diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 04:50:10 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 04:50:10 -0800 |
| commit | 742ac9233f29d3a86142bc71fea2c9d6e468b184 (patch) | |
| tree | 29e59288409b9ec9d47c57bb99677c740ee8b4a0 /old/67428-0.txt | |
| parent | b89bbde20995ed4f4a6f53051a1c70aa324d1810 (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old/67428-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67428-0.txt | 2330 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2330 deletions
diff --git a/old/67428-0.txt b/old/67428-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 498891f..0000000 --- a/old/67428-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2330 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Type and Presses in America, by -Frederick W. Hamilton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Type and Presses in America - A Brief Historical Sketch of the Development of Type Casting and - Press Building in the United States - -Author: Frederick W. Hamilton - -Release Date: February 17, 2022 [eBook #67428] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the - Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPE AND PRESSES IN -AMERICA *** - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VIII, NO. 55 - - - - - TYPE AND PRESSES IN AMERICA - A BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TYPE CASTING AND PRESS - BUILDING IN THE UNITED STATES - - - BY - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. - EDUCATION DIRECTOR - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - -[Illustration] - - PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA - 1918 - - - - - Copyright, 1918 - United Typothetae of America - Chicago, Ill. - - - Composition and electrotypes contributed by - POOLE BROS. - Chicago - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION 5 - - CHAPTER I - THE PIONEER TYPE FOUNDERS 8 - - CHAPTER II - THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TYPE FOUNDING 14 - - CHAPTER III - COMPOSING AND TYPE-CASTING MACHINES 29 - - CHAPTER IV - ELECTROTYPING 32 - - CHAPTER V - THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRINTING PRESS 34 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -A study of type founding and of the development of presses and other -printers’ machinery in America presents many interesting considerations. -If the attempt were made to give in detail the story of American type -founding and the accomplishments of the notable American type founders, -and at the same time to chronicle the improvements and inventions which -American genius has contributed to the machines and processes used in -printing and the allied industries, a very large book might readily be -produced. While such a book would not be without interest and would -certainly have very great value, it would be valuable mainly as a work -of reference and would lack the interest which ought to attach to a book -of the sort contained in this series. It has seemed to the writer best, -therefore, not to attempt to collect an encyclopedia of information, but -to give a brief sketch of the development of types and presses in the -United States, with a special view to the beginnings in both -departments. It is greatly to be hoped that a more competent hand may -later be set to the production of such an encyclopedic volume as has -been indicated, but such a work does not belong in this series. - -In these matters, as in so many others, we find a definite course of -development going on. Originally American dependence upon Europe was -complete. The political dependence of the colonies in those days was -much more thorough-going than anything we know at present. The political -and economic ideas of the eighteenth century were so different from -those with which we are familiar that it is difficult for the ordinary -man who is not widely read in the literature and history of that period -to understand them at all. Briefly it may be said that the prevailing -idea, not only in England, but elsewhere, was that all colonies should -be governed from the mother country; that they should send their raw -materials to the mother country and receive all of their manufactured -products from the mother country; and that they should not trade -directly with any other part of the world, but that the mother country -should act as a receiving and forwarding station for trade in both -directions. This dependence extended much further than to politics and -business. The American colonists, for example, got their literature, -their art, their fashions, and many of their ideas from the mother -country. The nearer the good people of Boston, New York, and -Philadelphia could get to the ways of thinking, speaking, dressing, and -acting which prevailed in London, the happier they considered -themselves. - -Accordingly we find that at first type and presses were all imported. -Later we find that although type founding was being successfully carried -on in this country, foreign models, especially in type, long continued -to be followed. In machinery, American independence very soon asserted -itself. Although some important machines and presses were not invented -in this country, many were invented and nearly all were materially -improved in American hands. This remark applies to the machines for -producing type as well as to other mechanical operations. In the matter -of type faces and typographical design America followed English models -until comparatively recently. Indeed, it may be questioned whether there -are more than a very few type faces now in use in this country which can -be said to be American inventions. Many type faces have been designed, -however, which were modifications and improvements of European designs. -So true is this that probably the greater part of the type in use in -this country would be considered as of American design, although its -indebtedness to Caslon, to Baskerville, to Bodoni, or to Jensen, as a -remote original, might be recognized. As a matter of fact, the original -designing of letter faces, regardless of any previously existing design, -has been of very rare occurrence in this country. Within the last -generation, however, we are pretty well emancipated from this following -of foreign originals. We still study the products of the foreign type -foundries and printing offices, but as sources of suggestion, not as -models for imitation. - -The great American printing houses of today are more and more the -masters of their own craft, not the imitators of others. This condition -is also true of the type founders and manufacturers of machines and -materials used in the industry. The sentiment of independence is bound -to become more marked, and the originality of American printing more -pronounced, with the development of a generation of better printers. - - - - - CHAPTER I - THE PIONEER TYPE FOUNDERS - - -During all the early years of American printing, as has already been -said, all type used was imported. The first type cast in this country -appears to have been made by Christopher Sauer, in Germantown, -Pennsylvania, about 1735. Sauer (the family afterward anglicized the -spelling of the name into Sower) was one of those Germans, colloquially -known as Pennsylvania Dutch, who were an important element in the -population of the colony of Pennsylvania and are still numerous in the -State. Sauer printed books, and in 1739 we find him beginning a -newspaper, all or nearly all in German. As an auxiliary to his printing -business he seems to have cast his own German type or at least a part of -it. His work had no particular commercial importance, but deserves -record as the beginning of type founding in America. - -In 1768 a Scotchman named Mitchelson came to Boston bringing the tools -for type founding with him. We have no record that he ever cast any -type. Probably he lacked capital to go into business and there was no -one to employ him. - -In 1769 Abel Buel submitted to the Legislature of Connecticut a document -printed from the first English type known to have been made in the -United States. This sheet, which is still in the archives of -Connecticut, is printed in a very well-cut long primer (ten-point) roman -of Buel’s own casting. We have no evidence that Buel ever cast a great -deal of type, but his personality is so interesting, and his character -so typical of the proverbial “Connecticut Yankee” that it is worth while -to recall the story of his life. - -Buel appears to have been born in Connecticut, not far from 1750, and -apparently early learned the printing trade. With more than his share of -youthful irresponsibility, though he appears not to have been a really -bad man at heart, he proceeded to counterfeit the State currency of -Connecticut. This was not a difficult operation, as the early colonial -currency was printed from ordinary type with stock ornaments upon -ordinary paper by means of the ordinary printing press. The first -definite record that we find of him is that he was pardoned in 1766 from -a life sentence for counterfeiting these bills. The lesson that he got -on this occasion seems to have cured him not only of counterfeiting, but -of printing, as he apparently never again did either, although it was by -no means the last time that he found himself at odds with the -authorities. - -He then invented a method of polishing crystals and precious stones. The -amount of this valuable material in the hands of the good people of -Connecticut was apparently not sufficient to afford him a livelihood, -and we find him next engaged as an undertaker and a singing master. In -this latter connection he was summoned before the authorities by certain -good people who were greatly scandalized because while in charge of a -church choir he had introduced the use of a bass viol into the services. -This was deemed little short of blasphemy, but apparently no technical -charge could be sustained against the culprit. - -Buel early interested himself in the cause of the freedom of the -colonies. Meantime he had evidently been experimenting in type founding, -for the petition of 1769 sets forth that the petitioner has discovered -the art of casting type, but that he lacks the capital and is, -therefore, unable to go into business commercially. He accordingly -petitions the Legislature to advance to him the necessary funds. The -Legislature voted him a loan of £100 for seven years and promised him -£100 more after he had been carrying on the business successfully for -one year. As we shall see in a moment, before the year was out Buel’s -interest transferred itself elsewhere and we hear no more of his type -casting. When the seven years were up Mrs. Buel paid back the £100. -Where and how she raised it is something of a mystery, as she asserted -when she made the payment that she did not know where her husband was. -He was not permanently lost, however. - -Buel, as we have seen, had interested himself in the cause of American -independence, and in 1770 he was arrested for participating in the -tearing down of a lead statue of George III which had stood in New York. -With true Yankee thrift Buel tried to combine his patriotism and his -type founding, for a considerable portion of George III was found in -Buel’s house in the process of being cast into type. Things were not -lively enough in Connecticut to suit our friend. He went to Boston, -where we find him participating in the Boston Tea Party, serving a -cannon in the Concord fight, and wounded at Bunker Hill. Later he fell -into the hands of the British and was confined in one of the prison -ships of unhallowed memory which were moored in