from more serious pursuits, we feel that we incur little -risk of increasing the number of bores in society, or of inducing an -undue outlay of hours or pounds on the part of those who follow our -suggestions. For, on the one hand, the facts likely to be spoken of by -enthusiastic apiarians to casual hearers could not fail to interest; -while the practical results of bee-keeping will certainly, to say the -least, repay in hard cash all reasonable outlay on the part of any one -who is possessed of ordinary good sense, and who learns to manage his -hives according to modern methods. - -In the following pages we hope to make good both these statements. We -are sure that comparatively few people know what marvellous creatures -bees are; what constant pleasure may be found in watching their work; -what opportunities for skilful use of brain and hand are afforded by -an apiary; what a wide field of study and information is displayed -by these domesticated insects: and though we shall not hold out -dazzling prospects of a large return of money from the pursuit we are -commending, we shall show by facts that, in ordinary seasons, the yield -of honey should amply cover the cost of the bees, their homes, and -their requirements. - -Nor would we be understood to limit our recommendation of bee-keeping -to men alone. It is an occupation eminently suited to women. It has -none of the manifest drawbacks of poultry or rabbit-rearing. The needs -of the hives are usually not so pressing as to involve a disregard of -weather or important engagements. Many operations in apiculture call -for female dexterity of hand and finger. It is true that a little -courage, in which few ladies are deficient, is necessary in making a -beginning of skilful bee-management. But, duly protected by veil and -gloves, even the timid need have no fear of being stung or seriously -incommoded. - -Intelligent boys and girls of fifteen years and upwards will find a -hive or two of bees quite within their power of management, and the -clever and industrious insects will afford them a surprising amount of -interest, and, it may be, some not unimportant moral lessons. - -In the hope of enlarging popular knowledge of these wonderful insects, -and so of increasing apiculture, we have written this book. It does not -profess to go exhaustively into the practical part of bee-keeping; but -enough information is given for ordinary apiarian purposes. - -The excellent publications of Langstroth, Cowan, Cheshire, Neighbour, -Hunter, Taylor and Wood will supply all details intentionally omitted -from the present treatise. To several of the above writers, and to -some others mentioned at the end of Chapter I., the author desires to -express his obligations for numerous facts. - -Many of the most important illustrations in Chapters XI. and XIV., and -the whole of those in Chapter XXVI. have been taken, by permission, -from the diagrams published by the British Bee-keepers' Association. -These diagrams are reductions from drawings made by Mr. Frank Cheshire, -who is so well known as having devoted many years to the study of -apiculture, especially on its scientific side. To the same gentleman is -also due the discovery of many of the physiological marvels given in -Chapters XI. and XIV., and of the chief facts embodied in the chapter on -"Bees in relation to Flowers." - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -HISTORIC SKETCH. - - Holy Scriptures--Vedas--Egyptian Monuments--The - Koran--Etymological Considerations--Literature of - Subject--Aristotle--Philiscus--Pliny--Virgil--Columella--Other - Classical Authors--Shakespeare--Modern Writers. - -Far back in historic time there are records that man had learnt -the value of the bee. The book of Job--probably the oldest of our -sacred Scriptures--contains a reference to honey. The Pentateuch, -the Chronicles of the Israelites, the Psalms, the works of Solomon, -and nearly all the later books of the Old Testament, speak of these -wonderful insects or their produce. They are referred to in the Vedas -of Hindostan, the monuments of Egypt, the poems of Homer and Euripides, -and the narrative of Xenophon's expedition into Persia. - -Throughout the ancient civilised world the virtues of honey were -celebrated, and the habits of the bee served to point a moral for -human conduct. It is remarkable that in the Koran we find Mahomet -representing the Almighty as addressing this insect alone of all the -creatures He had made: "The Lord spake by inspiration unto the bee, -saying, 'Provide thee houses in the mountains and in the trees, and -of those materials wherewith men build hives for thee; then eat of -every kind of fruit, and walk in the beaten paths of thy Lord.' There -proceedeth from their bellies a liquor of various colours, wherein is a -medicine for men. Verily, herein is a sign unto people who consider." - -The ancient Egyptians must have known much of the domestic economy of -the hive, for they took the figure of the insect to symbolise a people -governed by a sovereign, and this so far back as the twelfth dynasty, -or 2080-1920 B.C. - -It has been argued on etymological grounds that in a much remoter -period still, the human race had domesticated the bee; for in Sanskrit -_ma_ means honey, _madhupa_ honey drinker, and _madhukara_ honey -maker. _Madhu_ is evidently the origin of our word mead. Again, _mih_ -or _mat_, in Chinese, signifies honey; and it can hardly be a mere -coincidence which has brought about so close a resemblance between the -Turanian and the Indo-European terms above mentioned. We have rather -the indication of the survival of a name in two branches of a still -older language than either of the Asiatic tongues, from which so large -a proportion of modern speech has flowed, thus carrying us back to an -enormously remote period in the history of man. The Latin _mel_, and -French _miel_, both meaning honey, are, of course, the offspring of the -Greek; and all the above words, according to some authorities, point -to the circumstance of the constructive power of the insect having -impressed the minds of men emphatically. - -In the Teutonic languages _biene_, _bee_, &c., are evidently connected -with _by_--a termination met with in many English towns, and signifying -"a dwelling"; and so we see that it was not so much the sweet liquid -procured and stored by the insects, as the skill and beauty with which -they fashioned their combs, which struck their human observers; and -though we cannot with certainty affirm that men domesticated them -in these remote times, it seems probable that races who, before the -historic period, had learnt to make use of most of the animals now -under immediate subjection to the wants and purposes of man, saw the -convenience and wisdom of turning to account the nectar-collecting -habits of the bee. Jacob, seventeen centuries before Christ, told his -sons to take "a little honey" among their presents to the lord of -Egypt. Again, the land of Canaan was pictured by God to Moses as "a -land flowing with milk and honey." We should, therefore, probably be -justified in inferring that, as the one liquid was derived from herds -under the people's control, so, too, the other came from domesticated -insects. It may be that no hives were used at so early a period as -the sixteenth century before Christ, and the reference in Ps. lxxxi. -16--"with honey out of the rock should I have satisfied thee"--would -seem to indicate that, at a much later date, the bees were left at -large in their native haunts. Still, the numerous references of the -earlier Scriptures make it plain that honey was an article of common -use, and was obtainable at the discretion of those in Palestine who -wished for it. - -With regard to the ancient literature of our subject, the first -treatise on the bee now extant is that of Aristotle in his _History of -Animals_, written about 330 B.C. Observations of a scientific kind -had, however, been made with regard to these insects by a philosopher -of Asia Minor, who is said to have devoted a long lifetime to watching -their habits. Unfortunately, the records of his studies in this -department of entomology have not survived to our day. We have also to -regret that later ages lost the benefit of the labours of Philiscus of -Thasos, who is said to have abandoned the abodes of men for a forest -life, that he might learn all that was possible of the nature and -work of these creatures, which seemed to him so marvellous in their -structure and their doings. It is Pliny the Elder--the well-known Roman -man of science, who lived near the beginning of the Christian era--to -whom we are indebted for notices of the workers in natural history just -mentioned, while he himself devotes some considerable space in his own -book to a description of the bee. - -Nearly a century earlier, Vergil, the poet of rural life, as well as -of loftier themes, wrote a charming book--his _Fourth Georgic_--on the -subject of these our winged friends. We may smile at his wondrous plan -for securing a prodigious swarm, and modern methods may claim far more -reasonableness and success than those he advocates in apiculture; but -we may rejoice to see how bewitching was the pursuit of bee-keeping -nearly two millenniums ago, and how true it has been through all the -centuries, as the French writer Gelieu says, "_Beaucoup de gens aiment -les abeilles; je n'ai vu personne qui les aima médiocrement: on se -passionne pour elles._" - -The orator Cicero makes frequent reference to them in his charming -treatise on _Old Age_, and other classical writers allude not -unfrequently to these insects. - -Columella, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, gave, -in his work _De re rusticâ_, many directions for apiarians; and though, -of course, abounding, like Vergil's work, in errors on certain points, -his book shows a decided advance beyond the knowledge of preceding -writers. - -We might speak of Theophrastus, Celsus, and Varro as contributing -to the literature of bee-lore, but it would be beyond the scope of -our design to detail what they have written on the subject. Coming, -however, down to much more recent times, and to our own country, we -cannot resist the temptation to quote the well-known lines of our most -marvellous poet Shakespeare, whose comprehensive intellect almost -rivalled that of Solomon, for "he spake of trees, from the cedar-tree -that is in Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the -wall: he spake also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of -fishes." The passage to which we now especially refer is to be found in -his play of Henry F., act i. sc. 2:-- - - "Therefore doth heaven divide - The state of man in divers functions, - Setting endeavour in continual motion; - To which is fixed, as an aim or butt, - Obedience: for so work the honey-bees; - Creatures, that, by a rule in nature, teach - The act of order to a peopled kingdom. - They have a king and officers of sorts: - Where some, like magistrates, correct at home: - Others, like merchants, venture trade abroad; - Others, like soldiers, armed in their stings - Make boot upon the summer's velvet buds; - Which pillage, they, with merry march, bring home - To the tent-royal of their emperor: - Who, busied in his majesty, surveys - The singing masons building roofs of gold; - The civil citizens kneading up the honey; - The poor mechanic-porters crowding in - Their heavy burdens at his narrow gate; - The sad-eyed justice, with his surly hum, - Delivering o'er to executors pale - The lazy yawning drone." - -Of more recent writers we may mention the French Réaumur; the Swiss, -Bonnet; and Huber, of Geneva, who, with his assistant Burnens, gave -the world so many wondrous details of bee-life and habits. In our -own country, Dr. John Hunter, Dr. John Evans, who has been called -the "poet-laureate of bees," Shuckard, Sir John Lubbock, Cowan, John -Hunter, Taylor, Cheshire, Alfred Neighbour, Pettigrew, Abbott, and -many writers in the _British Bee Journal_, have largely added to our -apiarian knowledge. Not only in America, but universally, the Rev. L. -L. Langstroth, of Ohio, has a well-earned reputation for his researches -and his practical instructions with regard to apiculture. In Germany, -Dr. Dzierzon of Carlsmarkt, in Silesia, and Baron von Berlepsch, of -Coburg, stand at the very head of authorities on all that relates to -bees and bee-keeping. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -NATURAL HISTORY. - - Orders of Insects--Stages of Development--Egg, Larva, Pupa, Imago - or Perfect Insect--Three Classes of Bees: Queen, Drones, Workers. - - -It will be observed from the title of this book that it deals with the -honey-bee. The necessity of this restriction will become immediately -evident when we mention the fact that in Great Britain there are no -less than twenty-seven genera and 177 species of native bees, none of -which have been successfully domesticated except _Apis mellifica_, or -the ordinary hive-bee. - -The term "insect" has unfortunately been loosely employed in -popular parlance to include such diverse beings as coral-polyps and -house-flies. As the name itself indicates, it is properly applicable -only to such animals as are more or less distinctly divided into -segments. All true insects, in fact, are plainly divisible in their -perfect state into three portions, the head, thorax, and abdomen. -The most important classes in this portion of the animal kingdom are -distinguished by the characteristics of their wings, and are-- - -I. _Coleoptera_, or those possessing crustaceous _sheathing_ -wing-covers, including all the beetles. - -II. _Orthroptera_, having the wings when at rest in _straight_ -longitudinal folds, comprising such families as the earwigs, -cockroaches, grasshoppers, and locusts. - -III. _Neuroptera_, nerve-winged, characterised by four naked, strongly -reticulated organs of flight, as seen in dragon-flies, may-flies, and -white ants. - -IV. _Hymenoptera_, _membrane_-winged, resembling the _Neuroptera_ in -some respects, but with fewer reticulations, and their organs of flight -when in use are hooked together along the margins, so as to expose a -continuous surface. Another distinguishing character is the appendage -at the tail, in the form of either a sting or an ovipositor. The chief -representative families are the bees, wasps, gad-flies, ants, and -ichneumons. - -V. _Lepidoptera_, having the wings covered with a _scale_-like powder, -set like the tiles of a house. The butterflies and moths all belong to -this order. - -VI. _Diptera_, or _two_-winged insects, embracing the gnats, -"daddy-long-legs," blow-flies, and house-flies. - -Less important are the _Homoptera_, which have the wings of the _same -consistence_ throughout, as the aphides or blight-insects. - -The _Heteroptera_, having the fore-wings coriaceous (or leathery) at -the base and membranous towards the extremity. These comprise the bug -tribe; while fleas belong to the _Aptera_, or _wingless_ insects. - -Insects pass through four stages during their lifetime: the _egg_, the -_larva_, the _pupa_, and the _imago_ conditions. The honey-bee exists -in each of these states. - -_The egg._--All the eggs of the community are laid by the queen. The -cells in which they are deposited vary in size and in shape, according -to whether queens, drones, or workers are to be developed in them. In -length the eggs are about one-twelfth of an inch; in shape, oblong, -but a little broader at the upper than at the lower end, and slightly -curved; in colour they are white, with a bluish tinge. Their external -coat is slightly glutinous when they are first laid, and thus they -adhere to the bottom of the cell in which they are deposited. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Egg's and Larva of Bees.] - -_The larva._--Under the genial influence of the heat of the hive, -ranging from 66° to 70° Fahr., the formation of the larva from the -egg-contents immediately begins; and, in the course of three days, -a tiny worm or grub has been developed, and makes its way out of -its delicate shell. It now lies curled round, still at the base of -its dwelling, and, fed by the nurse-bees on a jelly-like mixture of -pollen and honey, it rapidly grows. Its food supply is made strictly -correspondent to its wants, and by the time the larva is ready for its -next change not a drop of the jelly is unconsumed. The fleshy white -grub is in shape at first slightly, and afterwards strongly curved, -and a little pointed at each end. The future segments of the insect -now become gradually visible, fifteen in number, and ten of them are -furnished each with a minute aperture on opposite sides of the body, -and connected with air-tubes, or spiracles, by which respiration is -carried on. The segments have also a series of minute tubercles, whose -office seems to be to aid in the motions of the grub, which motions -doubtless contribute to the assimilation of food, and so to growth. -The head of the larva is small, is smooth above, and is furnished with -two little projecting horns, from which will be developed the future -antennæ. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Larvæ. - -_a._ Worker larvæ. _b._ Queen larva. _c._ Queen cell sealed.] - -The jaws are small, and articulate below a narrow lip. They are -constantly in motion, probably to reduce the pollen-grains existing -in the so-called bee-bread, which, with honey, as already mentioned, -constitute their food. Beneath the jaws, and centrally between them, -is a fleshy protuberance, which has a perforation at its extremity, -through which the larva emits a sticky fluid, similar to that from -which spider's-web or silk is made. With this the grub spins for itself -a cocoon, in which a further and important transformation takes place -in the structure of the insect. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Sealed Cells.] - -The time occupied in making this silken dress is, for drone- and -worker-larvæ, thirty-six hours. Princesses, who trouble themselves to -make only half-cocoons, finish theirs in twenty-four hours. So soon -as the grubs are ready for this process, the nurse-bees form over the -entrance to each cell a lid made of wax and a sticky substance called -propolis; leaving, however, minute perforations for the admission of -air. These coverings are darker than the caps of the honey-cells. They -are also somewhat convex over worker-larvæ, and over drone-grubs they -stand out almost hemispherically. Hence it is easy to distinguish -the look of brood cells from that of those containing food-stores. -Moreover, the former are situated usually in or near the centre of each -comb, while the latter, where the two co-exist, are found near the top. -It is very important to learn the difference in appearance between -the two, as several points of successful manipulation depend upon the -knowledge. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--A. Larva full grown, viewed sideways. -B. Larva preparing for pupa state.] - -_The nymph or pupa._--In this condition the insect is at first -semi-transparent, and white, with a yellowish tinge. Hour by hour the -various organs of the perfect bee proceed in their development, and -become more and more discernible through the thin pellicle enshrouding -them. On the head, the eyes and antennæ assume their ultimate size -and marvellous structure. The legs and wings are clearly seen folded -lengthwise along the thorax and abdomen. The chitinous covering of -the body attains increasing firmness, and the colour of the exterior -deepens to a greyish brown. - -At length, in periods varying in the three classes of inmates of -the hive, maturity is reached. In the case of queens, sixteen days -suffice for complete metamorphosis from the egg to the full-grown -insect. Drones require twenty-four days, and workers from nineteen to -twenty-two days, according to the warmth of the weather, to go through -all their changes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Worker Larva and Pupa in Comb.] - -When ready to emerge from the cell, the young bee nibbles round the -lid of its abode, and bursting its cocoon along the back, it crawls -forth in its imago or perfect condition. Forthwith the busy nurses -clean it from any remains of its silken covering; brush its legs -and antennæ; pull its wings and fuss about it, as if to urge it to -action and to arouse it to a due sense of its newly acquired powers. -Speedily awakened to its responsibilities, the young bee assumes, as -its earliest duties, the tending of the brood-cells, the feeding of -the larvæ, and the various offices so recently performed for itself by -its slightly older sisters. Then, as strength increases, the wings are -tried in flight; the locality of its home is reconnoitred, and in two -or three days after its emergence into its complete condition it issues -forth on journeys, nearer or more remote, in search of stores for the -perpetually recurring wants of the succession of children continually -being reared in the hive. - -Each complete community of bees consists of three classes; first, the -queen, who is the parent of all the offspring; second, the drones, or -males; and third, the workers, which are really undeveloped females. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE QUEEN-BEE - - Early Errors as to Sex--The "Mother Bee"--Distinguishing - Characteristics--Functions--Attentions paid her--Effects - of Loss; how Repaired by Bees--Enmity to Rivals--Length of - Life--Egg-laying. - - -One of the earliest facts ascertained in the study of bees was that -there existed in each colony one individual differing considerably from -all the rest in appearance and in functions. Early observers, it is -true, mistook even the sex of the one so distinguished. Vergil says: - - "Et circa regem atque ipsa ad prætoria densæ - Miscentur." - -And, again, - - "Rege incolumi mens omnibus una est." - -Shakespeare, in the passage quoted in a previous chapter, talks of "a -king," and other writers were equally ignorant of the true state of -the case. The headship of the hive is, in fact, held by a solitary -female, to whom the name of "queen" has been given, both on account of -the respect she receives, and the controlling influence she appears -to exercise over the other inmates of her domain. The Germans, -on perfectly safe grounds, call her "the mother-bee"; and it is, -doubtless, owing to the all-important circumstance of the continued -existence of the race depending upon her, that she is the object of -such intense affection, attention, and devotion. - -This is corroborated by the circumstance that it is only after she -has been fertilised, and begins to lay, that she is much honoured. As -princess merely, not the slightest respect is paid to her. She is not -even fed by the workers, but has to help herself, and in doing so must -scramble over the busy crowd in her way, not one of whom will trouble -to move out of her path. - -Two or three prominent characteristics serve readily to distinguish -the queen from the rest of the bees. In the first place, her body is -much longer and more tapering towards its lower extremity. Her wings -are shorter in comparison with her length. The upper surface of her -body is of a darker and more glossy hue than that of her subjects. Her -movements are slower and less anxious in appearance than those of the -workers, except at swarming time, when excitement quickens her steps, -and gives' her an air of purposeless solicitude; though, in reality, -her anxiety is caused by the desire to slay a royal and rival daughter, -whose co-existence in the hive she cannot tolerate. - -A closer examination reveals several other points of difference. In our -English species, of which we are now especially speaking, her colour -is yellowish underneath; her head is rounder, her legs are longer, her -tongue is more slender and not so extensile as that of the other bees; -and her sting is curved instead of being straight, like the formidable -weapon of the workers. It is asserted by some writers that she has a -peculiar odour readily distinguishable, and so powerfully attractive to -her people, that they will alight on the finger of any one who has been -handling their queen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--The Queen of the Hive.] - -Several characteristics of a negative kind may also be noted. Her -proboscis is not fitted for extracting the nectar of flowers, and she -can only lap food, or take it from the tongues of her attendants. -She, moreover has no expansion of the gullet for a honey-bag, since -she never requires to collect and carry home the sweet liquid. She -possesses no cysts for the elaboration of wax, as she takes no part in -contributing to the materials of her dwelling. The last pair of legs -are convex on the outside, containing no pocket for carrying pollen or -propolis; and the other legs are without the brushes of the workers, -which enable them to clear their bodies of the powdery discharge of the -anthers of flowers, for she never visits plants. All her wants in the -way of nourishment are supplied by her subjects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Queen Surrounded by Attendants. - -The Queen, or Mother-Bee, as in nature, surrounded by her -ladies-in-waiting, and exhibited in a glass hive to the royal visitors -at the British Bee-Keepers' Association Show at Kilburn, 1879, by -Abbott Bros., Southall.] - -She mates once in her life, when she is a few days old, with a single -drone, and on the wing. That is the only occasion of her leaving the -hive, except when she leads forth a swarm. Her grand function is to lay -eggs, and every part of her structure and every power she has is more -or less related to this all-important duty. She is, as we have implied, -freed from every other office. The hatching, the tending, the rearing, -the instruction of her progeny, are entirely taken out of her hands, -and it is doubtful whether she has any affection for her children. She -is constantly attended by a retinue of ten or twelve "maids of honour," -who all keep their heads turned towards her, clear the way for her, -prevent all crowding round her, and supply her with the most nutritious -food, previously half digested by themselves. They caress her with -their antennæ, and seem to find a real joy in mere proximity to their -monarch. Should she, by more rapid movements than usual, outstrip her -retiring attendants, the bees with whom she thus unexpectedly comes in -contact appear excited and alarmed, and move hastily from her path. So -long as she remains sound and well in the hive, all the varied works go -on peacefully and incessantly. Should she die or be removed, immediate -consternation is manifested. Her subjects rush about in excitement -and distress. They buzz around the neighbourhood of the hive, but all -active and productive work ceases. They know that unless the disastrous -loss can be repaired, their community must perish for lack of new -progeny, and when despair seizes them, they seem to act upon the motto, -"Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." - -But the skilled bee-keeper comes to the rescue when he has ascertained -the death or loss of a queen, and introduces another monarch to the -distressed community. Care and caution, however, have to be exercised -in this operation; for, until convinced that there is no hope of the -restoration of their rightful sovereign, the workers will not tolerate -a substitute for her. Even when their hopes are extinguished, it -is much safer to cage the new queen, for thirty-six or forty-eight -hours, on a comb, so that a gradual acquaintance with one another -may be formed before free intercourse is allowed. Otherwise, it will -frequently happen that the introduced mother-bee will come to grief by -stings or by suffocation. Cases, indeed, have occurred in which it has -been found impossible to induce a hive to receive a stranger queen, and -it has become necessary to amalgamate such a community with another -already possessed of a monarch. - -But, under certain circumstances, the bees will, in a marvellous way, -provide themselves with a sovereign. If at the time of discovering -their loss there are worker-eggs in the hive, and these are only -two or three days old, a cell containing one such egg is selected, -and enlarged by breaking down the surrounding partitions. The shape -and direction of the cell are also altered, being made pyriform, or -like a pear, and with its open end downwards. The royal cradle, in -fact, is made to look like a small acorn-cup inverted. In this abode -is deposited a certain amount of so-called "royal jelly," a more -pungent and stimulating food than that supplied to other larvæ, and -consisting of a mixture of honey and partially digested pollen. Under -the influence of this nourishment, the grub, instead of becoming a -worker-bee, as it would have done in the usual course of events, -undergoes all those important modifications which distinguish the -queen from her ordinary offspring; and, moreover, the necessary -transformations from the larval to the perfect condition of the insect -are so expedited as to take only sixteen, instead of twenty-one, days. -We have said that, if newly-laid eggs exist, these are preferred by -the workers for their purpose of queen manufacture; but they will, if -shut up to the necessity, thus transform worker-larvæ, if not more than -two or three days old. Usually, when prompted in this way to provide -themselves with a hive-mother, they begin, not one only, but several, -apparently to secure themselves against all danger of failure. But the -first which comes to maturity assumes the sovereignty, and, unless the -condition of the stock requires the speedy emission of a swarm, she -will be allowed to gratify her instinctive enmity to rivals, and will -destroy them as they are ready to emerge from their cells. - -This hatred of equals is an extraordinary fact, when we consider that -the queen knowingly lays eggs under conditions in which they will, -in the ordinary course of events, become princesses. Then another -circumstance of peculiar significance, and very marvellous, is that, -notwithstanding the absolute authority possessed by the queen under -other conditions, and in spite of the usual subjection and subservience -of the workers, they will not allow their monarch complete liberty in -the destruction of her royal progeny. If the crowded state of their -dwelling makes it evident that the emission of a colony is necessary, -the workers-in-waiting forcibly restrain their sovereign from indulging -in her strong desire to slay her fully-developed daughters. She resents -the interference, but no assumption of her dignity and authority will -avail, and her absolutism is in this direction distinctly limited. -Incensed at length beyond endurance, she quits the hive at the head of -a swarm of her faithful subjects, and establishes a community where -again she will have sole sway. If, on the other hand, circumstances do -not necessitate a division of the population, the old queen is allowed -to destroy the young ones as they issue from the pupa state. - -It is said that the only other condition in which the workers rebel -against their monarch is when she is growing worn out with age, and -seems likely to fail in power of egg-laying. Then she is believed, in -some instances, to be supplanted; but it is not known with certainty -whether natural death may not account for her removal, or whether -she is slain by her subjects, or by a young queen preserved by their -intervention. - -Should the loss of the queen take place when there is no brood-comb in -the hive, from the season of the year, or from other circumstances, -such as the cessation of egg-laying, the bees often manifest a series -of almost frantic efforts to repair their loss. Sometimes they will try -to develop a female from drone eggs. They have been known even to take -a lump of pollen and surround it with a queen cell, in the absurd hope -of getting a monarch so. It sometimes happens that one of the workers -develops the power of laying eggs, all of which turn to drones--a -marvellous fact in parthenogenesis--and the workers treat some of these -to a royal abode and royal jelly, in the futile hope of thus raising -a sovereign. In fact, as has been wittily but truly said, "when bees -have lost their queen they lose their _head_." This close connection -of queen and people is reciprocal, for the sovereign who is forcibly -separated from her subjects refuses food, pines away, and speedily dies. - -It is only in very rare instances (such as those we have mentioned when -speaking of the introduction of a stranger-queen) that the workers -attack and kill royalty. Queens, on the other hand, are never known to -use their stings against their subjects. They reserve them for combats -with their equals, thus realising the salutary arrangement, which might -have such practically important political consequences if adopted in -human affairs, "Let those who make the quarrels be the only ones to -fight." - -The queen, though developed more rapidly than the drones and the -workers, enjoys a much longer life than her subjects. In some instances -this period has been known to extend to five or even six years; but -her fecundity is said to diminish after her second year, or, if it -continues, she will in her old age lay a majority of drone eggs, to the -serious weakening of the community. The skilled apiarian, therefore, -takes care that every hive shall have a queen of an age when her -fertility is greatest. - -The process of egg-laying begins from two to four days after the flight -for mating, depending somewhat on the preparation of cells for that -purpose. The queen, on finding comb adapted to her needs, thrusts her -head into a cell, apparently to ascertain if it is empty, and of the -right depth and size for one of the two different kinds of eggs--those -for workers, and those to become drones. Satisfied on these points, -she withdraws her head, and, curving herself downwards, inserts her -abdomen, and giving the lower part of her body a half-turn towards the -thorax, she expels an egg from her oviduct, and then retires in search -of other cells in which to make similar deposits. She rarely, and only -by mistake, lays more than one egg in a cell. If she falls into the -error, the worker-bees immediately remove all but one. - -The examination of each cell by the queen to ascertain its fitness -for the two kinds of eggs is an essential point; for, in the first -place, the nature of drone-eggs is radically different from that of -those which will produce workers; and the size of the cells in which -the former are hatched is considerably greater than that in which the -latter will be developed, nineteen ends of the larger covering a square -inch of surface, while twenty-seven of the smaller will occupy the same -space. - -It seems an indisputable fact that the queen has the power of laying -which of the two kinds of eggs she pleases. The essential difference -between the two seems to be, that those which will become drones are -not fertilised by spermatozoa just previous to leaving the oviduct, -while the worker-eggs are thus specially vivified, and the operation -appears to be under volitional control. - -A further remarkable circumstance is that the rate of egg-laying is -also a matter of determination, and not of necessity, on the part of -the queen; for when a transfer has been made from a weak to a strong -hive, the number of eggs deposited has been known to vary, within two -days, from none to two thousand in twenty-four hours. In the one case -the mother-bee knew her colony was not strong enough to keep up the -requisite warmth for hatching and developing her progeny; in the other, -she proceeded vigorously with her functions, the further progress of -the young being secured by the abundance of the population sufficing to -keep up the proper temperature, and to render all needed attention to -the larvæ in their further development. - -The ordinary rate of laying, under favourable conditions, varies from -600 to 800 eggs a day; but, under pressure of specially suitable -conditions, from i,000 to 1,200 are not unfrequently deposited. -Langstroth and Von Berlepsch have seen six laid in a minute; and the -latter observer, on supplying a queen with some new empty comb, found -after twenty-four hours more than 3,000 eggs had been laid. If this -queen on the average got rid of five eggs per minute, the total number -just mentioned would have been deposited in ten hours, so that she -would have had fourteen hours for rest. The queen kept up her rate -for twenty days, in which time she had filled 57,000 cells, and, what -is very remarkable, her fecundity is said to have continued for five -years, during which period she must have laid nearly a million and -a-half of eggs. Dzierzon says, "_Most_ queens, in spacious hives, -and in a favourable season, lay 60,000 in a month, and a specially -fertile queen, in the four years which she on an average lives, lays -over a million eggs." These numbers will give some idea of the immense -expenditure of life that is continually going on. - -To keep up these very great productive energies, it is evident that -large quantities of food must be consumed by the mother-bee, and, as we -should expect, the amount taken varies in the ratio of the vigour of -egg-laying. - -It sometimes happens that, in the very height of her duties, sufficient -cells are not forthcoming as places of deposit for eggs; and, in that -case, the queen leaves some on the combs, or at the bottom of the hive. -Strange to say, the worker-bees greedily devour such waifs and strays. -In this respect we observe a great difference between ants and bees. -Among the latter we do not find that passionate love and care for the -eggs and larvæ which so strongly mark the former. Other circumstances -of a similar kind, to be noted later on, show, on the part of bees, an -intense regard for stores rather than progeny, notwithstanding their -affection and devotion to the mother-bee, whose functions they thus -acknowledge as all-important to the race. - -The egg-laying of the queen goes on more or less for nine or ten -months of the year, under favouring conditions; but the season of -greatest activity is during April, May, and June. Various circumstances -after that time cause a diminution of the number of eggs, till in -November, December, and January, as a rule, the queen ceases her -motherly functions. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE DRONES. - - Distinguishing Characteristics--Time of Hatching--Numbers--Purposes - served by them--Destruction by Workers or other means--Unusual - Survival. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--A Drone.] - - -The drones are the male population of the bee-community. In general -form they are more cylindrical than the queens or workers. They are -shorter than the former, but larger and more robust than the latter. -Their colour is of a deeper brown, and they are much more hairy, -especially at the lower extremity. Their wings are strong, and greater -in proportion to the length of their bodies than those of the females -or neuters, reaching, indeed, to the full extent of their abdomen. The -posterior expansion of the lower pair gives a broad backward sweep, -and enables the heavy body of the drone to fly with great rapidity, and -to rise very freely in the air. Another peculiarity of structure is -the vertical enlargement of the compound eyes. By the meeting of these -eyes over the brow, the drone is able more readily to see the virgin -queen when she issues for her one bridal excursion. Drones have a -strong odour, which becomes very perceptible when several are confined -together in a box. Their proboscis is not fit for the collection of -honey; moreover they have no receptacle for carrying the liquid, and, -in fact, show no inclination even to feed themselves from flowers. -They take their nourishment from what is stored in the cells. As Evans -accurately and concisely says of them, they - - "wheel around - On heavier wing, and hum a deeper sound. - No sharpened sting they boast; yet, buzzing loud, - Before the hive, in threatening circles, crowd - The unwieldy drones. Their short proboscis sips - No luscious nectar from the wild thyme's lips; - From the lime's leaf no amber drops they steal, - Nor bear their grooveless thighs the foodful meal; - On others' toils, in pampered leisure, thrive - The lazy fathers of the industrious hive." - -This inability to feed themselves from Nature's sources makes them -almost unique among the fully developed creatures of the animal -world. Their consumption of the stores of the hive is not resented -by the workers till the swarming season is over, and what is further -remarkable is, that they are permitted to enter without molestation -communities other than that in which they were bred, though strange -workers would be strictly prohibited from such trespassing. - -The first drones of the season appear generally about the middle of -April, but they are most numerously hatched in May and June. The -actual number in a hive varies from 500 to 2,000. Only one or two of -these will become the mates of as many young queens, and the question -is often asked, What can be the use of such an immense superfluity -of males? The best answer that can be given is, that it is extremely -important, considering the dangers to which a virgin queen is exposed -in her flight from the hive, that there should be no difficulty for -her in meeting with a spouse. When drones are scarce, and a very early -swarm has issued from a hive, it happens sometimes that the young queen -remaining at the head of the stock has to make several flights before -finding a mate. As she is liable to be snapped up by birds, or driven -away by gusts of wind, or lost through not knowing her own hive, it is -manifestly far safer for the supply of drones to be large enough to -insure a meeting on the first occasion of her flying. - -It has been suggested by some bee-keepers that the eggs are fertilised -in the cells by the drones, after the manner of the ova of fishes; but -this theory is utterly untenable in view of the fact that much brood is -found in the hives at seasons when, as a rule, no drones exist, _i.e._ -in the early spring and late autumn. - -From a reference to drones in the _Troades_ of Euripides (lines -191-195), it would almost seem that the ancient Greeks, five centuries -before Christ, had an idea that the male bees were the door-keepers of -the hives, and the guardians of the young. We know, however, that this -is not the case. - -Again, certain Polish writers have asserted that the drones are the -water-carriers of the community; but this notion is as fanciful and -groundless as the preceding idea. - -A more sensible supposition is that by their numbers the warmth of -the hive necessary for the hatching and development of the larvæ is -promoted, and that, in consequence, more of the workers are freed for -honey-getting and pollen-gathering. One objection to this theory has -been made on the score that, when there is most need for the heat of -the hive to be maintained, viz., in the winter, all the drones are -dead; but the reply to this is, that at that season there are no stores -to be collected, and therefore no need for the workers to be liberated -from indoor duties. - -It is certain that bee-keepers who have taken the trouble to catch -or to destroy hundreds of drones from their hives, have not found -themselves rewarded by a greater amount of produce or by stronger -stocks through saving what the murdered drones would have eaten. At -the same time, where a honey-harvest is desired, there is little doubt -it is well for some control to be exercised over the number of drones -hatched in the hive. This can be governed, to a considerable extent, -by furnishing the bees with "foundation comb," the rudimentary cells -of which are of the size adapted only for workers. Still, there is no -doubt of the practical importance of having a good supply of males in -the hives during the swarming time. When they are no longer of use, the -workers expel them. By many it has been asserted that the drones are -stung to death; but any one who takes the trouble to watch what goes -on in July and August, will see that, for the most part, the neuters -seize their brethren by the wing, and drag them from the entrance of -the home. If much resistance is made, they will persevere in trying -to keep them away; but, at last, when patience is exhausted, they -will bite the wings underneath, and so render them almost powerless. -Harassed in these ways, and prevented from taking food from the cells, -the drones die of starvation in large numbers. A few may be stung to -death. Many will creep to unfrequented parts of the comb, in hope of -escaping notice; and if a side box, or unoccupied back of a wooden -hive, be opened for them, they will congregate there. Mr. Henry Taylor -mentions in his _Bee-Keepers Manual_, that, on one occasion, he found -as many as 2,200 which had thus clustered in an empty side box. He -took them away, and the other bees went to work with more vigour after -having been thus relieved of their useless population, as if they were -glad to be rid of those who were consumers, but non-producers. - -In many instances, especially when food-supplies are running short, and -are not easily replaceable, the workers will drag out the just emerging -drones from their cells, together with pupæ and larvæ, and will cast -them forth to die. - -If no necessity for swarming occurs, through there being plenty of room -in the hive for the extension of the colony, or for any other reason, -either no royal cells will be made, or the young princesses will be -destroyed as they approach maturity. In this case, an unusually early -destruction of the males will occur, as the workers instinctively know -there is little use in permitting them to continue alive. Still, some -will be allowed to exist, for the sake of other communities, as it is -now maintained, with much show of reason, that a young queen selects -for her consort a drone not belonging to her own hive. The importance -of this crossing of breed, for keeping up the vigour of the race, is -one of the best ascertained facts in natural history. While, then, we -cannot suppose the bees to be aware of the benefits to be derived from -this "selection before marriage," we see in it one more circumstance -indicating the marvellous capabilities of so-called "instinct"--we -would prefer very much to say one more proof of the all-pervading -superintendence of a Divine Mind, which works throughout what we call -Nature. We might, indeed, expect that He, without whose supervision -not a sparrow alights on the ground in search of its food, would show -to our intelligent inquiries equally plain evidence of His universal -working, and of His infinitely wise determination of all that has to -do with the welfare and the permanence of the various classes of the -animal and vegetable worlds. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE WORKERS. - - Distinguishing Characteristics--Supposed Differences of - Function among them--Sir John Lubbock's Experiments--Fertile - Workers--Length of Life--"Black Bees"--Duties of Workers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--A Worker Bee. - -_a._ Natural size. _b._ Magnified.] - - -The workers are by far the most numerous, and, in some sense, the most -important party in the commonwealth of bees. They are smaller in size -than either queens or drones. Microscopic examination, and the fact of -their occasionally developing the power of laying eggs, prove that they -are really undeveloped females. It is hardly correct, therefore, to -call them, as has been so often done, _neuters_. The chief structural -differences to be noted in them, as compared with the other two classes -in the hive, are, the possession of a long proboscis for gathering -honey, of receptacles for carrying pollen, of a very formidable -straight and barbed sting, and brushes on the legs for clearing -different parts of the body from the farina of flowers or from dust. - -The worker-eggs are deposited by the queen in the smaller-sized cells -of the combs, and are the first laid in a new colony, or in the spring -of the year. - -Certain observers have thought they noticed differences in the size -of the full-grown workers, and supposed that these variations were -connected with diversity of occupations and duties. But as all have -their several organs and their whole structure precisely alike, and -as little direct evidence of special functions has been adduced, it -is tolerably certain that any peculiarities in regard to size must be -otherwise explained. Nor is it difficult to discover how these may have -been brought about. For, since each pupa leaves behind it some portion -of the silken cocoon it had spun, it is clear that after a succession -of young bees from the same cells, these must become sensibly -contracted in extent, so that the later progeny will not have had as -much space in which to grow as their elder-born sisters had, and hence -are, at least when they emerge, smaller in size. - -Huber, without reference to the above-mentioned fact, supposed that -separate duties were undertaken by special bees, at least so far as -the gathering of stores and the care of the young were concerned. -Subsequent observations, however, tend to show that the latter office -is undertaken by the most recently born young, till they themselves -have become strong enough to fly abroad in search of honey and -pollen. It is said they also see to the making of wax, the building -of comb, and the cleansing of the hive, during the first two or three -weeks of their life. Some corroboration of this idea is given by the -circumstance that, if there be not sufficient room for the extension -of a very strong population in their abode, and the conditions for -swarming are not satisfactory, the older bees will remain idle in -clusters, often outside the hive, leaving to the younger ones the -execution of the internal work. - -Sir John Lubbock has recorded a series of observations which seem to -indicate that certain individuals are stationed near the entrances as -sentinels. In his most interesting work on _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, he -says:-- - -"On October 5th I called out the bees by placing some eau-de-Cologne in -the entrance, and marked the first three bees that came out. At 5 P.M. -I called them out again. About twenty came, including the three marked -ones. I marked three more. - -"October 6. Called them out again. Out of the first twelve, five were -marked ones. I marked three more. - -"October 7. Called them out at 7.30 A.M. as before. Out of the first -nine seven were marked ones. At 5.30 P.M. called them out again. Out of -six, five were marked ones. - -"Octobers. Called them out at 7.15. Six came out, all marked ones. - -"October 9. Called them out at 6.40. Out of the first ten, eight were -marked ones. Called them out at 11.30 A.M. Out of six, three were -marked. I marked other three. Called them out at 1.30 P.M. Out of ten, -six were marked. Called them out at 4.30. Out often, seven were marked. - -"October 10. Called them out at 6.5 A.M. Out of six, five were marked. -Shortly afterwards I did the same again, when out of eleven, seven were -marked ones. 5.30 P.M. called them out again. Out of seven, five were -marked. - -"October 11. 6.30 A.M. called them out again. Out of nine, seven were -marked. 5 P.M. called them out again. Out of seven, five were marked. -After this they took hardly any notice of the scents. - -"Thus in these nine experiments, out of the ninety-seven bees which -came out first, no less than seventy-one were marked ones." - -Many interesting questions connected with the workers remain for future -investigation: such, for instance, as whether the same bee returns to -the same part of the hive after each foraging expedition; whether the -same bees go out in search of stores day after day, or sometimes take -holidays or rest from out-door fatigues, by applying themselves to some -of the internal labours of the hive; whether those who become more or -less exhausted from long-continued flights die, for the most part, on -their journeys, or come back home to end their lives. - -One point not known to general readers is, that a bee on each separate -going out for stores confines herself to one particular kind of flower -for that expedition. That is to say, a worker who begins on violets, -will not visit any other flowers than violets before returning to the -hive. If lime-blossoms are chosen, they will be adhered to. If a bee -searching white-clover heads be watched, she will be seen to go only -to similar sources of supply. This fact may be verified by any one -who will take the trouble to notice in field or garden the customs of -the hive-bee. It does not seem to be the habit of wild bees thus to -confine themselves to particular flowers for each journey they make. -The importance of this circumstance in the case of our domesticated -species, and its influence on the vegetable world, will be noted in a -later chapter, when we discuss the relation of bees to flowers. - -We have before alluded to the very remarkable phenomenon occasionally -occurring to the great annoyance of the bee-keeper, namely, the -development in a worker of the power of laying eggs, which eggs -will produce nothing but drones, so that the population of the hive -dwindles, and becomes extinct. Various suggestions have been made -as to the reason of this faculty appearing. A very plausible idea -is that some of the "royal jelly" is occasionally, and possibly by -mistake, given to a larva in the neighbourhood of a queen-cell, and -this stimulating food produces a partial development of laying power. -A second possibility is that sometimes a worker-larva in too forward a -condition is transferred to a queen-cell, and owing to the difference -of treatment not having been begun early enough, an imperfect and -nondescript kind of bee results. Some corroboration of this may perhaps -be found in a curious fact, which has been several times noted, and -published in the _British Bee-Journal_, viz., the finding of workers -hatched in queen-cells. It would be difficult to imagine such an -abnormal event, unless unusual circumstances had occurred to the young -larva. - -The birth of a fertile worker in a hive is a great misfortune; for, not -merely will the population diminish, and at length altogether fail, -from the production of drone-brood only, but, as it is impossible -to distinguish the offending worker, it is difficult to get rid of -her. It has been recommended, on the discovery that she exists, to -amalgamate the stock with another having a queen. This may answer, but -there is a danger that when the battle comes to be fought between the -actual sovereign and the fertile worker, who will try to maintain her -prerogative, the latter, as the more active, and as possessed of a -more formidable sting, may prove victorious. A safer plan, therefore, -is to turn out the whole stock from their hive, comb by comb, if the -bar-frame system is used, and allow them to return to the old place -where the cleared combs may be put to receive them. The fertile worker, -never having left the colony, will not know her way back, and so will -be happily got rid of, and will probably perish. Her place must, of -course, be supplied by an introduced queen, or the stock must be united -with another. - -The age to which the workers live varies according to the amount of -labour they undergo. During the winter and the early spring, when -little or no work is done, there is small drain on their vital force, -and they may live for six or seven months. In the height of summer, -when long days and abundant supplies invite them to many hours of -continuous toil, the industrious insects are believed to exhaust -themselves very rapidly, and to perish, as if prematurely old, in about -five or six weeks. It is quite evident that the mortality during the -middle of the year must be very great, seeing that egg-laying and -hatching go on at the rate of several hundreds a day, and during weeks -and months in succession: and yet it frequently happens, where room -sufficient for the growing stores is provided, no swarm will be thrown -off, from which we infer that a period is reached when the birth-rate -and death-rate pretty closely approach each other. - -The older workers are distinguishable from the younger by their deeper -and more glossy colour. The grey bloom of youth has been worn off, -and frequently their wings, notched or broken in places, betray the -veterans in the battle of life, who, amidst rains, hail, and wind, have -suffered more or less severely. - -Some observers have called attention to certain individuals in the -community, which have been spoken of as "black bees,"[1] and which have -been supposed to possess special functions. Von Berlepsch ascertained -from his countryman Leuckart that no anatomical differences existed -between these and ordinary workers; and, from subsequent experiments, -came to the conclusion that the difference in colour was due to the -accidental absence or the loss of the hairs or down with which bees are -ordinarily covered. This loss may have occurred through getting smeared -with honey, or from stifling, or fright, or creeping constantly through -apertures too small to admit their bodies readily. Dzierzon, another -great authority, corroborates the above explanation, and further -adds, "as a rule, the glossy black bees are _robbers_, which have been -pursuing their trade for some time." - -[Footnote 1: This term is also used for all English bees, in -distinction from the _Ligurian_, _Cyprian_, and other varieties with -yellow bands.] - -A similar difference in size and colour has been often noticed in -the case of drones; and the explanation of their occurrence seems -to be that such smaller individuals have been hatched in the cells -intermediate between the normal drone and worker varieties, a tier or -two of such intermediate cells being frequently made, to shade off the -difference of size between the two kinds. - -The duties undertaken by the workers constitute a series of operations -indicating marvellous skill and apparent reasoning power. It is -true that what we call "instinct"--a word which merely covers our -ignorance--seems to play a large part in the direction of the doings -of bees; but the readiness with which they adapt themselves to -circumstances, the expedients they adopt to remedy defects in their -dwellings or surroundings, the efforts they make to repair losses and -to provide for the continuance of the race, appear to transcend the -limits of a power actuated by blind impulse alone. - -We have spoken of the brooding over and feeding of the larvæ, the -sealing of the pupæ, the cleansing of the newly-hatched young, as the -special duties of the workers. All these offices are performed by -the most juvenile members of the family, who thus become gradually -initiated into the responsibilities of bee-life, and daily gather -strength for the next and more extended duties of citizenship. These -consist of the gathering of supplies of honey, pollen, and propolis, -the elaboration of wax, the making of the combs, the storing and -sealing up of produce, the cleansing and ventilation of the hive, the -guarding of the entrance, and the driving off or slaughter of intruders -of various kinds. - -These various operations are worthy of separate notice, and we will -proceed to give some details relating to each. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -HONEY. - - Origin--How Collected and Stored--Constitution--Poisonous - Honey--Best varieties of Honey--Distances traversed by Bees in - search of Honey--Uses. - - -Honey is mainly derived from the nectar of flowers. We say mainly, -because bees are able to make use of many sweet liquids, such as the -juices of ripe fruits, the substances constituting what is called -"honey-dew," the syrup of sugar, and the solid material of sweetmeats. -Still, by far the larger proportion of honey is derived from flowers. -By means of its long flexible tongue the bee sucks from the nectaries -of various plants the sweet liquid they contain. In an expansion of the -gullet, which somewhat resembles the crop of birds, some slight, but -important, chemical changes appear to take place, and while a portion -of the fluid passes into the true stomach for the nourishment of the -insect, the rest is regurgitated into a cell of one of the combs. -At first the honey thus deposited is very thin, but by evaporation -under the warmth of the hive, a portion of the water passes off, and -a process of what apiarians call "ripening" goes on, after which the -remaining liquid is less liable to fermentation, when extracted from -the comb. - -Honey appears to consist mainly of two kinds of sugar, one of which -is closely allied to that contained in the grape, and which by -spontaneous change is apt to crystallise in contact with air. The other -is uncrystallisable, like the purest treacle, and mingled with it are -slight quantities of colouring matter and mucilage. These sugars are -somewhat apt to undergo a vinous fermentation, of which advantage -has been taken in the manufacture of mead--a drink much used by the -inhabitants of these islands in ancient times as a stimulant, and even -intoxicant. - -The taste of honey varies according to the flowers or other sources -from which it has been chiefly derived. That procured from flowers, -especially those of the labiate family--from the clovers, the -lime-blossoms, and the heaths--is most esteemed. That which has been -derived from sugar-syrup differs but slightly from the liquid of its -origin. That procured from what is called honey-dew, or the secretion -of various sorts of aphides, is very worthless in quality, though bees -are extremely fond of the liquid. - -It is a remarkable and unfortunate fact, that the honey collected from -certain flowers is, though innocuous to bees, more or less injurious to -the human body. Xenophon tells us in his _Anabasis_ that his soldiers -found many hives in the neighbourhood of Trebizonde, and, after eating -of the contents, the men were seized with violent purging and vomiting, -stupefaction, and inability to stand. Those who ate little became like -men very drunk, and those who ate much, like madmen, and some like -dying persons. In this condition great numbers lay upon the ground, as -if there had been a defeat. None of them died, and in about twenty-four -hours they recovered consciousness. On the third or fourth day after -the seizure they got up, but were like men who had taken powerful -physic. - -Tournefort, when travelling in Asia Minor, recollecting these -historical circumstances, made careful investigations as to the -probabilities of the case. Two kinds of shrubs were pointed out to -him as bearing flowers, the honey from which was deleterious, and the -very odour of which is still said to produce headache. These plants -were the _rhododendron Ponticum_, and _azalea Pontica_, nearly allied -species, growing abundantly in that part of the world. Father Lamberti -corroborates Xenophon's description, by stating that similar effects -have been produced by the honey of Colchis, where these shrubs are -common. - -We learn from an account published by Dr. Barton in the _American -Philosophical Transactions_, that, in the autumn of 1790, several -fatal cases occurred near Philadelphia, from eating honey collected in -the neighbourhood. An official investigation into the circumstances -led to the conviction that the source of the mischief lay in the -flowers of the _kalmia latifolia_ Still more recently, some persons -in New York lost their lives from, as it was supposed, eating honey -derived from the flowers of a species of dwarf laurel, common in the -vicinity. A further instance of the influence of the kalmia tribe of -flowers is given in the fact that honey drawn chiefly from the species -_latifolia_, in New Jersey, is unsaleable, from its intoxicating -qualities, though the bees themselves thrive prodigiously upon it. - -Sometimes the colour is said to indicate the nature of the liquid, -that which is mischievous being distinguished by a reddish or brown -tinge; but this is by no means a sure indication of quality, for, in -Florida and Carolina, the wild honey having harmful properties is so -like in appearance that which is perfectly wholesome, that the hunters -at first eat very sparingly of their newly-found treasures, till they -have proved, by experimenting on themselves, what its properties are. -Again, some "blood-red honey," found in Abyssinia, is said to be quite -free from objectionable elements; and Linnæus tells us that the Swedish -honey from the heath-flowers is of a reddish hue, but excellent in -quality. That obtained in the Highlands of Scotland is occasionally -observed to have a brownish tinge, but no ill effects are found to -result from the use of it, though some have asserted that it has a -soporific influence. - -There is little doubt that the colours of honey from different -localities vary according to the prevalence of flowers most frequently -visited by the bees. Its aroma and taste are influenced, as we might -suppose, by the same circumstances. As a natural result, we find also -that the excellence of the liquid depends much on the season at which -it is collected. The primest is the produce of the early summer. That -which is stored in spring excels what is gleaned in autumn. The produce -of the earlier part of the harvest is better than that which is stored -when flowers grow scarce and fruits are ripening. - -The distances to which bees will travel in search of their -food-supplies are very astonishing. They have been proved to fly four -or five miles to favourite pasturage. A gentleman, wishing to test -this fact, dusted with fine flour his bees as they emerged from a -hive. Then driving to a heath five miles distant, which he knew to -be much frequented by the insects, he soon found many of those which -he had sprinkled at home. Their instinct, indeed, appears to lead -them considerably afield, and hence it is of slight use to plant, -as recommended by some writers, particular flowers near an apiary. -Moreover, unless such flowers are grown for seed purposes, or in very -large quantities, the amount of nutriment they will afford is almost -inappreciable. - -Fields where the white or Dutch clover abounds, and heath districts, -are, perhaps, the finest sources of honey-supply. Our fruit blossoms of -almost all kinds also furnish abundant stores to the busy insects. - -The uses of honey hardly require to be pointed out. Besides being an -agreeable addition to the breakfast or tea-table, as a substitute for -butter, it is often very serviceable as a laxative, when taken in -moderate quantity. It is frequently employed in medical confections, as -a vehicle for the administration of certain drugs; and its generally -wholesome properties have been thoroughly ascertained. Its use for the -manufacture of metheglin, or mead, is not now extensive, but in earlier -periods of British history this beverage was held in high esteem. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -MEAD. - - Nature--Method of Manufacture--Metheglin and Mead--Estimation in - former times--Queen Elizabeth's Recipe--Scandinavian liking for - Mead. - - -The sugar of various vegetables is susceptible of alcoholic -fermentation; so from the sugar of malt we get beer, from that of the -grape, wine. Honey is, as we have said, a substance containing sugar, -which may also be made to yield a vinous liquor. Usually only the -washings of drained combs are used up for the manufacture of mead. The -saccharine extract is skimmed, strained, and boiled. Then a certain -proportion of raisins is added, together with a little ground ginger, -and a few bay or laurel leaves for flavouring. A small quantity of -brewer's yeast sets up the necessary fermentation, and after the liquor -has been put into a barrel, and allowed to "work" for two or three -days, it is bunged up, and at the end of six months may be bottled, -and soon afterwards will be fit for use. Of course, run honey may be -used for the purpose, but its employment is a more expensive mode of -manufacture. - -Properly speaking, the word "metheglin" was applied to the superior -sorts of mead, the two beverages being related much in the same way as -effervescing bottled cider and the ordinary draught cider. - -Mead-making seems anciently to have been considered a matter of great -interest and importance, and we are told by old authors that the Court -brewer of this beverage for Princes of Wales was the physician of -the household, and ranked eleventh in point of dignity. Æthelstan, -King of Kent in the tenth century, on paying a visit to his relative -Æthelfleda, expressed his satisfaction that there was no stint of mead. -According to an antique rule of the Welsh Court, there were "three -things which must be communicated to the king before they were imparted -to any other person. First, every sentence of the judge; second, every -new song; and third, every cask of mead." - -Queen Elizabeth was so fond of this beverage as to have it made -regularly every year; and her recipe has been preserved to our own day. -It may interest our readers to give it entire: "Take of sweetbriar -leaves and thyme each one bushel, rosemary half a bushel, bay leaves -one peck. Seethe these ingredients in a furnace full of water -[containing probably not less than 120 gallons], boil for half an hour; -pour the whole into a vat, and when cooled to a proper temperature -[about 75° Fahr.], strain. Add to every six gallons of the strained -liquor a gallon of fine honey, and work the mixture together for half -an hour. Repeat the stirring occasionally for two days; then boil the -liquor afresh, skim it till it becomes clear, and return it to the -vat to cool. When reduced again to a proper temperature [about 80° -Fahr.], pour it into a vessel from which fresh ale or beer has just -been emptied; let it work for three days, and then barrel it. When fit -[after fermentation] to be stopped down, tie up a bag of beaten cloves -and mace [half an ounce of each], and suspend it in the liquor from the -bung-hole. When it has stood for half a year, it will be fit for use." - -Mead remained in favour long after the introduction of malt liquors, -and the northern inhabitants of Europe drank it habitually till -comparatively modern times. Even so late as Dryden's day, it would -appear to have been in much more common use than now: for he says of -its employment for tempering strong wines:-- - - "T'allay the strength and hardness of the wine, - Let with old Bacchus new metheglin join." - -It was probably the liquor called by Ossian the joy and strength of -skulls, and which so much delighted his heroes. It was the ideal -nectar of the Scandinavian nations, which they expected to drink in -heaven, using the skulls of their enemies for goblets, while they were -to regale themselves also on boars' flesh. So we read in Penrose's -_Carousal of Odin_:-- - - "Fill the honeyed beverage high, - Fill the skulls, 'tis Odin's cry! - Heard ye not the powerful call, - Thundering through the vaulted hall? - Fill the meath, and spread the board, - Vassals of the grisly lord! - The feast begins, the skull goes round, - Laughter shouts the shouts resound." - -A quantity of mead sufficient for the very mundane tastes of these -celestial heroes was supposed to be daily supplied by a goat, called -Heidruna, of whom Cottle says:-- - - "Whose spacious horn would fill the bowl - That raised to rapture Odin's soul; - And ever drinking--ever dry-- - Still the copious stream supply." - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -WAX. - - Origin--Production--Chemical Constitution--Comb Building--Detailed - Description--Amount of Wax in Hives--Commercial Value--Properties. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--A Worker Bee, showing the Scales of Wax.] - - -It was long thought that wax was a product derived, like honey, -immediately from flowers. Not only did popular ignorance suppose -that the pellets of pollen carried on the thighs of the worker-bees -consisted of this substance, but even some authors on apiculture fell -into the same error. It is now ascertained with certainty that wax is -a sort of animal fat, elaborated from honey by certain internal organs -of the bee. It exudes in a liquid form from sacklets on the under -side of each of the four intermediate ventral segments of the abdomen. -There are two of these pockets to each segment, one on either side of -the _carina_ or elevated central part. They are trapeziform in shape, -and impart the same form to the tiny plates which emerge from them. -On reaching the air the liquid thickens, and dries in flakes like -fish-scales. The secretion of wax is carried on by the workers only, -queens and drones being destitute of the apparatus necessary for the -purpose. No direct communication has been traced between the stomach -and the wax-sacks, but it has been conjectured by Hunter that the -secretion is effected by the network of vessels lining the receptacles -as a membrane covered with hexagonal cells, somewhat like the second -stomach of ruminating quadrupeds. - -Chemically considered, wax consists entirely of carbon, oxygen, -and hydrogen; and, as before mentioned, is elaborated wholly from -honey. Some authors have maintained that pollen is necessary for its -production, but this is the case probably only indirectly; that is to -say, the nitrogenous constituent of pollen may be necessary for the -nutriment and stimulation of the secreting organs. It certainly does -not enter into the constitution of the wax itself. - -The quantity of honey required for this process of wax-making is -very large. It is generally believed, in fact, to be from fifteen to -twenty times the weight of the material derived from it; in other -words, for every ounce of wax produced, at least a pound of honey is -consumed by the bees. During the oxygenation of so large a quantity of -saccharine matter, much heat is evolved a fact frequently noticed when -comb-building is going on rapidly in a hive. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Festoons of Bees Suspended from the Roof of -the Hive.] - -When wax is required for the abode of a fresh swarm, or for filling up -vacant spaces with comb, the bees hang in festoons or chains, crossing -the hive in different directions. Remaining almost motionless for -about twenty-four hours, the wax-makers proceed with their business. -Then, as soon as the little scales are of the proper consistency, they -are withdrawn by the pincers on the hind legs of the bee, and carried -between the fore-legs to the mouth. There, worked up with a small -quantity of saliva, the substance is softened ready for use, and being -conveyed away by those who have prepared it, and deposited in small -masses, it furnishes the materials from which the comb-builders do -their share of the duties of the hive. Possibly some of the individuals -of the lower parts of the festoons, or clusters, may pass up their -portions of wax to those above them for transmission to the top of the -hive; but the fact is not thoroughly ascertained. Evans graphically -says:-- - - "Lo, filtered through yon flutterer's folded mail, - Clings the cooled wax, and hardens to a scale. - Swift, at her well-known call, the ready train - (For not a buzz boon Nature breathes in vain) - Spring to each falling flake, and bear along - Their glossy burdens to the builder-throng." - -It often happens that the fine scales fall by accident, or perhaps, -when superabundant in quantity, on to the floor-boards of hives, and -it does not appear, from our observation, that those bees who happen -to come upon these little portions of material carry them up for -employment in cell-formation. - -The wax is used in comb-building, and the subject is one of great -interest on many accounts, but especially from the following -considerations: the nature of the material; the organs by which it -is produced; the implements with which it is fashioned into shape; -the manner in which the work is done; the form of the cells, the -mathematical characters of which are most surprising; their different -sizes and shapes, according to the purposes for which they are -destined; their perfect adaptation to the needs of the bee community. - -With regard to the nature of the material, in addition to the facts -already mentioned, we may note that it is a substance easily moulded, -especially when exposed to a gentle heat, such as is generated in a -hive. It is light, so as to add little to the weight of the contents -which will be stored in the cells. It is also a very slow conductor of -heat, a matter of great importance both in summer and in winter. For, -if it readily both absorbed and radiated heat, the temperature would, -in the former season, become too high; while, in the winter, too great -effort, and a large additional amount of food, would be needed by the -bees to keep up the temperature of the hive to a point of safety for -its inhabitants. Again, wax is a material which, by means of _propolis_ -(of which we shall presently speak), admits of being fastened in -position so securely as to be able to bear a great weight of brood, -honey, and bee-bread, in the cells. - -The organs by which wax is secreted, and the implements with which it -is fashioned, will be described fully in the chapter devoted to the -physiology and anatomy of the bee; but we may say here that they are -exceedingly simple, and that it is wonderful such beautiful work can be -accomplished by means of them. - -But the manner in which comb-building is done is so marvellous, that -it merits a detailed description. It is to Huber that we are indebted -for the full exposition of this subject, and we cannot do better than -quote his account of the process, as given by Kirby and Spence. We must -premise, however, that the great naturalist thought there were two -distinct classes of workers, the one of which he called the wax-makers; -the other, the nurse-bees. Observations continued since his day have -rendered it certain that this is a mistaken distinction. As a general -rule the care of the young devolves, as we have already said, on the -most recently hatched of the community, who are unfit, for some days -after emerging from the cell, to take distant flight in search of -stores from flowers. The older and stronger workers, on the other hand, -go abroad for supplies, and then, on their return, secrete whatever wax -is needed in the economy of the hive. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Cluster of Bees.] - -The process of comb-building is described by Huber as follows:--"The -wax-makers having taken a due portion of honey or sugar, from either -of which wax can be elaborated, suspend themselves to each other, the -claws of the fore-legs of the lowermost being attached to those of the -hind pair of the uppermost, and form themselves into a cluster, the -exterior layer of which looks like a kind of curtain. This cluster -consists of a series of festoons or garlands, which cross each other -in all directions, and in which most of the bees turn their back upon -the observer.... The wax-makers remain immovable for about twenty-four -hours, during which period the formation of wax takes place, and thin -laminæ of this material may be generally perceived under their abdomen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Wax-Worker Commencing a Comb.] - -"One of these bees is now seen to detach itself from one of the central -garlands of the cluster, to make a way amongst its companions to the -middle of the vault, or top of the hive, and by turning itself round -to form a kind of void, in which it can move itself freely. It then -suspends itself to the centre of the space which it has cleared, the -diameter of which is about an inch. It next seizes one of the laminæ -of wax with a pincer formed by the posterior metatarsus (last joint of -the leg), and tibia (last joint but two), and drawing it from beneath -the abdominal segments, one of the anterior legs takes it with its -claws and carries it to the mouth. This leg holds the lamina with -its claws vertically, the tongue rolled up serving for a support, -and by elevating it or depressing it at will, causes the whole of -its circumference to be exposed to the action of its mandibles (or -jaws), so that the margin is soon gnawed into pieces, which drop as -they are detached into the double cavity, bordered with hairs, of the -mandibles (jaws). These fragments, pressed by others newly separated, -fall on one side of the mouth, and issue from it in the form of a -narrow riband. They are then presented to the tongue, which impregnates -them with a frothy liquor like a _bouilli_. During this operation the -tongue assumes all sorts of forms; sometimes it is flattened like a -spatula, then like a trowel, which applies itself to the riband of -wax. At other times it resembles a pencil terminating in a point. -After having moistened the whole of the riband, the tongue pushes it -to make it re-enter the mandibles, but in an opposite direction, where -it is worked up anew. The liquor mixed with the wax communicates to -it a whiteness and opacity which it had not before; and the object of -this mixture, which did not escape the observation of Réaumur, is, -doubtless, to give it that ductility and tenacity which it possesses in -its perfect state. - -"The foundress-bee--the name which this first beginner of a comb -deserves--next applies these prepared parcels of wax against the vault -(or top of a frame) of the hive, disposing them with the point of her -mandibles in the direction which she wishes them to take; and she -continues these manœuvres until she has employed the whole lamina that -she had separated from her body, when she takes a second, proceeding in -the same manner. She gives herself no care to compress the molecules of -wax which she has heaped together. She is satisfied if they adhere to -each other. At length she leaves her work, and is lost in the crowd -of her companions. Another succeeds and resumes the employment, then -a third. All follow the same plan of placing their little masses, and -if any one, by chance, gives them a contrary direction, another coming -removes them to their proper place. - -"The result of all these operations is a mass or little wall of wax, -with uneven surfaces, five or six lines (twelfths of an inch) long, two -lines high, and half a line thick, which descends perpendicularly. In -this first work is no angle nor any trace of the figure of the cells. -It is a simple partition in a right line without any inflection. - -"The wax-makers having thus laid a foundation of a comb, are succeeded -by the nurse-bees [here Huber is wrong[2]], which are alone competent -to model and perfect the work. The former are the labourers, who convey -the stone and mortar; the latter the masons, who work them up into -the form which the intended structure requires. One of these bees now -places itself horizontally on the vault (or bar-frame) of the hive, -its head corresponding to the centre of the mass or wall which the -wax-makers have left, and which is to form the partition of the comb -into two opposite assemblages of cells; and with its mandibles (jaws), -rapidly moving its head, it moulds in that side of the wall a cavity -which is to form the base of one of the cells, to the diameter of which -it is equal. When it has worked some minutes it departs, and another -takes its place, deepening the cavity, heightening its lateral margins -by heaping up the wax to right and left, by means of its teeth and -fore-feet, and giving to them a more upright form. More than twenty -bees successively employ themselves in this work. - -[Footnote 2: See remark immediately preceding the quotation.] - -"When arrived at a certain point, other bees begin on the yet untouched -and opposite side of the mass, and commencing the bottom of two cells, -are in turn relieved by others. While still engaged in this labour -the wax-makers return, and add to the mass, augmenting its extent in -every way, the builders again continuing their operations. After having -worked the bottom of the cells of the first row into their proper -forms, they polish them, and give them their finish, while others begin -the outline of a new series. - -"The cells themselves, or prisms, which result from the reunion and -meeting of the sides, are next constructed. These are engrafted on the -borders of the cavities hollowed in the mass. The bees begin them by -making the contour of the bottoms, which is at first unequal, of equal -height. Thus all the margins of the cells offer an uniformly level -surface from their first origin, and until they have acquired their -proper length. The sides are heightened in an order analogous to that -which the insects follow in finishing the bottom of the cells, and the -length of these tubes is so perfectly proportioned that there is no -observable inequality between them." - - * * * * * - -Thus writes the great Swiss observer of bees. Without quoting at -greater length from his published observations, we may give some -additional particulars relating to the geometrical characters of -honey-comb. - -The cells of the first row laid down are pentagonal in shape. This -gives them a stronger attachment to the hive than if they had had -the hexagonal figure of the succeeding rows. But no form besides the -six-sided prism would have answered all the conditions of the problem -"how with the least expenditure of material to secure the greatest -available space with the best arrangement for the purposes to be -served." - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Diagram of Cells.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Supposed Circular Cells.] - -Approached from the purely theoretical side, the question has been -investigated by mathematicians. It requires no great acumen to -determine that a hexagon of some sort is the geometrical figure which -must be adopted. An equilateral triangle would make a very unsuitable -abode for an insect with a nearly round body. A square cell would -hardly be more convenient. A series of circles would, of course, leave -interstices between them, causing a useless expenditure of space, -material, time and strength. A further difficulty would arise with -regard to the storage of the honey, which finds points of attachment in -the angles of a hexagon, and so is less liable to run out of the cells. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Arrangement of Cells.] - -The next matter then to settle is, the magnitude of the angles at -which the sides of the hexagon should slope towards each other, so as -to be the most advantageous. Réaumur put the problem in mathematical -language before M. König, a skilful geometrician, thus:--"To determine -by calculations what ought to be the angle of a hexagonal cell, with a -pyramidal bottom, formed of three similar and equal rhomboid plates, -so that the least matter possible might enter into its construction." -The result of his investigations was that the angles of the rhombs -must be 109° 26′ and 70° 34′. Cramer, professor of mathematics in the -University of Geneva, also undertook the problem. His calculations, -made on somewhat different principles from König's, gave for the -angles 109° 28′ 16″, and 70° 31′ 44″. Maraldi, a third mathematician, -assuming the equality of the angles of the trapezia forming the -sides of the hexagon adjacent to the rhombs and those of the rhombs -themselves, and that the solid angle at the apex of the pyramid, -composed of equal obtuse angles, is precisely equal to each of the -three angles at the base, also composed of three equal obtuse angles, -came to the conclusion that the angles must be 109° 28′ and 70° 32′. - -These three sets of results, so remarkably accordant, when we consider -the minuteness of the differences between them, in figures so small as -the actual honey-comb cells, show the closest correspondence to the -actual measurements of the work of the bees. Maraldi found the angles -of the latter to be 110° and 70°, as nearly as could be ascertained. -We have dwelt at some length upon this point, because it illustrates, -in a most marvellous manner, the power of that inborn faculty we call -instinct, which arrives, without training, at results so precisely -agreeing with those of the highest efforts of our intellectual -reasonings. To the devout mind, the conclusion is inevitable that -Divine Wisdom is the inspiring force which energizes the mental -operations of the bees in their cell-building. - -A further advantage of the actual shape of the honey-comb prisms is -that, thereby, strength is combined with economy. No other form would -so efficiently have carried the heavy weights constantly stored in the -forms of honey, brood, and bee-bread. - -The bottoms and sides of the cells are made of wax as thin as a sheet -of writing-paper; but as walls of this thinness at the entrances would -break down under the weight of the constantly passing insects, the -margin at the opening of each cell is made four or five times thicker -than the walls. Then, as the cells are lengthened, this thickness is -reduced, always remaining the same, however, at the actual margins. -Dr. Barclay also discovered that, though the tenuity of the divisions -is so great, each, in point of fact, consists of two distinct layers -agglutinated together. This gives, again, an increase of strength, as -any practical builder would know who, in his "bressummers," adopts -the same method of attaining lightness and power of sustaining great -weights. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Diagram Showing Slope of Cells.] - -The actual size of the cells in a hive varies considerably, as we might -expect. Without regarding those for queen-progeny, we should anticipate -that those in which young drones are to be developed would be -considerably larger than those prepared for workers. This is, indeed, -the case. But as an abrupt change from the one kind to the other would -be impossible without waste, the bees prudently graduate the difference -by interposing a suitable series of intermediate sizes, whose bottoms, -of course, have to depart from the normal conditions, and sometimes -consist of two rhomboids and two hexagons, varying in size and form, -and corresponding with four, instead of three, opposite cells. In -these, stores are often found, instead of brood. If eggs are laid in -them, they are generally those which will develop into males, and the -space for development being smaller than usual, the drones occupying -such cells are not so large as the average size. - -As a rule, the hexagonal ends of twenty-seven worker cells, or nineteen -drone cells, occupy a surface of one square inch. All the cells lie -not quite horizontally, but sloping slightly downwards from the mouth -towards the bases. This arrangement is designed to prevent the honey -from easily flowing out. As the cells are filled with the liquid, the -lower edge of each is first raised, and, in due time, the whole of the -once open end is sealed over with a coating of wax mixed with a little -propolis. This covering not only keeps the contents from running out, -but prevents fermentation or candying, from contact with the air. - -Each comb consists of a double layer of cells, back to back, and -forming a sort of flat cake. At first this is lenticular in shape, the -middle part being advanced rather more rapidly than the ends. - -It is a curious fact that the bees do not, on being put into a hive, or -when working in a bell-glass, begin several combs at once; but, having -thoroughly laid the foundation of one, and having made some progress -with this, they then start one on each side of the first, and, after -a time, one on the outer side of each of the last begun. Usually, -therefore, the combs hang in parallel series. If any obstruction -occurs, a deviation from the normal direction takes place, but, -manifest intelligence is shown in surmounting the difficulty, whatever -it may be. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Arrangement of Combs in a Bell-Glass.] - -At first, the substance of the cells is of a dull, semi-transparent, -white colour, soft, and very brittle. After a time, a yellow tinge -spreads over the comb, and, with age, this hue deepens to brown, and if -some years old, becomes almost black. The colour, therefore, furnishes -a tolerably safe guide as to the age of comb. The darkening seems due, -partly to a chemical change from contact with the air, but still more -to the constant traffic of the bees over it, and its getting smeared -with dirt and propolis. - -It occasionally happens that, owing to a great in-flow of honey, the -weight of the combs endangers their security, and the bees, seeing -the danger of their breaking down, resort to a most clever method -of rendering their treasures safe. Gnawing away a small part of the -topmost row of the combs on one side, they lay a broader foundation, -and then, with a strongly glutinous mixture of wax and propolis, they -fasten afresh the upper cells to their points of attachment. Having -completed one side, they then proceed in the same way with the other, -till they are satisfied of the firmness of the whole structure. - -Again, if the supply of food outruns the capacity of their store-houses -as first made, they will often lengthen the cells, till, especially in -the case of _supers_, they reach the length of even two inches--more -than twice the normal size. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--The Queen Cell.] - -The _queen-cells_ are remarkably distinguished from those for workers -or drones, in respect to size, direction, shape, and amount of -material. They occupy at least as much space as half a dozen ordinary -cells. They are directed downwards, instead of lying horizontally. They -are irregularly oval or pyriform in shape, and are made up of a sort -of mosaic of wax, which material, so sparingly used elsewhere, seems -lavished on the royal nurseries. The reasons for this are, probably, -to secure the young queens from danger while passing through the -larval and pupal conditions, and to keep up the warmth necessary for -their more rapid development. Wax being a very bad conductor of heat, -the thick walls prevent the chilling of the brood, and, at the same -time, allow of considerable clustering of nurse-bees, and consequent -generation of warmth, without the danger of the cells being broken down -by the pressure. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Queen Cells in Situ.] - -Bees-wax forms a not unimportant article of commerce. From Germany, -Greece, Cyprus, and still more largely from North America, we derive -what is needed to make up the deficiency in our home production of it. -Its uses are numerous. For household purposes, especially for polishing -furniture, for some varnishes and unguents, for candles and matches, -for modelling, particularly in dentistry, it is consumed in great -quantities. Since the introduction of paraffin and similar substances -for lighting purposes, the amount used for candles has diminished, -though the demand for it in other directions does not appear to have -fallen off. Bee-keepers now use it greatly for "foundation-comb." - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD. - - Origin--Collection--Conveyance--Deposition--Quantity Stored-- - Uses--Artificial Substitutes. - - -Honey consists, like most saccharine substances, of carbon, oxygen, and -hydrogen. It is fitted, therefore, as a food to supply the waste in -the body of the bee produced by respiration; but for the nourishment -of muscular tissue, and so for the growth of the larvæ and pupæ, some -nitrogenous material is required. This is obtained by the insects from -the pollen of flowers. This substance, we need hardly say, is the -fertilising powder necessary for the production of seeds in plants, and -growing on the anthers, or tops of the stamens, within the corolla of -most flowers. The workers in search of honey rub off this farina with -their hairy bodies and with the bristles of their legs. Then, on taking -wing, they clear it off by rapid combings of their limbs; and rolling -the powder into little pellets, they deposit it in pockets situated -on the outside of the middle joint of the hindmost pair of legs. When -filled, these receptacles with their loads appear like coloured balls -on the laden workers. Sometimes the bees get so covered with pollen -from plants containing large quantities of it, that they cannot clear -themselves of the powder till they return to their homes; and, in some -cases, they need the assistance of their fellows to brush off what -adheres too tightly, or in places not easily reached by the individual -herself. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Hind-leg of a Bee.] - -When the pollen-laden bee has reached the combs, she searches for a -cell already containing the same material as that she is carrying, or -which is suitable for her purpose. Then, having found what she wants, -she inserts her hindmost legs into the cell, and, by a dexterous -movement, detaches the little balls, and, on retiring, gives herself -some vigorous shakes, as if to clear herself of still adherent -flower-dust. Then another worker, whose duty it is to see to the proper -storing of the bee-bread, rams it down with her head into a compact -mass, and the process goes on till the cell is filled. - -No particular portion of the combs seems selected for the deposit of -this substance, nor is it ascertained that what is procured from any -particular kind of plant is placed apart; but a mixture of various -pollens appears to be made, though during the prevalence of any special -flower yielding the material, certain colours predominate, as might be -expected, in the stores of bee-bread. - -The quantities collected by a prosperous colony must be very great. -Some writers put the amount at twenty pounds in the course of a season. -The carrying in of this produce is usually a sure sign that there is -brood in the hive. The absence of a supply going in generally raises -the suspicion that no young are developing, owing to the loss of -the queen. The amount seen to be carried in is, therefore, a rough -indication of the prosperity of the community. - -In early seasons its collection begins as soon as February. During -April and May, _i.e._ in the height of the blossoming time, the largest -quantities are stored; and this period corresponds with the most rapid -and extensive increase of the population of the hive. - -The nurse-bees take some portion of the pollen immediately it is -brought in, and, working it up with honey and saliva, prepare the food -for the larvæ. In some cases, they partially digest it before giving -it to the young brood. It is believed that the queen, when laying her -thousands of eggs, needs copious supplies of nitrogenous nutriment, -and that her attendants diligently feed her with honey mixed with -bee-bread, which has been partly prepared in their stomachs for quick -assimilation in the body of their monarch. - -When plant-blossoms are scarce, the skilful apiarian supplies his stock -with some substitute for pollen. Dr. Dzierzon was the first to propose -fine rye-meal for this purpose; and he was led to make the suggestion -by having noticed, that, in the early spring, before flowers were -blooming in sufficient quantity to satisfy the wants of his bees, they -entered a neighbouring mill, and returned to their hives well powdered -with rye-flour. Pea-meal has been tried with much success for this -purpose. The method of using it recommended is to put the meal into a -soup-plate, or shallow dish or trough, among shavings. The bees may -be enticed to take to it by a little honey placed on the rim of the -receptacle, or by showing a few individuals the way to it. When once -the treasure has been discovered by the workers, they make abundant -visits to it. They, indeed, prefer the pea-flour to the old stores of -bee-bread remaining in the hive; but, so soon as the natural supplies -of the plant-blossoms are sufficient in amount for the wants of the -brood, the substitute is quite neglected. - -In extracting honey from combs by pressure, it is well to avoid any -admixture of the bee-bread, as its taste is by no means a pleasant -addition to the flavour of the sweet liquid. By using any of the -"extractor" machines now in vogue, all danger of having the pollen -mingled with the honey is avoided. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -PROPOLIS. - - Derivation of Word--Sources--Nature--Purposes--Quantity - Collected--Adaptation of Materials to Wants of Bees. - - -Another substance carried in, and largely used by the bees, is an -exceedingly sticky material called propolis, from two Greek words -signifying "before the city," as it was observed, in early times, that -it was employed in strengthening the outworks of their fortress-home, -or, at least, in firmly securing the rim of their hives to their -floor-boards. - -It was formerly a matter of considerable discussion whether this -substance was a natural vegetable product, or whether it was -elaborated, as wax is. There is now little doubt that it is chiefly a -sort of resin derived from plants, and especially from the leaf-buds of -certain kinds, like the horse-chestnut, the alder, birch, willow, and -hollyhock. Huber, to whom we are indebted for so many interesting and -careful observations on apiculture, tried the experiment of placing in -pots branches of the poplar, before the buds had opened, and these he -put near his apiary. The bees, settling on them, separated the folds -of the largest buds, extracted the resinous matter in threads, loaded -it on their thighs, as they do pollen, and carried it to their hives. -In the spring one may often notice a loud humming round the foliage -of deodars, firs, and other coniferæ; and some wonder may, at first, -be felt as to what the busy insects can want from such absolutely -honeyless trees. When we remember the turpentinous exudations which are -so abundant in these cone-bearers, all difficulty disappears. It is -for supplies of propolis the workers are searching. Evans says on this -subject:-- - - "With merry hum the willow's copse they scale, - The fir's dark pyramid, or poplar pale; - Scoop from the alder's leaf its oozy flood, - Or strip the chestnut's resin-coated bud, - Skim the light tear that tips Narcissus' ray, - Or round the hollyhock's hoar fragrance play." - -It is most probable that, with the resinous substances collected from -trees, they knead up a certain proportion of wax, to increase the -tenacity. The resulting product is one of extraordinarily glutinous -quality. With it the bees stop every chink and crack and cranny in -their abodes. With it they stick down skeps to floor-boards, fasten, -if they can, frames to the top of bar-hives, firmly fix the combs to -their points of attachment, strengthen weak places in their dwellings, -and, in some cases, where glass has been inserted in the walls of hives -for observation purposes, the panes are found completely coated with -propolis, so as to exclude the light. - -In colour, this cement is greenish yellow, darkening with age to brown. -Its odour is balsamic and somewhat powerful, resembling that of storax. -It was formerly supposed to possess medicinal properties, and was kept -in the shop of the apothecary. When smeared on the fingers, it is very -difficult of removal. Soap has no effect upon it; water fails to wash -it off; but spirits of wine readily dissolve it, and are the most easy -and effectual means of getting it off the skin. - -Bees usually choose the middle of the day for gathering this substance, -as the warmth of the air, by softening the resinous material, -facilitates the obtaining of it from the trees, and prevents its too -speedy hardening before it reaches the hives. Sometimes, indeed, the -resin becomes so firm in consistency by the time the collectors of it -get home, that they require the assistance of their fellow-workers to -detach it from their thighs. - -One very remarkable use to which propolis is occasionally put by -the bees, is for the covering up of mice, snails, frogs, or other -intruders, whose expulsion is impossible, or who have died after -entering the hives. Réaumur relates that, on one occasion, he observed -a snail thus glued down to a piece of glass in one of his hives; and, -in another instance, where a slug had been stung to death, and was -far too large for removal by the insects, these clever sanitarians -completely enveloped the mollusc with a coating of propolis-varnish, to -prevent the emanation of any noxious vapours when decomposition set in. -It was, in fact, a distinct instance of embalming. Huish mentions that -a mouse was similarly treated by one of his stocks of bees. - -The quantity of propolis collected is sometimes very large, -particularly where spaces are left at the top, sides, or bottoms of -bee-dwellings. At present, this substance has not been turned to any -serviceable human use. - -In reviewing these various products gathered or elaborated by bees, we -cannot fail to be struck with the marvellous adaptation of different -materials to the wants of the community, the skill displayed in the -application of them to the general purposes of the commonwealth; and, -above all, the wondrous suitability of means to ends, shown by the -workers of the hive. If we refuse to allow the possession of reason -to these extraordinary insects, we must admit the existence in them -of some faculty almost more to be admired; and, in any case, we can -but bow in reverence before the all-comprehensive Divine wisdom -and goodness, which have endowed creatures so small with powers so -surprising which have made them subservient to human needs or comfort, -and which have enabled the bees to work even to better advantage -under the tutelage of man, than when left to their natural habits and -surroundings. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BEE. - - Nervous System--The Head--Eyes--Compound and Simple--Uses and - Powers--Sir John Lubbock's Experiments--The Antennæ--Structure - and Uses--Mouth--Detailed Description. - - -Before proceeding to detail the most important facts connected with the -internal economy of the hive, it will be desirable to describe with -some minuteness the physiology and anatomy of the inhabitants, so that -it may be more easy to understand the means by which various processes -are accomplished, and the most important events of the community are -brought about. Much that has been hitherto said will become more -readily comprehended by attention to the structure of the various -organs we are now about to describe. - -It will hardly be necessary to enter into a more minute account, than -we have already given, of the egg, the larva, and the pupa. We shall, -therefore, confine ourselves to detailing the most interesting points -in the physiology of the perfect insect. - -It has been noted, in an earlier chapter, that the members of this -division of the animal kingdom are characterised by having three very -distinct segments in their bodies the head, the thorax, and the -abdomen. As the nature and arrangement of the nervous system forms one -of the soundest bases of classification in the highest of the three -kingdoms in nature, we shall first direct attention, in each case, to -this all-important matter of detail. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Nervous System of Privet Hawk-moth.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Nervous System of Larva of Bee.] - -The general arrangement of the nerve-matter in the sub-kingdom -_Articulata_, to which all true insects belong, is that of a double -cord, with knot-like protuberances, called _ganglia_, at more or -less regular intervals. The two filaments are in some cases close -together: in others, quite distinct; while the larger nerve-masses--the -previously mentioned _ganglia_--also vary in juxtaposition, according -to the greater or less importance of the functions they regulate. -In the illustration of the larva of _Sphinx ligustri_ (the privet -hawk-moth) (Fig. 22), the nervous cord is nearly uniform throughout its -length, though at its upper portion a separation takes place into three -loops. The ganglia also occur at almost equal distances. A very similar -disposition of the nerve-structure is seen in the larval condition of -the bee; but we may note the absence of loops, the larger development -of the cephalic masses, without the separation of their filaments -to inclose the gullet together with a more plainly-defined distance -between the cords which run parallel through the rest of the body. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Nervous System of Perfect Insect.] - -In the perfect insect we observe some decided modifications to have -taken place. The head portions have grown proportionally larger, and -show a loop for the passage of the œsophagus, while two large ganglia -in the thorax indicate the seat of impressions and impulses connected -with the organs of motion--wings and legs--which had no existence in -the larval condition. As the functions of the abdominal region, viz., -those of digestion and circulation chiefly, remain much the same in the -different states through which the individual passes after the hatching -of the egg, we find, as we might expect, little change in the nervous -system of the posterior segment of the body. - -From each nerve-mass will be observed filaments branching on either -side to the outer edges of the body. By means of these communication -is kept up between all parts of the frame. Sensations are received and -conveyed to the sensorial organs, and return-stimuli are sent to the -organs whose movements depend for regulation on the different ganglia. -This branching of the nerve-fibre is directly proportional to the -variety and force of the several functions subserved by the various -structures to which they proceed. - -_The Head._--We will now describe in some detail the structure and -functions of the highly-important organs contained in the anterior -segment, or head. And first in order let us take the - -_Eyes._--On either side of the head may be observed an oval lobe, -convexly rounded and immovable, brown in colour, covered with a horny -tunicle, and exhibiting to the unassisted eye a vast number of distinct -points. These points, under a high-power magnifying-glass, are seen to -be facets, hexagonal in shape, so as to occupy all available space, -without interstices, and each connected with a minute tube and a -thread of nerve-matter leading to the cephalic ganglia or brain. These -compound eyes, as they are called, are common to most true insects. -They may be easily seen in flies, bluebottles, moths, butterflies, -&c. The numbers of the facets vary greatly in different families of -the _Articulata_. In the common house-fly there are, it is stated, -about 4,000; in the white cabbage-butterfly, 17,000; in the dragon-fly, -24,000. It has been computed that in each compound eye of the bee there -are about 3,500 of them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Eyes of a Bee, Greatly Magnified.] - -Behind the horny covering, or cornea, which consists of two -plano-convex lenses, is a layer of dark pigment, which gives the -characteristic colour to these eyes. This is pointed like the neck of -a vase, and serves the purpose of the iris in the higher animals. This -is traversed by a minute aperture or pupil, through which the rays pass -by a longer conical lens to the optic nerve. A vertical section shows -that each ocellus (or _little eye_) is the frustum of a pyramid, the -large end or base of which is bounded by the cornea, while the other -and pointed end terminates against an expansion of the optic nerve. -The eminent physiologist, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, says, in describing -the minute structure of these organs: "The interior of this pyramid -is occupied by a transparent substance, which represents the vitreous -humour (of the eyes of vertebrates), and the pyramids are separated -from each other by a layer of dark pigment, which completely incloses -them, save at the pupillary apertures, and also at a corresponding set -of apertures at their smaller ends, where the pigment is perforated by -the fibres of the optic nerve, of which one proceeds to each separate -eye. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Facets of Eye of a Bee.] - -"Each facet, or 'corneule' of the common cornea, is convex on both -its surfaces, and thus acts as a lens, the focus of which has been -ascertained, by experiment, to be equivalent to the length of the -transparent pyramid behind it; so that the image produced by the lens -will fall upon the extremity of the filament of the optic nerve, which -passes to its truncated end. The rays which have passed through the -several 'corneules' are prevented from mixing with each other by means -of the layer of black pigment which surrounds each cone; and thus, no -rays, except those which correspond with the axis of the cone, can -reach the fibres of the optic nerve. Hence it is evident that each -separate eye must have an extremely limited range of vision, being -adapted to receive but a very small pencil of rays proceeding from a -single point in any object; and as these eyes are immovable, they would -afford but very imperfect information of the position of surrounding -objects, were it not for their enormous multiplication, by which a -separate eye, so to speak, is provided for each point to be viewed. No -two of these, save those upon the opposite sides of the head, which -are directed exactly forwards, can form an image of the same point -at the same time; but the combined action of all of them may give -to the insect, it may be imagined, as distinct a picture as that we -obtain by a very different organisation." We venture to suggest that -another reason for the vast multiplication of the numbers of "ocelli" -is to enable the insects to see in what would be to us darkness. -Nearly all the operations carried on in the interior of the hives are -done, during the day-time, in very dim light; and in the night-time, -when work is by no means intermitted, there would, to _our_ eyes, be -absolute darkness. To the bees, however, the scanty rays received by -so many sensitive points may be sufficient to enable them to see with -considerable clearness. If the simple enlargement of a single pupil, -such as takes place in us on emerging from a strong into a dim light, -makes so great a difference in our power of vision a fact with which -we are all familiar on going from a well-lighted room into what seems -for the first few seconds complete darkness we may well believe that -the permanent means of entry into the sensorium of an immense number -of separate rays may give greatly enlarged powers of seeing scantily -illuminated objects. - -Still, an opposite view is held by many naturalists, for it seems very -doubtful whether there is any power in the bee of focusing these eyes, -so as to adapt their range to different distances. The probability is -that no such faculty of adjustment exists in them. We should expect -this from the structure of the visual apparatus. Yet it seems possible -that the compound eyes act as telescopes, and serve for great range of -vision, but not for near objects. For, while bees dart homewards from -far-off fields with the directness of an arrow, they will frequently -fly against persons or things in the direct line of their course, -without apparently having seen them at a little distance off. Moreover, -when they have alighted within an inch or two of the entrance to -their hives, they often fail to perceive its position, and constantly -wander to one side or the other, searching for their way in. We might -conclude, therefore, that these compound eyes confer distinctness of -vision afar, and possibly ability to use up scanty light, rather than -any great discernment of objects near at hand. - -In addition to these "facetted" eyes, bees have, on the top of the -head, three simple ones, called by some writers "coronets," by others -"stemmata." Their position and arrangement are shown at _g_ in Fig. -27, p. 98. The focal length of their lens is said to be short, and -they are supplied with numerous filaments from the optic ganglia. -The special purpose of these simple organs is not well ascertained. -If their focal length is short, this would seem to imply that their -range of vision is also very limited. But it is very possible they may -possess a focusing power, which would adapt them for seeing at all -distances. Réaumur thinks they may, with their hemispherical lens, act -as microscopes. This point needs further investigation, as the subject -of the uses of these two kinds of visual apparatus is, at present, very -far from satisfactorily elucidated. One remarkable fact relating to -the "stemmata" must be mentioned. It is that, if they be covered with -a little opaque paint, the bee, on being let go, will fly continually -upwards. Dr. W. B. Carpenter considers this curious fact due to -automatic movements initiated by the ganglia connected with flight, -uncontrolled by the visual impressions which the simple eyes convey in -their natural condition. Neither kind of eye has a lid, but both are -protected from dust by numerous small hairs growing round them, and in -the points of junction of the facets. - -How far the eyes of bees enable them to distinguish colours is still -a moot point. On _a priori_ grounds we should expect that one very -definite object in the hues of flowers is to attract the notice of -insects, just as we have strong reason to believe that odours exhaled -in the vegetable world serve this purpose. Sir John Lubbock has -detailed a series of experiments on this point, the following summary -of which is abstracted from his work on _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_. He -says, p. 304: "In recording the results I marked down successively the -order in which the bee went to the different-coloured glasses (on which -honey was placed). For instance, in the first journey from the nest, -as recorded below, the bee lit first on the blue, which accordingly -I marked I; when the blue was removed, she flew about a little, and -then lit on the white; when the white was removed she settled on the -green; and so on successively on the orange, yellow, plain, and red. -I repeated the experiment a hundred times, using two different hives -one in Kent, and one in Middlesex and spreading the observations over -some time, so as to experiment with different bees, and under varied -circumstances. Adding the numbers together, it, of course, follows that -the greater the preference shown for each colour, the lower will be the -number standing against it. - -"The following table gives the first day's observations _in extenso_:-- - - +---------+------+-------+-------+--------+-----+-------+--------+ - | | | | Plain | | | | | - |Journeys.| Blue.| Green.| Glass.| Orange.| Red.| White.| Yellow.| - +---------+------+-------+-------+--------+-----+-------+--------+ - | 1 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 5 | - | 2 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | - | 3 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 2 | - | 4 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 3 | - | 5 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 3 | - | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 7 | - | 7 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 3 | 5 | 6 | - | 8 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 2 | 7 | 5 | 1 | - | 9 | 5 | 1 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 2 | - | 10 | 1 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 4 | - | 11 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 7 | 3 | 1 | - | +------+-------+-------+--------+-----+-------+--------+ - | | 26 | 39 | 65 | 51 | 55 | 35 | 37 | - +---------+------+-------+-------+--------+-----+-------+--------+ - -"In the next series of experiments the bees had been trained for three -weeks to come to a particular spot on a large lawn, by placing from -time to time honey on a piece of plain glass. This naturally gave the -plain glass an advantage; nevertheless, as will be seen, the blue -still retained its pre-eminence. It seems hardly necessary to give the -observations in detail. The following table shows the general result:-- - - +-----------+------+-----+------+-------+------+-----+-------+-------+ - | |No. of| | | | | | | | - | Series. | Exp. |Blue.|Green.|Orange.|Plain.| Red.| White.|Yellow.| - +-----------+------+-----+------+-------+------+-----+-------+-------+ - |1st. | 11 | 26 | 39 | 51 | 65 | 55 | 35 | 37 | - |2nd. May 30| 15 | 38 | 57 | 59 | 72 | 66 | 58 | 70 | - |3rd. July 2| 16 | 44 | 76 | 82 | 73 | 53 | 53 | 67 | - |4th. " 4| 15 | 43 | 61 | 64 | 80 | 66 | 50 | 56 | - |5th. " 5| 10 | 36 | 47 | 39 | 40 | 40 | 36 | 42 | - |6th. " 6| 2 | 2 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 14 | 6 | 7 | - |7th. " 20| 11 | 33 | 39 | 50 | 47 | 49 | 41 | 49 | - |8th. " 23| 10 | 31 | 46 | 48 | 52 | 37 | 35 | 31 | - |9th. " 25| 10 | 22 | 54 | 38 | 52 | 33 | 35 | 46 | - | +------+-----+------+-------+------+-----+-------+-------+ - | | 100 | 275 | 427 | 440 | 491 | 413 | 349 | 405 | - +-----------+------+-----+------+-------+------+-----+-------+-------+ - -"The precautions taken seem to me to have placed the colours on an -equal footing; while the number of experiments appears sufficient to -give a fair average." As this table differs in form from the other, it -may be as well to explain the first _line_ of figures in illustration -of the whole. The first series consisted of eleven experiments. The -preferences were noted as before, and when the numbers indicating -these were added up, the results were that twenty-six represented the -total for the blue glass, thirty-nine for the green, fifty-one for -the orange, sixty-five for the plain glass, fifty-five for the red, -thirty-five for the white, and thirty-seven for the yellow the blue -being again manifestly the most attractive colour to the bees. Some -practical bee-keepers consider the question by no means settled. The -field is doubtless open for further exploration. - -_The Antennæ._ In the front part of the head are two organs, -which appear to supplement, in some remarkable way, probably by -touch-sensations, the power of vision, and also to possess other -capabilities constituting a sense to which _we_ have nothing strictly -analogous. These organs are called _antennæ_. They spring from origins -near together, at equal distances from the medial and anterior point of -the head, and are connected, by distinct and somewhat large filaments, -with the nerve matter forming the cephalic ganglia. Externally they -consist, first, of one segment nearest the head, much longer than the -rest. This part is called the _scape_. Then, forming a sort of elbow -with it, is the _flagellum_, consisting of eleven joints in queens and -workers, and of twelve in the drones. These segments are tubular, and -so attached to each other as to give the greatest possible freedom of -motion. Their extremities are wonderfully sensitive, and it is probable -that there is a very delicate power of feeling in each of the joints. -For the cleansing of these organs, special provision is made in the -construction of the fourth and fifth joints of the most forward pair of -legs. At the anterior part of the tibia, or fourth joint, is a spur, -within, and at the base of, which is a small angular projection, called -the _velum_ or _sail_. At the base of the next joint, and opposite -the play of this _velum_, is found a deep notch. From the fact of its -being fringed with hairs, this is called the _curry-comb_. Upon this -notch the velum can act at the will of the insect, and, when shut over -one another, they form a circular orifice, just large enough to take -the antennæ. When the latter organ needs cleansing, it is laid within -the notch: the velum is pressed over it, and being drawn through the -round space, dust and other soilures are removed from its surface. -So particular are the bees about keeping their antennæ thoroughly -clean, that they may often be observed continuing this operation of -drawing them through the curry-comb till perfectly satisfied with their -condition. Doubtless, the delicate nature of the impressions to which -these organs are susceptible, supplies the reason for the care taken in -freeing them from all extraneous substances. - -The uses served by the antennæ are various and very remarkable. Their -first function seems to be to supplement vision. Endowed with exceeding -flexibility, they are kept by the insects in constant motion; and when -their eyes fail to guide them to particular spots, such as the entrance -to the hive, or as to the nature of objects with which they come into -contact, the antennæ appear to supply the necessary information. -There is little doubt that these "horns" or "feelers," as they are -commonly called, are sensitive, also, to impressions from objects at -some distance. Vibrations of the air too feeble to affect our organs -affect them. It may even be that other qualities of the atmosphere are -apprehended by them. The shape of the cells; the suitability of these -for brood of various kinds, for honey or for bee-bread, is ascertained -by the antennæ. Every want and every duty is recognised by them; the -presence or absence of the queen is discovered by their use, and -intelligence is conveyed from one individual to another by means of -them. - -Of these facts, Huber has given the following striking evidence. He -divided a stock hive into two parts by metal network, sufficiently -fine to prevent the passage of the bees, but with meshes wide enough -to allow the antennæ to be passed through. At first, by a pair of such -gratings at a little distance apart, he separated the two portions, -so that no communication whatever could take place between them. -Very soon that half from which the queen was excluded showed signs -of commotion and distress, and even began to prepare queen-cells, to -supply themselves with a new sovereign; but when, by the removal of one -grating, Huber allowed the feelers to be used to convey intelligence -between the bees on opposite sides of the remaining division, he saw -the insects by hundreds making inquiries as to what had happened. Then -the queen was observed on the grating, and the bees being assured, by -crossing antennæ with her, that their mother was still in the hive, -though shut off from free access to one set of her subjects, they -all quieted down, left off making the royal cells, and resumed their -various avocations. - -Huber tried the further experiment of depriving two queens of their -antennæ, and introducing both into the same hive. The population did -not seem able to recognise their own sovereign from the stranger, and -both were let alone; but, directly he put in a third queen, unmutilated -in these organs, the workers fell upon her, and slaughtered her. - -The antennæless queens lost all purpose, laid eggs at random, and -wandered about the hives as if they had "lost their heads." - -Another very curious fact is, that if a worker is deprived of her -feelers, and then allowed to fly, she becomes incapable of recognising -her hive, even when near to it, and is hopelessly lost as to her -whereabouts. From this circumstance we are inclined to conclude that -the antennæ are possessed of sensibilities to which we have nothing -strictly analogous--that, in fact, there resides in them a sense, or -senses, with which mankind is not endowed, one of which we are disposed -to call the "homing-sense." - -Numerous observations show that by the antennæ, also, distinct -information can be given. We have ourselves tried the following -experiment in confirmation of this point. Having placed near the -entrance of a hive a dead humble-bee, we first noticed one of the -sentinels rush to the body, and with her feelers investigate its -nature. Finding it was a lifeless creature, and one, therefore, simply -to be got rid of, she began to tug at it, to move it towards the edge -of the floor-board. At once discovering that the weight was too great -for her strength, she went to the entrance, and meeting a friend, by -crossing their feelers, the one was made aware of the difficulty of the -other. The second then went to the aid of the first; but, as the body -was too great a burden for their united efforts, the new-comer gave up -her attempts to move it, as if the duty did not concern her much. The -first bee, however, would not be baffled till she had fetched several -other individuals, one at a time, to the work in hand. But, at length, -as she could get no combined action, and as no two were sufficiently -strong to haul away the large carcase of their distant relative, she -gave up the task in despair, and retired to the hive in apparent -disgust. - -On a moonlight night the sentries may be observed marching eagerly -about the entrances of their abodes, and vigorously moving their -antennæ, to ascertain whether moths, or other unwelcome intruders, -are trying to get inside the hives. The presence of an enemy being -detected, he is soon chased away. - -By some naturalists the feelers have been thought to afford the -capacity of smell. It is, however, more probable that this sense -resides in the mouth itself, or in its immediate neighbourhood. - -Whether or not bees appreciate sound, is another moot point. It is, -indeed, doubted by many observers whether hearing is possessed at -all by insects. Sir John Lubbock records a series of experiments -which he conducted on this point, to which we shall make reference a -little later on. Those writers, who credit bees with the ability to -distinguish sound waves, incline to the belief that the power resides -in the antennas. As modern science has shown that all our physical -impressions are modifications of vibration, variously interpreted, -according to the means by which they are conveyed to the sensorium, -we may readily imagine that more than one faculty may reside in these -jointed organs of which we have been speaking, and that each separate -part may possibly have its own specific function; while, by combined -action, such differences may be made as are analogous to chords, and -harmonies, or discords in music, as compared with the striking of -single notes. - -We have dwelt at considerable length on the subject of the antennæ, -not simply because what is known of them is so remarkable, but because -we wish to draw attention to the fact that there is here a most -interesting field for further investigation. Much remains to be done -to clear up the mysteries still unsolved, and to harmonise the various -observations already made respecting the nature and properties of these -organs, which, not only in bees, but in many other families of insects, -play such an important part in their life-history. - -_The Mouth._--Passing next to the mouth, we find a somewhat complex -structure; for it consists of many parts, each of which has its -ascertained function. We find first, the _labrum_, or upper lip; -the _epipharynx_, or valve closing the aperture of the gullet; the -_pharynx_, or gullet, forming the true mouth, as well as the entrance -to the _œsophagus_, or food-pipe; the _hypopharynx_, lying just -below the gullet; the _labium_, or lower lip; and the _proboscis_, -or true tongue. These are all single parts; but there are also pairs -of _mandibles_, or upper jaws, and _maxillæ_, or lower jaws, besides -_palpi_--certain jointed, sensiferous organs, whose functions are not -well understood, but which are possibly connected with the sensation of -taste. - -The _labrum_, or upper lip, has a vertical motion, and when not in use -falls over the organs beneath it; while it is covered, in its turn, by -the _mandibles_, which are jointed on to the cheeks, and act laterally. - -The _pharynx_ is a cavity lying beneath the _epipharynx_, and can be -closed by the latter, over which the two previously described parts -lap, so that the entrance to the œsophagus is trebly protected. - -The _labium_, or lower lip, is capable of being pushed forward and -retracted, and lies, when not in use, within the under cavity of the -head. - -On either side are the _maxillæ_, or so-called jaws, which form the -under sheath of the rest of the lingual structures when in repose. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Head of Bee, With Antennæ. - -_a._ Antennæ._b._ Compound eyes. _c._ Jaws. _d._ Maxillae. _e._ Labial -palpi. _f._ Ligula, or tongue. _g._ Stemmata.] - -The true tongue is attached to the middle point of the lower lip, -having the labial palpi at its sides. It is much elongated when thrust -out in use. While at rest, the anterior part folds back upon the -posterior portion, when it is covered by the maxillæ, which seem then -like a part of the tongue itself. The back is much larger than the -front. The whole is flattened, when not sipping liquid. It is then much -broader than its thickness, but its edges are rounded. It narrows -from its base to its extremity, at which there is a slight inflation, -which seems to have a perforation in its centre, and is surrounded -by hairs. The tongue has also a large number of cartilaginous rings, -each bordered with minute hairs, which appear to be the means used -for sweeping up the last remains of any fluid which has been almost -exhausted. The act of imbibition is performed, not so much by suction, -as by lapping. Its motions being free in all directions, it can easily -draw liquid into the mouth on all sides. We notice, however, that when -the supply of food being taken is very considerable, the segments -of the abdomen have a vibratory motion, or, rather, are alternately -lengthened and shortened, as if fluid were being pumped into the body. -It is, therefore, possible that, under some circumstances, suction as -well as lapping may go on. Still, it is remarkable that a bee does -not insert the tip of its proboscis into a drop of honey or other -saccharine material, as it would do if it intended to draw liquid -through a tube. It much rather uses the middle of the upper surface -of the tongue, curving round the point as if not to employ it. If, -however, the honey or syrup be very thick, the fore-part of the tongue -is thrust into it, possibly to dilute the liquid with saliva, and thus -to render it fit for lapping. In all cases the insect tries to load -the upper surface, whence the fluid passes backward under the sheaths -to the gullet; and we see no reason to believe that the proboscis -constitutes a tube for imbibition. A further confirmation of this -conclusion is given by Shuckard, who says, "By pressing towards its -origin, I have detected the liquid which gave it its extension; but -all my pressing would never make the liquid pass through the extremity, -although the pressure has sometimes made it almost rend the membranes -to give it an opening to escape by." - -A further use of the tongue is for shaping the pliant wax in -comb-building; and it appears to be employed much as a trowel is by -a bricklayer, or, perhaps, we should rather say, like a finger by a -moulder of plaster of Paris. - -As we have mentioned, the jaws open vertically; but the mandibles -and maxillæ work horizontally. They are thus enabled to seize and -tightly hold any object they can grasp. The mandibles of the drone and -the queen have two notches or teeth. Those of workers are not thus -furnished, probably because, for shaping and smoothing the cells, an -unbroken edge is much more convenient than a notched one. These organs -are, however, very strong, and enable their possessor to grasp enemies, -drones or queens; to nibble hard kinds of food; to break away pieces of -damaged comb; and to mould wax for building purposes. In the last of -these operations they are, doubtless, aided by the shear-like maxillæ. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -HEARING, TASTE, AND SMELLING. - - Hearing--Sir John Lubbock's Experiments--Sounds uttered by - Queen--Effects produced by them--Smell-Organs--Purposes--Liking - for, and Antipathy to, certain Effluvia--Discovery by Bees of - Nectar and Honey - - -With regard to the sense of hearing, Sir John Lubbock says: "The result -of my experiments on the hearing of bees has surprised me very much. -It is generally considered that, to a certain extent, the emotions of -bees are expressed by the sounds they make, which seems to imply that -they possess the power of hearing. I do not by any means intend to deny -that this is the case. Nevertheless, I never found them take any notice -of any noise which I made, even when it was close to them. I tried -one of my bees with a violin. I made all the noise I could, but, to -my surprise, she took no notice. I could not even see a twitch of the -antennæ. The next day I tried the same with another bee, but could not -see the slightest sign that she was conscious of the noise. On August -31st I repeated the experiment with another bee, with the same result. -On September 12th and 13th I tried several bees with a dog-whistle and -a shrill pipe, but they took no notice whatever; nor did a set of -tuning-forks, which I tried on a subsequent day, have any more effect. -These tuning-forks extended over three octaves, beginning with A below -the ledger-line. I also tried with my voice, shouting, &c., close to -the head of a bee; but, in spite of my utmost efforts, the bees took -no notice. I repeated these experiments at night, when the bees were -quiet; but no noise that I could make seemed to disturb them in the -least. In this respect the results of my observations on bees entirely -agreed with those on ants." - -These experiments do not appear by any means conclusive. It may well -be that sounds which are merely loud or shrill would pass unnoticed by -the insects, as conveying no meaning to them. In like manner, a clap of -thunder, the firing of a cannon or gun, the playing of a brass band, -will produce no manifest effect upon them; but, if the queen utters, -as she sometimes does, a peculiar sound, an instantaneous and very -remarkable recognition of it takes place. The sound referred to is -usually heard at the time when the young princesses are ready to emerge -from the cells in which they have been developed. When thus emitted by -the young queens, no attention appears to be paid to it by the workers, -who, however, restrain the mother-queen from destroying her royal -daughters. But, when these are released from their natal captivity, and -the queen, standing with her thorax against a comb, makes, with her -wings crossed over her back and in rapid vibration, a certain sound, it -receives immediate attention. Huber tells us that bees which had been -plucking at, biting, and chasing the queen, hung down their heads when -this peculiar noise was uttered, and remained altogether motionless; -and whenever she had recourse to this assertion of authority, the same -effects followed. - -Again, unless observers are fanciful in their interpretation of the -sounds to be heard at various times in a hive, we must conclude that -certain feelings, such as those of anger, grief, consternation, -satisfaction, joy, &c., are expressed in distinct tones. If this is the -case, we can only conclude that, difficult as it may be to localise the -organ of hearing, such an organ must exist. Nor, in all probability, -shall we be mistaken in assigning its position to the antennæ; for -recent investigations into the anatomy of these organs in ants,[3] lend -much support to the theory that an auditory apparatus is situated in -them. - -[Footnote 3: Vide p. 227 of _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, by Sir John -Lubbock.] - -_Taste._--Next as to taste. We have already spoken of the close -connection between this sense and the preceding; but, whatever doubt -may be entertained as to the possession of the former, there can be -none as to the latter. Huber, indeed, from the fact that bees are often -seen lapping stable-liquid and sewage, thought the sense of taste could -exist in them to only a very small degree. It must be remembered, -however, that, like many other creatures, they are fond of certain -salts, and to this, no doubt, may be ascribed their visits to the -above-mentioned liquids. On _a priori_ grounds we should conclude that -the possession of this faculty was most important, for the detection of -nectar suitable and unsuitable for the purposes of the hive. Moreover, -we find a marked preference shown for flowers which produce the best -honey; and the eagerness with which they will lap up any thoroughly -sweet liquid confirms the idea that they taste very readily. - -_Smell._ Probably of all the senses of bees none is so acute as that -of the perception of odours. Not only do they distinguish the citizens -of their own hive from those of other communities; not only do they -discriminate between the fragrance of various flowers; not only can -they detect the aroma of honey concealed from their sight, though -not from their olfactory nerves, but they show a marked antipathy to -certain human individuals, which can only be accounted for by supposing -that from these persons proceeds an effluvium disagreeable to the bees, -though not perceptible by, or unpleasant to, man. - -A remarkable anecdote in confirmation of this well-known fact is -given by Bevan, on the authority of M. de Hofer, Councillor of State -to the Grand Duke of Baden. This gentleman's father had for years -kept bees, and had devoted much personal attention to them. He had, -indeed, attained such familiarity with them, and such skill in their -manipulation, that he could, without fear of being stung, search for -and find the queen, and take her in his fingers. Unfortunately, he fell -ill with a severe fever, which kept him for a long time a prisoner to -his house. After his convalescence he visited his bees, returning to -them with his old confidence and pleasure. Greatly to his surprise and -dismay, he found their feelings towards him entirely changed. They -would no longer allow him to approach the hives, much less to perform -any of his former manipulations; and that this was not the effect -of a change of the population, through the natural perishing of the -workers, but was due to some alteration in him, was shown by the fact -that he was never again able to resume his old familiarity with his -favourites. Some change in his blood, brought about by the fever, made -the emanations from his skin permanently offensive to the bees, though -no such difference was perceptible to any of his human friends. - -M. Feburier and other observers assert that a certain antipathy is -manifested towards persons with red or black hair. We have reason to -doubt the correctness of their opinion as to the latter class, and we -more strongly incline to think that fair-complexioned people are less -agreeable to bees than those who are darker. As a corroboration of -this, we may mention the case of two brothers, one of whom could always -approach the hives with impunity, while the other could not come near -them without danger of being stung. Though both of them were dark, the -obnoxious one was decidedly the fairer. - -A further evidence of their sense of smell is the anger they manifest -on the crushing of one of their number. Like the terror inspired into -an ox by the smell of freshly-drawn blood in the slaughter-house, -is the odour of a bruised comrade to bees. Again, the smell of the -liquid from one of their poison bags excites them strongly. A wound -just made by a sting rouses others to inflict more wounds; and, if -the fluid be presented to them at the entrance of their homes, it at -once stirs their fury. If, however, it be allowed to crystallise, -and thus to become incapable of emitting any odour, it will be quite -disregarded by the bees. Sir John Lubbock tried various experiments -with eau-de-Cologne and rose-water, and found that, till the insects -had become habituated by frequent use to these liquids, they always -came out to the entrance, to ascertain the meaning of the odours which -had penetrated into the hives. It is well known, also, that they -dislike the smell of paint so much, that it is not advisable to place a -swarm in a freshly painted box, lest they should forsake it, from its -unpleasant odour. - -We may well conclude that it is owing to the keenness of this sense -that they perceive the presence of flowers containing nectar; and, -guided by it, they wing their flight to distant fields where the -white clover attracts them, or to more barren districts where the -heath promises them abundant pasturage. It is very certain that the -fragrant aroma of honey is at once perceived by them at many feet -from their dwellings; and in taking their sweets from them it is, for -this reason, necessary to avoid all exposure of broken combs, or the -dripping of their contents. Great trouble is, in fact, often occasioned -by the readiness with which they thus detect the presence of their own -produce. Within our personal knowledge, at a provincial show of bees, -hives, and honey, the fragrance of the liquid attracted bees from the -neighbourhood in such immense numbers that they carried off, during one -afternoon, some seventy pounds of honey from the tent in which it was -being exhibited. - -The position of the organ of smell is not clearly ascertained. By -some, as we have said, the antennæ have been credited with the power; -but, though many observations may seem to favour this opinion, we must -remember that we have on record some striking facts, which would seem, -at least, to show that powerful odours are able to be recognised by -other portions of the body. Lehmann and Cuvier came to the conclusion -that the spiracles, connected with the respiration of bees, are the -means by which the sense of smell is exercised. The idea was based on -the notion that odours can only be perceived by the inhalation of air. -This, of course, is not a sufficient ground for the inference arrived -at. Kirby and Spence, again, inclined, as we have already mentioned, -to the belief that the organ of smell lay in or near the mouth. This -supposition was partly founded on the close relation between taste -and smell. Huber's experiments lent some confirmation to this theory. -He presented a camel's-hair brush with a little oil of turpentine on -its tip to every part successively of the abdomen, trunk, and head, -without producing any discomfort to the bee. He then tried the eyes -and antennæ, without any apparent effect; but, as soon as he directed -it a little above the insertion of the proboscis and close to the -mouth, immediate signs of annoyance showed themselves. This experiment, -repeated with other strongly-smelling liquids, gave similar results; -but, when the mouths of the insects experimented upon were stopped with -paste, the perception of odours appeared no longer to exist. - -For the present, then, the matter remains in doubt; but we may suggest -to our readers that observations on this point, carefully and patiently -conducted, may lead to much useful information being obtained. - -It is impossible to pass from an examination and description of the -head-apparatus of the bee, without being struck with the marvellous -beauty, and equally wonderful adaptation, of each of its parts to the -varied functions required of them. Whether observed by the unassisted -eye, or by a lens of low or high power, we cannot fail to see how -exquisitely each minutest portion is fashioned; how remarkably the -various organs are protected according to their delicacy; how supplied -with nerve-fibre in proportion to the sensitiveness required in -them; how supplementary one to another in their diverse duties; how -harmonious in their working; and how fitted as a whole to the wants and -the instincts of the insects to which they belong. Nor, as it seems to -us, is it possible to believe that any force of evolution, unguided by -a distinctly controlling and Divine creative power, could ever have -elaborated organs so precisely what might have been expected to result -from the exercise of infinite wisdom and manifest purpose. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE THORAX. - - Detailed Description--Legs--Wings--How used in Flight--Hooking - together--Employed for Ventilating. - - -The thorax of the bee is divided into three sections, or imperfect -rings. Of these, that nearest the head is called the _pro_-thorax, -the middle one the _meso_-thorax, and the hindmost the _meta_-thorax. -To the first of these are attached the most forward pair of legs; to -the second, another pair of legs and one pair of wings; to the third, -the last pair of legs and the other pair of wings. These organs of -locomotion constitute, in fact, all that is worthy of special interest -in this segment of the body, and we will, therefore, give a short -account of them. - -The legs of all insects consist of five parts, or joints, and in the -case of the bee they are not only the means of walking or crawling, -but, like some of the head organs of which we have spoken, serve -several purposes. The first of the leg-segments is called the _coxa_, -or hip, and is short and round, appearing, indeed, to be little more -than the joint by which the limb is articulated to the body. The -second is named the _trochanter_, and is very similar to the _coxa_. -One purpose effected by these two portions is to give great freedom -of motion to the whole member. Next comes the _femur_, or thigh, a -longer and flatter division. This is followed by the _tibia_, or shank, -a stouter and thicker division, which, especially in the hind-legs, -becomes gradually wider downwards, and in the workers is adapted to -a very special use, as we shall directly see. Then in succession we -have the _tarsus_, or foot, consisting of five joints, the first very -much stouter than the rest, and as long as the remaining four. It is -terminated by a pair of hooked claws, with a cushion or _pulvillus_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Lower Segments of Hind-Leg of Bee, -Considerably Enlarged.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Complete Hind-leg Of Bee.] - -We have already spoken of the remarkable apparatus found in the in -the hind legs, adapted to the purpose of cleansing the antennæ. -At the junction of the fourth and fifth segments (the _tibia_ and -the _tarsus_) of the hind leg of a worker a cavity is formed by the -uppermost edge of the latter and the lower of the former. The cavity -can be opened or closed at the will of the insect. Above this, on the -outside of the tibia, is a pocket, or pollen-basket, lined along its -upper edge with a row of lancet-shaped hairs, which aid in detaining -the tiny balls of pollen, as they are successively deposited on the -leg. Like a series of prong-tines, they can be pressed into the -yielding bee-bread, and keep it from falling off; while, as _they point -downwards_, they present no obstacle to the brushing off of the whole -mass by the bee, on its return to the hive. The slight hollowing of the -_tibia_ and the _tarsus_ at the approximating ends, affords more space -for the gathered pollen, and also assists in its safe carriage to the -cells. - -The last joint of the _tarsus_ is armed with a pair of double claws, -and between them lies a hollow cup-shaped cushion, somewhat like that -which enables the house-fly to walk on glass or other very smooth -surfaces, only that the _pulvillus_ of the fly is double. The edge of -the cup is fringed with _ciliæ_, or very minute hairs, of such delicacy -that a powerful lens is required to see them. Under the microscope, the -object is one of great interest. - -The claws serve for hanging from the roof or sides of hives, and for -clinging to each other at swarming or wax-making times, the cushion for -walking on smooth surfaces. It is worthy of remark that all the joints -of the legs are covered with hairs more or less stiff, and all pointing -downwards. Their uses are to collect pollen, and to act as brushes -and combs to all the external parts of the body, which need constant -cleansing from flower-dust, and other matters less useful to the bee. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Wing of Bee.] - -Passing now to the wings, new marvels and beauties await our -observation. These organs are four in number, the forward pair being -considerably larger than the hinder. Each wing consists of a double -membrane, dotted all over with fine hairs, whose purposes are to -protect the delicate structure from wet, and from particles of various -kinds which would adhere to it, and injure its surface. As a support -for this expanded tissue, there is a ramification of stronger material, -constituting nervures, and acting like the ribs of an umbrella. With -these are associated air-vessels, or _tracheæ_, for the circulation -of air, and, possibly, to assist in giving buoyancy to the organ. By -another set of tubes a portion of the nutritive fluid is conveyed to -certain parts of the wing, though no general circulation seems to take -place in it. The substance of which the expanded portion, as well as -the nervures, is composed, is very tough, and, as our readers may -remember, the natural order to which the bees are assigned is named -_Hymenoptera_, from the strongly _membranous wings_ they possess. - -We can readily understand the importance to these insects of having -their organs of flight powerful, and yet not weighty, tough without -being clumsy. Considering the length of their daily journeys, and the -constant and rapid movements they require to make, we easily discern -how well suited to their needs is the structure of their wings. But we -must call attention to a remarkable provision for the further utility -of these organs. Under a lens of medium power may be seen, along the -anterior edges of the hind wings, a series of booklets of hair, while -on the posterior edge of the front wings is a rib, or bar, which the -booklets can grasp. By this means the two wings, when used for flight, -become practically one, thus presenting unbroken resistance to the air, -and, in consequence, greatly increasing the power of propelling the -body. When at rest, the unhooking of the edges enables the wings to be -folded out of the way--no mean advantage in the crowded hive. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Hooklets of a Bee's Wing.] - -But there is a further benefit thus conferred on the insect. During -hot weather, and when the population is very dense, ventilation is -constantly and vigorously carried on by the workers, who, fixing -themselves firmly by their claws to the floor-board at the entrance, -some outside and some just within their homes, direct numerous -currents of air into the hive. Of course there must issue a quantity -corresponding to what is driven in, and thus a perpetual and free -circulation is kept up. Now, if the wings worked independently, not -only would a smaller quantity of air be affected by each stroke, but -the two sets of motions would, to some extent, counteract each other. -As it is, the hooked wings act like well-constructed and well-used -fans. By the simple experiment of slitting such an implement down the -middle, the comparative advantages of a broken and an unbroken surface, -for fanning purposes, can easily be put to the proof. - -Thus, again, we are struck with the fact that the more closely we -examine the organs of any segment of the body of the insect, the -more reason do we find to admire the skill, and the care for His -creatures, manifested by the infinitely wise and the infinitely good -Maker of them all. Beauty, adaptation, perfection, are the words which -are continually suggested to our minds by the contemplation of the -structure of the bee. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE ABDOMEN. - - Respiratory Organs--Circulation of Nutritive Fluid--Digestion - and Nutrition--Secretion of Wax--Reproductive Organs--Detailed - description of Sting--Effects of Poison--Queen's Sting. - - -The abdomen constitutes the largest and hindmost segment of the -body, and is important as containing several structures which have -most essential functions in the economy of the insect. Among these -are the chief parts of the respiratory apparatus, the digestive, the -wax-making, the reproductive, and stinging organs. - -First, it must be noted that the bee has nothing strictly analogous -to our lungs, heart, liver, and other structures making up a true -circulating-system. At the same time there is a real oxygenation of the -fluids of the body, with a consequent evolution of heat, water, and -carbonic acid gas. - -The breathing apparatus has not its aperture for inspiration and -expiration situated in the head, as is the case in the higher animals; -but air is admitted and expelled through apertures along both sides -of the body. In the thorax are two pairs of such openings, and there -is a pair on each ring of the abdomen. These air-holes are called -_spiracles_, or _stigmata_, and lead into two minute chambers, one -behind the other, the outer being provided with a number of short -hairs, to prevent the entry of foreign particles likely to obstruct the -important passages. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Abdomen of Bee, Showing Respiratory Organs. - -_a_, Air-sac. _b b b_, Spiracles.] - -From these vestibules the air is conducted by tubes, or _tracheæ_, -into sacs or bladders communicating with each other. The largest pair -of these cavities is found in the abdomen, and from these two main -trunks lead, one into the thorax, and the other to the termination -of the abdomen. From the latter there branch out subsidiary tubes, -leading into the minuter chambers, called _sacculi_, or little sacs. -Those going upwards do not subdivide till they reach the head, in -which are found two air-chambers of considerable size. Reasons for this -distribution of the secreting vessels may be found, on the one hand, in -the need of the oxygenation of the tissues, especially those connected -with the nutrition of the ganglia of highest functions; and, on the -other, in the requirements of buoyancy in the segments relatively the -heaviest, and destitute of organs of support in the atmosphere, such -as the wings furnish. A confirmation of the second of these purposes -is derived from the remarkable fact, that in the queen bee, who does -not fly more than once or twice in her life, the great air-sacs of the -abdomen are almost obliterated, their space being needed for the large -ovaries. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Air-sacs of Worker.] - -The structure of the _tracheæ_ is very remarkable. Under a powerful -microscope they are seen to consist of a double membrane, between the -two coats of which are coils of an elastic thread, which act like -the spiral wire frequently used for keeping open and strengthening -india-rubber tubing. By means of this structure the air-pipes are -maintained in a condition for the free passage of the atmosphere, and -if closed by pressure, the elastic fibre reopens them directly the -pressure is removed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--_a_, Air-sacs, _b_, Ovaries, of the Queen.] - -With regard to the circulation of the nutritive fluid in the system, -considerable obscurity prevails. What is known is, that along the back -of the insect runs a vessel called, from its position, the _dorsal_ -vessel, attached to the outer covering of the body by bands of -ligamentous tissue. The portion of this tube contained in the abdomen -is enlarged at intervals into chambers communicating with each other -by valves, which allow the fluid to go forward to the head, but not -back towards the other extremity. Passing by a simple elastic tube -through the thorax, the blood, if we may so call it, is propelled to -the anterior segment of the body. Its subsequent course is not very -clear; for, while some anatomists speak of a small vessel leading back -to the hinder part of the body, others consider that the sanguineous, -or nutritive, liquid finds its way from the cephalic parts to other -vital organs, and after bathing them, returns to the dorsal vessel by a -second set of valves permitting its ingress only. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--_a_, Tracheæ; _b_, Elastic Spiral of Tracheæ.] - -Turning next to the nutritive organs, we have already spoken at -sufficient length of the mouth and its appendages, and have mentioned -that the nectar of flowers is conveyed first to an enlargement of the -gullet, analogous to the crop of birds. From this, some is regurgitated -by the workers into the cells, for storage, while another portion -passes on to the true stomach.[4] A certain amount of nitrogenous food, -chiefly pollen, also finds its way to this cavity, and there undergoes -a second mastication by the so-called _gastric_ teeth. These consist of -silica, and are therefore very hard. - -[Footnote 4: Pastor Schönfeld has recently made some most interesting -researches into the anatomy and communication of the two stomachs. A -translation of his articles may be found in _The British Bee Journal_ -for July, 1883.] - -After undergoing considerable digestion in the stomach, the chyle, -as we may now consider it, passes into a short intestine, where it -receives fluid from the so-called "biliary ducts." Further on is an -expansion, called the _colon_, after traversing which the portions of -food not absorbed into the system, together with the waste products -brought to the intestines, are expelled from the body. It is probable -that the nutritive parts of the aliment find their way through the -walls of the intestine, and mingling with the sanguineous liquid -returned from the cephalic extremity, pass with it into the dorsal -vessel. - -Closely connected with the digestive apparatus is that which is -concerned in the making of wax. By pressing the abdomen of the bee, so -as to cause its extension, there can be seen, on the under side of the -four medial ventral segments, two trapeziform whitish pockets, one on -either side of the _carinæ_, or elevated central part. These are of a -membranous texture, and are covered with a reticulation of hexagonal -meshes, reminding one of the inner coat of the second stomach of the -sheep, and other ruminating animals. There is no direct communication -between the stomach and these pockets; but Hunter suggested that the -secreting surface is in the membrane just alluded to. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Under Side of Abdomen, Showing Wax Scales.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Bee, Showing the Wax Scales.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Scales.] - - -We cannot follow the process by which the change from honey to wax is -effected, any more than we can account for the elaboration of bile, -saliva, and the pancreatic liquid, from our blood by the different -organs connected with their production. All we can say is, that the -membrane of the wax-receptacles is endowed with the peculiar power of -transforming the nectar of flowers into an oil. The actual chemical -change may be stated in general terms thus: Honey and sugar contain, -roughly speaking, equal chemical equivalents of oxygen, carbon, and -hydrogen. In wax, the quantities of the first of these elements is -diminished to about an eighth part, while the carbon and hydrogen are -more than quadrupled. In other words, the saccharine material suffers -very great de-oxidation in passing into the condition of wax. - -The wax-oil, when it has filled the pocket in which it is secreted, -passes out of the body of the insect in _laminæ_ or scales, which take -the shape of the bags in which they have been produced. In contact -with the air, the wax absorbs a small quantity of oxygen, and loses an -equal amount of carbon. When about to be used by the bee, it is picked -off the under segments of the body by the hind-legs, passed on to the -fore-feet, and by them is conveyed to the mouth, where, by being mixed -with saliva and well kneaded, it is rendered pliant, ductile, and more -tenacious. - -The reproductive organs of the queen consist, first, of two large bags, -one on each side of the abdomen, and called ovaries, in which the eggs -are generated. When mature, these eggs pass by a tube from each ovary -to a common duct, on one side of which is found a small yellow vesicle, -called the _spermatheca_. On examination under the microscope, this is -found to be filled with a viscous fluid, in which, with a lens of high -power, may be seen moving thousands of spermatozoa derived from the -drone. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Ovaries and Spermatheca of Queen.] - -By voluntary effort on the part of the queen, each egg, as it passes -this vesicle, may be touched with a most minute drop of the fluid -just mentioned. Then this very marvellous fact results. An egg thus -fertilised develops into a queen or a worker, according to the -conditions under which it is hatched; while those eggs which are not -brought in their passage into contact with the fluid, and receive no -spermatozoa, become drones. Herein lies the explanation of fertile -workers giving birth to drones only, and of queens, hatched after -the drones of a season are dead, also laying eggs which will develop -only into male bees. We are absolutely unable to account for these -most extraordinary circumstances, which open up interesting fields for -future investigation. Not the least wonderful point is the exercise of -will, on the part of the queen, in the production of the particular -kind of egg which, without making mistakes, she lays in the cells -specially provided for the three classes of her offspring. - -The last of the abdominal organs we have now to describe, is one -which is not essential to the life of the individual, but has been -conferred by the Creator as a means of offence and defence, viz., -the sting. Those who have frequently felt its effects have no need -to be told how formidable a weapon it is; but few probably are fully -acquainted with the structures which give it such potent force. If a -bee be irritated, and made to thrust out its sting, we observe a dark -brown and sharply-pointed dart. This, when magnified, is seen to be -the sheath, in which the true sting lies and is moved. The sheath is -divided down the centre, and between the two parts the real piercers -work, though the sheath itself is thrust into the wound. It consists of -two horny scales, smooth and closely adherent to the true darts. These -last are stiff filaments, barbed along their outer edge. They are not -quite equal in length, so that the teeth of the one do not lie exactly -opposite those of the other. They work side by side, and, possibly with -alternate motion, pierce deeper and deeper into the punctured material. -The teeth give a firm hold to the imbedded weapon, and prevent its easy -withdrawal. In fact, when plunged into human flesh, or into thick -leather gloves, these barbs hold so tightly that the insect is unable -to free itself, and if forcibly detached, or if by a vigorous effort it -escapes, the sting is left behind, and frequently attached to it are -portions of the viscera. The bee thus loses its life, and the injury it -inflicts is the more severe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Sting of a Bee, greatly magnified.] - -The mere puncture of the weapon, however, would be a quite unimportant -matter, were it not that, connected with the groove in which the dart -works, is a short tube leading from a bag containing a liquid of the -most acrid and poisonous nature. By powerful muscles, attached to the -upper part of the sting, the barbs are thrust out; the sheath follows -them into the pierced substance, and then, by the pressure of other -muscles, a drop of the poison-liquid runs down into the wound, and -immediately sets up a violent pain and inflammation of the surrounding -parts. So powerful is the action of the irritant, that numerous cases -are on record of death ensuing through its influence. We are, however, -bound to say that, by many authorities, such fatal consequences are -considered to result from syncope produced by fright, rather than from -the _direct_ effect of the poison on the nervous system. Still, there -is no doubt of the very formidable nature of the liquid, as may be -generally seen in the amount of swelling and discomfort caused by the -exceedingly minute portion injected by the sting of a bee. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Barbs of a Bee's Sting, very highly magnified.] - -The most remarkable function of the sting-apparatus has, in modern -times, been discovered to be the insertion of a minute drop of the -poison in each honey-cell when filled. This acts as an anti-septic, and -prevents fermentation in the sweet liquid. - -The poison is secreted by tiny glands, from which it is conveyed, -by tubes or ducts, into the reservoir, where it is stored ready for -use. Chemically, the liquid is said to have an acid reaction. Hence -the application of ammonia, and other alkaline solutions, will most -effectually counteract its effects. - -The sting of the queen differs from that of the worker, in having its -barbs curved, instead of straight. This modification makes it a much -less formidable implement. Moreover, it is very seldom employed. It is, -indeed, almost impossible to make a queen sting the hand, even by great -provocation. Almost the only circumstances in which her majesty employs -the weapon are, first, for mortal combat with a rival, and second, for -murdering, if permitted by the workers, the princesses before they -emerge from the cells in which they have developed. - -The drone is without a sting, and, indeed, seems never to show fight at -all. Its jaws might furnish no despicable weapons, but the insect seems -to lack spirit to use them, even in self-defence, and when attacked by -the mandibles only of the workers, manifests no inclination to employ -its own against its tormentors. Struggles to escape, and haste to flee, -seem to betray its absence of courage; though, possibly, an instinctive -knowledge that its assailants have in reserve a more deadly piece of -armour than strong jaws may make "discretion the better part of valour." - -With regard to the sting of the bee, Paley aptly remarks that it -"affords a beautiful example of the union of chemistry and mechanism: -of chemistry in respect to the venom, which, in so small a quantity, -can produce such powerful effects; of mechanism, as the sting is not -a simple but a compound instrument. The machinery would have been -useless, had it not been for the chemical process, by which, in the -insect's body, honey is converted into poison; and, on the other hand, -the poison would have been ineffectual without an instrument to wound, -and a syringe to inject the fluid." - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE DISEASES OF BEES. - - Dysentery: How Produced--Indications--Treatment. Foul-Brood: two - kinds--Nature--Propagation. Mr. Cheshire's Discoveries and - Treatment--Fatal Effects of Disease--Detection--Vertigo--Analogy - of Human and Bee Diseases. - - -How far the diseases of domesticated animals are due to the conditions -to which they are subjected by man, and which are always, to some -extent, contrary to the natural mode of life of the creatures, we are -at present unable to say. We can, however, point with some certainty -to cases in which birds and quadrupeds, which are made subservient to -our needs or our convenience, suffer in consequence of our treatment. -In some degree, this is true with regard to bees. In a wild state -their habitations may, indeed, expose them to risks they do not run in -hives, but these artificial dwellings, on the other hand, tend to the -development, or the extension of, at least two maladies to which their -occupants are subject. These are the deadly evils of dysentery and -so-called "foul-brood." - -Dysentery has been known in apiaries from the time of Columella, in -the first century of our era, who attributed it to the effect of -food derived by the bees from the elm and the spurge. Other more -recent writers have ascribed it to over-indulgence in spring-honey, -wheresoever derived: others, again, to the consumption of stores which -had candied in the cells during the winter. More recent investigations -show that there are several means by which this trouble may be -generated. In the first place, ineffective ventilation, by permitting -the condensation of moisture on the combs, and its admixture with the -food stores, is a prolific source of the mischief. During the winter, -the low temperature is constantly reducing to a watery condition -the aqueous vapour given off by respiration. This vapour, like our -own perspiration, contains matter derived from impurities in the -circulating fluid, and is the natural vehicle for their removal. If, -then, such moisture again enters the body of the bee, it is simply a -poison, whose effects become manifest by producing diarrhœa, distension -of the abdomen, and more or less speedy death. - -Again, if the stocks be supplied in the late autumn with syrup too -watery for the bees to seal over in the cells, contact with air sets -up a chemical change, and a certain amount of acid is generated, -which makes the honey most prejudicial to the health of the stock, by -deranging their digestive functions. - -Thirdly, if during the winter time, when the insects are closely -confined to their dwellings by the weather, and when they are, under -ordinary conditions, very quiescent, they be disturbed and excited, -they are apt to gorge themselves with food; and having no natural means -of working off the extra quantity they have taken, the system is -overloaded, and the stomach and intestines suffer from the too great -burden thrown on them. - -The occurrence of this malady is indicated by the altered appearance -and odour of the excrement, which, instead of being reddish yellow, -becomes of a muddy black colour, and has an intolerably foul smell. -It is, moreover, deposited by the weakened insects, contrary to their -cleanly habits, on the combs, the inner walls of the hives, on the -floor-board, and at the entrance of their dwellings. - -The avoidance of the causes of the generation of the disease is a -comparatively easy matter. The means of cure are, first, the removal -of the reasons for its occurrence, and, secondly, the immediate and -thorough cleansing of all parts of a hive soiled by the sick bees. It -is still better, if possible, to remove the stock into a perfectly -fresh dwelling; and it is advisable to take away all combs with -unsealed honey, and substitute sealed stores, or to feed the bees with -barley-sugar. - -"Foul-brood" is a much more formidable malady, and is often -encountered. It is, indeed, a terror to apiarians, for not only is -it very fatal to any stock in which it appears, but, from its ready -contagiousness, it may depopulate any number of previously healthy -communities, and may extend from one apiary to several others in the -neighbourhood. - -As the name implies, it has been thought to be a disease of the -larvæ, and there are said to be two kinds, called respectively the -_dry_ and the _wet_. The former of these is much less serious, and is -not contagious. The young merely die in their cells; their bodies -desiccate, and there is an end of the matter. In the other variety, the -brood remains dark and shiny in the hatching-places, and emits a most -offensive odour, perceptible at some distance from the hive. When the -mischief is very great, combs are sometimes removed which are masses of -corruption and fœtor. - -Microscopical investigations led to the belief that the source of -this dire pest was a microbe, allied to _micrococcus_. If the germs -of this lowly organism find a lodgment on the tender skin of a larva, -they propagate with immense rapidity, and cause the death of the -young insect. Then, wafted about the hive by the currents produced -in ventilation, they pass from one part to another; or, attaching -themselves to the bodies of adult bees, they are carried from cell -to cell, and each of these thus infected, in its turn, becomes a new -centre of deadly plague. - -Dr. Schönfeld in Germany made a series of interesting experiments, -which he considered conclusive on the question of the origin and spread -of this disease. From a small piece of foul-brood he propagated, by -suitable means, large quantities of the fatal so-called _micrococcus_, -and with it he was able to infect a healthy stock. He, moreover, -established the fact that the dried germs float readily in the air. -Placing some of the foul-brood in a bell-glass, in which he inserted -lightly a plug of cotton-wool, he caused a gentle atmospheric current -to pass into the glass, and out by the tube. Then, moistening the -cotton-wool with water, and putting some of the liquid under a -microscope, he detected what he concluded to be numerous spores. - -This circumstance throws a light on the contamination of the different -hives in an apiary, through one that has become infected; as, no doubt, -during the process of ventilation, many germs of the disease find their -way out of the entrances. It is probable that robber-bees are also very -frequently the carriers of contagion. Taking advantage of the dwindling -down of a stock suffering from the disease, these plunderers pilfer -the honey, and, in so doing, receive on their bodies the fatal seeds -of the malady, which they then carry to their own stocks. In this way -the existence of the pest in one community may become the cause of its -extension throughout a neighbourhood. It is, therefore, of the utmost -importance that the signs of the appearance of the evil should be -constantly watched, and very stringent measures applied whenever its -existence is ascertained. - -Until quite lately it was thought that no means of cure, strictly so -called, existed. The germs are so minute, and are capable of such -diffusion and adherence in a hive, that half-measures proved, as usual, -of no avail. The removal of the combs and bees to a fresh hive, and -thoroughly sprinkling them with salicilic acid and water, has been -recommended as a remedial course; but bee-keepers found that nothing -short of the complete destruction of the infected community was likely -to be really effective, and the first loss, in such a case, might save -the entire destruction of all the stocks in the apiary. The very honey -stored in the combs had to be sacrificed also; for in it the dangerous -germs settle, and being used by the nurse-bees for feeding the larvæ, -become the continued, and possibly unsuspected, source of mischief to -any hive to which it is imparted. If the disease appeared in a straw -skep, it was considered desirable to destroy it with fire. If it found -its way into a bar-frame hive, every frame, every portion, even every -crevice, must be treated. Thorough boiling in a copper has been found -helpful in eradicating the mischief, but could not alone be relied -upon. A strong mixture of chloride of lime and water, or of salicilic -acid and water, applied carefully to every part, has been found more -effective. The important facts to be remembered are that, owing to the -extreme minuteness of the germs, their multitudes, and their great -vitality, it is very easy for some to escape destruction, and to become -the sources of future mischief, unless the most radical methods of -destruction are applied to them. - -A new light has, however, just been thrown on this important subject -by Mr. Frank Cheshire, of Acton, who has done so much good work -in the anatomy of bees, and in their practical management. He has -now satisfied himself, by long-continued and careful microscopic -investigation, that the origin of foul-brood is a _bacillus_, not a -_micrococcus_,[5] and that the disease extends to all the inmates of -the hive. But what is of far greater moment to apiarians is, that Mr. -Cheshire claims to have discovered a means of completely curing the -dire plague. This consists in the administration of _phenol_, which -is one of the components of carbolic acid. Syrup is made with 3 lbs. -of loaf-sugar to a quart of water, and to this is added 1/500 part -of pure _phenol_. By removing the stored honey, and pouring the syrup -into cells around the infected parts of combs containing foul-brood, -the bees are induced to consume the medicated food. The "nurses" supply -it also to the larvæ, and the result is, that not only is the progress -of the disease stopped, but renewed courage and hope are infused into -the community, who remove the dead larvæ, clear out the polluted cells, -and bring about an entire renewal of healthy conditions. Should further -facts prove all that Mr. Cheshire expects, he will be regarded by -apiarians in future with as much admiration as Jenner, the introducer -of vaccination, is looked upon by the medical world. His generous -publication of his discoveries, so that all interested may have the -benefit of them, lays all bee-keepers under great obligations to him. - -[Footnote 5: Those who wish for details on this and other points should -read Mr. Cheshire's admirable papers in the _British Bee-Journal_ for -August, 1884.] - -As an example of the terrible results of this pest to the bee-keeper, -the case of the well-known German bee-master, Dzierzon, may be -mentioned. In the year 1848 the disease broke out in his apiary, and -more than 500 stocks were destroyed by it; in fact, only ten hives -escaped the pestilence. John Hunter--the author of a good _Manual -of Bee-Keeping_--records that from a friend, who had complained of -not finding his bees profitable, he purchased all his stocks, some -twenty in number, and removed them to his garden. They proved to have -foul-brood in them, and not only did the whole of them perish, but -all Mr. Hunter's own stocks, and, in addition, two or three years of -trouble were required to eradicate the mischief from the apiary. - -The late Mr. Woodbury, whose name is "a household word" among -bee-keepers, was unfortunate enough to have this disease among his -hives in the spring and summer of 1863. He published a graphic account -of his trouble in the _Journal of Horticulture_ of July 21st, 1863, -entitled, "A Dwindling Apiary." By very vigorous measures he was able -to get rid of the pest; but the conclusions to which he came were -the following: "First let me endorse the opinions of both Dzierzon -and Rothe, that, except under very especial circumstances, it is -unadvisable to attempt the cure of a foul-broody stock: better, far -better, to consign its inhabitants to the brimstone-pit: the hive -itself, if a straw one, to the flames: the comb to the melting-pot: and -appropriate the honey to any purpose except that of feeding bees." - -It is now known that this treatment is by no means always successful -when the _bacilli_ have reached the "resting" or "spore" stage. - -The detection of signs of the disease is not very difficult, especially -in hives with movable frames. If, during the working season, a stock -seems not only not to increase, but to diminish in numbers; if fewer -and fewer bees appear active about the entrance; and if, above all, -a peculiarly disagreeable odour is perceptible, at even one or two -feet from the entrance, it is time to look to the condition of the -interior. An infected comb, on examination, is seen to be dark and -unwholesome-looking. If the caps covering the brood be distinctly -sunk, so as to show a concave surface, the existence of the disease is -almost a certainty; and if the covering of one or more of these cells -be removed, there will be found dark coffee-coloured, slimy liquid, the -remains of the larvæ destroyed by the _bacillus_. - -From what we have said of this disease it will be seen that it is -most important for any one about to commence bee-keeping to be sure -the stocks he may purchase are not only themselves free from disease, -but come from an apiary absolutely uninfected by it. Many a beginner -in apiculture has been so disheartened, and has suffered such severe -loss from foul-brood in his hives, that he has given up bee-keeping -in disgust. We need hardly say that any man who knowingly sold hives -with foul-brood in them, would deserve to be visited with penalties -for damages, which we have no doubt his victim could obtain by legal -process. - -Some writers enumerate _vertigo_, or giddiness and staggering, among -the diseases of bees. We incline to the belief that cases of the kind -observed were due to the individuals having been stung in fighting, -though it is possible that mistakes in pasturage _may_ occasionally be -made, and that the nectar of certain flowers may induce disorder in the -bee-constitution. We, however, doubt the likelihood of the quick senses -of the insect being at fault with regard to food which will prove -hurtful. - -One other malady has been occasionally noticed, viz., the swelling of -the terminal segments of the antennæ. The occurrence of this mischief -is too rare to need further remark, beyond the suggestion that it may -be the result of _microbe_ germs having made a lodgment in the tender -organs affected. - -There is a striking analogy in the results of insanitary conditions, -and the propagation of zymotic disease among the human family and -among bees. Unwholesome food, defective ventilation, the diffusion -of poisonous germs, produce, among both orders of beings, similar -disastrous effects; and this sketch of the diseases of one class of -domesticated insects may serve to point a moral for the guidance of -mankind in social economy. The same inexorable laws of health and -sickness prevail in the highest and the inferior orders of animal -existences, and with unvarying steadfastness is proclaimed the solemn -warning "Be not deceived: God is not mocked. Whatsoever a man soweth -that shall he also reap." - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE ENEMIES OF BEES. - - Birds--Mice--Moths--_Braula cœca_--Hornets and Wasps--Spiders-- - Toads--"Robber Bees"--Prevention of robbing. - - -It might well be imagined that creatures armed with such deadly weapons -as bees, would have few enemies who would dare to contend with them. -The fact is, however, that they are exposed to dangers from numerous -sources. Various kinds of wild birds, domestic fowls, mice, certain -species of moths, hornets, wasps, ants, spiders and toads, are more or -less destructive to them. - -Among the common birds fond of these insects as food, may be mentioned -the titmouse tribe. Mr. Hunter says he has found hundreds of stings -of bees adhering to a fence, evidently extracted by these active -and clever little birds previous to swallowing their prey. Their -depredations, however, are usually not great, and they are often -satisfied to regale themselves on the dead insects which are carried -out of the hive. In America, the King-bird (_Tyrannus muscicapa_) is -mentioned by Langstroth as devouring scores of our winged friends, -which he does not hesitate to seize on flower-blossoms, showing, -indeed, a sensible preference for those who are distending their -honey-bags with nectar. The swallow was credited by the Greeks with -being a robber of apiaries, as the address of the old poet indicates:-- - - "Attic maiden, honey-fed, - Chirping warbler, bear'st away - Thou the busy buzzing bee, - To thy callow brood a prey? - Warbler, thou a warbler seize? - Winged, one with lovely wings? - Guest thyself, by summer brought, - Yellow guests whom summer brings? - Wilt not quickly let it drop? - 'Tis not fair; indeed, 'tis wrong, - That the ceaseless warbler should - Die by mouth of ceaseless song." [6] - -[Footnote 6: Translation given in _Langstroth on the Honey-Bee_.] - -We have no reason to charge our swallows with the crime of bee-eating. -Domestic fowls will sometimes regale themselves with a meal of live -bees, it they can reach the entrances to the hives, so that it is -advisable to forbid their access to them. Mice occasionally effect an -entrance, especially into skeps, and annoy the inhabitants by their -disagreeable odour, and by gnawing the combs, and eating brood and -honey. The winter is the time when there is most danger from these -plunderers, as the bees are then too torpid with the cold to notice -and to attack the intruders. It is easy to prohibit their inroads, by -sufficiently contracting the entrances, and preventing their gnawing -the rims of the hives, or getting under the top coverings. - -Moths, being active at night, require constant watchfulness on the -part of the bee-sentinels to exclude them from their abodes. Attracted -partly by the favourable conditions for egg-hatching, through the -steady warmth kept up in the hives, they lay their eggs in crevices, -and along the borders of bee-homes. The larvæ, when able to crawl, make -their way over the combs, which, with their contents, they greedily -devour, and if attacking in large numbers they sometimes prove fatal to -a stock. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.--The Enemies of Bees.] - -The two kinds most destructive are the British wax-moth, _Achroia -grisella_, and the _Galleria mellonella_. The latter is more -troublesome in Italy than in our own country. If the population of a -hive be strong and in thoroughly sound condition, there is not much -danger to be apprehended from either of these foes. Should, however, a -colony be weak, and still more if queenless, such a hold may be gained -by these their lepidopterous enemies, as will be wholly ruinous. Combs -in store are yet more liable to their attacks, but the moths may be -dislodged, and their eggs or larvæ destroyed, by exposing such combs -to the fumes of burning brimstone. An examination of hive-coverings -and floor-boards in the spring and autumn, and the destruction of all -grubs found about them, will often save much trouble from the moths. -The presence of these intruders among the combs may be detected by -the occurrence of their excrement, resembling grains of very fine -gunpowder, on the floor-boards. - -The death's-head moth, _Acherontia Atropos_, is also said, by some -writers, to be troublesome to apiarians; but it is too rare an insect -to be seriously destructive. A parasitic louse, called _Braula -cœca_, is occasionally found in considerable numbers in hives on the -Continent. Happily, the English climate does not appear to suit its -constitution well, so that its occurrence is not very frequent, and is -generally the result of the introduction of Ligurians and other foreign -varieties into an apiary. - -Pre-eminent among the enemies of bees stand hornets and wasps, -particularly the latter in the autumn of the year. They are active, -courageous, and persistent robbers; and, unless the hive-entrance be -well guarded, they will slip in, and, escaping notice, will pilfer -the honey without stint. So determined are their attacks, that they -will utterly ruin weak colonies, and will sometimes so dishearten even -tolerably vigorous ones, as to make them desert their hives. When once -they have learnt there are stores to be plundered, they do not fail -to come in numbers if they know that only a feeble resistance will -be offered to them. Various means of stopping their depredations may -be adopted. The most radical measure is to destroy queen-wasps in the -spring. They are the only ones in existence then, and are considerably -larger than their worker-daughters. Again, every wasp's nest in the -neighbourhood of an apiary should be got rid of, by pouring gas-tar -into the entrances, and ramming earth over it. Thirdly, by hanging a -narrow-necked bottle of sweetened beer near the bee-hives, many wasps -will be attracted to the liquid; and, becoming surfeited and silly, -will be unable to escape, and will be drowned. A fourth precaution -is to narrow the entrances of the hives, so that one or two bees can -defend them. The sentinels are able to master these their enemies in -fair fight; indeed, the wasps rarely show any inclination for a battle. -They trust to their activity and boldness, rather than to any real -courage. The best preventive measure is to keep the stocks of bees -strong. It is usually only the weak who suffer serious attacks from -their insect enemies. - -Spiders prove a nuisance and destructive, chiefly by spinning webs into -which the weary workers fall when returning home, or into which they -unwarily rush on emerging from their abodes. Care in sweeping away the -cobwebs will remove danger from this source. - -Toads are credited, or charged, with a love of honey-filled bees, and -may sometimes be seen watching their opportunity of making a meal near -the entrances, where they are said to pick up many a dainty morsel with -honey-sauce ready made. These slowly-moving creatures may easily be -caught and taken away, so as to do no more mischief. - -We must not pass from this part of our subject without speaking of the -aptness of bees to rob one another. If an unfortunate individual makes -the mistake of going to a hive not its own, it will immediately be -seized as an intruder. In the hope of propitiating the assailants, it -will extend its proboscis, and offer some of its internal honey-store. -Nor will the custodians refuse to accept what is evidently intended as -a peace-offering; but they will not cease their attempt to drag off -or to kill the interloper, who is happy if able to escape from the -onslaught. This kind of robbery is, in a manner, to be regarded as -justifiable. - -Such is not the case, however, with the organised or desultory pillage -which frequently goes on when the inability of a stock to defend itself -has been discovered by its neighbours. We have known the contents of -a hive completely cleared out by "robber-bees" in a few hours, crowds -of them rushing in and filling themselves. Then, having carried the -spoil to their own homes, they will return again and again, till -there is nothing left for them to plunder. Of course the community -attacked wholly perishes in the battle or from starvation. Nor is -this the worst of such an occurrence; for, when once these unhallowed -sweets have been tasted, when these insects--it must be confessed, -of very low morality--have discovered that robbery is much more easy -and more productive of results than honest work, they appear seized -with a perfect mania for living as freebooters, and will attempt hive -after hive, when their first onslaught has been effective. Terrible -mischief is often the result; for, not only is the habit of ordinary -nectar-seeking broken off, but fierce battles are fought with strong -stocks, and many hundreds of the combatants perish. Moreover, the -ordinary avocations of an assailed colony are completely interrupted, -and general disturbance, if not complete disorganisation, prevails. - -Such a disastrous state of things is sometimes begun by carelessness -on the part of the bee-keeper, in allowing pieces of honey-comb to lie -about within reach of any of his stocks. The taste of the sweet liquid, -for which they have a perfect passion, seems to act like a glass of -gin on an abstainer who has formerly been a drunkard. Their thirst -for more is fired, and, once enkindled, will not easily subside. It -is particularly necessary, therefore, especially in the late summer -and the autumn, when supplies from flowers begin to fall short, to -take care not to provoke the lust of having honey at all hazards, by -allowing any to be exposed to the smelling or other perceptive powers -of the bees. It is equally important in feeding stocks to prevent any -exposure of the syrup, and not to permit stranger-bees to get at the -feeding-bottles. - -If the mischief of robbing is detected in its early stage, much may -be done to stop it by narrowing the hive entrances, so that only one -bee at a time can get in. This will enable the sentinels to examine -each one who tries to enter, and to turn back strangers. If, however, -the evil has taken a serious hold, it is better to close the attacked -hive altogether for a time, and to hang near the entrance a sponge -or cloth soaked in diluted carbolic acid, or some liquid potent and -disagreeable in its odour. If these methods are of no avail, it will -be better to remove the colony to a distance, or to a dark cellar; and -by taking care to secure ventilation, and to give a supply of syrup, -the community, which would otherwise surely perish, may be rescued. -If returned in three or four days to its former stand, it is well to -take the precaution of placing a sloping board before the entrance, -so that its exact position may escape the notice of would-be robbers. -These can often be detected early in their operations by their hovering -restlessly in front of a hive, without the courage to settle, or, -perhaps, because they do not know precisely where the opening is. A -shower from a watering-pot will sometimes send them about their own -proper business. - -Another method for stopping robber-bees from their plundering is -to put at night into the hive attacked a small quantity of some -strongly-smelling substance--a little musk, for example. The unwonted -odour seems to rouse the inhabitants, and if they have a healthy queen, -they will, in the morning, resolutely meet the robbers. Moreover, if -any of these get in, the musk will so scent them that when they return -to their own hives they will not be recognised by their own people, -but will be put to death; and thus a double check is put on their -depredations. - -It is a remarkable fact that, if a robbed colony be queenless, or if -the queen is killed in the _mélée_, survivors from the fight will often -fall to on the remnants of the stores, and, joining the forces of the -conquerors, will convey the honey to the hive whose inhabitants are -the plunderers, and will be peacefully accepted as citizens among its -population. Of course the absence or the slaughter of a queen much -more readily exposes her disheartened subjects to attacks from other -bees; and this is another reason for seeing that no such calamity as -queenlessness has befallen any stock when food is scarce. - -In the facts recorded in this chapter we have striking evidence of "the -struggle for existence" which seems to have been ordained as "a law -of nature" in this world. We can readily discern some useful purposes -connected with it, both as regards conquerors and vanquished. For, on -the one hand, it is for the benefit of the race that the strongest -individuals should, as a rule, survive to propagate it; and, on the -other, it is better for a sharp and speedy end to occur to a weak -community, rather than that it should perish by the slow pangs of -hunger, or from inability to continue the rearing of a progeny. But, -even in this respect, as in several others, bees furnish a serious -difficulty to the theory of evolution. For it is not the strong and -victorious community which propagates the race, but the individual -queen; and she, of course, may be weaker than the one whose stock has -been destroyed by the more numerous robbers. The case evidently is not -a genuine one of "survival of the fittest," so far as the succeeding -generations are concerned; nor do we find any special adaptation for -future advantages secured. The battle is lost and won, but there can be -no impress made, even by successive victories, on the general physical -condition of the stronger party; for the fight is never undertaken -by a single drone or queen, who alone can transmit any qualities to -posterity. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -HIVES. - - Natural Abodes of Wild Bees--Taking Honey from Roof of House-- - Straw Skeps--Cottager's Hive--Supering--Nutt's Collateral - Hive--Village Hive--Woodbury Hive--Abbott's Hives--Sectional - Supering--Stewarton Hive--Carr-Stewarton Hive--Observatory - Hives--Bee-houses. - - -In a state of nature bees avail themselves of hollow trees, crevices in -rocks, or other cavities of various kinds. Swarms escaped from apiaries -will frequently find an entrance to the space between the roof and -upper ceilings of houses, and extraordinary quantities of comb, brood, -and bees have been taken from such places. Two gentlemen, well known -to the writer, have given the following account in _The Bee Journal_ -for July 1, 1882, of their successful taking of bees, brood, comb, and -honey, from the roof of a house at Lockinge, near Wantage, Berks. - -"The house is very old, and built of lath and plaster in the old style, -with gables. There was a bricklayer at our service to open walls where -suggested. We commenced at the back gable, and the bees were situated, -one lot in the roof, and two others in the walls. - -[Illustration] - -"No. 1 in the wall was the first opened. There was a space eight or -nine inches wide, and five feet long, and there was disclosed to us a -wonderful sight In front of us were continuous honey and brood-combs, -four feet six inches long, and as wide as the opening. The combs were -four in number. Then we took No. 2 (next above), and in a similar -opening found a quantity of brood, honey, and bees, the combs being -smaller. Then we ascended to No. 3, where the bees entered by the -eaves. After taking some splendid honey, some gathered by a swarm a -month old, the bees took a turn further in the roof, and we left them. -In the front gable we commenced cutting away the lath and plaster of -the top lot, and opened a space six feet long and eight or nine feet -wide; and here we were surprised in the extreme: a comb five feet six -inches long (exactly one foot more than the other) was in front, and -the combs were three feet deep, nearly as wide as the opening. We -captured two queens and a large quantity of bees, and brought away a -lot of brood as well. The whole of this work was done from a ladder; -and had not our time been precious, we should have liked another day -at it, as there were a quantity of bees, &c., still left behind. The -combs were measured in the presence of the host and a friend, as well -as ourselves, and I vouch for the correctness of my statement." - -From the time that man learnt the value of the bee as a domesticated -insect, habitations more or less suitable for securing honey have been -furnished to the industrious workers. It is unnecessary to detail the -various kinds of abodes which have been, or still are, in use for the -purpose in different countries. It will be more interesting to our -readers to know what are the principal forms of hives at present in use -among us. Of these the most antiquated, and, we fear we must say, still -the commonest, is the old-fashioned dome-shaped straw skep. We shall -not enlarge upon its merits, though we are prepared to admit some; but, -as it is almost universally condemned in its primitive form by skilled -apiarians, we prefer to speak of some easy modifications of it which -render it less objectionable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Straw Skep.] - -In the first place, it must be borne in mind that every system which -requires the slaughter of the bees for securing honey from them, is -radically bad, and therefore _wholly_ to be discountenanced. At the -same time, every bee-keeper expects, and rightly, that he should get -honey; and this can be managed even with straw hives, if they have a -flat top and a perforation in it sufficient to allow the population -to go up into supers, wherein to store their produce. Fig. 44 shows -such an adaptation. The lower and larger receptacle is for brood and -the maintenance of the stock. The top one, much smaller, and not so -high, is for the surplus honey, which the bees will carry up when the -population is becoming crowded below. The middle and smallest is merely -a covering for the other two, and for the sake of keeping all warm, -dry, and snug. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Flat-topped Hive and Straw Super.] - -An improved Cottager's Hive (Fig. 45) differs from the preceding -chiefly in the substitution of a glass for a straw super, and the -addition of a window at the back,[7] closed by a door, for observing -the internal conditions of the stock portion. - -[Footnote 7: In the illustration the hive is turned round on the -floor-board, to show the window.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Neighbour's Improved Cottager's Hive.] - -A still better modification is shown on the opposite page (Fig. 46), -and is called, from the inventor and maker, "Neighbour's improved -Cottager's Hive." In this the lower part has a stout wooden top with -three perforations, which may be closed, at the will of the owner, by -a metal slide. Over each opening is placed a bell-glass, and admission -to these is given to the bees either singly, or by two or all three -apertures. In use, the bell-glasses are encased with flannel, felt, or -some other good non-conducting substance, and then the upper hive is -let down over the glasses on to the board. There are three windows in -the lower hive, each closed by a hinged shutter, so that inspection may -be afforded at more points than one. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Neighbour's Improved Cottager's Hive.] - -Each bell-glass is furnished with a ventilating tube of perforated -zinc, and a ventilating cap is fitted to the top cover. There is also -in the middle of the back window a thermometer fixed, for ascertaining -the temperature of the stock-hive. By these arrangements the affairs of -the community may, to a certain extent, be regulated by the master, and -pure honey, free from bee-bread or brood, may be secured without the -destruction of any of the workers. - -The three hives now described are, perhaps, the best for those who -have not the requisite time and skill for the more approved methods of -apiculture. But they should, in other cases, be looked upon as merely -the stepping-stones to systems of bee-management of a really scientific -character. - -Passing now to the notice of some of these, we will draw attention -first to "Nutt's Collateral Hive"--named from its first maker, who may -be considered a pioneer in the improved modern methods. - -It consists of three boxes side by side, and having thin wooden -partitions, with six or seven perforations, to admit of the passage -of the bees from one compartment to another. These may be stopped by -zinc slides. In the centre of the top is a wooden cover, to contain -a bell-glass for supering. A ventilator over each of the side-boxes -secures the proper temperature of these. "The grand object," as -explained by Mr. Nutt, "is to keep the end boxes and the bell-glass -cooler than the pavilion or middle box, so as to induce the queen to -propagate her species there only, and not in the depriving (_i.e._ -honey-storing) part of the hive. By this means the side and upper combs -are in no way discoloured by brood. The queen requires a considerable -degree of warmth. The bees enjoy coolness in the side-boxes, and -thereby the whiteness and purity of the luscious store are increased." -When the centre box is filled, access to the super and one side-box -may be given by opening the slides. The glass is likely to be filled -first, if kept warm by suitable coverings, and can be removed when the -honey is sealed in the combs. If the season be very productive, one or -both of the side-boxes may also be taken before the end of the summer, -if sufficient stores are left in the central stock-portion, or if any -deficiency be made up by judicious feeding. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Modern Hives. Nutt's Collateral Hive in the -Foreground.] - -The next and most important modification to which we come is the -introduction of movable frames into hives, admitting of separate -removal, either for examination as to conditions, or for the taking of -honey. Bevan whose admirable work on _The Honey Bee_, published nearly -half a century ago, is the foundation of modern systems of apiculture -in this country--speaks of a straw hive with bars, instead of a solid -top, invented by Mr. Golding, and named by him "The Village Hive." Even -now we consider this variety might well be the cottager's introduction -to the more enlightened methods of procedure; and it would, at the same -time, satisfy, in large measure, old-fashioned prejudices in favour -of straw for the material of the stock-hive. If the bars are properly -furnished with "guides," straight and symmetrical combs may be secured, -and the depriving of surplus honey-stores may be easily effected -without murdering the workers. - -Previous to this invention, Réaumur, Bonnet, and Huber had suggested, -and tried, the use of boxes with movable bar-frames. The last named -apiarian is said to have borrowed his idea from the inhabitants of -Candia, and he called it the "leaf-hive." In its original form it had -eight frames, secured to each other by hooks and eyes, the external -ones being glazed, and covered with a shutter. - -The idea of frames removable separately having once been established, -various improvements were speedily effected. In 1841 Major Munn, an -English-man, obtained a patent in France for his Bar-and-frame Hive, -an account of which was published in this country in 1844. In America, -the distinguished apiarian Langstroth made known his modifications -of Huber's hive, and Dzierzon, in Germany, a little while before, -and quite independently, had adopted the same principle of bars with -certain special features, while Von Berlepsch, in 1853, added frames to -his countryman's bars. In England the _bar-frame_ system was not really -known till its re-introduction by Tegetmeier, in 1860. Mr. Woodbury, -to whom reference has been already made more than once, afterwards -brought out the frame-hive which met with the first general acceptance -by apiarians in this country. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.--The Woodbury Hive.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Woodbury Straw Bar-Frame Hive.] - -As originally made, it consisted of a wooden box, 14-1/2 inches square -on the inside, and 9 inches deep. The frames were ten in number, each -13 inches long by 7-1/4 inches high. The ends projected, and fitted -into notches at the back and front; but this arrangement was found to -be objectionable, from the secure manner in which the bees were able to -glue them down with propolis. As facility of lifting without jarring -the frames is of great importance, better means of keeping them in -place had to be, and have been, devised. - -Subsequently to his first introduction of the above-described hive, -Mr. Woodbury suggested that the sides, back, and front should be made -of straw, as being a better non-conductor of heat, affording a little -ventilation, and absorbing the moisture of respiration more readily -than wood. We give a figure on page 157 of this modification. - -Various improvements on the original of Mr. Woodbury's pattern have -been made. Of these we will mention first Mr. Cheshire's bar-frame -hive, and we had better, perhaps, describe it in his own words:--"It -consists of two main portions--the super-cover, the upper half of -what may be denominated the body, and the hive proper, in the lower -portion of which breeding is carried on, and where the bees pass the -winter. In front of the lower part may be seen the porch, with its -roof consisting of a stout piece of pine, about three inches wide, and -running completely along the hive-face. This is chamfered off towards -the end, the more effectually to carry away drip, and has a channel -near its front edge, which acts as a gutter, by which the rain is -conveyed to its ends. This gutter is shown in the cross-section at E. -The bottom board of the hive projects 2-1/2 inches along the front, so -as to form a very convenient alighting board. Ten inches of the central -part of this is grooved, so that, should it be reached by driving rain, -the convex parts remain free of water, affording the bees a dry passage -to the interior. The flight-hole is ten inches in length, and is formed -by cutting from the hive-wall a piece a full quarter of an inch -deep. There are two sliding shutters (shown in Fig. 50), by which the -entrance-way may be regulated as occasion may require. The super-cover -is hinged, and so contrived by the aid of a chain, that it can only -open until its lines, horizontal when _in situ_, become perpendicular, -and _vice versâ_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Cheshire's Bar-Frame Hive.] - -"The walls of the hive are double, and have between them a space -containing dead air. As heat is conducted by air with extreme slowness, -these means prevent the escape of that generated by the bees during -rigorous weather, while they also exclude the ardour of the sun's rays -during summer. In order to give room for the ears of the frames, the -inner skin, front and back, is made an inch shallower than the outer -one. Standing three-eighths of an inch above the former are two strips -of zinc (1 and 2 Fig. 51) each about an inch wide, and which serve to -carry the frames so that they cannot be propolised, while they can be -slid backwards and forwards with the greatest ease during manipulation. -The depth of the hive is 8-3/4 inches, the width 14-1/2 inches inside. -The length will vary with the number of frames used." Fuller details -are to be found in Mr. Cheshire's excellent book called _Practical -Bee-keeping_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Cheshire's Bar-Frame Hive (sectional view).] - -Mr. Abbott, the well-known maker of apparatus of all kinds for -apiculture, who was the editor and proprietor of _The Bee Journal_ for -many years, has also made various arrangements and improvements to -secure advantages beyond those of the original Woodbury hive. We cannot -detail all these modifications; but among them may be mentioned that -the ends of his frames are so notched as to render them easily held by -the fingers when it is required to lift them, and to replace them. Mr. -Abbott also makes hives of various degrees of cheapness, according to -the conveniences required and the neatness of workmanship demanded. We -may safely attribute to him a vast influence on scientific bee-keeping, -and a visit to his works and apiary at Southall, not far from London, -on the Great Western Railway, will well repay any one interested in -apiculture. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Abbott's Standard Frame.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Abbott's Standard Frame (top view).] - -All the hives we have just been describing are adapted for supering, -_i.e._ for getting honey stored in receptacles above the stock portion. -The usual and most convenient form of such receptacles is that of small -oblong cases, without front or back, cut in one flat piece of wood, -and easily folded into shape, their slotted ends fitting, by pressure, -tightly into one another. At the top of each, when folded, a small -piece of guide comb is attached, as a help and an attraction to the -bees in beginning their work in them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Neighbour's Sectional Super (Open).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Frame Super.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Glass Frame Hive, with Super.] - -It is usual now to pack a certain number of these into a frame or -"crate," so that they may conveniently be placed upon, or removed from, -the top of a hive. If kept properly warm, and well protected by their -cover, not only do the bees, when needing room for storage, readily -take to them, but they afford means of collecting, in a very neat, -attractive, and convenient form, large quantities of purest and sealed -honey. Thousands of hundred-weights are now annually secured in this -manner in our own country, and tons of such filled sections are every -year imported from America, from which country, we believe, was derived -this ingenious little invention, which has done so much towards the -promotion of the pleasure and profit of bee-keeping among us. - -Some people, however, still prefer to secure their super-honey in -bar-frames similar, except in point of depth, to those of the stock -hive. Such an arrangement may be seen on the preceding page, which -represents one made by Messrs. Neighbour and Son. - -A form of hive first brought out at Stewarton, in Scotland, and named -after the place of its original manufacture, is a great favourite with -many bee-keepers, and certainly often yields admirable results in the -way of super-honey. We are warranted, therefore, in giving some account -of it. - -It consists (see Fig. 57) ordinarily of four octagonal boxes. Three of -these, _A_, _B_, and _C_, are called "body-boxes," and serve as abodes -for the bees, for nurseries and supplies of food, for rearing the young -and for winter use. Each is fourteen inches in diameter in the widest -parts, and five and a-half inches deep inside. Nine bars range along -the top of each. These are not movable, but serve as guides to the bees -for building straight combs. Between them, and beyond the outer ones, -are ten narrow strips made to slide in grooves in the bars, so that the -top is completely and securely covered. The figure represents the way -in which the slides shift. The top box _D_ is that in which the honey -to be taken by the bee-master is stored. It is four inches in depth, -its other dimensions being similar to those of the boxes below it. It -is furnished with only seven or eight, instead of nine bars, the object -being to induce the bees to build longer cells for depositing honey in. -This not only secures a greater quantity for less expenditure of wax, -but prevents the queen laying eggs in them, if she should go up into -the top box. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Stewarton Hive.] - -For her majesty, finding it impossible to reach the bottom of the cells -to place her eggs as she has been accustomed to do, will retire to the -lower boxes, where she finds places perfectly adapted to her instincts -or her needs. The honey is thus kept free from brood, and it presents -a massive and rich appearance. Bees seem greatly to appreciate this -form of hive, and a strong swarm will often fill the two lower boxes -with comb in ten days. To get the full advantage, however, of this -system, it is best to put a swarm into each of the lower compartments, -or in the first and third, if two colonies of bees cannot be procured -on the same day. If they be kept asunder a few days by slides with -perforations, to let their odours commingle, they may be allowed to -join their forces, and the queens will settle the sovereignty by a -battle, ending in the death of the weaker. When the stock-boxes have -become well filled with bees, admission may be given to the honey-box, -and, in a good season, splendid combs of honey may be secured in -this way. We have seen supers of great weight and beauty taken from -the Stewarton hive. Its merits have been well described from time to -time in _The Journal of Horticulture_ and _The Bee Journal_, by a "A -Renfrewshire Bee-keeper." - -Mr. C. W. Smith designed a modification of the above hives which he -named the Carr-Stewarton. In it the square form is substituted for the -octagonal, so as to secure the interchangeability of all combs--an -important matter in the practical affairs of an apiary. - -The chief points of recommendation in the Stewarton hive seem to -be, its excellence as winter quarters for its inhabitants, and the -readiness with which large quantities of super-honey are stored in it. - -In order that some of the wonders of bee-work may be seen in the -process of performance, various arrangements have been made, -constituting what are called "Observatory Hives." In these glass is -substituted for wood in the sides, shutters being fixed over them to -exclude the light. In some cases Venetian blinds are used instead of -shutters. The frames with the combs are sometimes arranged vertically -in one or two series, and sometimes laterally a dozen or more standing -one behind another. In the latter instance both the top and the sides -are of glass. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.--The Carr-stewarton Hive.] - -The whole hive may be made to revolve by means of two iron wheels, the -one fixed to its bottom, the other to a stout board running its whole -length. In the centre of the floor-board there is an opening into a -passage below, which leads to the open air. This arrangement enables -the hive to be turned in any direction without interfering with the -egress and ingress of the bees. If the queen with her attendants cannot -be found on one side of the combs, the other side may be brought into -view by rotating the hive, and the different classes of the population -can be studied, and their work surveyed in security and continuously. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Unicomb Observatory Hive.] - -The unicomb hive may be stocked in various ways. The simplest plan is -to take from a bar-frame hive the comb on which the queen is, and put -it into the unicomb hive with as many more empty frames as will fill -all the space intended for their reception. In this way new clean comb -will be made, giving a much better appearance to the colony. Another -plan is to take brood-comb in frames sufficient in number to fill the -hive at once. The bees will then make a queen for themselves, and the -interesting process may be watched in all its stages, provided, of -course, that there are some freshly-laid worker-eggs in the cells. - -It is not advisable to try to keep the bees alive in an observatory -hive during the winter, because so much heat is lost by absorption -through the glass sides and top. It is best, therefore, to replace the -frames and their tenants, early in the autumn, in the ordinary wooden -hives. - -Much discussion has taken place among apiarians as to the merits -of bee-houses. Those who advocate their use do so on the following -grounds: Firstly, the protection afforded by a permanent building to -contain the stocks, secures them from dangers of severe storms of wind, -hail, rain, and snow. The first kind of tempest is apt to overthrow -hives; the second to terrify the bees by the violence of the impact -of the ice-drops; the third to saturate the floor-boards, and even -to penetrate the top coverings; and the last will sometimes choke up -the entrance-holes, and cause the suffocation of the bees. Secondly, -for manipulating purposes in all weathers the shelter of a bee-house -is very convenient, beside diminishing the danger of chilling the -brood under examination. Thirdly, hives under cover of a roof are less -affected by sun and moisture, and last longer without requiring paint, -than if exposed to all weathers. - -Those who advocate the placing of each hive on a separate stand in -the open air, allege the following objections to bee-houses: Firstly, -that of expense. Secondly, that they form a shelter for mice, moths, -spiders, &c. Thirdly, that they promote dampness. Fourthly, that they -encourage robbing by the bees. Fifthly, that they are inconvenient -for manipulating, by causing disturbance in neighbouring hives while -operations are going on. Sixthly, that they tend to the loss of young -queens returning from their marriage flight, by the sameness of -appearance in the entrances, and the nearness of the hives to each -other. - -We cannot discuss the replies given to most, if not all of these -objections; but must content ourselves with saying that we advise all -who have a shed which can be converted into a bee-house, or who do not -mind the expense of putting up a building, to secure the advantages -of such a shelter, and to take the easy precautions against possible -inconveniences.[8] - -[Footnote 8: An able paper, on this subject, by the Rev. G. Raynor, may -be found in The Bee Journal for February 1st, 1882.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -NATURAL SWARMING. - - General Facts connected with Swarming--Reconnoitring--Settling-- - Hiving--Curious Incidents--Transferring Swarms to Bar-Frame - Hives--Division of Swarms--Placing Swarm in Permanent Position - --Number of Bees in Swarming--"Casts" and Later Swarms--Prevention - of Swarming--Feeding of Swarms. - - -The facts detailed up to this point will enable the subject of swarming -both natural and artificial to be understood very clearly, and we will -now speak of this most important matter in its various bearings. - -Firstly, it must be mentioned that swarming is the result of so great -an increase in the population of a hive that work cannot efficiently -be carried on, in consequence of the crowd of bees. In ordinarily good -seasons the queen has produced so large a progeny by the second or -third week in May, that a colony will be ready to start. The workers, -being previously impelled by the growing numbers of the hive, will -have prepared some royal cells. As the time for the emerging of the -princesses approaches, the old queen, in her rage at the thought of -coming rivals, attempts to destroy her future compeers. In this, -however, she is thwarted by her otherwise obsequious attendants. In -her wrath, she utters a succession of shrill, angry notes, having the -sound of "peep, peep." To this one or more of the unhatched queens -will reply in similar tones; and these constitute what is known to -bee-keepers as "piping." It is especially noticeable previous to the -issue of swarms after the first, and may be heard, particularly in the -morning and evening, on placing the ear to the side or back of a hive -about to send off another colony, and especially about the eighth day -after the first issue. - -Another indication of the approach of swarming is the clustering of -bees in idleness near and outside the entrance of the hive. This is -specially observable if, through unfavourable weather, an enforced -delay occurs in the departure of the colony. - -When the old queen has become sensible that she must depart with a -portion of her subjects, she usually chooses a fine morning for her -exodus; and, under ordinary circumstances, takes her flight between -the hours of ten and one in the day. Occasionally, however, from some -cause, she will delay her start, and the writer has had one instance in -his own experience in which the swarm came out at the unusually late -hour of a few minutes after five in the afternoon. - -All the bees who are about to accompany their sovereign, take the -precaution of securing a supply of food sufficient to last them -several days; for they instinctively know they will be so occupied in -wax-making and the internal preparations of their new home, that there -will be no opportunity for them to get supplies out of doors, while, -of course, they expect to tenant an empty dwelling. When all is ready, -and their honey-bags are distended to the full, they rush to the -entrance, from which they excitedly pour by hundreds and thousands. -Among them is their proper sovereign; for, as we have already hinted, -it is always, except in the rarest cases, that the old queen heads, or -rather accompanies, the swarm. Dzierzon records one case in which the -old queen refused to quit the hive, and three strong swarms were led -forth, within a few days of each other, by her royal daughters. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.--A Swarm.] - - -And now, when the main body of the emigrants has issued from their -quarters, the whole air seems alive with the excited, flitting, buzzing -insects. The noise of their humming can be heard for many yards away, -and a novice may well wonder what is to be the end of the commotion. -Ordinarily, however, within a few minutes, after their exodus, it will -be observed that a gathering of a thicker crowd is taking place at some -particular spot most frequently on some low tree or bush. There her -majesty has settled, and at once her loyal subjects assemble around -her, and form a living cluster. Quickly, from all sides, they continue -to gather, and in a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes a dense mass -will be hanging one to the other, till it seems wonderful the queen and -those in the interior of the living ball are not suffocated. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.