Wallabout Bay, Brooklyn. -Very likely he was in one of those floating wooden tombs when his wife -declared that she did not know where he was. How long he remained as a -prisoner of war and what his later military experiences were we do not -know. - -We hear of him next, after the war was over, being appointed to make a -map of the coast from Maine to Florida and then appointed master of the -mint for Connecticut, where he devised and erected the machinery for -striking the copper cents then coined. One wonders if the master of the -mint often thought of his youthful conviction for counterfeiting the -money of the same community. - -Later, when the world was becoming interested in cotton spinning under -the stimulus of Arkwright’s invention, Buel went to England to learn how -to spin cotton. He came back, bought some machinery, and set up in New -Haven the second cotton mill in America, the first being Samuel Slater’s -mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. This seems to have been the last shift -in Buel’s varied life. He died in 1825 at the age of about seventy-five. -He was an interesting product of his time and its conditions and as such -his story deserves record, for it must be remembered that he was not a -“sport,” but a “type.” - -In 1774 Jacob Bay attempted type founding in Philadelphia, but he also -was apparently only an experimenter. - -In 1775 an experiment was made which, from the conditions and from the -character of the maker, we should expect to find successful, but which -failed nevertheless. At this time Benjamin Franklin brought out from -France a full set of tools and punches and undertook, with his -son-in-law, Bache, to establish a type foundry, there being then no type -founding done in this country if we may except what was being done in -Sauer’s establishment. The Franklin-Bache foundry was well equipped with -roman, italic, Greek, and Hebrew matrices. Bache had received some -instruction from Fournier, the great French type founder, from whom -Franklin had purchased the tools. They had for their workman a man named -Frederick Geiger. Geiger was what is known as a “redemptioner,” or a man -who in return for his passage money to America, his board, and a small -amount of money wages agreed to be the bond servant of his creditor for -a certain period. These arrangements were very common at this time and -reflected no discredit upon the young men who made them. Geiger was a -mathematical instrument maker by profession, but became with study and -practice a very expert matrix cutter and founder. Franklin had brought -him out and he served his time with Franklin, but appears to have left -him as soon as his time was out and to have gone to the Philadelphia -mint. Like many another skilled mechanic, however, he became interested -in the search for a perpetual motion machine and finally died an insane -pauper. - -For some reason, the Franklin foundry was not successful. It has been -conjectured that one reason may have been that Franklin was very much -influenced by French models in his designs, and that the printers and -the reading public were so accustomed to English type faces that they -did not take kindly to the new forms. Curiously enough American printers -have never taken kindly to French type faces although many of them, from -Garamond down, are very beautiful. Some of the French types designed, -not far from 1875, seem to have become Americanized and are among the -most legible and beautiful in use, but the American printers have never -been very willing to use them. Whatever the reason, the Franklin foundry -was added to the list of unsuccessful attempts at type founding. - -One more attempt was to be made before type founding was permanently -established in America. This time the attempt was successful, but not -permanent. In 1783 John Bain (or Baine) sent his grandson to -Philadelphia with an outfit of type founder’s tools. Bain had been -associated with one of the famous type founders of the time, Alexander -Wilson, of Glasgow. Wilson not only had a market in Scotland and -England, but also in Ireland and in North America. Bain had been chosen -by lot to start a foundry in Dublin, but after remaining there a time he -went to Edinburgh, whence he turned his attention to the other side of -the Atlantic. Encouraged by the reports from his grandson, Mr. Bain soon -went, himself, to Philadelphia. He was further encouraged by the firm of -Young & McCullough, then a leading house of Philadelphia printers. In -1785 he opened business under the quaint title of John Bain & Grandson -in Company. Their work was good and the firm was immediately successful, -theirs being the first commercially successful attempt to cast type in -America. Bain, however, died in 1790, and the business was soon given up -by his family. - -About the same time that Bain began business Adam Gerard Mappa made an -unsuccessful attempt to start a foundry in New York. Mappa was born in -Belgium in 1750. He spent his early life in the army, from which he -retired after twelve years of service with the rank of lieutenant. He -then purchased a part interest in the old firm of Voskens & Clerk. This -firm was established some time before 1677, and had long been one of the -principal sources of supply of type for England. As pointed out -elsewhere in this series (No. 52, A Short History of Printing in -England) many of the types used in England for a long period came from -continental foundries, particularly Dutch. Shortly after the purchase -the Government underwent important changes, in consequence of which -Mappa left the country. He landed in New York somewhere about 1787, -bringing with him his complete outfit of tools and matrices. He had a -number of very handsome Dutch and German faces, some ordinary roman -type, and seven varieties of Orientals. For these last Voskens & Clerk -undoubtedly had found considerable use, but America was as yet far from -needing any considerable supply of Oriental types. Mappa’s capital had -apparently been absorbed in his purchase and lost in emigration. In 1798 -he was very ready to take himself and his equipment into the service of -Binney & Ronaldson. Probably Mappa had no practical knowledge of type -founding and very little interest in it, for he left the service of -Binney & Ronaldson in 1800 to go into that of the great Holland Land -Company. He seems there to have found his place and served in important -positions until the end of his life. - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TYPE FOUNDING - - -So far our story has been one of failure. There is, however, plenty of -evidence that the time was ripe for success. The new country was growing -rapidly. The Americans, then as now, were insatiable readers, especially -of newspapers. The demand for type was constantly increasing. America -was becoming more and more independent, more and more desirous of -supplying her own wants, and more and more impatient of the -inconvenience, expense, and delay involved in ordering such merchandise -as type from England. If the persistency and courage of the elder Bain -had been shared by his family unquestionably fortune would have been -easily within their grasp, but they paid the penalty of their lack of -good business qualities. - -We come now to the story of the first permanently successful type -foundry in America, a foundry which continued in vigorous existence -until the erection of the Jersey City foundry of the American Type -Founders Company, with which it was merged. There met one day in an ale -house in Philadelphia two men whose lives were thenceforth to run -together. I suspect that they were drawn together in the first place by -the fact that they were both Scotchmen, and that in their first contact -they showed each other the qualities which bound them together. They -were Archibald Binney and James Ronaldson. Binney had learned and -practiced the trade of type founding in Edinburgh, Scotland. Ronaldson -was a biscuit-maker, out of business because of the burning of his -establishment, but with some ready money in hand. It seemed to Binney -that here was a heaven-sent opportunity to combine his knowledge with -Ronaldson’s capital and enter under the most favorable circumstances the -business of type founding. At this date there was no active foundry in -America. The successful Bain concern had been closed out. The Sauer -business, if active at all at this time, was only an adjunct to a -printing office, while Mappa was finding it impossible to get started. -They accordingly agreed to enter the business as equal partners, Binney -putting in his tools, which were appraised at $888.88, while Ronaldson -put in the same amount in cash. - -With this they started business, the first entry in their account book -being November 1, 1796. We learn that they rented a frame house on -“Cedar Street atwixt ninth and tenth streets” at $17.33 a month. In 1800 -the frame house was valued at $40.00 and cost $82.09½ “to shove it to -its present location.” It must be remembered that at this time a -half-cent coin was in circulation and that accounts were kept down to a -quarter of a cent. At the time of the moving of the house the firm -bought the property and built a new house on the same lot. The new house -cost $2,500 and they paid $72 a year ground rent, apparently for -additional land not included in the purchase. Entries in their first -account book show that one or both members of the firm lived in the -house. They started with a small assortment of type, but of the most -important faces. These faces appear to have included brevier -(eight-point), bourgeois (nine-point), long primer (ten-point), small -pica (eleven-point), pica (twelve-point), and some two-line letters. -They probably employed as matrix cutter one Fürst, a die maker in the -Philadelphia mint, who afterward cut a medal bearing Binney’s face on -the obverse and an appropriate design on the reverse. - -At an early period, as we have seen, they took over Mappa and his -outfit, and in 1799 they bought the tools of the Bain concern, paying -$300 for them. In 1806 the excellent Franklin outfit was in the hands of -a man by the name of Duane. Duane became interested in Binney & -Ronaldson and offered to lend them any of the Franklin tools and -matrices which they desired to use. Ronaldson was so impressed with the -superiority of a part at least of the Franklin equipment that, fearing -that Duane might change his mind and not being willing to take any -chances, he himself borrowed a wheelbarrow and moved the material over -to Cedar Street in the middle of a very hot summer day. - -Binney & Ronaldson were enterprising, thrifty, and obliging. They did -good work, took good care of their customers, and were immediately and -permanently successful. They prospered greatly from the beginning and -both of them made fortunes, as fortunes went in those days, within -twenty years. - -A study of their account books is extremely interesting. Among other -things they give the names of 114 customers who found their way onto -their books in the first five years of the business. It would hardly be -worth while here to give the names of these customers, but it is -interesting to see where they were. They were located as follows: - - Philadelphia 49 - Pennsylvania (outside of Philadelphia) 6 - New York City 22 - Albany, New York 1 - Delaware 4 - Virginia 7 - New Jersey 2 - Maryland 4 - District of Columbia (Washington and Georgetown) 2 - Connecticut 1 - Massachusetts (Concord) 1 - Georgia 1 - Augusta (state not given; probably Georgia) 1 - Tennessee (Knoxville) 1 - Location not given 12 - -In 1811 Binney invented an improved type mold which increased the output -of the caster fifty per cent and saved labor. He experimented with a -machine for rubbing type, but in this was not successful. - -In 1812 Binney & Ronaldson published a specimen book which is -interesting as showing the development of their business. This book -shows eleven faces larger than pica, fifteen kinds of body type, the -smallest being pearl (5 point), two sizes of Anglo-Saxon, four sizes of -Greek, four sizes of Hebrew, two sizes of German text, six sizes of -black letter, three sizes of German, four sizes of Oriental letter, one -size of script and 120 kinds of “flowers” or borders, the greatest -number of these being on English (14-point) body. It is not unlikely -that some if not all of the foreign letters may have come from the -Franklin and Mappa stocks. We know that Franklin had Greek and Hebrew -and that Mappa had German. Mappa’s Orientals did not appear. Probably -even if Binney & Ronaldson still had the matrices it would not have been -worth while to include them in their specimen book. The preface says -that they were obliged, contrary to their inclinations, to imitate -European taste. Evidently America had not yet become independent except -politically. They gave two examples of erroneously formed faces in long -primer and small pica, which were really condensed faces as we should -now call them. They appear to have invented the dollar mark $ in 1797 -and the abbreviation l̶b̶ for weight pounds in 1798. - -In 1819 Mr. Binney retired with an ample competence. Mr. Ronaldson ran -the business alone for a while, but in 1823 he was succeeded by his -brother Richard, who conducted the business for ten years. - -In 1833 the business was taken over by Lawrence Johnson and George E. -Smith. Johnson was able, enterprising, and energetic, and introduced new -vigor into the conduct of the concern. Contemporaneously with Jedediah -Howe he introduced stereotyping into Philadelphia. Smith retired in 1845 -and Johnson took in as partners Thomas MacKellar, John F. Smith, and -Richard Smith, young men who had grown up in the business and were -thoroughly interested in it and devoted to it. The firm continued to -prosper greatly. Johnson died in 1860, but his partners took in Peter A. -Jordan, changing the firm name to MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan. By this -time the house had acquired a great reputation and a leading position -among American type founders. Mr. Johnson died in 1884 and the next year -the firm was still further increased by the addition of William B. -MacKellar, G. Frederick Jordan and Carl F. Huch. The firm name was again -changed to The MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Company. During all this time, -however, the house was known among printers as the Johnson Type Foundry. -For many years it had acquired great distinction for its diligence in -electrotyping foreign designs as well as in originating new faces for -ornamental types and borders. The fashion of the time for typographical -decoration was largely developed by the publication of a house organ -called the “Typographic Advertiser,” a quarterly journal, edited by -Thomas MacKellar, which contained a fund of matter of interest to -printers and a vast quantity of fanciful borders and other material now -out of fashion. - -In 1892, when the American Type Founders Company was organized by the -consolidation of some twenty foundries, the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan -Company entered the combination and became the Philadelphia branch. - -Now that we have told the story of this great house in detail, we may go -back to consider some more of the early firms. The success of Binney & -Ronaldson was due to a combination of personal qualities and favorable -conditions. The increase of printed matter was very great. Americans -have always been a newspaper-loving people, and after the independence -of the colonies the founding of new newspapers went on apace. It must -not be forgotten that all printing in the early days of the last century -was done with foundry type, hand set. The demand for type, therefore, -was not only large, but was increasing. Up to the outbreak of the war of -1812 the few type foundries in America were regularly from three to four -months behind their orders, so greatly did demand outrun production. - -Under such circumstances Binney & Ronaldson could not have the field to -themselves. In 1805 we find Samuel Sower & Company at work at Baltimore. -Sower belonged to the family of Christopher Sauer, and used the material -of the old firm with additions. He made some fonts of roman and italic -and appears to have made a specialty of small type faces such as diamond -(4½-point), brilliant (4-point), and excelsior (3-point). - -In 1809 the second permanently successful foundry was started by Elihu -White and a man by the name of Wing in Hartford, Connecticut. Here again -we have a sample of characteristic Yankee courage, resource, and -ingenuity, qualities which have enabled Americans at all times to -accomplish the apparently impossible. Neither White nor Wing knew the -business of type founding. They had certain ideas of their own and for -the rest they apparently worked backward from the finished type. Their -attempt was to cast several letters at once, to be afterwards separated, -instead of casting the letters singly as was the general practice. -Probably partly for that reason and partly because of ignorance, perhaps -also because of their confidence in their ability to improve on accepted -methods, they did not use the approved moulds. The attempt to cast -letters by wholesale, as it were, was not successful and their entire -progress was slow and unsatisfactory. After many failures, they sent a -man to Philadelphia in order that he might learn the trade secrets. In -those days type founding, like many other trades, was to a great extent -a secret trade and one of the chief duties of the workman was to keep -his employer’s secrets. Their attempt to steal the trade failed and they -were thrown back upon their own resources again. Finally, however, their -efforts were crowned with success and they began to turn out -commercially successful type. In 1810 White separated from Wing and went -to New York, where he and his brother Julius established a business -under the firm name of E. & J. White. From this time on they were -steadily and brilliantly successful. - -In 1820 they opened branches in Buffalo and in Cincinnati to meet the -requirements of an expanding trade. The business remained in the family -until 1854, when it was bought out by three employees who continued it -under the later well-known firm name of Farmer, Little & Co. - -Another famous name in the annals of American type founding appears at -about the same time as that of White. This was the name of Bruce. David -Bruce was born in 1750, in Wick, Caithness, Scotland. When a mere boy -Bruce was impressed into the British navy after the bad old custom of -that day and served for a while in the Channel Fleet under the command -of Lord Howe, afterwards well known, together with his brother General -Howe, for their part in the Revolutionary War. After he left the navy -Bruce was apprenticed to a printer. He came to New York in 1793 and -obtained work on a newspaper. Shortly afterward he sent for his brother -George and apprenticed him to a printer. - -In 1806, after George had become a journeyman printer, the brothers were -offered by publishers the printing of Lavoisier’s Chemistry. The fact -that they had no plant, no equipment, and no money did not deter them -from accepting the offer. Bruce managed somehow to secure a place and a -press, and he borrowed a font of type. He introduced the standing press -for dry pressing his sheets, and he turned out so good a piece of work -that the publishers offered him all the printing that he could do. From -this start he set up a successful business. - -In 1811 Bruce, with his usual business acumen, recognized the importance -of stereotyping and went to England to study it. As we have seen, -however, it was not easy to learn other people’s trades in those days -and Bruce met with great difficulty. He did, however, succeed in -learning something from a Scotch workman, perhaps helped by a certain -sense of kinship, which is common among the Scotch, and returned home to -make experiments for himself. Times were not favorable for keeping -business running, to say nothing of starting new business. The -conditions preceding the war of 1812 were disastrous for business in the -United States. American commerce was crushed between the upper and -nether millstones of England and France, who had been at war for many -years and were attempting to fight each other’s commerce and industries -as well as each other’s soldiers. The condition was very similar to that -which preceded the entrance of the United States into the great war of -1917, excepting that it continued much longer and, owing to the -comparative weakness of the United States, was much more serious than -the later difficulty. The war did not mend things industrially and its -close in 1815 left the United States in a bad business condition for a -good many years. Nevertheless, the courage and persistency of the Bruces -enabled them to weather the storm, and they not only held their own but -developed along new lines. - -In 1814 and 1815 Bruce produced the first two sets of stereotype plates -made in America. They were a common school testament in bourgeois type -and a 12mo Bible in nonpareil. Bruce invented a machine for planing the -backs of the plates to make them of uniform height. This was a great -improvement and was so successful that it is said that of the entire two -sets of plates only a single plate needed a slight overlay. - -The development of the stereotyping process, however, brought to light -difficulties with type. Foundry type was sold with the shoulder beveled -off for ordinary printing and this was not favorable for stereotyping. -The type founders would not make the high spaces and quads which were -needed. As the best way of meeting these difficulties, Bruce, in 1815, -went into company with the Starr brothers for the manufacture of type. -It soon appeared that type founding and stereotyping promised to be more -profitable than printing and Bruce sold out his printing establishment -to devote himself to the other branches. Bruce and the Starrs were -unable to agree and the partnership was soon dissolved, Bruce deciding -to carry on the business alone in spite of the difficulties of every -sort which surrounded it. In addition to the business conditions of the -time, neither of the Bruces had any practical knowledge of type founding -and the matrices of their only complete font were stolen, presumably by -someone who was interested to secure their failure. It needed more than -that, however, to discourage this persistent Scotchman. George Bruce set -himself at work to learn punch cutting and mould making. His first -efforts were crude, but he had an artistic temperament, a critical -spirit, and a practical knowledge of printers’ needs. By these qualities -and his own persistence he soon became very proficient. - -By 1820 the Bruce foundry was the best in the country, doing better work -than even Binney & Ronaldson at that time. In 1822 Bruce undertook to -remedy the confusion in sizes which was then and for a good many years a -source of difficulty, annoyance and expense to printers. He devised a -scientifically correct system by which the size doubled with every seven -sizes of the system. This was uniform throughout, so