--"Tanging."] - -In country places it is still the custom to beat warming-pans, tin -kettles, frying-pans, or other unmusical vessels, with keys or sticks -or hammers, while the bees are swarming, under the idea that the noise -makes them settle the more quickly. That any effect is produced on -the insects is not any longer believed by apiarians; and there is good -reason for thinking that the origin of the practice was altogether -different from its supposed use. The probability is, that it indicated -at first nothing more than that some one wished to proclaim to the -neighbours the fact of his bees having swarmed, so that he might lay -claim to them wherever they might settle. - -It sometimes happens that the inclination to cease flying is delayed -beyond the usual time. It is said by Langstroth that the throwing of -a few handfuls of dust into the air, or the flashing of sunlight by -a mirror among the bees, will have the effect of bringing them down. -Vergil, nineteen centuries ago, pointed out that, in what he called -their battles, but which were probably only the confusions of swarming, -the flinging of dust or earth among them would have a quieting effect. - -Sometimes, unfortunately, a strong and wayward queen will lead off her -colony far beyond the precincts of the apiary in which she has been -living. The writer has, during the past season (1883), had to regret -the vagaries of such a queen, who, the previous year, came into his -possession through her abandoning her former master, without giving -any clue as to her ownership; and this year, after twice settling, and -being once hived, within some two hundred yards of the apiary, took -wing again, and was entirely lost, though followed more than half a -mile. Few things are more vexing to the bee-keeper than such mishaps; -and it becomes necessary to take all precautions which are possible -against them. When, therefore, a swarm has once decidedly gathered -into a cluster, it should be shaded from the direct rays of the sun; -for the excitement, the close massing, combined with the natural warmth -of the surrounding air, will raise greatly the temperature of the mass; -and, to escape suffocation, a second flight is sometimes undertaken. -A wet sheet, an umbrella, a sack supported on stout sticks, and many -another simple expedient will answer the purpose of promoting a -requisite coolness. - -Next, immediate preparations should be made for hiving. As a rule, -bees, when swarming, are very good-tempered, because they are gorged; -and, like Englishmen, improve in disposition under the influence of -good food. Some curious stories, indeed, have been told of the perfect -inoffensiveness of these insects when thus forming a colony. We will -give two of these, narrated by Bevan. - -A gentleman wishing to hive a swarm that had settled on the branch of -an apple-tree, gave the hive in which he was going to place them into -the hands of a maid-servant She, being a novice, and somewhat timid, -covered her head and shoulders with a cloth, to protect her face. On -shaking the tree, most of the bees fell upon the cloth, and quickly -crept under it, covering the girl's chest and neck up to her very -chin. Her master instantly impressed her with the necessity of being -perfectly quiet, and refraining from all buffeting, while he began to -search for the queen. Having found her majesty, he gently removed her; -but, to his disappointment, the swarm showed no signs of following -her. Suspecting at once that there was a second queen in the cluster, -he made another search, and found his supposition was correct. On -securing her, and placing her with a small cluster of bees in the -hive, the rest followed in crowds, till, in two or three minutes, not -a single one was left on the girl, who was thus relieved from her -anxious, and what might have proved most dangerous position, had she -excited and alarmed the insects. - -The other incident is no less striking. A skilled bee-master had a -little friend who was very much afraid of being stung. One day, a swarm -having come off, the queen was observed to settle by herself at a short -distance from the cluster. The gentleman at once called the child to -him, that he might show her the queen. Becoming interested in the -somewhat uncommon sight, the girl desired to observe the royal insect -more closely; so the bee-master, having made her put on gloves, placed -the queen in her hand. Immediately the whole of the bees in the swarm -thronged around. With an admonition to the child to remain motionless -and speechless, and without fear to retain her self-possession, the -gentleman quietly covered her head and shoulders with a very thin -handkerchief, and made her stretch out her right hand, in which the -queen was. The swarm at once began to settle, and hung from the girl's -hand and arm as if from the branch of a tree. Delighted at the novelty -of the affair, and finding herself unstung, the child then requested to -have her head uncovered. After a while, when the bees were all quiet, a -hive was brought. By a vigorous shake the swarm was made to fall into -their abode, and every one of the insects was got rid of without the -infliction of a single wound. - -Probably it would not often happen that such completely harmless -results would follow such occurrences: for, it is not unfrequently the -case that a few bees, perhaps having joined the swarm without having -had the opportunity to fill themselves with honey, prove somewhat -spiteful; and, notwithstanding the general quietness of a just-emerged -colony, even experienced apiarians by no means always escape punishment -when dislodging a swarm. It is, however, quite easy to secure complete -protection by means of a properly made veil to guard the face and -neck, and gloves to cover the hands. We strongly advise all novices, -therefore, to make use of these preservatives from stings, when -proceeding to get the bees into the hive intended to receive them. - -Some persons advise that the skep into which the swarm is to be brushed -or shaken, should be dressed with a mixture of beer and sugar, applied -with a wisp of elder-branch and leaves. It is just possible that the -sweetened liquid may be drunk by some of those not quite satiated -with honey, and that thus an increased quieting influence is exerted -upon the whole mass; but the most skilled apiarians have given up -the practice, in the belief that it is useless, if not positively -mischievous, by wetting the bees, rendering many of them helpless, and -probably destroying numbers of them. - -The facility of hiving depends altogether upon the place chosen by the -cluster for settling. From the end of a bough, or from a low shrub or -bush, there is no difficulty in securing the swarm. Taking a clean -skep in one hand, and holding it just under the mass of insects, a -sharp shake is given with the other hand to the branch, and nearly the -whole of the bees will fall into the hive. Comparatively few will fly, -the vastly larger proportion having clung too tightly to one another -readily to disengage themselves. As soon as possible, a floor-board -should be quietly and gently placed over the open end of the skep, -which must now be inverted, so as to rest on the board. One side may be -slightly propped, to afford the flying bees opportunity of more speedy -admission to the interior than the ordinary entrance hole would give -them. Another quarter of an hour or twenty minutes will suffice for -all but a small number of stragglers to join their companions inside. -Meantime, a shade should be again provided, till all have entered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Hiving a Swarm.] - -If it is intended to locate the colony in a bar-frame hive, this should -have been also previously made ready, the frames being furnished with -sheets of guide-comb. The coverings being then removed from the top, -and the skep containing the bees held above the frames, by a sharp jerk -downwards, and a rap or two on the top and sides of the straw hive, -all the bees may be made to fall on the bars of the frames. They will -speedily crawl down on to the sheets of guide-comb, especially if a -light cloth be gently laid above them. - -Another method of transferring them from the skep is to spread a -sheet, or newspaper, in front of the bar-frame hive, which should be -slightly raised in front from the floor-board. Then, by a smart jerk, -as before, the bees are thrown on to the sheet or newspaper, close -to the entrance, and they will immediately run in and up on to the -comb-foundation. - -Sometimes a swarm will divide into two parts, each of which will settle -separately. In such a case, it is tolerably certain that two queens -have emerged together, as very often happens with second or later -swarms. When such a division of forces occurs, unless each portion is -sufficiently large to form a stock by itself, it will be advisable to -hive them separately, and then speedily to unite them, leaving the -rival sovereigns to fight for the supremacy. - -Occasionally a colony settles around the stem of a tree, or some place -equally inconvenient for being detached. The difficulty may sometimes -be met by brushing as many bees as can be got at into a hive, or by -holding a hive above the place of settling, and by smoke driving -the insects upwards, till they learn the whereabouts of comfortable -quarters. At other times there is no resource but making the swarm -take to flight, in the hope that a more suitable place will be chosen -by them for their next assemblage. There is a danger, however, that if -thus compelled to move, a too distant excursion may be made, and the -whole colony thus be lost. - -As soon as all, or very nearly all, the bees have gone up into the -skep, or into the quarters they are to occupy, it is advisable to -move them to the stand intended for their permanent position. Some -apiarians, however, recommend waiting till evening for taking this -step. We must dissent from their opinion for two reasons: firstly, -because it often happens that, in a place away from the apiary, -something may occur to disturb the bees, and they will forsake the -hive. In fact, last season (1883) we have ourselves lost a valuable -colony, which, through not being brought home at once from the place -where they had settled, were meddled with by a passing dog, and took -another flight far away, and, though followed long and diligently -inquired after, they were not again discovered. Then, too, the sooner -the bees are placed in their proper position, the sooner will those -going in quest of supplies learn their new home. If left so little as -six or eight hours in the spot at which they first settle, many will -continue to hover about it all the succeeding day, and even longer. For -these reasons, therefore, we advocate a speedy carrying of a swarm to -the site selected for it. - -It is an established fact that, previously to swarming, bees often -send forth scouts to select a place for settling. Neighbour records -a curious instance of this kind. He says: "A lady, who lived about a -quarter of a mile from our apiary, sent to us to say that a swarm had -gone in at a hole over her stable, and to ask us to come and hive them. -On our going to do so, her gardener told us that he had seen, three -days previous, two or three bees as if reconnoitring; next day several -came, and about eleven o'clock on the third day the whole swarm went -in, and took up their position between the rafters [? joists] under the -flooring. The difficulty was now to get at them. A carpenter was sent -for, the boards were taken up, a hive was set over, with a brood-comb -placed in it attract them, and by dint of smoke and brushing to with a -feather, the queen and her retinue were coaxed to ascend into the hive. -Some of the bees had already gone out to forage, and there were many -flying about that had not settled; so, to secure these, and to make it -easy for them, we brought the hive out, and erected a sort of platform -on a pair of steps close to the hole, which we stopped. By night-time -all the out-flying bees had joined the swarm, and were easily removed." - -The number of bees in a swarm varies considerably, but the usual amount -is from 10,000 to 15,000. In rarer cases, there will be from 20,000 to -25,000. Von Berlepsch, by careful experiments, estimated that about -4,000 gorged bees weighed 1 lb.: so that a good swarm will weigh from 3 -lbs. to 5 lbs. As may be easily understood, the more numerous the bees, -the better for the future of the colony, provided there is space in the -hive for them to work in. - -The hive which has sent forth a colony usually contains large -quantities of brood and eggs, and some cells in which princesses -are more or less developed, so that queens would be provided in -proportional succession. If the stock has been so weakened that it is -not intended, by the workers remaining, that another colony should -issue during the season, the first queen who emerges is allowed to -destroy all her royal sisters remaining in the cells, and she, at once, -avails herself of the opportunity of so doing. If, on the other hand, -the amount of the on-coming brood is very large, and it is manifest -that again the hive will become too crowded, the queen is restrained -from her murderous propensities. She resents this interference by -uttering the sharp cries of "peep-peep," previously mentioned, and is -answered in similar tones by her still imprisoned rival sisters. This -is a sure sign of the approaching emergence of a second colony. Within -two or three days of the piping being heard, the expected event takes -place, though occasionally it may be delayed, by cloudy or wet or cold -weather, till the fifth day. Such a second exodus is called a "cast." -Sometimes in the excitement of "casting" several young queens, who have -been under guard, will escape; and as many as five have been known thus -to issue with a second swarm: indeed, Langstroth mentions one instance -of _eight_ queens having thus left the parent stock at one time. Of -course, when such an event occurs, if all are hived with the general -cluster, they will fight till one only is left to enjoy supremacy in -the community. If the settling of the swarm takes place in two or three -places, it is pretty sure that more than one queen has come forth. It -is best then to search for one or more, and to remove them, to be used, -if necessary, in other hives, and then to unite the separate clusters. - -To third and later swarms from the same hive, the fanciful names of -"colts" and "fillies" have been given, but they are going out of -general use. - -Swarms subsequent to the first are usually less than it in amount of -bees. For this reason it is advisable not to make them into separate -stocks, unless very strong, but either, after removing the queen, to -return them to the parent hive, or to unite two or more casts, so as to -form one strong colony. It may be remarked that there is this advantage -about a cast, that all the bees, queen included, are young, and so are -likely to work with vigour; and if sent off early in the season, and -naturally or artificially strong in numbers, they may become a powerful -community: but everything will depend upon the two conditions just -mentioned. - -Where it is not really wished to increase the number of stocks, it -is much better to prevent "casting," by cutting out all queen-cells -five or six days after the first swarm. The reason of the delay in the -operation is, that, by that time, all eggs and larvæ left by the old -queen will have advanced to a stage at which the workers cannot convert -them into queens, even if they desire to do so. - -Another reason, besides the weakness of after swarms, why efforts -should be made to prevent casting is, that the old stock often becomes, -by the swarming mania, too greatly diminished in population to prosper, -and a double loss is incurred--loss of honey, which would be stored -largely by a stock restrained from self-diminution, and loss of general -strength, through there not being bees enough to collect food for -store, and to look after the constantly hatching brood. - -A curious illustration of sagacity in the workers is, that casts and -after-swarms, if allowed to build in a box as they please, select a -corner, instead of the middle, for beginning, knowing that, through the -smallness of their numbers, they are unlikely to fill their abode with -comb, and so taking the precaution to secure the snuggest and warmest -position for such combs as they will be able to construct. They feel -that their only chance of surviving as a colony is their being able to -keep up sufficient heat to hatch the eggs, and to bring forward the -brood in the early autumn and the next spring. First swarms, confident -in their strength, commence their work in the middle of a hive. - -We have already mentioned that the bees, in swarming, start with their -honey-bags full. This supply will last them about three days. If, at -the end of that time, the weather should be dull and unfavourable for -flying abroad, great benefit will be conferred on the young colony -by giving a supply of syrup. We shall speak later on of the method -in which it is to be administered. As bees waste nothing, and never -remain idle because they have a store of food, whatever is given them -will be economically used. Moreover, they prefer their natural sources -of supply, and will not take advantage of their owner's generosity in -giving them syrup, if they can gather honey. At the same time, the -needs of a new stock are great during the first two or three weeks, -since much wax has to be made, and homes and provender for the coming -young have to be in readiness. It is, therefore, a wise and benevolent -and _paying_ plan to feed all swarms whom the weather prevents from -gathering abundant supplies in the fields. By this means no time is -lost in comb-building: all the workers remain vigorous for flight and -indoor duties: the queen, encouraged by finding no lack of food for -her future offspring, will get on with laying as fast as the cells are -ready to receive her eggs; and thus all the elements of a prosperous -community will be secured. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. - - Advantages--Driving: Close and Open--Transfer to Bar-Frame - Hive--Conditions of Successful Driving--Various Methods of - Artificial Swarming with Bar-Frame Hives. - - -There are some mortifying incidents connected with natural swarming, -which the skilled apiarian will endeavour to avoid, by taking the -matter of the making of colonies into his own hands. We have spoken -already of the annoyance and trouble often caused by the flying away -of a swarm. This accident at the beginning of the honey-season means, -at least, a loss of what would be worth from a sovereign to thirty -shillings, either in stock or honey. Another, but minor, disappointment -comes from seeing the bees hanging outside a hive in handfuls, idle and -useless, waiting for the queen to come forth with a swarm. In this way -the work of some thousands of bees for several days is lost, and that -often at a time when honey is most plentiful in the fields. Now, both -these difficulties may be met with complete success by what is called -artificial swarming--an operation which is conducted in different ways, -according to the kind of hive to be operated upon. - -We will speak of the process called _driving_. This is the method -adopted with the ordinary skep, and is practised as _close_ or _open_ -driving. In the first case, the plan pursued is as follows: Into -the entrance-hole of the hive to be operated upon a few good puffs -of tobacco, or other smoke, are blown. This frightens the bees, and -they immediately rush to the cells, and gorge themselves with honey. -After giving them a couple of minutes for this purpose, they become -much more quiet and tractable. If this precaution be not taken, many -of the workers will fly in anger at the operator, and, though he may -be protected by veil and gloves, will greatly disturb the comfort -of his manipulations. The hive is then lifted from its floor-board, -and inverted, _i.e._ turned upside down, on a tub, pail, or pan, -partly filled with water, to keep it firm. Upon it is placed an empty -hive of the same diameter, and round the junction of their rims is -tied carefully a round-towel, or a bandage of some kind, so as to -prevent the escape of any of the bees. At the same time, or as soon -as possible, another empty hive, with a little syrup sprinkled on the -interior, is put on the stand from which the stock has been brought, -so that the bees, who were abroad when their home was removed, may be -amused, or, at least, diverted from going to other hives, where they -would be attacked and slain as robbers. Returning then to the hive from -which the swarm is to be driven, it must be beaten smartly, but not -sharply enough to shake down the combs. A tolerably stout stick in each -hand, or the hands themselves, may be used for the purpose. It is best -to begin gently, and to increase the force of the blows, letting the -drumming be continuous, but not violent. The bees, already terrified by -the smoke blown amongst them, will in the course of a few minutes begin -to run into the upper hive, and a large enough proportion, together -with the queen, will have gone up within ten minutes or a quarter of an -hour. Their passage up may be ascertained by the buzzing sound of the -multitude of vibrating wings; and when this has subsided the cloth may -be taken away, and a large cluster of the driven insects will be found -in the top hive. This should then be placed on the stand from which the -stock was taken, so as to be reinforced by many of the population who -were abroad for supplies. If it is intended to transfer the new colony -to a bar-frame hive, they can be introduced either by being shaken on -to the tops of the frames, to run down between, or thrown on a sheet in -front of the bar-frame hive, which should be slightly propped up, as -already described in speaking of natural swarms thus put into wooden -hives. The old stock, containing much brood and a fair residue of bees, -may be placed at a short distance from its former stand. It will be -sure to have an attraction for many of the adults of its population so -unceremoniously ejected, and some of the most recently hatched will -have refused to quit it. These combined forces will suffice to tend -the brood; and in a few weeks, with a young queen, the tenants will be -almost as numerous as before the driving took place. - -_Open_ driving is performed in a similar way, except that the hive, -into which the bees are to be made to ascend, is placed over the other -at an angle, and only resting upon it for three or four inches. It -is supported in this sloping position by skewers or iron wires thrust -through both hives where they touch, and with others to prop them -well open in front. This arrangement frees the hands of the operator: -enables him, in many cases, to watch the going up of the queen an -all-important matter for the success of the artificial swarm: and -gives him the opportunity of judging when a sufficient number of the -stock have been frightened out of their abode to form a satisfactory -colony. The terrified insects make no attempt to escape by the wide -opening free to them, but rush in a continuous stream up the connected -portions of the hives, and form a cluster in the roof of the upper -one. They have filled themselves with honey, and, between repletion -and fright, are as inoffensive as so many flies. We have ourselves had -the opportunity of displaying to two members of the Royal Family the -harmlessness of driven bees, by taking some hundreds with an ungloved -hand, and holding them to the view of Prince Christian and Princess -Beatrice. To the Prince's inquiry, "Why do they not sting?" the reply -was, that they became like Englishmen after a hearty meal--very -good-tempered, an answer which not only amused His Royal Highness, but -was correct as an explanation. - -The best time for the operation of driving is near the middle of the -day, when many of the workers are abroad in the fields. Should the -weather be cold, it is advisable to warm the skep into which the -driving is to take place. A further detail of great use in quieting and -reconciling the ejected colony is, to sprinkle between the combs, a -quarter of an hour before driving, some weak syrup, made of one pound -of sugar to one pint of water. A wine-glassful will be enough to use -for one hive, as too large a quantity might seriously wet the bees, and -perhaps glue their wings and limbs harmfully. After settling down in -their new home, they will be occupied with clearing themselves and each -other of the syrup, which will serve also the purpose of still further -replenishing their honey-bags. - -It is difficult to get the bees to leave by drumming a hive only partly -filled with comb. They will cluster about the unoccupied portions, -and resolutely refuse to go. In this case they may be ejected on to -a sheet, spread to receive them, by three or four sharp jerks in a -downward direction. - -It is advisable not to drive a colony after very hot weather, and when -there is a great in-take of honey: otherwise some of the liquid will -begin to flow out of the cells when the-skep is inverted, and will -cause much trouble and waste, and possibly the destruction of many -bees by drowning them in their trickling stores. It will be better to -wait till the next morning, when evaporation and the coolness of the -night will have thickened the liquid sufficiently for it to remain in -the cells during the manipulation. The combs, also, will have become -firmer, and less liable to fall, with the diminished temperature. - -The operation of driving from skeps is abundantly practised by -apiarians, in the autumn, among the hives of those cottagers who would -otherwise follow the old and most barbarous plan of killing their bees -to take the honey. Several stocks of bees thus drummed out of house -and home may be united to form a strong colony. If supplied with frames -of comb, or "foundation," and fed with syrup (made with 2-1/2 lbs. of -sugar to each pint of water, with a dessert-spoonful of vinegar boiled -up with it, to prevent crystallisation), they may be brought safely -through the winter, and become, by the spring-time, well worth the -expense and trouble they have cost. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Swarming Board.] - -With bar-frame hives the making of artificial swarms becomes an easy -matter, and more than one plan may be adopted. In the first place, -suppose it is desired to transfer into a skep a swarm from a wooden -hive, for sending to a distance. The preliminary operations are as -follows: Towards evening, remove the stock a few yards from its stand, -and have ready the skep on a wide board, and propped up two or three -inches in front. Next puff smoke into the midst of the bees, to quiet -them, and to induce them to fill their honey-bags. Then lift the -frames one after another, and search for the queen till found. Take her -gently between the first finger and thumb, seizing her by the wings, -place her at the entrance of the skep, and see that she runs in. Shake -on to the board, close to the skep, the bees from the frame on which -the queen is found, and, after replacing it in its own hive, take out -and shake off bees from other frames in succession, till a sufficient -amount to make a swarm has been let run into the skep. They, with their -sovereign, will ascend to the crown of their abode, and then may be -secured by tying a cloth over the open part of the straw hive, and -despatched to their destination. Of course the frames must be replaced -in the stock hive as they are cleared. The remaining bees will soon -make a new queen for themselves, and will care for the developing -brood. Judgment must be exercised, so as not to weaken too greatly the -population of the parent-hive. - -Another method, still simpler, is to begin operations in the morning -of a bright day, and to shake off the queen and bees from two frames -only, and put the colony on to the old stand, removing the stock to a -distance of a few yards. The bees abroad for supplies will, on their -return, remain with their queen, and make up a sufficiently strong -community; while the young, and those who prefer the old stock, will be -sufficient to meet its requirements. - -A third plan is to take the frame on which the queen is, with bees and -brood, and place it, with two or three other frames from the same stock -in another hive, which should be placed on the old stand. Foragers -returning from the fields will, as in the preceding case, reinforce -the new colony, while the stock, moved to a little distance, will soon -repair the loss of their queen, and hatch out young bees in place of -those transferred to another home. - -A fourth method is to take two combs from each of several strong -stocks, brushing off all bees with a feather or goose-wing. Then -placing the hive thus filled with comb and brood, on the stand of a -strong stock, the returning bees will take to the home thus presented -to them, and will speedily raise a queen for themselves from one of the -many eggs contained in the brood cells. The displaced hive must, as -in previous instances, be removed a few yards from its old position. -The reason for filling the abode of the new community with frames of -worker-brood, is to prevent the bees from building drone-comb, and -raising males only, as they are apt to do when they have to manufacture -a queen, at least till she is not only hatched but begins to lay eggs. - -There are three or four important precautions which are to be -remembered when making artificial swarms. Firstly--swarming should not -be artificially attempted till drones are tolerably numerous, unless a -fertile queen is to be given to the new colony Secondly--honey should -be abundant when the swarm is made, unless a good deal is stored in -the combs removed. If syrup, however, be supplied, all danger from -scanty sources outside will be removed. Thirdly--swarms should be taken -only from the strongest stocks, otherwise both old and new communities -will be, perhaps irretrievably, ruined. Fourthly--it is an immense -advantage to introduce a queen into the hive that has been deprived -of its mother-bee; and with suitable precautions, especially that of -caging the supplied sovereign for thirty-six hours in a receptacle -made for the purpose, there is usually little difficulty in getting -the substitute amicably received by the mourning workers. This plan -not only prevents the loss of two or three weeks of very valuable time -in the rearing and fertilising of a queen, but obviates the danger of -the young queen, when raised, perishing on her wedding-flight, through -being snapped up by a bird, or mistaking the entrance of her hive on -her return. - -Various modifications of the above plans may be found in Langstroth, -but enough has been said to indicate the ordinary and simplest modes of -procedure. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -QUEEN REARING. - - Protection of Queen-cells--Nucleus Hives--Various Methods - of Queen Rearing--American Plan--Introduction of Stranger - Queens--Difficulties. - - -The breeding of queens can only be done with ease and complete success -in bar-frame hives. If, on examination of the frames of a stock, -queen-cells with brood in them are found, these may be protected by -means of little wire cages from the animosity of the mother-bee, and in -due course the princesses, as they hatch out, may be transferred to a -small box, with a piece of comb and a few bees belonging to the hive. -Care must be taken not to let the cage touch the cell over which it is -placed, and it should be thrust into the comb only to the base of one -set of cells. The best time for thus affording protection is when the -larva is six or seven days old. - -A second plan is to take from a hive, late in the afternoon, a comb -containing worker-eggs, with brood in more advanced stages, and a -sufficient number of bees to keep up warmth enough to promote the -development of the larvæ. These must all be put into a very small -hive, and a supply of honey and water should be given. In the course -of a few days a queen-cell, or cells, will be formed, worker-eggs -transferred into them, and these, in process of time, will come forth -as princesses. When fertilised they will be ready for using in other -hives. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Queen Cage over Sealed Cell.] - -A third method is to set a small empty hive over a full stock, and, -when the bees using the entrance of the upper one are sufficiently -numerous, a brood-comb with eggs and adhering bees may be placed in the -top hive. Then, in a day or two, the aperture between the two may be -closed, and the nucleus being removed, another can be put in its place, -and the process repeated till as many queens as are required have been -raised. - -Fourthly. Two or three combs with brood and honey may be taken -from a hive, and having cut out a nearly triangular piece of comb, -a queen-cell with comb, nearly equal in size to the hole, may be -inserted, as shown in the figure. This will expedite the rearing of -the princess. The bees will soon fill up the intervening spaces, and -the daily emerging young bees will make subjects enough for the young -monarch, till she is needed for the sovereignty of a larger population. -If the miniature stock should dwindle before the young queen lays and -replenishes the numbers, young bees, which have never flown, may be -introduced from other hives, and these will be received with pleasure -by the remaining workers. Or another frame with plenty of bees may be -exchanged for one of the empty ones. This latter plan involves some -danger of fighting, which is avoided by supplying the newly-hatched -young. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Inserted Queen Cell.] - -The American bee-keepers manage, it is said, to hatch royal larvæ -and pupæ in little boxes heated carefully by a small lamp. We have -not heard of any English apiarians who have pursued this method; -and the probability is that the difficulty of regulating the warmth -accurately, makes the results so uncertain and disappointing as not -to tend to the adoption of the method among us. Like the "incubators" -for the artificial hatching of poultry, so many circumstances combine -to mar hopes cherished in the use of them, that it is altogether more -satisfactory to rely on natural processes for the production of the -young of both fowls and bees. - -In all the processes of queen rearing described, we cannot but be -struck with the inextinguishable love shown to the undeveloped young, -and the passionate yearning for a mother-bee displayed by the workers. -It matters not whether the brood presented to them be taken from -their own stock or from another community; they will at once cluster -upon the cells containing larvæ, and devotedly tend them till they -come forth as perfect insects. The emerging progeny may even belong -to another variety, Ligurian, Cyprian, or Carniolan; still the same -complete devotion will be displayed. Nor is the willingness of a -colony to receive an introduced queen affected by the fact of her -belonging to a different race from the subjects to whom she is given. -Yet, we do observe strange differences in the readiness with which -a stranger sovereign is acknowledged. In some instances there is no -hostility manifested to an uncaged queen, who is allowed to run down -among the combs of a community which is without a mother. This is -especially the case with a stock just mourning its discovered loss. -At other times, even with careful introduction, and caging for from -twenty-four to forty-eight hours, so unamiable a temper is displayed, -that the supplied queen is refused; and she is either stung, or, -more frequently, is so thickly clustered around and upon as to be -suffocated. Occasionally, indeed, such a resolute determination is -shown to have no monarch but one of their own raising, that the only -course is to supply brood-comb with eggs to such a community, or -to unite them with another stock which has a queen. We can no more -account for these vagaries of so-called instinct, than we can for those -displayed among human beings endowed with what we consider the higher -faculty of reason. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -FEEDING. - - Troughs--Dangers of this Method--Bottle Feeders--Cheshire's Feeding - Stage--Neighbour's Can Feeder--The "Round Feeder"--Autumn - Feeding--Spring Feeding--Uses of Precautions--Summer Feeding of - Swarms--Flour-cake--Barley-sugar or Sugar-cake--Mr. Hunter's - Recipe. - - -We have already spoken of the advantages consequent on feeding swarms -for a few days after they emerge, especially if the weather should -be wet, cold, or dull. It is even more important to see that in -spring and autumn, if the stocks require food, it is given to them. -With the old-fashioned skep there are difficulties in the successful -supply of nourishment. The ordinary plan used to be to take a piece -of elder-wood, and having cut it down the middle, and having removed -the pith, to stop the open ends, or manage to have a knot at each, -and then, having filled these long narrow troughs with syrup, to -insert them into the hive by the entrance hole. Several disadvantages -attend this plan. Firstly, there is the danger of spilling some of the -liquid, and so inducing visits of bees from near hives, and setting up -"robbing," with its disasters. Next, it is almost impossible, without -constant attention, to give a proper amount of food thus. Thirdly, -the bees being attracted to the floor of the hive, often become numbed -in cold weather, and perish. Fourthly, where considerable feeding is -necessary, and has to be rapidly done, it is impossible to accomplish -it by this method, except at the cost of immense trouble. - -Skeps which have a flat or broad top, with a hole fitted with a cork, -can be supplied in a much better manner by one of the various kinds of -apparatus we shall now describe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Bottle Feeder.] - -First, the "bottle feeder" consists of a glass jar (such as pickles, -French plums, jams, marmalade, &c., are sold in), resting on a block, -square or round, as may be convenient, and having a hole cut to receive -the neck of the bottle. Over the hole is fastened a piece of perforated -zinc with very fine meshes. Over the mouth of the battle a piece of -fine net or muslin should be secured by a band round the neck, after -the syrup has been poured In. Then the block having been put over the -hole in the top of the hive, the bottle of syrup may be inverted and -stood in the hollow prepared for it. The bees will soon become aware -of the fact that food is within their reach, and poking their tongues -through the zinc and muslin, they will draw what supplies they need. As -no air can get through the syrup, the liquid will run only as fast as -it is imbibed by the bees, unless, through sun-heat, the bottle should -become so warmed as to cause the air inside to expand, and thrust out -the food faster than it can be drunk. It is easy to avoid this danger -by properly covering the bottle. Another, and still more important, -reason for protecting it is to prevent any bees from another hive -getting at it; for should they do so, robbing is very likely to ensue, -stolen sweets having a most demoralising effect on bees, as well as on -human beings; and this trouble once started, it is difficult to stop it -before all the weak stocks have been plundered and destroyed by their -stronger neighbours. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Cheshire's Feeding Stage.] - -In order to regulate precisely the quantity of food it may be desirable -to give to a stock, Mr. Cheshire has devised, instead of the muslin -cover, a piece of vulcanite pierced with holes in a particular pattern, -and rotating round a screw in such a way that one, two, three, or any -required number of holes may be open at the same time. He also uses, -and recommends, a small shovel, in which the bottle of syrup is first -inverted. Then, when placed just over the vulcanite plate, the shovel -is quickly withdrawn without the loss of any of the liquid. - -This matter of carefully controlling the quantity of food allowed, -is very important in the spring, when it is desired not only to save -impoverished stocks from dying of hunger, but to stimulate well-doing -stocks to early breeding. For, if too abundant supplies of syrup are -given, the bees, in their determination not to miss any opportunity of -storing at a time when there is no honey to be got out of doors, will -fill the middle cells which are nearest the bottle, instead of leaving -them for the queen to deposit eggs in, as she would naturally do, to -secure them the full warmth of the cluster of her subjects. - -Another method of supplying food is by means of a tin bottle or can. -Mr. Neighbour describes the one invented by him for continuous supply, -as "six inches wide by six high, with five small holes at the bottom, -and closed by a sliding valve and a screw-top. The can is filled from -the top, with the valve closed, and when the screw-top is made firm, -this valve is drawn back by moving the pin in front. The can is placed -over the feeding-hole at the top of the stock hive, and the bees have -access to it by small holes. The can is on the principle of a fountain; -the screw-top rendering it air-tight, the liquid only escapes as drawn -down by the probosces of the bees. A glass side is let in, to show when -the feeder is empty. It need not be removed for refilling. The capacity -of the vessel is over a quart." The advantages of this apparatus are, -its security against robber-bees; the fact that it can be filled _in -situ_, thus avoiding all escape of warm air in cold weather, and -chilling of the brood; and the facility with which its condition can be -inspected and its store replenished. In addition, it is strong and not -likely to get out of order. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Can Feeder.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Round Tin Feeder.] - -The "round feeder" is made of zinc or earthen-ware, eight inches -across, and three deep. It is filled by a sloping aperture from the -outside. The bees come up through an opening in the crown of the hives -on to a piece of wood, under a close-fitting tin cap, which keeps in -the heat, and the bees are able to feed without the possibility of -being drowned. The outer lid has to be raised; the liquid food is then -poured into the trough, and is gradually drawn in and consumed. There -is a danger in open troughs or pans, especially of zinc, which must -not be overlooked, and that is the turning acid of the food by great -exposure to the air, and the difficulty of thorough cleanliness without -the waste of a good deal of food. - -Of these various plans, the bottle is by far the cheapest, and, with -a little care, it is quite effectual. Various makers of bee-apparatus -have introduced slight modifications in their method, tending to -convenience and safety. - -The two special seasons when it may be advisable to give supplies, are -the spring and autumn. When, at the end of February or early in March, -some warm days have promoted activity in the hive, and its inhabitants -are coming forth for flight after their long winter imprisonment, -and are going in search of pollen and other food, it is desirable -to examine the internal condition of affairs, so as to ascertain -whether unwonted activity means scantiness of stores, and the need of -searching outside for food. Should the supply of sealed honey be almost -exhausted, it will be necessary to give a moderate, but continuous, -quantity of syrup to avert starvation. For the reason previously -mentioned, it is well not to err on the side of too great liberality. -Let the bees have little more than enough for their probable daily -wants--say, for a strong stock, about three ounces a day. - -It is also important not to fill large bottles with syrup, otherwise -there will be danger of the liquid running too freely, if a very warm -day succeed a cold night, as the air in the bottle will expand too -rapidly from the heat, and force out the syrup, to the imminent danger -of the bees. - -But, it is not only starving or much impoverished stocks which may -be advantageously supplied with food early in the spring. If left to -themselves, the wise insects will not promote breeding, till they -can see their way to a constant in-flow of new nourishment for the -rearing of the young. If, then, the queen is encouraged to lay, by an -artificial supply, she will begin depositing her eggs much earlier -than she otherwise would. Moreover, if the mass of the population are -induced to remain at home, instead of going out for honey and pollen, -the warmth of the hive will be better maintained, and the developing -young will have more attendants about them. The most experienced -apiarians, therefore, strongly recommend _careful_ spring feeding; -and one point in the carefulness is the constancy of the supply once -begun, unless there is plenty of honey in the hive. In cases where this -precaution is overlooked, the hungry workers will consume hundreds of -newly-laid eggs, and will drag the young larvæ from the cells, thinking -that their coming to maturity would involve a general starvation. On -the other hand, it is necessary to see that no storage is going on in -the brood part of the combs, through too liberal feeding. In points of -this kind experience is the best teacher, and here the skilfulness of -the bee-master is shown. - -Another matter of great importance in spring feeding, is to see that -the syrup supplied is not too thin, otherwise there will be danger -of dysentery. Again, it must be well boiled and properly prepared, -or what happens to be deposited in the cells will crystallise, and -become worse than useless, as the bees can only with great difficulty -consume or remove it in that state. The following is the proper method -of preparation: Take of loaf sugar 3-1/2 lbs., and boil in a quart of -water. While boiling, add a table-spoonful of vinegar, and continue -the boiling for ten minutes more. Strain the liquid, and it is ready -for use. It may, with advantage, be supplied to the bees while it is -lukewarm. The addition of the vinegar is an important point, as it -converts the cane-sugar into glucose, or grape-sugar, which is much -less liable to crystallisation. - -In bad weather throughout the spring, the watchful apiarian will give -his bees some artificial food, unless they have abundant stores in -their hives. - -Nor must it be forgotten that, if the production of brood is to be -stimulated, some nitrogenous food will be necessary. When crocuses and -willow-blossom are plentiful in the early spring, the bees will collect -sufficient pollen from these sources, to provide for their wants in the -above respect. But, failing a natural supply of such azotised material, -pea-meal forms a good substitute, and is readily made use of by the -workers. - -In summer, it is only swarms or casts, as a rule, that ought to be in -any need of this kind of help; but, as autumn comes on, especially if -the bees have been seriously deprived of their hardly-earned supplies, -it will be necessary to make up to them some of that of which they -have been denuded. With skeps, the only guide as to the condition of -food stores is the weighing-machine. If this indicates a less total -than from twenty-five to thirty pounds, it will be advisable to supply -syrup till the requisite weight is attained. With bar-frame hives an -examination of the state of affairs is perfectly easy, and there is -no difficulty in removing combs which are quite empty, and are not -needed for the clustering of the bees. Those which are left should each -contain six or seven inches square of sealed honey, some two square -feet, as a total, being considered about the proper quantity for a -fairly strong stock to winter on. - -For ascertaining the state of the hives in autumn, there should be an -inspection of them about the middle of September; and, if necessary, -the feeding should then be begun. It may be continued through October, -but not later; otherwise there are dangers to be incurred. The first -is, lest the evaporation of a certain amount of water from the stored -syrup should not take place, and consequently, being left unsealed in -the cells, it should ferment, and produce dysentery among the bees. -The second is, lest there should not be sufficient warmth in the hive -for the elaboration of the wax needed for sealing the filled cells; -in which case, also, dysentery is likely to occur, when the immatured -syrup is consumed. - -Syrup given in autumn must be thicker than that supplied in spring, -and should be made of five pounds of sugar to one quart of water, -a table-spoonful of vinegar being added, and the mixture well, but -carefully, boiled. - -Sometimes, when bee-keepers have neglected the feeding of their stocks -till late in autumn, they try to atone for their remissness by giving -a supply of flour-cake--a baked mixture of sugar and pea-meal--on the -top of the frames. This practice is not advisable, as the nitrogenous -food is almost certain to stimulate breeding; and if this happens when -the temperature is too low for the development of eggs and larvæ, great -mischief may be done. The danger from this source will be very much in -proportion to the weakness of the stock. - -If proper attention has been given to the bees in autumn, they -should be left quite undisturbed during the winter; for each time of -excitement causes a considerable consumption of honey, to make up -for the exertion to which the insects have been aroused. There is, -also, the risk of chilling the hive, and lowering the temperature to -a point fatal to many of its inhabitants. If, however, it becomes -known to the bee-keeper that any stock is in a starving condition, no -liquid food must be given, but barley-sugar, or sugar-cake, may be -laid on the frames. One evil of the former of these is, that it is apt -to deliquesce faster than the bees can consume it, and running down -the combs, makes a mess; while, if supplied too sparingly, it will -not afford enough nourishment to the whole population to avert their -starving. To obviate these dangers, it has been recommended to let it -liquefy to a condition of toughness, and then, having put it into a -bottle tied over the mouth with close canvas, to supply it in the same -way as syrup. - -Mr. Hunter gives the following directions for making sugar-cake, of a -kind superior to barley-sugar of the shops for bee-feeding purposes:-- - -"Break up three pounds of loaf-sugar, place it in a saucepan or -preserving-pan and pour half a pint of cold water upon it and half a -wine-glass of vinegar. These are all the ingredients required. Prepare -a fire in a grate, the top bar of which will let down in a similar -way to that in an ordinary kitchen grate, taking care, however, that, -at the commencement of the operation, the bar is up in its place, and -the grate full to the top with glowing cinders or wood embers, so that -a great heat may be obtained without any flame. Place upon the fire -the saucepan containing the sugar, and stir it without ceasing. In -a few minutes it will begin to assume the character of dirty broth, -which will have anything but a nice appearance, but presently a thick -scum will rise, and the mass will try to boil over. As soon as this -is observed the saucepan should be removed from the fire, until the -ingredients have cooled a little, when it should be set on the grate -again, in such a way that only a small part of it is over the fire. -The boiling will then go on on the exposed side, and as the ebullition -takes place the scum will be forced to the side not over the fire, -whence it may easily be removed with a spoon. Thus, the saucepan is -held in the left hand, the spoon in the right, and the saucepan being -on the left-hand side of the grate, with its right side exposed to -the action of the fire, the scum will retreat to the left or cooler -side, and will be in the handiest position for removal, as will be -evident in a few minutes to any one trying it. After a quarter of an -hour of this treatment the mixture will have become in a great degree -clarified, when it should be removed from the fire while the top bar -of the grate is let down, so as to permit of its nearer approach to a -greater heat. Should there be any irregularity of the fire, it should -now be corrected, but flame should be prevented, as the mixture, having -parted with its water, will be liable to take fire if brought into -contact with flame. It will be well here to remark that so long as the -scum remains on the syrup there was a tendency in the whole to boil -over, since the water evolved in the form of steam while the boiling -was going on, accumulating in a body, would lift the scum above the -saucepan to enable it to escape, but when the scum was _gone_ the water -would be evolved in bubbles of steam, which would _crackle_ but not -boil over unless a very intense heat were applied. The duration of the -boiling of the clarified syrup, before it becomes liquid barley-sugar, -will depend upon the amount of heat and the consequent evolution of -water to which it is subjected; but trials may from time to time be -made by dropping a little on some cold surfaces, to see if it becomes -brittle, and when that state is arrived at it is done. Pour it into a -tin dish, set it in a dry cool place until it becomes hard, and then', -by striking the tin on its under side, the whole of the barley-sugar -will be splintered into fragments, when it may be placed in bottles and -corked up for use as required." - -We have thought it advisable to quote these directions _in extenso_, as -the feeding material thus made is cheaper--by about half the cost--than -what is bought in shops, and being, moreover, not twisted like ordinary -barley-sugar, it can more conveniently be placed on the top of frames, -or over the feeding-hole of a skep. - -The deliquescence of solid sugar-food is a source of some trouble. It -may, in part, be obviated by laying the cake on coarse canvas, which -will keep pieces from falling between the combs, and will help to delay -liquid drops till the bees can consume them. But the most effectual -plan to be rid of all these inconveniences, is to see to the proper -amount of food being stored in the hives by the end of October. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -WINTERING BEES. - - False and True Hybernation--Temperature of Hive in Winter-- - Necessity for Quiet during Winter--Structure and - Winter-packing of Bar-Frame Hives--Prevention of Draught and - Condensation of Vapour--Supply of Water. - - -The honey-bee differs from nearly all the wild varieties, as well as -from hornets and wasps, in being adapted to live always in societies. -Most other insects of the hymenopterous order become torpid in -winter, or perish, with the exception of some queens, who survive to -continue the race. Those which really hybernate are able to endure -a considerable degree of cold; and, thawing under the influence of -warmth, they can resume the functions of life. It is not so, however, -with bees. Queens alone would be quite unable to continue the race, -as they could neither build comb, nor supply food to the larvæ, nor -keep up the heat required for the development of the young. For all -these purposes, workers in considerable numbers are necessary. But -this very concourse implies the production of heat by respiration; -and, as a matter of fact, we find that all through the coldest weather -of winter a temperature of over 60° Fahr. is maintained in the hive. -As a result of this, bees do not really hybernate, or even become -dormant. When cold is very intense, they maintain a constant tremulous -motion, as if they knew that the expenditure of muscular fibre would, -by the consequent oxygenation, cause the evolution of heat; or, as if -cognisant of the most modern theories of "heat as a mode of motion," -they were aware that the very flapping of their wings would tend to -raise the temperature of their dwelling. - -A bee is chilled by a less degree of warmth than 50° Fahr.; and if -actually frozen, or exposed to cold at or near the freezing point of -water, it cannot be revived. These facts have a very important bearing -on the art of apiculture. For, in the first place, it may easily be -understood that, if bees are tempted abroad by sunshine in winter, or -when a bitter wind is blowing, they may perish by hundreds, through -becoming torpid with cold while resting a few minutes in some shade, or -by being chilled in the ungenial air. For this reason it is advisable -to shelter hives from the mid-day and afternoon sun, as the danger just -alluded to increases with the lateness of the hour at which the bees -may be enticed abroad by the sunshine. - -Then, secondly, it must be remembered that, as the bees are animate -all through the winter, a constant consumption of stores is going on, -and that disastrous consequences may ensue from mistaken notions as to -their remaining torpid, and needing no more food than do hybernating -dormice or polar bears. - -Thirdly, as an easy deduction from the foregoing facts, everything -which stirs the bees to activity, such as supplying fresh food, -or disturbing the hives for any other purpose, means an increased -consumption of nutriment, proportional to the activity aroused. - -Fourthly, any general excitement in cold weather, leading to the -wandering of individuals from the cluster, entails the risk of their -being chilled, and rendered so inactive as not to be able to return to -the warmest part of the hive, and consequently perishing. - -These facts further suggest the importance of taking measures to -prevent, as far as possible, the escape of warmth from the hive. -Various precautions are adopted for this purpose. The straw skep is, -in itself, a bad conductor of heat, and if made thick and strong, will -usually enable the bees to maintain a sufficiently high temperature. -Still, in excessively cold seasons, it is advisable to wrap straw hives -round with matting, sacking, or some other material, in order still -further to guard against chilling. - -With bar-frame hives several points should be attended to. In the -first place, it is a great advantage to have their walls double, with -an air-space between them. It is even better to fill this space with -cork-dust, saw-dust, bran, or chaff, to prevent any circulation of air -between the outer and inner walls. - -Then, it is important to remove empty combs at the beginning of the -cold season, and to confine the bees in as small a space as possible, -so that their number, constantly diminishing in winter, may suffice to -keep up the necessary temperature. - -Again, it is of some moment to see that there are no considerable -apertures in the coverings of the frames, or in the corners of the -hive, by which a current of warm air out of, and cold air into, the -hive may be set up. - -Once more, if cushions of chaff be placed behind the frames, to fill -up some of the empty parts of the hive, an additional security will be -furnished against the lowering of the temperature. - -In order still further to prevent separation from the cluster, and -unnecessary activity, the most skilled apiarians recommend that, in -autumn, holes should be made through the combs, near their tops, to -serve as passages from one to another, as they are emptied of honey, -without the necessity of the bees going down to the bottoms of the -combs, in order to reach the other sides or different combs. - -Another point of great importance in wintering bees, is the prevention -of the moisture, produced by their breathing, from condensing in the -hive. It should either be allowed to escape by upward ventilation, -as strongly recommended by Langstroth, or by laying over the frames -of wooden hives a porous material, which at the same time prevents -the escape of heat. Light matting, covered with thicknesses of -house-flannel or old blanketing, will answer the purpose very well. The -constant evaporation from the upper surface will prevent dampness to -any serious degree in the lower thicknesses of material. For ourselves, -we prefer the method which most effectually prevents the escape of -heat, while also securing that vapour shall not be unduly condensed. - -The question of ventilation, especially in winter, is still under -debate. It is alleged, on the one hand, that it must be of advantage -to get rid of all products of respiration, and that this can only -be done effectually, by leaving a passage for the air supposed to -be vitiated by the breathing of the bees. On the other hand, it is -asserted, and the fact is incontrovertible, that the insects themselves -most sedulously stop every crack and cranny, above all, in the tops -of their hives; and seem to strive, by all means in their power, to -prevent the escape of air, which would carry away warmth. The argument -is that their natural instinct is certain to be right that it can only -have arisen, or been bestowed, for the benefit of the bees. We must -acknowledge there is great force in this reasoning; and we prefer, -therefore, to secure both the theoretical point relating to sufficient -ventilation, and the practical recognition of the preference of the -bees for complete coverings, by using the materials we have recommended -above, leaving no apertures for the direct escape of air and warmth at -the top of the hives. - -The German apiarians lay considerable stress on the necessity of -supplying the stocks with water so long as any breeding is going on. -Von Berlepsch and G. Eberhardt, in an article in the _Bienenzeitung_, -write as follows: "The Creator has given the bee an instinct to store -up honey and pollen, which are not always to be procured, but not -water, which is always accessible in her native regions. In northern -latitudes, when confined to the hive, often for months together, they -can obtain the water they need only from the watery particles contained -in the honey, the perspiration which condenses on the colder parts of -the hive, or the humidity of the air which enters their hives. - -"Vital energy in the bee is at its lowest point in November and -December. If, at this time, an unusual degree of cold does not force -her to resort to muscular action, she remains almost motionless, -a deathlike silence prevailing in the hive; and we know by actual -experiment, that much less food is consumed than at any other time. -Breeding having ceased, the weather-bound bees have no demands made on -their vital action, and we have never known them at this time suffer -from want of water. As soon, however, as the queen begins to lay, which -occurs in many colonies early in January, and in some by Christmas, the -workers must eat more freely, both of honey and pollen, to supply jelly -for the larvæ, and wax for sealing their cells. Much more water is -needed for these purposes than when they can procure the fresh nectar -of flowers, and the want of it begins to be felt about the middle of -January. _The unmistakable signs of the dearth of water in a colony, -are found in the granules of candied honey on the bottom of the hive_." -These authors go on further to say: "After protracted and severe -winters, of every six bees that perish, five die for want of water, -and not, as was hitherto supposed, from undue accumulation of fæces. -Dysentery is one of the direct consequences of water-dearth, the bees -in dire need of water consuming honey immoderately, and taking cold by -roaming about the combs." - -In our climate there is, usually, throughout the winter such an -abundance of moisture in the air, that the point of complete saturation -is often reached, and, except in very exceptional seasons, there -will be little need to supply water to the hive before March. As a -precautionary measure, however, we see no reason why some may not be -given earlier, if great care is taken against its escape among the -combs. For safety on this point, it would be best to give it in shallow -troughs or pans at the bottom of the hive. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -BEE-STINGS. - - Gentleness necessary in Manipulation--Causes of Irritation of - Bees--Examination of Stocks--Treatment of Stings--Remedies-- - Effects of Stings--Inoculation--Bee Dress--Smoke and its Uses. - - -There are some personal requisites, in addition to what is called -"bee-dress," if immunity from attack is to be secured. The first of -these are, calmness and self-control. Many persons become so much -alarmed by a single bee buzzing about them, that they begin fighting -and buffeting the insect, with the idea of driving it away. No surer -method can be devised for inciting its anger and its persistent efforts -to wound. If, on the other hand, perfect quietness is maintained, -it will rarely happen that a buzzing bee will sting. When mischief -is really meant, the attack is usually delivered with great speed -and directness. Even if stung, it is much the best policy to be as -self-possessed as possible, lest violent movements and angry acts -should invite other bees to use their weapons; and they are the more -likely to do so, if the first offender be crushed; for the smell of the -sting poison and of murdered comrades readily stirs the wrath of the -insects. - -As a rule, those who are accustomed to manipulate hives gently and -fearlessly, may do so without the protection of veil and gloves. We -have, however, mentioned the exceptional cases of persons who appear to -be naturally offensive to bees; and such individuals must either clothe -themselves against the possibility of being stung, or altogether avoid -apiculture. - -It is also true that, under some circumstances, bees become, like human -beings, unaccountably irritable; and then it is better to keep at a -safe distance from them, or to approach them clad in bee-dress. It is -especially maddening to them to become entangled in the hair of the -head or face, and if one of them has unwarily thus ensnared itself, -it is advisable to extricate it as speedily as possible, or it will -assuredly inflict a wound. - -Woollen gloves, and some kinds of leather ones, seem also to be very -objectionable to the insects; anything, in fact, which obstructs their -freedom of motion, immediately throws them into a passion. - -One simple, but very necessary precaution, is, to avoid breathing upon -them, when observing them or examining the combs of a bar-frame hive. -Blowing at them infuriates them, and they will savagely fly at the -face of any one attempting it. Particular electrical conditions of the -atmosphere are said to make them irascible. On very hot days, also, -they are liable to get out of temper; and showery weather, which drives -them frequently home from work, appears to put them in bad humour. - -Again, if they have lost their queen, or if she is absent on her -nuptial excursion, or if any other event has thrown a hive into -excitement, the workers will be likely to show their feeling by some -passionate onslaught on the innocent onlooker. There is no disguising -the fact that they are very quick-tempered creatures, and often act -with an utter want of discrimination in the matter of stinging. - -The time most suitable for the examination of stocks, and for any other -processes of manipulation, is when the weather is fine, without being -sultry or oppressive, and when very large numbers of the older bees are -out at work. It is these who are most pugnacious, the young ones being -comparatively gentle. - -If several, or even one, apparently intent on mischief, should angrily -buzz round, the best plan is to thrust one's head into some bush. This, -for the most part, baffles the assailant, who seems unable to find its -intended victim, and very soon flies away. - -When actually stung, the first thing to be done is to extract the -weapon, which the unfortunate insect almost invariably tears out of -its body, with the poison-bag and muscles, as it flies off. If left -in the flesh, the muscles, by their automatic action, drive the barbs -in deeper and deeper, the poison also flowing more copiously into the -wound. Directly the sting is removed, _avoid all rubbing of the part -affected_, but at once press upon the puncture a hollow key, taking -care that the exact spot pierced comes in the centre of the opening -of the key-tube. By this means the poison will be prevented from -extending in the surrounding capillaries, and from being carried to the -neighbouring parts. Moreover, some of the acrid matter will be squeezed -out, and so comparatively little inconvenience will follow. The pain -will be much relieved if a strong solution of ammonia be forthwith -applied; or, failing this, carbonate of soda or of potass, all of which -alkaline substances will counteract the acid poison. Should none of -these be at hand, bathing with cold water, after the use of the key, -will wash away the liquid squeezed out, and will dilute what remains in -the wound. The application of dry earth is also recommended, and may do -good, both by absorbing any of the fluid expressed from the puncture, -and by its alkaline reaction destroying the potency of the poison. - -There is, indeed, a long catalogue of remedies vaunted by various -apiarians as certain palliatives, if not absolute cures, of the -pain and swelling induced by the stings of bees. Among these may -be enumerated the following: the juice of the ripe berry of the -honeysuckle; the milky liquid of the white poppy stalk; the juice -of tobacco; the leaves of the plantain, or of the dock, bruised and -applied to the wound. Bevan recommends spirits of hartshorn, of which -ammonia is the chief component. Sliced onion or leek is very strongly -praised as an antidote by some writers in our bee journals. - -The principles of chemistry undoubtedly point to alkaline solutions as -the proper kind of application. There can be no doubt that the poison -is acid in its reaction. Any one may test this by collecting a drop -or two, and putting the liquid on to litmus-paper. The characteristic -change of the blue colour to red will, at once, indicate the nature of -the substance. Consequently, the natural neutraliser of its properties -will be an alkali of some sort. - -Should faintness and prostration come on in consequence of one or more -stings, as happens in the case of certain constitutions, smelling-salts -(ammonia), or other usual stimulants to the nervous system and -heart-action, must be applied, and medical aid should be summoned; -but the cases in which such steps become necessary are comparatively -rare. Certainly not one person in a thousand need be terrified from -bee-keeping by the fear of serious consequences from being stung. - -It is true the effects of the poison are, in most cases, very -unpleasant, severe pain being felt for a few minutes, succeeded later -by swelling, smarting, and irritation; but these symptoms soon subside, -and leave no ill consequences. Moreover, it is a well-ascertained fact -that, after numerous stings, some effect is produced on the blood--a -sort of inoculation--which renders the result of the poison less and -less severe. Many bee-keepers, indeed, pay almost no attention to -punctures from their pets, as pain and swelling are quite insignificant -in their cases. Herr Klein, in fact, recommends apiarians to get -purposely stung, so that, as speedily as possible, they may secure to -themselves this immunity from discomfort. We doubt whether many persons -will have the hardihood to accept his advice, or will consider such -a violently homœopathic remedy less objectionable than an occasional -attack of the malady.[9] - -[Footnote 9: We may remark in passing that we have been informed the -poison of the bee is used under the name of _Apis_ as a recognised and -potent medicine by homoeopathic practitioners.] - -Our advice, on the contrary, is that the bee-keeper, especially if -timid about being stung, should take all reasonable precautions against -attack. For this purpose he should provide himself with a bee-dress, -consisting of a sort of bag of _black net_, which will slip over the -head and shoulders, and may be fastened round the waist by an elastic -band. It should be large enough to admit of wearing a hat with a -tolerably broad brim. This will cause the veil to stand away from the -face sufficiently to prevent any angry bee from getting at the flesh. -Sleeves of black calico should be attached to it, and may be secured -at the wrists by tying, or by elastic bands. Such a dress is best worn -without a coat but over a waistcoat, as greater coolness and freedom -of movement will thus be attained. The hands may be protected by -cotton or india-rubber gloves, and the sleeves should be fastened over -these round the wrists. If, in conducting any extensive manipulations, -bees, half-stupefied or weak from their youthfulness, are likely to be -crawling about the ground, it is advisable to tuck the trousers inside -the boots, or to tie them round the ankles, or in some way to prevent -the ascent of any insects beneath the clothes. - -Thus protected, the novice may, with perfect confidence, conduct -such operations among his hives as he may deem necessary. He should -be careful, however, not to let his security induce any roughness or -carelessness in handling the insects or their combs and hive-frames. -As much quietness and gentle treatment should be used, as if freedom -from attack depended entirely on such methods; for, it is certain that -by great tenderness in handling, bees become accustomed to those who -have to do with them; whereas, a hive once enraged by accidental or -rough manipulation will remain ill-tempered and passionate for a long -period, and will consequently become very difficult to deal with. If, -by any means, a stock has thus been excited, it is advisable to leave -it alone, and let it quiet down as speedily and thoroughly as possible. - -The use of smoke must not be forgotten, as one of the most potent -means of controlling the passion of bees, and causing them to -gorge themselves, in which condition of repletion they are much -better-tempered than under any other circumstances. - -Various kinds of "smokers" are in use among apiarians, and different -substances to be burnt for producing the smoke are recommended. Among -the former we may mention the apparatus of Messrs. Abbott of Southall, -Neighbour of London, and Blow of Welwyn, Herts: while brown paper, -old sacking, touchwood, puff-ball, rags moistened with a solution -of nitre and dried, will afford sufficiently satisfactory means of -fumigating stocks. Bee-keepers will find a few vigorous puffs of -tobacco very effectual in alarming the bees, and driving them to -fill their honey-bags. There will, however, be some risk of being -stung, as one cannot conveniently smoke with a veil on, and where -lengthened manipulations are required, it is often necessary to repeat -the fumigating process, if the bees seem recovering from their first -dose, or if many, absent at its administration, have returned to their -homes while these are being disturbed. We recommend, therefore, the -presence of some kind of fumigating apparatus in every apiary, and in -the selection of one it will be found very convenient to have amongst -its advantages the ability of retaining in a smouldering condition, -by a gentle through-draught, the materials inserted for burning. The -"smoker" should always be properly filled with the stuff from which -smoke is to be generated, and smouldering should go on continuously in -the material when laid aside in the intervals of more active use. Great -trouble and inconvenience arise from having repeatedly to re-light the -paper, rag, or other articles used. One means of obviating this, is -to stand the apparatus point upwards, when the funnel will act as a -chimney, and aid in keeping up a quiet current of air. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -PASSIONS AND EMOTIONS OF BEES. - - Affection for Queen and Brood--Recognition of Friends and - Strangers--Fear--Anger--Covetousness--Benevolence--Remorse-- - Hope--Instinctive or Sense-action. - - -Certain difficulties surround the question of the emotions exhibited -by the lower orders of animals; since it is easy for imagination, or, -at least, the interpretative faculty of observers, to lend so special -a colouring to actions, that the significance given to appearances -will vary exceedingly, according to the subjectivity of the individual -recording and explaining phenomena. There can, however, be little -doubt that a feeling of _affection_ exists between the workers and the -queen, and is reciprocally manifested. The symptoms of distress at the -loss of the hive-mother; the reverent attention paid to her by her -special attendants; the joy at her restoration after temporary removal; -resentment shown to a substitute while any hope of recovering their -rightful monarch remains; the devoted following of her when a swarm -issues, all tend unmistakably, we think, to show that genuine love is -the bond between the undeveloped females and the one fully developed in -the community. As to the drones, we can give credit to one only--the -royal spouse--for any share in this emotion, and, indeed, we should be -inclined to place the one exception in a different category. - -As to affection for all belonging to one community, the facts are very -conflicting. In the first place, drones appear to have the _entrée_ -of any stock. We can see that the obvious benefit of cross-breeding -is thus more likely to be secured; but it is impossible to imagine -this advantage to influence the bees. Again, the manifest hostility -shown by one colony of workers to individuals from any other, is -doubtless the result of the fear of stores being robbed; while drones -are allowed free passage, because they do not transfer honey from one -hive to another, and take no more than suffices for their personal -needs. But, while there is no doubt of exclusiveness being shown by -the workers towards other workers, we have little evidence of any -actual affection existing among the members of the same community. It -is true that the crushing of one bee enrages others who become aware -of the circumstance, but the anger is probably the result of fear of -further destruction, rather than grief at the loss of a friend. The -death of individuals in the ordinary course of nature, does not seem -to excite any emotion beyond the desire to get rid of the body, which -is unceremoniously taken in the jaws, aided by the legs, of some -enterprising survivor, carried to a distance from the hive, and then -let fall. Bees never attempt to extricate co-workers from imprisonment -in spider-webs, or from any other difficulty into which they have -fallen. - -We must, however, acknowledge that an intense affection for the -developing brood is shown by the workers. It matters not whether the -combs containing it belong to their own hives or to others. They will -cluster upon the cells to maintain the required warmth, will supply -the larvæ with food, and render every attention required by the young. -When the offspring have come forth, some rather rough, but manifestly -kindly meant offices, are performed, in clearing away the remains of -the cocoon, combing out the imperfectly expanded wings, &c., but loving -care ceases with the need for it; and, in adult life, the most we can -predicate is a placid indifference to each other's presence, unless, -indeed, anger should be aroused by some accident, when a more or less -serious battle will take place. - -That bees are susceptible of _fear_ we have made evident in what has -been said about the effect produced on them by smoke, by drumming, and -by any sharp vibration of their combs. - -The passion of _anger_ is decidedly prominent in their nature. It -is, indeed, apt to rise to an uncontrollable degree on very slight -provocation, particularly, as we have mentioned, under certain -conditions of weather, and especially of temperature. Moreover, the -exhibition of it is frequently unrestrained by the fact that the use -of the sting generally means the death of the aggressor, owing to the -impossibility of withdrawing the barbed weapon, without tearing away -part of the vital organs also. - -_Covetousness_ is also a powerful emotion with these insects. We have -already spoken of the dangers of allowing bees a taste of sweets from -other hives than their own, and of the almost ineradicable longing for -the honey stored in other communities, if once pilfering has begun. And -yet we can hardly ascribe sheer selfishness as the motive for robbing. -We see, in fact, that the life of the worker is one long series of -labours on behalf of a progeny not its own, and for a community in -which its own existence is of very short duration. While, therefore, we -allow that there is shown a desire to avoid honest toil, if dishonest -courses will yield supplies more readily, still we must admit that the -good, not of the individual but of the state, is the actually impelling -principle of the plunderer. The amount of infatuation shown in the -eagerness of bees for sweets is well described by Dr. Langstroth: "No -one can understand the extent of it until he has seen a confectioner's -shop assailed myriads of hungry bees. I have seen thousands by strained -out from the syrup in which they had perished, thousands more alighting -even upon the boiling sweets, the floor covered and the windows -darkened with bees, some crawling, others flying, and others still so -completely besmeared as to be able neither to crawl nor fly--not one in -ten able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, and yet the air filled -with new hosts of thoughtless comers." They appear, indeed, unable -to perceive the disasters of companions, and rush heedlessly on to -destruction, the victims of which lie all around them. - -From what has been previously said, it will be seen that we cannot -with any show of reason assign to bees such complex emotions as -_benevolence_ or _remorse_. They are incapable, on the one hand, of -appreciating the combination of circumstances involved in the distress -or need of a friend, and the means of aid suitable for relief; and, on -the other, having apparently no distinct knowledge of how the doing or -omission of any action will affect other individuals, they cannot be -sensible of regret or satisfaction in having done, or neglected to do, -any specific deed. - -We might, probably, with equal assurance deny to bees the possession -of _hope_. It is true they prepare combs, store honey and pollen, -attend upon the queen when laying, and carefully nurture the larvæ, as -if they anticipated the rearing of a progeny; but it is difficult to -conceive that these various duties are carried out with any definite -notion of the future. We incline rather to the belief that a series of -sensations promotes a corresponding series of actions, the combination, -correspondence, and harmonising of which, for the general welfare, is -wrought out by laws of which we know nothing, or, we would much rather -say, by the operation of the infinite and Divine Will, without the -direct control of which we cannot imagine this complex universe could -hold on its way. Nor need we hesitate to assign its working to such -comparatively insignificant objects as hives of bees, when we have the -emphatic declaration of our Lord that not one sparrow lights upon the -ground for its food without the knowledge of God; that He feeds the -ravens, clothes the lilies with beauty, and numbers the very hairs of -our heads. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -INTELLECT AND INSTINCT IN BEES. - - Intellect in Man and Animals as Related to Immortality--Memory-- - Judgment--Instances of Attention--Prevision--Provision-- - Instinct--Manifestations--Bearing on Evolution. - - -There has been a singular unwillingness on the part of many religious -writers to acknowledge among animals inferior to man the possession of -true intellectual faculties. This has arisen, partly from the desire -to keep man on a pedestal immensely exalted above the rest of the -creatures more or less allied to him, and partly from the fear that the -concession of high faculties might seem to imply the immortality of all -living beings or of none. - -The first of these reasons which have influenced writers may be -dismissed with the remark, that the position of superiority which -man has held, and more than ever holds, depends, not entirely upon -his powers of mind, but upon a combination of faculties, physical, -mental, moral, and, above all, spiritual; so that there need be no -grudging of endowments of intellect to other creatures on earth beside -ourselves. As to the second point, we see no necessity to consider that -it supplies a dilemma. Man and all other animals may be immortal, for -aught we know; or man may, according to current opinion, stand alone in -this respect; but the yea or nay of the question need not rest upon the -foundation of the gift of intellect. We know, indeed, so little of the -actual connection between mind and body, the senses and the intellect, -that it becomes quite unsafe to base upon our knowledge any theories -as to the conscious possession of power when the body ceases to live. -The discussion of this subject must rest on other and higher grounds -altogether, and so will lie outside the limits of our work. But we may -well inquire how far true intellectual processes go on in bees. And the -best way to do this will be to take some of the strictly intellectual -faculties, and see whether they really exist among these insects. - -Firstly, with regard to _memory_. Without entering upon theories as to -the simple or complex nature of the means by which we recall feelings, -events, sensations, or ideas, we may take it for granted that memory is -a sign and an attribute of considerable mental endowment. Now that bees -distinctly remember, there can be not the slightest doubt. Whatever -may be our opinion as to the faculty by which they find their way back -to their hives from long distances, there is clear evidence of their -recollecting particular places, in the circumstance that, for a day or -two after the securing of a swarm, certain bees will hover round the -spot from which the hiving took place. Again, it is possible to train -these insects to come day after day to a particular place, by supplying -them with food under conditions in which their senses of sight and -smell would not inform them of its continued presence. Moreover, after -being seriously disturbed, a stock appears to remember, for many days, -the molestation, and to be eager to resent further intrusion, unless -peaceable behaviour is strongly enforced by smoke or an anæsthetic. - -Secondly, as to _judgment_. This involves the previous conception of -two ideas at least, the comparison of these, or their connection, at -all events, and a decision founded on their connection. That these -processes take place in the bee-mind, we are apparently warranted in -concluding from several circumstances to which allusion has already -been made. Let us recall, for instance, the fact that if, owing -to an unusual influx of honey, the attachments of the combs seem -insufficiently strong to bear the weight dependent on them, the workers -proceed to make a new connecting layer, at the top of the hive, and of -greater holding power. This they do by gnawing away the original one, -and replacing it, _one side at a time_, by new work, the security of -which is assured before the other side is proceeded with. Now, in this -case there is a perception of an unusual, or, at least, an unexpected -influx of stores, as well as of a certain strength being required to -sustain the weight of them. Furthermore, there is a calculation, or -comparison, founded on the two perceptions or conceptions, and an act -of decision resulting from such comparison--apparently a clear case of -judgment. - -Again, let us revert to the manufacture of queens by the workers. If -at the time of the removal or loss of the mother-bee in any way, there -should be unhatched princesses in the hive, no attempt will be made -to follow the course adopted in the absence of such royal progeny. In -the _latter_ case--_i.e._ when there is no royal brood--there must -be a distinct conception, first of their bereavement; secondly, of -the hopelessness of a sovereign appearing in the ordinary way. Then a -judgment is formed of the proceedings necessary for making a queen, -and action immediately follows. Not only so, but, as if to secure -themselves against the repetition of their calamity, they prepare not -_one_ queen only, but _several_, so that, if the first which comes to -maturity be lost, there may be others in reserve. A further act of -definite judgment appears in this; for, if one only were produced and -lost, they would be powerless to repeat the process, as all the rest -of the worker brood would, in the mean time, have advanced far beyond -the stage at which its transformation would be possible. The bees, -then, with admirable prevision, forbear to risk all the future of their -community on one hope of a queen. - -Once more, we may notice the remarkable fact that, if a queen be -removed or lost late in the summer, at the time when the destruction -of the drones is drawing to a close, the males of that particular hive -will be spared as long as there is any hope that a royal spouse may be -needed. In this instance, too, we have what seems a distinct judgment -of the necessity that there should be drones spared for the renewal of -the progeny of the stock, and their consequent immunity from the death -or banishment they would have undergone in a community possessing a -fertile sovereign. - -Again, in the late summer, when supplies of honey from the fields begin -to fail, the workers, even in a flourishing hive, will not only worry -to death, or drive away to destruction, all the males which are adult, -but will pull out of the cells the immature drones, and carry them from -the hive. In this case we have two independent judgments. First, that, -having a fertile queen, but no probability of further swarming, no -_raison d'être_ exists for the males among them; and secondly, that the -unhatched males would, on emerging from the cells, be useless consumers -of precious stores, and consequently are better destroyed. - -Numerous other evidences of judgment might be adduced, such, for -instance, as building drone-comb, _i.e._ cells of large size, when -unusual space is required for quick storing of food, the different -expedients for repairing, refixing, and giving direction to combs, in -view of various difficulties to be encountered. But we have said, we -believe, sufficient to make good the special point in question. - -We might, perhaps, with advantage, have spoken of the faculty of -_attention_, _i.e._ the direction of the mental powers to a particular -end by the determinate action of the will. At every moment we may -see, in a busy hive, evidences of this power. Indeed, in so complex a -community, where so many operations are constantly going forward, where -so many stages of social development are being passed through, where so -many separate interests have to be regarded, and where the harmonious -co-operation of individuals is of supreme importance to the general -welfare, it is impossible that this faculty of attention should be -wanting or unexercised. - -We have hinted at the prevision shown by bees. Now, if this really -exists in them, we must acknowledge it to be one of the very highest -endowments of intellect It is that which in man removes him from the -sport of circumstances, and gives him large control over his own -earthly destinies. It is that which, when applied to events more or -less unascertainable by the majority of men, proportionately awakes -their astonishment, and creates a reputation for ability and high -endowment. Now, that the faculty is possessed by bees is, we think, -evident from many considerations. When, for instance, a hive has -lost its queen, and has no hope of a successor, despair comes over -the community, as the workers feel they have no longer an object in -their toil. They seem to foresee the speedy end of their colony, and -the consequent uselessness of collecting stores, or proceeding with -comb-building. - -Again, the destruction of the drones and drone-brood, when no longer of -possible service, implies a knowledge that the males, if spared, will -produce a scarcity of food, by uselessly consuming the stores, while -the preservation, to a late period, of drones in a hive whose queen is -lost near the end of summer, indicates a foresight of the possible need -of males to mate with a young queen, whose advent is hoped for. - -Without much risk of straining this line of argument, we might consider -the storage of honey and bee-bread as a prevision, and not merely as a -_provision_ for the needs of winter. In like manner, the encasing in -propolis of slugs, mice, or other intruders, when dead in the hives, -may be looked upon as a safeguard against expected putrefaction. -The cessation from grief for loss of a queen, when new royal cells -are preparing, may be regarded as evidence of anticipated joy in a -coming monarch. We acknowledge, however, that here the dividing line -between reason and instinct becomes very narrow, and it is exceedingly -difficult to determine the strict limits of either. - -At this point, also, comes in the remarkable question of heredity. The -causes and determining circumstances of this quality are at present -very imperfectly understood; nor is it probable that anything like a -complete explanation of the subject will be forthcoming. That it is, -however, a most potent element in the subject of mental, as well as -physical, characters cannot be disputed. To it, in fact, the possession -of what we call instinct must be entirely referred, though it leaves -untouched the actual nature of this endowment. - -The definition of instinct is not a very simple matter, but we may -consider it as a power, appearing in generation after generation of -animals, by which, without instruction, they perform certain actions, -or series of actions, tending to the welfare of the individual or of -the race. We usually regard the purely intellectual operations as -improvable by education. Instinct, on the other hand, neither requires, -nor, in general, is aided by teaching. It is true that man has taken -advantage of certain qualities, apparently instinctive, in particular -animals, and has seemed to improve them by schooling them, as, for -instance, in the case of pointers and setters among dogs; but it is -rather, as it appears to us, the mental processes of the creature, -which have been controlled and modified, and then the tendency to the -reproduction of these has been transmitted by heredity. Pure instinct -we, therefore, continue to regard as outside the plane of education. - -The faculty as exhibited by bees is most astonishing. We have already -enumerated many circumstances, which evidently have had their origin in -this power, but we may well recall certain of these in illustration of -this point. - -Firstly, then, the shaping of the cells with definite and constantly -repeated angles of the sides; the arrangement of them, so that the base -of each is formed by the junction of the bottoms of three cells on the -opposite side of the comb; the preparation of abodes suitable in size, -and in other special respects, for the larvæ of queens, drones, and -workers; and the careful transition from one to the other of the last -two--all these and other circumstances connected with the construction -of their dwellings, attest the possession of an innate faculty needing -no instruction from the elders of the hive. - -Again, the gathering, in due proportion and according to varying needs, -of honey, pollen, and propolis, must be attributed to this same occult -endowment. The proper admixture of the different kinds of food, adapted -to the varying ages of the larvæ; the preparation and administration of -the "royal jelly," necessary for the development of queen-larvæ; the -covering of the cells with waxen lids of different shapes, according to -the nature of their contents convex on the male cells, nearly flat on -those of workers, and somewhat concave on the honey stores--are other -manifestations of an internal guide towards useful labour. - -Once more, the series of remarkable facts connected with their respect -and attention and service to their sovereign; their treatment of -queens introduced into hives possessing a queen, or without one; the -permission, and even urging, of rival monarchs to fight _à outrance_; -the expedients adopted to repair, if by any means it is possible, the -loss of a queen--all these facts point, still further, to a power, by -whose almost unerring operation extraordinary results are secured for -the well-being and the very continuance of the race. - -Nor is it easy to see how, on the principles of evolution alone, this -faculty can have been acquired; for the remarkable point, and one -apparently inexplicable on the development-theory, is this, that the -two portions of the community alone concerned in the actual propagation -of the race are absolutely without the special endowment of which we -have been speaking, at least so far as the particular directions of its -manifestation just mentioned enable us to conclude. The queen among -bees, unlike her representative among wasps, is quite unable to perform -any of the processes preliminary to egg-laying. She cannot secrete -wax or build comb. She cannot fly abroad to collect honey. She has no -means of gathering pollen. She can neither procure nor use propolis. -So helpless, indeed, is she, that, bereft of attendants, she is unable -to feed herself sufficiently to maintain life. The drones, if not so -absolutely helpless, are equally incapable of all constructive work, -of the power of collecting honey, making wax, building comb, guarding -the stores against robbers, or even tending and nurturing the young -brood. We see, then, the endowments of instinct in all their higher -manifestations are conferred alone on the members of the community who -cannot transmit them to posterity. Nor does the fact of the occasional -appearance of fertile workers at all explain away the difficulty; for, -as has been shown, such abnormal mothers produce only male offspring, -which never inherit the special faculties of the undeveloped females, -and consequently cannot transmit what they have never possessed. - -If asked what solution of the difficulty we are prepared to offer, we -confess, with satisfaction, to the retention of the undisproved theory -that the Creator has, in His own inscrutable, but all-beneficent, way, -specially gifted these insects with powers of a kind adapted to the -highest welfare of their race, as we also believe He has given to other -orders of beings, from the ant up to man, and on to angels, faculties -to be used, not only for the benefit of the individual, the species, or -the genus, but for the harmonious working of the universe He has called -into being. To those, at least, who rejoice to believe in a personal -God, who find an atheistic cosmos the most unthinkable of notions; who -see a thousand mysteries inexplicable on any theory of unintelligent -"natural selection," the study of the honey-bee provides reason for, -and evokes the sentiment of, sublime adoration of an infinite First -Cause, _i.e._ the Deity. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -BEES IN RELATION TO FLOWERS. - - Connection of Plant-life and Insect-life--Reproduction of Flowers-- - Intervention of Insects--Hermaphrodite Flowers--Cross-fertilisation - --Cucumbers, Melons, &c.--Poplars--Firs--Epilobium or Willow Herb-- - Cincerarias--Darwin's Experiments--Nasturtium--Foxglove--Figwort-- - Salvia--Heath--Strawberry, Raspberry, and Blackberry--Apple and Pear - --Altruism of Bees. - - -The connection between insects and the plant-world, and the mutual -benefits they render, have long been known to man. While the one -kingdom is almost entirely dependent on the other for sustenance, -and this, not only as regards food, but for dwelling-places also: -the organic, but (so far as we can judge) inanimate, one of the two, -requires the aid of the animate for the continued reproduction of many -of its members. - -It would lead us too far from the subject of this book to enter at -all fully into the question of the complete interaction of plant-life -and insect-life. In dealing with the relations of bees to flowers we -shall, therefore, confine our remarks almost entirely to the important -part played by these creatures in the reproduction of certain kinds of -plants. - -It may, perhaps, be necessary, previously to entering on this subject, -to say that in flowers we have organs analogous to, though widely -differing from, those indicative of sex in the animal world. The -functions, at least, are the same; and the combined action of the -two sets is essential to the propagation of the race by seed. Unless -pollen from the anthers is conveyed to the pistil, and, germinating -there, imparts to the ovules vivifying nourishment, no seed will come -to perfection, or will be capable of growing. While most flowers are -hermaphrodite, _i.e._ produce both stamens (or anther-bearers) and -pistils, it happens, in not a few instances, that certain flowers -have anthers, and no pistils: while others, on the same plant, have -pistils, but no anthers. Again, the antheriferous and pistiliferous -flowers, in certain species, are found on different individual plants, -so that, unless some agency were provided for the transference of the -pollen, these species would inevitably die out. Now, the two means -for this conveyance are the wind and insects. It is evident that the -former can have only a very limited action, and would need for its -effective service a great abundance of any particular flower, lest -the fructifying grains should become the mere sport of the breezes, -and fail to reach their all-important goal, and accomplish their -all-needful function. - -Moreover, in many cases, the position of the anthers in the flower -entirely excludes the possibility of any currents of air assisting -in the carrying of the pollen-dust to the pistil of the same or of -different flowers. Hence there is a necessity for the intervention -of insects; and that they may be induced to visit such flowers, and -unconsciously effect the essential operation of fertilising them, -nectar is secreted near the base of the stamens or the ovary, or in -some position which will involve, in the gathering of it, the brushing -off and conveying away of some of the pollen-grains. It is, indeed, -a remarkable fact that fragrance and honey-bearing are scarcely ever -associated with plants which can easily be wind-fertilised. Such -flowers are, also, for the most part, inconspicuous; while those which -need the agency of insects to aid in their reproduction are bright in -colour, sweet in perfume, and more or less prolific in honey. - -It must not be supposed, however, that even the hermaphrodite, or -double-sexed, flowers are independent of the visits of bees and other -insects. In all of them cross-fertilisation, as Darwin has abundantly -proved,[10] is a most important factor in the continued vitality of any -species, and cross-breeding gives an immense advantage in "the struggle -for existence," where the conditions of life are not wholly favourable. -Indeed, in many instances, special provision has been made by the -Creator against self-fertilisation: in some cases, by the anthers and -pistil coming to maturity, in the same flower, at different times; in -others, by the placing of the stamens in such a position relatively -to the stigma (or top of the pistil) that it is not possible for the -pollen-grains of the one set of organs to fall on the surface of the -other. It cannot but be interesting to give examples of these various -facts, and so to show the marvellous and necessary connection between -the two kingdoms of nature. - -[Footnote 10: For full and most interesting information on this point, -vide _Cross and Self-Fertilisation of Plants_, by Charles Darwin. -Murray.] - -Firstly, then, as well-known instances of pistil-bearing and -stamen-bearing flowers occurring separately on the same plant, we may -mention cucumbers, melons, marrows, _et hoc genus omne_. Now, when -these vegetables are grown under glass, whether in greenhouses or -in pits, to which bees and other insects have little or no access, -gardeners find it necessary themselves to apply the pollen-bearing -portions of the one kind of flower to the pistil of the other. If this -is neglected to be done, the fruit makes no progress, turns yellow, and -dies. Where, however, the plants are grown in the open air, or are not -so shut up as to exclude insects, they will be fertilised without the -intervention of man; for bees of various kinds will certainly visit the -flowers, and carry the life-giving dust where it is needed. In fact, -we believe it might be asserted with confidence, that in all plants, -where this separation of, what we may call, the sexes takes place, the -flowers possess special attractiveness to the tenants of our hives; and -it is well that this is the case, otherwise the continued existence of -such plants would be seriously endangered. - -As examples of diœcious genera, or those having pollen-bearing flowers -on one plant and pistiliferous flowers on another, we may note the -willows, the poplars, and the firs; and it is remarkable that these all -are special favourites with bees. In the early spring, when breeding -has been going on in the hives, and when the demands of the advancing -larvæ require considerable supplies of pollen, the catkins of the -willow are abundantly visited, and the diffusion of their fertilising -powder is thus greatly promoted. The same may be said about the poplar, -and, in all probability, the gathering of propolis from trees of -the fir-tribe makes the bee the unconscious, but useful, instrument -of carrying pollen from the catkins to the cones, though, from the -abundance of the powder, and the openness of the scales of the cones r -the wind is a sufficiently effective agent for its conveyance in this -order of trees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Epilobium Angustifolium. (Young bloom.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Epilobium Angustifolium. (Old bloom.)] - -Passing next to cases in which the stamens and pistils of the -same flower come to maturity at different times, so as to make -cross-breeding a necessity, we may mention first some plants in which -the pollen ripens before the stigma is ready to receive it. We have -such a condition of things in the _willow-herb_, or _epilobium tribe_. -The pretty pink blossoms of a large variety of this genus are to be -found, in summer, along the banks of brooks and running ditches. We -will confine our remarks to the species distinguished by its narrow -leaves, and hence named _angustifolium_. When the flower has fully -opened, the eight stamens spread out, and their anthers shed the -pollen. Bees visit the blossoms, and getting dusted with the grains, -carry these away to other flowers of the same kind. And here, in -passing, we may recall the fact of bees keeping to one species of plant -during the whole of any one journey from the hive. The importance -of this can be now better appreciated, when its influence on the -fructification of blossoms is observed. But to return, the pistil of -the willow-herb remains, till the stamens have withered, curved round -out of the way, and unable to receive any of their pollen. Then, after -they are dead, it comes into such a position that it can take what -pollen may be brought to it from younger flowers. For the conveyance of -this it is dependent chiefly on bees, who do not fail to carry enough -for the required purpose. In this way each blossom, by the agency of -these insects, both gives and gets what is necessary for the continued -life of the species; and without these unconsciously conferred benefits -from insect life, no seeds of this kind of _epilobium_ would mature. - -Another instance, equally interesting, is seen in the well-known -_cineraria_ tribe. The plants of this genus belong to the _composite_ -order, in which what is usually called the blossom, consists of many -flowers, grouped together on one head. In the example before us, there -are nearly 200 thus aggregated. These florets separately open at -different times, those of the outer circles coming before those nearer -the centre. The pollen-tube of each is formed by five anthers, fastened -together at their edges, and discharging their pollen into the space -between them. At the lower part of this inclosure the pistil is -growing, but is not in a condition to receive usefully the fertilising -powder. It, however, as it advances, sweeps out, and carries up with -it, the pollen-grains, so that they may be conveyed to other florets of -the same or other blossoms, to effect their vitalising work. At length -the pistil, with its brush on its summit, comes into view, but, even -yet, is not sufficiently developed for fertilisation. In due course, -however, the upper end splits, and exposes the surface of the stigma -ready for the pollen, which must be brought from some other floret, and -probably from some other blossom. Thus cross-breeding is effectually -secured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Cineraria. (Magnified.)] - -Another point for attaining this end is worthy of remark. The outer -ring of florets is distinguished by long, coloured petals, which make -up, in common parlance, the flower of the cineraria. These serve to -render the composite head conspicuous, and attractive to insects. Some -varieties, moreover, emit fragrant odours, and thus present further -inducements for visitation. It is remarkable that, in these florets of -the outer edge, the gay-coloured petals are developed at the expense of -the anthers. Consequently, they produce no pollen, and their pistils -have no brushes, as there would be no office for them to perform. -The bright rays have accomplished their own special purpose, and the -florets may well depend on others for pollen. - -Now, as to the great importance of cross-fertilisation in this species, -we may quote the experiments made by Dr. Darwin.[11] He says: "Two -purple-flowered varieties (of cineraria) were placed under a net in -the greenhouse, and four corymbs (or bunches of flowers) on each -were repeatedly brushed with flowers from the other plant, so that -their stigmas were well covered with each other's pollen. Two of the -eight corymbs thus treated produced very few seeds, but the other six -produced on an average 41.3 seeds per corymb, and these germinated -well. The stigmas on four other corymbs on both plants were well -smeared with pollen from the flowers on their own corymbs; these eight -corymbs produced altogether ten extremely poor seeds, which proved -incapable of germinating. I examined many flowers on both plants, and -found the stigmas spontaneously covered with pollen; but they produced -not a single seed. These plants were afterwards left uncovered in the -same house, where many other cinerarias were in flower; and the flowers -were frequently visited by bees. They then produced plenty of seed, -but one of the two plants less than the other, as this species shows -some tendency to be diœcious. - -[Footnote 11: See _Cross and Self-Fertilisation of Plants_, p. 335.] - -"The trial was repeated on another variety with white petals tipped -with red. Many stigmas on two corymbs were covered with pollen from -the foregoing purple variety, and these produced eleven and twenty-two -seeds, which germinated well. A large number of the stigmas on several -of the other corymbs were repeatedly smeared with pollen from their -own corymb; but they yielded only five very poor seeds, which were -incapable of germination. Therefore the above three plants, belonging -to two varieties, though growing vigorously and fertile with pollen -from either of the other two plants, were utterly sterile with pollen -from other flowers on the same plant." - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Tropœolum Majus. (Young bloom.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Tropœolum Majus. (Old bloom.)] - -A condition similar to that described in the cineraria is found in the -nasturtium (_Tropœolum majus_). In the young blossom may be observed -the five stamens fully developed, while the stigma remains quite out -of their reach. Later, when all the pollen is discharged from the -anthers, the pistil throws up its style and stigma, now ready for -fertilisation, which must be effected by the transfer of pollen from -some other blossom of the same or another plant of the species. This -transfer is effected, usually, by the bees. - -Another example of this non-coincidence in the times of development of -the stamens and pistil is found in the foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), -but the fertilisation is effected by the larger humble-bees. The -two upper and longer stamens shed their pollen before the two -lower and shorter ones. This arrangement partly avoids the risk of -self-fertilisation, while their position, which changes just when the -anthers are ripe, enables them to smear the under side of any entering -bee; while they also shed their pollen abundantly on the thickly-set -hairs lining the mouth of the corolla. A second use is served by these -hairs, viz., that of obstructing the entrance of the smaller kinds of -bees, which could not so effectually fertilise the ovules. The larger -sorts, in their raids upon the nectar, carry pollen from flower to -flower, thus in the best manner bringing about the most desirable -result of cross-breeding. - -Passing now to plants in which the pistil develops earlier than the -stamens, we may note the knotted figwort (_Scrophularia nodosa_). On -making a section of a recently opened flower, the style, with its -stigma, may be observed protruding just beyond the lip of the corolla, -while the stamens are hiding away, as it were, in a little pouch -below the entrance of the blossom. When fertilisation by pollen from -another flower has taken place, the pistil droops and withers; while -the anthers grow upwards to the mouth of the corolla, and present their -nectar to the honey-seekers, for conveyance to other flowers of the -species. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Section of Scrophularia Nodosa.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Scrophularia Nodosa. (Young bloom.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Scrophularia Nodosa. (Old bloom.)] - -In the common sage (_Salvia officinalis_) we find a very remarkable -contrivance, by means of which the anthers, through a sort of -hinge-like connective, are brought down on the back of a bee entering -the flower. The pollen thus discharged is carried by the insect to -other blossoms, in which the place of the withered stamens has been -occupied by the stigma now ready to receive the grains. Thus again -inter-breeding is secured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Salvia Officinalis. (New bloom.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Salvia Officinalis. (Old bloom.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.--a. Erica Tetralix. b. Anther of Tetralix.] - -The next figure represents the very curious arrangement of the stamens -in the _Erica tetralix_, or common heath. These, eight in number, are -seen standing round the style, at about half its length. Each is held -by a long filament (only one of which is shown in the figure), and is -armed with a horn-like process. When the anthers are ripe, the pollen -would escape from openings in their sides, were it not that the little -slits abut on each other. When, however, a bee visits the flower, -and thrusts up her proboscis, this strikes against one of the little -horns, and pulls apart its anther from the rest. Pollen then drops on -the bee's head, to be carried by it to other blossoms, which, while -receiving a portion brought to them, in their turn give the bee a -supply to carry to other flowers. It is a very salutary thing for the -propagation of the heath that bees have such a strong liking for its -nectar, and are thus induced to perform, albeit unconsciously, the -process of fertilisation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Section of Strawberry Bloom.] - -In the strawberry the stigmas are ripe long before the pollen is ready; -and hence we understand why the Creator has arranged that the nectar -of these blossoms should be so attractive to the bees, whose visits -are so necessary for the development of the fruit. When fertilisation -takes place, growth proceeds in the ordinary manner, and with results -so satisfactory to mankind. Where pollen fails to fall on any of the -multitudinous stigmas, we have a shrunken, hard, greenish mass. Any -dish of strawberries will show where this has happened. It is said that -to produce one perfect specimen of the fruit, from 100 to 300 separate -fertilisations must be effected. - -In the raspberry and blackberry again, each drupel, or little fleshy -portion, of which very many make up one so-called berry, has had its -own stigma, which an insect has visited; and hence again, we understand -how it is that the flowers have been so largely endowed with nectar, as -to entice the bees most freely to visit them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Section of Apple Bloom.] - -In apple and pear blossoms we have other instances of the stigmas -coming to maturity before the anthers; and, therefore, they require -the intervention of bees for their fertilisation. Peaches, apricots, -nectarines, plums, greengages, and, we might almost venture to -assert, all our choicest and most valuable fruits, are dependent for -their perfection upon the busy searchers after honey; and many a -market-gardener would greatly increase his chances of good crops of -fruit, were he to maintain a few stocks of bees in his orchards, and -allow access for the active workers to his trees blossoming under -glass-houses. - -From the vegetable world we might adduce many other evidences of the -marvellous interdependence of the two great kingdoms of organic nature. -Enough, however, has been said to illustrate this point, and we trust -that some of our readers may be led to further investigation in this -field, which opens up such wonders, and such pleasurable surprises, for -all who care to trace evidences of the Creator's infinite resources, -wisdom, and care for all that He has made. - -Everywhere, also, on earth may be seen at work the grand law of -self-sacrifice for others' needs. Very many facts which we have -detailed in the natural history of bees, illustrate this most -thoroughly. We may, indeed, say that the life of a worker, who will -neither have progeny of her own, nor see many of the race for whom -she spends her powers, is one continued offering of herself for the -welfare of the community. As the Latin poet says, _Sic vos non vobis, -mellificatis apes_; and thus these unselfish toilers, beside teaching -us many another lesson, seem to foreshadow, and to lead our thoughts -to, the infinite gift of Him "who gave Himself for us" that we in and -through Him might have life. - -God has written tokens of His wisdom and love around us everywhere. -None who reverently observe any of His works can fail to see His -attributes embodied throughout all nature. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH BEES. - - Superstitions likely to gather around Bees--Unlucky to Buy - Bees--Ill Omen for a Swarm to Settle on a Dry Stick--"Have - the Bees been told?"--Turning Hives on the Death of the - Owner--Probable Origin of these Errors. - - -On _a priori_ grounds it is only to be expected that various -superstitions would arise at different times and in various countries -with regard to bees. Insects displaying such marvellous instincts, such -apparent adaptation of means to ends, such indications of reasoning and -special intelligence, were sure to be credited with powers beyond those -generally recognised in them. Hence we may account for some of the -curious ideas about bees which have prevailed in certain localities. - -There are other notions, however, the origin of which is more difficult -to discover. Such, for instance, is the prejudice among ignorant -bee-keepers against selling for coin swarms or stocks. A purchase thus -made is supposed to be likely to lead to misfortune for one of the two -parties concerned. By some occult process, lying outside the range of -reason or imagination, ill luck is thought to be attracted by bargains -of this sort. - -A correspondent of the _Journal of Horticulture_ thus narrates the -following incidents: "Last August I purchased a swarm, for which I paid -ten shillings. So far as I could judge from my limited experience with -bees, for the first fortnight they appeared to be doing well, but one -night, about eight o'clock, I found they had deserted the hive, and -were on the ground in a cluster the size of a large plate. I gently -lifted the hive and placed it over the cluster. About ten o'clock I -found most of the bees had gone up into the hive, which I then returned -to its stand. For a short time the bees appeared to work, but one day, -thinking they appeared very quiet, I lifted the hive, and discovered -that it was quite empty of bees. There were three nice pieces of empty -comb. I think the bees were teased by wasps. Our parishioners tell me I -did two things wrong, and that in consequence my bees could not thrive. -One was to give money for them, which is always unlucky; the other was, -that I did not have them at the right time of the year. I ought to have -had them on Old Christmas Day. Is there anything in these ideas?" - -The correspondent signed herself "A Clergyman's Wife," and the -explanation of her want of success was not far to seek. She had been -taken in by the vendor of her bees. A poor swarm had been palmed off -upon her, and one so manifestly weak, and having, so late in the -comb-making and honey-gathering time as August, only three small combs, -was doomed to perish with cold and starvation. The poor insects, as a -forlorn hope, had deserted their hive for what they trusted might be -better quarters. The fallacy of the coin having had anything to do with -their destruction, takes rank with the disinclination of some people to -accept from a friend the present of a pocket-knife, unless the donor -will take a halfpenny in exchange; or with the old saying "Helping to -salt is helping to sorrow." We can hardly suppose that the kindly sort -of freemasonry, which now exists among bee-keepers, has ever proceeded -so far as to make any one always willing to _give_ his swarms or stocks -to another. If so, the benevolence once current has degenerated into -a willingness, even among the devotees to the superstition of which -we are speaking, to accept full value in the way of barter if not in -cash. Whatever its origin, we feel satisfied the days of this prejudice -are numbered. With the immense spread of apiculture now taking place -experience and common sense will sweep away this psychological cobweb, -as so many others have been made to disappear under the same powerful -agencies. - -As to the other superstition about "Old Christmas Day" being the proper -time for procuring a stock, the probability is that seasons sacred to -the memory of events in the life of our Lord Jesus Christ would have -special attributes of good fortune attributed to them. But the actual -reason why stocks purchased at the above-named period would be pretty -sure to do well is, that by Old Christmas Day they would have passed -the perils of early winter, and would be hardly likely to find a buyer -unless their weight indicated that they had food supplies sufficient to -last till the flowers came again. - -A second notion of this kind is, that if a swarm settles on a dry -stick or dead tree, the bees will not long survive. Doubtless, many -persons could be found to state that in their own apiaries they had -seen instances in which the one event had followed the other. We, -indeed, have had one such coincidence--a case in which a swarm settled -on a stake supporting an espalier apple-tree, and died during the -ensuing winter. Still, we are unable to believe that there is any -real connection between the incidents. Living trees offer so many -inducements to a swarm on the wing for settling--the benefit of shade -above all--that it is not to be wondered at that branches with foliage -are, if accessible, almost always chosen by the insects for alighting -on. It is just possible that an old and feeble queen may occasionally, -when heading a swarm, be unable to fly farther than a very short -distance, and, through fatigue, may settle on a post or other leafless -wood. Of course such a queen would be likely to die within a few months -at most, and thus involve the loss of the colony during the next -winter. Hence the idea we are speaking of _may_ have arisen. - -We come now to a notion more widely prevalent than either of the -preceding, and perhaps even more absurd. We allude to the supposed -necessity of informing the bees of the death of their owner or of any -member of his family. So strongly is this fallacy held, that in many -country districts, especially among the cottagers, the question after -a decease in the household "Have the bees been told?" is almost as -much a matter of course as an inquiry whether the undertaker has been -sent for. Even in the depth of winter, it is thought by believers in -this superstition needful to "wake the bees," albeit we know that -they are not asleep, and tell them of the sad event, in which they are -supposed to have so profound an interest. In Maude's _Antiquities_ we -read of the following case in point: "A gentleman at a dinner table -happened to mention that he was surprised, on the death of a relative, -by his servant inquiring whether his master would inform the bees of -the event, or whether he should do so. On asking the meaning of so -strange a question, the servant assured him that bees ought always -to be informed of a death in the family, or they would resent the -neglect by deserting the hive. This gentleman resides in the Isle of -Ely, and the anecdote was told in Suffolk. One of the party present, -a few days afterwards took the opportunity of testing the prevalence -of this strange notion, by inquiring of a cottager, who had lately -lost a relative, and happened to complain of the loss of her bees, -whether she had told them all she ought to do. She immediately replied, -'Oh! yes, when my aunt died I told every skep myself, and put them -into mourning.' I have since ascertained the existence of the same -superstition in Cornwall, Devonshire, Gloucestershire (where I have -seen black crape put round the hive or on a small stick by its side), -and Yorkshire. There are many other singular notions afloat as to these -insects. In Oxfordshire I was told that, if man and wife quarrelled, -the bees would leave them. - -"In the _Living Librairie_, Englished by John Molle, 1621, page 283, we -read, 'Who would beleeve without superstition (if experience did not -make it credible) that most commonly all the bees die in their hives -if the master or mistress of the house chance to die, except the hives -be presently removed into some other place? And yet I know this hath -hapned to folke no way stained with superstition.' A vulgar prejudice -prevails in many places of England that, when bees remove or go away -from their hives, the owner of them will die soon after." - -A correspondent of _The Bee Journal_ writes under the head of "Norfolk -Bee-Superstition": "A neighbour of mine had bought a hive of bees at -an auction of the goods of a farmer, who had recently died. The bees -seemed very sickly, and not likely to thrive; when my neighbour's -servant bethought him they had never been put in mourning for their -late master. On this he got a piece of crape and tied it to a stick, -which he fastened to a hive. After this the bees recovered; and when -I saw them they were in a very flourishing state--a result which was -unhesitatingly attributed to their having been put into mourning." - -It is more difficult to suggest the possible origin of these curious -fancies than to explain those previously mentioned. We may, perhaps, be -on the right track in supposing that it has often happened, when the -master or mistress of the bees has been ill or has died, the insects -have missed, especially in autumn or early spring, the attention -required for their welfare, and have, in consequence, perished. -Then other persons of the household, unacquainted with the actual -connection--in many instances a _vital_ connection--between the bees -and their owner, have attributed to them a bond not actually existing; -and so, being led to the silly notion of the insects grieving, or -needing to be informed, and to have their hive put in mourning, they -have easily diffused a superstition in which each favouring coincidence -would tell widely for its extended belief. - -In the Norfolk case, narrated in _The Bee Journal_, several possible -explanations suggest themselves. In the first place, if the deceased -farmer was an inhabitant of the same village as the buyer of his -bees, and the hives were removed to a new home near their old one, -most of the bees which had previously flown would return to their -accustomed spot, and perish, not knowing their way to their changed -abode. Then, in the course of a fortnight or three weeks, a good number -of freshly-hatched insects would have strengthened the community, -and these, naturally, would return with their supplies to the fresh -domicile, and soon put matters into a flourishing condition. - -Again, if dull gloomy weather followed the purchase of the bees, and -was succeeded by brighter days, coincidently with the fastening of -the stick and crape to the hives, the improved appearances would, of -course, be due to warmer temperature and sunnier hours, without any -change in the feelings of the insects from their abode being duly -adorned with the emblems of mourning. - -Lastly, the explanation may be simply that, when the stock was bought -it was in poor condition, but that in two or three weeks, by the -hatching of brood in the natural course of events, a greatly improved -condition of affairs had come about. The first of these explanations, -however, is probably the correct one. - -One more superstitious custom is said to prevail in Devonshire, viz., -at the funeral of a deceased bee keeper, the turning round of every -hive that belonged to the departed, and this just at the moment the -corpse is being carried out of the house. We do not pretend to explain -this curious fancy. It may have originated in an experiment to avert -the supposed disastrous connection between the bees and the death of -their owner. Anything would seem to do for a charm to minds imbued with -superstition. - -Borlase, in his _Antiquities of Cornwall_, mentions one other -superstition of apiarians of that county. He says: "The Cornish to this -day invoke the spirit Browny when their bees swarm; and think that -their crying 'Browny, Browny,' will prevent their returning to their -former hive, and make them pitch and form a new colony." - -It is not wonderful that the many extraordinary facts connected with -bees, coming at various times under human observation, should have -led to notions of marvels, founded, not on observation, but on fancy. -There is a strong tendency in the human mind to desire explanations -of phenomena, and where there has been no scientific training in -observation, false deductions are easily arrived at, or guesses as to -causes are made, which have no foundation in fact. Bee-keeping has, for -the most part, till in quite recent times, been chiefly in the hands -of people of the more ignorant classes, among whom wonderful stories -easily arise, are rapidly propagated, and tenaciously believed. Any -circumstances seeming to support a previously established fancy would -serve to increase the strength of superstition; while any number of -instances not corroborating prevailing ideas would be disregarded. -But, when once the spirit of sound investigation is applied to these -vulgar errors, they become so manifestly absurd, that the marvel is how -they can possibly have arisen. - -Without doubt, there are many extraordinary facts connected with -bees still awaiting the observation and the explanation of explorers -in this department of natural history. Problems connected with the -working of mind in the lower animals; the relations between reason -and instinct; the functions of particular organs in these and other -insects; the transmission of faculties not possessed by either parent -in particular races; the direction and variation in the working of -inherent faculties, through the agency of man, are subjects opening up -most interesting fields of inquiry, which we would point out to those -who have the inclination, leisure, and opportunities for pursuing -investigations. We are satisfied that efforts and time thus devoted -will be well repaid by the pleasure which springs from knowledge, and -will lead in all devout minds to enlarged admiration of the wisdom and -beneficence of Him, from whose creative power the varied structures -of animal life have come, and from whose infinite resources have been -bestowed all those faculties which call forth our astonishment and -delight as we study the facts of insect life. The deepest impression on -mind and heart will be that embodied in the exclamation of the ancient -Hebrew poet, "O Lord, how manifold are Thy works: in wisdom hast Thou -made them all." - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -THE PROFITS OF BEE-KEEPING. - - Methods of Honey-taking--Straw Caps--Bell-Glasses--Sections-- - Frames--Extractors--Run Honey--Average Returns of Hives. - - -In our introduction, reference was made to the money-returns likely -to be derived from bee-keeping by persons of ordinary good sense, who -learn to manage their hives according to modern methods. Some few facts -relating to this point may be advantageously added. - -With the different straw-skeps in use, three methods of honey-taking -may be adopted, without killing the bees. Among cottagers the usual -plan is to put on to the stock-hive a "cap" or smaller straw-hive, and -to remove this when full. Others, more wisely, induce their bees to -work in bell-glasses of various sizes and these, when nicely filled, -are very saleable, at a shilling or fifteen pence per lb. A third plan -is to fit a certain number of the "sections" described in Chapter XVII. -into a box or crate, and to place these on a strong stock. In the -height of a good season, from 12 lbs. to 15 lbs. of the purest honey -ought to be gathered in three or four weeks, by any of these methods. - -With the bar-frame hives, either bell-glasses, or "sections," may be -still more advantageously filled; because, by judicious examination -and treatment of the stocks, these may be strengthened and helped, so -as to be in the most favourable condition for storing honey in large -quantities. It is no uncommon thing for 40 lbs. or 50 lbs. to be taken -in "sections" from a single flourishing hive; and, in an ordinary -season, the average amount from each stock ought not to be less than 20 -lbs. Much, however, will depend on the control exercised over swarming. -Of course the more numerous the population is kept, the greater will be -the quantity of stores secured. If colony after colony is allowed to -be sent off, the less will be the strength of the parent-community for -food-gathering. Still, one swarm and 20 lbs. of honey in the season is -not an unreasonable amount to expect from a really good hive. - -Again, from the modern wooden hives, frames of well-filled and sealed -comb may be taken, and after this has been cut out, the frames may -be put back into their places, having been first supplied with -"foundation," to give help and direction to the bees in working out new -combs for refilling. One such frame of sealed honey should weigh 5 lbs. -or 6 lbs. - -Another plan, yielding by far the largest results, is to throw out the -honey from the combs as they are filled. By means of "extractors," of -which there are several kinds, the operation is very easy. The sealed -cells of one side must be uncapped, and the frame then subjected -to rapid rotation, which will cause the liquid to fly out through -centrifugal tendency. Having cleared one side, the other must be -operated upon in the same manner, and then the emptied combs should -be put back into the hive, in the same order as that in which they -have been taken out. In this way very large quantities of honey may be -obtained; for the bees, having no fresh comb to make, throw all their -energies into repairing and refilling the cells from which their stores -have been extracted. The liquid from the unsealed portions of the comb -is apt to be thin, and is then called "unripe." It requires to have -some of its water evaporated, either by exposure to the air or to heat. -If this precaution is neglected, this dilute honey is liable to ferment -and turn sour. The bees never seal any in the cells till it is of the -proper consistency for keeping. It is curious they should know when it -is in suitable condition for covering up from the air. - -Marvellous accounts are received from time to time of the quantities -of honey obtained by bee-keepers who make free use of the "extractor." -Single hives have been known to yield in one season over 80 lbs. -in weight. The most satisfactory results are, probably, secured by -a selection of one of the various methods of honey-taking to which -we have alluded. The nature of the hive; the strength of the stock; -the prevention of swarming, or its permission; the supply of food -required for the honeyless part of the year,--all have to be taken into -consideration in deciding upon the method of removing honey, and the -amount which shall be abstracted. - -For ordinary home use, run honey is most serviceable. As it can be -sold, moreover, at only a less price than that in sections or frames, -there is this further inducement for its consumption rather than its -sale. Ordinarily, not more than tenpence or a shilling a pound, at -most, can be obtained for it; while sealed honey in sections, or in -frames, is worth considerably more. - -We need hardly say that the weather is a most important factor in -the success or failure of bee-keeping, in any particular year. -Apiculturists, like agriculturists, are subject to many and great -alternations of hope and fear. The brightest prospects of a bountiful -honey-harvest are often blighted by rainy or ungenial days in May and -June; and if these are succeeded by a cloudy, cold July, the bees will -not only not store any more honey than they will themselves require, -but may very possibly need liberal supplies of syrup in the autumn to -carry them through the winter. - -Speaking in general terms of the profit to be made by amateur -bee-keepers, we may safely say that, in a series of years, the average -returns ought to be sufficient to pay the expenses of maintenance, and -to yield, in addition, swarms and honey to the value of, at least, -1_l._ per hive. Such results will, of course, not be attained without -patient and careful attention to the apiary; but such attention will -be further rewarded by the pleasures derivable from a knowledge of -the habits of the wonderful insects; from the successful pursuit of -a rational and inexpensive hobby; from the ability to interest and -instruct other people in this department of natural history; and -lastly, but not least, from enlarged conceptions of the attributes of -the Creator, whose almighty power and wisdom are proclaimed alike by -"sun and moon, and stars of light; mountains and all hills; fruitful -trees and all cedars; beasts and all cattle; creeping things and flying -fowl." - - - -THE END. - - - -LONDON: K. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS. - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typos corrected. In order to accommodate placement of some Figures, -paragraphs were split at logical break points. - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HONEY-BEE; ITS NATURE, -HOMES AND PRODUCTS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. 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