that wherever you -touched the system, you found any given type twice as large as the -seventh below and half as large as the seventh above. In spite of the -fact of the simplicity and scientific correctness of the system it did -not prove suited to commercial work and was not adopted. - -In 1828 William M. Johnson had invented a type-casting machine in which -a pump forced the liquid metal into the mould, giving the type a sharper -face than was possible with hand casting. The machine was a step in the -right direction, but was crude and imperfect. White took it up and tried -to improve it, but he did not succeed in removing its fundamental -defects. The types were not cast solid. Being hollow they were light and -too weak to withstand the pressure of the presses. The first successful -type-casting machine was made by David Bruce, Jr., in 1838, in -development of the Johnson idea. George Bruce bought David Bruce’s -patents and used the machine until 1845, when David Bruce made further -improvements and produced the type of machine which is now in general -use not only in this country but in Europe, where the method was soon -adopted. - -James Conner, a printer of New York, began business as a stereotyper in -that city in the year 1827. His was the first stereotype edition of the -New Testament. He also earned a good reputation as the publisher in the -United States of the Bible in folio form. To the business of -stereotyping he soon after added that of type founding, in which he was -remarkably successful. With the aid of Edwin Starr, then in his employ, -he made the electrotype matrices which enabled him largely to increase -the stock of his foundry. After the death of James Conner, in 1861, the -foundry was managed by his sons and grandsons, who finally merged the -business in that of the American Type Founders Company. - -Meantime the business of type founding spread from its original centers -and new fields were occupied. By 1818 the Boston Type Foundry had been -founded by Beddington & Ewer, and undertook to cast types, set types, -and make stereotype plates. Samuel N. Dickinson was taught the trade of -a printer in the State of New York, but afterward was employed as a -compositor in the Boston Type and Stereotype Foundry. In 1829 he began -business as a master printer and in 1839 he began type founding after -having designed for an Edinburgh foundry a series of Scotch-cut letters. -The success of this face determined him to cast type for himself. In -1845 he had a full assortment of types and issued a specimen book. -Dickinson was not a strong man, however, and died of consumption in -1848, at the age of forty-seven. The business was continued by Sewall -Phelps and Michael Dalton. Both the Boston Type Foundry and the -Dickinson Type Foundry had unusually successful careers and were later -absorbed in the American Type Founders Company. - -Type foundries were started in Albany, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Louisville, -St. Louis, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in New York, where -there were at least seven foundries. This led to over-production, -competition, and the failure of many weak concerns, a condition of -things which was not entirely remedied until the organization of the -American Type Founders Company in 1892. - -In 1840 Augustus Ladew and George Charles opened at St. Louis the first -foundry west of Cincinnati. This firm continued in successful operation -until it was merged into the American Type Founders Company at its -organization. - -In 1806 Robert Lothian, of Scotland, tried and failed to establish a -type foundry in New York. His son George B. Lothian, who had been taught -the trade of stereotyping in the stereotype foundries of John Watts, of -New York, and B. & J. Collins, of Philadelphia, had also received -instruction from his father and from Elihu White in type founding, -undertook to establish a type foundry in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It -was an unsuccessful enterprise and Lothian returned to New York. In 1822 -he undertook to make type for the old firm of Harper & Brothers. The -face of Greek, which he cut for the Anthon Classical Series, was very -much admired. He died in 1851, but the foundry continued in business -under other hands until 1875. - -The next year Louis Pelouze, the founder of a distinguished family of -type founders, started a business in Philadelphia. This was another of -the successes from both a commercial and artistic point of view, and was -another of the constituents of the American Type Founders Company. - -The Boston Type Foundry, which started as a stereotyping plant, passed -through an experience as a co-operative concern under the direction of -the employees who owned the stock. As is usually the case with such -enterprises, it was unsuccessful until finally the majority of the stock -got into the possession of Gorham Rogers, from which time it was -operated as in the ordinary way and attained a high degree of success, -doing very fine work. Mr. Conner, foreman in this foundry, who had -started as a stereotyper in 1827, was sent to St. Louis to open a branch -establishment which was very successful and later became famous as the -Central Type Foundry. Conner invented an electrotype matrix to take the -place of the matrices which had formerly been made by driving a steel -punch into copper. - -The Dickinson Type Foundry also did work of a very high grade. Perhaps -the most fortunate thing that ever happened to it was the entrance into -its service in 1868 of Mr. Joseph W. Phinney. Mr. Phinney was born in -1848, and after a varied experience as a printer in several places, went -to Boston in 1868, later entering the employ of the old Dickinson Type -Foundry, in the selling department. He soon distinguished himself in the -service of the Dickinson Company and after a time became one of its -partners. His skill, artistic taste, and ability soon made him one of -the leaders in type design as well as one of the great figures in the -type founding business. For many years Mr. Phinney has exercised an -influence for good in type founding which it would be difficult to -overestimate. On the establishment of the American Type Founders Company -in 1892 the Dickinson concern became one of the constituent firms and -Mr. Phinney’s leadership was recognized by his election to the position -of Vice-President of the new concern. Mr. Phinney has remained in Boston -as the head of the New England branch of the business and is one of the -active and leading officers of the great type founding company. - - -Certain improvements in the manufacture of type which have brought it to -its present perfection remain to be recorded. The most important of -these were made by Barth, Marder, Benton, and Nicholas J. Werner. Henry -Barth was born in Leipsic, Germany, in 1823, and learned the trade of -mathematical instrument maker. Before 1840 the Bruce type caster was -seen in Germany and (not being protected by German patents) was imitated -by German type founders. Barth was engaged by Brockhaus, one of the more -important German printers, who maintained his own bindery and type -foundry and now added a machine shop primarily for the purpose of -building Bruce machines. Barth spent several years in the employ of -Brockhaus making type foundry tools and had two years’ service in the -German navy. He came to America in 1849 and at first practiced his trade -as a maker of mathematical instruments, but before long connected -himself with the Cincinnati Type Foundry. Here he invented a machine to -cast type by direct steam pressure without the pump. The machine was -successful, but for various reasons did not come into general use. He -then built a 14 × 18 job press, long well known as the Wells jobber. -During his service with the Cincinnati Type Foundry the hand-casting -machines were entirely replaced by steam machines, and in 1853 he -invented the kerning machine. About the same time the first shaved leads -were made under Barth’s direction. At first the shaving was done on a -hand machine, but later he devised a steam shaving machine. During the -course of a long service to the industry Barth was the author of many -important inventions and improvements in the details of type founding. -He died in 1907. - -To John Marder we owe the development of the American point system of -type bodies. The Marder system was not immediately adopted, but as -developed by later inventions its superiority was so great that in spite -of the trouble and expense involved in the standardization of type it -finally became universal. - -L. B. Benton introduced the use of accurate unit width of type. -Previously the width of the letters had varied with each character. This -resulted in a multiplicity of widths of type. Benton’s theory was that -quicker typesetting and more uniform spacing could be obtained by having -the types standardized on a minimum number of widths and securing the -proper space between characters by modifying the shapes of certain -letters to conform to these widths. Benton’s type was popularly called -“self-spacing” although the name was misapplied. Another disadvantage -then existing was that similar style type faces from different foundries -did not line, and even the height-to-paper of types varied. Type sizes -which were supposedly the same, in reality varied considerably in -different foundries. The confusion and difficulty for the printer -arising out of this lack of standards may easily be imagined. Each -foundry had its own width and size of type, and in many cases its size -varied by a considerable fraction of a point from that of other -foundries. Very probably this condition was deliberately maintained by -some foundries for the purpose of holding the entire trade of their -customers, the idea being that if the types coming from different -foundries did not go together well the customer would naturally be led -to buy all of his type in the same place. The improvement of these -conditions was brought about by the introduction of the point system of -bodies, Benton’s unit width, and the perfection of the lining and unit -set systems now in use. - -Some important foundries held out against these improvements for years, -but the demands of their customers, who perceived the great advantages -of the standardized type, finally compelled adhesion to the new system. -One important result of these changes was the invention of the -punch-cutting or engraving machine. The adoption of the improved system -required the production of a vast number of new punches which had -formerly been cut by hand. It was impossible to find enough skilled -workmen to meet this demand and the engraving machine now used for -making punches was accordingly devised by Benton. - -The field for the artistic development of type is inexhaustible, but it -is difficult to imagine how type, as a mechanical product, can be -improved beyond its present condition. The completeness and perfection -of the system, the excellence of the machinery, and the skill in -processes which have been developed make the product apparently perfect. - - - - - CHAPTER III - COMPOSING AND TYPE-CASTING MACHINES - - -With the great expansion of printing in the early part of the nineteenth -century, and with the invention of greatly improved presses, there -appeared a natural impatience with the slow process of hand composition. -It seemed a strange comment on human inventiveness that while new -machines had been found for doing so many kinds of man’s work, while the -simple screw press of Gutenberg had developed into the steam-driven -platen and cylinder, and while so many improvements had been made in the -manufacture of type, the setting of type was exactly where it was in -1450. More than 350 years had introduced practically no changes in the -primary process of arranging type into words and sentences. What could -be done to apply human ingenuity to this process? - -This question was asked by inventors all over the world. Naturally the -first line of approach to the answer was from the direction of a machine -which should mechanically take up the types and place them in the stick, -in other words, a mechanical composer or typesetting machine. -Unsuccessful attempts in this line were made as early as 1820 or 1822. -The experimenters were not deterred by failures and commercially -successful typesetting machines were finally invented, among which may -be named the Rogers, the Thorne, and the Simplex. The mechanical -typesetter was successful for certain kinds of work and went a long way -toward meeting the general need. - -It would probably have been developed to the point of meeting it far -more fully had it not been for the epoch-making invention of the type -caster. The first successful type composing and casting machine to be -put on the market was invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler. Mr. Mergenthaler -was born in Germany in 1854, and there learned the trade of an -electrical instrument maker. In 1872, when he was eighteen years old, he -came in sight of the period when the law would call him into military -service. The war of 1870 with France was a very fresh memory. The -political stability of Europe seemed then much less assured than it did -at a later date. Young Mergenthaler had no desire to expose himself to -the danger of being called upon to participate in another great war. -Therefore, like many other young Europeans, he came to America to avoid -military service. - -Arrived in this country, he worked for some time at his trade. The -turning point in his career came in 1876 when he was engaged as an -expert mechanic to work on the development of a typewriter transfer -machine in which a group of people were interested. His work on this -machine, although long continued, was not successful, but his study and -experimentation led him to conceive the idea of a type-casting machine -which should be controlled from a keyboard similar to that of a -typewriter, but larger on account of the greater number of characters -necessary. The first model was produced in 1884. The machine was far -from perfect, but was sufficiently developed to make it clear that he -was on the track of a revolutionary invention. Two years later, in 1886, -Mergenthaler produced his first successful machine. This was put into -the composing room of the New York Tribune. Whitelaw Reid, the -distinguished editor of the Tribune, afterward American ambassador to -Great Britain, and other wealthy gentlemen became interested in -Mergenthaler’s work and formed a syndicate, making a contract with the -inventor whereby he was hired to work for them with a share in the -profits of the business. The machine was named by Mr. Reid himself the -linotype because it cast a “line o’ type.” The great success of the -machine and the enormous growth of the business of manufacturing it are -too familiar to need description, while the consequences of the -invention in making possible an enormous increase in the output of -printed matter can hardly be estimated.[1] - -Footnote 1: - - See Text Book No. 23, “Type-Casting and Composing Machines.” - -Mr. Mergenthaler severed his active connection with the syndicate in -1888, although he continued interested in it and made from time to time -such minor improvements in the machine as suggested themselves to him. -He died in 1899 at the early age of forty-five. - -While Mergenthaler was at work Tolbert Lanston was experimenting along -the lines of a different machine. His aim was not the production of a -machine which should cast type, by lines, but of a machine which should -cast type and spaces separately and at the same time arrange them in -galleys ready for taking proof. Obviously, the line slug is of use only -for the special purpose for which it was cast, while the separate types -cast by the monotype can be distributed just as if they were foundry -types and can also be used for hand composition. The type thus produced -is not quite as perfect as foundry type, but is substantially as useful -for many purposes. - -Each machine has some advantages of its own and their use is dictated by -the result which it is desired to produce. The Lanston machine appeared -in 1892. These two machines are representative of the types of -type-casting machines in the market. Other successful machines of the -same general types have been invented and are in extensive use. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - ELECTROTYPING - - -Electrotyping is an American invention. As long ago as 1830 the -laboratory discovery was made that when copper was deposited upon the -side of a voltaic battery and then removed, it furnished a reproduction -of the surface upon which it had been deposited. In the development of -this discovery very interesting experiments in reproduction were -performed by Thomas Spencer of Liverpool, J. C. Jordan of London, and -Prof. Jacobi, a Russian. These experiments were purely scientific, with -no commercial end in view. In 1839 Joseph A. Adams, a wood engraver -connected with Harper & Brothers, the New York publishers, conceived the -idea of applying this principle to the printing industry and made an -electrotype from a wood cut which was used for a magazine illustration -in 1841. He also made the illustrations for Harper’s great family Bible, -which was published in 1842–1844. Adams’s method was to take an -impression of his block in an alloy of soft metal, probably largely -bismuth. The process, however, destroyed the block, and although -experimentally successful it was not commercially practicable. The -invention of Smee’s battery and the use of wax for the moulds made the -process commercially sound and practical. - -In 1848 John W. Wilcox, of Boston, using these methods, began business -as the first commercial electrotyper and was successful from the -beginning. His first work contained all the essentials known for many -years. Improvements soon followed. In 1855 John Gay, of New York, -introduced the use of tin foil for soldering the back of copper shells -and the same year Adams invented a dry brush black-leading machine to -take the place of the hand method which had hitherto been necessary. In -1856 Filmer, of Boston, invented the process of backing up the shells by -holding the shell down with springs. - -In 1868 Stephen D. Tucker invented the type of dry brush black-leading -machine which is now in use and ten years later Edward A. Blake, of -Chicago, invented the air blast black-leading machine. - -As early as 1871 Silas P. Knight, of Harper & Brothers, invented the wet -black-leading process. It was successful, but, as sometimes happens, -attracted no particular attention. Its merits in comparison with other -methods do not appear to have been appreciated and the discovery was -forgotten for more than a quarter of a century. In 1908 Frank H. -Learman, of Buffalo, invented a wet black-leading machine which was -adopted by the industry and improved by later patents. The wet process -is now considered the best. Perhaps the greatest single step forward in -the development of the electrotype was the substitution of the dynamo -for Smee’s battery, a change accomplished by Leslie, of New York, in -1872. - -R. Hoe & Company, of New York, were greatly interested in electrotyping -machinery and were leaders in encouraging its development and in putting -it on the market. - - - - - CHAPTER V - THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING PRESSES - - -The development of printing machinery has already been described to a -considerable extent in two of the preceding volumes of this series (No. -6, Platen Printing Presses, and No. 7, Cylinder Printing Machines). It -may be worth while, however, to review briefly in this place the main -points of progress in this direction. As we already know, American -printers originally and for many years imported all their presses as -well as their type. This condition, however, could not be permanent. As -early as 1775 good presses were being made at Philadelphia and Hartford. -These presses were of the Blaeu or “Dutch” type. They were wooden -machines with stone beds and had undergone practically no change for a -couple of centuries. The best known builder of these old presses in -America was Adam Ramage, who came from Scotland to Philadelphia in 1790. -Ramage was not only a good workman, but of an inventive turn of mind, -and introduced several improvements, notably the substitution of an iron -bed for the stone one. The iron press was invented by Lord Stanhope, in -England, about the year 1800 and was the beginning of the improvements -in printing machinery which were to go so far in the course of a -century. - -Mr. Henry L. Bullen is authority for the statement that no Stanhope -press was ever brought to America. The reason lies probably in the fact -that an American invented an iron press at about the same time. This was -George Clymer, of Philadelphia, who after much experimenting produced -the Columbian Press, an iron machine which came into general use in -England as well as in the United States about 1816. It was a complicated -machine, but in spite of its complexity was very durable and beautiful -as well as powerful. It was worked on the ordinary hand-lever principle, -but the leverage system gave a fine chance for the pressman’s skill. It -had wonderful possibilities in the production of the most perfect work -when in the hands of a skillful workman. It won and long kept -well-deserved favor. It was introduced into England in 1807, and in 1817 -Clymer himself followed it to England, where he spent the remainder of -his life. - -In spite of the capacity of the Columbian press for the production of -artistically perfect work there was a great and increasing demand for -presses of a different type. The demand was for a simpler press and also -for one that would mechanically turn out larger quantities of work than -were possible under the old leverage system. The first demand was met by -the invention of Peter Smith, of New York, who built a press somewhat on -the lines of the Columbian, which was very heavy, carried larger forms, -and used shorter levers, and by Samuel Reid, who, in 1824, invented the -simple but excellent Washington hand press, which is still in common -use. - -From this point on there are two lines of development which may be -followed separately, one the development of the power printing press in -which the bed and platen are brought together by a power-driven gear -rather than by a hand-moved lever, the other the development of the -cylinder press. - -The first known attempt to apply power to a printing press was made by -William Nicholson, of London, in 1790, in connection with his abortive -attempt at the invention of a cylinder press, to which reference will be -made later. - -The first American attempt to use power was made by Nathan Hale, father -of the famous Edward Everett Hale, who took possession of the Boston -Advertiser in 1814. - -Daniel Treadwell, of Boston, invented and built for Hale the first power -press used in America. It was a very large platen with a wooden frame. -The presses of Isaac Adams (1830) and Otis Tufts (1834) also had -originally wooden frames, but later were built with iron frames. Very -few Treadwell presses were ever used. At first they were driven by -horsepower, later by steam. The early power presses were worked by -horses, by men known as crank-men, and even in the case of small -machines by dogs. These crude power appliances soon gave way to steam, -and within a few years steam has been largely supplanted by the electric -drive, with a tendency to a preponderance of individual motor-driven -machines. The electric drive, by the way, is an American invention. - -In 1830 Samuel Adams, of Boston, built a platen power press, which was -long the only power press capable of fine work and exact register. Not -long later S. P. Ruggles, of Boston, invented the Diamond, a small, -rapid machine for the quick production of cards, envelopes, and other -small work, and later, in 1839, the Ruggles rotary, a successful and -popular power jobber. In 1856 George P. Gordon began the line of Gordon -presses, still made in improved models by the Chandler & Price Company, -of Cleveland, and very extensively used. The advantages of the Gordon -were simplicity of design, a strong impression, high speed, and -lightness of running. - -In 1869 Merritt Gally invented the Universal press, using a different -mechanical system and producing a perfectly parallel impression. Gally’s -invention was later improved by John Thomson, who produced a machine -which has been extensively used and is well known as the John Thomson -press. In 1875 Gally also invented a heavy press for embossing, cutting, -and creasing heavy stock. In 1885 the Colt’s Armory universal press, a -very excellent machine especially adapted to heavy work, was placed on -the market. - -In 1885 Wellington P. Kidder invented a platen press of the Gordon type, -with automatic feed and delivery. - -In 1890 Albert Harris invented the Harris press, the first really -successful high-speed automatic jobber. Two other familiar high-speed -presses, the Auto Press and the Kelly, are small high-speed cylinders. - -The first known attempt to make a cylinder press was that of William -Nicholson, of London, who invented, in 1789, a machine that should apply -the paper to the type by means of a cylinder. As we have seen, Nicholson -went so far as to invent application of power to his machine, forseeing -that power would be necessary for the use of any successful cylinder -presses. Nicholson was not a printer, and his idea, although it had -attracted attention, did not assume practical shape. - -Ten years, or so, later Dr. Kinsley, a Connecticut man, developed -Nicholson’s idea and produced a cylinder press, which is described at -considerable length by Isaiah Thomas in his History of Printing. Thomas -seems to have been a good deal interested in the machine, although he -appears to have regarded it as promising rather than successful. He says -that it saved labor and did good work. He was sufficiently interested to -print a picture of it although his book is not otherwise illustrated. In -a general way it was not unlike a modern cylinder proof press. It -printed on one side only and was not so arranged as to secure perfect -register if an impression was desired on the other side. - -Several other attempts were made at the invention of cylinder presses, -which attracted considerable attention, but which were not commercially -successful. The first real success was made by Fredrick König, a native -of Saxony, who, in 1814, invented a cylinder press which was immediately -put into use in the press room of the _London Times_. König’s invention, -like most first inventions in a new field, was susceptible of -improvement, especially in the direction of simplicity. These -improvements, however, were soon made, and the cylinder press started on -its career of wonderful development. The first cylinder press used in -America was a Napier brought out from England in 1825, and set up in the -office of the _National Intelligencer_ in Washington. - -The development of the cylinder press in America is largely connected -with the name of Hoe. Robert Hoe, a Leicestershire farmer’s son, was -born in 1784, and in due time was apprenticed to a carpenter. In 1803 he -came to New York, where he worked at his trade. After a time he became -associated in business with his brother-in-law, Matthew Smith, Jr. Smith -was a carpenter and a printer’s joiner (that is to say, a maker of press -frames and other wood work used by printers) and a brother of Peter -Smith, the press inventor, who has already been mentioned. Through this -association the firm got into the business of building presses, first of -wood and later of iron. - -Both the Smiths died in 1823 and Hoe inherited the business, which he -carried on in the name of Robert Hoe & Company. Hoe was always -enterprising and his attention was quickly drawn to the Napier press, -which had been set up in Washington in 1825. As usual, this machine was -not patented in this country and Hoe proceeded to imitate it, with such -changes as occurred to him, and put on the market, in 1827 and 1828, the -first flat bed and cylinder press made in the United States. - -Robert Hoe retired on account of failing health in 1832, but he left the -business in the capable hands of Richard M. Hoe and Matthew Smith, the -son of Matthew, Jr., Robert Hoe’s original partner. The concern went on -building and improving presses and in 1842 they patented a new -bed-driving motion of which the well-known Meihle press of today is a -development. - -In 1845 Hoe & Company brought out the Hoe type-revolving machine. This -was the first press distinctively for large newspaper circulations, -which they afterward developed to so wonderful a degree, and which -henceforth was their leading line of production. In this machine the -type forms were imposed on turtles and fastened on a central cylinder, -against which revolved as many impression cylinders, from two to ten, as -were required. This machine put American printing machinery in the first -rank. In 1858 the Hoe firm bought out the Isaac Adams patents and -business. - -About this time two other important inventions were made, both of which -were later utilized by the Hoes. In 1853 Pratt built for the Brooklyn -_Daily Advertiser_ the first perfecting press, or press printing both -sides of the paper without removing the sheet. In 1860 William Bullock -began to experiment on a rotary self-feeding or web printing press, and -finally succeeded in achieving success in 1865. The Bullock machine was -self-feeding, but cut the sheets from a web before printing. - -In 1847 Hoe & Company began work on a rotary printing press to print -from the web without first cutting it into sheets. This involved all the -essential parts which had been discovered and gathered them into one -machine. The experiment was successful, resulting in the production of -the wonderful multiple press, which may be seen today in the press room -of any great newspaper. - -The invention of the Hoe press, the development of the autoplate, a -machine invented in 1900 by Henry A. Wise Wood, of New York, whereby the -process of stereotyping is made in a practical way subsidiary to -newspaper printing, and the invention of wood pulp paper have made -possible the modern newspaper. - - -We have thus very hastily traced the process of development in types and -presses in the United States. Much might be said, if space permitted and -the purpose of this series required it, of the invention of other -presses, appliances, and methods, and of the improvements which are -constantly being made in the tools and materials used in printing and -the allied industries. These matters, however, are of only secondary -historic interest. So much as the apprentice needs to know about them he -will learn in the course of his work, as he comes in contact with them -and learns their use. Perhaps the purpose of this book has been -sufficiently accomplished in showing the milestones along the historical -development of the two great tools of the printer, his type and his -press. - -The list which follows is a brief statement of the most important -contributions of American inventors to the art of printing: - - Web rotary presses. - Automatic stereotyping machines. - Printing machinery under electrical control. - Two-revolution cylinder presses. - Sheet feed rotary presses. - Multicolor presses. - Rotary direct and rotary offset presses for lithographic work. - -This, of course, includes only the inventions which are fundamental and -original. Improvements of some fundamental invention, made elsewhere or -earlier, are not included, although in this connection it is worth while -to mention one important thing which owes to America almost everything -except its original invention. This is process printing, both in black -and white and in colors. Process printing was not an American invention. -It is safe to say that it would be only a scientific experiment if it -had not been made practical by American inventions, such as coated -paper, first made for half-tone work by the Cumberland Mills Company for -Mr. De Vinne, ruling machines for half-tone work, which were first made -by Max Levy, of Philadelphia, about 1880, and three-color process -plates, which were first made by Frederick Ives, of Philadelphia, in -1881. - - - - - REVIEW QUESTIONS - SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS - - The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are - intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an - aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite - statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of - securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own - words. - - A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full - acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental - omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed - that nothing should be omitted. - - In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions - and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis - of frequent written work, and of final examinations. - - The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only - assures knowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge - correctly and in good form. - - If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form - it will be doubly useful. - - - QUESTIONS - -1. What general course of development do we find in the United States in -relation to European influence? - -2. How has this worked out in the case of type and presses? - -3. Who cast the first type made in this country? - -4. Who was Mitchelson, the type founder, and what did he do? - -5. Tell the story of Adam Buell. - -6. Tell about Benjamin Franklin’s attempt at type founding. - -7. Tell the story of the first successful type foundry in the United -States. - -8. Tell of the attempt of Mappa to start a type foundry in the United -States. - -9. What were the prospects for successful type founding in America about -1795? - -10. Tell the story of the starting of the first permanently successful -type foundry in America. - -11. What were the first steps taken to enlarge its facilities? - -12. What inventions did the senior partner work on? - -13. Give a brief sketch of the firm from the retirement of the senior -partner to the present time. - -14. What other type founder was at work in 1805, and what was he doing? - -15. Tell the story of the starting of the second successful type foundry -in the United States. - -16. Who were the Bruces, and how did they start in business? - -17. What did the Bruces do in 1814 and 1815? - -18. How did the Bruces become type founders? - -19. What improvement did the Bruces attempt in 1822, and with what -result? - -20. What was W. M. Johnson’s invention, and what became of it? - -21. What development took place in the type founding business, and what -was the result? - -22. Who was Augustus Ladew, and what did he do? - -23. Who was Louis Pelouze, and what did he do? - -24. What can you tell about the Boston Type Foundry? - -25. Tell about the work of J. W. Phinney. - -26. Who was Henry Barth, and what did he do? - -27. What do we owe to John Marder? - -28. What do we owe to L. R. Benton? - -29. What invention followed the work of Benton and Werner, and why? - -30. What need became acute in composing room, and what was done to meet -it? - -31. What invention changed the course of development along this line? - -32. Tell the story of Ottmar Mergenthaler. - -33. What did Tolbert Lanston invent? - -34. Tell the story of the discovery of the electrotyping process. - -35. Who was the first to apply this process to printing, and what were -the defects of his method? - -36. Give a sketch of the development of the process of electrotyping, -naming five principal inventions with dates. - -37. What was the greatest single step in advance, and when, where, and -by whom was it made? - -38. Where did the first American presses come from? - -39. How soon were presses made in America, and what were they like? - -40. Who was the best known American press builder before 1800, and what -improvement did he make? - -41. Who invented the iron press, and when? - -42. Who invented the Columbian hand press? - -43. What demand soon arose, and how was it met? - -44. Who invented the Washington hand press and when? - -45. What was the first attempt to use power in press operation? - -46. What was the first American attempt to use power in press operation? - -47. What sort of power was originally used? - -48. Tell about the inventions of Adams, Ruggles, and Gordon. - -49. Tell about the invention of Merritt Gally. - -50. What were the inventions of Kidder and Harris? - -51. What types of high-speed small presses are made? - -52. What was the first attempt to build a cylinder press? - -53. What was the first American attempt to build a cylinder press? - -54. Who invented the first successful cylinder press? - -55. Tell the story of Hoe & Co. down to 1845. - -56. What important invention did Hoe & Co. bring out in 1845? - -57. What were the inventions of Pratt and Bullock? - -58. What did Hoe & Co. produce in 1847? - -59. What did Henry A. Wise Wood invent? - -60. Give a list of the most important American inventions in printing -machinery. - -61. Why is the list not longer? - - - - - TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES - - -The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL -SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the -Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in -trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. - -Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of -authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers -of the United States—employers, journeymen, and apprentices—with a -comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, -up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the -printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. - -The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their -general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as -practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the -particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be -found under each title in the following list. - -Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in -each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary -information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the -subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, -with the purpose of bringing essential information within the -understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever -practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have -been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. - -In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use -in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is -accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of -the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the -subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. - -These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. - -Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED -TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. - - - - - PART I—_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ - - -1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart - -Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font -schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; -illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. - -2. =Compositors’ Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart - -A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass -rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 -review questions; glossary. - -3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart - -A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case -racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 -review questions; glossary. - -4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart - -Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the -press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; -illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. - -5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart - -A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for -taking printers’ proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; -glossary. - -6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker - -A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical -construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to -the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses -of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary. - -7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker - -Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of -cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; -glossary. - -8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier - -The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with -hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary. - -9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott - -A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and -allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; -illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. - -10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. - -A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever -cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper, -70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. - -11. =Printers’ Rollers= By A. A. Stewart - -A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of -inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary. - -12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton - -Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission -from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with -some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by -Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary. - -13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright - -A primer of information about the materials and processes of -manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 -review questions; glossary. - -14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan - -Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of -engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, half-tone; kind of copy for -reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; -review questions; glossary. - -15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. -Stewart - -A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and -stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. - - - - - PART II—_Hand and Machine Composition_ - - -16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart - -A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, -correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; -review questions; glossary. - -17. =Printers’ Proofs= By A. A. Stewart - -The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with -observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze - -Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, -especially about the important little things which go to make good -display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; glossary. - -19. =General Job Composition= - -How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and -miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell - -Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” revised -and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell of The -DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II: -Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; -glossary. - -21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver - -A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of -more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions. - -22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon - -Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, -calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables -and rules for computation, each subject amplified with examples and -exercises. 159 pp. - -23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor - -Section I—The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein - -Section II—The Monotype By Joseph Hays - -Section III—The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens - -Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. Smith - -A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their -mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary. - - - - - PART III—_Imposition and Stonework_ - - -24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry - -Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and -about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary. - -25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry - -Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of -handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review -questions; glossary. - - - - - PART IV—_Presswork_ - - -26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew - -The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features -of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the -impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other -details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew - -Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink -fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; -modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - -28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton - -Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions and -useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. 87 -pp.; 176 review questions. - -29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson - -A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, -the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; -illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. - - - - - PART V—_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ - - -30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin - -A primer of information about the various operations employed in binding -pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review questions; -glossary. - -31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger - -Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; -folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case -making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and -blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. - - - - - PART VI—_Correct Literary Composition_ - - -32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. 68 -pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. - -33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, -both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; -glossary. - -34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical -typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review -questions; glossary. - -35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton - -Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on -spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions. - -36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton - -A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, -and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. - -37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified -lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions. - -38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. 31 -pp.; 37 review questions. - -39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas - -The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, -revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by -examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. - -40. =Preparation of Printers’ Copy= By F. W. Hamilton - -Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing -copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. - -41. =Printers’ Manual of Style= - -A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions -relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, -numerals, and kindred features of composition. - -42. =The Printer’s Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart - -A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various -processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms -explained. Illustrated. - - - - - PART VII—_Design, Color, and Lettering_ - - -43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage - -A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the -periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of -harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety; -ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions; -glossary; bibliography. - -44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage - -Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material -of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. -Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design -of commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions; -glossary; bibliography. - -45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage - -Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster -effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process -engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in -which color may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, -scales and combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments -with color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review -questions; glossary; bibliography. - -46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage - -Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. -Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type -design. Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of -design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review -questions; glossary; bibliography. - -47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage - -The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising -is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, -attention, color. Method of studying advertising typography. -Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. - -48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage - -A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed -final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of -layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; -review questions; glossary; bibliography. - - - - - PART VIII—_History of Printing_ - - -49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the -history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; -illustrated; 64 review questions. - -50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton - -A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. 64 -pp.; 62 review questions. - -51. =History of Printing—Part I= By F. W. Hamilton - -A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the -development of the book, the development of printers’ materials, and the -work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. - -52. =History of Printing—Part II= By F. W. Hamilton - -A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from -1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal -conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions. - -53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton - -A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. -89 pp.; 65 review questions. - -54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton - -A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on -publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 -review questions. - -55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton - -A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press -building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. - - - - - PART IX—_Cost Finding and Accounting_ - - -56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter - -A primer of information about all the elements that contribute to the -cost of printing and their relation to each other. Review questions. -Glossary. - -57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter - -The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. -How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. - -58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter - -The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The -relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the -finished product. Review questions. Glossary. - -59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter - -The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. -Review questions. Glossary. - -60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter - -An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation -to selling. Review questions. Glossary. - -61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter - -A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books -and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. - - - - - PART X—_Miscellaneous_ - - -62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter - -Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; -practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules -for safety. - -63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton - -A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic -Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. - -64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton - -A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom -and shop work. - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid -co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the -printing business and its allied industries in the United States of -America. - -The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under -whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges -its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many -authors, printers, and others identified with this work. - -While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of -those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a -group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. - -The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have -co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting -the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the -Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee -hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each -volume. - -The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many -subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. - - COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, - UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. - - HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, - E. LAWRENCE FELL, - A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, - J. CLYDE OSWALD, - TOBY RUBOVITS. - - FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. - - - - - CONTRIBUTORS - - -=For Composition and Electrotypes= - - ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. - THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. - R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. - GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. - EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. - FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. - STEPHEN GREEN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. - J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York - THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. - POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. - EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. - C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. - -=For Composition= - - BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. - WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. - TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. - -=For Electrotypes= - - BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. - FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. - C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. - ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. - H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. - -=For Engravings= - - AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. - C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. - GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. - HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. - INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. - LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. - MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. - GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. - OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. - THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. - B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. - THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. - -=For Book Paper= - - AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. - WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. P. vii, changed “The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. - What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. - Review questions. Glossary.” to “A primer of information about all - the elements that contribute to the cost of printing and their - relation to each other. Review questions. Glossary.” - [See https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65596.] - 2. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in - spelling. - 3. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. - 4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPE AND PRESSES IN -AMERICA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |