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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:15:31 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:15:31 -0700 |
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diff --git a/674-h/674-h.htm b/674-h/674-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ceb495 --- /dev/null +++ b/674-h/674-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,65960 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>Plutarch’s Lives, by A. H. Clough | Project Gutenberg</title> +<style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + +body { margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + text-align: justify; } + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight: +normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 300%; + margin-top: 0.6em; + margin-bottom: 0.6em; + letter-spacing: 0.12em; + word-spacing: 0.2em; + text-indent: 0em;} +h2 {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +h3 {font-size: 130%; margin-top: 1em;} +h4 {font-size: 120%;} +h5 {font-size: 110%;} + +.no-break {page-break-before: avoid;} /* for epubs */ + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + +p {text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: 0.25em; + margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + +p.poem {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + font-size: 90%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +pre { font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 100%; margin-left: 10%;} +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 674 ***</div> + +<h1>PLUTARCH’S LIVES</h1> + +<h2 class="no-break">By A. H. Clough</h2> + +<hr /> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table summary="" style=""> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap01">THESEUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap02">ROMULUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap03">COMPARISON OF ROMULUS WITH THESEUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap04">LYCURGUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap05">NUMA POMPILIUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap06">COMPARISON OF NUMA WITH LYCURGUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap07">SOLON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap08">POPLICOLA</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap09">COMPARISON OF POPLICOLA WITH SOLON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap10">THEMISTOCLES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap11">CAMILLUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap12">PERICLES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap13">FABIUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap14">COMPARISON OF PERICLES WITH FABIUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap15">ALCIBIADES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap16">CORIOLANUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap17">COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES WITH CORIOLANUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap18">TIMOLEON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap19">AEMILIUS PAULUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap20">COMPARISON OF TIMOLEON WITH AEMILIUS PAULUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap21">PELOPIDAS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap22">MARCELLUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap23">COMPARISION OF PELOPIDAS WITH MARCELLUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap24">ARISTIDES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap25">MARCUS CATO</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap26">COMPARISON OF ARISTIDES WITH MARCUS CATO.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap27">PHILOPOEMEN</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap28">FLAMININUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap29">COMPARISON OF PHILOPOEMEN WITH FLAMININUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap30">PYRRHUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap31">CAIUS MARIUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap32">LYSANDER</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap33">SYLLA</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap34">COMPARISON OF LYSANDER WITH SYLLA</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap35">CIMON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap36">LUCULLUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap37">COMPARISON OF LUCULLUS WITH CIMON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap38">NICIAS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap39">CRASSUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap40">COMPARISON OF CRASSUS WITH NICIAS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap41">SERTORIUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap42">EUMENES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap43">COMPARISON OF SERTORIUS WITH EUMENES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap44">AGESILAUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap45">POMPEY</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap46">COMPARISON OF POMPEY AND AGESILAUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap47">ALEXANDER</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap48">CAESAR</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap49">PHOCION</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap50">CATO THE YOUNGER</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap51">AGIS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap52">CLEOMENES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap53">TIBERIUS GRACCHUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap54">CAIUS GRACCHUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap55">COMPARISON OF TIBERIUS AND CAIUS GRACCHUS WITH AGIS AND CLEOMENES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap56">DEMOSTHENES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap57">CICERO</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap58">COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap59">DEMETRIUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap60">ANTONY</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap61">COMPARISON OF DEMETRIUS AND ANTONY</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap62">DION</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap63">MARCUS BRUTUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap64">COMPARISON OF DION AND BRUTUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap65">ARATUS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap66">ARTAXERXES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap67">GALBA</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap68">OTHO</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<hr /> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap01"></a>THESEUS</h2> + +<p> +As geographers, Sosius, crowd into the edges of their maps parts of the world +which they do not know about, adding notes in the margin to the effect, that +beyond this lies nothing but sandy deserts full of wild beasts, unapproachable +bogs, Scythian ice, or a frozen sea, so, in this work of mine, in which I have +compared the lives of the greatest men with one another, after passing through +those periods which probable reasoning can reach to and real history find a +footing in, I might very well say of those that are farther off, Beyond this +there is nothing but prodigies and fictions, the only inhabitants are the poets +and inventors of fables; there is no credit, or certainty any farther. Yet, +after publishing an account of Lycurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, I +thought I might, not without reason, ascend as high as to Romulus, being +brought by my history so near to his time. Considering therefore with myself +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Whom shall I set so great a man to face?<br/> +Or whom oppose? who’s equal to the place? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +(as Aeschylus expresses it), I found none so fit as him that peopled the +beautiful and far-famed city of Athens, to be set in opposition with the father +of the invincible and renowned city of Rome. Let us hope that Fable may, in +what shall follow, so submit to the purifying processes of Reason as to take +the character of exact history. In any case, however, where it shall be found +contumaciously slighting credibility, and refusing to be reduced to anything +like probable fact, we shall beg that we may meet with candid readers, and such +as will receive with indulgence the stories of antiquity. +</p> + +<p> +Theseus seemed to me to resemble Romulus in many particulars. Both of them, +born out of wedlock and of uncertain parentage, had the repute of being sprung +from the gods. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Both warriors; that by all the world’s allowed. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Both of them united with strength of body an equal vigor mind; and of the two +most famous cities of the world the one built Rome, and the other made Athens +be inhabited. Both stand charged with the rape of women; neither of them could +avoid domestic misfortunes nor jealousy at home; but towards the close of their +lives are both of them said to have incurred great odium with their countrymen, +if, that is, we may take the stories least like poetry as our guide to the +truth. +</p> + +<p> +The lineage of Theseus, by his father’s side, ascends as high as to Erechtheus +and the first inhabitants of Attica. By his mother’s side he was descended of +Pelops. For Pelops was the most powerful of all the kings of Peloponnesus, not +so much by the greatness of his riches as the multitude of his children, having +married many daughters to chief men, and put many sons in places of command in +the towns round about him. One of whom named Pittheus, grandfather to Theseus, +was governor of the small city of the Troezenians, and had the repute of a man +of the greatest knowledge and wisdom of his time; which then, it seems, +consisted chiefly in grave maxims, such as the poet Hesiod got his great fame +by, in his book of Works and Days. And, indeed, among these is one that they +ascribe to Pittheus,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Unto a friend suffice<br/> +A stipulated price; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +which, also, Aristotle mentions. And Euripides, by calling Hippolytus “scholar +of the holy Pittheus,” shows the opinion that the world had of him. +</p> + +<p> +Aegeus, being desirous of children, and consulting the oracle of Delphi, +received the celebrated answer which forbade him the company of any woman +before his return to Athens. But the oracle being so obscure as not to satisfy +him that he was clearly forbid this, he went to Troezen, and communicated to +Pittheus the voice of the god, which was in this manner,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Loose not the wine-skin foot, thou chief of men,<br/> +Until to Athens thou art come again. +</p> + +<p> +Pittheus, therefore, taking advantage from the obscurity of the oracle, +prevailed upon him, it is uncertain whether by persuasion or deceit, to lie +with his daughter Aethra. Aegeus afterwards, knowing her whom he had lain with +to be Pittheus’s daughter, and suspecting her to be with child by him, left a +sword and a pair of shoes, hiding them under a great stone that had a hollow in +it exactly fitting them; and went away making her only privy to it, and +commanding her, if she brought forth a son who, when he came to man’s estate, +should be able to lift up the stone and take away what he had left there, she +should send him away to him with those things with all secrecy, and with +injunctions to him as much as possible to conceal his journey from every one; +for he greatly feared the Pallantidae, who were continually mutinying against +him, and despised him for his want of children, they themselves being fifty +brothers, all sons of Pallas. +</p> + +<p> +When Aethra was delivered of a son, some say that he was immediately named +Theseus, from the tokens which his father had put under the stone; others that +he received his name afterwards at Athens, when Aegeus acknowledged him for his +son. He was brought up under his grandfather Pittheus, and had a tutor and +attendant set over him named Connidas, to whom the Athenians, even to this +time, the day before the feast that is dedicated to Theseus, sacrifice a ram, +giving this honor to his memory upon much juster grounds than to Silanio and +Parrhasius, for making pictures and statues of Theseus. There being then a +custom for the Grecian youth, upon their first coming to man’s estate, to go to +Delphi and offer first-fruits of their hair to the god, Theseus also went +thither, and a place there to this day is yet named Thesea, as it is said, from +him. He clipped only the fore part of his head, as Homer says the Abantes did.% +And this sort of tonsure was from him named Theseis. The Abantes first used it, +not in imitation of the Arabians, as some imagine, nor of the Mysians, but +because they were a warlike people, and used to close fighting, and above all +other nations accustomed to engage hand to hand; as Archilochus testifies in +these verses: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Slings shall not whirl, nor many arrows fly,<br/> +When on the plain the battle joins; but swords,<br/> +Man against man, the deadly conflict try,<br/> +As is the practice of Euboea’s lords<br/> +Skilled with the spear.— +</p> + +<p> +Therefore that they might not give their enemies a hold by their hair, they cut +it in this manner. They write also that this was the reason why Alexander gave +command to his captains that all the beards of the Macedonians should be +shaved, as being the readiest hold for an enemy. +</p> + +<p> +Aethra for some time concealed the true parentage of Theseus, and a report was +given out by Pittheus that he was begotten by Neptune; for the Troezenians pay +Neptune the highest veneration. He is their tutelar god, to him they offer all +their first-fruits, and in his honor stamp their money with a trident. +</p> + +<p> +Theseus displaying not only great strength of body, but equal bravery, and a +quickness alike and force of understanding, his mother Aethra, conducting him +to the stone, and informing him who was his true father, commanded him to take +from thence the tokens that Aegeus had left, and to sail to Athens. He without +any difficulty set himself to the stone and lifted it up; but refused to take +his journey by sea, though it was much the safer way, and though his mother and +grandfather begged him to do so. For it was at that time very dangerous to go +by land on the road to Athens, no part of it being free from robbers and +murderers. That age produced a sort of men, in force of hand, and swiftness of +foot, and strength of body, excelling the ordinary rate, and wholly incapable +of fatigue; making use, however, of these gifts of nature to no good or +profitable purpose for mankind, but rejoicing and priding themselves in +insolence, and taking the benefit of their superior strength in the exercise of +inhumanity and cruelty, and in seizing, forcing, and committing all manner of +outrages upon every thing that fell into their hands; all respect for others, +all justice, they thought, all equity and humanity, though naturally lauded by +common people, either out of want of courage to commit injuries or fear to +receive them, yet no way concerned those who were strong enough to win for +themselves. Some of these, Hercules destroyed and cut off in his passage +through these countries, but some, escaping his notice while he was passing by, +fled and hid themselves, or else were spared by him in contempt of their abject +submission; and after that Hercules fell into misfortune, and, having slain +Iphitus, retired to Lydia, and for a long time was there slave to Omphale, a +punishment which he had imposed upon himself for the murder, then, indeed, +Lydia enjoyed high peace and security, but in Greece and the countries about it +the like villanies again revived and broke out, there being none to repress or +chastise them. It was therefore a very hazardous journey to travel by land from +Athens to Peloponnesus; and Pittheus, giving him an exact account of each of +these robbers and villains, their strength, and the cruelty they used to all +strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to go by sea. But he, it seems, had long +since been secretly fired by the glory of Hercules, held him in the highest +estimation, and was never more satisfied than in listening to any that gave an +account of him; especially those that had seen him, or had been present at any +action or saying of his. So that he was altogether in the same state of feeling +as, in after ages, Themistocles was, when he said that he could not sleep for +the trophy of Miltiades; entertaining such admiration for the virtue of +Hercules, that in the night his dreams were all of that hero’s actions. and in +the day a continual emulation stirred him up to perform the like. Besides, they +were related, being born of cousins-german. For Aethra was daughter of +Pittheus, and Alcmena of Lysidice; and Lysidice and Pittheus were brother and +sister, children of Hippodamia and Pelops. He thought it therefore a +dishonorable thing, and not to be endured, that Hercules should go out +everywhere, and purge both land and sea from wicked men, and he himself should +fly from the like adventures that actually came in his way; disgracing his +reputed father by a mean flight by sea, and not showing his true one as good +evidence of the greatness of his birth by noble and worthy actions, as by the +tokens that he brought with him, the shoes and the sword. +</p> + +<p> +With this mind and these thoughts, he set forward with a design to do injury to +nobody, but to repel and revenge himself of all those that should offer any. +And first of all, in a set combat, he slew Periphetes, in the neighborhood of +Epidaurus, who used a club for his arms, and from thence had the name of +Corynetes, or the club-bearer; who seized upon him, and forbade him to go +forward in his journey. Being pleased with the club, he took it, and made it +his weapon, continuing to use it as Hercules did the lion’s skin, on whose +shoulders that served to prove how huge a beast he had killed; and to the same +end Theseus carried about him this club; overcome indeed by him, but now, in +his hands, invincible. +</p> + +<p> +Passing on further towards the Isthmus of Peloponnesus, he slew Sinnis, often +surnamed the Bender of Pines, after the same manner in which he himself had +destroyed many others before. And this he did without having either practiced +or ever learnt the art of bending these trees, to show that natural strength is +above all art. This Sinnis had a daughter of remarkable beauty and stature, +called Perigune, who, when her father was killed, fled, and was sought after +everywhere by Theseus; and coming into a place overgrown with brushwood shrubs, +and asparagus- thorn, there, in a childlike, innocent manner, prayed and begged +them, as if they understood her, to give her shelter, with vows that if she +escaped she would never cut them down nor burn them. But Theseus calling upon +her, and giving her his promise that he would use her with respect, and offer +her no injury, she came forth, and in due time bore him a son, named +Melanippus; but afterwards was married to Deioneus, the son of Eurytus, the +Oechalian, Theseus himself giving her to him. Ioxus, the son of this Melanippus +who was born to Theseus, accompanied Ornytus in the colony that he carried with +him into Caria, whence it is a family usage amongst the people called Ioxids, +both male and female, never to burn either shrubs or asparagus-thorn, but to +respect and honor them. +</p> + +<p> +The Crommyonian sow, which they called Phaea, was a savage and formidable wild +beast, by no means an enemy to be despised. Theseus killed her, going out of +his way on purpose to meet and engage her, so that he might not seem to perform +all his great exploits out of mere necessity ; being also of opinion that it +was the part of a brave man to chastise villainous and wicked men when attacked +by them, but to seek out and overcome the more noble wild beasts. Others relate +that Phaea was a woman, a robber full of cruelty and lust, that lived in +Crommyon, and had the name of Sow given her from the foulness of her life and +manners, and afterwards was killed by Theseus. He slew also Sciron, upon the +borders of Megara, casting him down from the rocks, being, as most report, a +notorious robber of all passengers, and, as others add, accustomed, out of +insolence and wantonness, to stretch forth his feet to strangers, commanding +them to wash them, and then while they did it, with a kick to send them down +the rock into the sea. The writers of Megara, however, in contradiction to the +received report, and, as Simonides expresses it, “fighting with all antiquity,” +contend that Sciron was neither a robber nor doer of violence, but a punisher +of all such, and the relative and friend of good and just men; for Aeacus, they +say, was ever esteemed a man of the greatest sanctity of all the Greeks; and +Cychreus, the Salaminian, was honored at Athens with divine worship; and the +virtues of Peleus and Telamon were not unknown to any one. Now Sciron was +son-in-law to Cychreus, father-in-law to Aeacus, and grandfather to Peleus and +Telamon, who were both of them sons of Endeis, the daughter of Sciron and +Chariclo; it was not probable, therefore, that the best of men should make +these alliances with one who was worst, giving and receiving mutually what was +of greatest value and most dear to them. Theseus, by their account, did not +slay Sciron in his first journey to Athens, but afterwards, when he took +Eleusis, a city of the Megarians, having circumvented Diocles, the governor. +Such are the contradictions in this story. In Eleusis he killed Cercyon, the +Arcadian, in a wrestling match. And going on a little farther, in Erineus, he +slew Damastes, otherwise called Procrustes, forcing his body to the size of his +own bed, as he himself was used to do with all strangers; this he did in +imitation of Hercules, who always returned upon his assailants the same sort of +violence that they offered to him; sacrificed Busiris, killed Antaeus in +wrestling, and Cycnus in single combat, and Termerus by breaking his skull in +pieces (whence, they say, comes the proverb of “a Termerian mischief”), for it +seems Termerus killed passengers that he met, by running with his head against +them. And so also Theseus proceeded in the punishment of evil men, who +underwent the same violence from him which they had inflicted upon others, +justly suffering after the manner of their own injustice. +</p> + +<p> +As he went forward on his journey, and was come as far as the river Cephisus, +some of the race of the Phytalidae met him and saluted him, and, upon his +desire to use the purifications, then in custom, they performed them with all +the usual ceremonies, and, having offered propitiatory sacrifices to the gods, +invited him and entertained him at their house, a kindness which, in all his +journey hitherto, he had not met. +</p> + +<p> +On the eighth day of Cronius, now called Hecatombaeon, he arrived at Athens, +where he found the public affairs full of all confusion, and divided into +parties and factions, Aegeus also, and his whole private family, laboring under +the same distemper; for Medea, having fled from Corinth, and promised Aegeus to +make him, by her art, capable of having children, was living with him. She +first was aware of Theseus, whom as yet Aegeus did not know, and he being in +years, full of jealousies and suspicions, and fearing every thing by reason of +the faction that was then in the city, she easily persuaded him to kill him by +poison at a banquet, to which he was to be invited as a stranger. He, coming to +the entertainment, thought it not fit to discover himself at once, but, willing +to give his father the occasion of first finding him out, the meat being on the +table, he drew his sword as if he designed to cut with it; Aegeus, at once +recognizing the token, threw down the cup of poison, and, questioning his son, +embraced him, and, having gathered together all his citizens, owned him +publicly before them, who, on their part, received him gladly for the fame of +his greatness and bravery; and it is said, that when the cup fell, the poison +was spilt there where now is the enclosed space in the Delphinium; for in that +place stood Aegeus’s house, and the figure of Mercury on the east side of the +temple is called the Mercury of Aegeus’s gate. +</p> + +<p> +The sons of Pallas, who before were quiet, upon expectation of recovering the +kingdom after Aegeus’s death, who was without issue, as soon as Theseus +appeared and was acknowledged the successor, highly resenting that Aegeus +first, an adopted son only of Pandion, and not at all related to the family of +Erechtheus, should be holding the kingdom, and that after him, Theseus, a +visitor and stranger, should be destined to succeed to it, broke out into open +war. And, dividing themselves into two companies, one part of them marched +openly from Sphettus, with their father, against the city, the other, hiding +themselves in the village of Gargettus, lay in ambush, with a design to set +upon the enemy on both sides. They had with them a crier of the township of +Agnus, named Leos, who discovered to Theseus all the designs of the Pallantidae +He immediately fell upon those that lay in ambuscade, and cut them all off; +upon tidings of which Pallas and his company fled and were dispersed. +</p> + +<p> +From hence they say is derived the custom among the people of the township of +Pallene to have no marriages or any alliance with the people of Agnus, nor to +suffer the criers to pronounce in their proclamations the words used in all +other parts of the country, Acouete Leoi (Hear ye people), hating the very +sound of Leo, because of the treason of Leos. +</p> + +<p> +Theseus, longing to be in action, and desirous also to make himself popular, +left Athens to fight with the bull of Marathon, which did no small mischief to +the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. And having overcome it, he brought it alive in +triumph through the city, and afterwards sacrificed it to the Delphinian +Apollo. The story of Hecale, also, of her receiving and entertaining Theseus in +this expedition, seems to be not altogether void of truth; for the townships +round about, meeting upon a certain day, used to offer a sacrifice, which they +called Hecalesia, to Jupiter Hecaleius, and to pay honor to Hecale, whom, by a +diminutive name, they called Hecalene, because she, while entertaining Theseus, +who was quite a youth, addressed him, as old people do, with similar endearing +diminutives; and having made a vow to Jupiter for him as he was going to the +fight, that, if he returned in safety, she would offer sacrifices in thanks of +it, and dying before he came back, she had these honors given her by way of +return for her hospitality, by the command of Theseus, as Philochorus tells us. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after arrived the third time from Crete the collectors of the tribute +which the Athenians paid them upon the following occasion. Androgeus having +been treacherously murdered in the confines of Attica, not only Minos, his +father, put the Athenians to extreme distress by a perpetual war, but the gods +also laid waste their country both famine and pestilence lay heavy upon them, +and even their rivers were dried up. Being told by the oracle that, if they +appeased and reconciled Minos, the anger of the gods would cease and they +should enjoy rest from the miseries they labored under, they sent heralds, and +with much supplication were at last reconciled, entering into an agreement to +send to Crete every nine years a tribute of seven young men and as many +virgins, as most writers agree in stating; and the most poetical story adds, +that the Minotaur destroyed them, or that, wandering in the labyrinth, and +finding no possible means of getting out, they miserably ended their lives +there; and that this Minotaur was (as Euripides hath it) +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +A mingled form, where two strange shapes combined,<br/> +And different natures, bull and man, were joined. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But Philochorus says that the Cretans will by no means allow the truth of this, +but say that the labyrinth was only an ordinary prison, having no other bad +quality but that it secured the prisoners from escaping, and that Minos, having +instituted games in honor of Androgeus, gave, as a reward to the victors, these +youths, who in the mean time were kept in the labyrinth; and that the first +that overcame in those games was one of the greatest power and command among +them, named Taurus, a man of no merciful or gentle disposition, who treated the +Athenians that were made his prize in a proud and cruel manner. Also Aristotle +himself, in the account that he gives of the form of government of the +Bottiaeans, is manifestly of opinion that the youths were not slain by Minos, +but spent the remainder of their days in slavery in Crete; that the Cretans, in +former times, to acquit themselves of an ancient vow which they had made, were +used to send an offering of the first-fruits of their men to Delphi, and that +some descendants of these Athenian slaves were mingled with them and sent +amongst them, and, unable to get their living there, removed from thence, first +into Italy, and settled about Japygia; from thence again, that they removed to +Thrace, and were named Bottiaeans and that this is the reason why, in a certain +sacrifice, the Bottiaean girls sing a hymn beginning Let us go to Athens. This +may show us how dangerous a thing it is to incur the hostility of a city that +is mistress of eloquence and song. For Minos was always ill spoken of, and +represented ever as a very wicked man, in the Athenian theaters; neither did +Hesiod avail him by calling him “the most royal Minos,” nor Homer, who styles +him “Jupiter’s familiar friend;” the tragedians got the better, and from the +vantage ground of the stage showered down obloquy upon him, as a man of cruelty +and violence; whereas, in fact, he appears to have been a king and a lawgiver, +and Rhadamanthus a judge under him, administering the statutes that he +ordained. +</p> + +<p> +Now when the time of the third tribute was come, and the fathers who had any +young men for their sons were to proceed by lot to the choice of those that +were to be sent, there arose fresh discontents and accusations against Aegeus +among the people, who were full of grief and indignation that he, who was the +cause of all their miseries, was the only person exempt from the punishment; +adopting and settling his kingdom upon a bastard and foreign son, he took no +thought, they said, of their destitution and loss, not of bastards, but lawful +children. These things sensibly affected Theseus, who, thinking it but just not +to disregard, but rather partake of, the sufferings of his fellow citizens, +offered himself for one without any lot. All else were struck with admiration +for the nobleness and with love for the goodness of the act; and Aegeus, after +prayers and entreaties, finding him inflexible and not to be persuaded, +proceeded to the choosing of the rest by lot. Hellanicus, however, tells us +that the Athenians did not send the young men and virgins by lot, but that +Minos himself used to come and make his own choice, and pitched upon Theseus +before all others; according to the conditions agreed upon between them, +namely, that the Athenians should furnish them with a ship, and that the young +men that were to sail with him should carry no weapon of war; but that if the +Minotaur was destroyed, the tribute should cease. +</p> + +<p> +On the two former occasions of the payment of the tribute, entertaining no +hopes of safety or return, they sent out the ship with a black sail, as to +unavoidable destruction; but now, Theseus encouraging his father and speaking +greatly of himself, as confident that he should kill the Minotaur, he gave the +pilot another sail, which was white, commanding him, as he returned, if Theseus +were safe, to make use of that; but if not, to sail with the black one, and to +hang out that sign of his misfortune. Simonides says that the sail which Aegeus +delivered to the pilot was not white, but +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Scarlet, in the juicy bloom<br/> +Of the living oak-tree steeped, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and that this was to be the sign of their escape. Phereclus, son of Amarsyas, +according to Simonides, was pilot of the ship. But Philochorus says Theseus had +sent him by Scirus, from Salamis, Nausithous to be his steersman, and Phaeax +his look-out-man in the prow, the Athenians having as yet not applied +themselves to navigation; and that Scirus did this because one of the young +men, Menesthes, was his daughter’s son; and this the chapels of Nausithous and +Phaeax, built by Theseus near the temple of Scirus, confirm. He adds, also, +that the feast named Cybernesia was in honor of them. The lot being cast, and +Theseus having received out of the Prytaneum those upon whom it fell, he went +to the Delphinium, and made an offering for them to Apollo of his suppliant’s +badge, which was a bough of a consecrated olive tree, with white wool tied +about it. +</p> + +<p> +Having thus performed his devotion, he went to sea, the sixth day of Munychion, +on which day even to this time the Athenians send their virgins to the same +temple to make supplication to the gods. It is farther reported that he was +commanded by the oracle at Delphi to make Venus his guide, and to invoke her as +the companion and conductress of his voyage, and that, as he was sacrificing a +she goat to her by the seaside, it was suddenly changed into a he, and for this +cause that goddess had the name of Epitrapia. +</p> + +<p> +When he arrived at Crete, as most of the ancient historians as well as poets +tell us, having a clue of thread given him by Ariadne, who had fallen in love +with him, and being instructed by her how to use it so as to conduct him +through the windings of the labyrinth, he escaped out of it and slew the +Minotaur, and sailed back, taking along with him Ariadne and the young Athenian +captives. Pherecydes adds that he bored holes in the bottoms of the Cretan +ships to hinder their pursuit. Demon writes that Taurus, the chief captain of +Minos, was slain by Theseus at the mouth of the port, in a naval combat, as he +was sailing out for Athens. But Philochorus gives us the story thus: That at +the setting forth of the yearly games by king Minos, Taurus was expected to +carry away the prize, as he had done before; and was much grudged the honor. +His character and manners made his power hateful, and he was accused moreover +of too near familiarity with Pasiphae, for which reason, when Theseus desired +the combat, Minos readily complied. And as it was a custom in Crete that the +women also should be admitted to the sight of these games, Ariadne, being +present, was struck with admiration of the manly beauty of Theseus, and the +vigor and address which he showed in the combat, overcoming all that +encountered with him. Minos, too, being extremely pleased with him, especially +because he had overthrown and disgraced Taurus, voluntarily gave up the young +captives to Theseus, and remitted the tribute to the Athenians. Clidemus gives +an account peculiar to himself, very ambitiously, and beginning a great way +back: That it was a decree consented to by all Greece, that no vessel from any +place, containing above five persons, should be permitted to sail, Jason only +excepted, who was made captain of the great ship Argo, to sail about and scour +the sea of pirates. But Daedalus having escaped from Crete, and flying by sea +to Athens, Minos, contrary to this decree, pursued him with his ships of war, +was forced by a storm upon Sicily, and there ended his life. After his decease, +Deucalion, his son, desiring a quarrel with the Athenians, sent to them, +demanding that they should deliver up Daedalus to him, threatening, upon their +refusal, to put to death all the young Athenians whom his father had received +as hostages from the city. To this angry message Theseus returned a very gentle +answer, excusing himself that he could not deliver up Daedalus, who was nearly +related to him, being his cousin-german, his mother being Merope, the daughter +of Erechtheus. In the meanwhile he secretly prepared a navy, part of it at home +near the village of the Thymoetadae, a place of no resort, and far from any +common roads, the other part by his grandfather Pittheus’s means at Troezen, +that so his design might be carried on with the greatest secrecy. As soon as +ever his fleet was in readiness, he set sail, having with him Daedalus and +other exiles from Crete for his guides; and none of the Cretans having any +knowledge of his coming, but imagining, when they saw his fleet, that they were +friends and vessels of their own, he soon made himself master of the port, and, +immediately making a descent, reached Gnossus before any notice of his coming, +and, in a battle before the gates of the labyrinth, put Deucalion and all his +guards to the sword. The government by this means falling to Ariadne, he made a +league with her, and received the captives of her, and ratified a perpetual +friendship between the Athenians and the Cretans, whom he engaged under an oath +never again to commence any war with Athens. +</p> + +<p> +There are yet many other traditions about these things, and as many concerning +Ariadne, all inconsistent with each other. Some relate that she hung herself, +being deserted by Theseus. Others that she was carried away by his sailors to +the isle of Naxos, and married to Oenarus, priest of Bacchus; and that Theseus +left her because he fell in love with another, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For Aegle’s love was burning in his breast; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +a verse which Hereas, the Megarian, says, was formerly in the poet Hesiod’s +works, but put out by Pisistratus, in like manner as he added in Homer’s +Raising of the Dead, to gratify the Athenians, the line +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Theseus, Pirithous, mighty sons of gods. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Others say Ariadne had sons also by Theseus, Oenopion and Staphylus; and among +these is the poet Ion of Chios, who writes of his own native city +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Which once Oenopion, son of Theseus, built. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But the more famous of the legendary stories everybody (as I may say) has in +his mouth. In Paeon, however, the Amathusian, there is a story given, differing +from the rest. For he writes that Theseus, being driven by a storm upon the +isle of Cyprus, and having aboard with him Ariadne, big with child, and +extremely discomposed with the rolling of the sea, set her on shore, and left +her there alone, to return himself and help the ship, when, on a sudden, a +violent wind carried him again out to sea. That the women of the island +received Ariadne very kindly, and did all they could to console and alleviate +her distress at being left behind. That they counterfeited kind letters, and +delivered them to her, as sent from Theseus, and, when she fell in labor, were +diligent in performing to her every needful service; but that she died before +she could be delivered, and was honorably interred. That soon after Theseus +returned, and was greatly afflicted for her loss, and at his departure left a +sum of money among the people of the island, ordering them to do sacrifice to +Ariadne; and caused two little images to be made and dedicated to her, one of +silver and the other of brass. Moreover, that on the second day of Gorpiaeus, +which is sacred to Ariadne, they have this ceremony among their sacrifices, to +have a youth lie down and with his voice and gesture represent the pains of a +woman in travail; and that the Amathusians call the grove in which they show +her tomb, the grove of Venus Ariadne. +</p> + +<p> +Differing yet from this account, some of the Naxians write that there were two +Minoses and two Ariadnes, one of whom, they say, was married to Bacchus, in the +isle of Naxos, and bore the children Staphylus and his brother; but that the +other, of a later age, was carried off by Theseus, and, being afterwards +deserted by him, retired to Naxos with her nurse Corcyna, whose grave they yet +show. That this Ariadne also died there, and was worshiped by the island, but +in a different manner from the former; for her day is celebrated with general +joy and revelling, but all the sacrifices performed to the latter are attended +with mourning and gloom. +</p> + +<p> +Now Theseus, in his return from Crete, put in at Delos, and, having sacrificed +to the god of the island, dedicated to the temple the image of Venus which +Ariadne had given him, and danced with the young Athenians a dance that, in +memory of him, they say is still preserved among the inhabitants of Delos, +consisting in certain measured turnings and returnings, imitative of the +windings and twistings of the labyrinth. And this dance, as Dicaearchus writes, +is called among the Delians, the Crane. This he danced round the Ceratonian +Altar, so called from its consisting of horns taken from the left side of the +head. They say also that he instituted games in Delos where he was the first +that began the custom of giving a palm to the victors. +</p> + +<p> +When they were come near the coast of Attica, so great was the joy for the +happy success of their voyage, that neither Theseus himself nor the pilot +remembered to hang out the sail which should have been the token of their +safety to Aegeus, who, in despair at the sight, threw himself headlong from a +rock, and perished in the sea. But Theseus, being arrived at the port of +Phalerum, paid there the sacrifices which he had vowed to the gods at his +setting out to sea, and sent a herald to the city to carry the news of his safe +return. At his entrance, the herald found the people for the most part full of +grief for the loss of their king, others, as may well be believed, as full of +joy for the tidings that he brought, and eager to welcome him and crown him +with garlands for his good news, which he indeed accepted of, but hung them +upon his herald’s staff; and thus returning to the seaside before Theseus had +finished his libation to the gods, he stayed apart for fear of disturbing the +holy rites, but, as soon as the libation was ended, went up and related the +king’s death, upon the hearing of which, with great lamentations and a confused +tumult of grief, they ran with all haste to the city. And from hence, they say, +it comes that at this day, in the feast of Oschophoria, the herald is not +crowned, but his staff, and all who are present at the libation cry out eleleu +iou iou, the first of which confused sounds is commonly used by men in haste, +or at a triumph, the other is proper to people in consternation or disorder of +mind. +</p> + +<p> +Theseus, after the funeral of his father, paid his vows to Apollo the seventh +day of Pyanepsion; for on that day the youth that returned with him safe from +Crete made their entry into the city. They say, also, that the custom of +boiling pulse at this feast is derived from hence; because the young men that +escaped put all that was left of their provision together, and, boiling it in +one common pot, feasted themselves with it, and ate it all up together. Hence, +also, they carry in procession an olive branch bound about with wool (such as +they then made use of in their supplications), which they call Eiresione, +crowned with all sorts of fruits, to signify that scarcity and barrenness was +ceased, singing in their procession this song: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Eiresione bring figs, and Eiresione bring loaves;<br/> +Bring us honey in pints, and oil to rub on our bodies,<br/> +And a strong flagon of wine, for all to go mellow to bed on. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Although some hold opinion that this ceremony is retained in memory of the +Heraclidae, who were thus entertained and brought up by the Athenians. But most +are of the opinion which we have given above. +</p> + +<p> +The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, and +was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus, +for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger +timber in their place, insomuch that this ship became a standing example among +the philosophers, for the logical question as to things that grow; one side +holding that the ship remained the same, and the other contending that it was +not the same. +</p> + +<p> +The feast called Oschophoria, or the feast of boughs, which to this day the +Athenians celebrate, was then first instituted by Theseus. For he took not with +him the full number of virgins which by lot were to be carried away, but +selected two youths of his acquaintance, of fair and womanish faces, but of a +manly and forward spirit, and having, by frequent baths, and avoiding the heat +and scorching of the sun, with a constant use of all the ointments and washes +and dresses that serve to the adorning of the head or smoothing the skin or +improving the complexion, in a manner changed them from what they were before, +and having taught them farther to counterfeit the very voice and carriage and +gait of virgins, so that there could not be the least difference perceived; he, +undiscovered by any, put them into the number of the Athenian maids designed +for Crete. At his return, he and these two youths led up a solemn procession, +in the same habit that is now worn by those who carry the vine-branches. These +branches they carry in honor of Bacchus and Ariadne, for the sake of their +story before related; or rather because they happened to return in autumn, the +time of gathering the grapes. The women whom they call Deipnopherae, or +supper-carriers, are taken into these ceremonies, and assist at the sacrifice, +in remembrance and imitation of the mothers of the young men and virgins upon +whom the lot fell, for thus they ran about bringing bread and meat to their +children; and because the women then told their sons and daughters many tales +and stories, to comfort and encourage them under the danger they were going +upon, it has still continued a custom that at this feast old fables and tales +should be told. For these particularities we are indebted to the history of +Demon. There was then a place chosen out, and a temple erected in it to +Theseus, and those families out of whom the tribute of the youth was gathered +were appointed to pay a tax to the temple for sacrifices to him. And the house +of the Phytalidae had the overseeing of these sacrifices, Theseus doing them +that honor in recompense of their former hospitality. +</p> + +<p> +Now, after the death of his father Aegeus, forming in his mind a great and +wonderful design, he gathered together all the inhabitants of Attica into one +town, and made them one people of one city, whereas before they lived +dispersed, and were not easy to assemble upon any affair for the common +interest. Nay, differences and even wars often occurred between them, which he +by his persuasions appeased, going from township to township, and from tribe to +tribe. And those of a more private and mean condition readily embracing such +good advice, to those of greater power he promised a commonwealth without +monarchy, a democracy, or people’s government in which he should only be +continued as their commander in war and the protector of their laws, all things +else being equally distributed among them; and by this means brought a part of +them over to his proposal. The rest, fearing his power, which was already grown +very formidable, and knowing his courage and resolution, chose rather to be +persuaded than forced into a compliance. He then dissolved all the distinct +state-houses, council halls, and magistracies, and built one common state-house +and council hall on the site of the present upper town, and gave the name of +Athens to the whole state, ordaining a common feast and sacrifice, which he +called Panathenaea, or the sacrifice of all the united Athenians. He instituted +also another sacrifice, called Metoecia, or Feast of Migration, which is yet +celebrated on the sixteenth day of Hecatombaeon. Then, as he had promised, he +laid down his regal power and proceeded to order a commonwealth, entering upon +this great work not without advice from the gods. For having sent to consult +the oracle of Delphi concerning the fortune of his new government and city, he +received this answer: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Son of the Pitthean maid,<br/> +To your town the terms and fates,<br/> +My father gives of many states.<br/> +Be not anxious nor afraid;<br/> +The bladder will not fail so swim<br/> +On the waves that compass him. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Which oracle, they say, one of the sibyls long after did in a manner repeat to +the Athenians, in this verse, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The bladder may be dipt, but not be drowned. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Farther yet designing to enlarge his city, he invited all strangers to come and +enjoy equal privileges with the natives, and it is said that the common form, +Come hither all ye people, was the words that Theseus proclaimed when he thus +set up a commonwealth, in a manner, for all nations. Yet he did not suffer his +state, by the promiscuous multitude that flowed in, to be turned into confusion +and be left without any order or degree, but was the first that divided the +Commonwealth into three distinct ranks, the noblemen, the husbandmen, and +artificers.% To the nobility he committed the care of religion, the choice of +magistrates, the teaching and dispensing of the laws, and interpretation and +direction in all sacred matters; the whole city being, as it were, reduced to +an exact equality, the nobles excelling the rest in honor, the husbandmen in +profit, and the artificers in number. And that Theseus was the first, who, as +Aristotle says, out of an inclination to popular government, parted with the +regal power, Homer also seems to testify, in his catalogue of the ships, where +he gives the name of People to the Athenians only. +</p> + +<p> +He also coined money, and stamped it with the image of an ox, either in memory +of the Marathonian bull, or of Taurus, whom he vanquished, or else to put his +people in mind to follow husbandry; and from this coin came the expression so +frequent among the Greeks, of a thing being worth ten or a hundred oxen. After +this he joined Megara to Attica, and erected that famous pillar on the Isthmus, +which bears an inscription of two lines, showing the bounds of the two +countries that meet there. On the east side the inscription is,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Peloponnesus there, Ionia here, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and on the west side,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Peloponnesus here, Ionia there. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +He also instituted the games, in emulation of Hercules, being ambitious that as +the Greeks, by that hero’s appointment, celebrated the Olympian games to the +honor of Jupiter, so, by his institution, they should celebrate the Isthmian to +the honor of Neptune. For those that were there before observed, dedicated to +Melicerta, were performed privately in the night, and had the form rather of a +religious rite than of an open spectacle or public feast. There are some who +say that the Isthmian games were first instituted in memory of Sciron, Theseus +thus making expiation for his death, upon account of the nearness of kindred +between them, Sciron being the son of Canethus and Heniocha, the daughter of +Pittheus; though others write that Sinnis, not Sciron, was their son, and that +to his honor, and not to the other’s, these games were ordained by Theseus. At +the same time he made an agreement with the Corinthians, that they should allow +those that came from Athens to the celebration of the Isthmian games as much +space of honor before the rest to behold the spectacle in, as the sail of the +ship that brought them thither, stretched to its full extent, could cover; so +Hellanicus and Andro of Halicarnassus have established. +</p> + +<p> +Concerning his voyage into the Euxine Sea, Philochorus and some others write +that he made it with Hercules, offering him his service in the war against the +Amazons, and had Antiope given him for the reward of his valor; but the greater +number, of whom are Pherecydes, Hellanicus, and Herodorus, write that he made +this voyage many years after Hercules, with a navy under his own command, and +took the Amazon prisoner, the more probable story, for we do not read that any +other, of all those that accompanied him in this action, took any Amazon +prisoner. Bion adds, that, to take her, he had to use deceit and fly away; for +the Amazons, he says, being naturally lovers of men, were so far from avoiding +Theseus when he touched upon their coasts, that they sent him presents to his +ship; but he, having invited Antiope, who brought them, to come aboard, +immediately set sail and carried her away. An author named Menecrates, that +wrote the History of Nicaea in Bithynia, adds, that Theseus, having Antiope +aboard his vessel, cruised for some time about those coasts, and that there +were in the same ship three young men of Athens, that accompanied him in this +voyage, all brothers, whose names were Euneos, Thoas, and Soloon. The last of +these fell desperately in love with Antiope; and, escaping the notice of the +rest, revealed the secret only to one of his most intimate acquaintance, and +employed him to disclose his passion to Antiope, she rejected his pretenses +with a very positive denial, yet treated the matter with much gentleness and +discretion, and made no complaint to Theseus of any thing that had happened; +but Soloon, the thing being desperate, leaped into a river near the seaside and +drowned himself. As soon as Theseus was acquainted with his death, and his +unhappy love that was the cause of it, he was extremely distressed, and, in the +height of his grief, an oracle which he had formerly received at Delphi came +into his mind, for he had been commanded by the priestess of Apollo Pythius, +that, wherever in a strange land he was most sorrowful and under the greatest +affliction, he should build a city there, and leave some of his followers to be +governors of the place. For this cause he there founded a city, which he +called, from the name of Apollo, Pythopolis, and, in honor of the unfortunate +youth, he named the river that runs by it Soloon, and left the two surviving +brothers entrusted with the care of the government and laws, joining with them +Hermus, one of the nobility of Athens, from whom a place in the city is called +the House of Hermus; though by an error in the accent it has been taken for the +House of Hermes, or Mercury, and the honor that was designed to the hero +transferred to the god. +</p> + +<p> +This was the origin and cause of the Amazonian invasion of Attica, which would +seem to have been no slight or womanish enterprise. For it is impossible that +they should have placed their camp in the very city, and joined battle close by +the Pnyx and the hill called Museum, unless, having first conquered the country +round about, they had thus with impunity advanced to the city. That they made +so long a journey by land, and passed the Cimmerian Bosphorus when frozen, as +Hellanicus writes, is difficult to be believed. That they encamped all but in +the city is certain, and may be sufficiently confirmed by the names that the +places thereabout yet retain, and the graves and monuments of those that fell +in the battle. Both armies being in sight, there was a long pause and doubt on +each side which should give the first onset; at last Theseus, having sacrificed +to Fear, in obedience to the command of an oracle he had received, gave them +battle; and this happened in the month of Boedromion, in which to this very day +the Athenians celebrate the Feast Boedromia. Clidemus, desirous to be very +circumstantial,writes that the left wing of the Amazons moved towards the place +which is yet called Amazonium and the right towards the Pnyx, near Chrysa, that +with this wing the Athenians, issuing from behind the Museum, engaged, and that +the graves of those that were slain are to be seen in the street that leads to +the gate called the Piraic, by the chapel of the hero Chalcodon; and that here +the Athenians were routed, and gave way before the women, as far as to the +temple of the Furies, but, fresh supplies coming in from the Palladium, +Ardettus, and the Lyceum, they charged their right wing, and beat them back +into their tents, in which action a great number of the Amazons were slain. At +length, after four months, a peace was concluded between them by the mediation +of Hippolyta (for so this historian calls the Amazon whom Theseus married, and +not Antiope), though others write that she was slain with a dart by Molpadia, +while fighting by Theseus’s side, and that the pillar which stands by the +temple of Olympian Earth was erected to her honor. Nor is it to be wondered at, +that in events of such antiquity, history should be in disorder. For indeed we +are also told that those of the Amazons that were wounded were privately sent +away by Antiope to Chalcis, where many by her care recovered, but some that +died were buried there in the place that is to this time called Amazonium. That +this war, however, was ended by a treaty is evident, both from the name of the +place adjoining to the temple of Theseus, called, from the solemn oath there +taken, Horcomosium; and also from the ancient sacrifice which used to be +celebrated to the Amazons the day before the Feast of Theseus. The Megarians +also show a spot in their city where some Amazons were buried, on the way from +the market to a place called Rhus, where the building in the shape of a lozenge +stands. It is said, likewise, that others of them were slain near Chaeronea, +and buried near the little rivulet, formerly called Thermodon, but now Haemon, +of which an account is given in the life of Demosthenes. It appears further +that the passage of the Amazons through Thessaly was not without opposition, +for there are yet shown many tombs of them near Scotussa and Cynoscephalae. +</p> + +<p> +This is as much as is worth telling concerning the Amazons. For the account +which the author of the poem called the Theseid gives of this rising of the +Amazons, how Antiope, to revenge herself upon Theseus for refusing her and +marrying Phaedra, came down upon the city with her train of Amazons, whom +Hercules slew, is manifestly nothing else but fable and invention. It is true, +indeed, that Theseus married Phaedra, but that was after the death of Antiope, +by whom he had a son called Hippolytus, or, as Pindar writes, Demophon. The +calamities which befell Phaedra and this son, since none of the historians have +contradicted the tragic poets that have written of them, we must suppose +happened as represented uniformly by them. +</p> + +<p> +There are also other traditions of the marriages of Theseus, neither honorable +in their occasions nor fortunate in their events, which yet were never +represented in the Greek plays. For he is said to have carried off Anaxo, a +Troezenian, and, having slain Sinnis and Cercyon, to have ravished their +daughters; to have married Periboea, the mother of Ajax, and then Phereboea, +and then Iope, the daughter of Iphicles. And further, he is accused of +deserting Ariadne (as is before related), being in love with Aegle the daughter +of Panopeus, neither justly nor honorably; and lastly, of the rape of Helen, +which filled all Attica with war and blood, and was in the end the occasion of +his banishment and death, as will presently be related. +</p> + +<p> +Herodorus is of opinion, that though there were many famous expeditions +undertaken by the bravest men of his time, yet Theseus never joined in any of +them, once only excepted, with the Lapithae, in their war against the Centaurs; +but others say that he accompanied Jason to Colchis and Meleager to the slaying +of the Calydonian boar, and that hence it came to be a proverb, Not without +Theseus; that he himself, however, without aid of any one, performed many +glorious exploits, and that from him began the saying, He is a second Hercules. +He also joined Adrastus in recovering the bodies of those that were slain +before Thebes, but not as Euripides in his tragedy says, by force of arms, but +by persuasion and mutual agreement and composition, for so the greater part of +the historians write; Philochorus adds further that this was the first treaty +that ever was made for the recovering the bodies of the dead, but in the +history of Hercules it is shown that it was he who first gave leave to his +enemies to carry off their slain. The burying-places of the most part are yet +to be seen in the village called Eleutherae; those of the commanders, at +Eleusis, where Theseus allotted them a place, to oblige Adrastus. The story of +Euripides in his Suppliants is disproved by Aeschylus in his Eleusinians, where +Theseus himself relates the facts as here told. +</p> + +<p> +The celebrated friendship between Theseus and Pirithous is said to have been +thus begun: the fame of the strength and valor of Theseus being spread through +Greece, Pirithous was desirous to make a trial and proof. of it himself, and to +this end seized a herd of oxen which belonged to Theseus, and was driving them +away from Marathon, and, when news was brought that Theseus pursued him in +arms, he did not fly, but turned back and went to meet him. But as soon as they +had viewed one another, each so admired the gracefulness and beauty, and was +seized with such a respect for the courage, of the other, that they forgot all +thoughts of fighting; and Pirithous, first stretching out his hand to Theseus, +bade him be judge in this case himself, and promised to submit willingly to any +penalty he should impose. But Theseus not only forgave him all, but entreated +him to be his friend and brother in arms; and they ratified their friendship by +oaths. After this Pirithous married Deidamia, and invited Theseus to the +wedding, entreating him to come and see his country, and make acquaintance with +the Lapithae; he had at the same time invited the Centaurs to the feast, who +growing hot with wine and beginning to be insolent and wild, and offering +violence to the women, the Lapithae took immediate revenge upon them, slaying +many of them upon the place, and afterwards, having overcome them in battle, +drove the whole race of them out of their country, Theseus all along taking +their part and fighting on their side. But Herodorus gives a different relation +of these things: that Theseus came not to the assistance of the Lapithae till +the war was already begun; and that it was in this journey that he had the +first sight of Hercules, having made it his business to find him out at +Trachis, where he had chosen to rest himself after all his wanderings and his +labors; and that this interview was honorably performed on each part, with +extreme respect, good-will, and admiration of each other. Yet it is more +credible, as others write, that there were, before, frequent interviews between +them, and that it was by the means of Theseus that Hercules was initiated at +Eleusis, and purified before initiation, upon account of several rash actions +of his former life. +</p> + +<p> +Theseus was now fifty years old, as Hellanicus states, when he carried off +Helen, who was yet too young to be married. Some writers, to take away this +accusation of one of the greatest crimes laid to his charge, say, that he did +not steal away Helen himself, but that Idas and Lynceus were the ravishers, who +brought her to him, and committed her to his charge, and that, therefore, he +refused to restore her at the demand of Castor and Pollux; or, indeed, they say +her own father, Tyndarus, had sent her to be kept by him, for fear of +Enarophorus, the son of Hippocoon, who would have carried her away by force +when she was yet a child. But the most probable account, and that which has +most witnesses on its side, is this: Theseus and Pirithous went both together +to Sparta, and, having seized the young lady as she was dancing in the temple +of Diana Orthia, fled away with her. There were presently men in arms sent to +pursue, but they followed no further than to Tegea; and Theseus and Pirithous, +being now out of danger, having passed through Peloponnesus, made an agreement +between themselves, that he to whom the lot should fall should have Helen to +his wife, but should be obliged to assist in procuring another for his friend. +The lot fell upon Theseus, who conveyed her to Aphidnae, not being yet +marriageable, and delivered her to one of his allies, called Aphidnus, and, +having sent his mother Aethra after to take care of her, desired him to keep +them so secretly, that none might know where they were; which done, to return +the same service to his friend Pirithous, he accompanied him in his journey to +Epirus, in order to steal away the king of the Molossians’ daughter. The king, +his own name being Aidoneus, or Pluto, called his wife Proserpina, and his +daughter Cora, and a great dog which he kept Cerberus, with whom he ordered all +that came as suitors to his daughter to fight, and promised her to him that +should overcome the beast. But having been informed that the design of +Pirithous and his companion was not to court his daughter, but to force her +away, he caused them both to be seized, and threw Pirithous to be torn in +pieces by his dog, and put Theseus into prison, and kept him. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, Menestheus, the son of Peteus, grandson of Orneus, and +great-grandson to Erechtheus, the first man that is recorded to have affected +popularity and ingratiated himself with the multitude, stirred up and +exasperated the most eminent men of the city, who had long borne a secret +grudge to Theseus, conceiving that he had robbed them of their several little +kingdoms and lordships, and, having pent them all up in one city, was using +them as his subjects and slaves. He put also the meaner people into commotion, +telling them, that, deluded with a mere dream of liberty, though indeed they +were deprived both of that and of their proper homes and religious usages, +instead of many good and gracious kings of their own, they had given themselves +up to be lorded over by a new-comer and a stranger. Whilst he was thus busied +in infecting the minds of the citizens, the war that Castor and Pollux brought +against Athens came very opportunely to further the sedition he had been +promoting, and some say that he by his persuasions was wholly the cause of +their invading the city. At their first approach, they committed no acts of +hostility, but peaceably demanded their sister Helen; but the Athenians +returning answer that they neither had her there nor knew where she was +disposed of, they prepared to assault the city, when Academus, having, by +whatever means, found it out, disclosed to them that she was secretly kept at +Aphidnae. For which reason he was both highly honored during his life by Castor +and Pollux, and the Lacedaemonians, when often in aftertimes they made +incursions into Attica, and destroyed all the country round about, spared the +Academy for the sake of Academus. But Dicaearchus writes that there were two +Arcadians in the army of Castor and Pollux, the one called Echedemus and the +other Marathus; from the first that which is now called Academia was then named +Echedemia, and the village Marathon had its name from the other, who, to +fulfill some oracle, voluntarily offered himself to be made a sacrifice before +battle. As soon as they were arrived at Aphidnae, they overcame their enemies +in a set battle, and then assaulted and took the town. And here, they say, +Alycus, the son of Sciron, was slain, of the party of the Dioscuri (Castor and +Pollux), from whom a place in Megara, where he was buried, is called Alycus to +this day. And Hereas writes that it was Theseus himself that killed him, in +witness of which he cites these verses concerning Alycus +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +And Alycus, upon Aphidna’s plain<br/> +By Theseus in the cause of Helen slain. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Though it is not at all probable that Theseus himself was there when both the +city and his mother were taken. +</p> + +<p> +Aphidnae being won by Castor and Pollux, and the city of Athens being in +consternation, Menestheus persuaded the people to open their gates, and receive +them with all manner of friendship, for they were, he told them, at enmity with +none but Theseus, who had first injured them, and were benefactors and saviors +to all mankind beside. And their behavior gave credit to those promises; for, +having made themselves absolute masters of the place, they demanded no more +than to be initiated, since they were as nearly related to the city as Hercules +was, who had received the same honor. This their desire they easily obtained, +and were adopted by Aphidnus, as Hercules had been by Pylius. They were honored +also like gods, and were called by a new name, Anaces, either from the +cessation (Anokhe) of the war, or from the care they took that none should +suffer any injury, though there was so great an army within the walls; for the +phrase anakos ekhein is used of those who look to or care for any thing; kings +for this reason, perhaps, are called anactes. Others say, that from the +appearance of their star in the heavens, they were thus called, for in the +Attic dialect this name comes very near the words that signify above. +</p> + +<p> +Some say that Aethra, Theseus’s mother, was here taken prisoner, and carried to +Lacedaemon, and from thence went away with Helen to Troy, alleging this verse +of Homer, to prove that she waited upon Helen, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Aethra of Pittheus born, and large-eyed Clymene. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Others reject this verse as none of Homer’s, as they do likewise the whole +fable of Munychus, who, the story says, was the son of Demophon and Laodice, +born secretly, and brought up by Aethra at Troy. But Ister, in the thirteenth +book of his Attic History, gives us an account of Aethra, different yet from +all the rest: that Achilles and Patroclus overcame Paris in Thessaly, near the +river Sperchius, but that Hector took and plundered the city of the +Troezenians, and made Aethra prisoner there. But this seems a groundless tale. +</p> + +<p> +Now Hercules, passing by the Molossians, was entertained in his way by Aidoneus +the king, who, in conversation, accidentally spoke of the journey of Theseus +and Pirithous into his country, of what they had designed to do, and what they +were forced to suffer. Hercules was much grieved for the inglorious death of +the one and the miserable condition of the other. As for Pirithous, he thought +it useless to complain; but begged to have Theseus released for his sake, and +obtained that favor from the king. Theseus, being thus set at liberty, returned +to Athens, where his friends were not yet wholly suppressed, and dedicated to +Hercules all the sacred places which the city had set apart for himself, +changing their names from Thesea to Heraclea, four only excepted, as +Philochorus writes. And wishing immediately to resume the first place in the +commonwealth, and manage the state as before, he soon found himself involved in +factions and troubles; those who long had hated him had now added to their +hatred contempt; and the minds of the people were so generally corrupted, that, +instead of obeying commands with silence, they expected to be flattered into +their duty. He had some thoughts to have reduced them by force, but was +overpowered by demagogues and factions. And at last, despairing of any good +success of his affairs in Athens, he sent away his children privately to +Euboea, commending them to the care of Elephenor, the son of Chalcodon; and he +himself, having solemnly cursed the people of Athens in the village of +Gargettus, in which there yet remains the place called Araterion, or the place +of cursing, sailed to Scyros, where he had lands left him by his father, and +friendship, as he thought, with those of the island. Lycomedes was then king of +Scyros. Theseus, therefore, addressed himself to him, and desired to have his +lands put into his possession, as designing to settle and to dwell there, +though others say that he came to beg his assistance against the Athenians. But +Lycomedes, either jealous of the glory of so great a man, or to gratify +Menestheus, having led him up to the highest cliff of the island, on pretense +of showing him from thence the lands that he desired, threw him headlong down +from the rock, and killed him. Others say he fell down of himself by a slip of +his foot, as he was walking there, according to his custom, after supper. At +that time there was no notice taken, nor were any concerned for his death, but +Menestheus quietly possessed the kingdom of Athens. His sons were brought up in +a private condition, and accompanied Elephenor to the Trojan war, but, after +the decease of Menestheus in that expedition, returned to Athens, and recovered +the government. But in succeeding ages, beside several other circumstances that +moved the Athenians to honor Theseus as a demigod, in the battle which was +fought at Marathon against the Medes, many of the soldiers believed they saw an +apparition of Theseus in arms, rushing on at the head of them against the +barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo being archon of Athens, the +Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, were commanded to gather together +the bones of Theseus, and, laying them in some honorable place, keep them as +sacred in the city. But it was very difficult to recover these relics, or so +much as to find out the place where they lay, on account of the inhospitable +and savage temper of the barbarous people that inhabited the island. +Nevertheless, afterwards, when Cimon took the island (as is related in his +life), and had a great ambition to find out the place where Theseus was buried, +he, by chance, spied an eagle upon a rising ground pecking with her beak and +tearing up the earth with her talons, when on the sudden it came into his mind, +as it were by some divine inspiration, to dig there, and search for the bones +of Theseus. There were found in that place a coffin of a man of more than +ordinary size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword lying by it, all which he +took aboard his galley and brought with him to Athens. Upon which the +Athenians, greatly delighted, went out to meet and receive the relics with +splendid processions and with sacrifices, as if it were Theseus himself +returning alive to the city. He lies interred in the middle of the city, near +the present gymnasium. His tomb is a sanctuary and refuge for slaves, and all +those of mean condition that fly from the persecution of men in power, in +memory that Theseus while he lived was an assister and protector of the +distressed, and never refused the petitions of the afflicted that fled to him. +The chief and most solemn sacrifice which they celebrate to him is kept on the +eighth day of Pyanepsion, on which he returned with the Athenian young men from +Crete. Besides which, they sacrifice to him on the eighth day of every month, +either because he returned from Troezen the eighth day of Hecatombaeon, as +Diodorus the geographer writes, or else thinking that number to be proper to +him, because he was reputed to be born of Neptune, because they sacrifice to +Neptune on the eighth day of every month. The number eight being the first cube +of an even number, and the double of the first square, seemed to be an emblem +of the steadfast and immovable power of this god, who from thence has the names +of Asphalius and Gaeiochus, that is, the establisher and stayer of the earth. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap02"></a>ROMULUS</h2> + +<p> +From whom, and for what reason, the city of Rome, a name so great in glory, and +famous in the mouths of all men, was so first called, authors do not agree. +Some are of opinion that the Pelasgians, wandering over the greater part of the +habitable world, and subduing numerous nations, fixed themselves here, and, +from their own great strength in war, called the city Rome. Others, that at the +taking of Troy, some few that escaped and met with shipping, put to sea, and, +driven by winds, were carried upon the coasts of Tuscany, and came to anchor +off the mouth of the river Tiber, where their women, out of heart and weary +with the sea, on its being proposed by one of the highest birth and best +understanding amongst them, whose name was Roma, burnt the ships. With which +act the men at first were angry, but afterwards, of necessity, seating +themselves near Palatium, where things in a short while succeeded far better +than they could hope, in that they found the country very good, and the people +courteous, they not only did the lady Roma other honors, but added also this, +of calling after her name the city which she had been the occasion of their +founding. From this, they say, has come down that custom at Rome for women to +salute their kinsmen and husbands with kisses; because these women, after they +had burnt the ships, made use of such endearments when entreating and pacifying +their husbands. +</p> + +<p> +Some again say that Roma, from whom this city was so called, was daughter of +Italus and Leucaria; or, by another account, of Telephus, Hercules’s son, and +that she was married to Aeneas, or, according to others again, to Ascanius, +Aeneas’s son. Some tell us that Romanus, the son of Ulysses and Circe, built +it; some, Romus the son of Emathion, Diomede having sent him from Troy; and +others, Romus, king of the Latins, after driving out the Tyrrhenians, who had +come from Thessaly into Lydia, and from thence into Italy. Those very authors, +too, who, in accordance with the safest account, make Romulus give the name to +the city, yet differ concerning his birth and family. For some say, he was son +to Aeneas and Dexithea, daughter of Phorbas, and was, with his brother Remus, +in their infancy, carried into Italy, and being on the river when the waters +came down in a flood, all the vessels were cast away except only that where the +young children were, which being gently landed on a level bank of the river, +they were both unexpectedly saved, and from them the place was called Rome. +Some say, Roma, daughter of the Trojan lady above mentioned, was married to +Latinus, Telemachus’s son, and became mother to Romulus; others, that Aemilia, +daughter of Aeneas and Lavinia, had him by the god Mars; and others give you +mere fables of his origin. For to Tarchetius, they say, king of Alba, who was a +most wicked and cruel man, there appeared in his own house a strange vision, a +male figure that rose out of a hearth, and stayed there for many days. There +was an oracle of Tethys in Tuscany which Tarchetius consulted, and received an +answer that a virgin should give herself to the apparition, and that a son +should be born of her, highly renowned, eminent for valor, good fortune, and +strength of body. Tarchetius told the prophecy to one of his own daughters, and +commanded her to do this thing; which she avoiding as an indignity, sent her +handmaid. Tarchetius, hearing this, in great anger imprisoned them both, +purposing to put them to death; but being deterred from murder by the goddess +Vesta in a dream, enjoined them for their punishment the working a web of +cloth, in their chains as they were, which when they finished, they should be +suffered to marry; but whatever they worked by day, Tarchetius commanded others +to unravel in the night. In the meantime, the waiting-woman was delivered of +two boys, whom Tarchetius gave into the hands of one Teratius, with command to +destroy them; he, however, carried and laid them by the river side, where a +wolf came and continued to suckle them, while birds of various sorts brought +little morsels of food, which they put into their mouths; till a cow-herd, +spying them, was first strangely surprised, but, venturing to draw nearer, took +the children up in his arms. Thus they were saved, and, when they grew up, set +upon Tarchetius and overcame him. This one Promathion says, who compiled a +history of Italy. +</p> + +<p> +But the story which is most believed and has the greatest number of vouchers +was first published, in its chief particulars, amongst the Greeks by Diocles of +Peparethus, whom Fabius Pictor also follows in most points. Here again there +are variations, but in general outline it runs thus: the kings of Alba reigned +in lineal descent from Aeneas and the succession devolved at length upon two +brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius proposed to divide things into two equal +shares, and set as equivalent to the kingdom the treasure and gold that were +brought from Troy. Numitor chose the kingdom; but Amulius, having the money, +and being able to do more with that than Numitor, took his kingdom from him +with great ease, and, fearing lest his daughter might have children, made her a +Vestal, bound in that condition forever to live a single and maiden life. This +lady some call Ilia, others Rhea, and others Silvia; however, not long after, +she was, contrary to the established laws of the Vestals, discovered to be with +child, and should have suffered the most cruel punishment, had not Antho, the +king’s daughter, mediated with her father for her; nevertheless, she was +confined, and debarred all company, that she might not be delivered without the +king’s knowledge. In time she brought forth two boys, of more than human size +and beauty, whom Amulius, becoming yet more alarmed, commanded a servant to +take and cast away; this man some call Faustulus, others say Faustulus was the +man who brought them up. He put the children, however, in a small trough, and +went towards the river with a design to cast them in; but, seeing the waters +much swollen and coming violently down, was afraid to go nearer, and, dropping +the children near the bank, went away. The river overflowing, the flood at last +bore up the trough, and, gently wafting it, landed them on a smooth piece of +ground, which they now call Cermanes, formerly Germanus, perhaps from Germani, +which signifies brothers. +</p> + +<p> +Near this place grew a wild fig-tree, which they called Ruminalis, either from +Romulus (as it is vulgarly thought), or from ruminating, because cattle did +usually in the heat of the day seek cover under it, and there chew the cud; or, +better, from the suckling of these children there, for the ancients called the +dug or teat of any creature ruma, and there is a tutelar goddess of the rearing +of children whom they still call Rumilia, in sacrificing to whom they use no +wine, but make libations of milk. While the infants lay here, history tells us, +a she- wolf nursed them, and a woodpecker constantly fed and watched them; +these creatures are esteemed holy to the god Mars, the woodpecker the Latins +still especially worship and honor. Which things, as much as any, gave credit +to what the mother of the children said, that their father was the god Mars: +though some say that it was a mistake put upon her by Amulius, who himself had +come to her dressed up in armor. +</p> + +<p> +Others think that the first rise of this fable came from the children’s nurse, +through the ambiguity of her name; for the Latins not only called wolves lupae, +but also women of loose life; and such an one was the wife of Faustulus, who +nurtured these children, Acca Larentia by name. To her the Romans offer +sacrifices, and in the month of April the priest of Mars makes libations there; +it is called the Larentian Feast. They honor also another Larentia, for the +following reason: the keeper of Hercules’s temple having, it seems, little else +to do, proposed to his deity a game at dice, laying down that, if he himself +won, he would have something valuable of the god; but if he were beaten, he +would spread him a noble table, and procure him a fair lady’s company. Upon +these terms, throwing first for the god and then for himself, he found himself +beaten. Wishing to pay his stakes honorably, and holding himself bound by what +he had said, he both provided the deity a good supper, and, giving money to +Larentia, then in her beauty, though not publicly known, gave her a feast in +the temple, where he had also laid a bed, and after supper locked her in, as if +the god were really to come to her. And indeed, it is said, the deity did truly +visit her, and commanded her in the morning to walk to the market-place, and, +whatever man see met first, to salute him, and make him her friend. She met one +named Tarrutius, who was a man advanced in years, fairly rich without children, +and had always lived a single life. He received Larentia, and loved her well, +and at his death left her sole heir of all his large and fair possessions, most +of which she, in her last will and testament, bequeathed to the people. It was +reported of her, being now celebrated and esteemed the mistress of a god, that +she suddenly disappeared near the place where the first Larentia lay buried; +the spot is at this day called Velabrum, because, the river frequently +overflowing, they went over in ferry-boats somewhere hereabouts to the forum, +the Latin word for ferrying being velatura. Others derive the name from velum, +a sail; because the exhibitors of public shows used to hang the road that leads +from the forum to the Circus Maximus with sails, beginning at this spot. Upon +these accounts the second Larentia is honored at Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Meantime Faustulus, Amulius’s swineherd, brought up the children without any +man’s knowledge; or, as those say who wish to keep closer to probabilities, +with the knowledge and secret assistance of Numitor; for it is said, they went +to school at Gabii, and were well instructed in letters, and other +accomplishments befitting their birth. And they were called Romulus and Remus, +(from ruma, the dug,) as we had before, because they were found sucking the +wolf. In their very infancy, the size and beauty of their bodies intimated +their natural superiority; and when they grew up, they both proved brave and +manly, attempting all enterprises that seemed hazardous, and showing in them a +courage altogether undaunted. But Romulus seemed rather to act by counsel, and +to show the sagacity of a statesman, and in all his dealings with their +neighbors, whether relating to feeding of flocks or to hunting, gave the idea +of being born rather to rule than to obey. To their comrades and inferiors they +were therefore dear; but the king’s servants, his bailiffs and overseers, as +being in nothing better men than themselves, they despised and slighted, nor +were the least concerned at their commands and menaces. They used honest +pastimes and liberal studies, not esteeming sloth and idleness honest and +liberal, but rather such exercises as hunting and running, repelling robbers, +taking of thieves, and delivering the wronged and oppressed from injury. For +doing such things they became famous. +</p> + +<p> +A quarrel occurring between Numitor’s and Amulius’s cowherds, the latter, not +enduring the driving away of their cattle by the others, fell upon them and put +them to flight, and rescued the greatest part of the prey. At which Numitor +being highly incensed, they little regarded it, but collected and took into +their company a number of needy men and runaway slaves,—acts which looked like +the first stages of rebellion. It so happened, that when Romulus was attending +a sacrifice, being fond of sacred rites and divination, Numitor’s herdsmen, +meeting with Remus on a journey with few companions, fell upon him, and, after +some fighting, took him prisoner, carried him before Numitor, and there accused +him. Numitor would not punish him himself, fearing his brother’s anger, but +went to Amulius, and desired justice, as he was Amulius’s brother and was +affronted by Amulius’s servants. The men of Alba likewise resenting the thing, +and thinking he had been dishonorably used, Amulius was induced to deliver +Remus up into Numitor’s hands, to use him as he thought fit. He therefore took +and carried him home, and, being struck with admiration of the youth’s person, +in stature and strength of body exceeding all men, and perceiving in his very +countenance the courage and force of his mind, which stood unsubdued and +unmoved by his present circumstances, and hearing further that all the +enterprises and actions of his life were answerable to what he saw of him, but +chiefly, as it seemed, a divine influence aiding and directing the first steps +that were to lead to great results, out of the mere thought of his mind, and +casually, as it were, he put his hand upon the fact, and, in gentle terms and +with a kind aspect, to inspire him with confidence and hope, asked him who he +was, and whence he was derived. He, taking heart, spoke thus: “ I will hide +nothing from you, for you seem to be of a more princely temper than Amulius, in +that you give a hearing and examine before you punish, while he condemns before +the cause is heard. Formerly, then, we (for we are twins) thought ourselves the +sons of Faustulus and Larentia, the king’s servants; but since we have been +accused and aspersed with calumnies, and brought in peril of our lives here +before you, we hear great things of ourselves, the truth of which my present +danger is likely to bring to the test. Our birth is said to have been secret, +our fostering and nurture in our infancy still more strange; by birds and +beasts, to whom we were cast out, we were fed, by the milk of a wolf, and the +morsels of a woodpecker, as we lay in a little trough by the side of the river. +The trough is still in being, and is preserved, with brass plates round it, and +an inscription in letters almost effaced; which may prove hereafter unavailing +tokens to our parents when we are dead and gone.” Numitor, upon these words, +and computing the dates by the young man’s looks, slighted not the hope that +flattered him, but considered how to come at his daughter privately (for she +was still kept under restraint), to talk with her concerning these matters. +</p> + +<p> +Faustulus, hearing Remus was taken and delivered up, called on Romulus to +assist in his rescue, informing him then plainly of the particulars of his +birth, not but he had before given hints of it, and told as much as an +attentive man might make no small conclusions from; he himself, full of concern +and fear of not coming in time, took the trough, and ran instantly to Numitor; +but giving a suspicion to some of the king’s sentry at his gate, and being +gazed upon by them and perplexed with their questions, he let it be seen that +he was hiding the trough under his cloak. By chance there was one among them +who was at the exposing of the children, and was one employed in the office; +he, seeing the trough and knowing it by its make and inscription, guessed at +the business, and, without further delay, telling the king of it, brought in +the man to be examined. Faustulus, hard beset, did not show himself altogether +proof against terror; nor yet was he wholly forced out of all; confessed indeed +the children were alive, but lived, he said, as shepherds, a great way from +Alba; he himself was going to carry the trough to Ilia, who had often greatly +desired to see and handle it, for a confirmation of her hopes of her children. +As men generally do who are troubled in mind and act either in fear or passion, +it so fell out Amulius now did; for he sent in haste as a messenger, a man, +otherwise honest, and friendly to Numitor, with commands to learn from Numitor +whether any tidings were come to him of the children’s being alive. He, coming +and seeing how little Remus wanted of being received into the arms and embraces +of Numitor, both gave him surer confidence in his hope, and advised them, with +all expedition, to proceed to action; himself too joining and assisting them, +and indeed, had they wished it, the time would not have let them demur. For +Romulus was now come very near, and many of the citizens, out of fear and +hatred of Amulius, were running out to join him; besides, he brought great +forces with him, divided into companies, each of an hundred men, every captain +carrying a small bundle of grass and shrubs tied to a pole. The Latins call +such bundles manipuli and from hence it is that in their armies still they call +their captains manipulares. Remus rousing the citizens within to revolt, and +Romulus making attacks from without, the tyrant, not knowing either what to do, +or what expedient to think of for his security, in this perplexity and +confusion was taken and put to death. This narrative, for the most part given +by Fabius and Diocles of Peparethus, who seem to be the earliest historians of +the foundation of Rome, is suspected by some, because of its dramatic and +fictitious appearance; but it would not wholly be disbelieved, if men would +remember what a poet fortune sometimes shows herself, and consider that the +Roman power would hardly have reached so high a pitch without a divinely +ordered origin, attended with great and extraordinary circumstances. +</p> + +<p> +Amulius now being dead and matters quietly disposed, the two brothers would +neither dwell in Alba without governing there, nor take the government into +their own hands during the life of their grandfather. Having therefore +delivered the dominion up into his hands, and paid their mother befitting +honor, they resolved to live by themselves, and build a city in the same place +where they were in their infancy brought up. This seems the most honorable +reason for their departure; though perhaps it was necessary, having such a body +of slaves and fugitives collected about them, either to come to nothing by +dispersing them, or if not so, then to live with them elsewhere. For that the +inhabitants of Alba did not think fugitives worthy of being received and +incorporated as citizens among them plainly appears from the matter of the +women, an attempt made not wantonly but of necessity, because they could not +get wives by good-will. For they certainly paid unusual respect and honor to +those whom they thus forcibly seized. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after the first foundation of the city, they opened a sanctuary of +refuge for all fugitives, which they called the temple of the god Asylaeus, +where they received and protected all, delivering none back, neither the +servant to his master, the debtor to his creditor, nor the murderer into the +hands of the magistrate, saying it was a privileged place, and they could so +maintain it by an order of the holy oracle; insomuch that the city grew +presently very populous, for, they say, it consisted at first of no more than a +thousand houses. But of that hereafter. +</p> + +<p> +Their minds being fully bent upon building, there arose presently a difference +about the place where. Romulus chose what was called Roma Quadrata, or the +Square Rome, and would have the city there. Remus laid out a piece of ground on +the Aventine Mount, well fortified by nature, which was from him called +Remonium, but now Rignarium. Concluding at last to decide the contest by a +divination from a flight of birds, and placing themselves apart at some +distance, Remus, they say, saw six vultures, and Romulus double the number; +others say Remus did truly see his number, and that Romulus feigned his, but, +when Remus came to him, that then he did, indeed, see twelve. Hence it is that +the Romans, in their divinations from birds, chiefly regard the vulture, though +Herodorus Ponticus relates that Hercules was always very joyful when a vulture +appeared to him upon any action. For it is a creature the least hurtful of any, +pernicious neither to corn, fruit-tree, nor cattle; it preys only upon carrion, +and never kills or hurts any living thing; and as for birds, it touches not +them, though they are dead, as being of its own species, whereas eagles, owls, +and hawks mangle and kill their own fellow-creatures; yet, as Aeschylus says,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +What bird is clean that preys on fellow bird ? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Besides all other birds are, so to say, never out of our eyes; they let +themselves be seen of us continually; but a vulture is a very rare sight, and +you can seldom meet with a man that has seen their young; their rarity and +infrequency has raised a strange opinion in some, that they come to us from +some other world; as soothsayers ascribe a divine origination to all things not +produced either of nature or of themselves. +</p> + +<p> +When Remus knew the cheat, he was much displeased; and as Romulus was casting +up a ditch, where he designed the foundation of the citywall, he turned some +pieces of the work to ridicule, and obstructed others: at last, as he was in +contempt leaping over it, some say Romulus himself struck him, others Celer, +one of his companions; he fell, however, and in the scuffle Faustulus also was +slain, and Plistinus, who, being Faustulus’s brother, story tells us, helped to +bring up Romulus. Celer upon this fled instantly into Tuscany, and from him the +Romans call all men that are swift of foot Celeres; and because Quintus +Metellus, at his father’s funeral, in a few days’ time gave the people a show +of gladiators, admiring his expedition in getting it ready, they gave him the +name of Celer. +</p> + +<p> +Romulus, having buried his brother Remus, together with his two foster- +fathers, on the mount Remonia, set to building his city; and sent for men out +of Tuscany, who directed him by sacred usages and written rules in all the +ceremonies to be observed, as in a religious rite. First, they dug a round +trench about that which is now the Comitium, or Court of Assembly, and into it +solemnly threw the first-fruits of all things either good by custom or +necessary by nature; lastly, every man taking a small piece of earth of the +country from whence he came, they all threw them in promiscuously together. +This trench they call, as they do the heavens, Mundus; making which their +center, they described the city in a circle round it. Then the founder fitted +to a plow a brazen plowshare, and, yoking together a bull and a cow, drove +himself a deep line or furrow round the bounds; while the business of those +that followed after was to see that whatever earth was thrown up should be +turned all inwards towards the city, and not to let any clod lie outside. With +this line they described the wall, and called it, by a contraction, Pomoerium, +that is, post murum, after or beside the wall; and where they designed to make +a gate, there they took out the share, carried the plow over, and left a space; +for which reason they consider the whole wall as holy, except where the gates +are; for had they adjudged them also sacred, they could not, without offense to +religion, have given free ingress and egress for the necessaries of human life, +some of which are in themselves unclean. +</p> + +<p> +As for the day they began to build the city, it is universally agreed to have +been the twenty-first of April, and that day the Romans annually keep holy, +calling it their country’s birthday. At first, they say, they sacrificed no +living creature on this day, thinking it fit to preserve the feast of their +country’s birthday pure and without stain of blood. Yet before ever the city +was built, there was a feast of herdsmen and shepherds kept on this day, which +went by the name of Palilia. The Roman and Greek months have now little or no +agreement; they say, however, the day on which Romulus began to build was quite +certainly the thirtieth of the month, at which time there was an eclipse of the +sun which they conceive to be that seen by Antimachus, the Teian poet, in the +third year of the sixth Olympiad. In the times of Varro the philosopher, a man +deeply read in Roman history, lived one Tarrutius, his familiar acquaintance, a +good philosopher and mathematician, and one, too, that out of curiosity had +studied the way of drawing schemes and tables, and was thought to be a +proficient in the art; to him Varro propounded to cast Romulus’s nativity, even +to the first day and hour, making his deductions from the several events of the +man’s life which he should be informed of, exactly as in working back a +geometrical problem; for it belonged, he said, to the same science both to +foretell a man’s life by knowing the time of his birth, and also to find out +his birth by the knowledge of his life. This task Tarrutius undertook, and +first looking into the actions and casualties of the man, together with the +time of his life and manner of his death, and then comparing all these remarks +together, he very confidently and positively pronounced that Romulus was +conceived in his mother’s womb the first year of the second Olympiad, the +twenty-third day of the month the Egyptians call Choeac, and the third hour +after sunset, at which time there was a total eclipse of the sun; that he was +born the twenty-first day of the month Thoth, about sun-rising; and that the +first stone of Rome was laid by him the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, +between the second and third hour. For the fortunes of cities as well as of +men, they think, have their certain periods of time prefixed, which may be +collected and foreknown from the position of the stars at their first +foundation. But these and the like relations may perhaps not so much take and +delight the reader with their novelty and curiosity, as offend him by their +extravagance. +</p> + +<p> +The city now being built, Romulus enlisted all that were of age to bear arms +into military companies, each company consisting of three thousand footmen and +three hundred horse. These companies were called legions, because they were the +choicest and most select of the people for fighting men. The rest of the +multitude he called the people; one hundred of the most eminent he chose for +counselors; these he styled patricians, and their assembly the senate, which +signifies a council of elders. The patricians, some say, were so called because +they were the fathers of lawful children; others, because they could give a +good account who their own fathers were, which not every one of the rabble that +poured into the city at first could do; others, from patronage, their word for +protection of inferiors, the origin of which they attribute to Patron, one of +those that came over with Evander, who was a great protector and defender of +the weak and needy. But perhaps the most probable judgment might be, that +Romulus, esteeming it the duty of the chiefest and wealthiest men, with a +fatherly care and concern to look after the meaner, and also encouraging the +commonalty not to dread or be aggrieved at the honors of their superiors, but +to love and respect them, and to think and call them their fathers, might from +hence give them the name of patricians. For at this very time all foreigners +give senators the style of lords; but the Romans, making use of a more +honorable and less invidious name, call them Patres Conscripti; at first indeed +simply Patres, but afterwards, more being added, Patres Conscripti. By this +more imposing title he distinguished the senate from the populace; and in other +ways also separated the nobles and the commons,—calling them patrons, and these +their clients,—by which means he created wonderful love and amity between them, +productive of great justice in their dealings. For they were always their +clients’ counselors in law cases, their advocates in courts of justice, in fine +their advisers and supporters in all affairs whatever. These again faithfully +served their patrons, not only paying them all respect and deference, but also, +in case of poverty, helping them to portion their daughters and pay off their +debts; and for a patron to witness against his client, or a client against his +patron, was what no law nor magistrate could enforce. In after times all other +duties subsisting still between them, it was thought mean and dishonorable for +the better sort to take money from their inferiors. And so much of these +matters. +</p> + +<p> +In the fourth month, after the city was built, as Fabius writes, the adventure +of stealing the women was attempted; and some say Romulus himself, being +naturally a martial man, and predisposed too, perhaps, by certain oracles, to +believe the fates had ordained the future growth and greatness of Rome should +depend upon the benefit of war, upon these accounts first offered violence to +the Sabines, since he took away only thirty virgins, more to give an occasion +of war than out of any want of women. But this is not very probable; it would +seem rather that, observing his city to be filled by a confluence of +foreigners, few of whom had wives, and that the multitude in general, +consisting of a mixture of mean and obscure men, fell under contempt, and +seemed to be of no long continuance together, and hoping farther, after the +women were appeased, to make this injury in some measure an occasion of +confederacy and mutual commerce with the Sabines, he took in hand this exploit +after this manner. First, he gave it out as if he had found an altar of a +certain god hid under ground; the god they called Consus, either the god of +counsel (for they still call a consultation consilium and their chief +magistrates consules, namely, counselors), or else the equestrian Neptune, for +the altar is kept covered in the circus maximus at all other times, and only at +horse-races is exposed to public view; others merely say that this god had his +altar hid under ground because counsel ought to be secret and concealed. Upon +discovery of this altar, Romulus, by proclamation, appointed a day for a +splendid sacrifice, and for public games and shows, to entertain all sorts of +people; many flocked thither, and he himself sat in front, amidst his nobles, +clad in purple. Now the signal for their falling on was to be whenever he rose +and gathered up his robe and threw it over his body; his men stood all ready +armed, with their eyes intent upon him, and when the sign was given, drawing +their swords and falling on with a great shout, they ravished away the +daughters of the Sabines, they themselves flying without any let or hindrance. +They say there were but thirty taken, and from them the Curiae or Fraternities +were named; but Valerius Antias says five hundred and twenty-seven, Juba, six +hundred and eighty-three virgins; which was indeed the greatest excuse Romulus +could allege, namely, that they had taken no married woman, save one only, +Hersilia by name, and her too unknowingly; which showed they did not commit +this rape wantonly, but with a design purely of forming alliance with their +neighbors by the greatest and surest bonds. This Hersilia some say Hostilius +married, a most eminent man among the Romans; others, Romulus himself, and that +she bore two children to him, a daughter, by reason of primogeniture called +Prima, and one only son, whom, from the great concourse of citizens to him at +that time, he called Aollius, but after ages Abillius. But Zenodotus the +Troezenian, in giving this account, is contradicted by many. +</p> + +<p> +Among those who committed this rape upon the virgins, there were, they say, as +it so then happened, some of the meaner sort of men, who were carrying off a +damsel, excelling all in beauty and comeliness of stature, whom when some of +superior rank that met them attempted to take away, they cried out they were +carrying her to Talasius, a young man, indeed, but brave and worthy; hearing +that, they commended and applauded them loudly, and also some, turning back, +accompanied them with good- will and pleasure, shouting out the name of +Talasius. Hence the Romans to this very time, at their weddings, sing Talasius +for their nuptial word, as the Greeks do Hymenaeus, because, they say, Talasius +was very happy in his marriage. But Sextius Sylla the Carthaginian, a man +wanting neither learning nor ingenuity, told me Romulus gave this word as a +sign when to begin the onset; everybody, therefore, who made prize of a maiden, +cried out, Talasius; and for that reason the custom continues so now at +marriages. But most are of opinion (of whom Juba particularly is one) that this +word was used to new-married women by way of incitement to good housewifery and +talasia (spinning), as we say in Greek, Greek words at that time not being as +yet overpowered by Italian. But if this be the case, and if the Romans did at +that time use the word talasia as we do, a man might fancy a more probable +reason of the custom. For when the Sabines, after the war against the Romans, +were reconciled, conditions were made concerning their women, that they should +be obliged to do no other servile offices to their husbands but what concerned +spinning; it was customary, therefore, ever after, at weddings, for those that +gave the bride or escorted her or otherwise were present, sportingly to say +Talasius, intimating that she was henceforth to serve in spinning and no more. +It continues also a custom at this very day for the bride not of herself to +pass her husband’s threshold, but to be lifted over, in memory that the Sabine +virgins were carried in by violence, and did not go in of their own will. Some +say, too, the custom of parting the bride’s hair with the head of a spear was +in token their marriages began at first by war and acts of hostility, of which +I have spoken more fully in my book of Questions. +</p> + +<p> +This rape was committed on the eighteenth day of the month Sextilis, now called +August, on which the solemnities of the Consualia are kept. +</p> + +<p> +The Sabines were a numerous and martial people, but lived in small, unfortified +villages, as it befitted, they thought, a colony of the Lacedaemonians to be +bold and fearless; nevertheless, seeing themselves bound by such hostages to +their good behavior, and being solicitous for their daughters, they sent +ambassadors to Romulus with fair and equitable requests, that he would return +their young women and recall that act of violence, and afterwards, by +persuasion and lawful means, seek friendly correspondence between both nations. +Romulus would not part with the young women, yet proposed to the Sabines to +enter into an alliance with them; upon which point some consulted and demurred +long, but Acron, king of the Ceninenses, a man of high spirit and a good +warrior, who had all along a jealousy of Romulus’s bold attempts, and +considering particularly from this exploit upon the women that he was growing +formidable to all people, and indeed insufferable, were he not chastised, first +rose up in arms, and with a powerful army advanced against him. Romulus +likewise prepared to receive him; but when they came within sight and viewed +each other, they made a challenge to fight a single duel, the armies standing +by under arms, without participation. And Romulus, making a vow to Jupiter, if +he should conquer, to carry, himself, and dedicate his adversary’s armor to his +honor, overcame him in combat, and, a battle ensuing, routed his army also, and +then took his city; but did those he found in it no injury, only commanded them +to demolish the place and attend him to Rome, there to be admitted to all the +privileges of citizens. And indeed there was nothing did more advance the +greatness of Rome, than that she did always unite and incorporate those whom +she conquered into herself. Romulus, that he might perform his vow in the most +acceptable manner to Jupiter, and withal make the pomp of it delightful to the +eye of the city, cut down a tall oak which he saw growing in the camp, which he +trimmed to the shape of a trophy, and fastened on it Acron’s whole suit of +armor disposed in proper form; then he himself, girding his clothes about him, +and crowning his head with a laurel-garland, his hair gracefully flowing, +carried the trophy resting erect upon his right shoulder, and so marched on, +singing songs of triumph, and his whole army following after, the citizens all +receiving him with acclamations of joy and wonder. The procession of this day +was the origin and model of all after triumphs. This trophy was styled an +offering to Jupiter Feretrius, from ferire, which in Latin is to smite; for +Romulus prayed he might smite and overthrow his enemy; and the spoils were +called opima, or royal spoils, says Varro, from their richness, which the word +opes signifies; though one would more probably conjecture from opus, an act; +for it is only to the general of an army who with his own hand kills his +enemies’ general that this honor is granted of offering the opima spolia. And +three only of the Roman captains have had it conferred on them: first, Romulus, +upon killing Acron the Ceninensian; next, Cornelius Cossus, for slaying +Tolumnius the Tuscan; and lastly, Claudius Marcellus, upon his conquering +Viridomarus, king of the Gauls. The two latter, Cossus and Marcellus, made +their entries in triumphant chariots, bearing their trophies themselves; but +that Romulus made use of a chariot, Dionysius is wrong in asserting. History +says, Tarquinius, Damaratus’s son, was the first that brought triumphs to this +great pomp and grandeur; others, that Publicola was the first that rode in +triumph. The statues of Romulus in triumph are, as may be seen in Rome, all on +foot. +</p> + +<p> +After the overthrow of the Ceninensians, the other Sabines still protracting +the time in preparations, the people of Fidenae, Crustumerium, and Antemna, +joined their forces against the Romans; they in like manner were defeated in +battle, and surrendered up to Romulus their cities to be seized, their lands +and territories to be divided, and themselves to be transplanted to Rome. All +the lands which Romulus acquired, he distributed among the citizens, except +only what the parents of the stolen virgins had; these he suffered to possess +their own. The rest of the Sabines, enraged hereat, choosing Tatius their +captain, marched straight against Rome. The city was almost inaccessible, +having for its fortress that which is now the Capitol, where a strong guard was +placed, and Tarpeius their captain; not Tarpeia the virgin, as some say who +would make Romulus a fool. But Tarpeia, daughter to the captain, coveting the +golden bracelets she saw them wear, betrayed the fort into the Sabines’ hands, +and asked, in reward of her treachery, the things they wore on their left arms. +Tatius conditioning thus with her, in the night she opened one of the gates, +and received the Sabines in. And truly Antigonus, it would seem, was not +solitary in saying, he loved betrayers, but hated those who had betrayed; nor +Caesar, who told Rhymitalces the Thracian, that he loved the treason, but hated +the traitor; but it is the general feeling of all who have occasion for wicked +men’s service, as people have for the poison of venomous beasts; they are glad +of them while they are of use, and abhor their baseness when it is over. And so +then did Tatius behave towards Tarpeia, for he commanded the Sabines, in regard +to their contract, not to refuse her the least part of what they wore on their +left arms; and he himself first took his bracelet of his arm, and threw that, +together with his buckler, at her; and all the rest following, she, being borne +down and quite buried with the multitude of gold and their shields, died under +the weight and pressure of them; Tarpeius also himself, being prosecuted by +Romulus, was found guilty of treason, as Juba says Sulpicius Galba relates. +Those who write otherwise concerning Tarpeia, as that she was the daughter of +Tatius, the Sabine captain, and, being forcibly detained by Romulus, acted and +suffered thus by her father’s contrivance, speak very absurdly, of whom +Antigonus is one. And Simylus, the poet, who thinks Tarpeia betrayed the +Capitol, not to the Sabines, but the Gauls, having fallen in love with their +king, talks mere folly, saying thus:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Tarpeia ’twas, who, dwelling close thereby,<br/> +Laid open Rome unto the enemy.<br/> +She, for the love of the besieging Gaul,<br/> +Betrayed the city’s strength, the Capitol. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And a little after, speaking of her death:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The numerous nations of the Celtic foe<br/> +Bore her not living to the banks of Po;<br/> +Their heavy shields upon the maid they threw,<br/> +And with their splendid gifts entombed at once and slew. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Tarpeia afterwards was buried there, and the hill from her was called Tarpeius, +until the reign of king Tarquin, who dedicated the place to Jupiter, at which +time her bones were removed, and so it lost her name, except only that part of +the Capitol which they still call the Tarpeian Rock, from which they used to +cast down malefactors. +</p> + +<p> +The Sabines being possessed of the hill, Romulus, in great fury, bade them +battle, and Tatius was confident to accept it, perceiving, if they were +overpowered, that they had behind them a secure retreat. The level in the +middle, where they were to join battle, being surrounded with many little +hills, seemed to enforce both parties to a sharp and desperate conflict, by +reason of the difficulties of the place, which had but a few outlets, +inconvenient either for refuge or pursuit. It happened, too, the river having +overflowed not many days before, there was left behind in the plain, where now +the forum stands, a deep blind mud and slime, which, though it did not appear +much to the eye, and was not easily avoided, at bottom was deceitful and +dangerous; upon which the Sabines being unwarily about to enter, met with a +piece of good fortune; for Curtius, a gallant man, eager of honor, and of +aspiring thoughts, being mounted on horseback, was galloping on before the +rest, and mired his horse here, and, endeavoring for awhile by whip and spur +and voice to disentangle him, but finding it impossible, quitted him and saved +himself; the place from him to this very time is called the Curtian Lake. The +Sabines, having avoided this danger, began the fight very smartly, the fortune +of the day being very dubious, though many were slain; amongst whom was +Hostilius, who, they say, was husband to Hersilia, and grandfather to that +Hostilius who reigned after Numa. There were many other brief conflicts, we may +suppose, but the most memorable was the last, in which Romulus having received +a wound on his head by a stone, and being almost felled to the ground by it, +and disabled, the Romans gave way, and, being driven out of the level ground, +fled towards the Palatium. Romulus, by this time recovering from his wound a +little, turned about to renew the battle, and, facing the fliers, with a loud +voice encouraged them to stand and fight. But being overborne with numbers, and +nobody daring to face about, stretching out his hands to heaven, he prayed to +Jupiter to stop the army, and not to neglect but maintain the Roman cause, now +in extreme danger. The prayer was no sooner made, than shame and respect for +their king checked many; the fears of the fugitives changed suddenly into +confidence. The place they first stood at was where now is the temple of +Jupiter Stator (which may be translated the Stayer); there they rallied again +into ranks, and repulsed the Sabines to the place called now Regia, and to the +temple of Vesta; where both parties, preparing to begin a second battle, were +prevented by a spectacle, strange to behold, and defying description. For the +daughters of the Sabines, who had been carried off, came running, in great +confusion, some on this side, some on that, with miserable cries and +lamentations, like creatures possessed, in the midst of the army, and among the +dead bodies, to come at their husbands and their fathers, some with their young +babes in their arms, others their hair loose about their ears, but all calling, +now upon the Sabines, now upon the Romans, in the most tender and endearing +words. Hereupon both melted into compassion, and fell back, to make room for +them between the armies. The sight of the women carried sorrow and +commiseration upon both sides into the hearts of all, but still more their +words, which began with expostulation and upbraiding, and ended with entreaty +and supplication. +</p> + +<p> +“Wherein,” say they, “have we injured or offended you, as to deserve such +sufferings, past and present? We were ravished away unjustly and violently by +those whose now we are; that being done, we were so long neglected by our +fathers, our brothers, and countrymen, that time, having now by the strictest +bonds united us to those we once mortally hated, has made it impossible for us +not to tremble at the danger and weep at the death of the very men who once +used violence to us. You did not come to vindicate our honor, while we were +virgins, against our assailants; but do come now to force away wives from their +husbands and mothers from their children, a succor more grievous to its +wretched objects than the former betrayal and neglect of them. Which shall we +call the worst, their love-making or your compassion? If you were making war +upon any other occasion, for our sakes you ought to withhold your hands from +those to whom we have made you fathers-in-law and grandsires. If it be for our +own cause, then take us, and with us your sons-in-law and grandchildren. +Restore to us our parents and kindred, but do not rob us of our children and +husbands. Make us not, we entreat you, twice captives.” Hersilia having spoken +many such words as these, and the others earnestly praying, a truce was made, +and the chief officers came to a parley; the women, in the mean time, brought +and presented their husbands and children to their fathers and brothers; gave +those that wanted, meat and drink, and carried the wounded home to be cured, +and showed also how much they governed within doors, and how indulgent their +husbands were to them, in demeaning themselves towards them with all kindness +and respect imaginable. Upon this, conditions were agreed upon, that what women +pleased might stay where they were, exempt, as aforesaid, from all drudgery and +labor but spinning; that the Romans and Sabines should inhabit the city +together; that the city should be called Rome, from Romulus; but the Romans, +Quirites, from the country of Tatius; and that they both should govern and +command in common. The place of the ratification is still called Comitium, from +coire, to meet. +</p> + +<p> +The city being thus doubled in number, one hundred of the Sabines were elected +senators, and the legions were increased to six thousand foot and six hundred +horse; then they divided the people into three tribes; the first, from Romulus, +named Ramnenses; the second, from Tatius, Tatienses; the third, Luceres, from +the lucus, or grove, where the Asylum stood, whither many fled for sanctuary, +and were received into the city. And that they were just three, the very name +of tribe and tribune seems to show; each tribe contained ten curiae, or +brotherhoods, which, some say, took their names from the Sabine women; but that +seems to be false, because many had their names from various places. Though it +is true, they then constituted many things in honor to the women; as to give +them the way wherever they met them; to speak no ill word in their presence; +not to appear naked before them, or else be liable to prosecution before the +judges of homicide; that their children should wear an ornament about their +necks called the bulla (because it was like a bubble), and the praetexta, a +gown edged with purple. +</p> + +<p> +The princes did not immediately join in council together, but at first each met +with his own hundred; afterwards all assembled together. Tatius dwelt where now +the temple of Moneta stands, and Romulus, close by the steps, as they call +them, of the Fair Shore, near the descent from the Mount Palatine to the Circus +Maximus. There, they say, grew the holy cornel tree, of which they report, that +Romulus once, to try his strength, threw a dart from the Aventine Mount, the +staff of which was made of cornel, which struck so deep into the ground, that +no one of many that tried could pluck it up; and the soil, being fertile, gave +nourishment to the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a cornel-stock +of considerable bigness. This did posterity preserve and worship as one of the +most sacred things; and, therefore, walled it about; and if to any one it +appeared not green nor flourishing, but inclining to pine and wither, he +immediately made outcry to all he met, and they, like people hearing of a house +on fire, with one accord would cry for water, and run from all parts with +buckets full to the place. But when Caius Caesar, they say, was repairing the +steps about it, some of the laborers digging too close, the roots were +destroyed, and the tree withered. +</p> + +<p> +The Sabines adopted the Roman months, of which whatever is remarkable is +mentioned in the Life of Numa. Romulus, on the other hand, adopted their long +shields, and changed his own armor and that of all the Romans, who before wore +round targets of the Argive pattern. Feasts and sacrifices they partook of in +common, not abolishing any which either nation observed before, and instituting +several new ones; of which one was the Matronalia, instituted in honor of the +women. for their extinction of the war; likewise the Carmentalia. This Carmenta +some think a deity presiding over human birth; for which reason she is much +honored by mothers. Others say she was the wife of Evander, the Arcadian, being +a prophetess, and wont to deliver her oracles in verse, and from carmen, a +verse, was called Carmenta; her proper name being Nicostrata. Others more +probably derive Carmenta from carens mente, or insane, in allusion to her +prophetic frenzies. Of the Feast of Palilia we have spoken before. The +Lupercalia, by the time of its celebration, may seem to be a feast of +purification, for it is solemnized on the dies nefasti, or non-court days, of +the month February, which name signifies purification, and the very day of the +feast was anciently called Februata; but its name is equivalent to the Greek +Lycaea; and it seems thus to be of great antiquity, and brought in by the +Arcadians who came with Evander. Yet this is but dubious, for it may come as +well from the wolf that nursed Romulus; and we see the Luperci, the priests, +begin their course from the place where they say Romulus was exposed. But the +ceremonies performed in it render the origin of the thing more difficult to be +guessed at; for there are goats killed, then, two young noblemen’s sons being +brought, some are to stain their foreheads with the bloody knife, others +presently to wipe it off with wool dipped in milk; then the young boys must +laugh after their foreheads are wiped; that done, having cut the goats’ skins +into thongs, they run about naked, only with something about their middle, +lashing all they meet; and the young wives do not avoid their strokes, fancying +they will help conception and child-birth. Another thing peculiar to this feast +is for the Luperci to sacrifice a dog. But as, a certain poet who wrote +fabulous explanations of Roman customs in elegiac verses, says, that Romulus +and Remus, after the conquest of Amulius, ran joyfully to the place where the +wolf gave them suck; and that in imitation of that, this feast was held, and +two young noblemen ran— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Striking at all, as when from Alba town,<br/> +With sword in hand, the twins came hurrying down; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and that the bloody knife applied to their foreheads was a sign of the danger +and bloodshed of that day; the cleansing of them in milk, a remembrance of +their food and nourishment. Caius Acilius writes, that, before the city was +built, the cattle of Romulus and Remus one day going astray, they, praying to +the god Faunus, ran out to seek them naked, wishing not to be troubled with +sweat, and that this is why the Luperci run naked. If the sacrifice be by way +of purification, a dog might very well be sacrificed; for the Greeks, in their +lustrations, carry out young dogs, and frequently use this ceremony of +periscylacismus as they call it. Or if again it is a sacrifice of gratitude to +the wolf that nourished and preserved Romulus, there is good reason in killing +a dog, as being an enemy to wolves. Unless indeed, after all, the creature is +punished for hindering the Luperci in their running. +</p> + +<p> +They say, too, Romulus was the first that consecrated holy fire, and instituted +holy virgins to keep it, called vestals; others ascribe it to Numa Pompilius; +agreeing, however, that Romulus was otherwise eminently religious, and skilled +in divination, and for that reason carried the lituus, a crooked rod with which +soothsayers describe the quarters of the heavens, when they sit to observe the +flights of birds. This of his, being kept in the Palatium, was lost when the +city was taken by the Gauls; and afterwards, that barbarous people being driven +out, was found in the ruins, under a great heap of ashes, untouched by the +fire, all things about it being consumed and burnt. He instituted also certain +laws, one of which is somewhat severe, which suffers not a wife to leave her +husband, but grants a husband power to turn off his wife, either upon poisoning +her children; or counterfeiting his keys, or for adultery; but if the husband +upon any other occasion put her away, he ordered one moiety of his estate to be +given to the wife, the other to fall to the goddess Ceres; and whoever cast off +his wife, to make an atonement by sacrifice to the gods of the dead. This, too, +is observable as a singular thing in Romulus, that he appointed no punishment +for real parricide, but called all murder so, thinking the one an accursed +thing, but the other a thing impossible; and, for a long time, his judgment +seemed to have been right; for in almost six hundred years together, nobody +committed the like in Rome; and Lucius Hostius, after the wars of Hanibal, is +recorded to have been the first parricide. Let thus much suffice concerning +these matters. +</p> + +<p> +In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his friends and kinsmen, +meeting ambassadors coming from Laurentum to Rome, attempted on the road to +take away their money by force, and, upon their resistance, killed them. So +great a villainy having been committed, Romulus thought the malefactors ought +at once to be punished, but Tatius shuffled off and deferred the execution of +it; and this one thing was the beginning of open quarrel between them; in all +other respects they were very careful of their conduct, and administered +affairs together with great unanimity. The relations of the slain, being +debarred of lawful satisfaction by reason of Tatius, fell upon him as he was +sacrificing with Romulus at Lavinium, and slew him; but escorted Romulus home, +commending and extolling him for a just prince. Romulus took the body of +Tatius, and buried it very splendidly in the Aventine Mount, near the place +called Armilustrium, but altogether neglected revenging his murder. Some +authors write, the city of Laurentum, fearing the consequence, delivered up the +murderers of Tatius; but Romulus dismissed them, saying, one murder was +requited with another. This gave occasion of talk and jealousy, as if he were +well pleased at the removal of his copartner in the government. Nothing of +these things, however, raised any sort of feud or disturbance among the +Sabines; but some out of love to him, others out of fear of his power, some +again reverencing him as a god, they all continued living peacefully in +admiration and awe of him; many foreign nations, too, showed respect to +Romulus; the Ancient Latins sent, and entered into league and confederacy with +him. Fidenae he took, a neighboring city to Rome, by a party of horse, as some +say, whom he sent before with commands to cut down the hinges of the gates, +himself afterwards unexpectedly coming up. Others say, they having first made +the invasion, plundering and ravaging the country and suburbs, Romulus lay in +ambush for them, and, having killed many of their men, took the city; but, +nevertheless, did not raze or demolish it, but made it a Roman colony, and sent +thither, on the Ides of April, two thousand five hundred inhabitants. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after a plague broke out, causing sudden death without any previous +sickness; it infected also the corn with unfruitfulness, and cattle with +barrenness; there rained blood, too, in the city; so that, to their actual +sufferings, fear of the wrath of the gods was added. But when the same +mischiefs fell upon Laurentum, then everybody judged it was divine vengeance +that fell upon both cities, for the neglect of executing justice upon the +murder of Tatius and the ambassadors. But the murderers on both sides being +delivered up and punished, the pestilence visibly abated; and Romulus purified +the cities with lustrations, which, they say, even now are performed at the +wood called Ferentina. But before the plague ceased, the Camertines invaded the +Romans and overran the country, thinking them, by reason of the distemper, +unable to resist; but Romulus at once made head against them, and gained the +victory, with the slaughter of six thousand men; then took their city, and +brought half of those he found there to Rome; sending from Rome to Camerium +double the number he left there. This was done the first of August. So many +citizens had he to spare, in sixteen years’ time from his first founding Rome. +Among other spoils, he took a brazen four-horse chariot from Camerium, which he +placed in the temple of Vulcan, setting on it his own statue, with a figure of +Victory crowning him. +</p> + +<p> +The Roman cause thus daily gathering strength, their weaker neighbors shrunk +away, and were thankful to be left untouched; but the stronger, out of fear or +envy, thought they ought not to give way to Romulus, but to curb and put a stop +to his growing greatness. The first were the Veientes, a people of Tuscany, who +had large possessions, and dwelt in a spacious city; they took occasion to +commence a war, by claiming Fidenae as belonging to them; a thing not only very +unreasonable, but very ridiculous, that they, who did not assist them in the +greatest extremities, but permitted them to be slain, should challenge their +lands and houses when in the hands of others. But being scornfully retorted +upon by Romulus in his answers, they divided themselves into two bodies; with +one they attacked the garrison of Fidenae, the other marched against Romulus; +that which went against Fidenae got the victory, and slew two thousand Romans; +the other was worsted by Romulus, with the loss of eight thousand men. A fresh +battle was fought near Fidenae, and here all men acknowledge the day’s success +to have been chiefly the work of Romulus himself, who showed the highest skill +as well as courage, and seemed to manifest a strength and swiftness more than +human. But what some write, that, of fourteen thousand that fell that day, +above half were slain by Romulus’s own hand, verges too near to fable, and is, +indeed, simply incredible; since even the Messenians are thought to go too far +in saying that Aristomenes three times offered sacrifice for the death of a +hundred enemies, Lacedaemonians, slain by himself. The army being thus routed, +Romulus, suffering those that were left to make their escape, led his forces +against the city; they, having suffered such great losses, did not venture to +oppose, but, humbly suing to him, made a league and friendship for an hundred +years; surrendering also a large district of land called Septempagium, that is, +the seven parts, as also their salt-works upon the river, and fifty noblemen +for hostages. He made his triumph for this on the Ides of October, leading, +among the rest of his many captives, the general of the Veientes, an elderly +man, but who had not, it seemed, acted with the prudence of age; whence even +now, in sacrifices for victories, they lead an old man through the market place +to the Capitol, appareled in purple, with a bulla, or child’s toy, tied to it, +and the crier cries, Sardians to be sold; for the Tuscans are said to be a +colony of the Sardians, and the Veientes are a city of Tuscany. +</p> + +<p> +This was the last battle Romulus ever fought; afterwards he, as most, nay all +men, very few excepted, do, who are raised by great and miraculous good-haps of +fortune to power and greatness, so, I say, did he; relying upon his own great +actions, and growing of an haughtier mind, he forsook his popular behavior for +kingly arrogance, odious to the people; to whom in particular the state which +he assumed was hateful. For he dressed in scarlet, with the purple-bordered +robe over it; he gave audience on a couch of state, having always about him +some young men called Celeres, from their swiftness in doing commissions; there +went before him others with staves, to make room, with leather thongs tied on +their bodies, to bind on the moment whomever he commanded. The Latins formerly +used ligare in the same sense as now alligare, to bind, whence the name +lictors, for these officers, and bacula, or staves, for their rods, because +staves were then used. It is probable, however, they were first called litores, +afterwards, by putting in a c, lictores, or, in Greek, liturgi, or people’s +officers, for leitos is still Greek for the commons, and laos for the people in +general. +</p> + +<p> +But when, after the death of his grandfather Numitor in Alba, the throne +devolving upon Romulus, he, to court the people, put the government into their +own hands, and appointed an annual magistrate over the Albans, this taught the +great men of Rome to seek after a free and anti- monarchical state, wherein all +might in turn be subjects and rulers. For neither were the patricians any +longer admitted to state affairs, only had the name and title left them, +convening in council rather for fashion’s sake than advice, where they heard in +silence the king’s commands, and so departed, exceeding the commonalty only in +hearing first what was done. These and the like were matters of small moment; +but when he of his own accord parted among his soldiers what lands were +acquired by war, and restored the Veientes their hostages, the senate neither +consenting nor approving of it, then, indeed, he seemed to put a great affront +upon them; so that, on his sudden and strange disappearance a short while +after, the senate fell under suspicion and calumny. He disappeared on the Nones +of July, as they now call the month which was then Quintilis, leaving nothing +of certainty to be related of his death; only the time, as just mentioned, for +on that day many ceremonies are still performed in representation of what +happened. Neither is this uncertainty to be thought strange, seeing the manner +of the death of Scipio Africanus, who died at his own home after supper, has +been found capable neither of proof or disproof; for some say he died a natural +death, being of a sickly habit; others, that he poisoned himself; others again, +that his enemies, breaking in upon him in the night, stifled him. Yet Scipio’s +dead body lay open to be seen of all, and any one, from his own observation, +might form his suspicions and conjectures; whereas Romulus, when he vanished, +left neither the least part of his body, nor any remnant of his clothes to be +seen. So that some fancied, the senators, having fallen upon him ill the temple +of Vulcan, cut his body into pieces, and took each a part away in his bosom; +others think his disappearance was neither in the temple of Vulcan, nor with +the senators only by, but that, it came to pass that, as he was haranguing the +people without the city, near a place called the Goat’s Marsh, on a sudden +strange and unaccountable disorders and alterations took place in the air; the +face of the sun was darkened, and the day turned into night, and that, too, no +quiet, peaceable night, but with terrible thunderings, and boisterous winds +from all quarters; during which the common people dispersed and fled, but the +senators kept close together. The tempest being over and the light breaking +out, when the people gathered again, they missed and inquired for their king; +the senators suffered them not to search, or busy themselves about the matter, +but commanded them to honor and worship Romulus as one taken up to the gods, +and about to be to them, in the place of a good prince, now a propitious god. +The multitude, hearing this, went away believing and rejoicing in hopes of good +things from him; but there were some, who, canvassing the matter in a hostile +temper, accused and aspersed the patricians, as men that persuaded the people +to believe ridiculous tales, when they themselves were the murderers of the +king. +</p> + +<p> +Things being in this disorder, one, they say, of the patricians, of noble +family and approved good character, and a faithful and familiar friend of +Romulus himself, having come with him from Alba, Julius Proculus by name, +presented himself in the forum; and, taking a most sacred oath, protested +before them all, that, as he was traveling on the road, he had seen Romulus +coming to meet him, looking taller and comelier than ever, dressed in shining +and faming armor; and he, being affrighted at the apparition, said, “Why, O +king, or for what purpose have you abandoned us to unjust and wicked surmises, +and the whole city to bereavement and endless sorrow?” and that he made answer, +“It pleased the gods, O Proculus, that we, who came from them, should remain so +long a time amongst men as we did; and, having built a city to be the greatest +in the world for empire and glory, should again return to heaven. But farewell; +and tell the Romans, that, by the exercise of temperance and fortitude, they +shall attain the height of human power; we will be to you the propitious god +Quirinus.” This seemed credible to the Romans, upon the honesty and oath of the +relater, and indeed, too, there mingled with it a certain divine passion, some +preternatural influence similar to possession by a divinity; nobody +contradicted it, but, laying aside all jealousies and detractions, they prayed +to Quirinus and saluted him as a god. +</p> + +<p> +This is like some of the Greek fables of Aristeas the Proconnesian, and +Cleomedes the Astypalaean; for they say Aristeas died in a fuller’s work-shop, +and his friends, coming to look for him, found his body vanished; and that some +presently after, coming from abroad, said they met him traveling towards +Croton. And that Cleomedes, being an extraordinarily strong and gigantic man, +but also wild and mad, committed many desperate freaks; and at last, in a +school-house, striking a pillar that sustained the roof with his fist, broke it +in the middle, so that the house fell and destroyed the children in it; and +being pursued, he fled into a great chest, and, shutting to the lid, held it so +fast, that many men, with their united strength, could not force it open; +afterwards, breaking the chest to pieces, they found no man in it alive or +dead; in astonishment at which, they sent to consult the oracle at Delphi; to +whom the prophetess made this answer, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Of all the heroes, Cleomede is last. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +They say, too, the body of Alcmena, as they were carrying her to her grave, +vanished, and a stone was found lying on the bier. And many such +improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying creatures naturally +mortal; for though altogether to disown a divine nature in human virtue were +impious and base, so again to mix heaven with earth is ridiculous. Let us +believe with Pindar, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +All human bodies yield to Death’s decree,<br/> +The soul survives to all eternity. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For that alone is derived from the gods, thence comes, and thither returns; not +with the body, but when most disengaged and separated from it, and when most +entirely pure and clean and free from the flesh; for the most perfect soul, +says Heraclitus, is a dry light, which flies out of the body as lightning +breaks from a cloud; but that which is clogged and surfeited with body is like +gross and humid incense, slow to kindle and ascend. We must not, therefore, +contrary to nature, send the bodies, too, of good men to heaven; but we must +really believe that, according to their divine nature and law, their virtue and +their souls are translated out of men into heroes, out of heroes into +demi-gods, out of demi-gods, after passing, as in the rite of initiation, +through a final cleansing and sanctification, and so freeing themselves from +all that pertains to mortality and sense, are thus, not by human decree, but +really and according to right reason, elevated into gods, admitted thus to the +greatest and most blessed perfection. +</p> + +<p> +Romulus’s surname Quirinus, some say, is equivalent to Mars; others, that he +was so called because the citizens were called Quirites; others, because the +ancients called a dart or spear Quiris; thus, the statue of Juno resting on a +spear is called Quiritis, and the dart in the Regia is addressed as Mars, and +those that were distinguished in war were usually presented with a dart; that, +therefore, Romulus, being a martial god, or a god of darts, was called +Quirinus. A temple is certainly built to his honor on the mount called from him +Quirinalis. +</p> + +<p> +The day he vanished on is called the Flight of the People, and the Nones of the +Goats, because they go then out of the city, and sacrifice at the Goat’s Marsh, +and, as they go, they shout out some of the Roman names, as Marcus, Lucius, +Caius, imitating the way in which they then fled and called upon one another in +that fright and hurry. Some, however, say, this was not in imitation of a +flight, but of a quick and hasty onset, referring it to the following occasion: +after the Gauls who had taken Rome were driven out by Camillus, and the city +was scarcely as yet recovering her strength, many of the Latins, under the +command of Livius Postumius, took this time to march against her. Postumius, +halting not far from Rome, sent a herald, signifying that the Latins were +desirous to renew their former alliance and affinity (that was now almost +decayed) by contracting new marriages between both nations; if, therefore, they +would send forth a good number of their virgins and widows, they should have +peace and friendship, such as the Sabines had formerly had on the like +conditions. The Romans, hearing this, dreaded a war, yet thought a surrender of +their women little better than mere captivity. Being in this doubt, a +servant-maid called Philotis (or, as some say, Tutola), advised them to do +neither, but, by a stratagem, avoid both fighting and the giving up of such +pledges. The stratagem was this, that they should send herself, with other +well-looking servant-maids, to the enemy, in the dress of free-born virgins, +and she should in the night light up a fire-signal, at which the Romans should +come armed and surprise them asleep. The Latins were thus deceived, and +accordingly Philotis set up a torch in a wild fig-tree, screening it behind +with curtains and coverlets from the sight of the enemy, while visible to the +Romans. They, when they saw it, eagerly ran out of the gates, calling in their +haste to each other as they went out, and so, falling in unexpectedly upon the +enemy, they defeated them, and upon that made a feast of triumph, called the +Nones of the Goats, because of the wild fig-tree, called by the Romans +Caprificus, or the goat-fig. They feast the women without the city in arbors +made of fig-tree boughs and the maid-servants gather together and run about +playing; afterwards they fight in sport, and throw stones one at another, in +memory that they then aided and assisted the Roman men in fight. This only a +few authors admit for true; For the calling upon one another’s names by day and +the going out to the Goat’s Marsh to do sacrifice seem to agree more with the +former story, unless, indeed, we shall say that both the actions might have +happened on the same day in different years. It was in the fifty-fourth year of +his age and the thirty-eighth of his reign that Romulus, they tell us, left the +world. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap03"></a>COMPARISON OF ROMULUS WITH THESEUS</h2> + +<p> +This is what I have learnt of Romulus and Theseus, worthy of memory. It seems, +first of all, that Theseus, out of his own free-will, without any compulsion, +when he might have reigned in security at Troezen in the enjoyment of no +inglorious empire, of his own motion affected great actions, whereas the other, +to escape present servitude and a punishment that threatened him, (according to +Plato’s phrase) grew valiant purely out of fear, and dreading the extremest +inflictions, attempted great enterprises out of mere necessity. Again, his +greatest action was only the killing of one king of Alba; while, as mere +by-adventures and preludes, the other can name Sciron, Sinnis, Procrustes, and +Corynetes; by reducing and killing of whom, he rid Greece of terrible +oppressors, before any of them that were relieved knew who did it; moreover, he +might without any trouble as well have gone to Athens by sea, considering he +himself never was in the least injured by those robbers; where as Romulus could +not but be in trouble whilst Amulius lived. Add to this the fact that Theseus, +for no wrong done to himself, but for the sake of others, fell upon these +villains; but Romulus and Remus, as long as they themselves suffered no ill by +the tyrant, permitted him to oppress all others. And if it be a great thing to +have been wounded in battle by the Sabines, to have killed king Acron, and to +have conquered many enemies, we may oppose to these actions the battle with the +Centaurs and the feats done against the Amazons. But what Theseus adventured, +in offering himself voluntarily with young boys and virgins, as part of the +tribute unto Crete, either to be a prey to a monster or a victim upon the tomb +of Androgeus, or, according to the mildest form of the story, to live vilely +and dishonorably in slavery to insulting and cruel men; it is not to be +expressed what an act of courage, magnanimity, or justice to the public, or of +love for honor and bravery, that was. So that methinks the philosophers did not +ill define love to be the provision of the gods for the care and preservation +of the young; for the love of Ariadne, above all, seems to have been the proper +work and design of some god in order to preserve Theseus; and, indeed, we ought +not to blame her for loving him, but rather wonder all men and women were not +alike affected towards him; and if she alone were so. truly I dare pronounce +her worthy of the love of a god, who was herself so great a lover of virtue and +goodness, and the bravest man. +</p> + +<p> +Both Theseus and Romulus were by nature meant for governors; yet neither lived +up to the true character of a king, but fell off, and ran, the one into +popularity, the other into tyranny, falling both into the same fault out of +different passions. For a ruler’s first end is to maintain his office, which is +done no less by avoiding what is unfit than by observing what is suitable. +Whoever is either too remiss or too strict is no more a king or a governor, but +either a demagogue or a despot, and so becomes either odious or contemptible to +his subjects. Though certainly the one seems to be the fault of easiness and +good-nature, the other of pride and severity. +</p> + +<p> +If men’s calamities, again, are not to be wholly imputed to fortune, but refer +themselves to differences of character, who will acquit either Theseus of rash +and unreasonable anger against his son, or Romulus against his brother? Looking +at motives, we more easily excuse the anger which a stronger cause, like a +severer blow, provoked. Romulus, having disagreed with his brother advisedly +and deliberately on public matters, one would think could not on a sudden have +been put into so great a passion; but love and jealousy and the complaints of +his wife, which few men can avoid being moved by, seduced Theseus to commit +that outrage upon his son. And what is more, Romulus, in his anger, committed +an action of unfortunate consequence; but that of Theseus ended only in words, +some evil speaking, and an old man’s curse; the rest of the youth’s disasters +seem to have proceeded from fortune; so that, so far, a man would give his vote +on Theseus’s part. +</p> + +<p> +But Romulus has, first of all, one great plea, that his performances proceeded +from very small beginnings; for both the brothers being thought servants and +the sons of swineherds, before becoming freemen themselves, gave liberty to +almost all the Latins, obtaining at once all the most honorable titles, as +destroyers of their country’s enemies, preservers of their friends and kindred, +princes of the people, founders of cities, not removers, like Theseus, who +raised and compiled only one house out of many, demolishing many cities bearing +the names of ancient kings and heroes. Romulus, indeed, did the same +afterwards, forcing his enemies to deface and ruin their own dwellings, and to +sojourn with their conquerors; but at first, not by removal, or increase of an +existing city, but by foundation of a new one, he obtained himself lands, a +country, a kingdom, wives, children, and relations. And, in so doing, he killed +or destroyed nobody, but benefited those that wanted houses and homes and were +willing to be of a society and become citizens. Robbers and malefactors he slew +not; but he subdued nations, he overthrew cities, he triumphed over kings and +commanders. As to Remus, it is doubtful by whose hand he fell; it is generally +imputed to others. His mother he clearly retrieved from death, and placed his +grandfather who was brought under base and dishonorable vassalage, on the +ancient throne of Aeneas, to whom he did voluntarily many good offices, but +never did him harm even inadvertently. But Theseus, in his forgetfulness and +neglect of the command concerning the flag, can scarcely, methinks, by any +excuses, or before the most indulgent judges, avoid the imputation of +parricide. And, indeed, one of the Attic writers, perceiving it to be very hard +to make an excuse for this, feigns that Aegeus, at the approach of the ship, +running hastily to the Acropolis to see what news, slipped and fell down, as if +he had no servants, or none would attend him on his way to the shore. +</p> + +<p> +And, indeed, the faults committed in the rapes of women admit of no plausible +excuse in Theseus. First, because of the often repetition of the crime; for he +stole Ariadne, Antiope, Anaxo the Troezenian, at last Helen, when he was an old +man, and she not marriageable; she a child, and he at an age past even lawful +wedlock. Then, on account of the cause; for the Troezenian, Lacedaemonian, and +Amazonian virgins, beside that they were not betrothed to him, were not +worthier to raise children by than the Athenian women, derived from Erechtheus +and Cecrops; but it is to be suspected these things were done out of wantonness +and lust. Romulus, when he had taken near eight hundred women, chose not all, +but only Hersilia, as they say, for himself; the rest he divided among the +chief of the city; and afterwards, by the respect and tenderness and justice +shown towards them, he made it clear that this violence and injury was a +commendable and politic exploit to establish a society; by which he intermixed +and united both nations, and made it the fountain of after friendship and +public stability. And to the reverence and love and constancy he established in +matrimony, time can witness; for in two hundred and thirty years, neither any +husband deserted his wife, nor any wife her husband; but, as the curious among +the Greeks can name the first case of parricide or matricide, so the Romans all +well know that Spurius Carvilius was the first who put away his wife, accusing +her of barrenness. The immediate results were similar; for upon those marriages +the two princes shared in the dominion, and both nations fell under the same +government. But from the marriages of Theseus proceeded nothing of friendship +or correspondence for the advantage of commerce, but enmities and wars and the +slaughter of citizens, and, at last, the loss of the city Aphidnae, when only +out of the compassion of the enemy, whom they entreated and caressed like gods, +they escaped suffering what Troy did by Paris. Theseus’s mother, however, was +not only in danger, but suffered actually what Hecuba did, deserted and +neglected by her son, unless her captivity be not a fiction, as I could wish +both that and other things were. The circumstances of the divine intervention, +said to have preceded or accompanied their births, are also in contrast; for +Romulus was preserved by the special favor of the gods; but the oracle given to +Aegeus, commanding him to abstain, seems to demonstrate that the birth of +Theseus was not agreeable to the will of the gods. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap04"></a>LYCURGUS</h2> + +<p> +There is so much uncertainty in the accounts which historians have left us of +Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, that scarcely anything is asserted by one of +them which is not called into question or contradicted by the rest. Their +sentiments are quite different as to the family he came of, the voyages he +undertook, the place and manner of his death, but most of all when they speak +of the laws he made and the commonwealth which he founded. They cannot, by any +means, be brought to an agreement as to the very age in which he lived; for +some of them say that he flourished in the time of Iphitus, and that they two +jointly contrived the ordinance for the cessation of arms during the solemnity +of the Olympic games. Of this opinion was Aristotle; and for confirmation of +it, he alleges an inscription upon one of the copper quoits used in those +sports, upon which the name of Lycurgus continued uneffaced to his time. But +Eratosthenes and Apollodorus and other chronologers, computing the time by the +successions of the Spartan kings, pretend to demonstrate that he was much more +ancient than the institution of the Olympic games. Timaeus conjectures that +there were two of this name, and in diverse times, but that the one of them +being much more famous than the other, men gave to him the glory of the +exploits of both; the elder of the two, according to him, was not long after +Homer; and some are so particular as to say that he had seen him. But that he +was of great antiquity may be gathered from a passage in Xenophon, where he +makes him contemporary with the Heraclidae. By descent, indeed, the very last +kings of Sparta were Heraclidae too; but he seems in that place to speak of the +first and more immediate successors of Hercules. But notwithstanding this +confusion and obscurity, we shall endeavor to compose the history of his life, +adhering to those statements which are least contradicted, and depending upon +those authors who are most worthy of credit. +</p> + +<p> +The poet Simonides will have it that Lycurgus was the son of Prytanis, and not +of Eunomus; but in this opinion he is singular, for all the rest deduce the +genealogy of them both as follows:— +</p> + +<pre> + Aristodemus + Patrocles + Sous + Eurypon + Eunomus + ————————————————————— + Polydectes by his first wife Lycurgus by Dionassa his second. + </pre> + +<p> +Dieuchidas says he was the sixth from Patrocles and the eleventh from Hercules. +Be this as it will, Sous certainly was the most renowned of all his ancestors, +under whose conduct the Spartans made slaves of the Helots, and added to their +dominions, by conquest, a good part of Arcadia, There goes a story of this king +Sous, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a dry and stony place so that +he could come at no water, he was at last constrained to agree with them upon +these terms, that he would restore to them all his conquests, provided that +himself and all his men should drink of the nearest spring. After the usual +oaths and ratifications, he called his soldiers together, and offered to him +that would forbear drinking, his kingdom for a reward; and when not a man of +them was able to forbear, in short, when they had all drunk their fill, at last +comes king Sous himself to the spring, and, having sprinkled his face only, +without swallowing one drop, marches off in the face of his enemies, refusing +to yield up his conquests, because himself and all his men had not, according +to the articles, drunk of their water. +</p> + +<p> +Although he was justly had in admiration on this account, yet his family was +not surnamed from him, but from his son Eurypon (of whom they were called +Eurypontids); the reason of which was that Eurypon relaxed the rigor of the +monarchy, seeking favor and popularity with the many. They, after this first +step, grew bolder; and the succeeding kings partly incurred hatred with their +people by trying to use force, or, for popularity’s sake and through weakness, +gave way; and anarchy and confusion long prevailed in Sparta, causing, +moreover, the death of the father of Lycurgus. For as he was endeavoring to +quell a riot, he was stabbed with a butcher’s knife, and left the title of king +to his eldest son Polydectes. +</p> + +<p> +He, too, dying soon after, the right of succession (as every one thought) +rested in Lycurgus; and reign he did, until it was found that the queen, his +sister-in-law, was with child; upon which he immediately declared that the +kingdom belonged to her issue, provided it were male, and that he himself +exercised the regal jurisdiction only as his guardian; the Spartan name for +which office is prodicus. Soon after, an overture was made to him by the queen, +that she would herself in some way destroy the infant, upon condition that he +would marry her when he came to the crown. Abhorring the woman’s wickedness, he +nevertheless did not reject her proposal, but, making show of closing with her, +dispatched the messenger with thanks and expressions of joy, but dissuaded her +earnestly from procuring herself to miscarry, which would impair her health, if +not endanger her life; he himself, he said, would see to it, that the child, as +soon as born, should be taken out of the way. By such artifices having drawn on +the woman to the time of her lying-in, as soon as he heard that she was in +labor, he sent persons to be by and observe all that passed, with orders that +if it were a girl they should deliver it to the women, but if a boy, should +bring it to him wheresoever he were, and whatsoever doing. It so fell out that +when he was at supper with the principal magistrates the queen was brought to +bed of a boy, who was soon after presented to him as he was at the table; he, +taking him into his arms, said to those about him, “Men of Sparta, here is a +king born unto us;” this said, he laid him down in the king’s place, and named +him Charilaus, that is, the joy of the people; because that all were +transported with joy and with wonder at his noble and just spirit. His reign +had lasted only eight months, but he was honored on other accounts by the +citizens, and there were more who obeyed him because of his eminent virtues, +than because he was regent to the king and had the royal power in his hands. +Some, however, envied and sought to impede his growing influence while he was +still young; chiefly the kindred and friends of the queen mother, who pretended +to have been dealt with injuriously. Her brother Leonidas, in a warm debate +which fell out betwixt him and Lycurgus, went so far as to tell him to his face +that he was well assured that ere long he should see him king; suggesting +suspicions and preparing the way for an accusation of him, as though he had +made away with his nephew, if the child should chance to fail though by a +natural death. Words of the like import were designedly cast abroad by the +queen-mother and her adherents. +</p> + +<p> +Troubled at this, and not knowing what it might come to, he thought it his +wisest course to avoid their envy by a voluntary exile, and to travel from +place to place until his nephew came to marriageable years, and, by having a +son, had secured the succession; setting sail, therefore, with this resolution, +he first arrived at Crete, where, having considered their several forms of +government, and got an acquaintance with the principal men amongst them, some +of their laws he very much approved of, and resolved to make use of them in his +own country; a good part he rejected as useless. Amongst the persons there the +most renowned for their learning all their wisdom in state matters was one +Thales, whom Lycurgus, by importunities and assurances of friendship, persuaded +to go over to Lacedaemon; where, though by his outward appearance and his own +profession he seemed to be no other than a lyric poet, in reality he performed +the part of one of the ablest lawgivers in the world. The very songs which he +composed were exhortations to obedience and concord, and the very measure and +cadence of the verse, conveying impressions of order and tranquility, had so +great an influence on the minds of the listeners, that they were insensibly +softened and civilized, insomuch that they renounced their private feuds and +animosities, and were reunited in a common admiration of virtue. So that it may +truly be said that Thales prepared the way for the discipline introduced by +Lycurgus. +</p> + +<p> +From Crete he sailed to Asia, with design, as is said, to examine the +difference betwixt the manners and rules of life of the Cretans, which were +very sober and temperate, and those of the Ionians, a people of sumptuous and +delicate habits, and so to form a judgment; just as physicians do by comparing +healthy and diseased bodies. Here he had the first sight of Homer’s works, in +the hands, we may suppose, of the posterity of Creophylus; and, having observed +that the few loose expressions and actions of ill example which are to be found +in his poems were much outweighed by serious lessons of state and rules of +morality, he set himself eagerly to transcribe and digest them into order, as +thinking they would be of good use in his own country. They had, indeed, +already obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, and scattered portions, +as chance conveyed them, were in the hands of individuals; but Lycurgus first +made them really known. +</p> + +<p> +The Egyptians say that he took a voyage into Egypt, and that, being much taken +with their way of separating the soldiery from the rest of the nation, he +transferred it from them to Sparta, a removal from contact with those employed +in low and mechanical occupations giving high refinement and beauty to the +state. Some Greek writers also record this. But as for his voyages into Spain, +Africa, and the Indies, and his conferences there with the Gymnosophists, the +whole relation, as far as I can find, rests on the single credit of the Spartan +Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus. +</p> + +<p> +Lycurgus was much missed at Sparta, and often sent for, “for kings indeed we +have,” they said, “who wear the marks and assume the titles of royalty, but as +for the qualities of their minds, they have nothing by which they are to be +distinguished from their subjects;” adding, that in him alone was the true +foundation of sovereignty to be seen, a nature made to rule, and a genius to +gain obedience. Nor were the kings themselves averse to see him back, for they +looked upon his presence as a bulwark against the insolencies of the people. +</p> + +<p> +Things being in this posture at his return, he applied himself, without loss of +time, to a thorough reformation and resolved to change the whole face of the +commonwealth; for what could a few particular laws and a partial alteration +avail? He must act as wise physicians do, in the case of one who labors under a +complication of diseases, by force of medicines reduce and exhaust him, change +his whole temperament, and then set him upon a totally new regimen of diet. +Having thus projected things, away he goes to Delphi to consult Apollo there; +which having done, and offered his sacrifice, he returned with that renowned +oracle, in which he is called beloved of God, and rather God than man; that his +prayers were heard, that his laws should be the best, and the commonwealth +which observed them the most famous in the world. Encouraged by these things, +he set himself to bring over to his side the leading men of Sparta, exhorting +them to give him a helping hand in his great undertaking; he broke it first to +his particular friends, and then by degrees gained others, and animated them +all to put his design in execution. When things were ripe for action, he gave +order to thirty of the principal men of Sparta to be ready armed at the +market-place by break of day, to the end that he might strike a terror into the +opposite party. Hermippus hath set down the names of twenty of the most eminent +of them; but the name of him whom Lycurgus most confided in, and who was of +most use to him, both in making his laws and putting them in execution, was +Arthmiadas. Things growing to a tumult, king Charilaus, apprehending that it +was a conspiracy against his person, took sanctuary in the temple of Minerva of +the Brazen House; but, being soon after undeceived, and having taken an oath of +them that they had no designs against him, he quitted his refuge, and himself +also entered into the confederacy with them; of so gentle and flexible a +disposition he was, to which Archelaus, his brother-king, alluded, when, +hearing him extolled for his goodness, he said, “Who can say he is anything but +good? he is so even to the bad.” +</p> + +<p> +Amongst the many changes and alterations which Lycurgus made, the first and of +greatest importance was the establishment of the senate, which, having a power +equal to the kings’ in matters of great consequence, and, as Plato expresses +it, allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the royal office, gave +steadiness and safety to the commonwealth. For the state, which before had no +firm basis to stand upon, but leaned one while towards an absolute monarchy, +when the kings had the upper hand, and another while towards a pure democracy, +when the people had the better, found in this establishment of the senate a +central weight, like ballast in a ship, which always kept things in a just +equilibrium; the twenty-eight always adhering to the kings so far as to resist +democracy, and, on the other hand, supporting the people against the +establishment of absolute monarchy. As for the determinate number of +twenty-eight, Aristotle states, that it so fell out because two of the original +associates, for want of courage, fell off from the enterprise; but Sphaerus +assures us that there were but twenty-eight of the confederates at first; +perhaps there is some mystery in the number, which consists of seven multiplied +by four, and is the first of perfect numbers after six, being, as that is, +equal to all its parts. For my part, I believe Lycurgus fixed upon the number +of twenty-eight, that, the two kings being reckoned amongst them, they might be +thirty in all. So eagerly set was he upon this establishment, that he took the +trouble to obtain an oracle about it from Delphi, the Rhetra, which runs thus: +“After that you have built a temple to Jupiter Hellanius, and to Minerva +Hellania, and after that you have phyle’d the people phyles, and obe’d them +into obes, you shall establish a council of thirty elders, the leaders +included, and shall, from time to time, apellazein the people betwixt Babyca +and Cnacion, there propound and put to the vote. The commons have the final +voice and decision. “ By phyles and obes are meant the divisions of the people; +by the leaders, the two kings; apellazein, referring to the Pythian Apollo, +signifies to assemble; Babyca and Cnacion they now call Oenus; Aristotle says +Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge. Betwixt this Babyca and Cnacion, their +assemblies were held, for they had no council-house or building, to meet in. +Lycurgus was of opinion that ornaments were so far from advantaging them in +their counsels, that they were rather an hindrance, by diverting their +attention from the business before them to statues and pictures, and roofs +curiously fretted, the usual embellishments of such places amongst the other +Greeks. The people then being thus assembled in the open air, it was not +allowed to any one of their order to give his advice, but only either to ratify +or reject what should be propounded to them by the king or senate. But because +it fell out afterwards that the people, by adding or omitting words, distorted +and perverted the sense of propositions, kings Polydorus and Theopompus +inserted into the Rhetra, or grand covenant, the following clause: “That if the +people decide crookedly, it should be lawful for the elders and leaders to +dissolve;” that is to say, refuse ratification, and dismiss the people as +depravers and perverters of their counsel. It passed among the people, by their +management, as being equally authentic with the rest of the Rhetra, as appears +by these verses of Tyrtaeus,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +These oracles they from Apollo heard,<br/> +And brought from Pytho home the perfect word:<br/> +The heaven-appointed kings, who love the land,<br/> +Shall foremost in the nation’s council stand;<br/> +The elders next to them; the commons last;<br/> +Let a straight Rhetra among all be passed. +</p> + +<p> +Although Lycurgus had, in this manner, used all the qualifications possible in +the constitution of his commonwealth, yet those who succeeded him found the +oligarchical element still too strong and dominant, and, to check its high +temper and its violence, put, as Plato says, a bit in its mouth, which was the +power of the ephori, established one hundred and thirty years after the death +of Lycurgus. Elatus and his colleagues were the first who had this dignity +conferred upon them, in the reign of king Theopompus, who, when his queen +upbraided him one day that he would leave the regal power to his children less +than he had received it from his ancestors, said, in answer, “No, greater; for +it will last longer.” For, indeed, their prerogative being thus reduced within +reasonable bounds, the Spartan kings were at once freed from all further +jealousies and consequent danger, and never experienced the calamities of their +neighbors at Messene and Argos, who, by maintaining their prerogative too +strictly, for want of yielding a little to the populace, lost it all. +</p> + +<p> +Indeed, whosoever shall look at the sedition and misgovernment which befell +these bordering nations to whom they were as near related in blood as +situation, will find in them the best reason to admire the wisdom and foresight +of Lycurgus. For these three states, in their first rise, were equal, or, if +there were any odds, they lay on the side of the Messenians and Argives, who, +in the first allotment, were thought to have been luckier than the Spartans; +yet was their happiness but of small continuance, partly the tyrannical temper +of their kings and partly the ungovernableness of the people quickly bringing +upon them such disorders, and so complete an overthrow of all existing +institutions, as clearly to show how truly divine a blessing the Spartans had +had in that wise lawgiver who gave their government its happy balance and +temper. But of this I shall say more in its due place. +</p> + +<p> +After the creation of the thirty senators, his next task, and, indeed, the most +hazardous he ever undertook, was the making a new division of their lands. For +there was an extreme inequality amongst them, and their state was overloaded +with a multitude of indigent and necessitous persons, while its whole wealth +had centered upon a very few. To the end, therefore, that he might expel from +the state arrogance and envy, luxury and crime, and those yet more inveterate +diseases of want and superfluity, he obtained of them to renounce their +properties, and to consent to a new division of the land, and that they should +live all together on an equal footing; merit to be their only road to eminence, +and the disgrace of evil, and credit of worthy acts, their one measure of +difference between man and man. +</p> + +<p> +Upon their consent to these proposals, proceeding at once to put them into +execution, he divided the country of Laconia in general into thirty thousand +equal shares, and the part attached to the city of Sparta into nine thousand; +these he distributed among the Spartans, as he did the others to the country +citizens. Some authors say that he made but six thousand lots for the citizens +of Sparta, and that king Polydorus added three thousand more. Others say that +Polydorus doubled the number Lycurgus had made, which, according to them, was +but four thousand five hundred. A lot was so much as to yield, one year with +another, about seventy bushels of grain for the master of the family, and +twelve for his wife, with a suitable proportion of oil and wine. And this he +thought sufficient to keep their bodies in good health and strength; +superfluities they were better without. It is reported, that, as he returned +from a journey shortly after the division of the lands, in harvest time, the +ground being newly reaped, seeing the stacks all standing equal and alike, he +smiled, and said to those about him, “Methinks all Laconia looks like one +family estate just divided among a number of brothers.” +</p> + +<p> +Not contented with this, he resolved to make a division of their movables too, +that there might be no odious distinction or inequality left amongst them; but +finding that it would be very dangerous to go about it openly, he took another +course, and defeated their avarice by the following stratagem: he commanded +that all gold and silver coin should be called in, and that only a sort of +money made of iron should be current, a great weight and quantity of which was +but very little worth; so that to lay up twenty or thirty pounds there was +required a pretty large closet, and, to remove it, nothing less than a yoke of +oxen. With the diffusion of this money, at once a number of vices were banished +from Lacedaemon; for who would rob another of such a coin? Who would unjustly +detain or take by force, or accept as a bribe, a thing which it was not easy to +hide, nor a credit to have, nor indeed of any use to cut in pieces? For when it +was just red hot, they quenched it in vinegar, and by that means spoilt it, and +made it almost incapable of being worked. +</p> + +<p> +In the next place, he declared an outlawry of all needless and superfluous +arts; but here he might almost have spared his proclamation; for they of +themselves would have gone after the gold and silver, the money which remained +being not so proper payment for curious work; for, being of iron, it was +scarcely portable, neither, if they should take the pains to export it, would +it pass amongst the other Greeks, who ridiculed it. So there was now no more +means of purchasing foreign goods and small wares; merchants sent no shiploads +into Laconian ports; no rhetoric-master, no itinerant fortune-teller, no +harlot-monger or gold or silversmith, engraver, or jeweler, set foot in a +country which had no money; so that luxury, deprived little by little of that +which fed and fomented it, wasted to nothing, and died away of itself. For the +rich had no advantage here over the poor, as their wealth and abundance had no +road to come abroad by, but were shut up at home doing nothing. And in this way +they became excellent artists in common, necessary things; bedsteads, chairs, +and tables, and such like staple utensils in a family, were admirably well made +there; their cup, particularly, was very much in fashion, and eagerly bought up +by soldiers, as Critias reports; for its color was such as to prevent water, +drunk upon necessity and disagreeable to look at, from being noticed; and the +shape of it was such that the mud stuck to the sides, so that only the purer +part came to the drinker’s mouth. For this, also, they had to thank their +lawgiver, who, by relieving the artisans of the trouble of making useless +things, set them to show their skill in giving beauty to those of daily and +indispensable use. +</p> + +<p> +The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by which he struck a +yet more effectual blow against luxury and the desire of riches, was the +ordinance he made, that they should all eat in common, of the same bread and +same meat, and of kinds that were specified, and should not spend their lives +at home, laid on costly couches at splendid tables, delivering themselves up +into the hands of their tradesmen and cooks, to fatten them in corners, like +greedy brutes, and to ruin not their minds only but their very bodies, which, +enfeebled by indulgence and excess, would stand in need of long sleep, warm +bathing, freedom from work, and, in a word, of as much care and attendance as +if they were continually sick. It was certainly an extraordinary thing to have +brought about such a result as this, but a greater yet to have taken away from +wealth, as Theophrastus observes, not merely the property of being coveted, but +its very nature of being wealth. For the rich, being obliged to go to the same +table with the poor, could not make use of or enjoy their abundance, nor so +much as please their vanity by looking at or displaying it. So that the common +proverb, that Plutus, the god of riches, is blind, was nowhere in all the world +literally verified but in Sparta. There, indeed, he was not only blind, but +like a picture, without either life or motion. Nor were they allowed to take +food at home first, and then attend the public tables, for every one had an eye +upon those who did not eat and drink like the rest, and reproached them with +being dainty and effeminate. +</p> + +<p> +This last ordinance in particular exasperated the wealthier men. They collected +in a body against Lycurgus, and from ill words came to throwing stones, so that +at length he was forced to run out of the marketplace, and make to sanctuary to +save his life; by good-hap he outran all excepting one Alcander, a young man +otherwise not ill accomplished, but hasty and violent, who came up so close to +him, that, when he turned to see who was near him, he struck him upon the face +with his stick, and put out one of his eyes. Lycurgus, so far from being +daunted and discouraged by this accident, stopped short, and showed his +disfigured face and eye beat out to his countrymen; they, dismayed and ashamed +at the sight, delivered Alcander into his hands to be punished, and escorted +him home, with expressions of great concern for his ill usage. Lycurgus, having +thanked them for their care of his person, dismissed them all, excepting only +Alcander; and, taking him with him into his house, neither did nor said +anything severely to him, but, dismissing those whose place it was bade +Alcander to wait upon him at table. The young man who was of an ingenuous +temper, without murmuring did as he was commanded; and, being thus admitted to +live with Lycurgus, he had an opportunity to observe in him, besides his +gentleness and calmness of temper, an extraordinary sobriety and an +indefatigable industry, and so, from an enemy, became one of his most zealous +admirers, and told his friends and relations that Lycurgus was not that morose +and ill-natured man they had formerly taken him for, but the one mild and +gentle character of the world. And thus did Lycurgus, for chastisement of his +fault, make of a wild and passionate young man one of the discreetest citizens +of Sparta. +</p> + +<p> +In memory of this accident, Lycurgus built a temple to Minerva, surnamed +Optiletis; optilus being the Doric of these parts for ophthalmus, the eye. Some +authors, however, of whom Dioscorides is one (who wrote a treatise on the +commonwealth of Sparta), say that he was wounded indeed, but did not lose his +eye with the blow; and that he built the temple in gratitude for the cure. Be +this as it will, certain it is, that, after this misadventure, the +Lacedaemonians made it a rule never to carry so much as a staff into their +public assemblies. +</p> + +<p> +But to return to their public repasts;—these had several names in Greek; the +Cretans called them andria, because the men only came to them. The +Lacedaemonians called them phiditia, that is, by changing l into d, the same as +philitia, love feasts, because that, by eating and drinking together, they had +opportunity of making friends. Or perhaps from phido, parsimony, because they +were so many schools of sobriety; or perhaps the first letter is an addition, +and the word at first was editia, from edode, eating. They met by companies of +fifteen, more or less, and each of them stood bound to bring in monthly a +bushel of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, two pounds and a +half of figs, and some very small sum of money to buy flesh or fish with. +Besides this, when any of them made sacrifice to the gods, they always sent a +dole to the common hall; and, likewise, when any of them had been a hunting, he +sent thither a part of the venison he had killed; for these two occasions were +the only excuses allowed for supping at home. The custom of eating together was +observed strictly for a great while afterwards; insomuch that king Agis +himself, after having vanquished the Athenians, sending for his commons at his +return home, because he desired to eat privately with his queen, was refused +them by the polemarchs; which refusal when he resented so much as to omit next +day the sacrifice due for a war happily ended, they made him pay a fine. +</p> + +<p> +They used to send their children to these tables as to schools of temperance; +here they were instructed in state affairs by listening to experienced +statesmen; here they learnt to converse with pleasantry, to make jests without +scurrility, and take them without ill humor. In this point of good breeding, +the Lacedaemonians excelled particularly, but if any man were uneasy under it, +upon the least hint given there was no more to be said to him. It was customary +also for the eldest man in the company to say to each of them, as they came in, +“Through this” (pointing to the door), “no words go out.” When any one had a +desire to be admitted into any of these little societies; he was to go through +the following probation, each man in the company took a little ball of soft +bread, which they were to throw into a deep basin, which a waiter carried round +upon his head; those that liked the person to be chosen dropped their ball into +the basin without altering its figure, and those who disliked him pressed it +between their fingers, and made it flat; and this signified as much as a +negative voice. And if there were but one of these pieces in the basin, the +suitor was rejected, so desirous were they that all the members of the company +should be agreeable to each other. The basin was called caddichus, and the +rejected candidate had a name thence derived. Their most famous dish was the +black broth, which was so much valued that the elderly men fed only upon that, +leaving what flesh there was to the younger. +</p> + +<p> +They say that a certain king of Pontus, having heard much of this black broth +of theirs, sent for a Lacedaemonian cook on purpose to make him some, but had +no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which the cook observing, +told him, “Sir, to make this broth relish, you should have bathed yourself +first in the river Eurotas.” +</p> + +<p> +After drinking moderately, every man went to his home without lights, for the +use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the end that they might accustom +themselves to march boldly in the dark. Such was the common fashion of their +meals. +</p> + +<p> +Lycurgus would never reduce his laws into writing; nay, there is a Rhetra +expressly to forbid it. For he thought that the most material points, and such +as most directly tended to the public welfare, being imprinted on the hearts of +their youth by a good discipline, would be sure to remain, and would find a +stronger security, than any compulsion would be, in the principles of action +formed in them by their best lawgiver, education. And as for things of lesser +importance, as pecuniary contracts, and such like, the forms of which have to +be changed as occasion requires, he thought it the best way to prescribe no +positive rule or inviolable usage in such cases, willing that their manner and +form should be altered according to the circumstances of time, and +determinations of men of sound judgment. Every end and object of law and +enactment it was his design education should effect. +</p> + +<p> +One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be written; another +is particularly leveled against luxury and expensiveness, for by it it was +ordained that the ceilings of their houses should only be wrought by the axe, +and their gates and doors smoothed only by the saw. Epaminondas’s famous dictum +about his own table, that “Treason and a dinner like this do not keep company +together,” may be said to have been anticipated by Lycurgus. Luxury and a house +of this kind could not well be companions. For a man must have a less than +ordinary share of sense that would furnish such plain and common rooms with +silver-footed couches and purple coverlets and gold and silver plate. Doubtless +he had good reason to think that they would proportion their beds to their +houses, and their coverlets to their beds, and the rest of their goods and +furniture to these. It is reported that king Leotychides, the first of that +name, was so little used to the sight of any other kind of work, that, being +entertained at Corinth in a stately room, he was much surprised to see the +timber and ceiling so finely carved and paneled, and asked his host whether the +trees grew so in his country. +</p> + +<p> +A third ordinance or Rhetra was, that they should not make war often, or long, +with the same enemy, lest that they should train and instruct them in war, by +habituating them to defend themselves. And this is what Agesilaus was much +blamed for, a long time after; it being thought, that, by his continual +incursions into Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match for the Lacedaemonians; +and therefore Antalcidas, seeing him wounded one day, said to him, that he was +very well paid for taking such pains to make the Thebans good soldiers, whether +they would or no. These laws were called the Rhetras, to intimate that they +were divine sanctions and revelations. +</p> + +<p> +In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, he +thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he went so far back +as to take into consideration their very conception and birth, by regulating +their marriages. For Aristotle is wrong in saying, that, after he had tried all +ways to reduce the women to more modesty and sobriety, he was at last forced to +leave them as they were, because that, in the absence of their husbands, who +spent the best part of their lives in the wars, their wives, whom they were +obliged to leave absolute mistresses at home, took great liberties and assumed +the superiority; and were treated with overmuch respect and called by the title +of lady or queen. The truth is, he took in their case, also, all the care that +was possible; he ordered the maidens to exercise themselves with wrestling, +running, throwing the quoit, and casting the dart, to the end that the fruit +they conceived might, in strong and healthy bodies, take firmer root and find +better growth, and withal that they, with this greater vigor, might be the more +able to undergo the pains of child- bearing. And to the end he might take away +their over-great tenderness and fear of exposure to the air, and all acquired +womanishness, he ordered that the young women should go naked in the +processions, as well as the young men, and dance, too, in that condition, at +certain solemn feasts, singing certain songs, whilst the young men stood +around, seeing and hearing them. On these occasions, they now and then made, by +jests, a befitting reflection upon those who had misbehaved themselves in the +wars; and again sang encomiums upon those who had done any gallant action, and +by these means inspired the younger sort with an emulation of their glory. +Those that were thus commended went away proud, elated, and gratified with +their honor among the maidens; and those who were rallied were as sensibly +touched with it as if they had been formally reprimanded; and so much the more, +because the kings and the elders, as well as the rest of the city, saw and +heard all that passed. Nor was there any thing shameful in this nakedness of +the young women; modesty attended them, and all wantonness was excluded. It +taught them simplicity and a care for good health, and gave them some taste of +higher feelings, admitted as they thus were to the field of noble action and +glory. Hence it was natural for them to think and speak as Gorgo, for example, +the wife of Leonidas, is said to have done, when some foreign lady, as it would +seem, told her that the women of Lacedaemon were the only women of the world +who could rule men; “With good reason,” she said, “for we are the only women +who bring forth men.” +</p> + +<p> +These public processions of the maidens, and their appearing naked in their +exercises and dancings, were incitements to marriage, operating upon the young +with the rigor and certainty, as Plato says, of love, if not of mathematics. +But besides all this, to promote it yet more effectually, those who continued +bachelors were in a degree disfranchised by law; for they were excluded from +the sight of those public processions in which the young men and maidens danced +naked, and, in wintertime, the officers compelled them to march naked +themselves round the market-place, singing as they went a certain song to their +own disgrace, that they justly suffered this punishment for disobeying the +laws. Moreover, they were denied that respect and observance which the younger +men paid their elders; and no man, for example, found fault with what was said +to Dercyllidas, though so eminent a commander; upon whose approach one day, a +young man, instead of rising, retained his seat, remarking, “No child of yours +will make room for me. “ +</p> + +<p> +In their marriages, the husband carried off his bride by a sort of force; nor +were their brides ever small and of tender years, but in their full bloom and +ripeness. After this, she who superintended the wedding comes and clips the +hair of the bride close round her head, dresses her up in man’s clothes, and +leaves her upon a mattress in the dark; afterwards comes the bridegroom, in his +every-day clothes, sober and composed, as having supped at the common table, +and, entering privately into the room where the bride lies, unties her virgin +zone, and takes her to himself; and, after staying some time together, he +returns composedly to his own apartment, to sleep as usual with the other young +men. And so he continues to do, spending his days, and, indeed, his nights with +them, visiting his bride in fear and shame, and with circumspection, when he +thought he should not be observed; she, also, on her part, using her wit to +help and find favorable opportunities for their meeting, when company was out +of the way. In this manner they lived a long time, insomuch that they sometimes +had children by their wives before ever they saw their faces by daylight. Their +interviews, being thus difficult and rare, served not only for continual +exercise of their self-control, but brought them together with their bodies +healthy and vigorous, and their affections fresh and lively, unsated and +undulled by easy access and long continuance with each other; while their +partings were always early enough to leave behind unextinguished in each of +them some remainder fire of longing and mutual delight. After guarding marriage +with this modesty and reserve, he was equally careful to banish empty and +womanish jealousy. For this object, excluding all licentious disorders, he made +it, nevertheless, honorable for men to give the use of their wives to those +whom they should think fit, that so they might have children by them; +ridiculing those in whose opinion such favors are so unfit for participation as +to fight and shed blood and go to war about it. Lycurgus allowed a man who was +advanced in years and had a young wife to recommend some virtuous and approved +young man, that she might have a child by him, who might inherit the good +qualities of the father, and be a son to himself. On the other side, an honest +man who had love for a married woman upon account of her modesty and the +wellfavoredness of her children, might, without formality, beg her company of +her husband, that he might raise, as it were, from this plot of good ground, +worthy and well-allied children for himself. And, indeed, Lycurgus was of a +persuasion that children were not so much the property of their parents as of +the whole commonwealth, and, therefore, would not have his citizens begot by +the first comers, but by the best men that could be found; the laws of other +nations seemed to him very absurd and inconsistent, where people would be so +solicitous for their dogs and horses as to exert interest and pay money to +procure fine breeding, and yet kept their wives shut up, to be made mothers +only by themselves, who might be foolish, infirm, or diseased; as if it were +not apparent that children of a bad breed would prove their bad qualities first +upon those who kept and were rearing them, and well-born children, in like +manner, their good qualities. These regulations, founded on natural and social +grounds, were certainly so far from that scandalous liberty which was +afterwards charged upon their women, that they knew not what adultery meant. It +is told, for instance, of Geradas, a very ancient, Spartan, that, being asked +by a stranger what punishment their law had appointed for adulterers, he +answered, “There are no adulterers in our country.” “But,” replied the +stranger, “suppose there were ?” “Then,” answered he, “the offender would have +to give the plaintiff a bull with a neck so long as that he might drink from +the top of Taygetus of the Eurotas river below it.” The man, surprised at this, +said, “Why, ’tis impossible to find such a bull.” Geradas smilingly replied, +“’Tis as possible as to find an adulterer in Sparta.” So much I had to say of +their marriages. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was it in the power of the father to dispose of the child as he thought +fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain triers at a place called Lesche; +these were some of the elders of the tribe to which the child belonged; their +business it was carefully to view the infant, and, if they found it stout and +well made, they gave order for its rearing, and allotted to it one of the nine +thousand shares of land above mentioned for its maintenance, but, if they found +it puny and ill- shaped, ordered it to be taken to what was called the +Apothetae, a sort of chasm under Taygetus; as thinking it neither for the good +of the child itself, nor for the public interest, that it should be brought up, +if it did not, from the very outset, appear made to be healthy and vigorous. +Upon the same account, the women did not bathe the new-born children with +water, as is the custom in all other countries, but with wine, to prove the +temper and complexion of their bodies; from a notion they had that epileptic +and weakly children faint and waste away upon their being thus bathed, while, +on the contrary, those of a strong and vigorous habit acquire firmness and get +a temper by it, like steel. There was much care and art, too, used by the +nurses; they had no swaddling bands; the children grew up free and +unconstrained in limb and form, and not dainty and fanciful about their food; +not afraid in the dark, or of being left alone; without any peevishness or ill +humor or crying. Upon this account, Spartan nurses were often bought up, or +hired by people of other countries; and it is recorded that she who suckled +Alcibiades was a Spartan; who, however, if fortunate in his nurse, was not so +in his preceptor; his guardian, Pericles, as Plato tells us, chose a servant +for that office called Zopyrus, no better than any common slave. +</p> + +<p> +Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out of the +market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell their pains; nor was it +lawful, indeed, for the father himself to breed up the children after his own +fancy; but as soon as they were seven years old they were to be enrolled in +certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the same order and +discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play together. Of these, he +who showed the most conduct and courage was made captain; they had their eyes +always upon him, obeyed his orders, and underwent patiently whatsoever +punishment he inflicted; so that the whole course of their education was one +continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience. The old men, too, were +spectators of their performances, and often raised quarrels and disputes among +them, to have a good opportunity of finding out their different characters, and +of seeing which would be valiant, which a coward, when they should come to more +dangerous encounters. Reading and writing they gave them, just enough to serve +their turn; their chief care was to make them good subjects, and to teach them +to endure pain and conquer in battle. To this end, as they grew in years, their +discipline was proportionably increased; their heads were close-clipped, they +were accustomed to go bare-foot, and for the most part to play naked. +</p> + +<p> +After they were twelve years old, they were no longer allowed to wear any +under-garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; their bodies were hard +and dry, with but little acquaintance of baths and unguents; these human +indulgences they were allowed only on some few particular days in the year. +They lodged together in little bands upon beds made of the rushes which grew by +the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were to break off with their hands +without a knife; if it were winter, they mingled some thistle-down with their +rushes, which it was thought had the property of giving warmth. By the time +they were come to this age, there was not any of the more hopeful boys who had +not a lover to bear him company. The old men, too, had an eye upon them, coming +often to the grounds to hear and see them contend either in wit or strength +with one another, and this as seriously and with as much concern as if they +were their fathers, their tutors, or their magistrates; so that there scarcely +was any time or place without someone present to put them in mind of their +duty, and punish them if they had neglected it. +</p> + +<p> +Besides all this, there was always one of the best and honestest men in the +city appointed to undertake the charge and governance of them; he again +arranged them into their several bands, and set over each of them for their +captain the most temperate and boldest of those they called Irens, who were +usually twenty years old, two years out of the boys; and the eldest of the +boys, again, were Mell-Irens, as much as to say, who would shortly be men. This +young man, therefore, was their captain when they fought, and their master at +home, using them for the offices of his house; sending the oldest of them to +fetch wood, and the weaker and less able, to gather salads and herbs, and these +they must either go without or steal; which they did by creeping into the +gardens, or conveying themselves cunningly and closely into the eating-houses; +if they were taken in the fact, they were whipped without mercy, for thieving +so ill and awkwardly. They stole, too, all other meat they could lay their +hands on, looking out and watching all opportunities, when people were asleep +or more careless than usual. If they were caught, they were not only punished +with whipping, but hunger, too, being reduced to their ordinary allowance, +which was but very slender, and so contrived on purpose, that they might set +about to help themselves, and be forced to exercise their energy and address. +This was the principal design of their hard fare; there was another not +inconsiderable, that they might grow taller; for the vital spirits, not being +overburdened and oppressed by too great a quantity of nourishment; which +necessarily discharges itself into thickness and breadth, do, by their natural +lightness, rise; and the body, giving and yielding because it is pliant, grows +in height. The same thing seems, also, to conduce to beauty of shape; a dry and +lean habit is a better subject for nature’s configuration, which the gross and +over-fed are too heavy to submit to properly. Just as we find that women who +take physic whilst they are with child, bear leaner and smaller but +better-shaped and prettier children; the material they come of having been more +pliable and easily molded. The reason, however, I leave others to determine. +</p> + +<p> +To return from whence we have digressed. So seriously did the Lacedaemonian +children go about their stealing, that a youth, having stolen a young fox and +hid it under his coat, suffered it to tear out his very bowels with its teeth +and claws, and died upon the place, rather than let it be seen. What is +practiced to this very day in Lacedaemon is enough to gain credit to this +story, for I myself have seen several of the youths endure whipping to death at +the foot of the altar of Diana surnamed Orthia. +</p> + +<p> +The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, and +one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question which required +an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was the best man in the +city? What he thought of such an action of such a man? They used them thus +early to pass a right judgment upon persons and things, and to inform +themselves of the abilities or defects of their countrymen. If they had not an +answer ready to the question Who was a good or who an ill-reputed citizen, they +were looked upon as of a dull and careless disposition, and to have little or +no sense of virtue and honor; besides this, they were to give a good reason for +what they said, and in as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that +failed of this, or answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his +master. Sometimes the Iren did this in the presence of the old men and +magistrates, that they might see whether he punished them justly and in due +measure or not; and when he did amiss, they would not reprove him before the +boys, but, when they were gone, he was called to an account and underwent +correction, if he had run far into either of the extremes of indulgence or +severity. +</p> + +<p> +Their lovers and favorers, too, had a share in the young boy’s honor or +disgrace; and there goes a story that one of them was fined by the magistrates, +because the lad whom he loved cried out effeminately as he was fighting. And +though this sort of love was so approved among them, that the most virtuous +matrons would make professions of it to young girls, yet rivalry did not exist, +and if several men’s fancies met in one person, it was rather the beginning of +an intimate friendship, whilst they all jointly conspired to render the object +of their affection as accomplished as possible. +</p> + +<p> +They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful raillery, and to +comprehend much matter of thought in few words. For Lycurgus, who ordered, as +we saw, that a great piece of money should be but of an inconsiderable value, +on the contrary would allow no discourse to be current which did not contain in +few words a great deal of useful and curious sense; children in Sparta, by a +habit of long silence, came to give just and sententious answers; for, indeed, +as loose and incontinent livers are seldom fathers of many children, so loose +and incontinent talkers seldom originate many sensible words. King Agis, when +some Athenian laughed at their short swords, and said that the jugglers on the +stage swallowed them with ease, answered him, “We find them long enough to +reach our enemies with;” and as their swords were short and sharp, so, it seems +to me, were their sayings. They reach the point and arrest the attention of the +hearers better than any. Lycurgus himself seems to have been short and +sententious, if we may trust the anecdotes of him; as appears by his answer to +one who by all means would set up democracy in Lacedaemon. “Begin, friend,” +said he, “and set it up in your family.” Another asked him why he allowed of +such mean and trivial sacrifices to the gods. He replied, “That we may always +have something to offer to them.” Being asked what sort of martial exercises or +combats he approved of, he answered, “All sorts, except that in which you +stretch out your hands.” Similar answers, addressed to his countrymen by +letter, are ascribed to him; as, being consulted how they might best oppose an +invasion of their enemies, he returned this answer, “By continuing poor, and +not coveting each man to be greater than his fellow.” Being consulted again +whether it were requisite to enclose the city with a wall, he sent them word, +“The city is well fortified which hath a wall of men instead of brick.” But +whether these letters are counterfeit or not is not easy to determine. +</p> + +<p> +Of their dislike to talkativeness, the following apothegms are evidence. King +Leonidas said to one who held him in discourse upon some useful matter, but not +in due time and place, “Much to the purpose, Sir, elsewhere.” King Charilaus, +the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked why his uncle had made so few laws, +answered, “Men of few words require but few laws.” When one blamed Hecataeus +the sophist because that, being invited to the public table, he had not spoken +one word all supper-time, Archidamidas answered in his vindication, “He who +knows how to speak, knows also when. “ +</p> + +<p> +The sharp and yet not ungraceful retorts which I mentioned may be instanced as +follows. Demaratus, being asked in a troublesome manner by an importunate +fellow, Who was the best man in Lacedaemon? answered at last, “He, Sir, that is +the least like you.” Some, in company where Agis was, much extolled the Eleans +for their just and honorable management of the Olympic tames; “Indeed,” said +Agis, “they are highly to be commended if they can do justice one day in five +years.” Theopompus answered a stranger who talked much of his affection to the +Lacedaemonians, and said that his countrymen called him Philolacon (a lover of +the Lacedaemonians), that it had been more for his honor if they had called him +Philopolites (a lover of his own countrymen). And Plistoanax, the son of +Pausanias, when an orator of Athens said the Lacedaemonians had no learning, +told him, “You say true, Sir; we alone of all the Greeks have learned none of +your bad qualities.” One asked Archidamidas what number there might, be of the +Spartans; he answered, “Enough, Sir, to keep out wicked men.” +</p> + +<p> +We may see their character, too, in their very jests. For they did not throw +them out at random, but the very wit of them was grounded upon something or +other worth thinking about. For instance, one, being asked to go hear a man who +exactly counterfeited the voice of a nightingale, answered, “Sir, I have heard +the nightingale itself.” Another, having read the following inscription upon a +tomb, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Seeking to quench a cruel tyranny,<br/> +They, at Selinus, did in battle die, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +said, it served them right; for instead of trying to quench the tyranny they +should have let it burn out. A lad, being offered some game-cocks that would +die upon the spot, said that he cared not for cocks that would die, but for +such that would live and kill others. Another, seeing people easing themselves +on seats, said, “God forbid I should sit where I could not get up to salute my +elders.” In short, their answers were so sententious and pertinent, that one +said well that intellectual much more truly than athletic exercise was the +Spartan characteristic. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully attended to than +their habits of grace and good breeding in conversation. And their very songs +had a life and spirit in them that inflamed and possessed men’s minds with an +enthusiasm and ardor for action; the style of them was plain and without +affectation; the subject always serious and moral; most usually, it was in +praise of such men as had died in defense of their country, or in derision of +those that had been cowards; the former they declared happy and glorified; the +life of the latter they described as most miserable and abject. There were also +vaunts of what they would do, and boasts of what they had done, varying with +the various ages, as, for example, they had three choirs in their solemn +festivals, the first of the old men, the second of the young men, and the last +of the children; the old men began thus: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +We once were young, and brave and strong; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +the young men answered them, singing, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +And we’re so now, come on and try; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +the children came last and said, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But we’ll be strongest by and by. +</p> + +<p> +Indeed, if we will take the pains to consider their compositions, some of which +were still extant in our days, and the airs on the flute to which they marched +when going to battle, we shall find that Terpander and Pindar had reason to say +that music and valor were allied. The first says of Lacedaemon— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The spear and song in her do meet,<br/> +And Justice walks about her street; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and Pindar— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Councils of wise elders here,<br/> +And the young men’s conquering spear,<br/> +And dance, and song, and joy appear; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +both describing the Spartans as no less musical than warlike; in the words of +one of their own poets— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +With the iron stern and sharp<br/> +Comes the playing on the harp. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For, indeed, before they engaged in battle, the king first did sacrifice to the +Muses, in all likelihood to put them in mind of the manner of their education, +and of the judgment that would be passed upon their actions, and thereby to +animate them to the performance of exploits that should deserve a record. At +such times, too, the Lacedaemonians abated a little the severity of their +manners in favor of their young men, suffering them to curl and adorn their +hair, and to have costly arms, and fine clothes; and were well pleased to see +them, like proud horses, neighing and pressing to the course. And therefore, as +soon as they came to be well-grown, they took a great deal of care of their +hair, to have it parted and trimmed, especially against a day of battle, +pursuant to a saying recorded of their lawgiver, that a large head of hair +added beauty to a good face, and terror to an ugly one. +</p> + +<p> +When they were in the field, their exercises were generally more moderate, +their fare not so hard, nor so strict a hand held over them by their officers, +so that they were the only people in the world to whom war gave repose. When +their army was drawn up in battle array and the enemy near, the king sacrificed +a goat, commanded the soldiers to set their garlands upon their heads, and the +pipers to play the tune of the hymn to Castor, and himself began the paean of +advance. It was at once a magnificent and a terrible sight to see them march on +to the tune of their flutes, without any disorder in their ranks, any +discomposure in their minds or change in their countenance, calmly and +cheerfully moving with the music to the deadly fight. Men, in this temper, were +not likely to be possessed with fear or any transport of fury, but with the +deliberate valor of hope and assurance, as if some divinity were attending and +conducting them. The king had always about his person some one who had been +crowned in the Olympic games; and upon this account a Lacedaemonian is said to +have refused a considerable present, which was offered to him upon condition +that he would not come into the lists; and when he had with much to-do thrown +his antagonist, some of the spectators saying to him, “And now, Sir +Lacedaemonian, what are you the better for your victory?” he answered smiling, +“I shall fight next the king.” After they had routed an enemy, they pursued him +till they were well assured of the victory, and then they sounded a retreat, +thinking it base and unworthy of a Grecian people to cut men in pieces, who had +given up and abandoned all resistance. This manner of dealing with their +enemies did not only show magnanimity, but was politic too; for, knowing that +they killed only those who made resistance, and gave quarter to the rest, men +generally thought it their best way to consult their safety by flight. +</p> + +<p> +Hippias the sophist says that Lycurgus himself was a great soldier and an +experienced commander. Philostephanus attributes to him the first division of +the cavalry into troops of fifties in a square body; but Demetrius the +Phalerian says quite the contrary, and that he made all his laws in a continued +peace. And, indeed, the Olympic holy truce, or cessation of arms, that was +procured by his means and management, inclines me to think him a kind-natured +man, and one that loved quietness and peace. Notwithstanding all this, +Hermippus tells us that he had no hand in the ordinance; that Iphitus made it, +and Lycurgus came only as a spectator, and that by mere accident too. Being +there, he heard as it were a man’s voice behind him, blaming and wondering at +him that he did not encourage his countrymen to resort to the assembly, and, +turning about and seeing no man, concluded that it was a voice from heaven, and +upon this immediately went to Iphitus, and assisted him in ordering the +ceremonies of that feast, which, by his means, were better established, and +with more repute than before. +</p> + +<p> +To return to the Lacedaemonians. Their discipline continued still after they +were full-grown men. No one was allowed to live after his own fancy; but the +city was a sort of camp, in which every man had his share of provisions and +business set out, and looked upon himself not so much born to serve his own +ends as the interest of his country. Therefore, if they were commanded nothing +else, they went to see the boys perform their exercises, to teach them +something useful, or to learn it themselves of those who knew better. And, +indeed, one of the greatest and highest blessings Lycurgus procured his people +was the abundance of leisure, which proceeded from his forbidding to them the +exercise of any mean and mechanical trade. Of the money-making that depends on +troublesome going about and seeing people and doing business, they had no need +at all in a state where wealth obtained no honor or respect. The Helots tilled +their ground for them, and paid them yearly in kind the appointed quantity, +without any trouble of theirs. To this purpose there goes a story of a +Lacedaemonian who, happening to be at Athens when the courts were sitting, was +told of a citizen that had been fined for living an idle life, and was being +escorted home in much distress of mind by his condoling friends; the +Lacedaemonian was much surprised at it, and desired his friend to show him the +man who was condemned for living like a freeman. So much beneath them did they +esteem the frivolous devotion of time and attention to the mechanical arts and +to money-making. +</p> + +<p> +It need not be said, that, upon the prohibition of gold and silver, all +lawsuits immediately ceased, for there was now neither avarice nor poverty +amongst them, but equality, where every one’s wants were supplied, and +independence, because those wants were so small. All their time, except when +they were in the field, was taken up by the choral dances and the festivals, in +hunting, and in attendance on the exercise-grounds and the places of public +conversation. Those who were under thirty years of age were not allowed to go +into the marketplace, but had the necessaries of their family supplied by the +care of their relations and lovers; nor was it for the credit of elderly men to +be seen too often in the marketplace; it was esteemed more suitable for them to +frequent the exercise-grounds and places of conversation, where they spent +their leisure rationally in conversation, not on money-making and +market-prices, but for the most part in passing judgment on some action worth +considering; extolling the good, and censuring those who were otherwise, and +that in a light and sportive manner, conveying, without too much gravity, +lessons of advice and improvement. Nor was Lycurgus himself unduly austere; it +was he who dedicated, says Sosibius, the little statue of Laughter. Mirth, +introduced seasonably at their suppers and places of common entertainment, was +to serve as a sort of sweetmeat to accompany their strict and hard life. To +conclude, he bred up his citizens in such a way that they neither would nor +could live by themselves; they were to make themselves one with the public +good, and, clustering like bees around their commander, be by their zeal and +public spirit carried all but out of themselves, and devoted wholly to their +country. What their sentiments were will better appear by a few of their +sayings. Paedaretus, not being admitted into the list of the three hundred, +returned home with a joyful face, well pleased to find that there were in +Sparta three hundred better men than himself. And Polycratidas, being sent with +some others ambassador to the lieutenants of the king of Persia, being asked by +them whether they came in a private or in a public character, answered, “In a +public, if we succeed; if not, in a private character.” Argileonis, asking some +who came from Amphipolis if her son Brasidas died courageously and as became a +Spartan, on their beginning to praise him to a high degree, and saying there +was not such another left in Sparta, answered, “Do not say so; Brasidas was a +good and brave man, but there are in Sparta many better than he.” +</p> + +<p> +The senate, as I said before, consisted of those who were Lycurgus’s chief +aiders and assistants in his plans. The vacancies he ordered to be supplied out +of the best and most deserving men past sixty years old; and we need not wonder +if there was much striving for it; for what more glorious competition could +there be amongst men, than one in which it was not contested who was swiftest +among the swift or strongest of the strong, but who of many wise and good was +wisest and best, and fittest to be entrusted for ever after, as the reward of +his merits, with the supreme authority of the commonwealth, and with power over +the lives, franchises, and highest interests of all his countrymen? The manner +of their election was as follows: the people being called together, some +selected persons were locked up in a room near the place of election, so +contrived that they could neither see nor be seen, but could only hear the +noise of the assembly without; for they decided this, as most other affairs of +moment, by the shouts of the people. This done, the competitors were not +brought in and presented all together, but one after another by lot, and passed +in order through the assembly without speaking a word. Those who were locked up +had writing-tables with them, in which they recorded and marked each shout by +its loudness, without knowing in favor of which candidate each of them was +made, but merely that they came first, second, third, and so forth. He who was +found to have the most and loudest acclamations was declared senator duly +elected. Upon this he had a garland set upon his head, and went in procession +to all the temples to give thanks to the gods; a great number of young men +followed him with applauses, and women, also, singing verses in his honor, and +extolling the virtue and happiness of his life. As he went round the city in +this manner, each of his relations and friends set a table before him, saying, +“The city honors you with this banquet;” but he, instead of accepting, passed +round to the common table where he formerly used to eat; and was served as +before, excepting that now he had a second allowance, which he took and put by. +By the time supper was ended, the women who were of kin to him had come about +the door; and he, beckoning to her whom he most esteemed, presented to her the +portion he had saved, saying, that it had been a mark of esteem to him, and was +so now to her; upon which she was triumphantly waited upon home by the women. +</p> + +<p> +Touching burials, Lycurgus made very wise regulations; for, first of all, to +cut of all superstition, he allowed them to bury their dead within the city, +and even round about their temples, to the end that their youth might be +accustomed to such spectacles, and not be afraid to see a dead body, or imagine +that to touch a corpse or to tread upon a grave would defile a man. In the next +place, he commanded them to put nothing into the ground with them, except, if +they pleased, a few olive leaves, and the scarlet cloth that they were wrapped +in. He would not suffer the names to be inscribed, except only of men who fell +in the wars, or women who died in a sacred office. The time, too, appointed for +mourning, was very short, eleven days; on the twelfth, they were to do +sacrifice to Ceres, and leave it off; so that we may see, that as he cut off +all superfluity, so in things necessary there was nothing so small and trivial +which did not express some homage of virtue or scorn of vice. He filled +Lacedaemon all through with proofs and examples of good conduct; with the +constant sight of which from their youth up, the people would hardly fail to be +gradually formed and advanced in virtue. +</p> + +<p> +And this was the reason why he forbade them to travel abroad, and go about +acquainting themselves with foreign rules of morality, the habits of +ill-educated people, and different views of government. Withal he banished from +Lacedaemon all strangers who could not give a very good reason for their coming +thither; not because he was afraid lest they should inform themselves of and +imitate his manner of government (as Thucydides says), or learn any thing to +their good; but rather lest they should introduce something contrary to good +manners. With strange people, strange words must be admitted; these novelties +produce novelties in thought; and on these follow views and feelings whose +discordant character destroys the harmony of the state. He was as careful to +save his city from the infection of foreign bad habits, as men usually are to +prevent the introduction of a pestilence. +</p> + +<p> +Hitherto I, for my part, see no sign of injustice or want of equity in the laws +of Lycurgus, though some who admit them to be well contrived to make good +soldiers, pronounce them defective in point of justice. The Cryptia, perhaps +(if it were one of Lycurgus’s ordinances, as Aristotle says it was), Gave both +him and Plato, too, this opinion alike of the lawgiver and his government. By +this ordinance, the magistrates dispatched privately some of the ablest of the +young men into the country, from time to time, armed only with their daggers, +and taking a little necessary provision with them; in the daytime, they hid +themselves in out-of-the-way places, and there lay close, but, in the night, +issued out into the highways, and killed all the Helots they could light upon; +sometimes they set upon them by day, as they were at work in the fields, and +murdered them. As, also, Thucydides, in his history of the Peloponnesian war, +tells us, that a good number of them, after being singled out for their bravery +by the Spartans, garlanded, as enfranchised persons, and led about to all the +temples in token of honors, shortly after disappeared all of a sudden, being +about the number of two thousand; and no man either then or since could give an +account how they came by their deaths. And Aristotle, in particular, adds, that +the ephori, so soon as they were entered into their office, used to declare war +against them, that they might be massacred without a breach of religion. It is +confessed, on all hands, that the Spartans dealt with them very hardly; for it +was a common thing to force them to drink to excess, and to lead them in that +condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a +drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs, +forbidding them expressly to meddle with any of a better kind. And, +accordingly, when the Thebans made their invasion into Laconia, and took a +great number of the Helots, they could by no means persuade them to sing the +verses of Terpander, Alcman, or Spendon, “For,” said they, “the masters do not +like it.” So that it was truly observed by one, that in Sparta he who was free +was most so, and he that was a slave there, the greatest slave in the world. +For my part, I am of opinion that these outrages and cruelties began to be +exercised in Sparta at a later time, especially after the great earthquake, +when the Helots made a general insurrection, and, joining with the Messenians, +laid the country waste, and brought the greatest danger upon the city. For I +cannot persuade myself to ascribe to Lycurgus so wicked and barbarous a course, +judging of him from the gentleness of his disposition and justice upon all +other occasions; to which the oracle also testified. +</p> + +<p> +When he perceived that his more important institutions had taken root in the +minds of his countrymen, that custom had rendered them familiar and easy, that +his commonwealth was now grown up and able to go alone, then, as, Plato +somewhere tells us, the Maker of the world, when first he saw it existing and +beginning its motion, felt joy, even so Lycurgus, viewing with joy and +satisfaction the greatness and beauty of his political structure, now fairly at +work and in motion, conceived the thought to make it immortal too, and, as far +as human forecast could reach, to deliver it down unchangeable to posterity. He +called an extraordinary assembly of all the people, and told them that he now +thought every thing reasonably well established, both for the happiness and the +virtue of the state; but that there was one thing still behind, of the greatest +importance, which he thought not fit to impart until he had consulted the +oracle; in the meantime, his desire was that they would observe the laws +without any the least alteration until his return, and then he would do as the +god should direct him. They all consented readily, and bade him hasten his +journey; but, before he departed, he administered an oath to the two kings, the +senate, and the whole commons, to abide by and maintain the established form of +polity until Lycurgus should be come back. This done, he set out for Delphi, +and, having sacrificed to Apollo, asked him whether the laws he had established +were good, and sufficient for a people’s happiness and virtue. The oracle +answered that the laws were excellent, and that the people, while it observed +them, should live in the height of renown. Lycurgus took the oracle in writing, +and sent it over to Sparta; and, having sacrificed the second time to Apollo, +and taken leave of his friends and his son, he resolved that the Spartans +should not be released from the oath they had taken, and that he would, of his +own act, close his life where he was. He was now about that age in which life +was still tolerable, and yet might be quitted without regret. Every thing, +moreover, about him was in a sufficiently prosperous condition. He, therefore, +made an end of himself by a total abstinence from food; thinking it a +statesman’s duty to make his very death, if possible, an act of service to the +state, and even in the end of his life to give some example of virtue and +effect some useful purpose. He would, on the one hand, crown and consummate his +own happiness by a death suitable to so honorable a life, and, on the other, +would secure to his countrymen the enjoyment of the advantages he had spent his +life in obtaining for them, since they had solemnly sworn the maintenance of +his institutions until his return. Nor was he deceived in his expectations, for +the city of Lacedaemon continued the chief city of all Greece for the space of +five hundred years, in strict observance of Lycurgus’s laws; in all which time +there was no manner of alteration made, during the reign of fourteen kings, +down to the time of Agis, the son of Archidamus. For the new creation of the +ephori, though thought to be in favor of the people, was so far from +diminishing, that it very much heightened, the aristocratical character of the +government. +</p> + +<p> +In the time of Agis, gold and silver first flowed into Sparta, and with them +all those mischiefs which attend the immoderate desire of riches. Lysander +promoted this disorder; for, by bringing in rich spoils from the wars, although +himself incorrupt, he yet by this means filled his country with avarice and +luxury, and subverted the laws and ordinances of Lycurgus; so long as which +were in force, the aspect presented by Sparta was rather that of a rule of life +followed by one wise and temperate man, than of the political government of a +nation. And as the poets feign of Hercules, that, with his lion’s skin and his +club, he went over the world, punishing lawless and cruel tyrants, so may it be +said of the Lacedaemonians, that, with a common staff and a coarse coat, they +gained the willing and joyful obedience of Greece, through whose whole extent +they suppressed unjust usurpations and despotisms, arbitrated in war, and +composed civil dissensions; and this often without so much as taking down one +buckler, but barely by sending some one single deputy, to whose direction all +at once submitted, like bees swarming and taking their places around their +prince. Such a fund of order and equity, enough and to spare for others, +existed in their state. +</p> + +<p> +And therefore I cannot but wonder at those who say that the Spartans were good +subjects, but bad governors, and for proof of it allege a saying of king +Theopompus, who, when one said that Sparta held up so long because their kings +could command so well, replied, “Nay, rather because the people know so well +how to obey.” For people do not obey, unless rulers know how to command; +obedience is a lesson taught by commanders. A true leader himself creates the +obedience of his own followers; as it is the last attainment in the art of +riding to make a horse gentle and tractable, so is it of the science of +government, to inspire men with a willingness to obey. The Lacedaemonians +inspired men not with a mere willingness, but with an absolute desire, to be +their subjects. For they did not send petitions to them for ships or money, or +a supply of armed men, but only for a Spartan commander; and, having obtained +one, used him with honor and reverence; so the Sicilians behaved to Gylippus, +the Chalcidians to Brasidas, and all the Greeks in Asia to Lysander, +Callicratidas, and Agesilaus; they styled them the composers and chasteners of +each people or prince they were sent to, and had their eyes always fixed upon +the city of Sparta itself, as the perfect model of good manners and wise +government. The rest seemed as scholars, they the masters of Greece; and to +this Stratonicus pleasantly alluded, when in jest he pretended to make a law +that the Athenians should conduct religious processions and the mysteries, the +Eleans should preside at the Olympic games, and, if either did amiss, the +Lacedaemonians be beaten. Antisthenes, too, one of the scholars of Socrates, +said, in earnest, of the Thebans, when they were elated by their victory at +Leuctra, that they looked like schoolboys who had beaten their master. +</p> + +<p> +However, it was not the design of Lycurgus that his city should govern a great +many others; he thought rather that the happiness of a state, as of a private +man, consisted chiefly in the exercise of virtue, and in the concord of the +inhabitants; his aim, therefore, in all his arrangements, was to make and keep +them free-minded, self-dependent, and temperate. And therefore all those who +have written well on politics, as Plato, Diogenes, and Zeno, have taken +Lycurgus for their model, leaving behind them, however, mere projects and +words; whereas Lycurgus was the author, not in writing but in reality, of a +government which none else could so much as copy; and while men in general have +treated the individual philosophic character as unattainable, he, by the +example of a complete philosophic state, raised himself high above all other +lawgivers of Greece. And so Aristotle says they did him less honor at +Lacedaemon after his death than he deserved, although he has a temple there, +and they offer sacrifices yearly to him as to a god. +</p> + +<p> +It is reported that when his bones were brought home to Sparta his tomb was +struck with lightning; an accident which befell no eminent person but himself, +and Euripides, who was buried at Arethusa in Macedonia; and it may serve that +poet’s admirers as a testimony in his favor, that he had in this the same fate +with that holy man and favorite of the gods. Some say Lycurgus died in Cirrha; +Apollothemis says, after he had come to Elis; Timaeus and Aristoxenus, that he +ended his life in Crete; Aristoxenus adds that his tomb is shown by the Cretans +in the district of Pergamus, near the strangers’ road. He left an only son, +Antiorus, on whose death without issue, his family became extinct. But his +relations and friends kept up an annual commemoration of him down to a long +time after; and the days of the meeting were called Lycurgides. Aristocrates, +the son of Hipparchus, says that he died in Crete, and that his Cretan friends, +in accordance with his own request, when they had burned his body, scattered +the ashes into the sea; for fear lest, if his relics should be transported to +Lacedaemon, the people might pretend to be released from their oaths, and make +innovations in the government. Thus much may suffice for the life and actions +of Lycurgus. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap05"></a>NUMA POMPILIUS</h2> + +<p> +Though the pedigrees of noble families of Rome go back in exact form as far as +Numa Pompilius, yet there is great diversity amongst historians concerning the +time in which he reigned; a certain writer called Clodius, in a book of his +entitled Strictures on Chronology, avers that the ancient registers of Rome +were lost when the city was sacked by the Gauls, and that those which are now +extant were counterfeited, to flatter and serve the humor of some men who +wished to have themselves derived from some ancient and noble lineage, though +in reality with no claim to it. And though it be commonly reported that Numa +was a scholar and a familiar acquaintance of Pythagoras, yet it is again +contradicted by others, who affirm, that he was acquainted with neither the +Greek language nor learning, and that he was a person of that natural talent +and ability as of himself to attain to virtue, or else that he found some +barbarian instructor superior to Pythagoras. Some affirm, also, that Pythagoras +was not contemporary with Numa, but lived at least five generations after him; +and that some other Pythagoras, a native of Sparta, who, in the sixteenth +Olympiad, in the third year of which Numa became king, won a prize at the +Olympic race, might, in his travel through Italy, have gained acquaintance with +Numa, and assisted him in the constitution of his kingdom; whence it comes that +many Laconian laws and customs appear amongst the Roman institutions. Yet, in +any case, Numa was descended of the Sabines, who declare themselves to be a +colony of the Lacedaemonians. And chronology, in general, is uncertain; +especially when fixed by the lists of victors in the Olympic games, which were +published at a late period by Hippias the Elean, and rest on no positive +authority. Commencing, however, at a convenient point, we will proceed to give +the most noticeable events that are recorded of the life of Numa. +</p> + +<p> +It was the thirty-seventh year, counted from the foundation of Rome, when +Romulus, then reigning, did, on the fifth day of the month of July, called the +Caprotine Nones, offer a public sacrifice at the Goat’s Marsh, in presence of +the senate and people of Rome. Suddenly the sky was darkened, a thick cloud of +storm and rain settled on the earth; the common people fled in affright, and +were dispersed; and in this whirlwind Romulus disappeared, his body being never +found either living or dead. A foul suspicion presently attached to the +patricians, and rumors were current among the people as if that they, weary of +kingly government, and exasperated of late by the imperious deportment of +Romulus towards them, had plotted against his life and made him away, that so +they might assume the authority and government into their own hands. This +suspicion they sought to turn aside by decreeing divine honors to Romulus, as +to one not dead but translated to a higher condition. And Proculus, a man of +note, took oath that he saw Romulus caught up into heaven in his arms and +vestments, and heard him, as he ascended, cry out that they should hereafter +style him by the name of Quirinus. +</p> + +<p> +This trouble, being appeased, was followed by another, about the election of a +new king: for the minds of the original Romans and the new inhabitants were not +as yet grown into that perfect unity of temper, but that there were diversities +of factions amongst the commonalty, and jealousies and emulations amongst the +senators; for though all agreed that it was necessary to have a king. yet what +person or of which nation, was matter of dispute. For those who had been +builders of the city with Romulus, and had already yielded a share of their +lands and dwellings to the Sabines, were indignant at any pretension on their +part to rule over their benefactors. On the other side, the Sabines could +plausibly allege, that, at their king Tatius’s decease, they had peaceably +submitted to the sole command of Romulus; so now their turn was come to have a +king chosen out of their own nation; nor did they esteem themselves to have +combined with the Romans as inferiors, nor to have contributed less than they +to the increase of Rome, which, without their numbers and association, could +scarcely have merited the name of a city. +</p> + +<p> +Thus did both parties argue and dispute their cause; but lest meanwhile +discord, in the absence of all command, should occasion general confusion, it +was agreed that the hundred and fifty senators should interchangeably execute +the office of supreme magistrate, and each in succession, with the ensigns of +royalty, should offer the solemn sacrifices and dispatch public business for +the space of six hours by day and six by night; which vicissitude and equal +distribution of power would preclude all rivalry amongst the senators and envy +from the people, when they should behold one, elevated to the degree of a king, +leveled within the space of a day to the condition of a private citizen. This +form of government is termed, by the Romans, interregnum. Nor yet could they, +by this plausible and modest way of rule, escape suspicion and clamor of the +vulgar, as though they were changing the form of government to an oligarchy, +and designing to keep the supreme power in a sort of wardship under themselves, +without ever proceeding to choose a king. Both parties came at length to the +conclusion that the one should choose a king out of the body of the other; the +Romans make choice of a Sabine, or the Sabines name a Roman; this was esteemed +the best expedient to put an end to all party spirit, and the prince who should +be chosen would have an equal affection to the one party as his electors and to +the other as his kinsmen. The Sabines remitted the choice to the original +Romans, and they, too, on their part, were more inclinable to receive a Sabine +king elected by themselves than to see a Roman exalted by the Sabines. +Consultations being accordingly held, they named Numa Pompilius, of the Sabine +race, a person of that high reputation for excellence, that, though he were not +actually residing at Rome, yet he was no sooner nominated than accepted by the +Sabines, with acclamation almost greater than that of the electors themselves. +</p> + +<p> +The choice being declared and made known to the people, principal men of both +parties were appointed to visit and entreat him, that he would accept the +administration of the government. Numa resided at a famous city of the Sabines +called Cures, whence the Romans and Sabines gave themselves the joint name of +Quirites. Pomponius, an illustrious person, was his father, and he the youngest +of his four sons, being (as it had been divinely ordered) born on the +twenty-first day of April, the day of the foundation of Rome. He was endued +with a soul rarely tempered by nature, and disposed to virtue, which he had yet +more subdued by discipline, a severe life, and the study of philosophy; means +which had not only succeeded in expelling the baser passions, but also the +violent and rapacious temper which barbarians are apt to think highly of; true +bravery, in his judgment, was regarded as consisting in the subjugation of our +passions by reason. +</p> + +<p> +He banished all luxury and softness from his own home, and, while citizens +alike and strangers found in him an incorruptible judge and counselor, in +private he devoted himself not to amusement or lucre, but to the worship of the +immortal gods, and the rational contemplation of their divine power and nature. +So famous was he, that Tatius, the colleague of Romulus, chose him for his +son-in-law, and gave him his only daughter, which, however, did not stimulate +his vanity to desire to dwell with his father-in-law at Rome; he rather chose +to inhabit with his Sabines, and cherish his own father in his old age; and +Tatia, also, preferred the private condition of her husband before the honors +and splendor she might have enjoyed with her father. She is said to have died +after she had been married thirteen years, and then Numa, leaving the +conversation of the town, betook himself to a country life, and in a solitary +manner frequented the groves and fields consecrated to the gods, passing his +life in desert places. And this in particular gave occasion to the story about +the goddess, namely, that Numa did not retire from human society out of any +melancholy or disorder of mind. but because he had tasted the joys of more +elevated intercourse, and, admitted to celestial wedlock in the love and +converse of the goddess Egeria, had attained to blessedness, and to a divine +wisdom. +</p> + +<p> +The story evidently resembles those very ancient fables which the Phrygians +have received and still recount of Attis, the Bithynians of Herodotus, the +Arcadians of Endymion, not to mention several others who were thought blessed +and beloved of the gods; nor does it seem strange if God, a lover, not of +horses or birds, but men, should not disdain to dwell with the virtuous and +converse with the wise and temperate soul, though it be altogether hard, +indeed, to believe, that any god or daemon is capable of a sensual or bodily +love and passion for any human form or beauty. Though, indeed, the wise +Egyptians do not unplausibly make the distinction, that it may be possible for +a divine spirit so to apply itself to the nature of a woman, as to imbreed in +her the first beginnings of generation, while on the other side they conclude +it impossible for the male kind to have any intercourse or mixture by the body +with any divinity, not considering, however, that what takes place on the one +side, must also take place on the other; intermixture, by force of terms, is +reciprocal. Not that it is otherwise than befitting to suppose that the gods +feel towards men affection, and love, in the sense of affection, and in the +form of care and solicitude for their virtue and their good dispositions. And, +therefore, it was no error of those who feigned, that Phorbas, Hyacinthus, and +Admetus were beloved by Apollo; or that Hippolytus the Sicyonian was so much in +his favor, that, as often as he sailed from Sicyon to Cirrha, the Pythian +prophetess uttered this heroic verse, expressive of the god’s attention and +joy: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Now doth Hippolytus return again,<br/> +And venture his dear life upon the main. +</p> + +<p> +It is reported, also, that Pan became enamored of Pindar for his verses, and +the divine power rendered honor to Hesiod and Archilochus after their death for +the sake of the Muses; there is a statement, also, that Aesculapius sojourned +with Sophocles in his lifetime, of which many proofs still exist, and that, +when he was dead, another deity took care for his funeral rites. And so if any +credit may be given to these instances, why should we judge it incongruous, +that a like spirit of the gods should visit Zaleucus, Minos, Zoroaster, +Lycurgus, and Numa, the controllers of kingdoms, and the legislators for +commonwealths? Nay, it may be reasonable to believe, that the gods, with a +serious purpose, assist at the councils and serious debates of such men, to +inspire and direct them; and visit poets and musicians, if at all, in their +more sportive moods; but, for difference of opinion here, as Bacchylides said, +“the road is broad.” For there is no absurdity in the account also given, that +Lycurgus and Numa, and other famous lawgivers, having the task of subduing +perverse and refractory multitudes, and of introducing great innovations, +themselves made this pretension to divine authority, which, if not true, +assuredly was expedient for the interests of those it imposed upon. +</p> + +<p> +Numa was about forty years of age when the ambassadors came to make him offers +of the kingdom; the speakers were Proculus and Velesus, one or other of whom it +had been thought the people would elect as their new king; the original Romans +being for Proculus, and the Sabines for Velesus. Their speech was very short, +supposing that, when they came to tender a kingdom, there needed little to +persuade to an acceptance; but, contrary to their expectation, they found that +they had to use many reasons and entreaties to induce one, that lived in peace +and quietness, to accept the government of a city whose foundation and increase +had been made, in a manner, in war. In presence of his father and his kinsman +Marcius, he returned answer that “Every alteration of a man’s life is dangerous +to him; but madness only could induce one who needs nothing and is satisfied +with everything to quit a life he is accustomed to; which, whatever else it is +deficient in, at any rate has the advantage of certainty over one wholly +doubtful and unknown. Though, indeed, the difficulties of this government +cannot even be called unknown; Romulus, who first held it, did not escape the +suspicion of having plotted against the life of his colleague Tatius; nor the +senate the like accusation, of having treasonably murdered Romulus. Yet Romulus +had the advantage to be thought divinely born and miraculously preserved and +nurtured. My birth was mortal; I was reared and instructed by men that are +known to you. The very points of my character that are most commended mark me +as unfit to reign,—love of retirement and of studies inconsistent with +business, a passion that has become inveterate in me for peace, for unwarlike +occupations, and for the society of men whose meetings are but those of worship +and of kindly intercourse, whose lives in general are spent upon their farms +and their pastures. I should but be, methinks, a laughing-stock, while I should +go about to inculcate the worship of the gods, and give lessons in the love of +justice and the abhorrence of violence and war, to a city whose needs are +rather for a captain than for a king.” +</p> + +<p> +The Romans, perceiving by these words that he was declining to accept the +kingdom, were the more instant and urgent with him that he would not forsake +and desert them in this condition, and suffer them to relapse, as they must, +into their former sedition and civil discord, there being no person on whom +both parties could accord but on himself. And, at length, his father and +Marcius, taking him aside, persuaded him to accept a gift so noble in itself, +and tendered to him rather from heaven than from men. “Though,” said they, “you +neither desire riches, being content with what you have, nor court the fame of +authority, as having already the more valuable fame of virtue, yet you will +consider that government itself is a service of God, who now calls out into +action your qualities of justice and wisdom, which were not meant to be left +useless and unemployed. Cease, therefore, to avoid and turn your back upon an +office which, to a wise man, is a field for great and honorable actions, for +the magnificent worship of the gods, and for the introduction of habits of +piety, which authority alone can effect amongst a people. Tatius, though a +foreigner, was beloved, and the memory of Romulus has received divine honors; +and who knows but that this people, being victorious, may be satiated with war, +and, content with the trophies and spoils they have acquired, may be, above all +things, desirous to have a pacific and justice-loving prince, to lead them to +good order and quiet? But if, indeed, their desires are uncontrollably and +madly set on war, were it not better, then, to have the reins held by such a +moderating hand as is able to divert the fury another way, and that your native +city and the whole Sabine nation should possess in you a bond of good-will and +friendship with this young and growing power?” +</p> + +<p> +With these reasons and persuasions several auspicious omens are said to have +concurred, and the zeal, also, of his fellow-citizens, who, on understanding +what message the Roman ambassadors had brought him, entreated him to accompany +them, and to accept the kingdom as a means to unanimity and concord between the +nations. +</p> + +<p> +Numa, yielding to these inducements, having first performed divine sacrifice, +proceeded to Rome, being met in his way by the senate and people, who, with an +impatient desire, came forth to receive him; the women, also, welcomed him with +joyful acclamations, and sacrifices were offered for him in all the temples, +and so universal was the joy, that they seemed to be receiving, not a new king, +but a new kingdom. In this manner he descended into the forum, where Spurius +Vettius, whose turn it was to be interrex at that hour, put it to the vote; and +all declared him king. Then the regalities and robes of authority were brought +to him; but he refused to be invested with them until he had first consulted +and been confirmed by the gods; so, being accompanied by the priests and +augurs, he ascended the Capitol, which at that time the Romans called the +Tarpeian Hill. Then the chief of the augurs covered Numa’s head, and turned his +face towards the south, and, standing behind him, laid his right hand on his +head, and prayed, turning his eyes every way, in expectation of some auspicious +signal from the gods. It was wonderful, meantime, with what silence and +devotion the multitude stood assembled in the forum in similar expectation and +suspense, till auspicious birds appeared and passed on the right. Then Numa, +appareling himself in his royal robes, descended from the hill to the people, +by whom he was received and congratulated with shouts and acclamations of +welcome, as a holy king, and beloved of all the gods. +</p> + +<p> +The first thing he did at his entrance into government was to dismiss the band +of three hundred men which had been Romulus’s life-guard, called by him +Celeres, saying, that he would not distrust those who put confidence in him, +nor rule over a people that distrusted him. The next thing he did was to add to +the two priests of Jupiter and Mars a third in honor of Romulus, whom he called +the Flamen Quirinalis. The Romans anciently called their priests Flamines, by +corruption of the word Pilamines, from a certain cap which they wore, called +Pileus. In those times, Greek words were more mixed with the Latin than at +present; thus also the royal robe, which is called Laena, Juba says, is the +same as the Greek Chlaena; and that the name of Camillus, given to the boy with +both his parents living, who serves in the temple of Jupiter, was taken from +the name given by some Greeks to Mercury, denoting his office of attendance on +the gods. +</p> + +<p> +When Numa had, by such measures, won the favor and affection of the people, he +set himself, without delay, to the task of bringing the hard and iron Roman +temper to somewhat more of gentleness and equity. Plato’s expression of a city +in high fever was never more applicable than to Rome at that time; in its +origin formed by daring and warlike spirits, whom bold and desperate adventure +brought thither from every quarter, it had found in perpetual wars and +incursions on its neighbors its after sustenance and means of growth and in +conflict with danger the source of new strength; like piles, which the blows of +the rammer serve to fix into the ground. Wherefore Numa, judging it no slight +undertaking to mollify and bend to peace the presumptuous and stubborn spirits +of this people, began to operate upon them with the sanctions of religion. He +sacrificed often, and used processions and religious dances, in which most +commonly he officiated in person; by such combinations of solemnity with +refined and humanizing pleasures, seeking to win over and mitigate their fiery +and warlike tempers. At times, also, he filled their imaginations with +religious terrors, professing that strange apparitions had been seen, and +dreadful voices heard; thus subduing and humbling their minds by a sense of +supernatural fears. +</p> + +<p> +This method which Numa used made it believed that he had been much conversant +with Pythagoras; for in the philosophy of the one, as in the policy of the +other, man’s relations to the deity occupy a great place. It is said, also, +that the solemnity of his exterior garb and gestures was adopted by him from +the same feeling with Pythagoras. For it is said of Pythagoras, that he had +taught an eagle to come at his call, and stoop down to him in its flight; and +that, as he passed among the people assembled at the Olympic games, he showed +them his golden thigh; besides many other strange and miraculous seeming +practices, on which Timon the Phliasian wrote the distich,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Who, of the glory of a juggler proud,<br/> +With solemn talk imposed upon the crowd. +</p> + +<p> +In like manner Numa spoke of a certain goddess or mountain nymph that was in +love with him, and met him in secret, as before related; and professed that he +entertained familiar conversation with the Muses, to whose teaching he ascribed +the greatest part of his revelations; and amongst them, above all, he +recommended to the veneration of the Romans one in particular, whom he named +Tacita, the Silent; which he did perhaps in imitation and honor of the +Pythagorean silence. His opinion, also, of images is very agreeable to the +doctrine of Pythagoras; who conceived of the first principle of being as +transcending sense and passion, invisible and incorrupt, and only to be +apprehended by abstract intelligence. So Numa forbade the Romans to represent +God in the form of man or beast, nor was there any painted or graven image of a +deity admitted amongst them for the space of the first hundred and seventy +years, all which time their temples and chapels were kept free and pure from +images; to such baser objects they deemed it impious to liken the highest, and +all access to God impossible, except by the pure act of the intellect. His +sacrifices, also, had great similitude to the ceremonial of Pythagoras, for +they were not celebrated with effusion of blood, but consisted of flour, wine, +and the least costly offerings. Other external proofs, too, are urged to show +the connection Numa had with Pythagoras. The comic writer Epicharmus, an +ancient author, and of the school of Pythagoras, in a book of his dedicated to +Antenor, records that Pythagoras was made a freeman of Rome. Again, Numa gave +to one of his four sons the name of Mamercus, which was the name of one of the +sons of Pythagoras; from whence, as they say sprang that ancient patrician +family of the Aemilii, for that the king gave him in sport the surname of +Aemilius, for his engaging and graceful manner in speaking. I remember, too, +that when I was at Rome, I heard many say, that, when the oracle directed two +statues to be raised, one to the wisest, and another to the most valiant man of +Greece, they erected two of brass, one representing Alcibiades, and the other +Pythagoras. +</p> + +<p> +But to pass by these matters, which are full of uncertainty, and not so +important as to be worth our time to insist on them, the original constitution +of the priests, called Pontifices, is ascribed unto Numa, and he himself was, +it is said, the first of them; and that they have the name of Pontifices from +potens, powerful, because they attend the service of the gods, who have power +and command over all. Others make the word refer to exceptions of impossible +cases; the priests were to perform all the duties possible to them; if any +thing lay beyond their power, the exception was not to be cavilled at. The most +common opinion is the most absurd, which derives this word from pons, and +assigns the priests the title of bridge-makers. The sacrifices performed on the +bridge were amongst the most sacred and ancient, and the keeping and repairing +of the bridge attached, like any other public sacred office, to the priesthood. +It was accounted not simply unlawful, but a positive sacrilege, to pull down +the wooden bridge; which moreover is said, in obedience to an oracle, to have +been built entirely of timber and fastened with wooden pins, without nails or +cramps of iron. The stone bridge was built a very long time after, when +Aemilius was quaestor, and they do, indeed, say also that the wooden bridge was +not so old as Numa’s time, but was finished by Ancus Marcius, when he was king, +who was the grandson of Numa by his daughter. +</p> + +<p> +The office of Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest, was to declare and interpret +the divine law, or, rather, to preside over sacred rites; he not only +prescribed rules for public ceremony, but regulated the sacrifices of private +persons, not suffering them to vary from established custom, and giving +information to every one of what was requisite for purposes of worship or +supplication. He was also guardian of the vestal virgins, the institution of +whom, and of their perpetual fire, was attributed to Numa, who, perhaps fancied +the charge of pure and uncorrupted flames would be fitly entrusted to chaste +and unpolluted persons, or that fire, which consumes, but produces nothing, +bears all analogy to the virgin estate. In Greece, wherever a perpetual holy +fire is kept, as at Delphi and Athens, the charge of it is committed, not to +virgins, but widows past the time of marriage. And in case by any accident it +should happen that this fire became extinct, as the holy lamp was at Athens +under the tyranny of Aristion, and at Delphi, when that temple was burnt by the +Medes, as also in the time of the Mithridatic and Roman civil war, when not +only the fire was extinguished, but the altar demolished, then, afterwards, in +kindling this fire again, it was esteemed an impiety to light it from common +sparks or flame, or from any thing but the pure and unpolluted rays of the sun, +which they usually effect by concave mirrors, of a figure formed by the +revolution of an isoceles rectangular triangle, all the lines from the +circumference of which meeting in a center, by holding it in the light of the +sun they can collect and concentrate all its rays at this one point of +convergence; where the air will now become rarefied, and any light, dry, +combustible matter will kindle as soon as applied, under the effect of the +rays, which here acquire the substance and active force of fire. Some are of +opinion that these vestals had no other business than the preservation of this +fire; but others conceive that they were keepers of other divine secrets, +concealed from all but themselves, of which we have told all that may lawfully +be asked or told, in the life of Camillus. Gegania and Verenia, it is recorded, +were the names of the first two virgins consecrated and ordained by Numa; +Canuleia and Tarpeia succeeded; Servius afterwards added two, and the number of +four has continued to the present time. +</p> + +<p> +The statutes prescribed by Numa for the vestals were these: that they should +take a vow of virginity for the space of thirty years, the first ten of which +they were to spend in learning their duties, the second ten in performing them, +and the remaining ten in teaching and instructing others. Thus the whole term +being completed, it was lawful for them to marry, and, leaving the sacred +order, to choose any condition of life that pleased them; but this permission +few, as they say, made use of; and in cases where they did so, it was observed +that their change was not a happy one, but accompanied ever after with regret +and melancholy; so that the greater number, from religious fears and scruples, +forbore, and continued to old age and death in the strict observance of a +single life. +</p> + +<p> +For this condition he compensated by great privileges and prerogatives; as that +they had power to make a will in the lifetime of their father; that they had a +free administration of their own affairs without guardian or tutor, which was +the privilege of women who were the mothers of three children; when they go +abroad, they have the fasces carried before them; and if in their walks they +chance to meet a criminal on his way to execution, it saves his life, upon oath +made that the meeting was an accidental one, and not concerted or of set +purpose. Any one who presses upon the chair on which they are carried, is put +to death. If these vestals commit any minor fault, they are punishable by the +high- priest only, who scourges the offender, sometimes with her clothes off, +in a dark place, with a curtain drawn between; but she that has broken her vow +is buried alive near the gate called Collina, where a little mound of earth +stands, inside the city, reaching some little distance, called in Latin agger; +under it a narrow room is constructed, to which a descent is made by stairs; +here they prepare a bed, and light a lamp, and leave a small quantity of +victuals, such as bread, water, a pail of milk, and some oil; that so that body +which had been consecrated and devoted to the most sacred service of religion +might not be said to perish by such a death as famine. The culprit herself is +put in a litter, which they cover over, and tie her down with cords on it, so +that nothing she utters may be heard. They then take her to the forum; all +people silently go out of the way as she passes, and such as follow accompany +the bier with solemn and speechless sorrow; and, indeed, there is not any +spectacle more appalling, nor any day observed by the city with greater +appearance of gloom and sadness. When they come to the place of execution, the +officers loose the cords, and then the high- priest, lifting his hands to +heaven, pronounces certain prayers to himself before the act; then he brings +out the prisoner, being still covered, and placing her upon the steps that lead +down to the cell, turns away his face with the rest of the priests; the stairs +are drawn up after she has gone down, and a quantity of earth is heaped up over +the entrance to the cell, so as to prevent it from being distinguished from the +rest of the mound. This is the punishment of those who break their vow of +virginity. +</p> + +<p> +It is said, also, that Numa built the temple of Vesta, which was intended for a +repository of the holy fire, of a circular form, not to represent the figure of +the earth, as if that were the same as Vesta, but that of the general universe, +in the center of which the Pythagoreans place the element of fire, and give it +the name of Vesta and the unit; and do not hold that the earth is immovable, or +that it is situated in the center of the globe, but that it keeps a circular +motion about the seat of fire, and is not in the number of the primary +elements; in this agreeing with the opinion of Plato, who, they say, in his +later life, conceived that the earth held a lateral position, and that the +central and sovereign space was reserved for some nobler body. +</p> + +<p> +There was yet a farther use of the priests, and that was to give people +directions in the national usages at funeral rites. Numa taught them to regard +these offices, not as a pollution, but as a duty paid to the gods below, into +whose hands the better part of us is transmitted; especially they were to +worship the goddess Libitina, who presided over all the ceremonies performed at +burials; whether they meant hereby Proserpina, or, as the most learned of the +Romans conceive, Venus, not inaptly attributing the beginning and end of man’s +life to the agency of one and the same deity. Numa also prescribed rules for +regulating the days of mourning, according to certain times and ages. As, for +example, a child of three years was not to be mourned for at all; one older, up +to ten years, for as many months as it was years old; and the longest time of +mourning for any person whatsoever was not to exceed the term of ten months; +which was the time appointed for women that lost their husbands to continue in +widowhood. If any married again before that time, by the laws of Numa she was +to sacrifice a cow big with calf. +</p> + +<p> +Numa, also, was founder of several other orders of priests, two of which I +shall mention, the Salii and the Feciales, which are among the clearest proofs +of the devoutness and sanctity of his character. These Fecials, or guardians of +peace, seem to have had their name from their office, which was to put a stop +to disputes by conference and speech; for it was not allowable to take up arms +until they had declared all hopes of accommodation to be at an end, for in +Greek, too, we call it peace when disputes are settled by words, and not by +force. The Romans commonly dispatched the Fecials, or heralds, to those who had +offered them injury, requesting satisfaction; and, in case they refused, they +then called the gods to witness, and, with imprecations upon themselves and +their country should they be acting unjustly, so declared war; against their +will, or without their consent, it was lawful neither for soldier nor king to +take up arms; the war was begun with them, and, when they had first handed it +over to the commander as a just quarrel, then his business was to deliberate of +the manner and ways to carry it on. It is believed that the slaughter and +destruction which the Gauls made of the Romans was a judgment on the city for +neglect of this religious proceeding; for that when these barbarians besieged +the Clusinians, Fabius Ambustus was dispatched to their camp to negotiate peace +for the besieged; and, on their returning a rude refusal, Fabius imagined that +his office of ambassador was at an end, and, rashly engaging on the side of the +Clusinians, challenged the bravest of the enemy to a single combat. It was the +fortune of Fabius to kill his adversary, and to take his spoils; but when the +Gauls discovered it, they sent a herald to Rome to complain against him; since, +before war was declared, he had, against the law of nations, made a breach of +the peace. The matter being debated in the senate, the Fecials were of opinion +that Fabius ought to be consigned into the hands of the Gauls; but he, being +forewarned of their judgment, fled to the people, by whose protection and favor +he escaped the sentence. On this, the Gauls marched with their army to Rome, +where, having taken the Capitol, they sacked the city. The particulars of all +which are fully given in the history of Caminus. +</p> + +<p> +The origin of the Salii is this. In the eighth year of the reign of Numa, a +terrible pestilence, which traversed all Italy, ravaged likewise the city of +Rome; and the citizens being in distress and despondent, a brazen target, they +say, fell from heaven into the hands of Numa who gave them this marvelous +account of it: that Egeria and the Muses had assured him it was sent from +heaven for the cure and safety of the city, and that, to keep it secure, he was +ordered by them to make eleven others, so like in dimension and form to the +original that no thief should be able to distinguish the true from the +counterfeit. He farther declared, that he was commanded to consecrate to the +Muses the place, and the fields about it, where they had been chiefly wont to +meet with him, and that the spring which watered the field should be hallowed +for the use of the vestal virgins, who were to wash and cleanse the penetralia +of their sanctuary with those holy waters. The truth of all which was speedily +verified by the cessation of the pestilence. Numa displayed the target to the +artificers and bade them show their skill in making others like it; all +despaired, until at length one Mamurius Veturius, an excellent workman, happily +hit upon it, and made all so exactly the same that Numa himself was at a loss, +and could not distinguish. The keeping of these targets was committed to the +charge of certain priests, called Salii, who did not receive their name, as +some tell the story, from Salius, a dancing-master born in Samothrace, or at +Mantinea, who taught the way of dancing in arms; but more truly from that +jumping dance which the Salii themselves use, when in the month of March they +carry the sacred targets through the city; at which procession they are habited +in short frocks of purple, girt with a broad belt studded with brass; on their +heads they wear a brass helmet, and carry in their hands short daggers, which +they clash every now and then against the targets. But the chief thing is the +dance itself. They move with much grace, performing, in quick time and close +order, various intricate figures, with a great display of strength and agility. +The targets were called Ancilia from their form; for they are not made round, +nor like proper targets, of a complete circumference, but are cut out into a +wavy line, the ends of which are rounded off and turned in at the thickest part +towards each other; so that their shape is curvilinear, or, in Greek, ancylon; +or the name may come from ancon, the elbow, on which they are carried. Thus +Juba writes, who is eager to make it Greek. But it might be, for that matter, +from its having come down anecathen, from above; or from its akesis, or cure of +diseases; or auchmon Iysis, because it put an end to a drought; or from its +anaschesis, or relief from calamities, which is the origin of the Athenian name +Anaces, given to Castor and Pollux; if we must, that is, reduce it to Greek. +The reward which Mamurius received for his art was to be mentioned and +commemorated in the verses which the Salii sang, as they danced in their arms +through the city; though some will have it that they do not say Veturium +Mamurium, but Veterem Memoriam, ancient remembrance. +</p> + +<p> +After Numa had in this manner instituted these several orders of priests, he +erected, near the temple of Vesta, what is called to this day Regia, or king’s +house, where he spent the most part of his time, performing divine service, +instructing the priests, or conversing with them on sacred subjects. He had +another house upon the Mount Quirinalis, the site of which they show to this +day. In all public processions and solemn prayers, criers were sent before to +give notice to the people that they should forbear their work, and rest. They +say that the Pythagoreans did not allow people to worship and pray to their +gods by the way, but would have them go out from their houses direct, with +their minds set upon the duty, and so Numa, in like manner, wished that his +citizens should neither see nor hear any religious service in a perfunctory and +inattentive manner, but, laying aside all other occupations, should apply their +minds to religion as to a most serious business; and that the streets should be +free from all noises and cries that accompany manual labor, and clear for the +sacred solemnity. Some traces of this custom remain at Rome to this day, for, +when the consul begins to take auspices or do sacrifice, they call out to the +people, Hoc age, Attend to this, whereby the auditors then present are +admonished to compose and recollect themselves. Many other of his precepts +resemble those of the Pythagoreans. The Pythagoreans said, for example, “Thou +shalt not make a peck-measure thy seat to sit on. Thou shalt not stir the fire +with a sword. When thou goest out upon a journey, look not behind thee. When +thou sacrificest to the celestial gods, let it be with an odd number, and when +to the terrestrial, with even.” The significance of each of which precepts they +would not commonly disclose. So some of Numa’s traditions have no obvious +meaning. “Thou shalt not make libation to the gods of wine from an unpruned +vine. No sacrifices shall be performed without meal. Turn round to pay +adoration to the gods; sit after you have worshipped.” The first two directions +seem to denote the cultivation and subduing of the earth as a part of religion; +and as to the turning which the worshipers are to use in divine adoration, it +is said to represent the rotatory motion of the world. But, in my opinion, the +meaning rather is, that the worshiper, since the temples front the east, enters +with his back to the rising sun; there, faces round to the east, and so turns +back to the god of the temple, by this circular movement referring the +fulfillment of his prayer to both divinities. Unless, indeed, this change of +posture may have a mystical meaning, like the Egyptian wheels, and signify to +us the instability of human fortune, and that, in whatever way God changes and +turns our lot and condition, we should rest contented, and accept it as right +and fitting. They say, also, that the sitting after worship was to be by way of +omen of their petitions being granted, and the blessing they asked assured to +them. Again, as different courses of actions are divided by intervals of rest, +they might seat themselves after the completion of what they had done, to seek +favor of the gods for beginning something else. And this would very well suit +with what we had before; the lawgiver wants to habituate us to make our +petitions to the deity not by the way, and as it were, in a hurry, when we have +other things to do, but with time and leisure to attend to it. By such +discipline and schooling in religion, the city passed insensibly into such a +submissiveness of temper, and stood in such awe and reverence of the virtue of +Numa, that they received, with an undoubted assurance, whatever he delivered, +though never so fabulous, and thought nothing incredible or impossible from +him. +</p> + +<p> +There goes a story that he once invited a great number of citizens to an +entertainment, at which the dishes in which the meat was served were very +homely and plain, and the repast itself poor and ordinary fare; the guests +seated, he began to tell them that the goddess that consulted with him was then +at that time come to him; when on a sudden the room was furnished with all +sorts of costly drinking-vessels, and the tables loaded with rich meats, and a +most sumptuous entertainment. But the dialogue which is reported to have passed +between him and Jupiter surpasses all the fabulous legends that were ever +invented. They say that before Mount Aventine was inhabited or enclosed within +the walls of the city, two demi-gods, Picus and Faunus, frequented the Springs +and thick shades of that place; which might be two satyrs, or Pans, except that +they went about Italy playing the same sorts of tricks, by skill in drugs and +magic, as are ascribed by the Greeks to the Dactyli of Mount Ida. Numa +contrived one day to surprise these demi-gods, by mixing wine and honey in the +waters of the spring of which they usually drank. On finding themselves +ensnared, they changed themselves into various shapes, dropping their own form +and assuming every kind of unusual and hideous appearance; but when they saw +they were safely entrapped, and in no possibility of getting free, they +revealed to him many secrets and future events; and particularly a charm for +thunder and lightning, still in use, performed with onions and hair and +pilchards. Some say they did not tell him the charm, but by their magic brought +down Jupiter out of heaven; and that he then, in an angry manner answering the +inquiries, told Numa, that, if he would charm the thunder and lightning, he +must do it with heads. “How,” said Numa, “with the heads of onions?” “No,” +replied Jupiter, “of men.” But Numa, willing to elude the cruelty of this +receipt, turned it another way, saying, “Your meaning is, the hairs of men’s +heads.” “No,” replied Jupiter, “with living”—“pilchards,” said Numa, +interrupting him. These answers he had learnt from Egeria. Jupiter returned +again to heaven, pacified and ilcos, or propitious. The place was, in +remembrance of him, called Ilicium, from this Greek word; and the spell in this +manner effected. +</p> + +<p> +These stories, laughable as they are, show us the feelings which people then, +by force of habit, entertained towards the deity. And Numa’s own thoughts are +said to have been fixed to that degree on divine objects, that he once, when a +message was brought to him that “Enemies are approaching,” answered with a +smile, “And I am sacrificing.” It was he, also, that built the temples of Faith +and Terminus and taught the Romans that the name of Faith was the most solemn +oath that they could swear. They still use it; and to the god Terminus, or +Boundary, they offer to this day both public and private sacrifices, upon the +borders and stone- marks of their land; living victims now, though anciently +those sacrifices were solemnized without blood; for Numa reasoned that the god +of boundaries, who watched over peace, and testified to fair dealing, should +have no concern with blood. It is very clear that it was this king who first +prescribed bounds to the territory of Rome; for Romulus would but have openly +betrayed how much he had encroached on his neighbors’ lands, had he ever set +limits to his own; for boundaries are, indeed, a defense to those who choose to +observe them, but are only a testimony against the dishonesty of those who +break through them. The truth is, the portion of lands which the Romans +possessed at the beginning was very narrow, until Romulus enlarged them by war; +all whose acquisitions Numa now divided amongst the indigent commonalty, +wishing to do away with that extreme want which is a compulsion to dishonesty, +and, by turning the people to husbandry, to bring them, as well as their lands, +into better order. For there is no employment that gives so keen and quick a +relish for peace as husbandry and a country life, which leave in men all that +kind of courage that makes them ready to fight in defense of their own, while +it destroys the license that breaks out into acts of injustice and rapacity. +Numa, therefore, hoping agriculture would be a sort of charm to captivate the +affections of his people to peace, and viewing it rather as a means to moral +than to economical profit, divided all the lands into several parcels, to which +he gave the name of pagus, or parish, and over every one of them he ordained +chief overseers; and, taking a delight sometimes to inspect his colonies in +person, he formed his judgment of every man’s habits by the results; of which +being witness himself, he preferred those to honors and employments who had +done well, and by rebukes and reproaches incited the indolent and careless to +improvement. But of all his measures the most commended was his distribution of +the people by their trades into companies or guilds; for as the city consisted, +or rather did not consist of, but was divided into, two different tribes, the +diversity between which could not be effaced and in the mean time prevented all +unity and caused perpetual tumult and ill-blood, reflecting how hard substances +that do not readily mix when in the lump may, by being beaten into powder, in +that minute form be combined, he resolved to divide the whole population into a +number of small divisions, and thus hoped, by introducing other distinctions, +to obliterate the original and great distinction, which would be lost among the +smaller. So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he +formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, +skinners, braziers, and potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and +reduced into a single company, appointing every one their proper courts, +councils, and religious observances. In this manner all factious distinctions +began, for the first time, to pass out of use, no person any longer being +either thought of or spoken of under the notion of a Sabine or a Roman, a +Romulian or a Tatian; and the new division became a source of general harmony +and intermixture. +</p> + +<p> +He is also much to be commended for the repeal, or rather amendment, of that +law which gives power to fathers to sell their children; he exempted such as +were married, conditionally that it had been with the liking and consent of +their parents; for it seemed a hard thing that a woman who had given herself in +marriage to a man whom she judged free should afterwards find herself living +with a slave. +</p> + +<p> +He attempted, also, the formation of a calendar, not with absolute exactness, +yet not without some scientific knowledge. During the reign of Romulus, they +had let their months run on without any certain or equal term; some of them +contained twenty days, others thirty-five, others more; they had no sort of +knowledge of the inequality in the motions of the sun and moon; they only kept +to the one rule that the whole course of the year contained three hundred and +sixty days. Numa, calculating the difference between the lunar and the solar’ +year at eleven days, for that the moon completed her anniversary course in +three hundred and fifty-four days, and the sun in three hundred and sixty- +five, to remedy this incongruity doubled the eleven days, and every other year +added an intercalary month, to follow February, consisting of twenty-two days, +and called by the Romans the month Mercedinus. This amendment, however, itself, +in course of time, came to need other amendments. He also altered the order of +the months; for March, which was reckoned the first, he put into the third +place; and January, which was the eleventh, he made the first; and February, +which was the twelfth and last, the second. Many will have it, that it was +Numa, also, who added the two months of January and February; for in the +beginning they had had a year of ten months; as there are barbarians who count +only three; the Arcadians, in Greece, had but four; the Acarnanians, six. The +Egyptian year at first, they say, was of one month; afterwards, of four; and +so, though they live in the newest of all countries, they have the credit of +being a more ancient nation than any; and reckon, in their genealogies, a +prodigious number of years, counting months, that is, as years. That the +Romans, at first, comprehended the whole year within ten, and not twelve +months, plainly appears by the name of the last, December, meaning the tenth +month; and that March was the first is likewise evident, for the fifth month +after it was called Quintilis, and the sixth Sextilis, and so the rest; +whereas, if January and February had, in this account, preceded March, +Quintilis would have been fifth in name and seventh in reckoning. It was also +natural, that March, dedicated to Mars, should be Romulus’s first, and April, +named from Venus, or Aphrodite, his second month; in it they sacrifice to +Venus, and the women bathe on the calends, or first day of it, with myrtle +garlands on their heads. But others, because of its being p and not ph, will +not allow of the derivation of this word from Aphrodite, but say it is called +April from aperio, Latin for to open, because that this month is high spring, +and opens and discloses the buds and flowers. The next is called May, from +Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom it is sacred; then June follows, so called +from Juno; some, however, derive them from the two ages, old and young, majores +being their name for older, and juniores for younger men. To the other months +they gave denominations according to their order; so the fifth was called +Quintilis, Sextilis the sixth, and the rest, September, October, November, and +December. Afterwards Quintilis received the name of Julius, from Caesar who +defeated Pompey; as also Sextilis that of Augustus, from the second Caesar, who +had that title. Domitian, also, in imitation, gave the two other following +months his own names, of Germanicus and Domitianus; but, on his being slain, +they recovered their ancient denominations of September and October. The two +last are the only ones that have kept their names throughout without any +alteration. Of the months which were added or transposed in their order by +Numa, February comes from februa; and is as much as Purification month; in it +they make offerings to the dead, and celebrate the Lupercalia, which, in most +points, resembles a purification. January was so called from Janus, and +precedence given to it by Numa before March, which was dedicated to the god +Mars; because, as I conceive, he wished to take every opportunity of intimating +that the arts and studies of peace are to be preferred before those of war. For +this Janus, whether in remote antiquity he were a demi-god or a king, was +certainly a great lover of civil and social unity, and one who reclaimed men +from brutal and savage living; for which reason they figure him with two faces, +to represent the two states and conditions out of the one of which he brought +mankind, to lead them into the other. His temple at Rome has two gates, which +they call the gates of war, because they stand open in the time of war, and +shut in the times of peace; of which latter there was very seldom an example, +for, as the Roman empire was enlarged and extended, it was so encompassed with +barbarous nations and enemies to be resisted, that it was seldom or never at +peace. Only in the time of Augustus Caesar, after he had overcome Antony, this +temple was shut; as likewise once before, when Marcus Atilius and Titus Manlius +were consuls; but then it was not long before, wars breaking out, the gates +were again opened. But, during the reign of Numa, those gates were never seen +open a single day, but continued constantly shut for a space of forty-three +years together; such an entire and universal cessation of war existed. For not +only had the people of Rome itself been softened and charmed into a peaceful +temper by the just and mild rule of a pacific prince, but even the neighboring +cities, as if some salubrious and gentle air had blown from Rome upon them, +began to experience a change of feeling, and partook in the general longing for +the sweets of peace and order, and for life employed in the quiet tillage of +soil, bringing up of children, and worship of the gods. Festival days and +sports, and the secure and peaceful interchange of friendly visits and +hospitalities prevailed all through the whole of Italy. The love of virtue and +justice flowed from Numa’s wisdom as from a fountain, and the serenity of his +spirit diffused itself, like a calm, on all sides; so that the hyperboles of +poets were flat and tame to express what then existed; as that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Over the iron shield the spiders hang their threads, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +or that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Rust eats the pointed spear and double-edged sword.<br/> +No more is heard the trumpet’s brazen roar,<br/> +Sweet sleep is banished from our eyes no more. +</p> + +<p> +For, during the whole reign of Numa, there was neither war, nor sedition, nor +innovation in the state, nor any envy or ill-will to his person, nor plot or +conspiracy from views of ambition. Either fear of the gods that were thought to +watch over him, or reverence for his virtue, or a divine felicity of fortune +that in his days preserved human innocence, made his reign, by whatever means, +a living example and verification of that saying which Plato, long afterwards, +ventured to pronounce, that the sole and only hope of respite or remedy for +human evils was in some happy conjunction of events, which should unite in a +single person the power of a king and the wisdom of a philosopher, so as to +elevate virtue to control and mastery over vice. The wise man is blessed in +himself, and blessed also are the auditors who can hear and receive those words +which flow from his mouth; and perhaps, too, there is no need of compulsion or +menaces to affect the multitude, for the mere sight itself of a shining and +conspicuous example of virtue in the life of their prince will bring them +spontaneously to virtue, and to a conformity with that blameless and blessed +life of good will and mutual concord, supported by temperance and justice, +which is the highest benefit that human means can confer; and he is the truest +ruler who can best introduce it into the hearts and practice of his subjects. +It is the praise of Numa that no one seems ever to have discerned this so +clearly as he. +</p> + +<p> +As to his children and wives, there is a diversity of reports by several +authors; some will have it that he never had any other wife than Tatia, nor +more children than one daughter called Pompilia; others will have it that he +left also four sons, namely, Pompo, Pinus, Calpus, and Mamercus, every one of +whom had issue, and from them descended the noble and illustrious families of +Pomponii, Pinarii, Calpurnii, and Mamerci, which for this reason took also the +surname of Rex, or King. But there is a third set of writers who say that these +pedigrees are but a piece of flattery used by writers, who, to gain favor with +these great families, made them fictitious genealogies from the lineage of +Numa; and that Pompilia was not the daughter of Tatia, but Lucretia, another +wife whom he married after he came to his kingdom; however, all of them agree +in opinion that she was married to the son of that Marcius who persuaded him to +accept the government, and accompanied him to Rome where, as a mark of honor, +he was chosen into the senate, and, after the death of Numa, standing in +competition with Tullus Hostilius for the kingdom, and being disappointed of +the election, in discontent killed himself; his son Marcius, however, who had +married Pompilia, continuing at Rome, was the father of Ancus Marcius, who +succeeded Tullus Hostilius in the kingdom, and was but five years of age when +Numa died. +</p> + +<p> +Numa lived something above eighty years, and then, as Piso writes, was not +taken out of the world by a sudden or acute disease, but died of old age and by +a gradual and gentle decline. At his funeral all the glories of his life were +consummated, when all the neighboring states in alliance and amity with Rome +met to honor and grace the rites of his interment with garlands and public +presents; the senators carried the bier on which his corpse was laid, and the +priests followed and accompanied the solemn procession; while a general crowd, +in which women and children took part, followed with such cries and weeping as +if they had bewailed the death and loss of some most dear relation taken away +in the flower of age, and not of an old and worn-out king. It is said that his +body, by his particular command, was not burnt, but that they made, in +conformity with his order, two stone coffins, and buried both under the hill +Janiculum, in one of which his body was laid, and in the other his sacred +books, which, as the Greek legislators their tables, he had written out for +himself, but had so long inculcated the contents of them, whilst he lived, into +the minds and hearts of the priests, that their understandings became fully +possessed with the whole spirit and purpose of them; and he, therefore, bade +that they should be buried with his body, as though such holy precepts could +not without irreverence be left to circulate in mere lifeless writings. For +this very reason, they say, the Pythagoreans bade that their precepts should +not be committed to paper, but rather preserved in the living memories of those +who were worthy to receive them; and when some of their out-of-the-way and +abstruse geometrical processes had been divulged to an unworthy person, they +said the gods threatened to punish this wickedness and profanity by a signal +and wide-spreading calamity. With these several instances, concurring to show a +similarity in the lives of Numa and Pythagoras, we may easily pardon those who +seek to establish the fact of a real acquaintance between them. +</p> + +<p> +Valerius Antias writes that the books which were buried in the aforesaid chest +or coffin of stone were twelve volumes of holy writ and twelve others of Greek +philosophy, and that about four hundred years afterwards, when P. Cornelius and +M. Baebius were consuls, in a time of heavy rains, a violent torrent washed +away the earth, and dislodged the chests of stone; and, their covers falling +off, one of them was found wholly empty, without the least relic of any human +body; in the other were the books before mentioned, which the praetor Petilius +having read and perused, made oath in the senate, that, in his opinion, it was +not fit for their contents to be made public to the people; whereupon the +volumes were all carried to the Comitium, and there burnt. +</p> + +<p> +It is the fortune of all good men that their virtue rises in glory after their +deaths, and that the envy which evil men conceive against them never outlives +them long; some have the happiness even to see it die before them; but in +Numa’s case, also, the fortunes of the succeeding kings served as foils to set +off the brightness of his reputation. For after him there were five kings, the +last of whom ended his old age in banishment, being deposed from his crown; of +the other four, three were assassinated and murdered by treason; the other, who +was Tullus Hostilius, that immediately succeeded Numa, derided his virtues, and +especially his devotion to religious worship, as a cowardly and mean- spirited +occupation, and diverted the minds of the people to war; but was checked in +these youthful insolences, and was himself driven by an acute and tormenting +disease into superstitions wholly different from Numa’s piety, and left others +also to participate in these terrors when he died by the stroke of a +thunderbolt. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap06"></a>COMPARISON OF NUMA WITH LYCURGUS</h2> + +<p> +Having thus finished the lives of Lycurgus and Numa, we shall now, though the +work be difficult, put together their points of difference as they lie here +before our view. Their points of likeness are obvious; their moderation, their +religion, their capacity of government and discipline, their both deriving +their laws and constitutions from the gods. Yet in their common glories there +are circumstances of diversity; for, first, Numa accepted and Lycurgus resigned +a kingdom; Numa received without desiring it, Lycurgus had it and gave it up; +the one from a private person and a stranger was raised by others to be their +king, the other from the condition of a prince voluntarily descended to the +state of privacy. It was glorious to acquire a throne by justice, yet more +glorious to prefer justice before a throne; the same virtue which made the one +appear worthy of regal power exalted the other to the disregard of it. Lastly, +as musicians tune their harps, so the one let down the high-flown spirits of +the people at Rome to a lower key, as the other screwed them up at Sparta to a +higher note, when they were sunken low by dissoluteness and riot. The harder +task was that of Lycurgus; for it was not so much his business to persuade his +citizens to put off their armor or ungird their swords, as to cast away their +gold or silver, and abandon costly furniture and rich tables; nor was it +necessary to preach to them, that, laying aside their arms, they should observe +the festivals, and sacrifice to the gods, but rather, that, giving up feasting +and drinking, they should employ their time in laborious and martial exercises; +so that while the one effected all by persuasions and his people’s love for +him, the other, with danger and hazard of his person, scarcely in the end +succeeded. Numa’s muse was a gentle and loving inspiration, fitting him well to +turn and soothe his people into peace and justice out of their violent and +fiery tempers; whereas, if we must admit the treatment of the Helots to be a +part of Lycurgus’s legislations, a most cruel and iniquitous proceeding, we +must own that Numa was by a great deal the more humane and Greek-like +legislator, granting even to actual slaves a license to sit at meat with their +masters at the feast of Saturn, that they, also, might have some taste and +relish of the sweets of liberty. For this custom, too, is ascribed to Numa, +whose wish was, they conceive, to give a place in the enjoyment of the yearly +fruits of the soil to those who had helped to produce them. Others will have it +to be in remembrance of the age of Saturn, when there was no distinction +between master and slave, but all lived as brothers and as equals in a +condition of equality. +</p> + +<p> +In general, it seems that both aimed at the same design and intent, which was +to bring their people to moderation and frugality; but, of other virtues, the +one set his affection most on fortitude, and the other on justice; unless we +will attribute their different ways to the different habits and temperaments +which they had to work upon by their enactments; for Numa did not out of +cowardice or fear affect peace, but because he would not be guilty of +injustice; nor did Lycurgus promote a spirit of war in his people that they +might do injustice to others, but that they might protect themselves by it. +</p> + +<p> +In bringing the habits they formed in their people to a just and happy mean, +mitigating them where they exceeded, and strengthening them where they were +deficient, both were compelled to make great innovations. The frame of +government which Numa formed was democratic and popular to the last extreme, +goldsmiths and flute-players and shoemakers constituting his promiscuous, +many-colored commonalty. Lycurgus was rigid and aristocratical, banishing all +the base and mechanic arts to the company of servants and strangers, and +allowing the true citizens no implements but the spear and shield, the trade of +war only, and the service of Mars, and no other knowledge or study but that of +obedience to their commanding officers, and victory over their enemies. Every +sort of money-making was forbid them as freemen; and to make them thoroughly so +and to keep them so through their whole lives, every conceivable concern with +money was handed over, with the cooking and the waiting at table, to slaves and +helots. But Numa made none of these distinctions; he only suppressed military +rapacity, allowing free scope to every other means of obtaining wealth; nor did +he endeavor to do away with inequality in this respect, but permitted riches to +be amassed to any extent, and paid no attention to the gradual and continual +augmentation and influx of poverty; which it was his business at the outset, +whilst there was as yet no great disparity in the estates of men, and whilst +people still lived much in one manner, to obviate, as Lycurgus did, and take +measures of precaution against the mischiefs of avarice, mischiefs not of small +importance, but the real seed and first beginning of all the great and +extensive evils of after times. The re-division of estates, Lycurgus is not, it +seems to me, to be blamed for making, nor Numa for omitting; this equality was +the basis and foundation of the one commonwealth; but at Rome, where the lands +had been lately divided, there was nothing to urge any re-division or any +disturbance of the first arrangement, which was probably still in existence. +</p> + +<p> +With respect to wives and children, and that community which both, with a sound +policy, appointed, to prevent all jealousy, their methods, however, were +different. For when a Roman thought himself to have a sufficient number of +children, in case his neighbor who had none should come and request his wife of +him, he had a lawful power to give her up to him who desired her, either for a +certain time, or for good. The Lacedaemonian husband on the other hand, might +allow the use of his wife to any other that desired to have children by her, +and yet still keep her in his house, the original marriage obligation still +subsisting as at first. Nay, many husbands, as we have said, would invite men +whom they thought like]y to procure them fine and good-looking children into +their houses. What is the difference, then, between the two customs? Shall we +say that the Lacedaemonian system is one of an extreme and entire unconcern +about their wives, and would cause most people endless disquiet and annoyance +with pangs and jealousies? The Roman course wears an air of a more delicate +acquiescence, draws the veil of a new contract over the change, and concedes +the general insupportableness of mere community? Numa’s directions, too, for +the care of young women are better adapted to the female sex and to propriety; +Lycurgus’s are altogether unreserved and unfeminine, and have given a great +handle to the poets, who call them (Ibycus, for example) Phaenomerides, bare- +thighed; and give them the character (as does Euripides) of being wild after +husbands; +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +These with the young men from the house go out,<br/> +With thighs that show, and robes that fly about. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For in fact the skirts of the frock worn by unmarried girls were not sewn +together at the lower part, but used to fly back and show the whole thigh bare +as they walked. The thing is most distinctly given by Sophocles. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +—She, also, the young maid,<br/> +Whose frock, no robe yet o’er it laid,<br/> +Folding back, leaves her bare thigh free,<br/> +Hermione. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And so their women, it is said, were bold and masculine, overbearing to their +husbands in the first place, absolute mistresses in their houses, giving their +opinions about public matters freely, and speaking openly even on the most +important subjects. But the matrons, under the government of Numa, still indeed +received from their husbands all that high respect and honor which had been +paid them under Romulus as a sort of atonement for the violence done to them; +nevertheless, great modesty was enjoined upon them; all busy intermeddling +forbidden, sobriety insisted on, and silence made habitual. Wine they were not +to touch at all, nor to speak, except in their husband’s company, even on the +most ordinary subjects. So that once when a woman had the confidence to plead +her own cause in a court of judicature, the senate, it is said, sent to inquire +of the oracle what the prodigy did portend; and, indeed, their general good +behavior and submissiveness is justly proved by the record of those that were +otherwise; for as the Greek historians record in their annals the names of +those who first unsheathed the sword of civil war, or murdered their brothers, +or were parricides, or killed their mothers, so the Roman writers report it as +the first example, that Spurius Carvilius divorced his wife, being a case that +never before happened, in the space of two hundred and thirty years from the +foundation of the city; and that one Thalaea, the wife of Pinarius, had a +quarrel (the first instance of the kind) with her mother-in-law, Gegania, in +the reign of Tarquinius Superbus; so successful was the legislator in securing +order and good conduct in the marriage relation. Their respective regulations +for marrying the young women are in accordance with those for their education. +Lycurgus made them brides when they were of full age and inclination for it. +Intercourse, where nature was thus consulted, would produce, he thought, love +and tenderness, instead of the dislike and fear attending an unnatural +compulsion; and their bodies, also, would be better able to bear the trials of +breeding and of bearing children, in his judgment the one end of marriage. +Astolos chiton, the under garment, frock, or tunic, without anything, either +himation or peplus, over it. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans, on the other hand, gave their daughters in marriage as early as +twelve years old, or even under; thus they thought their bodies alike and minds +would be delivered to the future husband pure and undefiled. The way of +Lycurgus seems the more natural with a view to the birth of children; the +other, looking to a life to be spent together, is more moral. However, the +rules which Lycurgus drew up for superintendence of children, their collection +into companies, their discipline and association, as also his exact regulations +for their meals, exercises, and sports, argue Numa no more than an ordinary +lawgiver. Numa left the whole matter simply to be decided by the parent’s +wishes or necessities; he might, if he pleased, make his son a husbandman or +carpenter, coppersmith or musician; as if it were of no importance for them to +be directed and trained up from the beginning to one and the same common end, +or as though it would do for them to be like passengers on shipboard, brought +thither each for his own ends and by his own choice, uniting to act for the +common good only in time of danger upon occasion of their private fears, in +general looking simply to their own interest. +</p> + +<p> +We may forbear, indeed, to blame common legislators, who may be deficient in +power or knowledge. But when a wise man like Numa had received the sovereignty +over a new and docile people, was there any thing that would better deserve his +attention than the education of children, and the training up of the young, not +to contrariety and discordance of character, but to the unity of the common +model of virtue, to which from their cradle they should have been formed and +molded? One benefit among many that Lycurgus obtained by his course was the +permanence which it secured to his laws. The obligation of oaths to preserve +them would have availed but little, if he had not, by discipline and education, +infused them into the children’s characters, and imbued their whole early life +with a love of his government. The result was that the main points and +fundamentals of his legislation continued for above five hundred years, like +some deep and thoroughly ingrained tincture, retaining their hold upon the +nation. But Numa’s whole design and aim, the continuance of peace and +good-will, on his death vanished with him; no sooner did he expire his last +breath than the gates of Janus’s temple flew wide open, and, as if war had, +indeed, been kept and caged up within those walls, it rushed forth to fill all +Italy with blood and slaughter; and thus that best and justest fabric of things +was of no long continuance, because it wanted that cement which should have +kept all together, education. What, then, some may say, has not Rome been +advanced and bettered by her wars? A question that will need a long answer, if +it is to be one to satisfy men who take the better to consist in riches, +luxury, and dominion, rather than in security, gentleness, and that +independence which is accompanied by justice. However, it makes much for +Lycurgus, that, after the Romans deserted the doctrine and discipline of Numa, +their empire grew and their power increased so much; whereas so soon as the +Lacedaemonians fell from the institutions of Lycurgus, they sank from the +highest to the lowest state, and, after forfeiting their supremacy over the +rest of Greece, were themselves in danger of absolute extirpation. Thus much, +meantime, was peculiarly signal and almost divine in the circumstances of Numa, +that he was an alien, and yet courted to come and accept a kingdom, the frame +of which though he entirely altered, yet he performed it by mere persuasion, +and ruled a city that as yet had scarce become one city, without recurring to +arms or any violence (such as Lycurgus used, supporting himself by the aid of +the nobler citizens against the commonalty), but, by mere force of wisdom and +justice, established union and harmony amongst all. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap07"></a>SOLON</h2> + +<p> +Didymus, the grammarian, in his answer to Asclepiades concerning Solon’s Tables +of Law, mentions a passage of one Philocles, who states that Solon’s father’s +name was Euphorion, contrary to the opinion of all others who have written +concerning him; for they generally agree that he was the son of Execestides, a +man of moderate wealth and power in the city, but of a most noble stock, being +descended from Codrus; his mother, as Heraclides Ponticus affirms, was cousin +to Pisistratus’s mother, and the two at first were great friends, partly +because they were akin, and partly because of Pisistratus’s noble qualities and +beauty. And they say Solon loved him; and that is the reason, I suppose, that +when afterwards they differed about the government, their enmity never produced +any hot and violent passion, they remembered their old kindnesses, and +retained— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Still in its embers living the strong fire +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +of their love and dear affection. For that Solon was not proof against beauty, +nor of courage to stand up to passion and meet it, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Hand to hand as in the ring— +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +we may conjecture by his poems, and one of his laws, in which there are +practices forbidden to slaves, which he would appear, therefore, to recommend +to freemen. Pisistratus, it is stated, was similarly attached to one Charmus; +he it was who dedicated the figure of Love in the Academy, where the runners in +the sacred torch-race light their torches. Solon, as Hermippus writes, when his +father had ruined his estate in doing benefits and kindnesses to other men, +though he had friends enough that were willing to contribute to his relief, yet +was ashamed to be beholden to others, since he was descended from a family who +were accustomed to do kindnesses rather than receive them; and therefore +applied himself to merchandise in his youth; though others assure us that he +traveled rather to get learning and experience than to make money. It is +certain that he was a lover of knowledge, for when he was old he would say, +that he +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Each day grew older, and learnt something new, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and yet no admirer of riches, esteeming as equally wealthy the man,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Who hath both gold and silver in his hand,<br/> +Horses and mules, and acres of wheat-land,<br/> +And him whose all is decent food to eat,<br/> +Clothes to his back and shoes upon his feet,<br/> +And a young wife and child, since so ’twill be,<br/> +And no more years than will with that agree;— +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and in another place,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Wealth I would have, but wealth by wrong procure<br/> +I would not; justice, e’en if slow, is sure. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And it is perfectly possible for a good man and a statesman, without being +solicitous for superfluities, to show some concern for competent necessaries. +In his time, as Hesiod says, —“Work was a shame to none,” nor was any +distinction made with respect to trade, but merchandise was a noble calling, +which brought home the good things which the barbarous nations enjoyed, was the +occasion of friendship with their kings, and a great source of experience. Some +merchants have built great cities, as Protis, the founder of Massilia, to whom +the Gauls near the Rhine were much attached. Some report also that Thales and +Hippocrates the mathematician traded; and that Plato defrayed the charges of +his travels by selling oil in Egypt. Solon’s softness and profuseness, his +popular rather than philosophical tone about pleasure in his poems, have been +ascribed to his trading life; for, having suffered a thousand dangers, it was +natural they should be recompensed with some gratifications and enjoyments; but +that he accounted himself rather poor than rich is evident from the lines, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor,<br/> +We will not change our virtue for their store;<br/> +Virtue’s a thing that none call take away,<br/> +But money changes owners all the day. +</p> + +<p> +At first he used his poetry only in trifles, not for any serious purpose, but +simply to pass away his idle hours; but afterwards he introduced moral +sentences and state matters, which he did, not to record them merely as an +historian, but to justify his own actions, and sometimes to correct, chastise, +and stir up the Athenians to noble performances. Some report that he designed +to put his laws into heroic verse, and that they began thus,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +We humbly beg a blessing on our laws<br/> +From mighty Jove, and honor, and applause. +</p> + +<p> +In philosophy, as most of the wise men then, he chiefly esteemed the political +part of morals; in physics, he was very plain and antiquated, as appears by +this,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +It is the clouds that make the snow and hail,<br/> +And thunder comes from lightning without fail;<br/> +The sea is stormy when the winds have blown,<br/> +But it deals fairly when ’tis left alone. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And, indeed, it is probable that at that time Thales alone had raised +philosophy above mere practice into speculation; and the rest of the wise men +were so called from prudence in political concerns. It is said, that they had +an interview at Delphi, and another at Corinth, by the procurement of +Periander, who made a meeting for them, and a supper. But their reputation was +chiefly raised by sending the tripod to them all, by their modest refusal, and +complaisant yielding to one another. For, as the story goes, some of the Coans +fishing with a net, some strangers, Milesians, bought the draught at a venture; +the net brought up a golden tripod, which, they say, Helen, at her return from +Troy, upon the remembrance of an old prophecy, threw in there. Now, the +strangers at first contesting with the fishers about the tripod, and the cities +espousing the quarrel so far as to engage themselves in a war, Apollo decided +the controversy by commanding to present it to the wisest man; and first it was +sent to Miletus to Thales, the Coans freely presenting him with that for which +they fought against the whole body of the Milesians; but, Thales declaring Bias +the wiser person, it was sent to him; from him to another; and so, going round +them all, it came to Thales a second time; and, at last, being carried from +Miletus to Thebes, was there dedicated to Apollo Ismenius. Theophrastus writes +that it was first presented to Bias at Priene; and next to Thales at Miletus, +and so through all it returned to Bias, and was afterwards sent to Delphi. This +is the general report, only some, instead of a tripod, say this present was a +cup sent by Croesus; others, a piece of plate that one Bathycles had left. It +is stated, that Anacharsis and Solon, and Solon and Thales, were familiarly +acquainted, and some have delivered parts of their discourse; for, they say, +Anacharsis, coming to Athens, knocked at Solon’s door, and told him, that he, +being a stranger, was come to be his guest, and contract a friendship with him; +and Solon replying, “It is better to make friends at home,” Anacharsis replied, +“Then you that are at home make friendship with me.” Solon, somewhat surprised +at the readiness of the repartee, received him kindly, and kept him some time +with him, being already engaged in public business and the compilation of his +laws; which when Anacharsis understood, he laughed at him for imagining the +dishonesty and covetousness of his countrymen could be restrained by written +laws, which were like spiders’ webs, and would catch, it is true, the weak and +poor, but easily be broken by the mighty and rich. To this Solon rejoined that +men keep their promises when neither side can get anything by the breaking of +them; and he would so fit his laws to the citizens, that all should understand +it was more eligible to be just than to break the laws. But the event rather +agreed with the conjecture of Anacharsis than Solon’s hope. Anacharsis, being +once at the assembly, expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men +spoke and fools decided. +</p> + +<p> +Solon went, they say, to Thales at Miletus, and wondered that Thales took no +care to get him a wife and children. To this, Thales made no answer for the +present; but, a few days after, procured a stranger to pretend that he had left +Athens ten days ago; and Solon inquiring what news there, the man, according to +his instructions, replied, “None but a young man’s funeral, which the whole +city attended; for he was the son, they said, of an honorable man, the most +virtuous of the citizens, who was not then at home, but had been traveling a +long time.” Solon replied, “What a miserable man is he! But what was his name?” +“I have heard it,” says the man, “but have now forgotten it, only there was +great talk of his wisdom and his justice.” Thus Solon was drawn on by every +answer, and his fears heightened, till at last, being extremely concerned, he +mentioned his own name, and asked the stranger if that young man was called +Solon’s son; and the stranger assenting, he began to beat his head, and to do +and say all that is usual with men in transports of grief. But Thales took his +hand, and, with a smile, said, “These things, Solon, keep me from marriage and +rearing children, which are too great for even your constancy to support; +however, be not concerned at the report, for it is a fiction.” This Hermippus +relates, from Pataecus, who boasted that he had Aesop’s soul. +</p> + +<p> +However, it is irrational and poor-spirited not to seek conveniences for fear +of losing them, for upon the same account we should not allow ourselves to like +wealth, glory, or wisdom, since we may fear to be deprived of all these; nay, +even virtue itself, than which there is no greater nor more desirable +possession, is often suspended by sickness or drugs. Now Thales, though +unmarried, could not be free from solicitude, unless he likewise felt no care +for his friends, his kinsmen, or his country; yet we are told he adopted +Cybisthus, his sister’s son. For the soul, having a principle of kindness in +itself, and being born to love, as well as perceive, think, or remember, +inclines and fixes upon some stranger, when a man has none of his own to +embrace. And alien or illegitimate objects insinuate themselves into his +affections, as into some estate that lacks lawful heirs; and with affection +come anxiety and care; insomuch that you may see men that use the strongest +language against the marriage-bed and the fruit of it, when some servant’s or +concubine’s child is sick or dies, almost killed with grief, and abjectly +lamenting. Some have given way to shameful and desperate sorrow at the loss of +a dog or horse; others have borne the deaths of virtuous children without any +extravagant or unbecoming grief; have passed the rest of their lives like men, +and according to the principles of reason. It is not affection, it is weakness, +that brings men, unarmed against fortune by reason, into these endless pains +and terrors; and they indeed have not even the present enjoyment of what they +dote upon, the possibility of the future loss causing them continual pangs, +tremors, and distresses. We must not provide against the loss of wealth by +poverty, or of friends by refusing all acquaintance, or of children by having +none, but by morality and reason. But of this too much. +</p> + +<p> +Now, when the Athenians were tired with a tedious and difficult war that they +conducted against the Megarians for the island Salamis, and made a law that it +should be death for any man, by writing or speaking, to assert that the city +ought to endeavor to recover it, Solon, vexed at the disgrace, and perceiving +thousands of the youth wished for somebody to begin, but did not dare to stir +first for fear of the law, counterfeited a distraction, and by his own family +it was spread about the city that he was mad. He then secretly composed some +elegiac verses, and getting them by heart, that it might seem extempore, ran +out into the place with a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering about +him, got upon the herald’s stand, and sang that elegy which begins thus:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +I am a herald come from Salamis the fair,<br/> +My news from thence my verses shall declare. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The poem is called Salamis, it contains one hundred verses, very elegantly +written; when it had been sung, his friends commended it, and especially +Pisistratus exhorted the citizens to obey his directions; insomuch that they +recalled the law, and renewed the war under Solon’s conduct. The popular tale +is, that with Pisistratus he sailed to Colias, and, finding the women, +according to the custom of the country there, sacrificing to Ceres, he sent a +trusty friend to Salamis, who should pretend himself a renegade, and advise +them, if they desired to seize the chief Athenian women, to come with him at +once to Colias; the Megarians presently sent of men in the vessel with him; and +Solon, seeing it put off from the island, commanded the women to be gone, and +some beardless youths, dressed in their clothes, their shoes, and caps, and +privately armed with daggers, to dance and play near the shore till the enemies +had landed and the vessel was in their power. Things being thus ordered, the +Megarians were allured with the appearance, and, coming to the shore, jumped +out, eager who should first seize a prize, so that not one of them escaped; and +the Athenians set sail for the island and took it. +</p> + +<p> +Others say that it was not taken this way, but that he first received this +oracle from Delphi: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Those heroes that in fair Asopia rest,<br/> +All buried with their faces to the west,<br/> +Go and appease with offerings of the best; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and that Solon, sailing by night to the island, sacrificed to the heroes +Periphemus and Cychreus, and then, taking five hundred Athenian volunteers (a +law having passed that those that took the island should be highest in the +government), with a number of fisher-boats and one thirty-oared ship, anchored +in a bay of Salamis that looks towards Nisaea; and the Megarians that were then +in the island, hearing only an uncertain report, hurried to their arms, and +sent a ship to reconnoiter the enemies. This ship Solon took, and, securing the +Megarians, manned it with Athenians, and gave them orders to sail to the island +with as much privacy as possible; meantime he, with the other soldiers, marched +against the Megarians by land, and whilst they were fighting, those from the +ship took the city. And this narrative is confirmed by the following solemnity, +that was afterwards observed: an Athenian ship used to sail silently at first +to the island, then, with noise and a great shout, one leapt out armed, and +with a loud cry ran to the promontory Sciradium to meet those that approached +upon the land. And just by there stands a temple which Solon dedicated to Mars. +For he beat the Megarians, and as many as were not killed in the battle he sent +away upon conditions. +</p> + +<p> +The Megarians, however, still contending, and both sides having received +considerable losses, they chose the Spartans for arbitrators. Now, many affirm +that Homer’s authority did Solon a considerable kindness, and that, introducing +a line into the Catalog of Ships, when the matter was to be determined, he read +the passage as follows: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Twelve ships from Salamis stout Ajax brought,<br/> +And ranked his men where the Athenians fought. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The Athenians, however, call this but an idle story, and report, that Solon +made it appear to the judges, that Philaeus and Eurysaces, the sons of Ajax, +being made citizens of Athens, gave them the island, and that one of them dwelt +at Brauron in Attica, the other at Melite; and they have a township of +Philaidae, to which Pisistratus belonged, deriving its name from this Philaeus. +Solon took a farther argument against the Megarians from the dead bodies, +which, he said, were not buried after their fashion but according to the +Athenian; for the Megarians turn the corpse to the east, the Athenians to the +west. But Hereas the Megarian denies this, and affirms that they likewise turn +the body to the west, and also that the Athenians have a separate tomb for +every body, but the Megarians put two or three into one. However, some of +Apollo’s oracles, where he calls Salamis Ionian, made much for Solon. This +matter was determined by five Spartans, Critolaidas, Amompharetus, Hypsechidas, +Anaxilas, and Cleomenes. +</p> + +<p> +For this, Solon grew famed and powerful; but his advice in favor of defending +the oracle at Delphi, to give aid, and not to suffer the Cirrhaeans to profane +it, but to maintain the honor of the god, got him most repute among the Greeks: +for upon his persuasion the Amphictyons undertook the war, as, amongst others, +Aristotle affirms, in his enumeration of the victors at the Pythian games, +where he makes Solon the author of this counsel. Solon, however, was not +general in that expedition, as Hermippus states, out of Evanthes the Samian; +for Aeschines the orator says no such thing, and, in the Delphian register, +Alcmaeon, not Solon, is named as commander of the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +Now the Cylonian pollution had a long while disturbed the commonwealth, ever +since the time when Megacles the archon persuaded the conspirators with Cylon +that took sanctuary in Minerva’s temple to come down and stand to a fair trial. +And they, tying a thread to the image, and holding one end of it, went down to +the tribunal; but when they came to the temple of the Furies, the thread broke +of its own accord, upon which, as if the goddess had refused them protection, +they were seized by Megacles and the other magistrates; as many as were without +the temples were stoned, those that fled for sanctuary were butchered at the +altar, and only those escaped who made supplication to the wives of the +magistrates. But they from that time were considered under pollution, and +regarded with hatred. The remainder of the faction of Cylon grew strong again, +and had continual quarrels with the family of Megacles; and now the quarrel +being at its height, and the people divided, Solon, being in reputation, +interposed with the chiefest of the Athenians, and by entreaty and admonition +persuaded the polluted to submit to a trial and the decision of three hundred +noble citizens. And Myron of Phlya being their accuser, they were found guilty, +and as many as were then alive were banished, and the bodies of the dead were +dug up, and scattered beyond the confines of the country. In the midst of these +distractions, the Megarians falling upon them, they lost Nisaea and Salamis +again; besides, the city was disturbed with superstitious fears and strange +appearances, and the priests declared that the sacrifices intimated some +villanies and pollutions that were to be expiated. Upon this, they sent for +Epimenides the Phaestian from Crete, who is counted the seventh wise man by +those that will not admit Periander into the number. He seems to have been +thought a favorite of heaven, possessed of knowledge in all the supernatural +and ritual parts of religion; and, therefore, the men of his age called him a +new Cures, and son of a nymph named Balte. When he came to Athens, and grew +acquainted with Solon, he served him in many instances, and prepared the way +for his legislation. He made them moderate in their forms of worship, and +abated their mourning by ordering some sacrifices presently after the funeral, +and taking off those severe and barbarous ceremonies which the women usually +practiced; but the greatest benefit was his purifying and sanctifying the city, +by certain propitiatory and expiatory lustrations, and foundation of sacred +buildings; by that means making them more submissive to justice, and more +inclined to harmony. It is reported that, looking upon Munychia, and +considering a long while, he said to those that stood by, “How blind is man in +future things! for did the Athenians foresee what mischief this would do their +city, they would even eat it with their own teeth to be rid of it.” A similar +anticipation is ascribed to Thales; they say he commanded his friends to bury +him in an obscure and contemned quarter of the territory of Miletus, saying +that it should some day be the marketplace of the Milesians. Epimenides, being +much honored, and receiving from the city rich offers of large gifts and +privileges, requested but one branch of the sacred olive, and, on that being +granted, returned. +</p> + +<p> +The Athenians, now the Cylonian sedition was over and the polluted gone into +banishment, fell into their old quarrels about the government, there being as +many different parties as there were diversities in the country. The Hill +quarter favored democracy, the Plain, oligarchy, and those that lived by the +Sea-side stood for a mixed sort of government, and so hindered either of the +other parties from prevailing. And the disparity of fortune between the rich +and the poor, at that time, also reached its height; so that the city seemed to +be in a truly dangerous condition, and no other means for freeing it from +disturbances and settling it, to be possible but a despotic power. All the +people were indebted to the rich; and either they tilled their land for their +creditors, paying them a sixth part of the increase, and were, therefore, +called Hectemorii and Thetes, or else they engaged their body for the debt, and +might be seized, and either sent into slavery at home, or sold to strangers; +some (for no law forbade it) were forced to sell their children, or fly their +country to avoid the cruelty of their creditors; but the most part and the +bravest of them began to combine together and encourage one another to stand to +it, to choose a leader, to liberate the condemned debtors, divide the land, and +change the government. +</p> + +<p> +Then the wisest of the Athenians, perceiving Solon was of all men the only one +not implicated in the troubles, that he had not joined in the exactions of the +rich, and was not involved in the necessities of the poor, pressed him to +succor the commonwealth and compose the differences. Though Phanias the Lesbian +affirms, that Solon, to save his country, put a trick upon both parties, and +privately promised the poor a division of the lands, and the rich, security for +their debts. Solon, however, himself, says that it was reluctantly at first +that he engaged in state affairs, being afraid of the pride of one party and +the greediness of the other; he was chosen archon, however, after Philombrotus, +and empowered to be an arbitrator and lawgiver; the rich consenting because he +was wealthy, the poor because he was honest. There was a saying of his current +before the election, that when things are even there never can be war, and this +pleased both parties, the wealthy and the poor; the one conceiving him to mean, +when all have their fair proportion; the others, when all are absolutely equal. +Thus, there being great hopes on both sides, the chief men pressed Solon to +take the government into his own hands, and, when he was once settled, manage +the business freely and according to his pleasure; and many of the commons, +perceiving it would be a difficult change to be effected by law and reason, +were willing to have one wise and just man set over the affairs; and some say +that Solon had this oracle from Apollo— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Take the mid-seat, and be the vessel’s guide;<br/> +Many in Athens are upon your side. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But chiefly his familiar friends chid him for disaffecting monarchy only +because of the name, as if the virtue of the ruler could not make it a lawful +form; Euboea had made this experiment when it chose Tynnondas, and Mitylene, +which had made Pittacus its prince; yet this could not shake Solon’s +resolution; but, as they say, he replied to his friends, that it was true a +tyranny was a very fair spot, but it had no way down from it; and in a copy of +verses to Phocus he writes.— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +—that I spared my land, And withheld from usurpation and from violence my +hand,<br/> +And forbore to fix a stain and a disgrace on my good name,<br/> +I regret not; I believe that it will be my chiefest fame. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +From which it is manifest that he was a man of great reputation before he gave +his laws. The several mocks that were put upon him for refusing the power, he +records in these words,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Solon surely was a dreamer, and a man of simple mind;<br/> +When the gods would give him fortune, he of his own will declined;<br/> +When the net was full of fishes, over-heavy thinking it,<br/> +He declined to haul it up, through want of heart and want of wit.<br/> +Had but I that chance of riches and of kingship, for one day,<br/> +I would give my skin for flaying, and my house to die away. +</p> + +<p> +Thus he makes the many and the low people speak of him. Yet, though he refused +the government, he was not too mild in the affair; he did not show himself mean +and submissive to the powerful, nor make his laws to pleasure those that chose +him. For where it was well before, he applied no remedy, nor altered anything, +for fear lest, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Overthrowing altogether and disordering the state, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +he should be too weak to new-model and recompose it to a tolerable condition; +but what he thought he could effect by persuasion upon the pliable, and by +force upon the stubborn, this he did, as he himself says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +With force and justice working both one. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And, therefore, when he was afterwards asked if he had left the Athenians the +best laws that could be given, he replied, “The best they could receive.” The +way which, the moderns say, the Athenians have of softening the badness of a +thing, by ingeniously giving it some pretty and innocent appellation, calling +harlots, for example, mistresses, tributes customs, a garrison a guard, and the +jail the chamber, seems originally to have been Solon’s contrivance, who called +canceling debts Seisacthea, a relief, or disencumbrance. For the first thing +which he settled was, that what debts remained should be forgiven, and no man, +for the future, should engage the body of his debtor for security. Though some, +as Androtion, affirm that the debts were not canceled, but the interest only +lessened, which sufficiently pleased the people; so that they named this +benefit the Seisacthea, together with the enlarging their measures, and raising +the value of their money; for he made a pound, which before passed for +seventy-three drachmas, go for a hundred; so that, though the number of pieces +in the payment was equal, the value was less; which proved a considerable +benefit to those that were to discharge great debts, and no loss to the +creditors. But most agree that it was the taking off the debts that was called +Seisacthea, which is confirmed by some places in his poem, where he takes honor +to himself, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The mortgage-stones that covered her, by me<br/> +Removed, —the land that was a slave is free; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +that some who had been seized for their debts he had brought back from other +countries, where +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +—so far their lot to roam,<br/> +They had forgot the language of their home; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and some he had set at liberty,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Who here in shameful servitude were held. +</p> + +<p> +While he was designing this, a most vexatious thing happened; for when he had +resolved to take off the debts, and was considering the proper form and fit +beginning for it, he told some of his friends, Conon, Clinias, and Hipponicus, +in whom he had a great deal of confidence, that he would not meddle with the +lands, but only free the people from their debts; upon which, they, using their +advantage, made haste and borrowed some considerable sums of money, and +purchased some large farms; and when the law was enacted, they kept the +possessions, and would not return the money; which brought Solon into great +suspicion and dislike, as if he himself had not been abused, but was concerned +in the contrivance. But he presently stopped this suspicion, by releasing his +debtors of five talents (for he had lent so much), according to the law; +others, as Polyzelus the Rhodian, say fifteen; his friends, however, were ever +afterward called Chreocopidae, repudiators. +</p> + +<p> +In this he pleased neither party, for the rich were angry for their money, and +the poor that the land was not divided, and, as Lycurgus ordered in his +commonwealth, all men reduced to equality. He, it is true, being the eleventh +from Hercules, and having reigned many years in Lacedaemon, had got a great +reputation and friends and power, which he could use in modeling his state; +and, applying force more than persuasion, insomuch that he lost his eye in the +scuffle, was able to employ the most effectual means for the safety and harmony +of a state, by not permitting any to be poor or rich in his commonwealth. Solon +could not rise to that in his polity, being but a citizen of the middle +classes; yet he acted fully up to the height of his power, having nothing but +the good-will and good opinion of his citizens to rely on; and that he offended +the most part, who looked for another result, he declares in the words, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Formerly they boasted of me vainly; with averted eyes<br/> +Now they look askance upon me; friends no more, but enemies. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And yet had any other man, he says, received the same power, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He would not have forborne, nor let alone,<br/> +But made the fattest of the milk his own. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Soon, however, becoming sensible of the good that was done, they laid by their +grudges, made a public sacrifice, calling it Seisacthea, and chose Solon to +new-model and make laws for the commonwealth, giving him the entire power over +everything, their magistracies, their assemblies, courts, and councils; that he +should appoint the number, times of meeting, and what estate they must have +that could be capable of these, and dissolve or continue any of the present +constitutions, according to his pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +First, then, he repealed all Draco’s laws, except those concerning homicide, +because they were too severe, and the punishments too great; for death was +appointed for almost all offenses, insomuch that those that were convicted of +idleness were to die, and those that stole a cabbage or an apple to suffer even +as villains that committed sacrilege or murder. So that Demades, in after time, +was thought to have said very happily, that Draco’s laws were written not with +ink, but blood; and he himself, being once asked why he made death the +punishment of most offenses, replied, “Small ones deserve that, and I have no +higher for the greater crimes.” +</p> + +<p> +Next, Solon, being willing to continue the magistracies in the hands of the +rich men, and yet receive the people into the other part of the government, +took an account of the citizens’ estates, and those that were worth five +hundred measures of fruits, dry and liquid, he placed in the first rank, +calling them Pentacosiomedimni; those that could keep an horse, or were worth +three hundred measures, were named Hippada Teluntes, and made the second class; +the Zeugitae, that had two hundred measures, were in the third; and all the +others were called Thetes, who were not admitted to any office, but could come +to the assembly, and act as jurors; which at first seemed nothing, but +afterwards was found an enormous privilege, as almost every matter of dispute +came before them in this latter capacity. Even in the cases which he assigned +to the archons’ cognizance, he allowed an appeal to the courts. Besides, it is +said that he was obscure and ambiguous in the wording of his laws, on purpose +to increase the honor of his courts; for since their differences could not be +adjusted by the letter, they would have to bring all their causes to the +judges, who thus were in a manner masters of the laws. Of this equalization he +himself makes mention in this manner: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Such power I gave the people as might do,<br/> +Abridged not what they had, now lavished new.<br/> +Those that were great in wealth and high in place,<br/> +My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace.<br/> +Before them both I held my shield of might,<br/> +And let not either touch the other’s right. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And for the greater security of the weak commons, he gave general liberty of +indicting for an act of injury; if any one was beaten, maimed, or suffered any +violence, any man that would and was able, might prosecute the wrongdoer; +intending by this to accustom the citizens, like members of the same body, to +resent and be sensible of one another’s injuries. And there is a saying of his +agreeable to this law, for, being asked what city was best modeled, “That,” +said he, “where those that are not injured try and punish the unjust as much as +those that are.” +</p> + +<p> +When he had constituted the Areopagus of those who had been yearly archons, of +which he himself was a member therefore, observing that the people, now free +from their debts, were unsettled and imperious, he formed another council of +four hundred, a hundred out of each of the four tribes, which was to inspect +all matters before they were propounded to the people, and to take care that +nothing but what had been first examined should be brought before the general +assembly. The upper council, or Areopagus, he made inspectors and keepers of +the laws, conceiving that the commonwealth, held by these two councils, like +anchors, would be less liable to be tossed by tumults, and the people be more +at quiet. Such is the general statement, that Solon instituted the Areopagus; +which seems to be confirmed, because Draco makes no mention of the Areopagites, +but in all causes of blood refers to the Ephetae; yet Solon’s thirteenth table +contains the eighth law set down in these very words: “Whoever before Solon’s +archonship were disfranchised, let them be restored, except those that, being +condemned by the Areopagus, Ephetae, or in the Prytaneum by the kings, for +homicide, murder, or designs against the government, were in banishment when +this law was made;” and these words seem to show that the Areopagus existed +before Solon’s laws, for who could be condemned by that council before his +time, if he was the first that instituted the court? unless, which is probable, +there is some ellipsis, or want of precision, in the language, and it should +run thus, — “Those that are convicted of such offenses as belong to the +cognizance of the Areopagites, Ephetae, or the Prytanes, when this law was +made,” shall remain still in disgrace, whilst others are restored; of this the +reader must judge. +</p> + +<p> +Amongst his other laws, one is very peculiar and surprising, which +disfranchises all who stand neuter in a sedition; for it seems he would not +have any one remain insensible and regardless of the public good, and, securing +his private affairs, glory that he has no feeling of the distempers of his +country; but at once join with the good party and those that have the right +upon their side, assist and venture with them, rather than keep out of harm’s +way and watch who would get the better. It seems an absurd and foolish law +which permits an heiress, if her lawful husband fail her, to take his nearest +kinsman; yet some say this law was well contrived against those, who, conscious +of their own unfitness, yet, for the sake of the portion, would match with +heiresses, and make use of law to put a violence upon nature; for now, since +she can quit him for whom she pleases, they would either abstain from such +marriages, or continue them with disgrace, and suffer for their covetousness +and designed affront; it is well done, moreover, to confine her to her +husband’s nearest kinsman, that the children may be of the same family. +Agreeable to this is the law that the bride and bridegroom shall be shut into a +chamber, and eat a quince together; and that the husband of an heiress shall +consort with her thrice a month; for though there be no children, yet it is an +honor and due affection which an husband ought to pay to a virtuous, chaste +wife; it takes off all petty differences, and will not permit their little +quarrels to proceed to a rupture. +</p> + +<p> +In all other marriages he forbade dowries to be given; the wife was to have +three suits of clothes, a little inconsiderable household stuff, and that was +all; for he would not have marriages contracted for gain or an estate, but for +pure love, kind affection, and birth of children. When the mother of Dionysius +desired him to marry her to one of his citizens, “Indeed,” said he, “by my +tyranny I have broken my country’s laws, but cannot put a violence upon those +of nature by an unseasonable marriage.” Such disorder is never to be suffered +in a commonwealth, nor such unseasonable and unloving and unperforming +marriages, which attain no due end or fruit; any provident governor or lawgiver +might say to an old man that takes a young wife what is said to Philoctetes in +the tragedy,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Truly, in a fit state thou to marry! +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and if he finds a young man, with a rich and elderly wife, growing fat in his +place, like the partridges, remove him to a young woman of proper age. And of +this enough. +</p> + +<p> +Another commendable law of Solon’s is that which forbids men to speak evil of +the dead; for it is pious to think the deceased sacred, and just, not to meddle +with those that are gone, and politic, to prevent the perpetuity of discord. He +likewise forbade them to speak evil of the living in the temples, the courts of +justice, the public offices, or at the games, or else to pay three drachmas to +the person, and two to the public. For never to be able to control passion +shows a weak nature and ill-breeding; and always to moderate it is very hard, +and to some impossible. And laws must look to possibilities, if the maker +designs to punish few in order to their amendment, and not many to no purpose. +</p> + +<p> +He is likewise much commended for his law concerning wills; for before him none +could be made, but all the wealth and estate of the deceased belonged to his +family; but he, by permitting them, if they had no children, to bestow it on +whom they pleased, showed that he esteemed friendship a stronger tie than +kindred, and affection than necessity; and made every man’s estate truly his +own. Yet he allowed not all sorts of legacies, but those only which were not +extorted by the frenzy of a disease, charms, imprisonment, force, or the +persuasions of a wife; with good reason thinking that being seduced into wrong +was as bad as being forced, and that between deceit and necessity, flattery and +compulsion, there was little difference, since both may equally suspend the +exercise of reason. +</p> + +<p> +He regulated the walks, feasts, and mourning of the women, and took away +everything that was either unbecoming or immodest; when they walked abroad, no +more than three articles of dress were allowed them; an obol’s worth of meat +and drink; and no basket above a cubit high; and at night they were not to go +about unless in a chariot with a torch before them. Mourners tearing themselves +to raise pity, and set wailings, and at one man’s funeral to lament for +another, he forbade. To offer an ox at the grave was not permitted, nor to bury +above three pieces of dress with the body, or visit the tombs of any besides +their own family, unless at the very funeral; most of which are likewise +forbidden by our laws, but this is further added in ours, that those that are +convicted of extravagance in their mournings, are to be punished as soft and +effeminate by the censors of women. +</p> + +<p> +Observing the city to be filled with persons that flocked from all parts into +Attica for security of living, and that most of the country was barren and +unfruitful, and that traders at sea import nothing to those that could give +them nothing in exchange, he turned his citizens to trade, and made a law that +no son should be obliged to relieve a father who had not bred him up to any +calling. It is true, Lycurgus, having a city free from all strangers, and land, +according to Euripides, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Large for large hosts, for twice their number much, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and, above all, an abundance of laborers about Sparta, who should not be left +idle, but be kept down with continual toil and work, did well to take off his +citizens from laborious and mechanical occupations, and keep them to their +arms, and teach them only the art of war. But Solon, fitting his laws to the +state of things, and not making things to suit his laws, and finding the ground +scarce rich enough to maintain the husbandmen, and altogether incapable of +feeding an unoccupied and leisurely multitude, brought trades into credit, and +ordered the Areopagites to examine how every man got his living, and chastise +the idle. But that law was yet more rigid which, as Heraclides Ponticus +delivers, declared the sons of unmarried mothers not obliged to relieve their +fathers; for he that avoids the honorable form of union shows that he does not +take a woman for children, but for pleasure, and thus gets his just reward, and +has taken away from himself every title to upbraid his children, to whom he has +made their very birth a scandal and reproach. +</p> + +<p> +Solon’s laws in general about women are his strangest; for he permitted any one +to kill an adulterer that found him in the act; but if any one forced a free +woman, a hundred drachmas was the fine; if he enticed her, twenty; except those +that sell themselves openly, that is, harlots, who go openly to those that hire +them. He made it unlawful to sell a daughter or a sister, unless, being yet +unmarried, she was found wanton. Now it is irrational to punish the same crime +sometimes very severely and without remorse, and sometimes very lightly, and, +as it were, in sport, with a trivial fine; unless, there being little money +then in Athens, scarcity made those mulcts the more grievous punishment. In the +valuation for sacrifices, a sheep and a bushel were both estimated at a +drachma; the victor in the Isthmian games was to have for reward a hundred +drachmas; the conqueror in the Olympian, five hundred; he that brought a wolf, +five drachmas; for a whelp, one; the former sum, as Demetrius the Phalerian +asserts, was the value of an ox, the latter, of a sheep. The prices which +Solon, in his sixteenth table, sets on choice victims, were naturally far +greater; yet they, too, are very low in comparison of the present. The +Athenians were, from the beginning, great enemies to wolves, their fields being +better for pasture than corn. Some affirm their tribes did not take their names +from the sons of Ion, but from the different sorts of occupation that they +followed; the soldiers were called Hoplitae, the craftsmen Ergades, and, of the +remaining two, the farmers Gedeontes, and the shepherds and graziers Aegicores. +</p> + +<p> +Since the country has but few rivers, lakes, or large springs, and many used +wells which they had dug, there was a law made, that, where there was a public +well within a hippicon, that is, four furlongs, all should draw at that; but, +when it was farther off, they should try and procure a well of their own; and, +if they had dug ten fathom deep and could find no water, they had liberty to +fetch a pitcherful of four gallons and a half in a day from their neighbors’; +for he thought it prudent to make provision against want, but not to supply +laziness. He showed skill in his orders about planting, for any one that would +plant another tree was not to set it within five feet of his neighbor’s field; +but if a fig or an olive, not within nine; for their roots spread farther, nor +can they be planted near all sorts of trees without damage, for they draw away +the nourishment, and in some cases are noxious by their effluvia. He that would +dig a pit or a ditch was to dig it at the distance of its own depth from his +neighbor’s ground; and he that would raise stocks of bees was not to place them +within three hundred feet of those which another had already raised. +</p> + +<p> +He permitted only oil to be exported, and those that exported any other fruit, +the archon was solemnly to curse, or else pay an hundred drachmas himself; and +this law was written in his first table, and, therefore, let none think it +incredible, as some affirm, that the exportation of figs was once unlawful, and +the informer against the delinquents called a sycophant. He made a law, also, +concerning hurts and injuries from beasts, in which he commands the master of +any dog that bit a man to deliver him up with a log about his neck, four and a +half feet long; a happy device for men’s security. The law concerning +naturalizing strangers is of doubtful character; he permitted only those to be +made free of Athens who were in perpetual exile from their own country, or came +with their whole family to trade there; this he did, not to discourage +strangers, but rather to invite them to a permanent participation in the +privileges of the government; and, besides, he thought those would prove the +more faithful citizens who had been forced from their own country, or +voluntarily forsook it. The law of public entertainment (parasitein is his name +for it) is, also, peculiarly Solon’s, for if any man came often, or if he that +was invited refused, they were punished, for he concluded that one was greedy, +the other a contemner of the state. +</p> + +<p> +All his laws he established for an hundred years, and wrote them on wooden +tables or rollers, named axones, which might be turned round in oblong cases; +some of their relics were in my time still to be seen in the Prytaneum, or +common hall, at Athens. These, as Aristotle states, were called cyrbes, and +there is a passage of Cratinus the comedian, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +By Solon, and by Draco, if you please,<br/> +Whose Cyrbes make the fires that parch our peas. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But some say those are properly cyrbes, which contain laws concerning +sacrifices and the rites of religion, and all the others axones. The council +all jointly swore to confirm the laws, and every one of the Thesmothetae vowed +for himself at the stone in the marketplace, that, if he broke any of the +statutes, he would dedicate a golden statue, as big as himself, at Delphi. +</p> + +<p> +Observing the irregularity of the months, and that the moon does not always +rise and set with the sun, but often in the same day overtakes and gets before +him, he ordered the day should be named the Old and New, attributing that part +of it which was before the conjunction to the old moon, and the rest to the +new, he being the first, it seems, that understood that verse of Homer, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The end and the beginning of the month, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and the following day he called the new moon. After the twentieth he did not +count by addition, but, like the moon itself in its wane, by subtraction; thus +up to the thirtieth. +</p> + +<p> +Now when these laws were enacted, and some came to Solon every day, to commend +or dispraise them, and to advise, if possible, to leave out, or put in +something, and many criticized, and desired him to explain, and tell the +meaning of such and such a passage, he, knowing that to do it was useless, and +not to do it would get him ill-will, and desirous to bring himself out of all +straits, and to escape all displeasure and exceptions, it being a hard thing, +as he himself says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In great affairs to satisfy all sides, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +as an excuse for traveling, bought a trading vessel, and, having obtained leave +for ten years’ absence, departed, hoping that by that time his laws would have +become familiar. +</p> + +<p> +His first voyage was for Egypt, and he lived, as he himself says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Near Nilus’ mouth, by fair Canopus’ shore, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and spent some time in study with Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis the +Saite, the most learned of all the priests; from whom, as Plato says, getting +knowledge of the Atlantic story, he put it into a poem, and proposed to bring +it to the knowledge of the Greeks. From thence he sailed to Cyprus, where he +was made much of by Philocyprus, one of the kings there, who had a small city +built by Demophon, Theseus’s son, near the river Clarius, in a strong +situation, but incommodious and uneasy of access. Solon persuaded him, since +there lay a fair plain below, to remove, and build there a pleasanter and more +spacious city. And he stayed himself, and assisted in gathering inhabitants, +and in fitting it both for defense and convenience of living; insomuch that +many flocked to Philocyprus, and the other kings imitated the design; and, +therefore, to honor Solon, he called the city Soli, which was formerly named +Aepea. And Solon himself, in his Elegies, addressing Philocyprus, mentions this +foundation in these words— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Long may you live, and fill the Solian throne,<br/> +Succeeded still by children of your own;<br/> +And from your happy island while I sail,<br/> +Let Cyprus send for me a favoring gale;<br/> +May she advance, and bless your new command,<br/> +Prosper your town, and send me safe to land. +</p> + +<p> +That Solon should discourse with Croesus, some think not agreeable with +chronology; but I cannot reject so famous and well-attested a narrative, and, +what is more, so agreeable to Solon’s temper, and so worthy his wisdom and +greatness of mind, because, forsooth, it does not agree with some chronological +canons, which thousands have endeavored to regulate, and yet, to this day, +could never bring their differing opinions to any agreement. They say, +therefore, that Solon, coming to Croesus at his request, was in the same +condition as an inland man when first he goes to see the sea; for as he fancies +every river he meets with to be the ocean, so Solon, as he passed through the +court, and saw a great many nobles richly dressed, and proudly attended with a +multitude of guards and footboys, thought every one had been the king, till he +was brought to Croesus, who was decked with every possible rarity and +curiosity, in ornaments of jewels, purple, and gold, that could make a grand +and gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when Solon came before him, and seemed not +at all surprised, nor gave Croesus those compliments he expected, but showed +himself to all discerning eyes to be a man that despised the gaudiness and +petty ostentation of it, he commanded them to open all his treasure houses, and +carry him to see his sumptuous furniture and luxuries though he did not wish +it; Solon could judge of him well enough by the first sight of him; and, when +he returned from viewing all, Croesus asked him if ever he had known a happier +man than he. And when Solon answered that he had known one Tellus, a +fellow-citizen of his own, and told him that this Tellus had been an honest +man, had had good children, a competent estate, and died bravely in battle for +his country, Croesus took him for an ill-bred fellow and a fool, for not +measuring happiness by the abundance of gold and silver, and preferring the +life and death of a private and mean man before so much power and empire. He +asked him, however, again, if, besides Tellus, he knew any other man more +happy. And Solon replying, Yes, Cleobis and Biton, who were loving brothers, +and extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and, when the oxen delayed her, +harnessed themselves to the wagon, and drew her to Juno’s temple, her neighbors +all calling her happy, and she herself rejoicing; then, after sacrificing and +feasting, they went to rest, and never rose again, but died in the midst of +their honor a painless and tranquil death, “What,” said Croesus, angrily, “and +dost not thou reckon us amongst the happy men at all?” Solon, unwilling either +to flatter or exasperate him more, replied, “The gods, O king, have given the +Greeks all other gifts in moderate degree; and so our wisdom, too, is a +cheerful and a homely, not a noble and kingly wisdom; and this, observing the +numerous misfortunes that attend all conditions, forbids us to grow insolent +upon our present enjoyments, or to admire any man’s happiness that may yet, in +course of time, suffer change. For the uncertain future has yet to come, with +every possible variety of fortune; and him only to whom the divinity has +continued happiness unto the end, we call happy; to salute as happy one that is +still in the midst of life and hazard, we think as little safe and conclusive +as to crown and proclaim as victorious the wrestler that is yet in the ring.” +After this, he was dismissed, having given Croesus some pain, but no +instruction. +</p> + +<p> +Aesop, who wrote the fables, being then at Sardis upon Croesus’s invitation, +and very much esteemed, was concerned that Solon was so ill- received, and gave +him this advice: “Solon, let your converse with kings be either short or +seasonable.” “Nay, rather,” replied Solon, “either short or reasonable.” So at +this time Croesus despised Solon; but when he was overcome by Cyrus, had lost +his city, was taken alive, condemned to be burnt, and laid bound upon the pile +before all the Persians and Cyrus himself, he cried out as loud as possibly he +could three times, “O Solon!” and Cyrus being surprised, and sending some to +inquire what man or god this Solon was, whom alone he invoked in this +extremity, Croesus told him the whole story, saying, “He was one of the wise +men of Greece, whom I sent for, not to be instructed, or to learn any thing +that I wanted, but that he should see and be a witness of my happiness; the +loss of which was, it seems, to be a greater evil than the enjoyment was a +good; for when I had them they were goods only in opinion, but now the loss of +them has brought upon me intolerable and real evils. And he, conjecturing from +what then was, this that now is, bade me look to the end of my life, and not +rely and grow proud upon uncertainties.” When this was told Cyrus, who was a +wiser man than Croesus, and saw in the present example Solon’s maxim confirmed, +he not only freed Croesus from punishment, but honored him as long as he lived; +and Solon had the glory, by the same saying, to save one king and instruct +another. +</p> + +<p> +When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus headed the Plain; +Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those to the Sea-side; and Pisistratus the +Hill-party, in which were the poorest people, the Thetes, and greatest enemies +to the rich; insomuch that, though the city still used the new laws, yet all +looked for and desired a change of government, hoping severally that the change +would be better for them, and put them above the contrary faction. Affairs +standing thus, Solon returned, and was reverenced by all, and honored; but his +old age would not permit him to be as active, and to speak in public, as +formerly; yet, by privately conferring with the heads of the factions, he +endeavored to compose the differences, Pisistratus appearing the most +tractable; for he was extremely smooth and engaging in his language, a great +friend to the poor, and moderate in his resentments; and what nature had not +given him, he had the skill to imitate; so that he was trusted more than the +others, being accounted a prudent and orderly man, one that loved equality, and +would be an enemy to any that moved against the present settlement. Thus he +deceived the majority of people; but Solon quickly discovered his character, +and found out his design before any one else; yet did not hate him upon this, +but endeavored to humble him, and bring him off from his ambition, and often +told him and others, that if any one could banish the passion for preeminence +from his mind, and cure him of his desire of absolute power, none would make a +more virtuous man or a more excellent citizen. Thespis, at this time, beginning +to act tragedies, and the thing, because it was new, taking very much with the +multitude, though it was not yet made a matter of competition, Solon, being by +nature fond of hearing and learning something new, and now, in his old age, +living idly, and enjoying himself, indeed, with music and with wine, went to +see Thespis himself, as the ancient custom was, act; and after the play was +done, he addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many +lies before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm +to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the ground: +“Ay,” said he, “if we honor and commend such play as this, we shall find it +some day in our business.” +</p> + +<p> +Now when Pisistratus, having wounded himself, was brought into the marketplace +in a chariot, and stirred up the people, as if he had been thus treated by his +opponents because of his political conduct, and a great many were enraged and +cried out, Solon, coming close to him, said, “This, O son of Hippocrates, is a +bad copy of Homer’s Ulysses; you do, to trick your countrymen, what he did to +deceive his enemies.” After this, the people were eager to protect Pisistratus, +and met in an assembly, where one Ariston making a motion that they should +allow Pisistratus fifty clubmen for a guard to his person, Solon opposed it, +and said, much to the same purport as what he has left us in his poems, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +You dote upon his words and taking phrase; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and again,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +True, you are singly each a crafty soul,<br/> +But all together make one empty fool. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But observing the poor men bent to gratify Pisistratus, and tumultuous, and the +rich fearful and getting out of harm’s way, he departed, saying he was wiser +than some and stouter than others; wiser than those that did not understand the +design, stouter than those that, though they understood it, were afraid to +oppose the tyranny. Now, the people, having passed the law, were not nice with +Pisistratus about the number of his clubmen, but took no notice of it, though +he enlisted and kept as many as he would, until he seized the Acropolis. When +that was done, and the city in an uproar, Megacles, with all his family, at +once fled; but Solon, though he was now very old, and had none to back him, yet +came into the marketplace and made a speech to the citizens, partly blaming +their inadvertency and meanness of spirit, and in part urging and exhorting +them not thus tamely to lose their liberty; and likewise then spoke that +memorable saying, that, before, it was an easier task to stop the rising +tyranny, but now the greater and more glorious action to destroy it, when it +was begun already, and had gathered strength. But all being afraid to side with +him, he returned home, and, taking his arms, he brought them out and laid them +in the porch before his door, with these words: “I have done my part to +maintain my country and my laws,” and then he busied himself no more. His +friends advising him to fly, he refused; but wrote poems, and thus reproached +the Athenians in them,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +If now you suffer, do not blame the Powers,<br/> +For they are good, and all the fault was ours.<br/> +All the strongholds you put into his hands,<br/> +And now his slaves must do what he commands. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And many telling him that the tyrant would take his life for this, and asking +what he trusted to, that he ventured to speak so boldly, he replied, “To my old +age.” But Pisistratus, having got the command, so extremely courted Solon, so +honored him, obliged him, and sent to see him, that Solon gave him his advice, +and approved many of his actions; for he retained most of Solon’s laws, +observed them himself, and compelled his friends to obey. And he himself, +though already absolute ruler, being accused of murder before the Areopagus, +came quietly to clear himself; but his accuser did not appear. And he added +other laws, one of which is that the maimed in the wars should be maintained at +the public charge; this Heraclides Ponticus records, and that Pisistratus +followed Solon’s example in this, who had decreed it in the case of one +Thersippus, that was maimed; and Theophrastus asserts that it was Pisistratus, +not Solon, that made that law against laziness, which was the reason that the +country was more productive, and the city tranquiller. +</p> + +<p> +Now Solon, having begun the great work in verse, the history or fable of the +Atlantic Island, which he had learned from the wise men in Sais, and thought +convenient for the Athenians to know, abandoned it; not, as Plato says, by +reason of want of time, but because of his age, and being discouraged at the +greatness of the task; for that he had leisure enough, such verses testify, as +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Each day grow older, and learn something new +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and again,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But now the Powers of Beauty, Song, and Wine,<br/> +Which are most men’s delights, are also mine. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Plato, willing to improve the story of the Atlantic Island, as if it were a +fair estate that wanted an heir and came with some title to him, formed, +indeed, stately entrances, noble enclosures, large courts, such as never yet +introduced any story, fable, or poetic fiction; but, beginning it late, ended +his life before his work; and the reader’s regret for the unfinished part is +the greater, as the satisfaction he takes in that which is complete is +extraordinary. For as the city of Athens left only the temple of Jupiter +Olympius unfinished, so Plato, amongst all his excellent works, left this only +piece about the Atlantic Island imperfect. Solon lived after Pisistratus seized +the government, as Heraclides Ponticus asserts, a long time; but Phanias the +Eresian says not two full years; for Pisistratus began his tyranny when Comias +was archon, and Phanias says Solon died under Hegestratus, who succeeded +Comias. The story that his ashes were scattered about the island Salamis is too +strange to be easily believed, or be thought anything but a mere fable; and yet +it is given, amongst other good authors, by Aristotle, the philosopher. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap08"></a>POPLICOLA</h2> + +<p> +Such was Solon. To him we compare Poplicola, who received this later title from +the Roman people for his merit, as a noble accession to his former name, +Publius Valerius. He descended from Valerius, a man amongst the early citizens, +reputed the principal reconciler of the differences betwixt the Romans and +Sabines, and one that was most instrumental in persuading their kings to assent +to peace and union. Thus descended, Publius Valerius, as it is said, whilst +Rome remained under its kingly government, obtained as great a name from his +eloquence as from his riches, charitably employing the one in liberal aid to +the poor, the other with integrity and freedom in the service of justice; +thereby giving assurance, that, should the government fall into a republic, he +would become a chief man in the community. The illegal and wicked accession of +Tarquinius Superbus to the crown, with his making it, instead of kingly rule, +the instrument of insolence and tyranny, having inspired the people with a +hatred to his reign, upon the death of Lucretia (she killing herself after +violence had been done to her), they took an occasion of revolt; and Lucius +Brutus, engaging in the change, came to Valerius before all others, and, with +his zealous assistance, deposed the kings. And whilst the people inclined +towards the electing one leader instead of their king, Valerius acquiesced, +that to rule was rather Brutus’s due, as the author of the democracy. But when +the name of monarchy was odious to the people, and a divided power appeared +more grateful in the prospect, and two were chosen to hold it, Valerius, +entertaining hopes that he might be elected consul with Brutus, was +disappointed; for, instead of Valerius, notwithstanding the endeavors of +Brutus, Tarquinius Collatinus was chosen, the husband of Lucretia, a man noways +his superior in merit. But the nobles, dreading the return of their kings, who +still used all endeavors abroad and solicitations at home, were resolved upon a +chieftain of an intense hatred to them, and noways likely to yield. +</p> + +<p> +Now Valerius was troubled, that his desire to serve his country should be +doubted, because he had sustained no private injury from the insolence of the +tyrants. He withdrew from the senate and practice of the bar, quitting all +public concerns; which gave an occasion of discourse, and fear, too, lest his +anger should reconcile him to the king’s side, and he should prove the ruin of +the state, tottering as yet under the uncertainties of a change. But Brutus +being doubtful of some others, and determining to give the test to the senate +upon the altars, upon the day appointed Valerius came with cheerfulness into +the forum, and was the first man that took the oath, in no way to submit or +yield to Tarquin’s propositions, but rigorously to maintain liberty; which gave +great satisfaction to the senate and assurance to the consuls, his actions soon +after showing the sincerity of his oath. For ambassadors came from Tarquin, +with popular and specious proposals, whereby they thought to seduce the people, +as though the king had cast off all insolence, and made moderation the only +measure of his desires. To this embassy the consuls thought fit to give public +audience, but Valerius opposed it, and would not permit that the poorer people, +who entertained more fear of war than of tyranny, should have any occasion +offered them, or any temptations to new designs. Afterwards other ambassadors +arrived, who declared their king would recede from his crown, and lay down his +arms, only capitulating for a restitution to himself, his friends, and allies, +of their moneys and estates to support them in their banishment. Now, several +inclining to the request, and Collatinus in particular favoring it, Brutus, a +man of vehement and unbending nature, rushed into the forum, there proclaiming +his fellow- consul to be a traitor, in granting subsidies to tyranny, and +supplies for a war to those to whom it was monstrous to allow so much as +subsistence in exile. This caused an assembly of the citizens, amongst whom the +first that spake was Caius Minucius, a private man, who advised Brutus, and +urged the Romans to keep the property, and employ it against the tyrants, +rather than to remit it to the tyrants, to be used against themselves. The +Romans, however, decided that whilst they enjoyed the liberty they had fought +for, they should not sacrifice peace for the sake of money, but send out the +tyrants’ property after them. This question, however, of his property, was the +least part of Tarquin’s design; the demand sounded the feelings of the people, +and was preparatory to a conspiracy which the ambassadors endeavored to excite, +delaying their return, under pretense of selling some of the goods and +reserving others to be sent away, till, in fine, they corrupted two of the most +eminent families in Rome, the Aquillian, which had three, and the Vitellian, +which had two senators. These all were, by the mother’s side, nephews to +Collatinus; besides which Brutus had a special alliance to the Vitellii from +his marriage with their sister, by whom he had several children; two of whom, +of their own age, their near relations and daily companions, the Vitellii +seduced to join in the plot, to ally themselves to the great house and royal +hopes of the Tarquins, and gain emancipation from the violence and imbecility +united of their father, whose austerity to offenders they termed violence, +while the imbecility which he had long feigned, to protect himself from the +tyrants, still, it appears, was, in name at least, ascribed to him. When upon +these inducements the youths came to confer with the Aquillii, all thought it +convenient to bind themselves in a solemn and dreadful oath, by tasting the +blood of a murdered man, and touching his entrails. For which design they met +at the house of the Aquillii. The building chosen for the transaction was, as +was natural, dark and unfrequented, and a slave named Vindicius had, as it +chanced, concealed himself there, not out of design or any intelligence of the +affair, but, accidentally being within, seeing with how much haste and concern +they came in, he was afraid to be discovered, and placed himself behind a +chest, where he was able to observe their actions and overhear their debates. +Their resolutions were to kill the consuls, and they wrote letters to Tarquin +to this effect, and gave them to the ambassadors, who were lodging upon the +spot with the Aquillii, and were present at the consultation. +</p> + +<p> +Upon their departure, Vindicius secretly quitted the house, but was at a loss +what to do in the matter, for to arraign the sons before the father Brutus, or +the nephews before the uncle Collatinus, seemed equally (as indeed it was) +shocking; yet he knew no private Roman to whom he could entrust secrets of such +importance. Unable, however, to keep silence, and burdened with his knowledge, +he went and addressed himself to Valerius, whose known freedom and kindness of +temper were an inducement; as he was a person to whom the needy had easy +access, and who never shut his gates against the petitions or indigences of +humble people. But when Vindicius came and made a complete discovery to him, +his brother Marcus and his own wife being present, Valerius was struck with +amazement, and by no means would dismiss the discoverer, but confined him to +the room, and placed his wife as a guard to the door, sending his brother in +the interim to beset the king’s palace, and seize, if possible, the writings +there, and secure the domestics, whilst he, with his constant attendance of +clients and friends, and a great retinue of attendants, repaired to the house +of the Aquillii, who were, as it chanced, absent from home; and so, forcing an +entrance through the gates, they lit upon the letters then lying in the +lodgings of the ambassadors. Meantime the Aquillii returned in all haste, and, +coming to blows about the gate, endeavored a recovery of the letters. The other +party made a resistance, and, throwing their gowns round their opponents’ +necks, at last, after much struggling on both sides, made their way with their +prisoners through the streets into the forum. The like engagement happened +about the king’s palace, where Marcus seized some other letters which it was +designed should be conveyed away in the goods, and, laying hands on such of the +king’s people as he could find, dragged them also into the forum. When the +consuls had quieted the tumult, Vindicius was brought out by the orders of +Valerius, and the accusation stated, and the letters were opened, to which the +traitors could make no plea. Most of the people standing mute and sorrowful, +some only, out of kindness to Brutus, mentioning banishment, the tears of +Collatinus, attended with Valerius’s silence, gave some hopes of mercy. But +Brutus, calling his two sons by their names, “Canst not thou,” said he, “O +Titus, or thou, Tiberius, make any defense against the indictment?” The +question being thrice proposed, and no reply made, he turned himself to the +lictors, and cried, “What remains is your duty.” They immediately seized the +youths, and, stripping them of their clothes, bound their hands behind them, +and scourged their bodies with their rods; too tragical a scene for others to +look at; Brutus, however, is said not to have turned aside his face, nor +allowed the least glance of pity to soften and smooth his aspect of rigor and +austerity; but sternly watched his children suffer, even till the lictors, +extending them on the ground, cut off their heads with an axe; then departed, +committing the rest to the judgment of his colleague. An action truly open +alike to the highest commendation and the strongest censure; for either the +greatness of his virtue raised him above the impressions of sorrow, or the +extravagance of his misery took away all sense of it; but neither seemed +common, or the result of humanity, but either divine or brutish. Yet it is more +reasonable that our judgment should yield to his reputation, than that his +merit should suffer detraction by the weakness of our judgment; in the Romans’ +opinion, Brutus did a greater work in the establishment of the government than +Romulus in the foundation of the city. +</p> + +<p> +Upon Brutus’s departure out of the forum, consternation, horror, and silence +for some time possessed all that reflected on what was done; the easiness and +tardiness, however, of Collatinus, gave confidence to the Aquillii to request +some time to answer their charge, and that Vindicius, their servant, should be +remitted into their hands, and no longer harbored amongst their accusers. The +consul seemed inclined to their proposal, and was proceeding to dissolve the +assembly; but Valerius would not suffer Vindicius, who was surrounded by his +people, to be surrendered, nor the meeting to withdraw without punishing the +traitors; and at length laid violent hands upon the Aquillii, and, calling +Brutus to his assistance, exclaimed against the unreasonable course of +Collatinus, to impose upon his colleague the necessity of taking away the lives +of his own sons, and yet have thoughts of gratifying some women with the lives +of traitors and public enemies. Collatinus, displeased at this, and commanding +Vindicius to be taken away, the lictors made their way through the crowd and +seized their man, and struck all who endeavored a rescue. Valerius’s friends +headed the resistance, and the people cried out for Brutus, who, returning, on +silence being made, told them he had been competent to pass sentence by himself +upon his own sons, but left the rest to the suffrages of the free citizens: +“Let every man speak that wishes, and persuade whom he can.” But there was no +need of oratory, for, it being referred to the vote, they were returned +condemned by all the suffrages, and were accordingly beheaded. +</p> + +<p> +Collatinus’s relationship to the kings had, indeed, already rendered him +suspicious, and his second name, too, had made him obnoxious to the people, who +were loath to hear the very sound of Tarquin; but after this had happened, +perceiving himself an offense to every one, he relinquished his charge and +departed from the city. At the new elections in his room, Valerius obtained, +with high honor, the consulship, as a just reward of his zeal; of which he +thought Vindicius deserved a share, whom he made, first of all freedmen, a +citizen of Rome, and gave him the privilege of voting in what tribe soever he +was pleased to be enrolled; other freedmen received the right of suffrage a +long time after from Appius, who thus courted popularity; and from this +Vindicius, a perfect manumission is called to this day vindicta. This done, the +goods of the kings were exposed to plunder, and the palace to ruin. +</p> + +<p> +The pleasantest part of the field of Mars, which Tarquin had owned, was devoted +to the service of that god; it happening to be harvest season, and the sheaves +yet being on the ground, they thought it not proper to commit them to the +flail, or unsanctify them with any use; and, therefore, carrying them to the +river side, and trees withal that were cut down, they cast all into the water, +dedicating the soil, free from all occupation, to the deity. Now, these thrown +in, one upon another, and closing together, the stream did not bear them far, +but where the first were carried down and came to a bottom, the remainder, +finding no farther conveyance, were stopped and interwoven one with another; +the stream working the mass into a firmness, and washing down fresh mud. This, +settling there, became an accession of matter, as well as cement, to the +rubbish, insomuch that the violence of the waters could not remove it, but +forced and compressed it all together. Thus its bulk and solidity gained it new +subsidies, which gave it extension enough to stop on its way most of what the +stream brought down. This is now a sacred island, lying by the city, adorned +with temples of the gods, and walks, and is called in the Latin tongue inter +duos pontes. Though some say this did not happen at the dedication of Tarquin’s +field, but in after- times, when Tarquinia, a vestal priestess, gave an +adjacent field to the public, and obtained great honors in consequence, as, +amongst the rest, that of all women her testimony alone should be received; she +had also the liberty to marry, but refused it; thus some tell the story. +</p> + +<p> +Tarquin, despairing of a return to his kingdom by the conspiracy, found a kind +reception amongst the Tuscans, who, with a great army, proceeded to restore +him. The consuls headed the Romans against them, and made their rendezvous in +certain holy places, the one called the Arsian grove, the other the Aesuvian +meadow. When they came into action, Aruns, the son of Tarquin, and Brutus, the +Roman consul, not accidentally encountering each other, but out of hatred and +rage, the one to avenge tyranny and enmity to his country, the other his +banishment, set spurs to their horses, and, engaging with more fury than +forethought, disregarding their own security, fell together in the combat. This +dreadful onset hardly was followed by a more favorable end; both armies, doing +and receiving equal damage, were separated by a storm. Valerius was much +concerned, not knowing what the result of the day was, and seeing his men as +well dismayed at the sight of their own dead, as rejoiced at the loss of the +enemy; so apparently equal in the number was the slaughter on either side. Each +party, however, felt surer of defeat from the actual sight of their own dead, +than they could feel of victory from conjecture about those of their +adversaries. The night being come (and such as one may presume must follow such +a battle), and the armies laid to rest, they say that the grove shook, and +uttered a voice, saying that the Tuscans had lost one man more than the Romans; +clearly a divine announcement; and the Romans at once received it with shouts +and expressions of joy; whilst the Tuscans, through fear and amazement, +deserted their tents, and were for the most part dispersed. The Romans, falling +upon the remainder, amounting to nearly five thousand, took them prisoners, and +plundered the camp; when they numbered the dead, they found on the Tuscans’ +side eleven thousand and three hundred, exceeding their own loss but by one +man. This fight happened upon the last day of February, and Valerius triumphed +in honor of it, being the first consul that drove in with a four-horse chariot; +which sight both appeared magnificent, and was received with an admiration free +from envy or offense (as some suggest) on the part of the spectators; it would +not otherwise have been continued with so much eagerness and emulation through +all the after ages. The people applauded likewise the honors he did to his +colleague, in adding to his obsequies a funeral oration; which was so much +liked by the Romans, and found so good a reception, that it became customary +for the best men to celebrate the funerals of great citizens with speeches in +their commendation; and their antiquity in Rome is affirmed to be greater than +in Greece, unless, with the orator Anaximenes, we make Solon the first author. +</p> + +<p> +Yet some part of Valerius’s behavior did give offense and disgust to the +people, because Brutus, whom they esteemed the father of their liberty, had not +presumed to rule without a colleague, but united one and then another to him in +his commission; while Valerius, they said, centering all authority in himself, +seemed not in any sense a successor to Brutus in the consulship, but to Tarquin +in the tyranny; he might make verbal harangues to Brutus’s memory, yet, when he +was attended with all the rods and axes, proceeding down from a house than +which the king’s house that he had demolished had not been statelier, those +actions showed him an imitator of Tarquin. For, indeed, his dwelling house on +the Velia was somewhat imposing in appearance, hanging over the forum, and +overlooking all transactions there; the access to it was hard, and to see him +far of coming down, a stately and royal spectacle. But Valerius showed how well +it were for men in power and great offices to have ears that give admittance to +truth before flattery; for upon his friends telling him that he displeased the +people, he contended not, neither resented it, but while it was still night, +sending for a number of workpeople, pulled down his house and leveled it with +the ground; so that in the morning the people, seeing and flocking together, +expressed their wonder and their respect for his magnanimity, and their sorrow, +as though it had been a human being, for the large and beautiful house which +was thus lost to them by an unfounded jealousy, while its owner, their consul, +without a roof of his own, had to beg a lodging with his friends. For his +friends received him, till a place the people gave him was furnished with a +house, though less stately than his own, where now stands the temple, as it is +called, of Vica Pota. +</p> + +<p> +He resolved to render the government, as well as himself, instead of terrible, +familiar and pleasant to the people, and parted the axes from the rods, and +always, upon his entrance into the assembly, lowered these also to the people, +to show, in the strongest way, the republican foundation of the government; and +this the consuls observe to this day. But the humility of the man was but a +means, not, as they thought, of lessening himself, but merely to abate their +envy by this moderation; for whatever he detracted from his authority he added +to his real power, the people still submitting with satisfaction, which they +expressed by calling him Poplicola, or people-lover, which name had the +preeminence of the rest, and, therefore, in the sequel of this narrative we +shall use no other. +</p> + +<p> +He gave free leave to any to sue for the consulship; but before the admittance +of a colleague, mistrusting the chances, lest emulation or ignorance should +cross his designs, by his sole authority enacted his best and most important +measures. First, he supplied the vacancies of the senators, whom either Tarquin +long before had put to death, or the war lately cut off; those that he +enrolled, they write, amounted to a hundred and sixty-four; afterwards he made +several laws which added much to the people’s liberty, in particular one +granting offenders the liberty of appealing to the people from the judgment of +the consuls; a second, that made it death to usurp any magistracy without the +people’s consent; a third, for the relief of poor citizens, which, taking off +their taxes, encouraged their labors; another, against disobedience to the +consuls, which was no less popular than the rest, and rather to the benefit of +the commonalty than to the advantage of the nobles, for it imposed upon +disobedience the penalty of ten oxen and two sheep; the price of a sheep being +ten obols, of an ox, a hundred. For the use of money was then infrequent +amongst the Romans, but their wealth in cattle great; even now pieces of +property are called peculia, from pecus, cattle; and they had stamped upon +their most ancient money an ox, a sheep, or a hog; and surnamed their sons +Suillii, Bubulci, Caprarii, and Porcii, from caprae, goats, and porci, hogs. +</p> + +<p> +Amidst this mildness and moderation, for one excessive fault he instituted one +excessive punishment; for he made it lawful without trial to take away any +man’s life that aspired to a tyranny, and acquitted the slayer, if he produced +evidence of the crime; for though it was not probable for a man, whose designs +were so great, to escape all notice; yet because it was possible he might, +although observed, by force anticipate judgment, which the usurpation itself +would then preclude, he gave a license to any to anticipate the usurper. He was +honored likewise for the law touching the treasury; for because it was +necessary for the citizens to contribute out of their estates to the +maintenance of wars, and he was unwilling himself to be concerned in the care +of it, or to permit his friends, or indeed to let the public money pass into +any private house, he allotted the temple of Saturn for the treasury, in which +to this day they deposit the tribute-money, and granted the people the liberty +of choosing two young men as quaestors, or treasurers. The first were Publius +Veturius and Marcus Minucius; and a large sum was collected, for they assessed +one hundred and thirty thousand, excusing orphans and widows from the payment. +After these dispositions, he admitted Lucretius, the father of Lucretia, as his +colleague, and gave him the precedence in the government, by resigning the +fasces to him, as due to his years, which privilege of seniority continued to +our time. But within a few days Lucretius died, and in a new election Marcus +Horatius succeeded in that honor, and continued consul for the remainder of the +year. +</p> + +<p> +Now, whilst Tarquin was making preparations in Tuscany for a second war against +the Romans, it is said a great portent occurred. When Tarquin was king, and had +all but completed the buildings of the Capitol, designing, whether from +oracular advice or his own pleasure, to erect an earthen chariot upon the top, +he entrusted the workmanship to Tuscans of the city Veii, but soon after lost +his kingdom. The work thus modeled, the Tuscans set in a furnace, but the clay +showed not those passive qualities which usually attend its nature, to subside +and be condensed upon the evaporation of the moisture, but rose and swelled out +to that bulk, that, when solid and firm, notwithstanding the removal of the +roof and opening the walls of the furnace, it could not be taken out without +much difficulty. The soothsayers looked upon this as a divine prognostic of +success and power to those that should possess it; and the Tuscans resolved not +to deliver it to the Romans, who demanded it, but answered that it rather +belonged to Tarquin than to those who had sent him into exile. A few days +after, they had a horse-race there, with the usual shows and solemnities, and +as the charioteer, with his garland on his head, was quietly driving the +victorious chariot out of the ring, the horses, upon no apparent occasion, +taking fright, either by divine instigation or by accident, hurried away their +driver at full speed to Rome; neither did his holding them in prevail, nor his +voice, but he was forced along with violence till, coming to the Capitol, he +was thrown out by the gate called Ratumena. This occurrence raised wonder and +fear in the Veientines, who now permitted the delivery of the chariot. +</p> + +<p> +The building of the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter had been vowed by Tarquin, +the son of Demaratus, when warring with the Sabines; Tarquinius Superbus, his +son or grandson, built, but could not dedicate it, because he lost his kindom +before it was quite finished. And now that it was completed with all its +ornaments, Poplicola was ambitious to dedicate it; but the nobility envied him +that honor, as, indeed, also, in some degree, those his prudence in making laws +and conduct in wars entitled him to. Grudging him, at any rate, the addition of +this, they urged Horatius to sue for the dedication and, whilst Poplicola was +engaged in some military expedition, voted it to Horatius, and conducted him to +the Capitol, as though, were Poplicola present, they could not have carried it. +Yet, some write, Poplicola was by lot destined against his will to the +expedition, the other to the dedication; and what happened in the performance +seems to intimate some ground for this conjecture; for, upon the Ides of +September, which happens about the full moon of the month Metagitnion, the +people having assembled at the Capitol and silence being enjoined, Horatius, +after the performance of other ceremonies, holding the doors, according to +custom, was proceeding to pronounce the words of dedication, when Marcus, the +brother of Poplicola, who had got a place on purpose beforehand near the door, +observing his opportunity, cried, “O consul, thy son lies dead in the camp;” +which made a great impression upon all others who heard it, yet in nowise +discomposed Horatius, who returned merely the reply, “Cast the dead out whither +you please; I am not a mourner;” and so completed the dedication. The news was +not true, but Marcus thought the lie might avert him from his performance; but +it argues him a man of wonderful self-possession, whether he at once saw +through the cheat, or, believing it as true, showed no discomposure. +</p> + +<p> +The same fortune attended the dedication of the second temple; the first, as +has been said, was built by Tarquin and dedicated by Horatius; it was burnt +down in the civil wars. The second, Sylla built, and, dying before the +dedication, left that honor to Catulus; and when this was demolished in the +Vitellian sedition, Vespasian, with the same success that attended him in other +things, began a third, and lived to see it finished, but did not live to see it +again destroyed, as it presently was; but was as fortunate in dying before its +destruction, as Sylla was the reverse in dying before the dedication of his. +For immediately after Vespasian’s death it was consumed by fire. The fourth, +which now exists, was both built and dedicated by Domitian. It is said Tarquin +expended forty thousand pounds of silver in the very foundations; but the whole +wealth of the richest private man in Rome would not discharge the cost of the +gilding of this temple in our days, it amounting to above twelve thousand +talents; the pillars were cut out of Pentelican marble, of a length most +happily proportioned to their thickness; these we saw at Athens; but when they +were cut anew at Rome and polished, they did not gain so much in embellishment, +as they lost in symmetry, being rendered too taper and slender. Should any one +who wonders at the costliness of the Capitol visit any one gallery in +Domitian’s palace, or hall, or bath, or the apartments of his concubines, +Epicharmus’s remark upon the prodigal, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +’Tis not beneficence, but, truth to say,<br/> +A mere disease of giving things away, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +would be in his mouth in application to Domitian. It is neither piety, he would +say, nor magnificence, but, indeed, a mere disease of building, and a desire, +like Midas, of converting every thing into gold or stone. And thus much for +this matter. +</p> + +<p> +Tarquin, after the great battle wherein he lost his son in combat with Brutus, +fled to Clusium, and sought aid from Lars Porsenna, then one of the most +powerful princes of Italy, and a man of worth and generosity; who assured him +of assistance, immediately sending his commands to Rome that they should +receive Tarquin as their king, and, upon the Romans’ refusal, proclaimed war, +and, having signified the time and place where he intended his attack, +approached with a great army. Poplicola was, in his absence, chosen consul a +second time, and Titus Lucretius his colleague, and, returning to Rome, to show +a spirit yet loftier than Porsenna’s, built the city Sigliuria when Porsenna +was already in the neighborhood; and, walling it at great expense, there placed +a colony of seven hundred men, as being little concerned at the war. +Nevertheless, Porsenna, making a sharp assault, obliged the defendants to +retire to Rome, who had almost in their entrance admitted the enemy into the +city with them; only Poplicola by sallying out at the gate prevented them, and, +joining battle by Tiber side, opposed the enemy, that pressed on with their +multitude, but at last, sinking under desperate wounds, was carried out of the +fight. The same fortune fell upon Lucretius, so that the Romans, being +dismayed, retreated into the city for their security, and Rome was in great +hazard of being taken, the enemy forcing their way on to the wooden bridge, +where Horatius Cocles, seconded by two of the first men in Rome, Herminius and +Lartius, made head against them. Horatius obtained this name from the loss of +one of his eyes in the wars, or, as others write, from the depressure of his +nose, which, leaving nothing in the middle to separate them, made both eyes +appear but as one; and hence, intending to say Cyclops, by a mispronunciation +they called him Cocles. This Cocles kept the bridge, and held back the enemy, +till his own party broke it down behind, and then with his armor dropped into +the river, and swam to the hither side, with a wound in his hip from a Tuscan +spear. Poplicola, admiring his courage, proposed at once that the Romans should +every one make him a present of a day’s provisions, and afterwards gave him as +much land as he could plow round in one day, and besides erected a brazen +statue to his honor in the temple of Vulcan, as a requital for the lameness +caused by his wound. +</p> + +<p> +But Porsenna laying close siege to the city, and a famine raging amongst the +Romans, also a new army of the Tuscans making incursions into the country, +Poplicola, a third time chosen consul, designed to make, without sallying out, +his defense against Porsenna, but, privately stealing forth against the new +army of the Tuscans, put them to flight, and slew five thousand. The story of +Mucius is variously given; we, like others, must follow the commonly received +statement. He was a man endowed with every virtue, but most eminent in war; +and, resolving to kill Porsenna, attired himself in the Tuscan habit, and, +using the Tuscan language, came to the camp, and approaching the seat where the +king sat amongst his nobles, but not certainly knowing the king, and fearful to +inquire, drew out his sword, and stabbed one who he thought had most the +appearance of king. Mucius was taken in the act, and whilst he was under +examination, a pan of fire was brought to the king, who intended to sacrifice; +Mucius thrust his right hand into the flame, and whilst it burnt stood looking +at Porsenna with a steadfast and undaunted countenance; Porsenna at last in +admiration dismissed him, and returned his sword, reaching it from his seat; +Mucius received it in his left hand, which occasioned the name of Scaevola, +left-handed, and said, “I have overcome the terrors of Porsenna, yet am +vanquished by his generosity, and gratitude obliges me to disclose what no +punishment could extort;” and assured him then, that three hundred Romans, all +of the same resolution, lurked about his camp, only waiting for an opportunity; +he, by lot appointed to the enterprise, was not sorry that he had miscarried in +it, because so brave and good a man deserved rather to be a friend to the +Romans than an enemy. To this Porsenna gave credit, and thereupon expressed an +inclination to a truce, not, I presume, so much out of fear of the three +hundred Romans, as in admiration of the Roman courage. All other writers call +this man Mucius Scaevola, yet Athenodorus, son of Sandon, in a book addressed +to Octavia, Caesar’s sister, avers he was also called Postumus. +</p> + +<p> +Poplicola, not so much esteeming Porsenna’s enmity dangerous to Rome as his +friendship and alliance serviceable, was induced to refer the controversy with +Tarquin to his arbitration, and several times undertook to prove Tarquin the +worst of men, and justly deprived of his kingdom. But Tarquin proudly replied +he would admit no judge, much less Porsenna, that had fallen away from his +engagements; and Porsenna, resenting this answer, and mistrusting the equity of +his cause, moved also by the solicitations of his son Aruns, who was earnest +for the Roman interest, made a peace on these conditions, that they should +resign the land they had taken from the Tuscans, and restore all prisoners and +receive back their deserters. To confirm the peace, the Romans gave as hostages +ten sons of patrician parents, and as many daughters, amongst whom was Valeria, +the daughter of Poplicola. +</p> + +<p> +Upon these assurances, Porsenna ceased from all acts of hostility, and the +young girls went down to the river to bathe, at that part where the winding of +the bank formed a bay and made the waters stiller and quieter; and, seeing no +guard, nor any one coming or going over, they were encouraged to swim over, +notwithstanding the depth and violence of the stream. Some affirm that one of +them, by name Cloelia, passing over on horseback, persuaded the rest to swim +after; but, upon their safe arrival, presenting themselves to Poplicola, he +neither praised nor approved their return, but was concerned lest he should +appear less faithful than Porsenna, and this boldness in the maidens should +argue treachery in the Romans; so that, apprehending them, he sent them back to +Porsenna. But Tarquin’s men, having intelligence of this, laid a strong +ambuscade on the other side for those that conducted them; and while these were +skirmishing together, Valeria, the daughter of Poplicola, rushed through the +enemy and fled, and with the assistance of three of her attendants made good +her escape, whilst the rest were dangerously hedged in by the soldiers; but +Aruns, Porsenna’s son, upon tidings of it, hastened to their rescue, and, +putting the enemy to flight, delivered the Romans. When Porsenna saw the +maidens returned, demanding who was the author and adviser of the act, and +understanding Cloelia to be the person, he looked on her with a cheerful and +benignant countenance, and, commanding one of his horses to be brought, +sumptuously adorned, made her a present of it. This is produced as evidence by +those who affirm that only Cloelia passed the river or. horseback; those who +deny it call it only the honor the Tuscan did to her courage; a figure, +however, on horseback stands in the Via Sacra, as you go to the Palatium, which +some say is the statue of Cloelia, others of Valeria. Porsenna, thus reconciled +to the Romans, gave them a fresh instance of his generosity, and commanded his +soldiers to quit the camp merely with their arms, leaving their tents, full of +corn and other stores, as a gift to the Romans. Hence, even down to our time, +when there is a public sale of goods, they cry Porsenna’s first, by way of +perpetual commemoration of his kindness. There stood, also, by the +senate-house, a brazen statue of him, of plain and antique workmanship. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards, the Sabines making incursions upon the Romans, Marcus Valerius, +brother to Poplicola, was made consul, and with him Postumius Tubertus. Marcus, +through the management of affairs by the conduct and direct assistance of +Poplicola, obtained two great victories, in the latter of which he slew +thirteen thousand Sabines without the loss of one Roman, and was honored, as +all accession to his triumph, with an house built in the Palatium at the public +charge; and whereas the doors of other houses opened inward into the house, +they made this to open outward into the street, to intimate their perpetual +public recognition of his merit by thus continually making way for him. The +same fashion in their doors the Greeks, they say, had of old universally, which +appears from their comedies, where those that are going out make a noise at the +door within, to give notice to those that pass by or stand near the door, that +the opening the door into the street might occasion no surprisal. +</p> + +<p> +The year after, Poplicola was made consul the fourth time, when a confederacy +of the Sabines and Latins threatened a war; a superstitious fear also overran +the city on the occasion of general miscarriages of their women, no single +birth coming to its due time. Poplicola, upon consultation of the Sibylline +books, sacrificing to Pluto, and renewing certain games commanded by Apollo, +restored the city to more cheerful assurance in the gods, and then prepared +against the menaces of men. There were appearances of treat preparation, and of +a formidable confederacy. Amongst the Sabines there was one Appius Clausus, a +man of a great wealth and strength of body, but most eminent for his high +character and for his eloquence; yet, as is usually the fate of great men, he +could not escape the envy of others, which was much occasioned by his +dissuading the war, and seeming to promote the Roman interest, with a view, it +was thought, to obtaining absolute power in his own country for himself. +Knowing how welcome these reports would be to the multitude, and how offensive +to the army and the abettors of the war, he was afraid to stand a trial, but, +having a considerable body of friends and allies to assist him, raised a tumult +amongst the Sabines, which delayed the war. Neither was Poplicola wanting, not +only to understand the grounds of the sedition, but to promote and increase it, +and he dispatched emissaries with instructions to Clausus, that Poplicola was +assured of his goodness and justice, and thought it indeed unworthy in any man, +however injured, to seek revenge upon his fellow-citizens; yet if he pleased, +for his own security, to leave his enemies and come to Rome, he should be +received, both in public and private, with the honor his merit deserved, and +their own glory required. Appius, seriously weighing the matter, came to the +conclusion that it was the best resource which necessity left him, and advising +with his friends; and they inviting again others in the same manner, he came to +Rome, bringing five thousand families, with their wives and children; people of +the quietest and steadiest temper of all the Sabines. Poplicola, informed of +their approach, received them with all the kind offices of a friend, and +admitted them at once to the franchise, allotting to every one two acres of +land by the river Anio, but to Clausus twenty-five acres, and gave him a place +in the senate; a commencement of political power which he used so wisely, that +he rose to the highest reputation, was very influential, and left the Claudian +house behind him, inferior to none in Rome. +</p> + +<p> +The departure of these men rendered things quiet amongst the Sabines; yet the +chief of the community would not suffer them to settle into peace, but resented +that Clausus now, by turning deserter, should disappoint that revenge upon the +Romans, which, while at home, he had unsuccessfully opposed. Coming with a +great army, they sat down before Fidenae, and placed an ambuscade of two +thousand men near Rome, in wooded and hollow spots, with a design that some few +horsemen, as soon as it was day, should go out and ravage the country, +commanding them upon their approach to the town so to retreat as to draw the +enemy into the ambush. Poplicola, however, soon advertised of these designs by +deserters, disposed his forces to their respective charges. Postumius Balbus, +his son-in-law, going out with three thousand men in the evening, was ordered +to take the hills, under which the ambush lay, there to observe their motions; +his colleague, Lucretius, attended with a body of the lightest and boldest men, +was appointed to meet the Sabine horse; whilst he, with the rest of the army, +encompassed the enemy. And a thick mist rising accidentally, Postumius, early +in the morning, with shouts from the hills, assailed the ambuscade, Lucretius +charged the light-horse, and Poplicola besieged the camp; so that on all sides +defeat and ruin came upon the Sabines, and without any resistance the Romans +killed them in their flight, their very hopes leading them to their death, for +each division, presuming that the other was safe, gave up all thought of +fighting or keeping their ground; and these quitting the camp to retire to the +ambuscade, and the ambuscade flying; to the camp, fugitives thus met fugitives, +and found those from whom they expected succor as much in need of succor from +themselves. The nearness, however, of the city Fidenae was the preservation of +the Sabines, especially those that fled from the camp; those that could not +gain the city either perished in the field, or were taken prisoners. This +victory, the Romans, though usually ascribing such success to some god, +attributed to the conduct of one captain; and it was observed to be heard +amongst the soldiers, that Poplicola had delivered their enemies lame and +blind, and only not in chains, to be dispatched by their swords. From the spoil +and prisoners great wealth accrued to the people. +</p> + +<p> +Poplicola, having completed his triumph, and bequeathed the city to the care of +the succeeding consuls, died; thus closing a life which, so far as human life +may be, had been full of all that is good and honorable. The people, as though +they had not duly rewarded his deserts when alive, but still were in his debt, +decreed him a public interment, every one contributing his quadrans towards the +charge; the women, besides, by private consent, mourned a whole year, a signal +mark of honor to his memory. He was buried, by the people’s desire, within the +city, in the part called Velia, where his posterity had likewise privilege of +burial; now, however, none of the family are interred there, but the body is +carried thither and set down, and someone places a burning torch under it, and +immediately takes it away, as an attestation of the deceased’s privilege, and +his receding from his honor; after which the body is removed. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap09"></a>COMPARISON OF POPLICOLA WITH SOLON</h2> + +<p> +There is something singular in the present parallel, which has not occurred in +any other of the lives; that the one should be the imitator of the other, and +the other his best evidence. Upon the survey of Solon’s sentence to Croesus in +favor of Tellus’s happiness, it seems more applicable to Poplicola; for Tellus, +whose virtuous life and dying well had gained him the name of the happiest man, +yet was never celebrated in Solon’s poems for a good man, nor have his children +or any magistracy of his deserved a memorial; but Poplicola’s life was the most +eminent amongst the Romans, as well for the greatness of his virtue as his +power, and also since his death many amongst the distinguished families, even +in our days, the Poplicolae, Messalae, and Valerii, after a lapse of six +hundred years, acknowledge him as the fountain of their honor. Besides, Tellus, +though keeping his post and fighting like a valiant soldier, was yet slain by +his enemies; but Poplicola, the better fortune, slew his, and saw his country +victorious under his command. And his honors and triumphs brought him, which +was Solon’s ambition, to a happy end; the ejaculation which, in his verses +against Mimnermus about the continuance of man’s life, he himself made, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Mourned let me die; and may I, when life ends,<br/> +Occasion sighs and sorrows to my friends, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +is evidence to Poplicola’s happiness; his death did not only draw tears from +his friends and acquaintance, but was the object of universal regret and sorrow +through the whole city; the women deplored his loss as that of a son, brother, +or common father. “Wealth I would have,” said Solon, “but wealth by wrong +procure would not,” because punishment would follow. But Poplicola’s riches +were not only justly his, but he spent them nobly in doing good to the +distressed. So that if Solon was reputed the wisest man, we must allow +Poplicola to be the happiest; for what Solon wished for as the greatest and +most perfect good, this Poplicola had, and used and enjoyed to his death. +</p> + +<p> +And as Solon may thus be said to have contributed to Poplicola’s glory, so did +also Poplicola to his, by his choice of him as his model in the formation of +republican institutions; in reducing, for example, the excessive powers and +assumption of the consulship. Several of his laws, indeed, he actually +transferred to Rome, as his empowering the people to elect their officers, and +allowing offenders the liberty of appealing to the people, as Solon did to the +jurors. He did not, indeed, create a new senate, as Solon did, but augmented +the old to almost double its number. The appointment of treasurers again, the +quaestors, has a like origin; with the intent that the chief magistrate should +not, if of good character, be withdrawn from greater matters; or, if bad, have +the greater temptation to injustice, by holding both the government and +treasury in his hands. The aversion to tyranny was stronger in Poplicola; any +one who attempted usurpation could, by Solon’s law, only be punished upon +conviction; but Poplicola made it death before a trial. And though Solon justly +gloried, that, when arbitrary power was absolutely offered to him by +circumstances, and when his countrymen would have willingly seen him accept it, +he yet declined it; still Poplicola merited no less, who, receiving a despotic +command, converted it to a popular office, and did not employ the whole legal +power which he held. We must allow, indeed, that Solon was before Poplicola in +observing that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +A people always minds its rulers best<br/> +When it is neither humored nor oppressed. +</p> + +<p> +The remission of debts was peculiar to Solon; it was his great means for +confirming the citizens’ liberty; for a mere law to give all men equal rights +is but useless, if the poor must sacrifice those rights to their debts, and, in +the very seats and sanctuaries of equality, the courts of justice, the offices +of state, and the public discussions, be more than anywhere at the beck and +bidding of the rich. A yet more extraordinary success was, that, although +usually civil violence is caused by any remission of debts, upon this one +occasion this dangerous but powerful remedy actually put an end to civil +violence already existing, Solon’s own private worth and reputation +overbalancing all the ordinary ill- repute and discredit of the change. The +beginning of his government was more glorious, for he was entirely original, +and followed no man’s example, and, without the aid of any ally, achieved his +most important measures by his own conduct; yet the close of Poplicola’s life +was more happy and desirable, for Solon saw the dissolution of his own +commonwealth, Poplicola’s maintained the state in good order down to the civil +wars. Solon, leaving his laws, as soon as he had made them, engraven in wood, +but destitute of a defender, departed from Athens; whilst Poplicola, remaining, +both in and out of office, labored to establish the government Solon, though he +actually knew of Pisistratus’s ambition, yet was not able to suppress it, but +had to yield to usurpation in its infancy; whereas Poplicola utterly subverted +and dissolved a potent monarchy, strongly settled by long continuance; uniting +thus to virtues equal to those, and purposes identical with those of Solon, the +good fortune and the power that alone could make them effective. +</p> + +<p> +In military exploits, Daimachus of Plataea will not even allow Solon the +conduct of the war against the Megarians, as was before intimated; but +Poplicola was victorious in the most important conflicts, both as a private +soldier and commander. In domestic politics, also, Solon, in play, as it were, +and by counterfeiting madness, induced the enterprise against Salamis; whereas +Poplicola, in the very beginning, exposed himself to the greatest risk, took +arms against Tarquin, detected the conspiracy, and, being principally concerned +both in preventing the escape of and afterwards punishing the traitors, not +only expelled the tyrants from the city, but extirpated their very hopes. And +as, in cases calling for contest and resistance and manful opposition, he +behaved with courage and resolution, so, in instances where peaceable language, +persuasion, and concession were requisite, he was yet more to be commended; and +succeeded in gaining happily to reconciliation and friendship, Porsenna, a +terrible and invincible enemy. Some may, perhaps, object, that Solon recovered +Salamis, which they had lost, for the Athenians; whereas Poplicola receded from +part of what the Romans were at that time possessed of; but judgment is to be +made of actions according to the times in which they were performed. The +conduct of a wise politician is ever suited to the present posture of affairs; +often by foregoing a part he saves the whole, and by yielding in a small matter +secures a greater; and so Poplicola, by restoring what the Romans had lately +usurped, saved their undoubted patrimony, and procured, moreover, the stores of +the enemy for those who were only too thankful to secure their city. Permitting +the decision of the controversy to his adversary, he not only got the victory, +but likewise what he himself would willingly have given to purchase the +victory, Porsenna putting an end to the war, and leaving them all the provision +of his camp, from the sense of the virtue and gallant disposition of the Romans +which their consul had impressed upon him. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap10"></a>THEMISTOCLES</h2> + +<p> +The birth of Themistocles was somewhat too obscure to do him honor. His father, +Neocles, was not of the distinguished people of Athens, but of the township of +Phrearrhi, and of the tribe Leontis; and by his mother’s side, as it is +reported, he was base-born. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +I am not of the noble Grecian race,<br/> +I’m poor Abrotonon, and born in Thrace;<br/> +Let the Greek women scorn me, if they please,<br/> +I was the mother of Themistocles. +</p> + +<p> +Yet Phanias writes that the mother of Themistocles was not of Thrace, but of +Caria, and that her name was not Abrotonon, but Euterpe; and Neanthes adds +farther that she was of Halicarnassus in Caria. And, as illegitimate children, +including those that were of the half-blood or had but one parent an Athenian, +had to attend at the Cynosarges (a wrestling-place outside the gates, dedicated +to Hercules, who was also of half-blood amongst the gods, having had a mortal +woman for his mother), Themistocles persuaded several of the young men of high +birth to accompany him to anoint and exercise themselves together at +Cynosarges; an ingenious device for destroying the distinction between the +noble and the base-born, and between those of the whole and those of the half +blood of Athens. However, it is certain that he was related to the house of the +Lycomedae; for Simonides records, that he rebuilt the chapel of Phlya, +belonging to that family, and beautified it with pictures and other ornaments, +after it had been burnt by the Persians. +</p> + +<p> +It is confessed by all that from his youth he was of a vehement and impetuous +nature, of a quick apprehension, and a strong and aspiring bent for action and +great affairs. The holidays and intervals in his studies he did not spend in +play or idleness, as other children, but would be always inventing or arranging +some oration or declamation to himself, the subject of which was generally the +excusing or accusing his companions, so that his master would often say to him, +“You, my boy, will be nothing small, but great one way or other, for good or +else for bad.” He received reluctantly and carelessly instructions given him to +improve his manners and behavior, or to teach him any pleasing or graceful +accomplishment, but whatever was said to improve him in sagacity, or in +management of affairs, he would give attention to, beyond one of his years, +from confidence in his natural capacities for such things. And thus afterwards, +when in company where people engaged themselves in what are commonly thought +the liberal and elegant amusements, he was obliged to defend himself against +the observations of those who considered themselves highly accomplished, by the +somewhat arrogant retort, that he certainly could not make use of any stringed +instrument, could only, were a small and obscure city put into his hands, make +it great and glorious. Notwithstanding this, Stesimbrotus says that +Themistocles was a hearer of Anaxagoras, and that he studied natural philosophy +under Melissus, contrary to chronology; for Melissus commanded the Samians in +their siege by Pericles, who was much Themistocles’s junior; and with Pericles, +also, Anaxagoras was intimate. They, therefore, might rather be credited, who +report, that Themistocles was an admirer of Mnesiphilus the Phrearrhian, who +was neither rhetorician nor natural philosopher, but a professor of that which +was then called wisdom, consisting in a sort of political shrewdness and +practical sagacity, which had begun and continued, almost like a sect of +philosophy, from Solon; but those who came afterwards, and mixed it with +pleadings and legal artifices, and transformed the practical part of it into a +mere art of speaking and an exercise of words, were generally called sophists. +Themistocles resorted to Mnesiphilus when he had already embarked in politics. +</p> + +<p> +In the first essays of his youth he was not regular nor happily balanced; he +allowed himself to follow mere natural character, which, without the control of +reason and instruction, is apt to hurry, upon either side, into sudden and +violent courses, and very often to break away and determine upon the worst; as +he afterwards owned himself, saying, that the wildest colts make the best +horses, if they only get properly trained and broken in. But those who upon +this fasten stories of their own invention, as of his being disowned by his +father, and that his mother died for grief of her son’s ill fame, certainly +calumniate him; and there are others who relate, on the contrary, how that to +deter him from public business, and to let him see how the vulgar behave +themselves towards their leaders when they have at last no farther use of them, +his father showed him the old galleys as they lay forsaken and cast about upon +the sea-shore. +</p> + +<p> +Yet it is evident that his mind was early imbued with the keenest interest in +public affairs, and the most passionate ambition for distinction. Eager from +the first to obtain the highest place, he unhesitatingly accepted the hatred of +the most powerful and influential leaders in the city, but more especially of +Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, who always opposed him. And yet all this +great enmity between them arose, it appears, from a very boyish occasion, both +being attached to the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, as Ariston the philosopher +tells us; ever after which, they took opposite sides, and were rivals in +politics. Not but that the incompatibility of their lives and manners may seem +to have increased the difference, for Aristides was of a mild nature, and of a +nobler sort of character, and, in public matters, acting always with a view, +not to glory or popularity, but to the best interests of the state consistently +with safety and honesty, he was often forced to oppose Themistocles, and +interfere against the increase of his influence, seeing him stirring up the +people to all kinds of enterprises, and introducing various innovations. For it +is said that Themistocles was so transported with the thoughts of glory, and so +inflamed with the passion for great actions, that, though he was still young +when the battle of Marathon was fought against the Persians, upon the skillful +conduct of the general, Miltiades, being everywhere talked about, he was +observed to be thoughtful, and reserved, alone by him self; he passed the +nights without sleep, and avoided all his usual places of recreation, and to +those who wondered at the change, and inquired the reason of it, he gave the +answer, that “the trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep.” And when others +were of opinion that the battle of Marathon would be an end to the war, +Themistocles thought that it was but the beginning of far greater conflicts, +and for these, to the benefit of all Greece, he kept himself in continual +readiness, and his city also in proper training, foreseeing from far before +what would happen. +</p> + +<p> +And, first of all, the Athenians being accustomed to divide amongst themselves +the revenue proceeding from the silver mines at Laurium, he was the only man +that dared propose to the people that this distribution should cease, and that +with the money ships should be built to make war against the Aeginetans, who +were the most flourishing people in all Greece, and by the number of their +ships held the sovereignty of the sea; and Themistocles thus was more easily +able to persuade them, avoiding all mention of danger from Darius or the +Persians, who were at a great distance, and their coming very uncertain, and at +that time not much to be feared; but, by a seasonable employment of the +emulation and anger felt by the Athenians against the Aeginetans, he induced +them to preparation. So that with this money a hundred ships were built, with +which they afterwards fought against Xerxes. And, henceforward, little by +little, turning and drawing the city down towards the sea, in the belief, that, +whereas by land they were not a fit match for their next neighbors, with their +ships they might be able to repel the Persians and command Greece, thus, as +Plato says, from steady soldiers he turned them into mariners and seamen tossed +about the sea, and gave occasion for the reproach against him, that he took +away from the Athenians the spear and the shield, and bound them to the bench +and the oar. These measures he carried in the assembly, against the opposition, +as Stesimbrotus relates, of Miltiades; and whether or no he hereby injured the +purity and true balance of government, may be a question for philosophers, but +that the deliverance of Greece came at that time from the sea, and that these +galleys restored Athens again after it was destroyed, were others wanting, +Xerxes himself would be sufficient evidence, who, though his land-forces were +still entire, after his defeat at sea, fled away, and thought himself no longer +able to encounter the Greeks; and, as it seems to me, left Mardonius behind +him, not out of any hopes he could have to bring them into subjection, but to +hinder them from pursuing him. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles is said to have been eager in the acquisition of riches, according +to some, that he might be the more liberal; for loving to sacrifice often, and +to be splendid in his entertainment of strangers, he required a plentiful +revenue; yet he is accused by others of having been parsimonious and sordid to +that degree that he would sell provisions which were sent to him as a present. +He desired Diphilides, who was a breeder of horses, to give him a colt, and +when he refused it, threatened that in a short time he would turn his house +into a wooden horse, intimating that he would stir up dispute and litigation +between him and some of his relations. +</p> + +<p> +He went beyond all men in the passion for distinction. When he was still young +and unknown in the world, he entreated Epicles of Hermione, who had a good hand +at the lute and was much sought after by the Athenians, to come and practice at +home with him, being ambitious of having people inquire after his house and +frequent his company. When he came to the Olympic games, and was so splendid in +his equipage and entertainments, in his rich tents and furniture, that he +strove to outdo Cimon, he displeased the Greeks, who thought that such +magnificence might be allowed in one who was a young man and of a great family +but was a great piece of insolence in one as yet undistinguished, and without +title or means for making any such display. In a dramatic contest, the play he +paid for won the prize, which was then a matter that excited much emulation; he +put up a tablet in record of it, with the inscription, “Themistocles of +Phrearrhi was at the charge of it; Phrynichus made it; Adimantus was archon.” +He was well liked by the common people, would salute every particular citizen +by his own name, and always show himself a just judge in questions of business +between private men; he said to Simonides, the poet of Ceos, who desired +something of him, when he was commander of the army, that was not reasonable, +“Simonides, you would be no good poet if you wrote false measure, nor should I +be a good magistrate if for favor I made false law.” And at another time, +laughing at Simonides, he said, that he was a man of little judgment to speak +against the Corinthians, who were inhabitants of a great city, and to have his +own picture drawn so often, having so ill-looking a face. +</p> + +<p> +Gradually growing to be great, and winning the favor of the people, he at last +gained the day with his faction over that of Aristides, and procured his +banishment by ostracism. When the king of Persia was now advancing against +Greece, and the Athenians were in consultation who should be general, and many +withdrew themselves of their own accord, being terrified with the greatness of +the danger, there was one Epicydes, a popular speaker, son to Euphemides, a man +of an eloquent tongue, but of a faint heart, and a slave to riches, who was +desirous of the command, and was looked upon to be in a fair way to carry it by +the number of votes; but Themistocles, fearing that, if the command should fall +into such hands, all would be lost, bought off Epicydes and his pretensions, it +is said, for a sum of money. +</p> + +<p> +When the king of Persia sent messengers into Greece, with an interpreter, to +demand earth and water, as an acknowledgment of subjection, Themistocles, by +the consent of the people, seized upon the interpreter, and put him to death, +for presuming to publish the barbarian orders and decrees in the Greek +language; this is one of the actions he is commended for, as also for what he +did to Arthmius of Zelea, who brought gold from the king of Persia to corrupt +the Greeks, and was, by an order from Themistocles, degraded and disfranchised, +he and his children and his posterity; but that which most of all redounded to +his credit was, that he put an end to all the civil wars of Greece, composed +their differences, and persuaded them to lay aside all enmity during the war +with the Persians; and in this great work, Chileus the Arcadian was, it is +said, of great assistance to him. +</p> + +<p> +Having taken upon himself the command of the Athenian forces, he immediately +endeavored to persuade the citizens to leave the city, and to embark upon their +galleys, and meet with the Persians at a great distance from Greece; but many +being against this, he led a large force, together with the Lacedaemonians, +into Tempe, that in this pass they might maintain the safety of Thessaly, which +had not as yet declared for the king; but when they returned without performing +anything; and it was known that not only the Thessalians, but all as far as +Boeotia, was going over to Xerxes, then the Athenians more willingly hearkened +to the advice of Themistocles to fight by sea, and sent him with a fleet to +guard the straits of Artemisium. +</p> + +<p> +When the contingents met here, the Greeks would have the Lacedaemonians to +command, and Eurybiades to be their admiral; but the Athenians, who surpassed +all the rest together in number of vessels, would not submit to come after any +other, till Themistocles, perceiving the danger of this contest, yielded his +own command to Eurybiades, and got the Athenians to submit, extenuating the +loss by persuading them, that if in this war they behaved themselves like men, +he would answer for it after that, that the Greeks, of their own will, would +submit to their command. And by this moderation of his, it is evident that he +was the chief means of the deliverance of Greece, and gained the Athenians the +glory of alike surpassing their enemies in valor, and their confederates in +wisdom. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as the Persian armada arrived at Aphetae, Eurybiades was astonished to +see such a vast number of vessels before him, and, being informed that two +hundred more were sailing round behind the island of Sciathus, he immediately +determined to retire farther into Greece, and to sail back into some part of +Peloponnesus, where their land army and their fleet might join, for he looked +upon the Persian forces to be altogether unassailable by sea. But the Euboeans, +fearing that the Greeks would forsake them, and leave them to the mercy of the +enemy, sent Pelagon to confer privately with Themistocles, taking with him a +good sum of money, which, as Herodotus reports, he accepted and gave to +Eurybiades. In this affair none of his own countrymen opposed him so much as +Architeles, captain of the sacred galley, who, having no money to supply his +seamen, was eager to go home; but Themistocles so incensed the Athenians +against him, that they set upon him and left him not so much as his supper, at +which Architeles was much surprised, and took it very ill; but Themistocles +immediately sent him in a chest a service of provisions, and at the bottom of +it a talent of silver, desiring him to sup tonight, and tomorrow provide for +his seamen; if not, he would report it amongst the Athenians that he had +received money from the enemy. So Phanias the Lesbian tells the story. +</p> + +<p> +Though the fights between the Greeks and Persians in the straits of Euboea were +not so important as to make any final decision of the war, yet the experience +which the Greeks obtained in them was of great advantage, for thus, by actual +trial and in real danger, they found out that neither number of ships, nor +riches and ornaments, nor boasting shouts, nor barbarous songs of victory, were +any way terrible to men that knew how to fight, and were resolved to come hand +to hand with their enemies; these things they were to despise, and to come up +close and grapple with their foes. This, Pindar appears to have seen, and says +justly enough of the fight at Artemisium, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +There the sons of Athens set<br/> +The stone that freedom stands on yet. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For the first step towards victory undoubtedly is to gain courage. Artemisium +is in Euboea, beyond the city of Histiaea, a sea-beach open to the north; most +nearly opposite to it stands Olizon, in the country which formerly was under +Philoctetes; there is a small temple there, dedicated to Diana, surnamed of the +Dawn, and trees about it, around which again stand pillars of white marble; and +if you rub them with your hand, they send forth both the smell and color of +saffron. On one of the pillars these verses are engraved,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +With numerous tribes from Asia’s regions brought<br/> +The sons of Athens on these waters, fought;<br/> +Erecting, after they had quelled the Mede,<br/> +To Artemis this record of the deed. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +There is a place still to be seen upon this shore, where, in the middle of a +great heap of sand, they take out from the bottom a dark powder like ashes, or +something that has passed the fire; and here, it is supposed, the shipwrecks +and bodies of the dead were burnt. +</p> + +<p> +But when news came from Thermopylae to Artemisium, informing them that king +Leonidas was slain, and that Xerxes had made himself master of all the passages +by land, they returned back to the interior of Greece, the Athenians having the +command of the rear, the place of honor and danger, and much elated by what had +been done. +</p> + +<p> +As Themistocles sailed along the coast, he took notice of the harbors and fit +places for the enemies’ ships to come to land at, and engraved large letters in +such stones as he found there by chance, as also in others which he set up on +purpose near to the landing-places, or where they were to water; in which +inscriptions he called upon the Ionians to forsake the Medes, if it were +possible, and come over to the Greeks, who were their proper founders and +fathers, and were now hazarding all for their liberties; but, if this could not +be done, at any rate to impede and disturb the Persians in all engagements. He +hoped that these writings would prevail with the Ionians to revolt, or raise +some trouble by making their fidelity doubtful to the Persians. +</p> + +<p> +Now, though Xerxes had already passed through Doris and invaded the country of +Phocis, and was burning and destroying the cities of the Phocians, yet the +Greeks sent them no relief; and, though the Athenians earnestly desired them to +meet the Persians in Boeotia, before they could come into Attica, as they +themselves had come forward by sea at Artemisium, they gave no ear to their +request, being wholly intent upon Peloponnesus, and resolved to gather all +their forces together within the Isthmus, and to build a wall from sea to sea +in that narrow neck of land; so that the Athenians were enraged to see +themselves betrayed, and at the same time afflicted and dejected at their own +destitution. For to fight alone against such a numerous army was to no purpose, +and the only expedient now left them was to leave their city and cling to their +ships; which the people were very unwilling to submit to, imagining that it +would signify little now to gain a victory, and not understanding how there +could be deliverance any longer after they had once forsaken the temples of +their gods and exposed the tombs and monuments of their ancestors to the fury +of their enemies. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles, being at a loss, and not able to draw the people over to his +opinion by any human reason, set his machines to work, as in a theater, and +employed prodigies and oracles. The serpent of Minerva, kept in the inner part +of her temple, disappeared; the priests gave it out to the people that the +offerings which were set for it were found untouched, and declared, by the +suggestion of Themistocles, that the goddess had left the city, and taken her +flight before them towards the sea. And he often urged them with the oracle +which bade them trust to walls of wood, showing them that walls of wood could +signify nothing else but ships; and that the island of Salamis was termed in +it, not miserable or unhappy, but had the epithet of divine, for that it should +one day be associated with a great good fortune of the Greeks. At length his +opinion prevailed, and he obtained a decree that the city should be committed +to the protection of Minerva, “queen of Athens;” that they who were of age to +bear arms should embark, and that each should see to sending away his children, +women, and slaves where he could. This decree being confirmed, most of the +Athenians removed their parents, wives, and children to Troezen, where they +were received with eager good-will by the Troezenians, who passed a vote that +they should be maintained at the public charge, by a daily payment of two obols +to every one, and leave be given to the children to gather fruit where they +pleased, and schoolmasters paid to instruct them. This vote was proposed by +Nicagoras. +</p> + +<p> +There was no public treasure at that time in Athens; but the council of +Areopagus, as Aristotle says, distributed to every one that served, eight +drachmas, which was a great help to the manning of the fleet; but Clidemus +ascribes this also to the art of Themistocles. When the Athenians were on their +way down to the haven of Piraeus, the shield with the head of Medusa was +missing; and he, under the pretext of searching for it, ransacked all places, +and found among their goods considerable sums of money concealed, which he +applied to the public use; and with this the soldiers and seamen were well +provided for their voyage. +</p> + +<p> +When the whole city of Athens were going on board, it afforded a spectacle +worthy of pity alike and admiration, to see them thus send away their fathers +and children before them, and, unmoved with their cries and tears, pass over +into the island. But that which stirred compassion most of all was, that many +old men, by reason of their great age, were left behind; and even the tame +domestic animals could not be seen without some pity, running about the town +and howling, as desirous to be carried along with their masters that had kept +them; among which it is reported that Xanthippus, the father of Pericles, had a +dog that would not endure to stay behind, but leaped into the sea, and swam +along by the galley’s side till he came to the island of Salamis, where he +fainted away and died, and that spot in the island, which is still called the +Dog’s Grave, is said to be his. +</p> + +<p> +Among the great actions of Themistocles at this crisis, the recall of Aristides +was not the least, for, before the war, he had been ostracized by the party +which Themistocles headed, and was in banishment; but now, perceiving that the +people regretted his absence, and were fearful that he might go over to the +Persians to revenge himself, and thereby ruin the affairs of Greece, +Themistocles proposed a decree that those who were banished for a time might +return again, to give assistance by word and deed to the cause of Greece with +the rest of their fellow-citizens. +</p> + +<p> +Eurybiades, by reason of the greatness of Sparta, was admiral of the Greek +fleet, but yet was faint-hearted in time of danger, and willing to weigh anchor +and set sail for the isthmus of Corinth, near which the land army lay encamped; +which Themistocles resisted; and this was the occasion of the well-known words, +when Eurybiades, to check his impatience, told him that at the Olympic games +they that start up before the rest are lashed; “And they,” replied +Themistocles, “that are left behind are not crowned.” Again, Eurybiades lifting +up his staff as if he were going to strike, Themistocles said, “Strike if you +will, but hear;” Eurybiades, wondering much at his moderation, desired him to +speak, and Themistocles now brought him to a better understanding. And when one +who stood by him told him that it did not become those who had neither city nor +house to lose, to persuade others to relinquish their habitations and forsake +their countries, Themistocles gave this reply: “We have indeed left our houses +and our walls, base fellow, not thinking it fit to become slaves for the sake +of things that have no life nor soul; and yet our city is the greatest of all +Greece, consisting of two hundred galleys, which are here to defend you, if you +please; but if you run away and betray us, as you did once before, the Greeks +shall soon hear news of the Athenians possessing as fair a country, and as +large and free a city, as that they have lost.” These expressions of +Themistocles made Eurybiades suspect that if he retreated the Athenians would +fall off from him. When one of Eretria began to oppose him, he said, “Have you +anything to say of war, that are like an ink-fish? you have a sword, but no +heart.” Some say that while Themistocles was thus speaking things upon the +deck, an owl was seen flying to the right hand of the fleet, which came and sat +upon the top of the mast; and this happy omen so far disposed the Greeks to +follow his advice, that they presently prepared to fight. Yet, when the enemy’s +fleet was arrived at the haven of Phalerum, upon the coast of Attica, and with +the number of their ships concealed all the shore, and when they saw the king +himself in person come down with his land army to the seaside, with all his +forces united, then the good counsel of Themistocles was soon forgotten, and +the Peloponnesians cast their eyes again towards the isthmus, and took it very +ill if any one spoke against their returning home; and, resolving to depart +that night, the pilots had order what course to steer. The Teuthis, loligo, or +cuttlefish, is said to have a bone or cartilage shaped like a sword, and was +conceived to have no heart. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles, in great distress that the Greeks should retire, and lose the +advantage of the narrow seas and strait passage, and slip home every one to his +own city, considered with himself, and contrived that stratagem that was +carried out by Sicinnus. This Sicinnus was a Persian captive, but a great lover +of Themistocles, and the attendant of his children. Upon this occasion, he sent +him privately to Xerxes, commanding him to tell the king, that Themistocles, +the admiral of the Athenians, having espoused his interest, wished to be the +first to inform him that the Greeks were ready to make their escape, and that +he counseled him to hinder their flight, to set upon them while they were in +this confusion and at a distance from their land army, and hereby destroy all +their forces by sea. Xerxes was very joyful at this message, and received it as +from one who wished him all that was good, and immediately issued instructions +to the commanders of his ships, that they should instantly Yet out with two +hundred galleys to encompass all the islands, and enclose all the straits and +passages, that none of the Greeks might escape, and that they should afterwards +follow with the rest of their fleet at leisure. This being done, Aristides, the +son of Lysimachus, was the first man that perceived it, and went to the tent of +Themistocles, not out of any friendship, for he had been formerly banished by +his means, as has been related, but to inform him how they were encompassed by +their enemies. Themistocles, knowing the generosity of Aristides, and much +struck by his visit at that time, imparted to him all that he had transacted by +Sicinnus, and entreated him, that, as he would be more readily believed among +the Greeks, he would make use of his credit to help to induce them to stay and +fight their enemies in the narrow seas. Aristides applauded Themistocles, and +went to the other commanders and captains of the galleys, and encouraged them +to engage; yet they did not perfectly assent to him, till a galley of Tenos, +which deserted from the Persians, of which Panaetius was commander, came in, +while they were still doubting, and confirmed the news that all the straits and +passages were beset; and then their rage and fury, as well as their necessity; +provoked them all to fight. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as it was day, Xerxes placed himself high up, to view his fleet, and +how it was set in order. Phanodemus says, he sat upon a promontory above the +temple of Hercules, where the coast of Attica is separated from the island by a +narrow channel; but Acestodorus writes, that it was in the confines of Megara, +upon those hills which are called the Horns, where he sat in a chair of gold, +with many secretaries about him to write down all that was done in the fight. +</p> + +<p> +When Themistocles was about to sacrifice, close to the admiral’s galley, there +were three prisoners brought to him, fine looking men, and richly dressed in +ornamented clothing and gold, said to be the children of Artayctes and +Sandauce, sister to Xerxes. As soon as the prophet Euphrantides saw them, and +observed that at the same time the fire blazed out from the offerings with a +more than ordinary flame, and that a man sneezed on the right, which was an +intimation of a fortunate event, he took Themistocles by the hand, and bade him +consecrate the three young men for sacrifice, and offer them up with prayers +for victory to Bacchus the Devourer: so should the Greeks not only save +themselves, but also obtain victory. Themistocles was much disturbed at this +strange and terrible prophecy, but the common people, who, in any difficult +crisis and great exigency, ever look for relief rather to strange and +extravagant than to reasonable means, calling upon Bacchus with one voice, led +the captives to the altar, and compelled the execution of the sacrifice as the +prophet had commanded. This is reported by Phanias the Lesbian, a philosopher +well read in history. +</p> + +<p> +The number of the enemy’s ships the poet Aeschylus gives in his tragedy called +the Persians, as on his certain knowledge, in the following words— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Xerxes, I know, did into battle lead<br/> +One thousand ships; of more than usual speed<br/> +Seven and two hundred. So is it agreed. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The Athenians had a hundred and eighty; in every ship eighteen men fought upon +the deck, four of whom were archers and the rest men-at- arms. +</p> + +<p> +As Themistocles had fixed upon the most advantageous place, so, with no less +sagacity, he chose the best time of fighting; for he would not run the prows of +his galleys against the Persians, nor begin the fight till the time of day was +come, when there regularly blows in a fresh breeze from the open sea, and +brings in with it a strong swell into the channel; which was no inconvenience +to the Greek ships, which were low- built, and little above the water, but did +much hurt to the Persians, which had high sterns and lofty decks, and were +heavy and cumbrous in their movements, as it presented them broadside to the +quick charges of the Greeks, who kept their eyes upon the motions of +Themistocles, as their best example, and more particularly because, opposed to +his ship, Ariamenes, admiral to Xerxes, a brave man, and by far the best and +worthiest of the king’s brothers, was seen throwing darts and shooting arrows +from his huge galley, as from the walls of a castle. Aminias the Decelean and +Sosicles the Pedian, who sailed in the same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem +to stem, and transfixing each the other with their brazen prows, so that they +were fastened together, when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, ran at him +with their pikes, and thrust him into the sea; his body, as it floated amongst +other shipwrecks, was known to Artemisia, and carried to Xerxes. +</p> + +<p> +It is reported, that, in the middle of the fight, a great flame rose into the +air above the city of Eleusis, and that sounds and voices were heard through +all the Thriasian plain, as far as the sea, sounding like a number of men +accompanying and escorting the mystic Iacchus, and that a mist seemed to form +and rise from the place from whence the sounds came, and, passing forward, fell +upon the galleys. Others believed that they saw apparitions, in the shape of +armed men, reaching out their hands from the island of Aegina before the +Grecian galleys; and supposed they were the Aeacidae, whom they had invoked to +their aid before the battle. The first man that took a ship was Lycomedes the +Athenian, captain of a galley, who cut down its ensign, and dedicated it to +Apollo the Laurel-crowned. And as the Persians fought in a narrow arm of the +sea, and could bring but part of their fleet to fight, and fell foul of one +another, the Greeks thus equaled them in strength, and fought with them till +the evening, forced them back, and obtained, as says Simonides, that noble and +famous victory, than which neither amongst the Greeks nor barbarians was ever +known more glorious exploit on the seas; by the joint valor, indeed, and zeal +of all who fought, but by the wisdom and sagacity of Themistocles. +</p> + +<p> +After this sea-fight, Xerxes, enraged at his ill-fortune, attempted, by casting +great heaps of earth and stones into the sea, to stop up the channel and to +make a dam, upon which he might lead his land-forces over into the island of +Salamis. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles, being desirous to try the opinion of Aristides, told him that he +proposed to set sail for the Hellespont, to break the bridge of ships, so as to +shut up, he said, Asia a prisoner within Europe; but Aristides, disliking the +design, said, “We have hitherto fought with an enemy who has regarded little +else but his pleasure and luxury; but if we shut him up within Greece, and +drive him to necessity, he that is master of such great forces will no longer +sit quietly with an umbrella of gold over his head, looking upon the fight for +his pleasure; but in such a strait will attempt all things; he will be +resolute, and appear himself in person upon all occasions, he will soon correct +his errors, and supply what he has formerly omitted through remissness, and +will be better advised in all things. Therefore, it is noways our interest, +Themistocles,” he said, “to take away the bridge that is already made, but +rather to build another, if it were possible, that he might make his retreat +with the more expedition.” To which Themistocles answered, “If this be +requisite, we must immediately use all diligence, art, and industry, to rid +ourselves of him as soon as may be;” and to this purpose he found out among the +captives one of the king Of Persia’s eunuchs, named Arnaces, whom he sent to +the king, to inform him that the Greeks, being now victorious by sea, had +decreed to sail to the Hellespont, where the boats were fastened together, and +destroy the bridge; but that Themistocles, being concerned for the king, +revealed this to him, that he might hasten towards the Asiatic seas, and pass +over into his own dominions; and in the mean time would cause delays, and +hinder the confederates from pursuing him. Xerxes no sooner heard this, but, +being very much terrified, he proceeded to retreat out of Greece with all +speed. The prudence of Themistocles and Aristides in this was afterwards more +fully understood at the battle of Plataea, where Mardonius, with a very small +fraction of the forces of Xerxes, put the Greeks in danger of losing all. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotus writes, that, of all the cities of Greece, Aegina was held to have +performed the best service in the war; while all single men yielded to +Themistocles, though, out of envy, unwillingly; and when they returned to the +entrance of Peloponnesus, where the several commanders delivered their +suffrages at the altar, to determine who was most worthy, every one gave the +first vote for himself and the second for Themistocles. The Lacedaemonians +carried him with them to Sparta, where, giving the rewards of valor to +Eurybiades, and of wisdom and conduct to Themistocles, they crowned him with +olive, presented him with the best chariot in the city, and sent three hundred +young men to accompany him to the confines of their country. And at the next +Olympic games, when Themistocles entered the course, the spectators took no +farther notice of those who were contesting the prizes, but spent the whole day +in looking upon him, showing him to the strangers, admiring him, and applauding +him by clapping their hands, and other expressions of joy, so that he himself, +much gratified, confessed to his friends that he then reaped the fruit of all +his labors for the Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +He was, indeed, by nature, a great lover of honor, as is evident from the +anecdotes recorded of him. When chosen admiral by the Athenians, he would not +quite conclude any single matter of business, either public or private, but +deferred all till the day they were to set sail, that, by dispatching a great +quantity of business all at once, and having to meet a great variety of people, +he might make an appearance of greatness and power. Viewing the dead bodies +cast up by the sea, he perceived bracelets and necklaces of gold about them, +yet passed on, only showing them to a friend that followed him, saying, “Take +you these things, for you are not Themistocles.” He said to Antiphates, a +handsome young man, who had formerly avoided, but now in his glory courted him, +“Time, young man, has taught us both a lesson.” He said that the Athenians did +not honor him or admire him, but made, as it were, a sort of plane-tree of him; +sheltered themselves under him in bad weather, and, as soon as it was fine, +plucked his leaves and cut his branches. When the Seriphian told him that he +had not obtained this honor by himself, but by the greatness of his city, he +replied, “You speak truth; I should never have been famous if I had been of +Seriphus; nor you, had you been of Athens.” When another of the generals, who +thought he had performed considerable service for the Athenians, boastingly +compared his actions with those of Themistocles, he told him that once upon a +time the Day after the Festival found fault with the Festival: “On you there is +nothing but hurry and trouble and preparation, but, when I come, everybody sits +down quietly and enjoys himself;” which the Festival admitted was true, but “if +I had not come first, you would not have come at all.” “Even so,” he said, “if +Themistocles had not come before, where had you been now?” Laughing at his own +son, who got his mother, and, by his mother’s means, his father also, to +indulge him, he told him that he had the most power of any one in Greece: “For +the Athenians command the rest of Greece, I command the Athenians, your mother +commands me, and you command your mother.” Loving to be singular in all things, +when he had land to sell, he ordered the crier to give notice that there were +good neighbors near it. Of two who made love to his daughter, he preferred the +man of worth to the one who was rich, saying he desired a man without riches, +rather than riches without a man. Such was the character of his sayings. +</p> + +<p> +After these things, he began to rebuild and fortify the city of Athens, +bribing, as Theopompus reports, the Lacedaemonian ephors not to be against it, +but, as most relate it, overreaching and deceiving them. For, under pretest of +an embassy, he went to Sparta, where, upon the Lacedaemonians charging him with +rebuilding the walls, and Poliarchus coming on purpose from Aegina to denounce +it, he denied the fact, bidding them to send people to Athens to see whether it +were so or no; by which delay he got time for the building of the wall, and +also placed these ambassadors in the hands of his countrymen as hostages for +him; and so, when the Lacedaemonians knew the truth, they did him no hurt, but, +suppressing all display of their anger for the present, sent him away. +</p> + +<p> +Next he proceeded to establish the harbor of Piraeus, observing the great +natural advantages of the locality and desirous to unite the whole city with +the sea, and to reverse, in a manner, the policy of ancient Athenian kings, +who, endeavoring to withdraw their subjects from the sea, and to accustom them +to live, not by sailing about, but by planting and tilling the earth, spread +the story of the dispute between Minerva and Neptune for the sovereignty of +Athens, in which Minerva, by producing to the judges an olive tree, was +declared to have won; whereas Themistocles did not only knead up, as +Aristophanes says, the port and the city into one, but made the city absolutely +the dependent and the adjunct of the port, and the land of the sea, which +increased the power and confidence of the people against the nobility; the +authority coming into the hands of sailors and boatswains and pilots. Thus it +was one of the orders of the thirty tyrants, that the hustings in the assembly, +which had faced towards the sea, should be turned round towards the land; +implying their opinion that the empire by sea had been the origin of the +democracy, and that the farming population were not so much opposed to +oligarchy. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles, however, formed yet higher designs with a view to naval +supremacy. For, after the departure of Xerxes, when the Grecian fleet was +arrived at Pagasae, where they wintered, Themistocles, in a public oration to +the people of Athens, told them that he had a design to perform something that +would tend greatly to their interests and safety, but was of such a nature, +that it could not be made generally public. The Athenians ordered him to impart +it to Aristides only; and, if he approved of it, to put it in practice. And +when Themistocles had discovered to him that his design was to burn the Grecian +fleet in the haven of Pagasae, Aristides, coming out to the people, gave this +report of the stratagem contrived by Themistocles, that no proposal could be +more politic, or more dishonorable; on which the Athenians commanded +Themistocles to think no farther of it. +</p> + +<p> +When the Lacedaemonians proposed, at the general council of the Amphictyonians, +that the representatives of those cities which were not in the league, nor had +fought against the Persians, should be excluded, Themistocles, fearing that the +Thessalians, with those of Thebes, Argos, and others, being thrown out of the +council, the Lacedaemonians would become wholly masters of the votes, and do +what they pleased, supported the deputies of the cities, and prevailed with the +members then sitting to alter their opinion in this point, showing them that +there were but one and thirty cities which had partaken in the war, and that +most of these, also, were very small; how intolerable would it be, if the rest +of Greece should be excluded, and the general council should come to be ruled +by two or three great cities. By this, chiefly, he incurred the displeasure of +the Lacedaemonians, whose honors and favors were now shown to Cimon, with a +view to making him the opponent of the state policy of Themistocles. +</p> + +<p> +He was also burdensome to the confederates, sailing about the islands and +collecting money from them. Herodotus says, that, requiring money of those of +the island of Andros, he told them that he had brought with him two goddesses, +Persuasion and Force; and they answered him that they had also two great +goddesses, which prohibited them from giving him any money, Poverty and +Impossibility. Timocreon, the Rhodian poet, reprehends him somewhat bitterly +for being wrought upon by money to let some who were banished return, while +abandoning himself, who was his guest and friend. The verses are these:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Pausanias you may praise, and Xanthippus he be for,<br/> +For Leutychidas, a third; Aristides, I proclaim,<br/> +From the sacred Athens came,<br/> +The one true man of all; for Themistocles Latona doth abhor<br/> +The liar, traitor, cheat, who, to gain his filthy pay,<br/> +Timocreon, his friend, neglected to restore<br/> +To his native Rhodian shore;<br/> +Three silver talents took, and departed (curses with him) on his way,<br/> +Restoring people here, expelling there, and killing here,<br/> +Filling evermore his purse: and at the Isthmus gave a treat,<br/> +To be laughed at, of cold meat,<br/> +Which they ate, and prayed the gods some one else might give the feast another +year. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But after the sentence and banishment of Themistocles, Timocreon reviles him +yet more immoderately and wildly in a poem which begins thus:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Unto all the Greeks repair<br/> +O Muse, and tell these verses there,<br/> +As is fitting and is fair. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The story is, that it was put to the question whether Timocreon should be +banished for siding with the Persians, and Themistocles gave his vote against +him. So when Themistocles was accused of intriguing with the Medes, Timocreon +made these lines upon him:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +So now Timocreon, indeed, is not the sole friend of the Mede,<br/> +There are some knaves besides; nor is it only mine that fails,<br/> +But other foxes have lost tails.— +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +When the citizens of Athens began to listen willingly to those who traduced and +reproached him, he was forced, with somewhat obnoxious frequency, to put them +in mind of the great services he had performed, and ask those who were offended +with him whether they were weary with receiving benefits often from the same +person, so rendering himself more odious. And he yet more provoked the people +by building a temple to Diana with the epithet of Aristobule, or Diana of Best +Counsel; intimating thereby, that he had given the best counsel, not only to +the Athenians, but to all Greece. He built this temple near his own house, in +the district called Melite, where now the public officers carry out the bodies +of such as are executed, and throw the halters and clothes of those that are +strangled or otherwise put to death. There is to this day a small figure of +Themistocles in the temple of Diana of Best Counsel, which represents him to be +a person, not only of a noble mind, but also of a most heroic aspect. At length +the Athenians banished him, making use of the ostracism to humble his eminence +and authority, as they ordinarily did with all whom they thought too powerful, +or, by their greatness, disproportionable to the equality thought requisite in +a popular government. For the ostracism was instituted, not so much to punish +the offender, as to mitigate and pacify the violence of the envious, who +delighted to humble eminent men, and who, by fixing this disgrace upon them, +might vent some part of their rancor. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles being banished from Athens, while he stayed at Argos the detection +of Pausanias happened, which gave such advantage to his enemies, that Leobotes +of Agraule, son of Alcmaeon, indicted him of treason, the Spartans supporting +him in the accusation. +</p> + +<p> +When Pausanias went about this treasonable design, he concealed it at first +from Themistocles, though he were his intimate friend; but when he saw him +expelled out of the commonwealth, and how impatiently he took his banishment, +he ventured to communicate it to him, and desired his assistance, showing him +the king of Persia’s letters, and exasperating him against the Greeks, as a +villainous, ungrateful people. However, Themistocles immediately rejected the +proposals of Pausanias, and wholly refused to be a party in the enterprise, +though he never revealed his communications, nor disclosed the conspiracy to +any man, either hoping that Pausanias would desist from his intentions, or +expecting that so inconsiderate an attempt after such chimerical objects would +be discovered by other means. +</p> + +<p> +After that Pausanias was put to death, letters and writings being found +concerning this matter, which rendered Themistocles suspected, the +Lacedaemonians were clamorous against him, and his enemies among the Athenians +accused him; when, being absent from Athens, he made his defense by letters, +especially against the points that had been previously alleged against him. In +answer to the malicious detractions of his enemies, he merely wrote to the +citizens, urging that he who was always ambitious to govern, and not of a +character or a disposition to serve, would never sell himself and his country +into slavery to a barbarous and hostile nation. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding this, the people, being persuaded by his accusers, sent +officers to take him and bring him away to be tried before a council of the +Greeks, but, having timely notice of it, he passed over into the island of +Corcyra, where the state was under obligations to him; for being chosen as +arbitrator in a difference between them and the Corinthians, he decided the +controversy by ordering the Corinthians to pay down twenty talents, and +declaring the town and island of Leucas a joint colony from both cities. From +thence he fled into Epirus, and, the Athenians and Lacedaemonians still +pursuing him, he threw himself upon chances of safety that seemed all but +desperate. For he fled for refuge to Admetus, king of the Molossians, who had +formerly made some request to the Athenians, when Themistocles was in the +height of his authority, and had been disdainfully used and insulted by him, +and had let it appear plain enough, that could he lay hold of him, he would +take his revenge. Yet in this misfortune, Themistocles, fearing the recent +hatred of his neighbors and fellow-citizens more than the old displeasure of +the king, put himself at his mercy, and became a humble suppliant to Admetus, +after a peculiar manner, different from the custom of other countries. For +taking the king’s son, who was then a child, in his arms, he laid himself down +at his hearth, this being the most sacred and only manner of supplication, +among the Molossians, which was not to be refused. And some say that his wife, +Phthia, intimated to Themistocles this way of petitioning, and placed her young +son with him before the hearth; others, that king Admetus, that he might be +under a religious obligation not to deliver him up to his pursuers, prepared +and enacted with him a sort of stage-play to this effect. At this time, +Epicrates of Acharnae privately conveyed his wife and children out of Athens, +and sent them hither, for which afterwards Cimon condemned him and put him to +death, as Stesimbrotus reports, and yet somehow, either forgetting this +himself, or making Themistocles to be little mindful of it, says presently that +he sailed into Sicily, and desired in marriage the daughter of Hiero, tyrant of +Syracuse, promising to bring the Greeks under his power; and, on Hiero refusing +him, departed thence into Asia; but this is not probable. +</p> + +<p> +For Theophrastus writes, in his work on Monarchy, that when Hiero sent +race-horses to the Olympian games, and erected a pavilion sumptuously +furnished, Themistocles made an oration to the Greeks, inciting them to pull +down the tyrant’s tent, and not to suffer his horses to run. Thucydides says, +that, passing over land to the Aegaean Sea, he took ship at Pydna in the bay of +Therme, not being known to any one in the ship, till, being terrified to see +the vessel driven by the winds near to Naxos, which was then besieged by the +Athenians, he made himself known to the master and pilot, and, partly +entreating them, partly threatening that if they went on shore he would accuse +them, and make the Athenians to believe that they did not take him in out of +ignorance, but that he had corrupted them with money from the beginning, he +compelled them to bear off and stand out to sea, and sail forward towards the +coast of Asia. +</p> + +<p> +A great part of his estate was privately conveyed away by his friends, and sent +after him by sea into Asia; besides which there was discovered and confiscated +to the value of fourscore talents, as Theophrastus writes, Theopompus says a +hundred; though Themistocles was never worth three talents before he was +concerned in public affairs. +</p> + +<p> +When he arrived at Cyme, and understood that all along the coast there were +many laid wait for him, and particularly Ergoteles and Pythodorus (for the game +was worth the hunting for such as were thankful to make money by any means, the +king of Persia having offered by public proclamation two hundred talents to him +that should take him), he fled to Aegae, a small city of the Aeolians, where no +one knew him but only his host Nicogenes, who was the richest man in Aeolia, +and well known to the great men of Inner Asia. While Themistocles lay hid for +some days in his house, one night, after a sacrifice and supper ensuing, +Olbius, the attendant upon Nicogenes’s children, fell into a sort of frenzy and +fit of inspiration, and cried out in verse,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Night shall speak, and night instruct thee,<br/> +By the voice of night conduct thee. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +After this, Themistocles, going to bed, dreamed that he saw a snake coil itself +up upon his belly, and so creep to his neck; then, as soon as it touched his +face, it turned into an eagle, which spread its wings over him, and took him up +and flew away with him a great distance; then there appeared a herald’s golden +wand, and upon this at last it set him down securely, after infinite terror and +disturbance. +</p> + +<p> +His departure was effected by Nicogenes by the following artifice; the +barbarous nations, and amongst them the Persians especially, are extremely +jealous, severe, and suspicious about their women, not only their wives, but +also their bought slaves and concubines, whom they keep so strictly that no one +ever sees them abroad; they spend their lives shut up within doors, and, when +they take a journey, are carried in close tents, curtained in on all sides, and +set upon a wagon. Such a traveling carriage being prepared for Themistocles, +they hid him in it, and carried him on his journeys and told those whom they +met or spoke with upon the road that they were conveying a young Greek woman +out of Ionia to a nobleman at court. +</p> + +<p> +Thucydides and Charon of Lampsacus say that Xerxes was dead, and that +Themistocles had an interview with his son; but Ephorus, Dinon, Clitarchus, +Heraclides, and many others, write that he came to Xerxes. The chronological +tables better agree with the account of Thucydides, and yet neither can their +statements be said to be quite set at rest. +</p> + +<p> +When Themistocles was come to the critical point, he applied himself first to +Artabanus, commander of a thousand men, telling him that he was a Greek, and +desired to speak with the king about important affairs concerning which the +king was extremely solicitous. Artabanus answered him, “O stranger, the laws of +men are different, and one thing is honorable to one man, and to others +another; but it is honorable for all to honor and observe their own laws. It is +the habit of the Greeks, we are told, to honor, above all things, liberty and +equality; but amongst our many excellent laws, we account this the most +excellent, to honor the king, and to worship him, as the image of the great +preserver of the universe; if, then, you shall consent to our laws, and fall +down before the king and worship him, you may both see him and speak to him; +but if your mind be otherwise, you must make use of others to intercede for +you, for it is not the national custom here for the king to give audience to +anyone that doth not fall down before him.” Themistocles, hearing this, +replied, “Artabanus, I that come hither to increase the power and glory of the +king, will not only submit myself to his laws, since so it hath pleased the god +who exalteth the Persian empire to this greatness, but will also cause many +more to be worshippers and adorers of the king. Let not this, therefore, be an +impediment why I should not communicate to the king what I have to impart.” +Artabanus asking him, “Who must we tell him that you are? for your words +signify you to be no ordinary person,” Themistocles answered, “No man, O +Artabanus, must be informed of this before the king himself.” Thus Phanias +relates; to which Eratosthenes, in his treatise on Riches, adds, that it was by +the means of a woman of Eretria, who was kept by Artabanus, that he obtained +this audience and interview with him. +</p> + +<p> +When he was introduced to the king, and had paid his reverence to him, he stood +silent, till the king commanding the interpreter to ask him who he was, he +replied, “O king, I am Themistocles the Athenian, driven into banishment by the +Greeks. The evils that I have done to the Persians are numerous; but my +benefits to them yet greater, in withholding the Greeks from pursuit, so soon +as the deliverance of my own country allowed me to show kindness also to you. I +come with a mind suited to my present calamities; prepared alike for favors and +for anger; to welcome your gracious reconciliation, and to deprecate your +wrath. Take my own countrymen for witnesses of the services I have done for +Persia, and make use of this occasion to show the world your virtue, rather +than to satisfy your indignation. If you save me, you will save your suppliant; +if otherwise, will destroy an enemy of the Greeks.” He talked also of divine +admonitions, such as the vision which he saw at Nicogenes’s house, and the +direction given him by the oracle of Dodona, where Jupiter commanded him to go +to him that had a name like his, by which he understood that he was sent from +Jupiter to him, seeing that they both were great, and had the name of kings. +</p> + +<p> +The king heard him attentively, and, though he admired his temper and courage, +gave him no answer at that time; but, when he was with his intimate friends, +rejoiced in his great good fortune, and esteemed himself very happy in this, +and prayed to his god Arimanius, that all his enemies might be ever of the same +mind with the Greeks, to abuse and expel the bravest men amongst them. Then he +sacrificed to the gods, and presently fell to drinking, and was so well +pleased, that in the night, in the middle of his sleep, he cried out for joy +three times, “I have Themistocles the Athenian.” +</p> + +<p> +In the morning, calling together the chief of his court, he had Themistocles +brought before him, who expected no good of it, when he saw, for example, the +guards fiercely set against him as soon as they learnt his name, and giving him +ill language. As he came forward towards the king, who was seated, the rest +keeping silence, passing by Roxanes, a commander of a thousand men, he heard +him, with a slight groan, say, without stirring out of his place, “You subtle +Greek serpent, the king’s good genius hath brought thee hither.” Yet, when he +came into the presence, and again fell down, the king saluted him, and spoke to +him kindly, telling him he was now indebted to him two hundred talents; for it +was just and reasonable that he should receive the reward which was proposed to +whosoever should bring Themistocles; and promising much more, and encouraging +him, he commanded him to speak freely what he would concerning the affairs of +Greece. Themistocles replied, that a man’s discourse was like to a rich Persian +carpet, the beautiful figures and patterns of which can only be shown by +spreading and extending it out; when it is contracted and folded up, they are +obscured and lost; and, therefore, he desired time. The king being pleased with +the comparison, and bidding him take what time he would, he desired a year; in +which time, having, learnt the Persian language sufficiently, he spoke with the +king by himself without the help of an interpreter, it being supposed that he +discoursed only about the affairs of Greece; but there happening, at the same +time, great alterations at court, and removals of the king’s favorites, he drew +upon himself the envy of the great people, who imagined that he had taken the +boldness to speak concerning them. For the favors shown to other strangers were +nothing in comparison with the honors conferred on him; the king invited him to +partake of his own pastimes and recreations both at home and abroad, carrying +him with him a-hunting, and made him his intimate so far that he permitted him +to see the queen-mother, and converse frequently with her. By the king’s +command, he also was made acquainted with the Magian learning. +</p> + +<p> +When Demaratus the Lacedaemonian, being ordered by the king to ask whatsoever +he pleased, and it should immediately be granted him, desired that he might +make his public entrance, and be carried in state through the city of Sardis, +with the tiara set in the royal manner upon his head, Mithropaustes, cousin to +the king, touched him on the head, and told him that he had no brains for the +royal tiara to cover, and if Jupiter should give him his lightning and thunder, +he would not any the more be Jupiter for that; the king also repulsed him with +anger resolving never to be reconciled to him, but to be inexorable to all +supplications on his behalf. Yet Themistocles pacified him, and prevailed with +him to forgive him. And it is reported, that the succeeding kings, in whose +reigns there was a greater communication between the Greeks and Persians, when +they invited any considerable Greek into their service, to encourage him, would +write, and promise him that he should be as great with them as Themistocles had +been. They relate, also, how Themistocles, when he was in great prosperity, and +courted by many, seeing himself splendidly served at his table turned to his +children and said, “Children, we had been undone if we had not been undone.” +Most writers say that he had three cities given him, Magnesia, Myus, and +Lampsacus, to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. Neanthes of Cyzicus, and +Phanias, add two more, the city of Palaescepsis, to provide him with clothes, +and Percote, with bedding and furniture for his house. +</p> + +<p> +As he was going down towards the sea-coast to take measures against Greece, a +Persian whose name was Epixyes, governor of the upper Phrygia, laid wait to +kill him, having for that purpose provided a long time before a number of +Pisidians, who were to set upon him when he should stop to rest at a city that +is called Lion’s-head. But Themistocles, sleeping in the middle of the day, saw +the Mother of the gods appear to him in a dream and say unto him, +“Themistocles, keep back from the Lion’s-head, for fear you fall into the +lion’s jaws; for this advice I expect that your daughter Mnesiptolema should be +my servant.” Themistocles was much astonished, and, when he had made his vows +to the goddess, left the broad road, and, making a circuit, went another way, +changing his intended station to avoid that place, and at night took up his +rest in the fields. But one of the sumpter-horses, which carried the furniture +for his tent, having fallen that day into the river, his servants spread out +the tapestry, which was wet, and hung it up to dry; in the mean time the +Pisidians made towards them with their swords drawn, and, not discerning +exactly by the moon what it was that was stretched out thought it to be the +tent of Themistocles, and that they should find him resting himself within it; +but when they came near, and lifted up the hangings, those who watched there +fell upon them and took them. Themistocles, having escaped this great danger, +in admiration of the goodness of the goddess that appeared to him, built, in +memory of it, a temple in the city of Magnesia, which he dedicated to +Dindymene, Mother of the gods, in which he consecrated and devoted his daughter +Mnesiptolema to her service. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to Sardis, he visited the temples of the gods, and observing, at +his leisure, their buildings, ornaments, and the number of their offerings, he +saw in the temple of the Mother of the gods, the statue of a virgin in brass, +two cubits high, called the water-bringer. Themistocles had caused this to be +made and set up when he was surveyor of waters at Athens, out of the fines of +those whom he detected in drawing off and diverting the public water by pipes +for their private use; and whether he had some regret to see this image in +captivity, or was desirous to let the Athenians see in what great credit and +authority he was with the king, he entered into a treaty with the governor of +Lydia to persuade him to send this statue back to Athens, which so enraged the +Persian officer, that he told him he would write the king word of it. +Themistocles, being affrighted hereat, got access to his wives and concubines, +by presents of money to whom, he appeased the fury of the governor; and +afterwards behaved with more reserve and circumspection, fearing the envy of +the Persians, and did not, as Theopompus writes, continue to travel about Asia, +but lived quietly in his own house in Magnesia, where for a long time he passed +his days in great security, being courted by all, and enjoying rich presents, +and honored equally with the greatest persons in the Persian empire; the king, +at that time, not minding his concerns with Greece, being taken up with the +affairs of Inner Asia. +</p> + +<p> +But when Egypt revolted, being assisted by the Athenians, and the Greek galleys +roved about as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Cimon had made himself master of +the seas, the king turned his thoughts thither, and, bending his mind chiefly +to resist the Greeks, and to check the growth of their power against him, began +to raise forces, and send out commanders, and to dispatch messengers to +Themistocles at Magnesia, to put him in mind of his promise, and to summon him +to act against the Greeks. Yet this did not increase his hatred nor exasperate +him against the Athenians, neither was he any way elevated with the thoughts of +the honor and powerful command he was to have in this war; but judging, +perhaps, that the object would not be attained, the Greeks having at that time, +beside other great commanders, Cimon, in particular, who was gaining wonderful +military successes; but chiefly, being ashamed to sully the glory of his former +great actions, and of his many victories and trophies, he determined to put a +conclusion to his life, agreeable to its previous course. He sacrificed to the +gods, and invited his friends; and, having entertained them and shaken hands +with them, drank bull’s blood, as is the usual story; as others state, a poison +producing instant death; and ended his days in the city of Magnesia, having +lived sixty-five years, most of which he had spent in politics and in the wars, +in government and command. The king, being informed of the cause and manner of +his death, admired him more than ever, and continued to show kindness to his +friends and relations. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles left three sons by Archippe, daughter to Lysander of Alopece, — +Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, and Cleophantus. Plato the philosopher mentions the +last as a most excellent horseman, but otherwise insignificant person; of two +sons yet older than these, Neocles and Diocles, Neocles died when he was young +by the bite of a horse, and Diocles was adopted by his grandfather, Lysander. +He had many daughters, of whom Mnesiptolema, whom he had by a second marriage, +was wife to Archeptolis, her brother by another mother; Italia was married to +Panthoides, of the island of Chios; Sybaris to Nicomedes the Athenian. After +the death of Themistocles, his nephew, Phrasicles, went to Magnesia, and +married, with her brothers’ consent, another daughter, Nicomache, and took +charge of her sister Asia, the youngest of all the children. +</p> + +<p> +The Magnesians possess a splendid sepulchre of Themistocles, placed in the +middle of their market-place. It is not worthwhile taking notice of what +Andocides states in his Address to his Friends concerning his remains, how the +Athenians robbed his tomb, and threw his ashes into the air; for he feigns +this, to exasperate the oligarchical faction against the people; and there is +no man living but knows that Phylarchus simply invents in his history, where he +all but uses an actual stage machine, and brings in Neocles and Demopolis as +the sons of Themistocles, to incite or move compassion, as if he were writing a +tragedy. Diodorus the cosmographer says, in his work on Tombs, but by +conjecture rather than of certain knowledge, that near to the haven of Piraeus, +where the land runs out like an elbow from the promontory of Alcimus, when you +have doubled the cape and passed inward where the sea is always calm, there is +a large piece of masonry, and upon this the tomb of Themistocles, in the shape +of an altar; and Plato the comedian confirms this, he believes, in these +verses,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Thy tomb is fairly placed upon the strand,<br/> +Where merchants still shall greet it with the land;<br/> +Still in and out ’twill see them come and go,<br/> +And watch the galleys as they race below. +</p> + +<p> +Various honors also and privileges were granted to the kindred of Themistocles +at Magnesia, which were observed down to our times, and were enjoyed by another +Themistocles of Athens, with whom I had an intimate acquaintance and friendship +in the house of Ammonius the philosopher. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap11"></a>CAMILLUS</h2> + +<p> +Among the many remarkable things that are related of Furius Camillus, it seems +singular and strange above all, that he, who continually was in the highest +commands, and obtained the greatest successes, was five times chosen dictator, +triumphed four times, and was styled a second founder of Rome, yet never was so +much as once consul. The reason of which was the state and temper of the +commonwealth at that time; for the people, being at dissension with the senate, +refused to return consuls, but in their stead elected other magistrates, called +military tribunes, who acted, indeed, with full consular power, but were +thought to exercise a less obnoxious amount of authority, because it was +divided among a larger number; for to have the management of affairs entrusted +in the hands of six persons rather than two was some satisfaction to the +opponents of oligarchy. This was the condition of the times when Camillus was +in the height of his actions and glory, and, although the government in the +meantime had often proceeded to consular elections, yet he could never persuade +himself to be consul against the inclination of the people. In all his other +administrations, which were many and various, he so behaved himself, that, when +alone in authority, he exercised his power as in common, but the honor of all +actions redounded entirely to himself, even when in joint commission with +others; the reason of the former was his moderation in command; of the latter, +his great judgment and wisdom, which gave him without controversy the first +place. +</p> + +<p> +The house of the Furii was not, at that time of any considerable distinction; +he, by his own acts, first raised himself to honor, serving under Postumius +Tubertus, dictator, in the great battle against the Aequians and Volscians. For +riding out from the rest of the army, and in the charge receiving a wound in +his thigh, he for all that did not quit the fight, but, letting the dart drag +in the wound, and engaging with the bravest of the enemy, put them to flight; +for which action, among other rewards bestowed on him, he was created censor, +an office in those days of great repute and authority. During his censorship +one very good act of his is recorded, that, whereas the wars had made many +widows, he obliged such as had no wives, some by fair persuasion, others by +threatening to set fines on their heads, to take them in marriage; another +necessary one, in causing orphans to be rated, who before were exempted from +taxes, the frequent wars requiring more than ordinary expenses to maintain +them. What, however, pressed them most was the siege of Veii. Some call this +people Veientani. This was the head city of Tuscany, not inferior to Rome, +either in number of arms or multitude of soldiers, insomuch that, presuming on +her wealth and luxury, and priding herself upon her refinement and +sumptuousness, she engaged in many honorable contests with the Romans for glory +and empire. But now they had abandoned their former ambitious hopes, having +been weakened by great defeats, so that, having fortified themselves with high +and strong walls, and furnished the city with all sorts of weapons offensive +and defensive, as likewise with corn and all manner of provisions, they +cheerfully endured a siege, which, though tedious to them, was no less +troublesome and distressing to the besiegers. For the Romans, having never been +accustomed to stay away from home, except in summer, and for no great length of +time, and constantly to winter at home, were then first compelled by the +tribunes to build forts in the enemy’s country, and, raising strong works about +their camp, to join winter and summer together. And now, the seventh year of +the war drawing to an end, the commanders began to be suspected as too slow and +remiss in driving on the siege, insomuch that they were discharged and others +chosen for the war, among whom was Camillus, then second time tribune. But at +present he had no hand in the siege, the duties that fell by lot to him being +to make war upon the Faliscans and Capenates, who, taking advantage of the +Romans being occupied on all hands, had carried ravages into their country, +and, through all the Tuscan war, given them much annoyance, but were now +reduced by Camillus, and with great loss shut up within their walls. +</p> + +<p> +And now, in the very heat of the war, a strange phenomenon in the Alban lake, +which, in the absence of any known cause and explanation by natural reasons, +seemed as great a prodigy as the most incredible that are reported, occasioned +great alarm. It was the beginning of autumn, and the summer now ending had, to +all observation, been neither rainy nor much troubled with southern winds; and +of the many lakes, brooks, and springs of all sorts with which Italy abounds, +some were wholly dried up, others drew very little water with them; all the +rivers, as is usual in summer, ran in a very low and hollow channel. But the +Alban lake, that is fed by no other waters but its own, and is on all sides +encircled with fruitful mountains, without any cause, unless it were divine, +began visibly to rise and swell, increasing to the feet of the mountains, and +by degrees reaching the level of the very tops of them, and all this without +any waves or agitation. At first it was the wonder of shepherds and herdsmen; +but when the earth, which, like a great dam, held up the lake from falling into +the lower grounds, through the quantity and weight of water was broken down, +and in a violent stream it ran through the plowed fields and plantations to +discharge itself in the sea, it not only struck terror into the Romans, but was +thought by all the inhabitants of Italy to portend some extraordinary event. +But the greatest talk of it was in the camp that besieged Veii, so that in the +town itself, also, the occurrence became known. +</p> + +<p> +As in long sieges it commonly happens that parties on both sides meet often and +converse with one another, so it chanced that a Roman had gained much +confidence and familiarity with one of the besieged, a man versed in ancient +prophecies, and of repute for more than ordinary skill in divination. The +Roman, observing him to be overjoyed at the story of the lake, and to mock at +the siege, told him that this was not the only prodigy that of late had +happened to the Romans; others more wonderful yet than this had befallen them, +which he was willing to communicate to him, that he might the better provide +for his private interests in these public distempers. The man greedily embraced +the proposal, expecting to hear some wonderful secrets; but when, by little and +little, he had led him on in conversation, and insensibly drawn him a good way +from the gates of the city, he snatched him up by the middle, being stronger +than he, and, by the assistance of others that came running from the camp, +seized and delivered him to the commanders. The man, reduced to this necessity, +and sensible now that destiny was not to be avoided, discovered to them the +secret oracles of Veii; that it was not possible the city should be taken, +until the Alban lake, which now broke forth and had found out new passages, was +drawn back from that course, and so diverted that it could not mingle with the +sea. The senate, having heard and satisfied themselves about the matter, +decreed to send to Delphi, to ask counsel of the god. The messengers were +persons of the highest repute, Licinius Cossus, Valerius Potitus, and Fabius +Ambustus; who, having made their voyage by sea and consulted the god, returned +with other answers, particularly that there had been a neglect of some of their +national rites relating to the Latin feasts; but the Alban water the oracle +commanded, if it were possible, they should keep from the sea, and shut it up +in its ancient bounds; but if that was not to be done, then they should carry +it off by ditches and trenches into the lower grounds, and so dry it up; which +message being delivered, the priests performed what related to the sacrifices, +and the people went to work and turned the water. +</p> + +<p> +And now the senate, in the tenth year of the war, taking away all other +commands, created Camillus dictator, who chose Cornelius Scipio for his general +of horse. And in the first place he made vows unto the gods, that, if they +would grant a happy conclusion of the war, he would celebrate to their honor +the great games, and dedicate a temple to the goddess whom the Romans call +Matuta the Mother, though, from the ceremonies which are used, one would think +she was Leucothea. For they take a servant-maid into the secret part of the +temple, and there cuff her, and drive her out again, and they embrace their +brothers’ children in place of their own; and, in general, the ceremonies of +the sacrifice remind one of the nursing of Bacchus by Ino, and the calamities +occasioned by her husband’s concubine. Camillus, having made these vows, +marched into the country of the Faliscans, and in a great battle overthrew them +and the Capenates, their confederates; afterwards he turned to the siege of +Veii, and, finding that to take it by assault would prove a difficult and +hazardous attempt, proceeded to cut mines under ground, the earth about the +city being easy to break up, and allowing such depth for the works as would +prevent their being discovered by the enemy. This design going on in a hopeful +way, he openly gave assaults to the enemy, to keep them to the walls, whilst +they that worked underground in the mines were, without being perceived, +arrived within the citadel, close to the temple of Juno, which was the greatest +and most honored in all the city. It is said that the prince of the Tuscans was +at that very time at sacrifice, and that the priest, after he had looked into +the entrails of the beast, cried out with a loud voice that the gods would give +the victory to those that should complete those offerings; and that the Romans +who were in the mines, hearing the words, immediately pulled down the floor, +and, ascending with noise and clashing of weapons, frightened away the enemy, +and, snatching up the entrails, carried them to Camillus. But this may look +like a fable. The city, however, being taken by storm, and the soldiers busied +in pillaging and gathering an infinite quantity of riches and spoil, Camillus, +from the high tower, viewing what was done, at first wept for pity; and when +they that were by congratulated his good success, he lifted up his hands to +heaven, and broke out into this prayer: “O most mighty Jupiter, and ye gods +that are judges of good and evil actions, ye know that not without just cause, +but constrained by necessity, we have been forced to revenge ourselves on the +city of our unrighteous and wicked enemies. But if, in the vicissitude of +things, there be any calamity due, to counterbalance this great felicity, I beg +that it may be diverted from the city and army of the Romans, and fall, with as +little hurt as may be, upon my own head.” Having said these words, and just +turning about (as the custom of the Romans is to turn to the right after +adoration or prayer), he stumbled and fell, to the astonishment of all that +were present. But, recovering himself presently from the fall, he told them +that he had received what he had prayed for, a small mischance, in compensation +for the greatest good fortune. +</p> + +<p> +Having sacked the city, he resolved, according as he had vowed, to carry Juno’s +image to Rome; and, the workmen being ready for that purpose, he sacrificed to +the goddess, and made his supplications that she would be pleased to accept of +their devotion toward her, and graciously vouchsafe to accept of a place among +the gods that presided at Rome; and the statue, they say, answered in a low +voice that she was ready and willing to go. Livy writes, that, in praying, +Camillus touched the goddess, and invited her, and that some of the standers-by +cried out that she was willing and would come. They who stand up for the +miracle and endeavor to maintain it have one great advocate on their side in +the wonderful fortune of the city, which, from a small and contemptible +beginning, could never have attained to that greatness and power without many +signal manifestations of the divine presence and cooperation. Other wonders of +the like nature, drops of sweat seen to stand on statues, groans heard from +them, the figures seen to turn round and to close their eyes, are recorded by +many ancient historians; and we ourselves could relate divers wonderful things, +which we have been told by men of our own time, that are not lightly to be +rejected; but to give too easy credit to such things, or wholly to disbelieve +them, is equally dangerous, so incapable is human infirmity of keeping any +bounds, or exercising command over itself, running off sometimes to +superstition and dotage, at other times to the contempt and neglect of all that +is supernatural. But moderation is best, and to avoid all extremes. +</p> + +<p> +Camillus, however, whether puffed up with the greatness of his achievement in +conquering a city that was the rival of Rome, and had held out a ten years’ +siege, or exalted with the felicitations of those that were about him, assumed +to himself more than became a civil and legal magistrate; among other things, +in the pride and haughtiness of his triumph, driving through Rome in a chariot +drawn with four white horses, which no general either before or since ever did; +for the Romans consider such a mode of conveyance to be sacred, and specially +set apart to the king and father of the gods. This alienated the hearts of his +fellow-citizens, who were not accustomed to such pomp and display. +</p> + +<p> +The second pique they had against him was his opposing the law by which the +city was to be divided; for the tribunes of the people brought forward a motion +that the people and senate should be divided into two parts, one of which +should remain at home, the other, as the lot should decide, remove to the +new-taken city. By which means they should not only have much more room, but by +the advantage of two great and magnificent cities, be better able to maintain +their territories and their fortunes in general. The people, therefore, who +were numerous and indigent, greedily embraced it, and crowded continually to +the forum, with tumultuous demands to have it put to the vote. But the senate +and the noblest citizens, judging the proceedings of the tribunes to tend +rather to a destruction than a division of Rome, greatly averse to it, went to +Camillus for assistance, who, fearing the result if it came to a direct +contest, contrived to occupy the people with other business, and so staved it +off. He thus became unpopular. But the greatest and most apparent cause of +their dislike against him arose from the tenths of the spoil; the multitude +having here, if not a just, yet a plausible case against him. For it seems, as +he went to the siege of Veii, he had vowed to Apollo that if he took the city +he would dedicate to him the tenth of the spoil. The city being taken and +sacked, whether he was loath to trouble the soldiers at that time, or that +through the multitude of business he had forgotten his vow, he suffered them to +enjoy that part of the spoils also. Some time afterwards, when his authority +was laid down, he brought the matter before the senate, and the priests, at the +same time, reported, out of the sacrifices, that there were intimations of +divine anger, requiring propitiations and offerings. The senate decreed the +obligation to be in force. +</p> + +<p> +But seeing it was difficult for every one to produce the very same things they +had taken, to be divided anew, they ordained that every one upon oath should +bring into the public the tenth part of his gains. This occasioned many +annoyances and hardships to the soldiers, who were poor men, and had endured +much in the war, and now were forced, out of what they had gained and spent, to +bring in so great a proportion. Camillus, being assaulted by their clamor and +tumults, for want of a better excuse, betook himself to the poorest of +defenses, confessing he had forgotten his vow; they in turn complained that he +had vowed the tenth of the enemy’s goods, and now levied it out of the tenths +of the citizens. Nevertheless, every one having brought in his due proportion, +it was decreed that out of it a bowl of massy gold should be made, and sent to +Delphi. And when there was great scarcity of gold in the city, and the +magistrates were considering where to get it, the Roman ladies, meeting +together and consulting among themselves, out of the golden ornaments they wore +contributed as much as went to the making the offering, which in weight came to +eight talents of gold. The senate, to give them the honor they had deserved, +ordained that funeral orations should be used at the obsequies of women as well +as men, it having never before been a custom that any woman after death should +receive any public eulogy. Choosing out, therefore, three of the noblest +citizens as a deputation, they sent them in a vessel of war, well manned and +sumptuously adorned. Storm and calm at sea may both, they say, alike be +dangerous; as they at this time experienced, being brought almost to the very +brink of destruction, and, beyond all expectation, escaping. For near the isles +of Solus the wind slacking, galleys of the Lipareans came upon them, taking +them for pirates; and, when they held up their hands as suppliants, forbore +indeed from violence, but took their ship in tow, and carried her into the +harbor, where they exposed to sale their goods and persons as lawful prize, +they being pirates; and scarcely, at last, by the virtue and interest of one +man, Timesitheus by name, who was in office as general, and used his utmost +persuasion, they were, with much ado, dismissed. He, however, himself sent out +some of his own vessels with them, to accompany them in their voyage and assist +them at the dedication; for which he received honors at Rome, as he had +deserved. +</p> + +<p> +And now the tribunes of the people again resuming their motion for the division +of the city, the war against the Faliscans luckily broke out, giving liberty to +the chief citizens to choose what magistrates they pleased, and to appoint +Camillus military tribune, with five colleagues; affairs then requiring a +commander of authority and reputation, as well as experience. And when the +people had ratified the election, he marched with his forces into the +territories of the Faliscans, and laid seige to Falerii, a well-fortified city, +and plentifully stored with all necessaries of war. And although he perceived +it would be no small work to take it, and no little time would be required for +it, yet he was willing to exercise the citizens and keep them abroad, that they +might have no leisure, idling at home, to follow the tribunes in factions and +seditions; a very common remedy, indeed, with the Romans, who thus carried off, +like good physicians, the ill humors of their commonwealth. The Falerians, +trusting in the strength of their city, which was well fortified on all sides, +made so little account of the siege, that all, with the exception of those that +guarded the walls, as in times of peace, walked about the streets in their +common dress; the boys went to school, and were led by their master to play and +exercise about the town walls; for the Falerians, like the Greeks, used to have +a single teacher for many pupils, wishing their children to live and be brought +up from the beginning in each other’s company. +</p> + +<p> +This schoolmaster, designing to betray the Falerians by their children, led +them out every day under the town wall, at first but a little way, and, when +they had exercised, brought them home again. Afterwards by degrees he drew them +farther and farther, till by practice he had made them bold and fearless, as if +no danger was about them; and at last, having got them all together, he brought +them to the outposts of the Romans, and delivered them up, demanding to be led +to Camillus. Where being come, and standing in the middle, he said that he was +the master and teacher of these children, but, preferring his favor before all +other obligations, he was come to deliver up his charge to him, and, in that, +the whole city. When Camillus had heard him out, he was astounded at the +treachery of the act, and, turning to the standers-by, observed, that “war, +indeed, is of necessity attended with much injustice and violence! Certain +laws, however, all good men observe even in war itself; nor is victory so great +an object as to induce us to incur for its sake obligations for base and +impious acts. A great general should rely on his own virtue, and not on other +men’s vices.” Which said, he commanded the officers to tear off the man’s +clothes, and bind his hands behind him, and give the boys rods and scourges, to +punish the traitor and drive him back to the city. By this time the Falerians +had discovered the treachery of the schoolmaster, and the city, as was likely, +was full of lamentations and cries for their calamity, men and women of worth +running in distraction about the walls and gates; when, behold, the boys came +whipping their master on, naked and bound, calling Camillus their preserver and +god and father. Insomuch that it struck not only into the parents, but the rest +of the citizens that saw what was done, such admiration and love of Camillus’s +justice, that, immediately meeting in assembly, they sent ambassadors to him, +to resign whatever they had to his disposal. Camillus sent them to Rome, where, +being brought into the senate, they spoke to this purpose: that the Romans, +preferring justice before victory, had taught them rather to embrace submission +than liberty; they did not so much confess themselves to be inferior in +strength, as they must acknowledge them to be superior in virtue. The senate +remitted the whole matter to Camillus, to judge and order as he thought fit; +who, taking a sum of money of the Falerians, and, making a peace with the whole +nation of the Faliscans, returned home. +</p> + +<p> +But the soldiers, who had expected to have the pillage of the city, when they +came to Rome empty-handed, railed against Camillus among their fellow-citizens, +as a hater of the people, and one that grudged all advantage to the poor. +Afterwards, when the tribunes of the people again brought their motion for +dividing the city to the vote, Camillus appeared openly against it, shrinking +from no unpopularity, and inveighing boldly against the promoters of it, and so +urging and constraining the multitude, that, contrary to their inclinations, +they rejected the proposal; but yet hated Camillus. Insomuch that, though a +great misfortune befell him in his family (one of his two sons dying of a +disease), commiseration for this could not in the least make them abate of +their malice. And, indeed, he took this loss with immoderate sorrow, being a +man naturally of a mild and tender disposition, and, when the accusation was +preferred against him, kept his house, and mourned amongst the women of his +family. +</p> + +<p> +His accuser was Lucius Apuleius; the charge, appropriation of the Tuscan +spoils; certain brass gates, part of those spoils, were said to be in his +possession. The people were exasperated against him, and it was plain they +would take hold of any occasion to condemn him. Gathering, therefore, together +his friends and fellow-soldiers, and such as had borne command with him, a +considerable number in all, he besought them that they would not suffer him to +be unjustly overborne by shameful accusations, and left the mock and scorn of +his enemies. His friends, having advised and consulted among themselves, made +answer, that, as to the sentence, they did not see how they could help him, but +that they would contribute to whatsoever fine should be set upon him. Not able +to endure so great an indignity, he resolved in his anger to leave the city and +go into exile; and so, having taken leave of his wife and his son, he went +silently to the gate of the city, and, there stopping and turning round, +stretched out his hands to the Capitol, and prayed to the gods, that if, +without any fault of his own, but merely through the malice and violence of the +people, he was driven out into banishment, the Romans might quickly repent of +it; and that all mankind might witness their need for the assistance, and +desire for the return of Camillus. +</p> + +<p> +Thus, like Achilles, having left his imprecations on the citizens, he went into +banishment; so that, neither appearing nor making defense, he was condemned in +the sum of fifteen thousand asses, which, reduced to silver, makes one thousand +five hundred drachmas; for the as was the money of the time, ten of such copper +pieces making the denarius, or piece of ten. And there is not a Roman but +believes that immediately upon the prayers of Camillus a sudden judgment +followed, and that he received a revenge for the injustice done unto him; which +though we cannot think was pleasant, but rather grievous and bitter to him, yet +was very remarkable, and noised over the whole world; such a punishment visited +the city of Rome, an era of such loss and danger and disgrace so quickly +succeeded; whether it thus fell out by fortune, or it be the office of some god +not to see injured virtue go unavenged. +</p> + +<p> +The first token that seemed to threaten some mischief to ensue was the death of +the censor Julius; for the Romans have a religious reverence for the office of +a censor, and esteem it sacred. The second was that, just before Camillus went +into exile, Marcus Caedicius, a person of no great distinction, nor of the rank +of senator, but esteemed a good and respectable man, reported to the military +tribunes a thing worthy their consideration: that, going along the night before +in the street called the New Way, and being called by somebody in a loud voice, +he turned about, but could see no one, but heard a voice greater than human, +which said these words, “Go, Marcus Caedicius, and early in the morning tell +the military tribunes that they are shortly to expect the Gauls.” But the +tribunes made a mock and sport with the story, and a little after came +Camillus’s banishment. +</p> + +<p> +The Gauls are of the Celtic race, and are reported to have been compelled by +their numbers to leave their country, which was insufficient to sustain them +all, and to have gone in search of other homes. And being, many thousands of +them, young men and able to bear arms, and carrying with them a still greater +number of women and young children, some of them, passing the Riphaean +mountains, fell upon the Northern Ocean, and possessed themselves of the +farthest parts of Europe; others, seating themselves between the Pyrenean +mountains and the Alps, lived there a considerable time, near to the Senones +and Celtorii; but, afterwards tasting wine which was then first brought them +out of Italy, they were all so much taken with the liquor, and transported with +the hitherto unknown delight, that, snatching up their arms and taking their +families along with them, they marched directly to the Alps, to find out the +country which yielded such fruit, pronouncing all others barren and useless. He +that first brought wine among them and was the chief instigator of their coming +into Italy is said to have been one Aruns, a Tuscan, a man of noble extraction, +and not of bad natural character, but involved in the following misfortune. He +was guardian to an orphan, one of the richest of the country, and much admired +for his beauty, whose name was Lucumo. From his childhood he had been bred up +with Aruns in his family and when now grown up did not leave his house, +professing to wish for the enjoyment of his society. And thus for a great while +he secretly enjoyed Aruns’s wife, corrupting her, and himself corrupted by her. +But when they were both so far gone in their passion that they could neither +refrain their lust nor conceal it, the young man seized the woman and openly +sought to carry her away. The husband, going to law, and finding himself +overpowered by the interest and money of his opponent, left his country, and, +hearing of the state of the Gauls, went to them and was the conductor of their +expedition into Italy. +</p> + +<p> +At their first coming they at once possessed themselves of all that country +which anciently the Tuscans inhabited, reaching from the Alps to both the seas, +as the names themselves testify; for the North or Adriatic Sea is named from +the Tuscan city Adria, and that to the south the Tuscan Sea simply. The whole +country is rich in fruit trees, has excellent pasture, and is well watered with +rivers. It had eighteen large and beautiful cities, well provided with all the +means for industry and wealth, and all the enjoyments and pleasures of life. +The Gauls cast out the Tuscans, and seated themselves in them. But this was +long before. +</p> + +<p> +The Gauls at this time were besieging Clusium, a Tuscan city. The Clusinians +sent to the Romans for succor desiring them to interpose with the barbarians by +letters and ambassadors. There were sent three of the family of the Fabii, +persons of high rank and distinction in the city. The Gauls received them +courteously, from respect to the name of Rome, and, giving over the assault +which was then making upon the walls, came to conference with them; when the +ambassadors asking what injury they had received of the Clusinians that they +thus invaded their city, Brennus, king of the Gauls, laughed and made answer, +“The Clusinians do us injury, in that, being able only to till a small parcel +of ground, they must needs possess a great territory, and will not yield any +part to us who are strangers, many in number, and poor. In the same nature, O +Romans, formerly the Albans, Fidenates, and Ardeates, and now lately the +Veientines and Capenates, and many of the Faliscans and Volscians, did you +injury; upon whom ye make war if they do not yield you part of what they +possess, make slaves of them, waste and spoil their country, and ruin their +cities; neither in so doing are cruel or unjust, but follow that most ancient +of all laws, which gives the possessions of the feeble to the strong; which +begins with God and ends in the beasts; since all these, by nature, seek, the +stronger to have advantage over the weaker. Cease, therefore, to pity the +Clusinians whom we besiege, lest ye teach the Gauls to be kind and +compassionate to those that are oppressed by you.” By this answer the Romans, +perceiving that Brennus was not to be treated with, went into Clusium, and +encouraged and stirred up the inhabitants to make a sally with them upon the +barbarians, which they did either to try their strength or to show their own. +The sally being made, and the fight growing hot about the walls, one of the +Fabii, Quintus Ambustus, being well mounted, and setting spurs to his horse, +made full against a Gaul, a man of huge bulk and stature, whom he saw riding +out at a distance from the rest. At the first he was not recognized, through +the quickness of the conflict and the glittering of his armor, that precluded +any view of him; but when he had overthrown the Gaul, and was going to gather +the spoils, Brennus knew him; and, invoking the gods to be witnesses, that, +contrary to the known and common law of nations, which is holily observed by +all mankind, he who had come as an ambassador had now engaged in hostility +against him, he drew off his men, and, bidding Clusium farewell, led his army +directly to Rome. But not wishing that it should look as if they took advantage +of that injury, and were ready to embrace any occasion of quarrel, he sent a +herald to demand the man in punishment, and in the meantime marched leisurely +on. +</p> + +<p> +The senate being met at Rome, among many others that spoke against the Fabii, +the priests called fecials were the most decided, who, on the religious ground, +urged the senate that they should lay the whole guilt and penalty of the fact +upon him that committed it, and so exonerate the rest. These fecials Numa +Pompilius, the mildest and justest of kings, constituted guardians of peace, +and the judges and determiners of all causes by which war may justifiably be +made. The senate referring the whole matter to the people, and the priests +there, as well as in the senate, pleading against Fabius, the multitude, +however, so little regarded their authority, that in scorn and contempt of it +they chose Fabius and the rest of his brothers military tribunes. The Gauls, on +hearing this, in great rage threw aside every delay, and hastened on with all +the speed they could make. The places through which they marched, terrified +with their numbers and the splendor of their preparations for war, and in alarm +at their violence and fierceness, began to give up their territories as already +lost, with little doubt but their cities would quickly follow; contrary, +however, to expectation, they did no injury as they passed, nor took anything +from the fields; and, as they went by any city, cried out that they were going +to Rome; that the Romans only were their enemies, and that they took all others +for their friends. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the barbarians were thus hastening with all speed, the military tribunes +brought the Romans into the field to be ready to engage them, being not +inferior to the Gauls in number (for they were no less than forty thousand +foot), but most of them raw soldiers, and such as had never handled a weapon +before. Besides, they had wholly neglected all religious usages, had not +obtained favorable sacrifices, nor made inquiries of the prophets, natural in +danger and before battle. No less did the multitude of commanders distract and +confound their proceedings; frequently before, upon less occasions, they had +chosen a single leader, with the title of dictator, being sensible of what +great importance it is in critical times to have the soldiers united under one +general with the entire and absolute control placed in his hands. Add to all, +the remembrance of Camillus’s treatment, which made it now seem a dangerous +thing for officers to command without humoring their soldiers. In this +condition they left the city, and encamped by the river Allia, about ten miles +from Rome, and not far from the place where it falls into the Tiber; and here +the Gauls came upon them, and, after a disgraceful resistance, devoid of order +and discipline, they were miserably defeated. The left wing was immediately +driven into the river, and there destroyed; the right had less damage by +declining the shock, and from the low grounds getting to the tops of the hills, +from whence most of them afterwards dropped into the city; the rest, as many as +escaped, the enemy being weary of the slaughter, stole by night to Veii, giving +up Rome and all that was in it for lost. +</p> + +<p> +This battle was fought about the summer solstice, the moon being at full, the +very same day in which the sad disaster of the Fabii had happened, when three +hundred of that name were at one time cut off by the Tuscans. But from this +second loss and defeat the day got the name of Alliensis, from the river Allia, +and still retains it. The question of unlucky days, whether we should consider +any to be so, and whether Heraclitus did well in upbraiding Hesiod for +distinguishing them into fortunate and unfortunate, as ignorant that the nature +of every day is the same, I have examined in another place; but upon occasion +of the present subject, I think it will not be amiss to annex a few examples +relating to this matter. On the fifth of their month Hippodromius, which +corresponds to the Athenian Hecatombaeon, the Boeotians gained two signal +victories, the one at Leuctra, the other at Ceressus, about three hundred years +before, when they overcame Lattamyas and the Thessalians, both which asserted +the liberty of Greece. Again, on the sixth of Boedromion, the Persians were +worsted by the Greeks at Marathon; on the third, at Plataea, as also at Mycale; +on the twenty-fifth, at Arbela. The Athenians, about the full moon in +Boedromion, gained their sea- victory at Naxos under the conduct of Chabrias; +on the twentieth, at Salamis, as we have shown in our treatise on Days. +Thargelion was a very unfortunate month to the barbarians, for in it Alexander +overcame Darius’s generals on the Granicus; and the Carthaginians, on the +twenty- fourth, were beaten by Timoleon in Sicily, on which same day and month +Troy seems to have been taken, as Ephorus, Callisthenes, Damastes, and +Phylarchus state. On the other hand, the month Metagitnion, which in Boeotia is +called Panemus, was not very lucky to the Greeks; for on its seventh day they +were defeated by Antipater, at the battle in Cranon, and utterly ruined; and +before, at Chaeronea, were defeated by Philip; and on the very same day, same +month, and same year, those that went with Archidamus into Italy were there cut +off by the barbarians. The Carthaginians also observe the twenty-first of the +same month, as bringing with it the largest number and the severest of their +losses. I am not ignorant, that, about the Feast of Mysteries, Thebes was +destroyed the second time by Alexander; and after that, upon the very twentieth +of Boedromion, on which day they lead forth the mystic Iacchus, the Athenians +received a garrison of the Macedonians. On the selfsame day the Romans lost +their army under Caepio by the Cimbrians, and in a subsequent year, under the +conduct of Lucullus, overcame the Armenians and Tigranes. King Attalus and +Pompey died both on their birthdays. One could reckon up several that have had +variety of fortune on the same day. This day, meantime, is one of the +unfortunate ones to the Romans, and for its sake two others in every month; +fear and superstition, as the custom of it is, more and more prevailing. But I +have discussed this more accurately in my Roman Questions. +</p> + +<p> +And now, after the battle, had the Gauls immediately pursued those that fled, +there had been no remedy but Rome must have wholly been ruined, and all those +who remained in it utterly destroyed; such was the terror that those who +escaped the battle brought with them into the city, and with such distraction +and confusion were themselves in turn infected. But the Gauls, not imagining +their victory to be so considerable, and overtaken with the present joy, fell +to feasting and dividing the spoil, by which means they gave leisure to those +who were for leaving the city to make their escape, and to those that remained, +to anticipate and prepare for their coming. For they who resolved to stay at +Rome, abandoning the rest of the city, betook themselves to the Capitol, which +they fortified with the help of missiles and new works. One of their principal +cares was of their holy things, most of which they conveyed into the Capitol. +But the consecrated fire the vestal virgins took, and fled with it, as likewise +their other sacred things. Some write that they have nothing in their charge +but the ever-living fire which Numa had ordained to be worshipped as the +principle of all things; for fire is the most active thing in nature, and all +production is either motion, or attended with motion; all the other parts of +matter, so long as they are without warmth, lie sluggish and dead, and require +the accession of a sort of soul or vitality in the principle of heat; and upon +that accession, in whatever way, immediately receive a capacity either of +acting or being acted upon. And thus Numa, a man curious in such things, and +whose wisdom made it thought that he conversed with the Muses, consecrated +fire, and ordained it to be kept ever burning, as an image of that eternal +power which orders and actuates all things. Others say that this fire was kept +burning in front of the holy things, as in Greece, for purification, and that +there were other things hid in the most secret part of the temple, which were +kept from the view of all, except those virgins whom they call vestals. The +most common opinion was, that the image of Pallas, brought into Italy by +Aeneas, was laid up there; others say that the Samothracian images lay there, +telling a story how that Dardanus carried them to Troy, and, when he had built +the city, celebrated those rites, and dedicated those images there; that after +Troy was taken, Aeneas stole them away, and kept them till his coming into +Italy. But they who profess to know more of the matter affirm that there are +two barrels, not of any great size, one of which stands open and has nothing in +it, the other full and sealed up; but that neither of them may be seen but by +the most holy virgins. Others think that they who say this are misled by the +fact that the virgins put most of their holy things into two barrels at this +time of the Gaulish invasion, and hid them underground in the temple of +Quirinus; and that from hence that place to this day bears the name of Barrels. +</p> + +<p> +However it be, taking the most precious and important things they had, they +fled away with them, shaping their course along the river side, where Lucius +Albinius, a simple citizen of Rome, who among others was making his escape, +overtook them, having his wife, children, and goods in a cart; and, seeing the +virgins dragging along in their arms the holy things of the gods, in a helpless +and weary condition, he caused his wife and children to get down, and, taking +out his goods, put the virgins in the cart, that they might make their escape +to some of the Greek cities. This devout act of Albinius, and the respect he +showed thus signally to the gods at a time of such extremity, deserved not to +be passed over in silence. But the priests that belonged to other gods, and the +most elderly of the senators, men who had been consuls and had enjoyed +triumphs, could not endure to leave the city; but, putting on their sacred and +splendid robes, Fabius the high-priest performing the office, they made their +prayers to the gods, and, devoting themselves, as it were, for their country, +sat themselves down in their ivory chairs in the forum, and in that posture +expected the event. +</p> + +<p> +On the third day after the battle, Brennus appeared with his army at the city, +and, finding the gates wide open and no guards upon the walls, first began to +suspect it was some design or stratagem, never dreaming that the Romans were in +so desperate a condition. But when he found it to be so indeed, he entered at +the Colline gate, and took Rome, in the three hundred and sixtieth year, or a +little more, after it was built; if, indeed, it can be supposed probable that +an exact chronological statement has been preserved of events which were +themselves the cause of chronological difficulties about things of later date; +of the calamity itself, however, and of the fact of the capture, some faint +rumors seem to have passed at the time into Greece. Heraclides Ponticus, who +lived not long after these times, in his book upon the Soul, relates that a +certain report came from the west, that an army, proceeding from the +Hyperboreans, had taken a Greek city called Rome, seated somewhere upon the +great sea. But I do not wonder that so fabulous and high-flown an author as +Heraclides should embellish the truth of the story with expressions about +Hyperboreans and the great sea. Aristotle the philosopher appears to have heard +a correct statement of the taking of the city by the Gauls, but he calls its +deliverer Lucius; whereas Camillus’s surname was not Lucius, but Marcus. But +this is a matter of conjecture. +</p> + +<p> +Brennus, having taken possession of Rome, set a strong guard about the Capitol, +and, going himself down into the forum, was there struck with amazement at the +sight of so many men sitting in that order and silence, observing that they +neither rose at his coming, nor so much as changed color or countenance, but +remained without fear or concern, leaning upon their staves, and sitting +quietly, looking at each other. The Gauls, for a great while, stood wondering +at the strangeness of the sight not daring to approach or touch them, taking +them for an assembly of superior beings. But when one, bolder than the rest, +drew near to Marcus Papirius, and, putting forth his hand, gently touched his +chin and stroked his long beard, Papirius with his staff struck him a severe +blow on the head; upon which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. This +was the introduction to the slaughter; for the rest, following his example, set +upon them all and killed them, and dispatched all others that came in their +way; and so went on to the sacking and pillaging the houses, which they +continued for many days ensuing. Afterwards, they burnt them down to the ground +and demolished them, being incensed at those who kept the Capitol, because they +would not yield to summons; but, on the contrary, when assailed, had repelled +them, with some loss, from their defenses. This provoked them to ruin the whole +city, and to put to the sword all that came to their hands, young and old, men, +women, and children. +</p> + +<p> +And now, the siege of the Capitol having lasted a good while, the Gauls began +to be in want of provision; and dividing their forces, part of them stayed with +their king at the siege, the rest went to forage the country, ravaging the +towns and villages where they came, but not all together in a body, but in +different squadrons and parties; and to such a confidence had success raised +them, that they carelessly rambled about without the least fear or apprehension +of danger. But the greatest and best ordered body of their forces went to the +city of Ardea, where Camillus then sojourned, having, ever since his leaving +Rome, sequestered himself from all business, and taken to a private life; but +now he began to rouse up himself, and consider not how to avoid or escape the +enemy, but to find out an opportunity to be revenged upon them. And perceiving +that the Ardeatians wanted not men, but rather enterprise, through the +inexperience and timidity of their officers, he began to speak with the young +men, first, to the effect that they ought not to ascribe the misfortune of the +Romans to the courage of their enemy, nor attribute the losses they sustained +by rash counsel to the conduct of men who had no title to victory; the event +had been only an evidence of the power of fortune; that it was a brave thing +even with danger to repel a foreign and barbarous invader, whose end in +conquering was like fire, to lay waste and destroy, but if they would be +courageous and resolute, he was ready to put an opportunity into their hands to +gain a victory without hazard at all. When he found the young men embraced the +thing, he went to the magistrates and council of the city, and, having +persuaded them also, he mustered all that could bear arms, and drew them up +within the walls, that they might not be perceived by the enemy, who was near; +who, having scoured the country, and now returned heavy-laden with booty, lay +encamped in the plains in a careless and negligent posture, so that, with the +night ensuing upon debauch and drunkenness, silence prevailed through all the +camp. When Camillus learned this from his scouts, he drew out the Ardeatians, +and in the dead of the night, passing in silence over the ground that lay +between, came up to their works, and, commanding his trumpets to sound and his +men to shout and halloo, he struck terror into them from all quarters; while +drunkenness impeded and sleep retarded their movements. A few, whom fear had +sobered, getting into some order, for awhile resisted; and so died with their +weapons in their hands. But the greatest part of them, buried in wine and +sleep, were surprised without their arms, and dispatched; and as many of them +as by the advantage of the night got out of the camp were the next day found +scattered abroad and wandering in the fields, and were picked up by the horse +that pursued them. +</p> + +<p> +The fame of this action soon flew through the neighboring cities, and stirred +up the young men from various quarters to come and join themselves with him. +But none were so much concerned as those Romans who escaped in the battle of +Allia, and were now at Veii, thus lamenting with themselves, “O heavens, what a +commander has Providence bereaved Rome of, to honor Ardea with his actions! And +that city, which brought forth and nursed so great a man, is lost and gone, and +we, destitute of a leader and shut up within strange walls, sit idle, and see +Italy ruined before our eyes. Come, let us send to the Ardeatians to have back +our general, or else, with weapons in our hands, let us go thither to him; for +he is no longer a banished man, nor we citizens, having no country but what is +in the possession of the enemy.” To this they all agreed, and sent to Camillus +to desire him to take the command; but he answered, that he would not, until +they that were in the Capitol should legally appoint him; for he esteemed them, +as long as they were in being, to be his country; that if they should command +him, he would readily obey; but against their consent he would intermeddle with +nothing. When this answer was returned, they admired the modesty and temper of +Camillus; but they could not tell how to find a messenger to carry the +intelligence to the Capitol, or rather, indeed, it seemed altogether impossible +for any one to get to the citadel whilst the enemy was in full possession of +the city. But among the young men there was one Pontius Cominius, of ordinary +birth, but ambitious of honor, who proffered himself to run the hazard, and +took no letters with him to those in the Capitol, lest, if he were intercepted, +the enemy might learn the intentions of Camillus; but, putting on a poor dress +and carrying corks under it, he boldly traveled the greatest part of the way by +day, and came to the city when it was dark; the bridge he could not pass, as it +was guarded by the barbarians; so that taking his clothes, which were neither +many nor heavy, and binding them about his head, he laid his body upon the +corks, and, swimming with them, got over to the city. And avoiding those +quarters where he perceived the enemy was awake, which he guessed at by the +lights and noise, he went to the Carmental gate, where there was greatest +silence, and where the hill of the Capitol is steepest, and rises with craggy +and broken rock. By this way he got up, though with much difficulty, by the +hollow of the cliff, and presented himself to the guards, saluting them, and +telling them his name; he was taken in, and carried to the commanders. And a +senate being immediately called, he related to them in order the victory of +Camillus, which they had not heard of before, and the proceedings of the +soldiers; urging them to confirm Camillus in the command, as on him alone all +their fellow-countrymen outside the city would rely. Having heard and consulted +of the matter, the senate declared Camillus dictator, and sent back Pontius the +same way that he came, who, with the same success as before, got through the +enemy without being discovered, and delivered to the Romans outside the +decision of the senate, who joyfully received it. Camillus, on his arrival, +found twenty thousand of them ready in arms; with which forces, and those +confederates he brought along with him, he prepared to set upon the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +But at Rome some of the barbarians, passing by chance near the place at which +Pontius by night had got into the Capitol, spied in several places marks of +feet and hands, where he had laid hold and clambered, and places where the +plants that grew to the rock had been rubbed off, and the earth had slipped, +and went accordingly and reported it to the king, who, coming in person, and +viewing it, for the present said nothing, but in the evening, picking out such +of the Gauls as were nimblest of body, and by living in the mountains were +accustomed to climb, he said to them, “The enemy themselves have shown us a way +how to come at them, which we knew not of before, and have taught us that it is +not so difficult and impossible but that men may overcome it. It would be a +great shame, having begun well, to fail in the end, and to give up a place as +impregnable, when the enemy himself lets us see the way by which it may be +taken; for where it was easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for +many, one after another; nay, when many shall undertake it, they will be aid +and strength to each other. Rewards and honors shall be bestowed on every man +as he shall acquit himself.” +</p> + +<p> +When the king had thus spoken, the Gauls cheerfully undertook to perform it, +and in the dead of night a good party of them together, with great silence, +began to climb the rock, clinging to the precipitous and difficult ascent, +which yet upon trial offered a way to them, and proved less difficult than they +had expected. So that the foremost of them having gained the top of all, and +put themselves into order, they all but surprised the outworks, and mastered +the watch, who were fast asleep; for neither man nor dog perceived their +coming. But there were sacred geese kept near the temple of Juno, which at +other times were plentifully fed, but now, by reason that corn and all other +provisions were grown scarce for all, were but in a poor condition. The +creature is by nature of quick sense, and apprehensive of the least noise, so +that these, being moreover watchful through hunger, and restless, immediately +discovered the coming of the Gauls, and, running up and down with their noise +and cackling, they raised the whole camp, while the barbarians on the other +side, perceiving themselves discovered, no longer endeavored to conceal their +attempt, but with shouting and violence advanced to the assault. The Romans, +every one in haste snatching up the next weapon that came to hand, did what +they could on the sudden occasion. Manlius, a man of consular dignity, of +strong body and great spirit, was the first that made head against them, and, +engaging with two of the enemy at once, with his sword cut off the right arm of +one just as he was lifting up his blade to strike, and, running his target full +in the face of the other, tumbled him headlong down the steep rock; then +mounting the rampart, and there standing with others that came running to his +assistance, drove down the rest of them, who, indeed, to begin, had not been +many, and did nothing worthy of so bold an attempt. The Romans, having thus +escaped this danger, early in the morning took the captain of the watch and +flung him down the rock upon the heads of their enemies, and to Manlius for his +victory voted a reward, intended more for honor than advantage, bringing him, +each man of them, as much as he received for his daily allowance, which was +half a pound of bread, and one eighth of a pint of wine. +</p> + +<p> +Henceforward, the affairs of the Gauls were daily in a worse and worse +condition; they wanted provisions, being withheld from foraging through fear of +Camillus, and sickness also was amongst them, occasioned by the number of +carcasses that lay in heaps unburied. Being lodged among the ruins, the ashes, +which were very deep, blown about with the winds and combining with the sultry +heats, breathed up, so to say, a dry and searching air, the inhalation of which +was destructive to their health. But the chief cause was the change from their +natural climate, coming as they did out of shady and hilly countries, abounding +in means of shelter from the heat, to lodge in low, and, in the autumn season, +very unhealthy ground; added to which was the length and tediousness of the +siege, as they had now sat seven months before the Capitol. There was, +therefore, a great destruction among them, and the number of the dead grew so +great, that the living gave up burying them. Neither, indeed, were things on +that account any better with the besieged, for famine increased upon them, and +despondency with not hearing any thing of Camillus, it being impossible to send +any one to him, the city was so guarded by the barbarians. Things being in this +sad condition on both sides, a motion of treaty was made at first by some of +the outposts, as they happened to speak with one another; which being embraced +by the leading men, Sulpicius, tribune of the Romans, came to a parley with +Brennus, in which it was agreed, that the Romans laying down a thousand weight +of gold, the Gauls upon the receipt of it should immediately quit the city and +territories. The agreement being confirmed by oath on both sides, and the gold +brought forth, the Gauls used false dealing in the weights, secretly at first, +but afterwards openly pulled back and disturbed the balance; at which the +Romans indignantly complaining, Brennus in a scoffing and insulting manner +pulled off his sword and belt, and threw them both into the scales; and when +Sulpicius asked what that meant, “What should it mean,” says he, “but woe to +the conquered?” which afterwards became a proverbial saying. As for the Romans, +some were so incensed that they were for taking their gold back again, and +returning to endure the siege. Others were for passing by and dissembling a +petty injury, and not to account that the indignity of the thing lay in paying +more than was due, since the paying anything at all was itself a dishonor only +submitted to as a necessity of the times. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst this difference remained still unsettled, both amongst themselves and +with the Gauls, Camillus was at the gates with his army; and, having learned +what was going on, commanded the main body of his forces to follow slowly after +him in good order, and himself with the choicest of his men hastening on, went +at once to the Romans; where all giving way to him, and receiving him as their +sole magistrate, with profound silence and order, he took the gold out of the +scales, and delivered it to his officers, and commanded the Gauls to take their +weights and scales and depart; saying that it was customary with the Romans to +deliver their country with iron, not with gold. And when Brennus began to rage, +and say that he was unjustly dealt with in such a breach of contract, Camillus +answered that it was never legally made, and the agreement of no force or +obligation; for that himself being declared dictator, and there being no other +magistrate by law, the engagement had been made with men who had no power to +enter into it; but now they might say anything they had to urge, for he was +come with full power by law to grant pardon to such as should ask it, or +inflict punishment on the guilty, if they did not repent. At this, Brennus +broke into violent anger, and an immediate quarrel ensued; both sides drew +their swords and attacked, but in confusion, as could not otherwise be amongst +houses, and ill narrow lanes and places where it was impossible to form in any +order. But Brennus, presently recollecting himself, called off his men, and, +with the loss of a few only, brought them to their camp; and, rising in the +night with all his forces, left the city, and, advancing about eight miles, +encamped upon the way to Gabii. As soon as day appeared, Camillus came up with +him, splendidly armed himself, and his soldiers full of courage and confidence; +and there engaging with him in a sharp conflict, which lasted a long while, +overthrew his army with great slaughter, and took their camp. Of those that +fled, some were presently cut off by the pursuers; others, and these were the +greatest number, dispersed hither and thither, and were dispatched by the +people that came sallying out from the neighboring towns and villages. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Rome was strangely taken, and more strangely recovered, having been seven +whole months in the possession of the barbarians who entered her a little after +the Ides of July, and were driven out about the Ides of February following. +Camillus triumphed, as he deserved, having saved his country that was lost, and +brought the city, so to say, back again to itself. For those that had fled +abroad, together with their wives and children, accompanied him as he rode in; +and those who had been shut up in the Capitol, and were reduced almost to the +point of perishing with hunger, went out to meet him, embracing each other as +they met, and weeping for joy and, through the excess of the present pleasure, +scarce believing in its truth. And when the priests and ministers of the gods +appeared, bearing the sacred things, which in their flight they had either hid +on the spot, or conveyed away with them, and now openly showed in safety, the +citizens who saw the blessed sight felt as if with these the gods themselves +were again returned unto Rome. After Camillus had sacrificed to the gods, and +purified the city according to the direction of those properly instructed, he +restored the existing temples, and erected a new one to Rumour, or Voice, +informing himself of the spot in which that voice from heaven came by night to +Marcus Caedicius, foretelling the coming of the barbarian army. +</p> + +<p> +It was a matter of difficulty, and a hard task, amidst so much rubbish, to +discover and redetermine the consecrated places; but by the zeal of Camillus, +and the incessant labor of the priests, it was at last accomplished. But when +it came also to rebuilding the city, which was wholly demolished, despondency +seized the multitude, and a backwardness to engage in a work for which they had +no materials; at a time, too, when they rather needed relief and repose from +their past labors, than any new demands upon their exhausted strength and +impaired fortunes. Thus insensibly they turned their thoughts again towards +Veii, a city ready-built and well-provided, and gave an opening to the arts of +flatterers eager to gratify their desires, and lent their ears to seditious +language flung out against Camillus; as that, out of ambition and self-glory, +he withheld them from a city fit to receive them, forcing them to live in the +midst of ruins, and to re-erect a pile of burnt rubbish, that he might be +esteemed not the chief magistrate only and general of Rome, but, to the +exclusion of Romulus, its founder, also. The senate, therefore, fearing a +sedition, would not suffer Camillus, though desirous, to lay down his authority +within the year, though no other dictator had ever held it above six months. +</p> + +<p> +They themselves, meantime, used their best endeavors, by kind persuasions and +familiar addresses, to encourage and to appease the people, showing them the +shrines and tombs of their ancestors, calling to their remembrance the sacred +spots and holy places which Romulus and Numa or any other of their kings had +consecrated and left to their keeping; and among the strongest religious +arguments, urged the head, newly separated from the body, which was found in +laying the foundation of the Capitol, marking it as a place destined by fate to +be the head of all Italy; and the holy fire which had just been rekindled +again, since the end of the war, by the vestal virgins; “What a disgrace would +it be to them to lose and extinguish this, leaving the city it belonged to, to +be either inhabited by strangers and new-comers, or left a wild pasture for +cattle to graze on?” Such reasons as these, urged with complaint and +expostulation, sometimes in private upon individuals, and sometimes in their +public assemblies, were met, on the other hand, by laments and protestations of +distress and helplessness; entreaties, that, reunited as they just were, after +a sort of shipwreck, naked and destitute, they would not constrain them to +patch up the pieces of a ruined and shattered city, when they had another at +hand ready-built and prepared. +</p> + +<p> +Camillus thought good to refer it to general deliberation, and himself spoke +largely and earnestly in behalf of his country, as also many others. At last, +calling to Lucius Lucretius, whose place it was to speak first, he commanded +him to give his sentence, and the rest as they followed, in order. Silence +being made, and Lucretius just about to begin, by chance a centurion, passing +by outside with his company of the day-guard, called out with a loud voice to +the ensign-bearer to halt and fix his standard, for this was the best place to +stay in. This voice, coming in that moment of time, and at that crisis of +uncertainty and anxiety for the future, was taken as a direction what was to be +done; so that Lucretius, assuming an attitude of devotion, gave sentence in +concurrence with the gods, as he said, as likewise did all that followed. Even +among the common people it created a wonderful change of feeling; every one now +cheered and encouraged his neighbor, and set himself to the work, proceeding in +it, however, not by any regular lines or divisions, but every one pitching upon +that plot of ground which came next to hand, or best pleased his fancy; by +which haste and hurry in building, they constructed their city in narrow and +ill-designed lanes, and with houses huddled together one upon another; for it +is said that within the compass of the year the whole city was raised up anew, +both in its public walls and private buildings. The persons, however, appointed +by Camillus to resume and mark out, in this general confusion, all consecrated +places, coming, in their way round the Palatium, to the chapel of Mars, found +the chapel itself indeed destroyed and burnt to the ground, like everything +else, by the barbarians; but whilst they were clearing the place, and carrying +away the rubbish, lit upon Romulus’s augural staff, buried under a great heap +of ashes. This sort of staff is crooked at one end, and is called lituus; they +make use of it in quartering out the regions of the heavens when engaged in +divination from the flight of birds; Romulus, who was himself a great diviner, +made use of it. But when he disappeared from the earth, the priests took his +staff and kept it, as other holy things, from the touch of man; and when they +now found that, whereas all other things were consumed, this staff had +altogether escaped the flames, they began to conceive happier hopes of Rome, +and to augur from this token its future everlasting safety. +</p> + +<p> +And now they had scarcely got a breathing time from their trouble, when a new +war came upon them; and the Aequians, Volscians, and Latins all at once invaded +their territories, and the Tuscans besieged Sutrium, their confederate city. +The military tribunes who commanded the army, and were encamped about the hill +Maecius, being closely besieged by the Latins, and the camp in danger to be +lost, sent to Rome, where Camillus was a third time chosen dictator. Of this +war two different accounts are given; I shall begin with the more fabulous. +They say that the Latins (whether out of pretense, or a real design to revive +the ancient relationship of the two nations) sent to desire of the Romans some +free- born maidens in marriage; that when the Romans were at a loss how to +determine (for on one hand they dreaded a war, having scarcely yet settled and +recovered themselves, and on the other side suspected that this asking of wives +was, in plain terms, nothing else but a demand for hostages, though covered +over with the specious name of intermarriage and alliance), a certain handmaid, +by name Tutula, or, as some call her, Philotis, persuaded the magistrates to +send with her some of the most youthful and best looking maid-servants, in the +bridal dress of noble virgins, and leave the rest to her care and management; +that the magistrates consenting, chose out as many as she thought necessary for +her purpose, and, adorning them with gold and rich clothes, delivered them to +the Latins, who were encamped not far from the city; that at night the rest +stole away the enemy’s swords, but Tutula or Philotis, getting to the top of a +wild fig-tree, and spreading out a thick woolen cloth behind her, held out a +torch towards Rome, which was the signal concerted between her and the +commanders, without the knowledge, however, of any other of the citizens, which +was the reason that their issuing out from the city was tumultuous, the +officers pushing their men on, and they calling upon one another’s names, and +scarce able to bring themselves into order; that setting upon the enemy’s +works, who either were asleep or expected no such matter, they took the camp, +and destroyed most of them; and that this was done on the nones of July, which +was then called Quintilis, and that the feast that is observed on that day is a +commemoration of what was then done. For in it, first, they run out of the city +in great crowds, and call out aloud several familiar and common names, Caius, +Marcus, Lucius, and the like, in representation of the way in which they called +to one another when they went out in such haste. In the next place, the +maid-servants, gaily dressed, run about, playing and jesting upon all they +meet, and amongst themselves, also, use a kind of skirmishing, to show they +helped in the conflict against the Latins; and while eating and drinking, they +sit shaded over with boughs of wild fig-tree, and the day they call Nonae +Caprotinae, as some think from that wild fig-tree on which the maid- servant +held up her torch, the Roman name for a wild fig-tree being caprificus. Others +refer most of what is said or done at this feast to the fate of Romulus, for, +on this day, he vanished outside the gates in a sudden darkness and storm (some +think it an eclipse of the sun), and from this, the day was called Nonae +Caprotinae, the Latin for a goat being capra, and the place where he +disappeared having the name of Goat’s Marsh, as is stated in his life. +</p> + +<p> +But the general stream of writers prefer the other account of this war, which +they thus relate. Camillus, being the third time chosen dictator, and learning +that the army under the tribunes was besieged by the Latins and Volscians, was +constrained to arm, not only those under, but also those over, the age of +service; and taking a large circuit round the mountain Maecius, undiscovered by +the enemy, lodged his army on their rear, and then by many fires gave notice of +his arrival. The besieged, encouraged by this, prepared to sally forth and join +battle; but the Latins and Volscians, fearing this exposure to an enemy on both +sides, drew themselves within their works, and fortified their camp with a +strong palisade of trees on every side, resolving to wait for more supplies +from home, and expecting, also, the assistance of the Tuscans, their +confederates. Camillus, detecting their object, and fearing to be reduced to +the same position to which he had brought them, namely, to be besieged himself, +resolved to lose no time; and finding their rampart was all of timber, and +observing that a strong wind constantly at sun- rising blew off from the +mountains, after having prepared a quantity of combustibles, about break of day +he drew forth his forces, commanding a part with their missiles to assault the +enemy with noise and shouting on the other quarter, whilst he, with those that +were to fling in the fire, went to that side of the enemy’s camp to which the +wind usually blew, and there waited his opportunity. When the skirmish was +begun, and the sun risen, and a strong wind set in from the mountains, he gave +the signal of onset; and, heaping in an infinite quantity of fiery matter, +filled all their rampart with it, so that the flame being fed by the close +timber and wooden palisades, went on and spread into all quarters. The Latins, +having nothing ready to keep it off or extinguish it, when the camp was now +almost full of fire, were driven back within a very small compass, and at last +forced by necessity to come into their enemy’s hands, who stood before the +works ready armed and prepared to receive them; of these very few escaped, +while those that stayed in the camp were all a prey to the fire, until the +Romans, to gain the pillage, extinguished it. +</p> + +<p> +These things performed, Camillus, leaving his son Lucius in the camp to guard +the prisoners and secure the booty, passed into the enemy’s country, where, +having taken the city of the Aequians and reduced the Volscians to obedience, +he then immediately led his army to Sutrium, not having heard what had befallen +the Sutrians, but making haste to assist them, as if they were still in danger +and besieged by the Tuscans. They, however, had already surrendered their city +to their enemies, and destitute of all things, with nothing left but their +clothes, met Camillus on the way, leading their wives and children, and +bewailing their misfortune. Camillus himself was struck with compassion, and +perceiving the soldiers weeping, and commiserating their case, while the +Sutrians hung about and clung to them, resolved not to defer revenge, but that +very day to lead his army to Sutrium; conjecturing that the enemy, having just +taken a rich and plentiful city, without an enemy left within it, nor any from +without to be expected, would be found abandoned to enjoyment and unguarded. +Neither did his opinion fail him; he not only passed through their country +without discovery, but came up to their very gates and possessed himself of the +walls, not a man being left to guard them, but their whole army scattered about +in the houses, drinking and making merry. Nay, when at last they did perceive +that the enemy had seized the city, they were so overloaded with meat and wine, +that few were able so much as to endeavor to escape, but either waited +shamefully for their death within doors, or surrendered themselves to the +conqueror. Thus the city of the Sutrians was twice taken in one day; and they +who were in possession lost it, and they who had lost regained it, alike by the +means of Camillus. For all which actions he received a triumph, which brought +him no less honor and reputation than the two former ones; for those citizens +who before most regarded him with an evil eye, and ascribed his successes to a +certain luck rather than real merit, were compelled by these last acts of his +to allow the whole honor to his great abilities and energy. +</p> + +<p> +Of all the adversaries and enviers of his glory, Marcus Manlius was the most +distinguished, he who first drove back the Gauls when they made their night +attack upon the Capitol, and who for that reason had been named Capitolinus. +This man, affecting the first place in the commonwealth, and not able by noble +ways to outdo Camillus’s reputation, took that ordinary course towards +usurpation of absolute power, namely, to gain the multitude, those of them +especially that were in debt; defending some by pleading their causes against +their creditors, rescuing others by force, and not suffering the law to proceed +against them; insomuch that in a short time he got great numbers of indigent +people about him, whose tumults and uproars in the forum struck terror into the +principal citizens. After that Quintius Capitolinus, who was made dictator to +suppress these disorders, had committed Manlius to prison, the people +immediately changed their apparel, a thing never done but in great and public +calamities, and the senate, fearing some tumult, ordered him to be released. +He, however, when set at liberty, changed not his course, but was rather the +more insolent in his proceedings, filling the whole city with faction and +sedition. They chose, therefore, Camillus again military tribune; and a day +being appointed for Manlius to answer to his charge, the prospect from the +place where his trial was held proved a great impediment to his accusers; for +the very spot where Manlius by night fought with the Gauls overlooked the forum +from the Capitol, so that, stretching forth his hands that way, and weeping, he +called to their remembrance his past actions, raising compassion in all that +beheld him. Insomuch that the judges were at a loss what to do, and several +times adjourned the trial, unwilling to acquit him of the crime, which was +sufficiently proved, and yet unable to execute the law while his noble action +remained, as it were, before their eyes. Camillus, considering this, +transferred the court outside the gates to the Peteline Grove, from whence +there is no prospect of the Capitol. Here his accuser went on with his charge, +and his judges were capable of remembering and duly resenting his guilty deeds. +He was convicted, carried to the Capitol, and flung headlong from the rock; so +that one and the same spot was thus the witness of his greatest glory, and +monument of his most unfortunate end. The Romans, besides, razed his house, and +built there a temple to the goddess they call Moneta, ordaining for the future +that none of the patrician order should ever dwell on the Capitoline. +</p> + +<p> +And now Camillus, being called to his sixth tribuneship, desired to be excused, +as being aged, and perhaps not unfearful of the malice of fortune, and those +reverses which seem to ensue upon great prosperity. But the most apparent +pretense was the weakness of his body, for he happened at that time to be sick; +the people, however, would admit of no excuses, but, crying that they wanted +not his strength for horse or for foot service, but only his counsel and +conduct, constrained him to undertake the command, and with one of his +fellow-tribunes to lead the army immediately against the enemy. These were the +Praenestines and Volscians, who, with large forces, were laying waste the +territory of the Roman confederates. Having marched out with his army, he sat +down and encamped near the enemy, meaning himself to protract the war, or if +there should come any necessity or occasion of fighting, in the mean time to +regain his strength. But Lucius Furius, his colleague, carried away with the +desire of glory, was not to be held in, but, impatient to give battle, inflamed +the inferior officers of the army with the same eagerness; so that Camillus, +fearing he might seem out of envy to be wishing to rob the young men of the +glory of a noble exploit, consented, though unwillingly, that he should draw +out the forces, whilst himself, by reason of weakness, stayed behind with a few +in the camp. Lucius, engaging rashly, was discomfited, when Camillus, +perceiving the Romans to give ground and fly, could not contain himself, but, +leaping from his bed, with those he had about him ran to meet them at the gates +of the camp, making his way through the flyers to oppose the pursuers; so that +those who had got within the camp turned back at once and followed him, and +those that came flying from without made head again and gathered about him, +exhorting one another not to forsake their general. Thus the enemy for that +time, was stopped in his pursuit. The next day Camillus drawing out his forces +and joining battle with them, overthrew them by main force, and, following +close upon them, entered pell-mell with them into their camp and took it, +slaying the greatest part of them. Afterwards, having heard that the city +Satricum was taken by the Tuscans, and the inhabitants, all Romans, put to the +sword, he sent home to Rome the main body of his forces and heaviest-armed, +and, taking with him the lightest and most vigorous soldiers, set suddenly upon +the Tuscans, who were in the possession of the city, and mastered them, slaying +some and expelling the rest; and so, returning to Rome with great spoils, gave +signal evidence of their superior wisdom, who, not mistrusting the weakness and +age of a commander endued with courage and conduct, had rather chosen him who +was sickly and desirous to be excused, than younger men who were forward and +ambitious to command. +</p> + +<p> +When, therefore, the revolt of the Tusculans was reported, they gave Camillus +the charge of reducing them, choosing one of his five colleagues to go with +him. And when every one was eager for the place, contrary to the expectation of +all, he passed by the rest and chose Lucius Furius, the very same man who +lately, against the judgment of Camillus, had rashly hazarded and nearly lost a +battle; willing, as it should seem, to dissemble that miscarriage, and free him +from the shame of it. The Tusculans, hearing of Camillus’s coming against them, +made a cunning attempt at revoking their act of revolt; their fields, as in +times of highest peace, were full of plowman and shepherds; their gates stood +wide open, and their children were being taught in the schools; of the people, +such as were tradesmen, he found in their workshops, busied about their several +employments, and the better sort of citizens walking in the public places in +their ordinary dress; the magistrates hurried about to provide quarters for the +Romans, as if they stood in fear of no danger and were conscious of no fault. +Which arts, though they could not dispossess Camillus of the conviction he had +of their treason, yet induced some compassion for their repentance; he +commanded them to go to the senate and deprecate their anger, and joined +himself as an intercessor in their behalf, so that their city was acquitted of +all guilt and admitted to Roman citizenship, These were the most memorable +actions of his sixth tribuneship. +</p> + +<p> +After these things, Licinius Stolo raised a great sedition in the city, and +brought the people to dissension with the senate, contending, that of two +consuls one should be chosen out of the commons, and not both out of the +patricians. Tribunes of the people were chosen, but the election of consuls was +interrupted and prevented by the people. And as this absence of any supreme +magistrate was leading to yet further confusion, Camillus was the fourth time +created dictator by the senate, sorely against the people’s will, and not +altogether in accordance with his own; he had little desire for a conflict with +men whose past services entitled them to tell him that he had achieved far +greater actions in war along with them than in politics with the patricians, +who, indeed, had only put him forward now out of envy; that, if successful, he +might crush the people, or, failing, be crushed himself. However, to provide as +good a remedy as he could for the present, knowing the day on which the +tribunes of the people intended to prefer the law, he appointed it by +proclamation for a general muster, and called the people from the forum into +the Campus, threatening to set heavy fines upon such as should not obey. On the +other side, the tribunes of the people met his threats by solemnly protesting +they would fine him in fifty thousand drachmas of silver, if he persisted in +obstructing the people from giving their suffrages for the law. Whether it +were, then, that he feared another banishment or condemnation which would ill +become his age and past great actions, or found himself unable to stem the +current of the multitude, which ran strong and violent, he betook himself, for +the present, to his house, and afterwards, for some days together, professing +sickness, finally laid down his dictatorship. The senate created another +dictator; who, choosing Stolo, leader of the sedition, to be his general of +horse, suffered that law to be enacted and ratified, which was most grievous to +the patricians, namely, that no person whatsoever should possess above five +hundred acres of land. Stolo was much distinguished by the victory he had +gained; but, not long after, was found himself to possess more than he had +allowed to others, and suffered the penalties of his own law. +</p> + +<p> +And now the contention about election of consuls coming on (which was the main +point and original cause of the dissension, and had throughtout furnished most +matter of division between the senate and the people), certain intelligence +arrived, that the Gauls again, proceeding from the Adriatic Sea, were marching +in vast numbers upon Rome. On the very heels of the report followed manifest +acts also of hostility; the country through which they marched was all wasted, +and such as by flight could not make their escape to Rome were dispersing and +scattering among the mountains. The terror of this war quieted the sedition; +nobles and commons, senate and people together, unanimously chose Camillus the +fifth time dictator; who, though very aged, not wanting much of fourscore +years, yet, considering the danger and necessity of his country, did not, as +before, pretend sickness, or depreciate his own capacity, but at once undertook +the charge, and enrolled soldiers. And, knowing that the great force of the +barbarians lay chiefly in their swords, with which they laid about them in a +rude and inartificial manner, hacking and hewing the head and shoulders, he +caused head-pieces entire of iron to be made for most of his men, smoothing and +polishing the outside, that the enemy’s swords, lighting upon them, might +either slide off or be broken; and fitted also their shields with a little rim +of brass, the wood itself not being sufficient to bear off the blows. Besides, +he taught his soldiers to use their long javelins in close encounter, and, by +bringing them under their enemy’s swords, to receive their strokes upon them. +</p> + +<p> +When the Gauls drew near, about the river Anio, dragging a heavy camp after +them, and loaded with infinite spoil, Camillus drew forth his forces, and +planted himself upon a hill of easy ascent, and which had many dips in it, with +the object that the greatest part of his army might lie concealed, and those +who appeared might be thought to have betaken themselves, through fear, to +those upper grounds. And the more to increase this opinion in them, he suffered +them, without any disturbance, to spoil and pillage even to his very trenches, +keeping himself quiet within his works, which were well fortified; till, at +last, perceiving that part of the enemy were scattered about the country +foraging, and that those that were in the camp did nothing day and night but +drink and revel, in the nighttime he drew up his lightest-armed men, and sent +them out before to impede the enemy while forming into order, and to harass +them when they should first issue out of their camp; and early in the morning +brought down his main body, and set them in battle array in the lower grounds, +a numerous and courageous army, not, as the barbarians had supposed, an +inconsiderable and fearful division. The first thing that shook the courage of +the Gauls was, that their enemies had, contrary to their expectation, the honor +of being aggressors. In the next place, the light-armed men, falling upon them +before they could get into their usual order or range themselves in their +proper squadrons, so disturbed and pressed upon them, that they were obliged to +fight at random, without any order at all. But at last, when Camillus brought +on his heavy-armed legions, the barbarians, with their swords drawn, went +vigorously to engage them; the Romans, however, opposing their javelins and +receiving the force of their blows on those parts of their defenses which were +well guarded with steel, turned the edge of their weapons, being made of a soft +and ill-tempered metal, so that their swords bent and doubled up in their +hands; and their shields were pierced through and through, and grew heavy with +the javelins that stuck upon them. And thus forced to quit their own weapons, +they endeavored to take advantage of those of their enemies, laid hold of the +javelins with their hands, and tried to pluck them away. But the Romans, +perceiving them now naked and defenseless, betook themselves to their swords, +which they so well used, that in a little time great slaughter was made in the +foremost ranks, while the rest fled over all parts of the level country; the +hills and upper grounds Camillus had secured beforehand, and their camp they +knew it would not be difficult for the enemy to take, as, through confidence of +victory, they had left it unguarded. This fight, it is stated, was thirteen +years after the sacking of Rome; and from henceforward the Romans took courage, +and surmounted the apprehensions they had hitherto entertained of the +barbarians, whose previous defeat they had attributed rather to pestilence and +a concurrence of mischances than to their own superior valor. And, indeed, this +fear had been formerly so great, that they made a law, that priests should be +excused from service in war, unless in an invasion from the Gauls. +</p> + +<p> +This was the last military action that ever Camillus performed; for the +voluntary surrender of the city of the Velitrani was but a mere accessory to +it. But the greatest of all civil contests, and the hardest to be managed, was +still to be fought out against the people; who, returning home full of victory +and success, insisted, contrary to established law, to have one of the consuls +chosen out of their own body. The senate strongly opposed it, and would not +suffer Camillus to lay down his dictatorship, thinking, that, under the shelter +of his great name and authority, they should be better able to contend for the +power of the aristocracy. But when Camillus was sitting upon the tribunal, +dispatching public affairs, an officer, sent by the tribunes of the people, +commanded him to rise and follow him, laying his hand upon him, as ready to +seize and carry him away; upon which, such a noise and tumult as was never +heard before, filled the whole forum; some that were about Camillus thrusting +the officer from the bench, and the multitude below calling out to him to bring +Camillus down. Being at a loss what to do in these difficulties, he yet laid +not down his authority, but, taking the senators along with him, he went to the +senate-house; but before he entered, besought the gods that they would bring +these troubles to a happy conclusion, solemnly vowing, when the tumult was +ended, to build a temple to Concord. A great conflict of opposite opinions +arose in the senate; but, at last, the most moderate and most acceptable to the +people prevailed, and consent was given, that of two consuls, one should be +chosen from the commonalty. When the dictator proclaimed this determination of +the senate to the people, at the moment, pleased and reconciled with the +senate, as indeed could not otherwise be, they accompanied Camillus home, with +all expressions and acclamations of joy; and the next day, assembling together, +they voted a temple of Concord to be built, according to Camillus’s vow, facing +the assembly and the forum; and to the feasts, called the Latin holidays, they +added one day more, making four in all; and ordained that, on the present +occasion, the whole people of Rome should sacrifice with garlands on their +heads. +</p> + +<p> +In the election of consuls held by Camillus, Marcus Aemilius was chosen of the +patricians, and Lucius Sextius the first of the commonalty; and this was the +last of all Camillus’s actions. In the year following, a pestilential sickness +infected Rome, which, besides an infinite number of the common people, swept +away most of the magistrates, among whom was Camillus; whose death cannot be +called immature, if we consider his great age, or greater actions, yet was he +more lamented than all the rest put together that then died of that distemper. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap12"></a>PERICLES</h2> + +<p> +Caesar once, seeing some wealthy strangers at Rome, carrying up and down with +them in their arms and bosoms young puppy-dogs and monkeys, embracing and +making much of them, took occasion not unnaturally to ask whether the women in +their country were not used to bear children; by that prince-like reprimand +gravely reflecting upon persons who spend and lavish upon brute beasts that +affection and kindness which nature has implanted in us to be bestowed on those +of our own kind. With like reason may we blame those who misuse that love of +inquiry and observation which nature has implanted in our souls, by expending +it on objects unworthy of the attention either of their eyes or their ears, +while they disregard such as are excellent in themselves, and would do them +good. +</p> + +<p> +The mere outward sense, being passive in responding to the impression of the +objects that come in its way and strike upon it, perhaps cannot help +entertaining and taking notice of everything that addresses it, be it what it +will, useful or unuseful; but, in the exercise of his mental perception, every +man, if he chooses, has a natural power to turn himself upon all occasions, and +to change and shift with the greatest ease to what he shall himself judge +desirable. So that it becomes a man’s duty to pursue and make after the best +and choicest of everything, that he may not only employ his contemplation, but +may also be improved by it. For as that color is most suitable to the eye whose +freshness and pleasantness stimulates and strengthens the sight, so a man ought +to apply his intellectual perception to such objects as, with the sense of +delight, are apt to call it forth, and allure it to its own proper good and +advantage. +</p> + +<p> +Such objects we find in the acts of virtue, which also produce in the minds of +mere readers about them, an emulation and eagerness that may lead them on to +imitation. In other things there does not immediately follow upon the +admiration and liking of the thing done, any strong desire of doing the like. +Nay, many times, on the very contrary, when we are pleased with the work, we +slight and set little by the workman or artist himself, as, for instance, in +perfumes and purple dyes, we are taken with the things themselves well enough, +but do not think dyers and perfumers otherwise than low and sordid people. It +was not said amiss by Antisthenes, when people told him that one Ismenias was +an excellent piper, “It may be so,” said he, “but he is but a wretched human +being, otherwise he would not have been an excellent piper.” And king Philip, +to the same purpose, told his son Alexander, who once at a merry-meeting played +a piece of music charmingly and skillfully, “Are you not ashamed, son, to play +so well?” For it is enough for a king, or prince to find leisure sometimes to +hear others sing, and he does the muses quite honor enough when he pleases to +be but present, while others engage in such exercises and trials of skill. +</p> + +<p> +He who busies himself in mean occupations produces, in the very pains he takes +about things of little or no use, an evidence against himself of his negligence +and indisposition to what is really good. Nor did any generous and ingenuous +young man, at the sight of the statue of Jupiter at Pisa, ever desire to be a +Phidias, or, on seeing that of Juno at Argos, long to be a Polycletus, or feel +induced by his pleasure in their poems to wish to be an Anacreon or Philetas or +Archilochus. For it does not necessarily follow, that, if a piece of work +please for its gracefulness, therefore he that wrought it deserves our +admiration. Whence it is that neither do such things really profit or advantage +the beholders, upon the sight of which no zeal arises for the imitation of +them, nor any impulse or inclination, which may prompt any desire or endeavor +of doing the like. But virtue, by the bare statement of its actions, can so +affect men’s minds as to create at once both admiration of the things done and +desire to imitate the doers of them. The goods of fortune we would possess and +would enjoy; those of virtue we long to practice and exercise; we are content +to receive the former from others, the latter we wish others to experience from +us. Moral good is a practical stimulus; it is no sooner seen, than it inspires +an impulse to practice; and influences the mind and character not by a mere +imitation which we look at, but, by the statement of the fact, creates a moral +purpose which we form. +</p> + +<p> +And so we have thought fit to spend our time and pains in writing of the lives +of famous persons; and have composed this tenth book upon that subject, +containing the life of Pericles, and that of Fabius Maximus, who carried on the +war against Hannibal, men alike, as in their other virtues and good parts, so +especially in their mild and upright temper and demeanor, and in that capacity +to bear the cross-grained humors of their fellow-citizens and colleagues in +office which made them both most useful and serviceable to the interests of +their countries. Whether we take a right aim at our intended purpose, it is +left to the reader to judge by what he shall here find. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles was of the tribe Acamantis, and the township Cholargus, of the noblest +birth both on his father’s and mother’s side. Xanthippus, his father, who +defeated the king of Persia’s generals in the battle at Mycale, took to wife +Agariste, the grandchild of Clisthenes, who drove out the sons of Pisistratus, +and nobly put an end to their tyrannical usurpation, and moreover made a body +of laws, and settled a model of government admirably tempered and suited for +the harmony and safety of the people. +</p> + +<p> +His mother, being near her time, fancied in a dream that she was brought to bed +of a lion, and a few days after was delivered of Pericles, in other respects +perfectly formed, only his head was somewhat longish and out of proportion. For +which reason almost all the images and statues that were made of him have the +head covered with a helmet, the workmen apparently being willing not to expose +him. The poets of Athens called him Schinocephalos, or squill-head, from +schinos, a squill, or sea- onion. One of the comic poets, Cratinus, in the +Chirons, tells us that — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Old Chronos once took queen Sedition to wife;<br/> +Which two brought to life<br/> +That tyrant far-famed,<br/> +Whom the gods the supreme skull-compeller have named. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And, in the Nemesis, addresses him — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Come, Jove, thou head of gods. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And a second, Teleclides, says, that now, in embarrassment with political +difficulties, he sits in the city,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Fainting underneath the load<br/> +Of his own head; and now abroad,<br/> +From his huge gallery of a pate,<br/> +Sends forth trouble to the state. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And a third, Eupolis, in the comedy called the Demi, in a series of questions +about each of the demagogues, whom he makes in the play to come up from hell, +upon Pericles being named last, exclaims,— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +And here by way of summary, now we’ve done,<br/> +Behold, in brief, the heads of all in one. +</p> + +<p> +The master that taught him music, most authors are agreed, was Damon (whose +name, they say, ought to be pronounced with the first syllable short). Though +Aristotle tells us that he was thoroughly practiced in all accomplishments of +this kind by Pythoclides. Damon, it is not unlikely, being a sophist, out of +policy, sheltered himself under the profession of music to conceal from people +in general his skill in other things, and under this pretense attended +Pericles, the young athlete of politics, so to say, as his training-master in +these exercises. Damon’s lyre, however, did not prove altogether a successful +blind; he was banished the country by ostracism for ten years, as a dangerous +intermeddler and a favorer of arbitrary power, and, by this means, gave the +stage occasion to play upon him. As, for instance, Plato, the comic poet, +introduces a character, who questions him — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Tell me, if you please,<br/> +Since you’re the Chiron who taught Pericles. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, also, was a hearer of Zeno, the Eleatic, who treated of natural +philosophy in the same manner as Parmenides did, but had also perfected himself +in an art of his own for refuting and silencing opponents in argument; as Timon +of Phlius describes it, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Also the two-edged tongue of mighty Zeno, who,<br/> +Say what one would, could argue it untrue. +</p> + +<p> +But he that saw most of Pericles, and furnished him most especially with a +weight and grandeur of sense, superior to all arts of popularity, and in +general gave him his elevation and sublimity of purpose and of character, was +Anaxagoras of Clazomenae; whom the men of those times called by the name of +Nous, that is, mind, or intelligence, whether in admiration of the great and +extraordinary gift he displayed for the science of nature, or because that he +was the first of the philosophers who did not refer the first ordering of the +world to fortune or chance, nor to necessity or compulsion, but to a pure, +unadulterated intelligence, which in all other existing mixed and compound +things acts as a principle of discrimination, and of combination of like with +like. +</p> + +<p> +For this man, Pericles entertained an extraordinary esteem and admiration, and, +filling himself with this lofty, and, as they call it, up-in-the-air sort of +thought, derived hence not merely, as was natural, elevation of purpose and +dignity of language, raised far above the base and dishonest buffooneries of +mob-eloquence, but, besides this, a composure of countenance, and a serenity +and calmness in all his movements, which no occurrence whilst he was speaking +could disturb, a sustained and even tone of voice, and various other advantages +of a similar kind, which produced the greatest effect on his hearers. Once, +after being reviled and ill-spoken of all day long in his own hearing by some +vile and abandoned fellow in the open marketplace, where he was engaged in the +dispatch of some urgent affair, he continued his business in perfect silence, +and in the evening returned home composedly, the man still dogging him at the +heels, and pelting him all the way with abuse and foul language; and stepping +into his house, it being by this time dark, he ordered one of his servants to +take a light, and to go along with the man and see him safe home. Ion, it is +true, the dramatic poet, says that Pericles’s manner in company was somewhat +over-assuming and pompous; and that into his high bearing there entered a good +deal of slightingness and scorn of others; he reserves his commendation for +Cimon’s ease and pliancy and natural grace in society. Ion, however, who must +needs make virtue, like a show of tragedies, include some comic scenes, we +shall not altogether rely upon; Zeno used to bid those who called Pericles’s +gravity the affectation of a charlatan, to go and affect the like themselves; +inasmuch as this mere counterfeiting might in time insensibly instill into them +a real love and knowledge of those noble qualities. +</p> + +<p> +Nor were these the only advantages which Pericles derived from Anaxagoras’s +acquaintance; he seems also to have become, by his instructions, superior to +that superstition with which an ignorant wonder at appearances, for example, in +the heavens possesses the minds of people unacquainted with their causes, eager +for the supernatural, and excitable through an inexperience which the knowledge +of natural causes removes, replacing wild and timid superstition by the good +hope and assurance of an intelligent piety. +</p> + +<p> +There is a story, that once Pericles had brought to him from a country farm of +his, a ram’s head with one horn, and that Lampon, the diviner, upon seeing the +horn grow strong and solid out of the midst of the forehead, gave it as his +judgment, that, there being at that time two potent factions, parties, or +interests in the city, the one of Thucydides and the other of Pericles, the +government would come about to that one of them in whose ground or estate this +token or indication of fate had shown itself. But that Anaxagoras, cleaving the +skull in sunder, showed to the bystanders that the brain had not filled up its +natural place, but being oblong, like an egg, had collected from all parts of +the vessel which contained it, in a point to that place from whence the root of +the horn took its rise. And that, for that time, Anaxagoras was much admired +for his explanation by those that were present; and Lampon no less a little +while after, when Thucydides was overpowered, and the whole affairs of the +state and government came into the hands of Pericles. +</p> + +<p> +And yet, in my opinion, it is no absurdity to say that they were both in the +right, both natural philosopher and diviner, one justly detecting the cause of +this event, by which it was produced, the other the end for which it was +designed. For it was the business of the one to find out and give an account of +what it was made, and in what manner and by what means it grew as it did; and +of the other to foretell to what end and purpose it was so made, and what it +might mean or portend. Those who say that to find out the cause of a prodigy is +in effect to destroy its supposed signification as such, do not take notice +that, at the same time, together with divine prodigies, they also do away with +signs and signals of human art and concert, as, for instance, the clashings of +quoits, fire-beacons, and the shadows on sun-dials, every one of which things +has its cause, and by that cause and contrivance is a sign of something else. +But these are subjects, perhaps, that would better befit another place. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, while yet but a young man, stood in considerable apprehension of the +people, as he was thought in face and figure to be very like the tyrant +Pisistratus, and those of great age remarked upon the sweetness of his voice, +and his volubility and rapidity in speaking, and were struck with amazement at +the resemblance. Reflecting, too, that he had a considerable estate, and was +descended of a noble family, and had friends of great influence, he was fearful +all this might bring him to be banished as a dangerous person; and for this +reason meddled not at all with state affairs, but in military service showed +himself of a brave and intrepid nature. But when Aristides was now dead, and +Themistocles driven out, and Cimon was for the most part kept abroad by the +expeditions he made in parts out of Greece, Pericles, seeing things in this +posture, now advanced and took his side, not with the rich and few, but with +the many and poor, contrary to his natural bent, which was far from +democratical; but, most likely, fearing he might fall under suspicion of aiming +at arbitrary power, and seeing Cimon on the side of the aristocracy, and much +beloved by the better and more distinguished people, he joined the party of the +people, with a view at once both to secure himself and procure means against +Cimon. +</p> + +<p> +He immediately entered, also, on quite a new course of life and management of +his time. For he was never seen to walk in any street but that which led to the +marketplace and the council-hall, and he avoided invitations of friends to +supper, and all friendly visiting and intercourse whatever; in all the time he +had to do with the public, which was not a little, he was never known to have +gone to any of his friends to a supper, except that once when his near kinsman +Euryptolemus married, he remained present till the ceremony of the +drink-offering, and then immediately rose from table and went his way. For +these friendly meetings are very quick to defeat any assumed superiority, and +in intimate familiarity an exterior of gravity is hard to maintain. Real +excellence, indeed, is most recognized when most openly looked into; and in +really good men, nothing which meets the eyes of external observers so truly +deserves their admiration, as their daily common life does that of their nearer +friends. Pericles, however, to avoid any feeling of commonness, or any satiety +on the part of the people, presented himself at intervals only, not speaking to +every business, nor at all times coming into the assembly, but, as Critolaus +says, reserving himself, like the Salaminian galley, for great occasions, while +matters of lesser importance were dispatched by friends or other speakers under +his direction. And of this number we are told Ephialtes made one, who broke the +power of the council of Areopagus, giving the people, according to Plato’s +expression, so copious and so strong a draught of liberty, that, growing wild +and unruly, like an unmanageable horse, it, as the comic poets say, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“ — got beyond all keeping in,<br/> +Champing at Euboea, and among the islands leaping in.” +</p> + +<p> +The style of speaking most consonant to his form of life and the dignity of his +views he found, so to say, in the tones of that instrument with which +Anaxagoras had furnished him; of his teaching he continually availed himself, +and deepened the colors of rhetoric with the dye of natural science. For +having, in addition to his great natural genius, attained, by the study of +nature, to use the words of the divine Plato, this height of intelligence, and +this universal consummating power, and drawing hence whatever might be of +advantage to him in the art of speaking, he showed himself far superior to all +others. Upon which account, they say, he had his nickname given him, though +some are of opinion he was named the Olympian from the public buildings with +which he adorned the city; and others again, from his great power in public +affairs, whether of war or peace. Nor is it unlikely that the confluence of +many attributes may have conferred it on him. However, the comedies represented +at the time, which, both in good earnest and in merriment, let fly many hard +words at him, plainly show that he got that appellation especially from his +speaking; they speak of his “thundering and lightning” when he harangued the +people, and of his wielding a dreadful thunderbolt in his tongue. +</p> + +<p> +A saying also of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, stands on record, spoken by +him by way of pleasantry upon Pericles’s dexterity. Thucydides was one of the +noble and distinguished citizens, and had been his greatest opponent; and, when +Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, asked him whether he or Pericles +were the better wrestler, he made this answer: “When I,” said he, “have thrown +him and given him a fair fall, by persisting that he had no fall, he gets the +better of me, and makes the bystanders, in spite of their own eyes, believe +him.” The truth, however, is, that Pericles himself was very careful what and +how he was to speak, insomuch that, whenever he went up to the hustings, he +prayed the gods that no one word might unawares slip from him unsuitable to the +matter and the occasion. +</p> + +<p> +He has left nothing in writing behind him, except some decrees; and there are +but very few of his sayings recorded; one, for example, is, that he said Aegina +must, like a gathering in a man’s eye, be removed from Piraeus; and another, +that he said he saw already war moving on its way towards them out of +Peloponnesus. Again, when on a time Sophocles, who was his fellow-commissioner +in the generalship, was going on board with him, and praised the beauty of a +youth they met with in the way to the ship, “Sophocles,” said he, “a general +ought not only to have clean hands, but also clean eyes.” And Stesimbrotus +tells us, that, in his encomium on those who fell in battle at Samos, he said +they were become immortal, as the gods were. “For,” said he, “we do not see +them themselves, but only by the honors we pay them, and by the benefits they +do us, attribute to them immortality; and the like attributes belong also to +those that die in the service of their country.” +</p> + +<p> +Since Thucydides describes the rule of Pericles as an aristocratical +government, that went by the name of a democracy, but was, indeed, the +supremacy of a single great man, while many others say, on the contrary, that +by him the common people were first encouraged and led on to such evils as +appropriations of subject territory; allowances for attending theaters, +payments for performing public duties, and by these bad habits were, under the +influence of his public measures, changed from a sober, thrifty people, that +maintained themselves by their own labors, to lovers of expense, intemperance, +and license, let us examine the cause of this change by the actual matters of +fact. +</p> + +<p> +At the first, as has been said, when he set himself against Cimon’s great +authority, he did caress the people. Finding himself come short of his +competitor in wealth and money, by which advantages the other was enabled to +take care of the poor, inviting every day some one or other of the citizens +that was in want to supper, and bestowing clothes on the aged people, and +breaking down the hedges and enclosures of his grounds, that all that would +might freely gather what fruit they pleased, Pericles, thus outdone in popular +arts, by the advice of one Damonides of Oea, as Aristotle states, turned to the +distribution of the public moneys; and in a short time having bought the people +over, what with moneys allowed for shows and for service on juries, and what +with other forms of pay and largess, he made use of them against the council of +Areopagus, of which he himself was no member, as having never been appointed by +lot either chief archon, or lawgiver, or king, or captain. For from of old +these offices were conferred on persons by lot, and they who had acquitted +themselves duly in the discharge of them were advanced to the court of +Areopagus. And so Pericles, having secured his power and interest with the +populace, directed the exertions of his party against this council with such +success, that most of those causes and matters which had been used to be tried +there, were, by the agency of Ephialtes, removed from its cognizance, Cimon, +also, was banished by ostracism as a favorer of the Lacedaemonians and a hater +of the people, though in wealth and noble birth he was among the first, and had +won several most glorious victories over the barbarians, and had filled the +city with money and spoils of war; as is recorded in the history of his life. +So vast an authority had Pericles obtained among the people. +</p> + +<p> +The ostracism was limited by law to ten years; but the Lacedaemonians, in the +mean time, entering with a great army into the territory of Tanagra, and the +Athenians going out against them, Cimon, coming from his banishment before his +time was out, put himself in arms and array with those of his fellow-citizens +that were of his own tribe, and desired by his deeds to wipe off the suspicion +of his favoring the Lacedaemonians, by venturing his own person along with his +country-men. But Pericles’s friends, gathering in a body, forced him to retire +as a banished man. For which cause also Pericles seems to have exerted himself +more in that than in any battle, and to have been conspicuous above all for his +exposure of himself to danger. All Cimon’s friends, also, to a man, fell +together side by side, whom Pericles had accused with him of taking part with +the Lacedaemonians. Defeated in this battle on their own frontiers, and +expecting a new and perilous attack with return of spring, the Athenians now +felt regret and sorrow for the loss of Cimon, and repentance for their +expulsion of him. Pericles, being sensible of their feelings, did not hesitate +or delay to gratify it, and himself made the motion for recalling him home. He, +upon his return, concluded a peace betwixt the two cities; for the +Lacedaemonians entertained as kindly feelings towards him as they did the +reverse towards Pericles and the other popular leaders. +</p> + +<p> +Yet some there are who say that Pericles did not propose the order for Cimon’s +return till some private articles of agreement had been made between them, and +this by means of Elpinice, Cimon’s sister; that Cimon, namely, should go out to +sea with a fleet of two hundred ships, and be commander-in-chief abroad, with a +design to reduce the king of Persia’s territories, and that Pericles should +have the power at home. +</p> + +<p> +This Elpinice, it was thought, had before this time procured some favor for her +brother Cimon at Pericles’s hands, and induced him to be more remiss and gentle +in urging the charge when Cimon was tried for his life; for Pericles was one of +the committee appointed by the commons to plead against him. And when Elpinice +came and besought him in her brother’s behalf, he answered, with a smile, “O +Elpinice, you are too old a woman to undertake such business as this.” But, +when he appeared to impeach him, he stood up but once to speak, merely to +acquit himself of his commission, and went out of court, having done Cimon the +least prejudice of any of his accusers. +</p> + +<p> +How, then, can one believe Idomeneus, who charges Pericles as if he had by +treachery procured the murder of Ephialtes, the popular statesman, one who was +his friend, and of his own party in all his political course, out of jealousy, +forsooth, and envy of his great reputation? This historian, it seems, having +raked up these stories, I know not whence, has befouled with them a man who, +perchance, was not altogether free from fault or blame, but yet had a noble +spirit, and a soul that was bent on honor; and where such qualities are, there +can no such cruel and brutal passion find harbor or gain admittance. As to +Ephialtes, the truth of the story, as Aristotle has told it, is this: that +having made himself formidable to the oligarchical party, by being an +uncompromising asserter of the people’s rights in calling to account and +prosecuting those who any way wronged them, his enemies, lying in wait for him, +by the means of Aristodicus the Tanagraean, privately dispatched him. +</p> + +<p> +Cimon, while he was admiral, ended his days in the Isle of Cyprus. And the +aristocratical party, seeing that Pericles was already before this grown to be +the greatest and foremost man of all the city, but nevertheless wishing there +should be somebody set up against him, to blunt and turn the edge of his power, +that it might not altogether prove a monarchy, put forward Thucydides of +Alopece, a discreet person, and a near kinsman of Cimon’s, to conduct the +opposition against him; who, indeed, though less skilled in warlike affairs +than Cimon was, yet was better versed in speaking and political business, and +keeping close guard in the city, and engaging with Pericles on the hustings, in +a short time brought the government to an equality of parties. For he would not +suffer those who were called the honest and good (persons of worth and +distinction) to be scattered up and down and mix themselves and be lost among +the populace, as formerly, diminishing and obscuring their superiority amongst +the masses; but taking them apart by themselves and uniting them in one body, +by their combined weight he was able, as it were upon the balance, to make a +counter-poise to the other party. +</p> + +<p> +For, indeed, there was from the beginning a sort of concealed split, or seam, +as it might be in a piece of iron, marking the different popular and +aristocratical tendencies; but the open rivalry and contention of these two +opponents made the gash deep, and severed the city into the two parties of the +people and the few. And so Pericles, at that time more than at any other, let +loose the reins to the people, and made his policy subservient to their +pleasure, contriving continually to have some great public show or solemnity, +some banquet, or some procession or other in the town to please them, coaxing +his countrymen like children, with such delights and pleasures as were not, +however, unedifying. Besides that every year he sent out threescore galleys, on +board of which there went numbers of the citizens, who were in pay eight +months, learning at the same time and practicing the art of seamanship. +</p> + +<p> +He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as planters, to share +the land among them by lot, and five hundred more into the isle of Naxos, and +half that number to Andros, a thousand into Thrace to dwell among the Bisaltae, +and others into Italy, when the city Sybaris, which now was called Thurii, was +to be repeopled. And this he did to ease and discharge the city of an idle, +and, by reason of their idleness, a busy, meddling crowd of people; and at the +same time to meet the necessities and restore the fortunes of the poor +townsmen, and to intimidate, also, and check their allies from attempting any +change, by posting such garrisons, as it were, in the midst of them. +</p> + +<p> +That which gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens, and the +greatest admiration and even astonishment to all strangers, and that which now +is Greece’s only evidence that the power she boasts of and her ancient wealth +are no romance or idle story, was his construction of the public and sacred +buildings. Yet this was that of all his actions in the government which his +enemies most looked askance upon and caviled at in the popular assemblies, +crying out how that the commonwealth of Athens had lost its reputation and was +ill-spoken of abroad for removing the common treasure of the Greeks from the +isle of Delos into their own custody; and how that their fairest excuse for so +doing, namely, that they took it away for fear the barbarians should seize it, +and on purpose to secure it in a safe place, this Pericles had made +unavailable, and how that “Greece cannot but resent it as an insufferable +affront, and consider herself to be tyrannized over openly, when she sees the +treasure, which was contributed by her upon a necessity for the war, wantonly +lavished out by us upon our city, to gild her all over, and to adorn and set +her forth, as it were some vain woman, hung round with precious stones and +figures and temples, which cost a world of money.” +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, on the other hand, informed the people, that they were in no way +obliged to give any account of those moneys to their allies, so long as they +maintained their defense, and kept off the barbarians from attacking them; +while in the meantime they did not so much as supply one horse or man or ship, +but only found money for the service; “which money,” said he, “is not theirs +that give it, but theirs that receive it, if so be they perform the conditions +upon which they receive it.” And that it was good reason, that, now the city +was sufficiently provided and stored with all things necessary for the war, +they should convert the overplus of its wealth to such undertakings, as would +hereafter, when completed, give them eternal honor, and, for the present, while +in process, freely supply all the inhabitants with plenty. With their variety +of workmanship and of occasions for service, which summon all arts and trades +and require all hands to be employed about them, they do actually put the whole +city, in a manner, into state-pay; while at the same time she is both +beautified and maintained by herself. For as those who are of age and strength +for war are provided for and maintained in the armaments abroad by their pay +out of the public stock, so, it being his desire and design that the +undisciplined mechanic multitude that stayed at home should not go without +their share of public salaries, and yet should not have them given them for +sitting still and doing nothing, to that end he thought fit to bring in among +them, with the approbation of the people, these vast projects of buildings and +designs of works, that would be of some continuance before they were finished, +and would give employment to numerous arts, so that the part of the people that +stayed at home might, no less than those that were at sea or in garrisons or on +expeditions, have a fair and just occasion of receiving the benefit and having +their share of the public moneys. +</p> + +<p> +The materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony cypress-wood; and the arts +or trades that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and carpenters, molders, +founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, ivory-workers, +painters, embroiderers, turners; those again that conveyed them to the town for +use, merchants and mariners and ship- masters by sea, and by land, cartwrights, +cattle-breeders, waggoners, rope-makers, flax-workers, shoe-makers and +leather-dressers, roadmakers, miners. And every trade in the same nature, as a +captain in an army has his particular company of soldiers under him, had its +own hired company of journeymen and laborers belonging to it banded together as +in array, to be as it were the instrument and body for the performance of the +service. Thus, to say all in a word, the occasions and services of these public +works distributed plenty through every age and condition. +</p> + +<p> +As then grew the works up, no less stately in size than exquisite in form, the +workmen striving to outvie the material and the design with the beauty of their +workmanship, yet the most wonderful thing of all was the rapidity of their +execution. Undertakings, any one of which singly might have required, they +thought, for their completion, several successions and ages of men, were every +one of them accomplished in the height and prime of one man’s political +service. Although they say, too, that Zeuxis once, having heard Agatharchus the +painter boast of dispatching his work with speed and ease, replied, “I take a +long time.” For ease and speed in doing a thing do not give the work lasting +solidity or exactness of beauty; the expenditure of time allowed to a man’s +pains beforehand for the production of a thing is repaid by way of interest +with a vital force for its preservation when once produced. For which reason +Pericles’s works are especially admired, as having been made quickly, to last +long. For every particular piece of his work was immediately, even at that +time, for its beauty and elegance, antique; and yet in its vigor and freshness +looks to this day as if it were just executed. There is a sort of bloom of +newness upon those works of his, preserving them from the touch of time, as if +they had some perennial spirit and undying vitality mingled in the composition +of them. +</p> + +<p> +Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was surveyor-general, though +upon the various portions other great masters and workmen were employed. For +Callicrates and Ictinus built the Parthenon; the chapel at Eleusis, where the +mysteries were celebrated, was begun by Coroebus, who erected the pillars that +stand upon the floor or pavement, and joined them to the architraves; and after +his death Metagenes of Xypete added the frieze and the upper line of columns; +Xenocles of Cholargus roofed or arched the lantern on the top of the temple of +Castor and Pollux; and the long wall, which Socrates says he himself heard +Pericles propose to the people, was undertaken by Callicrates. This work +Cratinus ridicules, as long in finishing, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +’Tis long since Pericles, if words would do it,<br/> +Talk’d up the wall; yet adds not one mite to it. +</p> + +<p> +The Odeum, or music-room, which in its interior was full of seats and ranges of +pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend from one single +point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in imitation of the king of +Persia’s Pavilion; this likewise by Pericles’s order; which Cratinus again, in +his comedy called The Thracian Women, made an occasion of raillery, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +So, we see here,<br/> +Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear,<br/> +Since ostracism time, he’s laid aside his head,<br/> +And wears the new Odeum in its stead. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, also, eager for distinction, then first obtained the decree for a +contest in musical skill to be held yearly at the Panathenaea, and he himself, +being chosen judge, arranged the order and method in which the competitors +should sing and play on the flute and on the harp. And both at that time, and +at other times also, they sat in this music-room to see and hear all such +trials of skill. +</p> + +<p> +The propylaea, or entrances to the Acropolis, were finished in five years’ +time, Mnesicles being the principal architect. A strange accident happened in +the course of building, which showed that the goddess was not averse to the +work, but was aiding and cooperating to bring it to perfection. One of the +artificers, the quickest and the handiest workman among them all, with a slip +of his foot fell down from a great height, and lay in a miserable condition, +the physicians having no hopes of his recovery. When Pericles was in distress +about this, Minerva appeared to him at night in a dream, and ordered a course +of treatment, which he applied, and in a short time and with great ease cured +the man. And upon this occasion it was that he set up a brass statue of +Minerva, surnamed Health, in the citadel near the altar, which they say was +there before. But it was Phidias who wrought the goddess’s image in gold, and +he has his name inscribed on the pedestal as the workman of it; and indeed the +whole work in a manner was under his charge, and he had, as we have said +already, the oversight over all the artists and workmen, through Pericles’s +friendship for him; and this, indeed, made him much envied, and his patron +shamefully slandered with stories, as if Phidias were in the habit of +receiving, for Pericles’s use, freeborn women that came to see the works. The +comic writers of the town, when they had got hold of this story, made much of +it, and bespattered him with all the ribaldry they could invent, charging him +falsely with the wife of Menippus, one who was his friend and served as +lieutenant under him in the wars; and with the birds kept by Pyrilampes, an +acquaintance of Pericles, who, they pretended, used to give presents of +peacocks to Pericles’s female friends. And how can one wonder at any number of +strange assertions from men whose whole lives were devoted to mockery, and who +were ready at any time to sacrifice the reputation of their superiors to vulgar +envy and spite, as to some evil genius, when even Stesimbrotus the Thasian has +dared to lay to the charge of Pericles a monstrous and fabulous piece of +criminality with his son’s wife? So very difficult a matter is it to trace and +find out the truth of anything by history, when, on the one hand, those who +afterwards write it find long periods of time intercepting their view, and, on +the other hand, the contemporary records of any actions and lives, partly +through envy and ill-will, partly through favor and flattery, pervert and +distort truth. +</p> + +<p> +When the orators, who sided with Thucydides and his party, were at one time +crying out, as their custom was, against Pericles, as one who squandered away +the public money, and made havoc of the state revenues, he rose in the open +assembly and put the question to the people, whether they thought that he had +laid out much; and they saying, “Too much, a great deal.” “Then,” said he, +“since it is so, let the cost not go to your account, but to mine; and let the +inscription upon the buildings stand in my name.” When they heard him say thus, +whether it were out of a surprise to see the greatness of his spirit, or out of +emulation of the glory of the works, they cried aloud, bidding him to spend on, +and lay out what he thought fit from the public purse, and to spare no cost, +till all were finished. +</p> + +<p> +At length, coming to a final contest with Thucydides, which of the two should +ostracize the other out of the country, and having gone through this peril, he +threw his antagonist out, and broke up the confederacy that had been organized +against him. So that now all schism and division being at an end, and the city +brought to evenness and unity, he got all Athens and all affairs that pertained +to the Athenians into his own hands, their tributes, their armies, and their +galleys, the islands, the sea, and their wide-extended power, partly over other +Greeks and partly over barbarians, and all that empire, which they possessed, +founded and fortified upon subject nations and royal friendships and alliances. +</p> + +<p> +After this he was no longer the same man he had been before, nor as tame and +gentle and familiar as formerly with the populace, so as readily to yield to +their pleasures and to comply with the desires of the multitude, as a steersman +shifts with the winds. Quitting that loose, remiss, and, in some cases, +licentious court of the popular will, he turned those soft and flowery +modulations to the austerity of aristocratical and regal rule; and employing +this uprightly and undeviatingly for the country’s best interests, he was able +generally to lead the people along, with their own wills and consents, by +persuading and showing them what was to be done; and sometimes, too, urging and +pressing them forward extremely against their will, he made them, whether they +would or no, yield submission to what was for their advantage. In which, to say +the truth, he did but like a skillful physician, who, in a complicated and +chronic disease, as he sees occasion, at one while allows his patient the +moderate use of such things as please him, at another while gives him keen +pains and drugs to work the cure. For there arising and growing up, as was +natural, all manner of distempered feelings among a people which had so vast a +command and dominion, he alone, as a great master, knowing how to handle and +deal fitly with each one of them, and, in an especial manner, making that use +of hopes and fears, as his two chief rudders, with the one to check the career +of their confidence at any time, with the other to raise them up and cheer them +when under any discouragement, plainly showed by this, that rhetoric, or the +art of speaking, is, in Plato’s language, the government of the souls of men, +and that her chief business is to address the affections and passions, which +are as it were the strings and keys to the soul, and require a skillful and +careful touch to be played on as they should be. The source of this +predominance was not barely his power of language, but, as Thucydides assures +us, the reputation of his life, and the confidence felt in his character; his +manifest freedom from every kind of corruption, and superiority to all +considerations of money. Notwithstanding he had made the city Athens, which was +great of itself, as great and rich as can be imagined, and though he were +himself in power and interest more than equal to many kings and absolute +rulers, who some of them also bequeathed by will their power to their children, +he, for his part, did not make the patrimony his father left him greater than +it was by one drachma. +</p> + +<p> +Thucydides, indeed, gives a plain statement of the greatness of his power; and +the comic poets, in their spiteful manner, more than hint at it, styling his +companions and friends the new Pisistratidae, and calling on him to abjure any +intention of usurpation, as one whose eminence was too great to be any longer +proportionable to and compatible with a democracy or popular government. And +Teleclides says the Athenians had surrendered up to him — +</p> + +<p> +The tribute of the cities, and with them, the cities too, to do with them as he +pleases, and undo; To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town; and +again, if so he likes, to pull them down; Their treaties and alliances, power, +empire, peace, and war, their wealth and their success forevermore. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was all this the luck of some happy occasion; nor was it the mere bloom and +grace of a policy that flourished for a season; but having for forty years +together maintained the first place among statesmen such as Ephialtes and +Leocrates and Myronides and Cimon and Tolmides and Thucydides were, after the +defeat and banishment of Thucydides, for no less than fifteen years longer, in +the exercise of one continuous unintermitted command in the office, to which he +was annually reelected, of General, he preserved his integrity unspotted; +though otherwise he was not altogether idle or careless in looking after his +pecuniary advantage; his paternal estate, which of right belonged to him, he so +ordered that it might neither through negligence be wasted or lessened, nor +yet, being so full of business as he was, cost him any great trouble or time +with taking care of it; and put it into such a way of management as he thought +to be the most easy for himself, and the most exact. All his yearly products +and profits he sold together in a lump, and supplied his household needs +afterward by buying everything that he or his family wanted out of the market. +Upon which account, his children, when they grew to age, were not well pleased +with his management, and the women that lived with him were treated with little +cost, and complained of this way of housekeeping, where everything was ordered +and set down from day to day, and reduced to the greatest exactness; since +there was not there, as is usual in a great family and a plentiful estate, any +thing to spare, or over and above; but all that went out or came in, all +disbursements and all receipts, proceeded as it were by number and measure. His +manager in all this was a single servant, Evangelus by name, a man either +naturally gifted or instructed by Pericles so as to excel every one in this art +of domestic economy. +</p> + +<p> +All this, in truth, was very little in harmony with Anaxagoras’s wisdom; if, +indeed, it be true that he, by a kind of divine impulse and greatness of +spirit, voluntarily quitted his house, and left his land to lie fallow and to +be grazed by sheep like a common. But the life of a contemplative philosopher +and that of an active statesman are, I presume, not the same thing; for the one +merely employs, upon great and good objects of thought, an intelligence that +requires no aid of instruments nor supply of any external materials; whereas +the other, who tempers and applies his virtue to human uses, may have occasion +for affluence, not as a matter of mere necessity, but as a noble thing; which +was Pericles’s case, who relieved numerous poor citizens. +</p> + +<p> +However, there is a story, that Anaxagoras himself, while Pericles was taken up +with public affairs, lay neglected, and that, now being grown old, he wrapped +himself up with a resolution to die for want of food; which being by chance +brought to Pericles’s ear, he was horror-struck, and instantly ran thither, and +used all the arguments and entreaties he could to him, lamenting not so much +Anaxagoras’s condition as his own, should he lose such a counselor as he had +found him to be; and that, upon this, Anaxagoras unfolded his robe, and showing +himself, made answer: “Pericles,” said he, “even those who have occasion for a +lamp supply it with oil.” +</p> + +<p> +The Lacedaemonians beginning to show themselves troubled at the growth of the +Athenian power, Pericles, on the other hand, to elevate the people’s spirit yet +more, and to raise them to the thought of great actions, proposed a decree, to +summon all the Greeks in what part soever, whether of Europe or Asia, every +city, little as well as great, to send their deputies to Athens to a general +assembly, or convention, there to consult and advise concerning the Greek +temples which the barbarians had burnt down, and the sacrifices which were due +from them upon vows they had made to their gods for the safety of Greece when +they fought against the barbarians; and also concerning the navigation of the +sea, that they might henceforward all of them pass to and fro and trade +securely, and be at peace among themselves. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this errand, there were twenty men, of such as were above fifty years of +age, sent by commission; five to summon the Ionians and Dorians in Asia, and +the islanders as far as Lesbos and Rhodes; five to visit all the places in the +Hellespont and Thrace, up to Byzantium; and other five besides these to go to +Boeotia and Phocis and Peloponnesus, and from hence to pass through the +Locrians over to the neighboring continent, as far as Acarnania and Ambracia; +and the rest to take their course through Euboea to the Oetaeans and the Malian +Gulf, and to the Achaeans of Phthiotis and the Thessalians; all of them to +treat with the people as they passed, and to persuade them to come and take +their part in the debates for settling the peace and jointly regulating the +affairs of Greece. +</p> + +<p> +Nothing was effected, nor did the cities meet by their deputies, as was +desired; the Lacedaemonians, as it is said, crossing the design underhand, and +the attempt being disappointed and baffled first in Peloponnesus. I thought +fit, however, to introduce the mention of it, to show the spirit of the man and +the greatness of his thoughts. +</p> + +<p> +In his military conduct, he gained a great reputation for wariness; he would +not by his good-will engage in any fight which had much uncertainty or hazard; +he did not envy the glory of generals whose rash adventures fortune favored +with brilliant success, however they were admired by others; nor did he think +them worthy his imitation, but always used to say to his citizens that, so far +as lay in his power, they should continue immortal, and live forever. Seeing +Tolmides, the son of Tolmaeus, upon the confidence of his former successes, and +flushed with the honor his military actions had procured him, making +preparation to attack the Boeotians in their own country, when there was no +likely opportunity, and that he had prevailed with the bravest and most +enterprising of the youth to enlist themselves as volunteers in the service, +who besides his other force made up a thousand, he endeavored to withhold him +and to advise him from it in the public assembly, telling him in a memorable +saying of his, which still goes about, that, if he would not take Pericles’s +advice, yet he would not do amiss to wait and be ruled by time, the wisest +counselor of all. This saying, at that time, was but slightly commended; but +within a few days after, when news was brought that Tolmides himself had been +defeated and slain in battle near Coronea, and that many brave citizens had +fallen with him, it gained him great repute as well as good-will among the +people, for wisdom and for love of his countrymen. +</p> + +<p> +But of all his expeditions, that to the Chersonese gave most satisfaction and +pleasure, having proved the safety of the Greeks who inhabited there. For not +only by carrying along with him a thousand fresh citizens of Athens he gave new +strength and vigor to the cities, but also by belting the neck of land, which +joins the peninsula to the continent, with bulwarks and forts from sea to sea, +he put a stop to the inroads of the Thracians, who lay all about the +Chersonese, and closed the door against a continual and grievous war, with +which that country had been long harassed, lying exposed to the encroachments +and influx of barbarous neighbors, and groaning under the evils of a predatory +population both upon and within its borders. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was he less admired and talked of abroad for his sailing round the +Peloponnesus, having set out from Pegae, or The Fountains, the port of Megara, +with a hundred galleys. For he not only laid waste the sea- coast, as Tolmides +had done before, but also, advancing far up into main land with the soldiers he +had on board, by the terror of his appearance drove many within their walls; +and at Nemea, with main force, routed and raised a trophy over the Sicyonians, +who stood their ground and joined battle with him. And having taken on board a +supply of soldiers into the galleys, out of Achaia, then in league with Athens +he crossed with the fleet to the opposite continent, and, sailing along by the +mouth of the river Achelous overran Acarnania, and shut up the Oeniadae within +their city walls, and having ravaged and wasted their country, weighed anchor +for home with the double advantage of having shown himself formidable to his +enemies, and at the same time safe and energetic to his fellow-citizens; for +there was not so much as any chance-miscarriage that happened, the whole voyage +through, to those who were under his charge. +</p> + +<p> +Entering also the Euxine Sea with a large and finely equipped fleet, he +obtained for the Greek cities any new arrangements they wanted, and entered +into friendly relations with them; and to the barbarous nations, and kings and +chiefs round about them, displayed the greatness of the power of the Athenians, +their perfect ability and confidence to sail wherever they had a mind, and to +bring the whole sea under their control. He left the Sinopians thirteen ships +of war, with soldiers under the command of Lamachus, to assist them against +Timesileus the tyrant; and when he and his accomplices had been thrown out, +obtained a decree that six hundred of the Athenians that were willing should +sail to Sinope and plant themselves there with the Sinopians, sharing among +them the houses and land which the tyrant and his party had previously held. +</p> + +<p> +But in other things he did not comply with the giddy impulses of the citizens, +nor quit his own resolutions to follow their fancies, when, carried away with +the thought of their strength and great success, they were eager to interfere +again in Egypt, and to disturb the king of Persia’s maritime dominions. Nay, +there were a good many who were, even then, possessed with that unblessed and +inauspicious passion for Sicily, which afterward the orators of Alcibiades’s +party blew up into a flame. There were some also who dreamt of Tuscany and of +Carthage, and not without plausible reason in their present large dominion and +the prosperous course of their affairs. +</p> + +<p> +But Pericles curbed this passion for foreign conquest, and unsparingly pruned +and cut down their ever busy fancies for a multitude of undertakings; and +directed their power for the most part to securing and consolidating what they +had already got, supposing it would be quite enough for them to do, if they +could keep the Lacedaemonians in check; to whom he entertained all along a +sense of opposition; which, as upon many other occasions, so he particularly +showed by what he did in the time of the holy war. The Lacedaemonians, having +gone with an army to Delphi, restored Apollo’s temple, which the Phocians had +got into their possession, to the Delphians; immediately after their departure, +Pericles, with another army, came and restored the Phocians. And the +Lacedaemonians having engraven the record of their privilege of consulting the +oracle before others, which the Delphians gave them, upon the forehead of the +brazen wolf which stands there, he, also, having received from the Phocians the +like privilege for the Athenians, had it cut upon the same wolf of brass on his +right side. +</p> + +<p> +That he did well and wisely in thus restraining the exertions of the Athenians +within the compass of Greece, the events themselves that happened afterward +bore sufficient witness. For, in the first place, the Euboeans revolted, +against whom he passed over with forces; and then, immediately after, news came +that the Megarians were turned their enemies, and a hostile army was upon the +borders of Attica, under the conduct of Plistoanax, king of the Lacedaemonians. +Wherefore Pericles came with his army back again in all haste out of Euboea, to +meet the war which threatened at home; and did not venture to engage a numerous +and brave army eager for battle; but perceiving that Plistoanax was a very +young man, and governed himself mostly by the counsel and advice of +Cleandrides, whom the ephors had sent with him, by reason of his youth, to be a +kind of guardian and assistant to him, he privately made trial of this man’s +integrity, and, in a short time, having corrupted him with money, prevailed +with him to withdraw the Peloponnesians out of Attica. When the army had +retired and dispersed into their several states, the Lacedaemonians in anger +fined their king in so large a sum of money, that, unable to pay it, he quitted +Lacedaemon; while Cleandrides fled, and had sentence of death passed upon him +in his absence. This was the father of Gylippus, who overpowered the Athenians +in Sicily. And it seems that this covetousness was an hereditary disease +transmitted from father to son; for Gylippus also afterwards was caught in foul +practices, and expelled from Sparta for it. But this we have told at large in +the account of Lysander. +</p> + +<p> +When Pericles, in giving up his accounts of this expedition, stated a +disbursement of ten talents, as laid out upon fit occasion, the people, without +any question, nor troubling themselves to investigate the mystery, freely +allowed of it. And some historians, in which number is Theophrastus the +philosopher, have given it as a truth that Pericles every year used to send +privately the sum of ten talents to Sparta, with which he complimented those in +office, to keep off the war; not to purchase peace neither, but time, that he +might prepare at leisure, and be the better able to carry on war hereafter. +</p> + +<p> +Immediately after this, turning his forces against the revolters, and passing +over into the island of Euboea with fifty sail of ships and five thousand men +in arms, he reduced their cities, and drove out the citizens of the +Chalcidians, called Hippobotae, horse-feeders, the chief persons for wealth and +reputation among them; and removing all the Histiaeans out of the country, +brought in a plantation of Athenians in their room; making them his one example +of severity, because they had captured an Attic ship and killed all on board. +</p> + +<p> +After this, having made a truce between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians for +thirty years, he ordered, by public decree, the expedition against the Isle of +Samos, on the ground, that, when they were bid to leave off their war with the +Milesians, they had not complied. And as these measures against the Samians are +thought to have been taken to please Aspasia, this may be a fit point for +inquiry about the woman, what art or charming faculty she had that enabled her +to captivate, as she did, the greatest statesmen, and to give the philosophers +occasion to speak so much about her, and that, too, not to her disparagement. +That she was a Milesian by birth, the daughter of Axiochus, is a thing +acknowledged. And they say it was in emulation of Thargelia, a courtesan of the +old Ionian times, that she made her addresses to men of great power. Thargelia +was a great beauty, extremely charming, and at the same time sagacious; she had +numerous suitors among the Greeks, and brought all who had to do with her over +to the Persian interest, and by their means, being men of the greatest power +and station, sowed the seeds of the Median faction up and down in several +cities. Aspasia, some say, was courted and caressed by Pericles upon account of +her knowledge and skill in politics. Socrates himself would sometimes go to +visit her, and some of his acquaintance with him; and those who frequented her +company would carry their wives with them to listen to her. Her occupation was +any thing but creditable, her house being a home for young courtesans. +Aeschines tells us also, that Lysicles, a sheep-dealer, a man of low birth and +character, by keeping Aspasia company after Pericles’s death, came to be a +chief man in Athens. And in Plato’s Menexenus, though we do not take the +introduction as quite serious, still thus much seems to be historical, that she +had the repute of being resorted to by many of the Athenians for instruction in +the art of speaking. Pericles’s inclination for her seems, however, to have +rather proceeded from the passion of love. He had a wife that was near of kin +to him, who had been married first to Hipponicus, by whom she had Callias, +surnamed the Rich; and also she brought Pericles, while she lived with him, two +sons, Xanthippus and Paralus. Afterwards, when they did not well agree nor like +to live together, he parted with her, with her own consent, to another man, and +himself took Aspasia, and loved her with wonderful affection; every day, both +as he went out and as he came in from the marketplace, he saluted and kissed +her. +</p> + +<p> +In the comedies she goes by the nicknames of the new Omphale and Deianira, and +again is styled Juno. Cratinus, in downright terms, calls her a harlot. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +To find him a Juno the goddess of lust<br/> +Bore that harlot past shame,<br/> +Aspasia by name. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +It should seem, also, that he had a son by her; Eupolis, in his Demi, +introduced Pericles asking after his safety, and Myronides replying, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“My son?” “He lives; a man he had been long,<br/> +But that the harlot-mother did him wrong.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Aspasia, they say, became so celebrated and renowned, that Cyrus also, who made +war against Artaxerxes for the Persian monarchy, gave her whom he loved the +best of all his concubines the name of Aspasia, who before that was called +Milto. She was a Phocaean by birth, the daughter of one Hermotimus, and, when +Cyrus fell in battle, was carried to the king, and had great influence at +court. These things coming into my memory as I am writing this story, it would +be unnatural for me to omit them. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, however, was particularly charged with having proposed to the +assembly the war against the Samians, from favor to the Milesians, upon the +entreaty of Aspasia. For the two states were at war for the possession of +Priene; and the Samians, getting the better, refused to lay down their arms and +to have the controversy betwixt them decided by arbitration before the +Athenians. Pericles, therefore, fitting out a fleet, went and broke up the +oligarchical government at Samos, and, taking fifty of the principal men of the +town as hostages, and as many of their children, sent them to the isle of +Lemnos, there to be kept, though he had offers, as some relate, of a talent a +piece for himself from each one of the hostages, and of many other presents +from those who were anxious not to have a democracy. Moreover, Pissuthnes the +Persian, one of the king’s lieutenants, bearing some good-will to the Samians, +sent him ten thousand pieces of gold to excuse the city. Pericles, however, +would receive none of all this; but after he had taken that course with the +Samians which he thought fit, and set up a democracy among them, sailed back to +Athens. +</p> + +<p> +But they, however, immediately revolted, Pissuthnes having privily got away +their hostages for them, and provided them with means for the war. Whereupon +Pericles came out with a fleet a second time against them, and found them not +idle nor slinking away, but manfully resolved to try for the dominion of the +sea. The issue was, that, after a sharp sea-fight about the island called +Tragia, Pericles obtained a decisive victory, having with forty-four ships +routed seventy of the enemy’s, twenty of which were carrying soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +Together with his victory and pursuit, having made himself master of the port, +he laid siege to the Samians, and blocked them up, who yet, one way or other, +still ventured to make sallies, and fight under the city walls. But after that +another greater fleet from Athens was arrived, and that the Samians were now +shut up with a close leaguer on every side, Pericles, taking with him sixty +galleys, sailed out into the main sea, with the intention, as most authors give +the account, to meet a squadron of Phoenician ships that were coming for the +Samians’ relief, and to fight them at as great distance as could be from the +island; but, as Stesimbrotus says, with a design of putting over to Cyprus; +which does not seem to be probable. But whichever of the two was his intent, it +seems to have been a miscalculation. For on his departure, Melissus, the son of +Ithagenes, a philosopher, being at that time general in Samos, despising either +the small number of the ships that were left or the inexperience of the +commanders, prevailed with the citizens to attack the Athenians. And the +Samians having won the battle, and taken several of the men prisoners, and +disabled several of the ships, were masters of the sea, and brought into port +all necessaries they wanted for the war, which they had not before. Aristotle +says, too, that Pericles himself had been once before this worsted by this +Melissus in a sea-fight. +</p> + +<p> +The Samians, that they might requite an affront which had before been put upon +them, branded the Athenians, whom they took prisoners, in their foreheads, with +the figure of an owl. For so the Athenians had marked them before with a +Samaena, which is a sort of ship, low and flat in the prow, so as to look +snub-nosed, but wide and large and well-spread in the hold, by which it both +carries a large cargo and sails well. And it was so called, because the first +of that kind was seen at Samos, having been built by order of Polycrates the +tyrant. These brands upon the Samians’ foreheads, they say, are the allusion in +the passage of Aristophanes, where he says, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For, oh, the Samians are a lettered people. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, as soon as news was brought him of the disaster that had befallen his +army, made all the haste he could to come in to their relief, and having +defeated Melissus, who bore up against him, and put the enemy to flight, he +immediately proceeded to hem them in with a wall, resolving to master them and +take the town, rather with some cost and time, than with the wounds and hazards +of his citizens. But as it was a hard matter to keep back the Athenians, who +were vexed at the delay, and were eagerly bent to fight, he divided the whole +multitude into eight parts, and arranged by lot that that part which had the +white bean should have leave to feast and take their ease, while the other +seven were fighting. And this is the reason, they say, that people, when at any +time they have been merry, and enjoyed themselves, call it white day, in +allusion to this white bean. +</p> + +<p> +Ephorus the historian tells us besides, that Pericles made use of engines of +battery in this siege, being much taken with the curiousness of the invention, +with the aid and presence of Artemon himself, the engineer, who, being lame, +used to be carried about in a litter, where the works required his attendance, +and for that reason was called Periphoretus. But Heraclides Ponticus disproves +this out of Anacreon’s poems, where mention is made of this Artemon +Periphoretus several ages before the Samian war, or any of these occurrences. +And he says that Artemon, being a man who loved his ease, and had a great +apprehension of danger, for the most part kept close within doors, having two +of his servants to hold a brazen shield over his head, that nothing might fall +upon him from above; and if he were at any time forced upon necessity to go +abroad, that he was carried about in a little hanging bed, close to the very +ground, and that for this reason he was called Periphoretus. +</p> + +<p> +In the ninth month, the Samians surrendering themselves and delivering up the +town, Pericles pulled down their walls, and seized their shipping, and set a +fine of a large sum of money upon them, part of which they paid down at once, +and they agreed to bring in the rest by a certain time, and gave hostages for +security. Duris the Samian makes a tragical drama out of these events, charging +the Athenians and Pericles with a great deal of cruelty, which neither +Thucydides, nor Ephorus, nor Aristotle have given any relation of, and probably +with little regard to truth; how, for example, he brought the captains and +soldiers of the galleys into the market-place at Miletus, and there having +bound them fast to boards for ten days, then, when they were already all but +half dead, gave order to have them killed by beating out their brains with +clubs, and their dead bodies to be flung out into the open streets and fields, +unburied. Duris, however, who even where he has no private feeling concerned, +is not wont to keep his narrative within the limits of truth, is the more +likely upon this occasion to have exaggerated the calamities which befell his +country, to create odium against the Athenians. Pericles, however, after the +reduction of Samos, returning back to Athens, took care that those who died in +the war should be honorably buried, and made a funeral harangue, as the custom +is, in their commendation at their graves, for which he gained great +admiration. As he came down from the stage on which he spoke, the rest of the +women came and complimented him, taking him by the hand, and crownings him with +garlands and ribbons, like a victorious athlete in the games; but Elpinice, +coming near to him, said, “These are brave deeds, Pericles, that you have done, +and such as deserve our chaplets; who have lost us many a worthy citizen, not +in a war with Phoenicians or Medes, like my brother Cimon, but for the +overthrow of an allied and kindred city.” As Elpinice spoke these words, he, +smiling quietly, as it is said, returned her answer with this verse, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Old women should not seek to be perfumed. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Ion says of him, that, upon this exploit of his, conquering the Samians, he +indulged very high and proud thoughts of himself: whereas Agamemnon was ten +years taking a barbarous city, he had in nine months’ time vanquished and taken +the greatest and most powerful of the Ionians. And indeed it was not without +reason that he assumed this glory to himself, for, in real truth, there was +much uncertainty and great hazard in this war, if so be, as Thucydides tells +us, the Samian state were within a very little of wresting the whole power and +dominion of the sea out of the Athenians’ hands. +</p> + +<p> +After this was over, the Peloponnesian war beginning to break out in full tide, +he advised the people to send help to the Corcyrseans, who were attacked by the +Corinthians, and to secure to themselves an island possessed of great naval +resources, since the Peloponnesians were already all but in actual hostilities +against them. The people readily consenting to the motion, and voting an aid +and succor for them, he dispatched Lacedaemonius, Cimon’s son, having only ten +ships with him, as it were out of a design to affront him; for there was a +great kindness and friendship betwixt Cimon’s family and the Lacedaemonians; +so, in order that Lacedaemonius might lie the more open to a charge, or +suspicion at least, of favoring the Lacedaemonians and playing false, if he +performed no considerable exploit in this service, he allowed him a small +number of ships, and sent him out against his will; and indeed he made it +somewhat his business to hinder Cimon’s sons from rising in the state, +professing that by their very names they were not to be looked upon as native +and true Athenians, but foreigners and strangers, one being called +Lacedaemonius, another Thessalus, and the third Eleus; and they were all three +of them, it was thought, born of an Arcadian woman. Being, however, ill spoken +of on account of these ten galleys, as having afforded but a small supply to +the people that were in need, and yet given a great advantage to those who +might complain of the act of intervention, Pericles sent out a larger force +afterward to Corcyra, which arrived after the fight was over. And when now the +Corinthians, angry and indignant with the Athenians, accused them publicly at +Lacedaemon, the Megarians joined with them, complaining that they were, +contrary to common right and the articles of peace sworn to among the Greeks, +kept out and driven away from every market and from all ports under the control +of the Athenians. The Aeginetans, also, professing to be ill-used and treated +with violence, made supplications in private to the Lacedaemonians for redress, +though not daring openly to call the Athenians in question. In the meantime, +also, the city Potidaea, under the dominion of the Athenians, but a colony +formerly of the Corinthians, had revolted, and was beset with a formal siege, +and was a further occasion of precipitating the war. +</p> + +<p> +Yet notwithstanding all this, there being embassies sent to Athens, and +Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, endeavoring to bring the greater +part of the complaints and matters in dispute to a fair determination, and to +pacify and allay the heats of the allies, it is very likely that the war would +not upon any other grounds of quarrel have fallen upon the Athenians, could +they have been prevailed with to repeal the ordinance against the Megarians, +and to be reconciled to them. Upon which account, since Pericles was the man +who mainly opposed it, and stirred up the people’s passions to persist in their +contention with the Megarians, he was regarded as the sole cause of the war. +</p> + +<p> +They say, moreover, that ambassadors went, by order from Lacedaemon to Athens +about this very business, and that when Pericles was urging a certain law which +made it illegal to take down or withdraw the tablet of the decree, one of the +ambassadors, Polyalces by name, said, “Well, do not take it down then, but turn +it; there is no law, I suppose, which forbids that;” which, though prettily +said, did not move Pericles from his resolution. There may have been, in all +likelihood, something of a secret grudge and private animosity which he had +against the Megarians. Yet, upon a public and open charge against them, that +they had appropriated part of the sacred land on the frontier, he proposed a +decree that a herald should be sent to them, and the same also to the +Lacedaemonians, with an accusation of the Megarians; an order which certainly +shows equitable and friendly proceeding enough. And after that the herald who +was sent, by name Anthemocritus, died, and it was believed that the Megarians +had contrived his death, then Charinus proposed a decree against them, that +there should be an irreconcilable and implacable enmity thenceforward betwixt +the two commonwealths; and that if any one of the Megarians should but set his +foot in Attica, he should be put to death; and that the commanders, when they +take the usual oath, should, over and above that, swear that they will twice +every year make an inroad into the Megarian country; and that Anthemocritus +should be buried near the Thriasian Gates, which are now called the Dipylon, or +Double Gate. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, the Megarians, utterly denying and disowning the murder of +Anthemocritus, throw the whole matter upon Aspasia and Pericles, availing +themselves of the famous verses in the Acharnians, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +To Megara some of our madcaps ran,<br/> +And stole Simaetha thence, their courtesan.<br/> +Which exploit the Megarians to outdo,<br/> +Came to Aspasia’s house, and took off two. +</p> + +<p> +The true occasion of the quarrel is not so easy to find out. But of inducing +the refusal to annul the decree, all alike charge Pericles. Some say he met the +request with a positive refusal, out of high spirit and a view of the state’s +best interests, accounting that the demand made in those embassies was designed +for a trial of their compliance, and that a concession would be taken for a +confession of weakness, as if they durst not do otherwise; while other some +there are who say that it was rather out of arrogance and a willful spirit of +contention, to show his own strength, that he took occasion to slight the +Lacedaemonians. The worst motive of all, which is confirmed by most witnesses, +is to the following effect. Phidias the Molder had, as has before been said, +undertaken to make the statue of Minerva. Now he, being admitted to friendship +with Pericles, and a great favorite of his, had many enemies upon this account, +who envied and maligned him; who also, to make trial in a case of his, what +kind of judges the commons would prove, should there be occasion to bring +Pericles himself before them, having tampered with Menon, one who had been a +workman with Phidias, stationed him ill the market-place, with a petition +desiring public security upon his discovery and impeachment of Phidias. The +people admitting the man to tell his story, and the prosecution proceeding in +the assembly, there was nothing of theft or cheat proved against him; for +Phidias, from the very first beginning, by the advice of Pericles, had so +wrought and wrapt the gold that was used in the work about the statue, that +they might take it all off and make out the just weight of it, which Pericles +at that time bade the accusers do. But the reputation of his works was what +brought envy upon Phidias, especially that where he represents the fight of the +Amazons upon the goddesses’ shield, he had introduced a likeness of himself as +a bald old man holding up a great stone with both hands, and had put in a very +fine representation of Pericles fighting with an Amazon. And the position of +the hand, which holds out the spear in front of the face, was ingeniously +contrived to conceal in some degree the likeness, which, meantime, showed +itself on either side. +</p> + +<p> +Phidias then was carried away to prison, and there died of a disease; but, as +some say, of poison, administered by the enemies of Pericles, to raise a +slander, or a suspicion, at least, as though he had procured it. The informer +Menon, upon Glycon’s proposal, the people made free from payment of taxes and +customs, and ordered the generals to take care that nobody should do him any +hurt. About the same time, Aspasia was indicted of impiety, upon the complaint +of Hermippus the comedian, who also laid further to her charge that she +received into her house freeborn women for the uses of Pericles. And Diopithes +proposed a decree, that public accusation should be laid against persons who +neglected religion, or taught new doctrines about things above, directing +suspicion, by means of Anaxagoras, against Pericles himself. The people +receiving and admitting these accusations and complaints, at length, by this +means, they came to enact a decree, at the motion of Dracontides, that Pericles +should bring in the accounts of the moneys he had expended, and lodge them with +the Prytanes; and that the judges, carrying their suffrage from the altar in +the Acropolis, should examine and determine the business in the city. This last +clause Hagnon took out of the decree, and moved that the causes should be tried +before fifteen hundred jurors, whether they should be styled prosecutions for +robbery, or bribery, or any kind of malversation. Aspasia, Pericles begged off, +shedding, as Aeschines says, many tears at the trial, and personally entreating +the jurors. But fearing how it might go with Anaxagoras, he sent him out of the +city. And finding that in Phidias’s case he had miscarried with the people, +being afraid of impeachment, he kindled the war, which hitherto had lingered +and smothered, and blew it up into a flame; hoping, by that means, to disperse +and scatter these complaints and charges, and to allay their jealousy; the city +usually throwing herself upon him alone, and trusting to his sole conduct, upon +the urgency of great affairs and public dangers, by reason of his authority and +the sway he bore. +</p> + +<p> +These are given out to have been the reasons which induced Pericles not to +suffer the people of Athens to yield to the proposals of the Lacedaemonians; +but their truth is uncertain. +</p> + +<p> +The Lacedaemonians, for their part, feeling sure that if they could once remove +him, they might be at what terms they pleased with the Athenians, sent them +word that they should expel the “Pollution” with which Pericles on the mother’s +side was tainted, as Thucydides tells us. But the issue proved quite contrary +to what those who sent the message expected; instead of bringing Pericles under +suspicion and reproach, they raised him into yet greater credit and esteem with +the citizens, as a man whom their enemies most hated and feared. In the same +way, also, before Archidamus, who was at the head of the Peloponnesians, made +his invasion into Attica, he told the Athenians beforehand, that if Archidamus, +while he laid waste the rest of the country, should forbear and spare his +estate, either on the ground of friendship or right of hospitality that was +betwixt them, or on purpose to give his enemies an occasion of traducing him, +that then he did freely bestow upon the state all that his land and the +buildings upon it for the public use. The Lacedaemonians, therefore, and their +allies, with a great army, invaded the Athenian territories, under the conduct +of king Archidamus, and laying waste the country, marched on as far as +Acharnae, and there pitched their camp, presuming that the Athenians would +never endure that, but would come out and fight them for their country’s and +their honor’s sake. But Pericles looked upon it as dangerous to engage in +battle, to the risk of the city itself, against sixty thousand men-at- arms of +Peloponnesians and Boeotians; for so many they were in number that made the +inroad at first; and he endeavored to appease those who were desirous to fight, +and were grieved and discontented to see how things went, and gave them good +words, saying, that “trees, when they are lopped and cut, grow up again in a +short time but men, being once lost, cannot easily be recovered.” He did not +convene the people into an assembly, for fear lest they should force him to act +against his judgment; but, like a skillful steersman or pilot of a ship, who, +when a sudden squall comes on, out at sea, makes all his arrangements, sees +that all is tight and fast, and then follows the dictates of his skill, and +minds the business of the ship, taking no notice of the tears and entreaties of +the sea-sick and fearful passengers, so he, having shut up the city gates, and +placed guards at all posts for security, followed his own reason and judgment, +little regarding those that cried out against him and were angry at his +management, although there were a great many of his friends that urged him with +requests, and many of his enemies threatened and accused him for doing as he +did, and many made songs and lampoons upon him, which were sung about the town +to his disgrace, reproaching him with the cowardly exercise of his office of +general, and the tame abandonment of everything to the enemy’s hands. +</p> + +<p> +Cleon, also, already was among his assailants, making use of the feeling +against him as a step to the leadership of the people, as appears in the +anapaestic verses of Hermippus. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Satyr-king, instead of swords,<br/> +Will you always handle words?<br/> +Very brave indeed we find them,<br/> +But a Teles lurks behind them.<br/> +<br/> +Yet to gnash your teeth you’re seen,<br/> +When the little dagger keen,<br/> +Whetted every day anew,<br/> +Of sharp Cleon touches you. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, however, was not at all moved by any attacks, but took all patiently, +and submitted in silence to the disgrace they threw upon him and the ill-will +they bore him; and, sending out a fleet of a hundred galleys to Peloponnesus, +he did not go along with it in person, but stayed behind, that he might watch +at home and keep the city under his own control, till the Peloponnesians broke +up their camp and were gone. Yet to soothe the common people, jaded and +distressed with the war, he relieved them with distributions of public moneys, +and ordained new divisions of subject land. For having turned out all the +people of Aegina, he parted the island among the Athenians, according to lot. +Some comfort, also, and ease in their miseries, they might receive from what +their enemies endured. For the fleet, sailing round the Peloponnese, ravaged a +great deal of the country, and pillaged and plundered the towns and smaller +cities; and by land he himself entered with an army the Megarian country, and +made havoc of it all. Whence it is clear that the Peloponnesians, though they +did the Athenians much mischief by land, yet suffering as much themselves from +them by sea, would not have protracted the war to such a length, but would +quickly have given it over, as Pericles at first foretold they would, had not +some divine power crossed human purposes. +</p> + +<p> +In the first place, the pestilential disease, or plague, seized upon the city, +and ate up all the flower and prime of their youth and strength. Upon occasion +of which, the people, distempered and afflicted in their souls, as well as in +their bodies, were utterly enraged like madmen against Pericles, and, like +patients grown delirious, sought to lay violent hands on their physician, or, +as it were, their father. They had been possessed, by his enemies, with the +belief that the occasion of the plague was the crowding of the country people +together into the town, forced as they were now, in the heat of the +summer-weather, to dwell many of them together even as they could, in small +tenements and stifling hovels, and to be tied to a lazy course of life within +doors, whereas before they lived in a pure, open, and free air. The cause and +author of all this, said they, is he who on account of the war has poured a +multitude of people from the country in upon us within the walls, and uses all +these many men that he has here upon no employ or service, but keeps them pent +up like cattle, to be overrun with infection from one another, affording them +neither shift of quarters nor any refreshment. +</p> + +<p> +With the design to remedy these evils, and do the enemy some inconvenience, +Pericles got a hundred and fifty galleys ready, and having embarked many tried +soldiers, both foot and horse, was about to sail out, giving great hope to his +citizens, and no less alarm to his enemies, upon the sight of so great a force. +And now the vessels having their complement of men, and Pericles being gone +aboard his own galley, it happened that the sun was eclipsed, and it grew dark +on a sudden, to the affright of all, for this was looked upon as extremely +ominous. Pericles, therefore, perceiving the steersman seized with fear and at +a loss what to do, took his cloak and held it up before the man’s face, and, +screening him with it so that he could not see, asked him whether he imagined +there was any great hurt, or the sign of any great hurt in this, and he +answering No, “Why,” said he, “and what does that differ from this, only that +what has caused that darkness there, is something greater than a cloak?” This +is a story which philosophers tell their scholars. Pericles, however after +putting out to sea, seems not to have done any other exploit befitting such +preparations, and when he had laid siege to the holy city Epidaurus, which gave +him some hope of surrender, miscarried in his design by reason of the sickness. +For it not only seized upon the Athenians, but upon all others, too, that held +any sort of communication with the army. Finding after this the Athenians ill +affected and highly displeased with him, he tried and endeavored what he could +to appease and re-encourage them. But he could not pacify or allay their anger, +nor persuade or prevail with them any way, till they freely passed their votes +upon him, resumed their power, took away his command from him, and fined him in +a sum of money; which, by their account that say least, was fifteen talents, +while they who reckon most, name fifty. The name prefixed to the accusation was +Cleon, as Idomeneus tells us; Simmias, according to Theophrastus; and +Heraclides Ponticus gives it as Lacratidas. +</p> + +<p> +After this, public troubles were soon to leave him unmolested; the people, so +to say, discharged their passion in their stroke, and lost their stings in the +wound. But his domestic concerns were in an unhappy condition many of his +friends and acquaintance having died in the plague time, and those of his +family having long since been in disorder and in a kind of mutiny against him. +For the eldest of his lawfully begotten sons, Xanthippus by name, being +naturally prodigal, and marrying a young and expensive wife, the daughter of +Tisander, son of Epilycus, was highly offended at his father’s economy in +making him but a scanty allowance, by little and little at a time. He sent, +therefore, to a friend one day, and borrowed some money of him in his father +Pericles’s name, pretending it was by his order. The man coming afterward to +demand the debt, Pericles was so far from yielding to pay it, that he entered +an action against him. Upon which the young man, Xanthippus, thought himself so +ill used and disobliged, that he openly reviled his father; telling first, by +way of ridicule, stories about his conversations at home, and the discourses he +had with the sophists and scholars that came to his house. As for instance, how +one who was a practicer of the five games of skill, having with a dart or +javelin unawares against his will struck and killed Epitimus the Pharsalian, +his father spent a whole day with Protagoras in a serious dispute, whether the +javelin, or the man that threw it, or the masters of the games who appointed +these sports, were, according to the strictest and best reason, to be accounted +the cause of this mischance. Besides this, Stesimbrotus tells us that it was +Xanthippus who spread abroad among the people the infamous story concerning his +own wife; and in general that this difference of the young man’s with his +father, and the breach betwixt them, continued never to be healed or made up +till his death. For Xanthippus died in the plague time of the sickness. At +which time Pericles also lost his sister, and the greatest part of his +relations and friends, and those who had been most useful and serviceable to +him in managing the affairs of state. However, he did not shrink or give in +upon these occasions, nor betray or lower his high spirit and the greatness of +his mind under all his misfortunes; he was not even so much as seen to weep or +to mourn, or even attend the burial of any of his friends or relations, till at +last he lost his only remaining legitimate son. Subdued by this blow and yet +striving still, as far as he could, to maintain his principle and to preserve +and keep up the greatness of his soul when he came, however, to perform the +ceremony of putting a garland of flowers upon the head of the corpse, he was +vanquished by his passion at the sight, so that he burst into exclamations, and +shed copious tears, having never done any such thing in all his life before. +</p> + +<p> +The city having made trial of other generals for the conduct of war, and +orators for business of state, when they found there was no one who was of +weight enough for such a charge, or of authority sufficient to be trusted with +so great a command, regretted the loss of him, and invited him again to address +and advise them, and to reassume the office of general. He, however, lay at +home in dejection and mourning; but was persuaded by Alcibiades and others of +his friends to come abroad and show himself to the people; who having, upon his +appearance, made their acknowledgments, and apologized for their untowardly +treatment of him, he undertook the public affairs once more; and, being chosen +general, requested that the statute concerning base-born children, which he +himself had formerly caused to be made, might be suspended; that so the name +and race of his family might not, for absolute want of a lawful heir to +succeed, be wholly lost and extinguished. The case of the statute was thus: +Pericles, when long ago at the height of his power in the state, having then, +as has been said, children lawfully begotten, proposed a law that those only +should be reputed true citizens of Athens who were born of such parents as were +both Athenians. After this, the king of Egypt having sent to the people, by way +of present, forty thousand bushels of wheat, which were to be shared out among +the citizens, a great many actions and suits about legitimacy occurred, by +virtue of that edict; cases which, till that time, had not been known nor taken +notice of; and several persons suffered by false accusations. There were little +less than five thousand who were convicted and sold for slaves; those who, +enduring the test, remained in the government and passed muster for true +Athenians were found upon the poll to be fourteen thousand and forty persons in +number. +</p> + +<p> +It looked strange, that a law, which had been carried so far against so many +people, should be canceled again by the same man that made it; yet the present +calamity and distress which Pericles labored under in his family broke through +all objections, and prevailed with the Athenians to pity him, as one whose +losses and misfortunes had sufficiently punished his former arrogance and +haughtiness. His sufferings deserved, they thought, their pity, and even +indignation, and his request was such as became a man to ask and men to grant; +they gave him permission to enroll his son in the register of his fraternity, +giving him his own name. This son afterward, after having defeated the +Peloponnesians at Arginusae, was, with his fellow-generals, put to death by the +people. +</p> + +<p> +About the time when his son was enrolled, it should seem, the plague seized +Pericles, not with sharp and violent fits, as it did others that had it, but +with a dull and lingering distemper, attended with various changes and +alterations, leisurely, by little and little, wasting the strength of his body, +and undermining the noble faculties of his soul. So that Theophrastus, in his +Morals, when discussing whether men’s characters change with their +circumstances, and their moral habits, disturbed by the ailings of their +bodies, start aside from the rules of virtue, has left it upon record, that +Pericles, when he was sick, showed one of his friends that came to visit him, +an amulet or charm that the women had hung about his neck; as much as to say, +that he was very sick indeed when he would admit of such a foolery as that was. +</p> + +<p> +When he was now near his end, the best of the citizens and those of his friends +who were left alive, sitting about him, were speaking of the greatness of his +merit, and his power, and reckoning up his famous actions and the number of his +victories; for there were no less than nine trophies, which, as their chief +commander and conqueror of their enemies, he had set up, for the honor of the +city. They talked thus together among themselves, as though he were unable to +understand or mind what they said, but had now lost his consciousness. He had +listened, however, all the while, and attended to all, and speaking out among +them, said, that he wondered they should commend and take notice of things +which were as much owing to fortune as to anything else, and had happened to +many other commanders, and, at the same time, should not speak or make mention +of that which was the most excellent and greatest thing of all. “For,” said he, +“no Athenian, through my means, ever wore mourning.” +</p> + +<p> +He was indeed a character deserving our high admiration, not only for his +equitable and mild temper, which all along in the many affairs of his life, and +the great animosities which he incurred, he constantly maintained; but also for +the high spirit and feeling which made him regard it the noblest of all his +honors that, in the exercise of such immense power, he never had gratified his +envy or his passion, nor ever had treated any enemy as irreconcilably opposed +to him. And to me it appears that this one thing gives that otherwise childish +and arrogant title a fitting and becoming significance; so dispassionate a +temper, a life so pure and unblemished, in the height of power and place, might +well be called Olympian, in accordance with our conceptions of the divine +beings, to whom, as the natural authors of all good and of nothing evil, we +ascribe the rule and government of the world. Not as the poets represent, who, +while confounding us with their ignorant fancies, are themselves confuted by +their own poems and fictions, and call the place, indeed, where they say the +gods make their abode, a secure and quiet seat, free from all hazards and +commotions, untroubled with winds or with clouds, and equally through all time +illumined with a soft serenity and a pure light, as though such were a home +most agreeable for a blessed and immortal nature; and yet, in the meanwhile, +affirm that the gods themselves are full of trouble and enmity and anger and +other passions, which no way become or belong to even men that have any +understanding. But this will, perhaps, seem a subject fitter for some other +consideration, and that ought to be treated of in some other place. +</p> + +<p> +The course of public affairs after his death produced a quick and speedy sense +of the loss of Pericles. Those who, while he lived, resented his great +authority, as that which eclipsed themselves, presently after his quitting the +stage, making trial of other orators and demagogues, readily acknowledged that +there never had been in nature such a disposition as his was, more moderate and +reasonable in the height of that state he took upon him, or more grave and +impressive in the mildness which he used. And that invidious arbitrary power, +to which formerly they gave the name of monarchy and tyranny, did then appear +to have been the chief bulwark of public safety; so great a corruption and such +a flood of mischief and vice followed, which he, by keeping weak and low, had +withheld from notice, and had prevented from attaining incurable height through +a licentious impunity. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap13"></a>FABIUS</h2> + +<p> +Having related the memorable actions of Pericles, our history now proceeds to +the life of Fabius. A son of Hercules and a nymph, or some woman of that +country, who brought him forth on the banks of Tiber, was, it is said, the +first Fabius, the founder of the numerous and distinguished family of the name. +Others will have it that they were first called Fodii, because the first of the +race delighted in digging pitfalls for wild beasts, fodere being still the +Latin for to dig, and fossa for a ditch, and that in process of time, by the +change of the two letters they grew to be called Fabii. But be these things +true or false, certain it is that this family for a long time yielded a great +number of eminent persons. Our Fabius, who was fourth in descent from that +Fabius Rullus who first brought the honorable surname of Maximus into his +family, was also, by way of personal nickname, called Verrucosus, from a wart +on his upper lip; and in his childhood they in like manner named him Ovicula, +or The Lamb, on account of his extreme mildness of temper. His slowness in +speaking, his long labor and pains in learning, his deliberation in entering +into the sports of other children, his easy submission to everybody, as if he +had no will of his own, made those who judged superficially of him, the greater +number, esteem him insensible and stupid; and few only saw that this tardiness +proceeded from stability, and discerned the greatness of his mind, and the +lionlikeness of his temper. But as soon as he came into employments, his +virtues exerted and showed themselves; his reputed want of energy then was +recognized by people in general, as a freedom of passion; his slowness in words +and actions, the effect of a true prudence; his want of rapidity, and his +sluggishness, as constancy and firmness. +</p> + +<p> +Living in a great commonwealth, surrounded by many enemies, he saw the wisdom +of inuring his body (nature’s own weapon) to warlike exercises, and +disciplining his tongue for public oratory in a style comformable to his life +and character. His eloquence, indeed, had not much of popular ornament, nor +empty artifice, but there was in it great weight of sense; it was strong and +sententious, much after the way of Thucydides. We have yet extant his funeral +oration upon the death of his son, who died consul, which he recited before the +people. +</p> + +<p> +He was five times consul, and in his first consulship had the honor of a +triumph for the victory he gained over the Ligurians, whom he defeated in a set +battle, and drove them to take shelter in the Alps, from whence they never +after made any inroad nor depredation upon their neighbors. After this, +Hannibal came into Italy, who, at his first entrance, having gained a great +battle near the river Trebia, traversed all Tuscany with his victorious army, +and, desolating the country round about, filled Rome itself with astonishment +and terror. Besides the more common signs of thunder and lightning then +happening, the report of several unheard of and utterly strange portents much +increased the popular consternation. For it was said that some targets sweated +blood; that at Antium, when they reaped their corn, many of the ears were +filled with blood; that it had rained redhot stones; that the Falerians had +seen the heavens open and several scrolls falling down, in one of which was +plainly written, “Mars himself stirs his arms.” But these prodigies had no +effect upon the impetuous and fiery temper of the consul Flaminius, whose +natural promptness had been much heightened by his late unexpected victory over +the Gauls, when he fought them contrary to the order of the senate and the +advice of his colleague. Fabius, on the other side, thought it not seasonable +to engage with the enemy; not that he much regarded the prodigies, which he +thought too strange to be easily understood, though many were alarmed by them; +but in regard that the Carthaginians were but few, and in want of money and +supplies, he deemed it best not to meet in the field a general whose army had +been tried in many encounters, and whose object was a battle, but to send aid +to their allies, control the movements of the various subject cities, and let +the force and vigor of Hannibal waste away and expire, like a flame, for want +of aliment. +</p> + +<p> +These weighty reasons did not prevail with Flaminius, who protested he would +never suffer the advance of the enemy to the city, nor be reduced, like +Camillus in former time, to fight for Rome within the walls of Rome. +Accordingly he ordered the tribunes to draw out the army into the field; and +though he himself, leaping on horseback to go out, was no sooner mounted but +the beast, without any apparent cause, fell into so violent a fit of trembling +and bounding that he cast his rider headlong on the ground, he was no ways +deterred; but proceeded as he had begun, and marched forward up to Hannibal, +who was posted near the Lake Thrasymene in Tuscany. At the moment of this +engagement, there happened so great an earthquake, that it destroyed several +towns, altered the course of rivers, and carried off parts of high cliffs, yet +such was the eagerness of the combatants, that they were entirely insensible of +it. +</p> + +<p> +In this battle Flaminius fell, after many proofs of his strength and courage, +and round about him all the bravest of the army, in the whole, fifteen thousand +were killed, and as many made prisoners. Hannibal, desirous to bestow funeral +honors upon the body of Flaminius, made diligent search after it, but could not +find it among the dead, nor was it ever known what became of it. Upon the +former engagement near Trebia, neither the general who wrote, nor the express +who told the news, used straightforward and direct terms, nor related it +otherwise than as a drawn battle, with equal loss on either side; but on this +occasion, as soon as Pomponius the praetor had the intelligence, he caused the +people to assemble, and, without disguising or dissembling the matter, told +them plainly, “We are beaten, O Romans, in a great battle; the consul Flaminius +is killed; think, therefore, what is to be done for your safety.” Letting loose +his news like a gale of wind upon an open sea, he threw the city into utter +confusion: in such consternation, their thoughts found no support or stay. The +danger at hand at last awakened their judgments into a resolution to choose a +dictator, who, by the sovereign authority of his office and by his personal +wisdom and courage, might be able to manage the public affairs. Their choice +unanimously fell upon Fabius, whose character seemed equal to the greatness of +the office; whose age was so far advanced as to give him experience, without +taking from him the vigor of action; his body could execute what his soul +designed; and his temper was a happy compound of confidence and cautiousness. +</p> + +<p> +Fabius, being thus installed in the office of dictator, in the first place gave +the command of the horse to Lucius Minucius; and next asked leave of the senate +for himself, that in time of battle he might serve on horseback, which by an +ancient law amongst the Romans was forbid to their generals; whether it were, +that, placing their greatest strength in their foot, they would have their +commanders-in-chief posted amongst them, or else to let them know, that, how +great and absolute soever their authority were, the people and senate were +still their masters, of whom they must ask leave. Fabius, however, to make the +authority of his charge more observable, and to render the people more +submissive and obedient to him, caused himself to be accompanied with the full +body of four and twenty lictors; and, when the surviving consul came to visit +him, sent him word to dismiss his lictors with their fasces, the ensigns of +authority, and appear before him as a private person. +</p> + +<p> +The first solemn action of his dictatorship was very fitly a religious one: an +admonition to the people, that their late overthrow had not befallen them +through want of courage in their soldiers, but through the neglect of divine +ceremonies in the general. He therefore exhorted them not to fear the enemy, +but by extraordinary honor to propitiate the gods. This he did, not to fill +their minds with superstition, but by religious feeling to raise their courage, +and lessen their fear of the enemy by inspiring the belief that Heaven was on +their side. With this view, the secret prophecies called the Sibylline Books +were consulted; sundry predictions found in them were said to refer to the +fortunes and events of the time; but none except the consulter was informed. +Presenting himself to the people, the dictator made a vow before them to offer +in sacrifice the whole product of the next season, all Italy over, of the cows, +goats, swine, sheep, both in the mountains and the plains; and to celebrate +musical festivities with an expenditure of the precise sum of 333 sestertia and +333 denarii, with one third of a denarius over. The sum total of which is, in +our money, 83,583 drachmas and 2 obols. What the mystery might be in that exact +number is not easy to determine, unless it were in honor of the perfection of +the number three, as being the first of odd numbers, the first that contains in +itself multiplication, with all other properties whatsoever belonging to +numbers in general. +</p> + +<p> +In this manner Fabius having given the people better heart for the future, by +making them believe that the gods took their side, for his own part placed his +whole confidence in himself, believing that the gods bestowed victory and good +fortune by the instrumentality of valor and of prudence; and thus prepared he +set forth to oppose Hannibal, not with intention to fight him, but with the +purpose of wearing out and wasting the vigor of his arms by lapse of time, of +meeting his want of resources by superior means, by large numbers the smallness +of his forces. With this design, he always encamped on the highest grounds, +where the enemy’s horse could have no access to him. Still he kept pace with +them; when they marched he followed them, when they encamped he did the same, +but at such a distance as not to be compelled to an engagement, and always +keeping upon the hills, free from the insults of their horse; by which means he +gave them no rest, but kept them in a continual alarm. +</p> + +<p> +But this his dilatory way gave occasion in his own camp for suspicion of want +of courage; and this opinion prevailed yet more in Hannibal’s army. Hannibal +was himself the only man who was not deceived, who discerned his skill and +detected his tactics, and saw, unless he could by art or force bring him to +battle, that the Carthaginians, unable to use the arms in which they were +superior, and suffering the continual drain of lives and treasure in which they +were inferior, would in the end come to nothing. He resolved, therefore, with +all the arts and subtilties of war to break his measures, and to bring Fabius +to an engagement; like a cunning wrestler, watching every opportunity to get +good hold and close with his adversary. He at one time attacked, and sought to +distract his attention, tried to draw him off in various directions, endeavored +in all ways to tempt him from his safe policy. All this artifice, though it had +no effect upon the firm judgment and conviction of the dictator. yet upon the +common soldier and even upon the general of the horse himself, it had too great +an operation: Minucius, unseasonably eager for action, bold and confident, +humored the soldiery, and himself contributed to fill them with wild eagerness +and empty hopes, which they vented in reproaches upon Fabius, calling him +Hannibal’s pedagogue, since he did nothing else but follow him up and down and +wait upon him. At the same time, they cried up Minucius for the only captain +worthy to command the Romans; whose vanity and presumption rose so high in +consequence, that he insolently jested at Fabius’s encampments upon the +mountains, saying that he seated them there as on a theater, to behold the +flames and desolation of their country. And he would sometimes ask the friends +of the general, whether it were not his meaning, by thus leading them from +mountain to mountain, to carry them at last (having no hopes on earth) up into +heaven, or to hide them in the clouds from Hannibal’s army? When his friends +reported these things to the dictator, persuading him that, to avoid the +general obloquy, he should engage the enemy, his answer was, “I should be more +fainthearted than they make me, if, through fear of idle reproaches, I should +abandon my own convictions. It is no inglorious thing to have fear for the +safety of our country, but to be turned from one’s course by men’s opinions, by +blame, and by misrepresentation, shows a man unfit to hold an office such as +this, which, by such conduct, he makes the slave of those whose errors it is +his business to control.” +</p> + +<p> +An oversight of Hannibal occurred soon after. Desirous to refresh his horse in +some good pasture-grounds, and to draw off his army, he ordered his guides to +conduct him to the district of Casinum. They, mistaking his bad pronunciation, +led him and his army to the town of Casilinum, on the frontier of Campania +which the river Lothronus, called by the Romans Vulturnus, divides in two +parts. The country around is enclosed by mountains, with a valley opening +towards the sea, in which the river overflowing forms a quantity of marsh land +with deep banks of sand, and discharges itself into the sea on a very unsafe +and rough shore. While Hannibal was proceeding hither, Fabius, by his knowledge +of the roads, succeeded in making his way around before him, and dispatched +four thousand choice men to seize the exit from it and stop him up, and lodged +the rest of his army upon the neighboring hills in the most advantageous +places; at the same time detaching a party of his lightest armed men to fall +upon Hannibal’s rear; which they did with such success, that they cut off eight +hundred of them, and put the whole army in disorder. Hannibal, finding the +error and the danger he was fallen into, immediately crucified the guides; but +considered the enemy to be so advantageously posted, that there was no hopes of +breaking through them; while his soldiers began to be despondent and terrified, +and to think themselves surrounded with embarrassments too difficult to be +surmounted. +</p> + +<p> +Thus reduced, Hannibal had recourse to stratagem; he caused two thousand head +of oxen which he had in his camp, to have torches or dry fagots well fastened +to their horns, and lighting them in the beginning of the night, ordered the +beasts to be driven on towards the heights commanding the passages out of the +valley and the enemy’s posts; when this was done, he made his army in the dark +leisurely march after them. The oxen at first kept a slow, orderly pace, and +with their lighted heads resembled an army marching by night, astonishing the +shepherds and herds men of the hills about. But when the fire had burnt down +the horns of the beasts to the quick, they no longer observed their sober pace, +but, unruly and wild with their pain, ran dispersed about, tossing their heads +and scattering the fire round about them upon each other and setting light as +they passed to the trees. This was a surprising spectacle to the Romans on +guard upon the heights. Seeing flames which appeared to come from men advancing +with torches, they were possessed with the alarm that the enemy was approaching +in various quarters, and that they were being surrounded; and, quitting their +post, abandoned the pass, and precipitately retired to their camp on the hills. +They were no sooner gone, but the light-armed of Hannibal’s men, according to +his order, immediately seized the heights, and soon after the whole army, with +all the baggage, came up and safely marched through the passes. +</p> + +<p> +Fabius, before the night was over, quickly found out the trick; for some of the +beasts fell into his hands; but for fear of an ambush in the dark, he kept his +men all night to their arms in the camp. As soon as it was day, he attacked the +enemy in the rear, where, after a good deal of skirmishing in the uneven +ground, the disorder might have become general, but that Hannibal detached from +his van a body of Spaniards, who, of themselves active and nimble, were +accustomed to the climbing of mountains. These briskly attacked the Roman +troops who were in heavy armor, killed a good many, and left Fabius no longer +in condition to follow the enemy. This action brought the extreme of obloquy +and contempt upon the dictator; they said it was now manifest that he was not +only inferior to his adversary, as they had always thought, in courage, but +even in that conduct, foresight, and generalship, by which he had proposed to +bring the war to an end. +</p> + +<p> +And Hannibal, to enhance their anger against him, marched with his army close +to the lands and possessions of Fabius, and, giving orders to his soldiers to +burn and destroy all the country about, forbade them to do the least damage in +the estates of the Roman general, and placed guards for their security. This, +when reported at Rome, had the effect with the people which Hannibal desired. +Their tribunes raised a thousand stories against him, chiefly at the +instigation of Metilius, who, not so much out of hatred to him as out of +friendship to Minucius, whose kinsman he was, thought by depressing Fabius to +raise his friend. The senate on their part were also offended with him, for the +bargain he had made with Hannibal about the exchange of prisoners, the +conditions of which were, that, after exchange made of man for man, if any on +either side remained, they should be redeemed at the price of two hundred and +fifty drachmas a head. Upon the whole account, there remained two hundred and +forty Romans unexchanged, and the senate now not only refused to allow money +for the ransoms, but also reproached Fabius for making a contract, contrary to +the honor and interest of the commonwealth, for redeeming men whose cowardice +had put them in the hands of the enemy. Fabius heard and endured all this with +invincible patience; and, having no money by him, and on the other side being +resolved to keep his word with Hannibal and not to abandon the captives, he +dispatched his son to Rome to sell land, and to bring with him the price, +sufficient to discharge the ransoms; which was punctually performed by his son, +and delivery accordingly made to him of the prisoners, amongst whom many, when +they were released, made proposals to repay the money; which Fabius in all +cases declined. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, he was called to Rome by the priests, to assist, according to +the duty of his office, at certain sacrifices, and was thus forced to leave the +command of the army with Minucius; but before he parted, not only charged him +as his commander-in-chief, but besought and entreated him, not to come, in his +absence, to a battle with Hannibal. His commands, entreaties, and advice were +lost upon Minucius; for his back was no sooner turned but the new general +immediately sought occasions to attack the enemy. And notice being brought him +that Hannibal had sent out a great part of his army to forage, he fell upon a +detachment of the remainder, doing great execution, and driving them to their +very camp, with no little terror to the rest, who apprehended their breaking in +upon them; and when Hannibal had recalled his scattered forces to the camp, he, +nevertheless, without any loss, made his retreat, a success which aggravated +his boldness and presumption, and filled the soldiers with rash confidence. The +news spread to Rome, where Fabius, on being told it, said that what he most +feared was Minucius’s success: but the people, highly elated, hurried to the +forum to listen to an address from Metilius the tribune, in which he infinitely +extolled the valor of Minucius, and fell bitterly upon Fabius, accusing him for +want not merely of courage, but even of loyalty; and not only him, but also +many other eminent and considerable persons; saying that it was they that had +brought the Carthaginians into Italy, with the design to destroy the liberty of +the people; for which end they had at once put the supreme authority into the +hands of a single person, who by his slowness and delays might give Hannibal +leisure to establish himself in Italy, and the people of Carthage time and +opportunity to supply him with fresh succors to complete his conquests +</p> + +<p> +Fabius came forward with no intention to answer the tribune, but only said, +that they should expedite the sacrifices, that so he might speedily return to +the army to punish Minucius, who had presumed to fight contrary to his orders; +words which immediately possessed the people with the belief that Minucius +stood in danger of his life. For it was in the power of the dictator to +imprison and to put to death, and they feared that Fabius, of a mild temper in +general, would be as hard to be appeased when once irritated, as he was slow to +be provoked. Nobody dared to raise his voice in opposition. Metilius alone, +whose office of tribune gave him security to say what he pleased (for in the +time of a dictatorship that magistrate alone preserves his authority), boldly +applied himself to the people in the behalf of Minucius: that they should not +suffer him to be made a sacrifice to the enmity of Fabius, nor permit him to be +destroyed, like the son of Manlius Torquatus, who was beheaded by his father +for a victory fought and triumphantly won against order; he exhorted them to +take away from Fabius that absolute power of a dictator, and to put it into +more worthy hands, better able and more inclined to use it for the public good. +These impressions very much prevailed upon the people, though not so far as +wholly to dispossess Fabius of the dictatorship. But they decreed that Minucius +should have an equal authority with the dictator in the conduct of the war; +which was a thing then without precedent, though a little later it was again +practiced after the disaster at Cannae; when the dictator, Marcus Junius, being +with the army, they chose at Rome Fabius Buteo dictator, that he might create +new senators, to supply the numerous places of those who were killed. But as +soon as, once acting in public, he had filled those vacant places with a +sufficient number, he immediately dismissed his lictors, and withdrew from all +his attendance, and, mingling like a common person with the rest of the people, +quietly went about his own affairs in the forum. +</p> + +<p> +The enemies of Fabius thought they had sufficiently humiliated and subdued him +by raising Minucius to be his equal in authority; but they mistook the temper +of the man, who looked upon their folly as not his loss, but like Diogenes, +who, being told that some persons derided him, made answer, “But I am not +derided,” meaning that only those were really insulted on whom such insults +made an impression, so Fabius, with great tranquillity and unconcern, submitted +to what happened, and contributed a proof to the argument of the philosophers +that a just and good man is not capable of being dishonored. His only vexation +arose from his fear lest this ill counsel, by supplying opportunities to the +diseased military ambition of his subordinate, should damage the public cause. +Lest the rashness of Minucius should now at once run headlong into some +disaster, he returned back with all privacy and speed to the army; where he +found Minucius so elevated with his new dignity, that, a joint-authority not +contenting him, he required by turns to have the command of the army every +other day. This Fabius rejected, but was contented that the army should be +divided; thinking each general singly would better command his part, than +partially command the whole. The first and fourth legion he took for his own +division, the second and third he delivered to Minucius; so also of the +auxiliary forces each had an equal share. +</p> + +<p> +Minucius, thus exalted, could not contain himself from boasting of his success +in humiliating the high and powerful office of the dictatorship. Fabius quietly +reminded him that it was, in all wisdom, Hannibal, and not Fabius, whom he had +to combat; but if he must needs contend with his colleague, it had best be in +diligence and care for the preservation of Rome; that it might not be said, a +man so favored by the people served them worse than he who had been ill-treated +and disgraced by them. +</p> + +<p> +The young general, despising these admonitions as the false humility of age, +immediately removed with the body of his army, and encamped by himself. +Hannibal, who was not ignorant of all these passages, lay watching his +advantage from them. It happened that between his army and that of Minucius +there was a certain eminence, which seemed a very advantageous and not +difficult post to encamp upon; the level field around it appeared, from a +distance, to be all smooth and even, though it had many inconsiderable ditches +and dips in it, not discernible to the eye. Hannibal, had he pleased, could +easily have possessed himself of this ground; but he had reserved it for a +bait, or train, in proper season, to draw the Romans to an engagement. Now that +Minucius and Fabius were divided, he thought the opportunity fair for his +purpose; and, therefore, having in the night time lodged a convenient number of +his men in these ditches and hollow places, early in the morning he sent forth +a small detachment, who, in the sight of Minucius, proceeded to possess +themselves of the rising ground. According to his expectation, Minucius +swallowed the bait, and first sends out his light troops, and after them some +horse, to dislodge the enemy; and, at last, when he saw Hannibal in person +advancing to the assistance of his men, marched down with his whole army drawn +up. He engaged with the troops on the eminence, and sustained their missiles; +the combat for some time was equal; but as soon as Hannibal perceived that the +whole army was now sufficiently advanced within the toils he had set for them, +so that their backs were open to his men whom he had posted in the hollows, he +gave the signal; upon which they rushed forth from various quarters, and with +loud cries furiously attacked Minucius in the rear. The surprise and the +slaughter was great, and struck universal alarm and disorder through the whole +army. Minucius himself lost all his confidence; he looked from officer to +officer, and found all alike unprepared to face the danger, and yielding to a +flight, which, however, could not end in safety. The Numidian horsemen were +already in full victory riding about the plain, cutting down the fugitives. +</p> + +<p> +Fabius was not ignorant of this danger of his countrymen; he foresaw what would +happen from the rashness of Minucius, and the cunning of Hannibal; and, +therefore, kept his men to their arms, in readiness to wait the event; nor +would he trust to the reports of others, but he himself, in front of his camp, +viewed all that passed. When, therefore, he saw the army of Minucius +encompassed by the enemy, and that by their countenance and shifting their +ground, they appeared more disposed to flight than to resistance, with a great +sigh, striking his hand upon his thigh, he said to those about him, “O +Hercules! how much sooner than I expected, though later than he seemed to +desire, hath Minucius destroyed himself!” He then commanded the ensigns to be +led forward and the army to follow, telling them, “We must make haste to rescue +Minucius, who is a valiant man, and a lover of his country; and if he hath been +too forward to engage the enemy, at another time we will tell him of it.” Thus, +at the head of his men, Fabius marched up to the enemy, and first cleared the +plain of the Numidians; and next fell upon those who were charging the Romans +in the rear, cutting down all that made opposition, and obliging the rest to +save themselves by a hasty retreat, lest they should be environed as the Romans +had been. Hannibal, seeing so sudden a change of affairs, and Fabius, beyond +the force of his age, opening his way through the ranks up the hill-side, that +he might join Minucius, warily forbore, sounded a retreat, and drew off his men +into their camp; while the Romans on their part were no less contented to +retire in safety. It is reported that upon this occasion Hannibal said +jestingly to his friends: “Did not I tell you, that this cloud which always +hovered upon the mountains would, at some time or other, come down with a storm +upon us?” +</p> + +<p> +Fabius, after his men had picked up the spoils of the field, retired to his own +camp, without saying any harsh or reproachful thing to his colleague; who also +on his part, gathering his army together, spoke and said to them: “To conduct +great matters and never commit a fault is above the force of human nature; but +to learn and improve by the faults we have committed, is that which becomes a +good and sensible man. Some reasons I may have to accuse fortune, but I have +many more to thank her; for in a few hours she hath cured a long mistake, and +taught me that I am not the man who should command others, but have need of +another to command me; and that we are not to contend for victory over those to +whom it is our advantage to yield. Therefore in everything else henceforth the +dictator must be your commander; only in showing gratitude towards him I will +still be your leader, and always be the first to obey his orders.” Having said +this, he commanded the Roman eagles to move forward, and all his men to follow +him to the camp of Fabius. The soldiers, then, as he entered, stood amazed at +the novelty of the sight, and were anxious and doubtful what the meaning might +be. When he came near the dictator’s tent, Fabius went forth to meet him, on +which he at once laid his standards at his feet, calling him with a loud voice +his father; while the soldiers with him saluted the soldiers here as their +patrons, the term employed by freedmen to those who gave them their liberty. +After silence was obtained, Minucius said, “You have this day, O dictator, +obtained two victories; one by your valor and conduct over Hannibal, and +another by your wisdom and goodness over your colleague; by one victory you +preserved, and by the other instructed us; and when we were already suffering +one shameful defeat from Hannibal, by another welcome one from you we were +restored to honor and safety. I can address you by no nobler name than that of +a kind father, though a father’s beneficence falls short of that I have +received from you. From a father I individually received the gift of life; to +you I owe its preservation not for myself only, but for all these who are under +me.” After this, he threw himself into the arms of the dictator; and in the +same manner the soldiers of each army embraced one another with gladness and +tears of joy. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after, Fabius laid down the dictatorship, and consuls were again +created. Those who immediately succeeded, observed the same method in managing +the war, and avoided all occasions of fighting Hannibal in a pitched battle; +they only succored their allies, and preserved the towns from falling off to +the enemy. but afterwards, when Terentius Varro, a man of obscure birth, but +very popular and bold, had obtained the consulship, he soon made it appear that +by his rashness and ignorance he would stake the whole commonwealth on the +hazard. For it was his custom to declaim in all assemblies, that, as long as +Rome employed generals like Fabius there never would be an end of the war; +vaunting that whenever he should get sight of the enemy, he would that same day +free Italy from the strangers. With these promises he so prevailed, that he +raised a greater army than had ever yet been sent out of Rome. There were +enlisted eighty-eight thousand fighting men; but what gave confidence to the +populace, only terrified the wise and experienced, and none more than Fabius; +since if so great a body, and the flower of the Roman youth, should be cut off, +they could not see any new resource for the safety of Rome. They addressed +themselves, therefore, to the other consul, Aemilius Paulus, a man of great +experience in war, but unpopular, and fearful also of the people, who once +before upon some impeachment had condemned him; so that he needed encouragement +to withstand his colleague’s temerity. Fabius told him, if he would profitably +serve his country, he must no less oppose Varro’s ignorant eagerness than +Hannibal’s conscious readiness, since both alike conspired to decide the fate +of Rome by a battle. “It is more reasonable,” he said to him, “that you should +believe me than Varro, in matters relating to Hannibal, when I tell you, that +if for this year you abstain from fighting with him, either his army will +perish of itself, or else he will be glad to depart of his own will. This +evidently appears, inasmuch as, notwithstanding his victories, none of the +countries or towns of Italy come in to him, and his army is not now the third +part of what it was at first.” To this Paulus is said to have replied, “Did I +only consider myself, I should rather choose to be exposed to the weapons of +Hannibal than once more to the suffrages of my fellow-citizens, who are urgent +for what you disapprove; yet since the cause of Rome is at stake, I will rather +seek in my conduct to please and obey Fabius than all the world besides.” +</p> + +<p> +These good measures were defeated by the importunity of Varro; whom, when they +were both come to the army, nothing would content but a separate command, that +each consul should have his day; and when his turn came, he posted his army +close to Hannibal, at a village called Cannae, by the river Aufidus. It was no +sooner day, but he set up the scarlet coat flying over his tent, which was the +signal of battle. This boldness of the consul, and the numerousness of his +army, double theirs, startled the Carthaginians; but Hannibal commanded them to +their arms, and with a small train rode out to take a full prospect of the +enemy as they were now forming in their ranks, from a rising ground not far +distant. One of his followers, called Gisco, a Carthaginian of equal rank with +himself, told him that the numbers of the enemy were astonishing; to which +Hannibal replied, with a serious countenance, “There is one thing, Gisco, yet +more astonishing, which you take no notice of;” and when Gisco inquired what, +answered, that “in all those great numbers before us, there is not one man +called Gisco.” This unexpected jest of their general made all the company +laugh, and as they came down from the hill, they told it to those whom they +met, which caused a general laughter amongst them all, from which they were +hardly able to recover themselves. The army, seeing Hannibal’s attendants come +back from viewing the enemy in such a laughing condition, concluded that it +must be profound contempt of the enemy, that made their general at this moment +indulge in such hilarity. +</p> + +<p> +According to his usual manner, Hannibal employed stratagems to advantage +himself. In the first place, he so drew up his men that the wind was at their +backs, which at that time blew with a perfect storm of violence, and, sweeping +over the great plains of sand, carried before it a cloud of dust over the +Carthaginian army into the faces of the Romans, which much disturbed them in +the fight. In the next place, all his best men he put into his wings; and in +the body, which was somewhat more advanced than the wings, placed the worst and +the weakest of his army. He commanded those in the wings, that, when the enemy +had made a thorough charge upon that middle advanced body, which he knew would +recoil, as not being able to withstand their shock, and when the Romans, in +their pursuit, should be far enough engaged within the two wings, they should, +both on the right and the left, charge them in the flank, and endeavor to +encompass them. This appears to have been the chief cause of the Roman loss. +Pressing upon Hannibal’s front, which gave ground, they reduced the form of his +army into a perfect half-moon, and gave ample opportunity to the captains of +the chosen troops to charge them right and left on their flanks, and to cut off +and destroy all who did not fall back before the Carthaginian wings united in +their rear. To this general calamity, it is also said, that a strange mistake +among the cavalry much contributed. For the horse of Aemilius receiving a hurt +and throwing his master, those about him immediately alighted to aid the +consul; and the Roman troops, seeing their commanders thus quitting their +horses, took it for a sign that they should all dismount and charge the enemy +on foot. At the sight of this, Hannibal was heard to say, “This pleases me +better than if they had been delivered to me bound hand and foot.” For the +particulars of this engagement, we refer our reader to those authors who have +written at large upon the subject. +</p> + +<p> +The consul Varro, with a thin company, fled to Venusia; Aemilius Paulus, unable +any longer to oppose the flight of his men, or the pursuit of the enemy, his +body all covered with wounds, and his soul no less wounded with grief, sat +himself down upon a stone, expecting the kindness of a dispatching blow. His +face was so disfigured, and all his person so stained with blood, that his very +friends and domestics passing by knew him not. At last Cornelius Lentulus, a +young man of patrician race, perceiving who he was, alighted from his horse, +and, tendering it to him, desired him to get up and save a life so necessary to +the safety of the commonwealth, which, at this time, would dearly want so great +a captain. But nothing could prevail upon him to accept of the offer; he +obliged young Lentulus, with tears in his eyes, to remount his horse; then +standing up, he gave him his hand, and commanded him to tell Fabius Maximus +that Aemilius Paulus had followed his directions to his very last, and had not +in the least deviated from those measures which were agreed between them; but +that it was his hard fate to be overpowered by Varro in the first place, and +secondly by Hannibal. Having dispatched Lentulus with this commission, he +marked where the slaughter was greatest, and there threw himself upon the +swords of the enemy. In this battle it is reported that fifty thousand Romans +were slain, four thousand prisoners taken in the field, and ten thousand in the +camp of both consuls. +</p> + +<p> +The friends of Hannibal earnestly persuaded him to follow up his victory, and +pursue the flying Romans into the very gates of Rome, assuring him that in five +days’ time he might sup in the capitol; nor is it easy to imagine what +consideration hindered him from it. It would seem rather that some supernatural +or divine intervention caused the hesitation and timidity which he now +displayed, and which made Barcas, a Carthaginian, tell him with indignation, +“You know, Hannibal, how to gain a victory, but not how to use it.” Yet it +produced a marvelous revolution in his affairs; he, who hitherto had not one +town, market, or seaport in his possession, who had nothing for the subsistence +of his men but what he pillaged from day to day, who had no place of retreat or +basis of operation, but was roving, as it were, with a huge troop of banditti, +now became master of the best provinces and towns of Italy, and of Capua +itself, next to Rome the most flourishing and opulent city, all which came over +to him, and submitted to his authority. +</p> + +<p> +It is the saying of Euripides, that “a man is in ill-case when he must try a +friend,” and so neither, it would seem, is a state in a good one, when it needs +an able general. And so it was with the Romans; the counsels and actions of +Fabius, which, before the battle, they had branded as cowardice and fear, now, +in the other extreme they accounted to have been more than human wisdom; as +though nothing but a divine power of intellect could have seen so far, and +foretold, contrary to the judgment of all others, a result which, even now it +had arrived, was hardly credible. In him, therefore, they placed their whole +remaining hopes; his wisdom was the sacred altar and temple to which they fled +for refuge, and his counsels, more than anything, preserved them from +dispersing and deserting their city, as in the time when the Gauls took +possession of Rome. He, whom they esteemed fearful and pusillanimous when they +were, as they thought, in a prosperous condition, was now the only man, in this +general and unbounded dejection and confusion, who showed no fear, but walked +the streets with an assured and serene countenance, addressed his +fellow-citizens, checked the women’s lamentations, and the public gatherings of +those who wanted thus to vent their sorrows. He caused the senate to meet, he +heartened up the magistrates, and was himself as the soul and life of every +office. +</p> + +<p> +He placed guards at the gates of the city to stop the frighted multitude from +flying; he regulated and controlled their mournings for their slain friends, +both as to time and place; ordering that each family should perform such +observances within private walls, and that they should continue only the space +of one month, and then the whole city should be purified. The feast of Ceres +happening to fall within this time, it was decreed that the solemnity should be +intermitted, lest the fewness, and the sorrowful countenance of those who +should celebrate it, might too much expose to the people the greatness of their +loss; besides that, the worship most acceptable to the gods is that which comes +from cheerful hearts. But those rites which were proper for appeasing their +anger, and procuring auspicious signs and presages, were by the direction of +the augurs carefully performed. Fabius Pictor, a near kinsman to Maximus, was +sent to consult the oracle of Delphi; and about the same time, two vestals +having been detected to have been violated, the one killed herself, and the +other, according to custom, was buried alive. +</p> + +<p> +Above all, let us admire the high spirit and equanimity of this Roman +commonwealth; that when the consul Varro came beaten and flying home, full of +shame and humiliation, after he had so disgracefully and calamitously managed +their affairs, yet the whole senate and people went forth to meet him at the +gates of the city, and received him with honor and respect. And, silence being +commanded, the magistrates and chief of the senate, Fabius amongst them, +commended him before the people, because he did not despair of the safety of +the commonwealth, after so great a loss, but was come to take the government +into his hands, to execute the laws, and aid his fellow-citizens in their +prospect of future deliverance. +</p> + +<p> +When word was brought to Rome that Hannibal, after the fight, had marched with +his army into other parts of Italy, the hearts of the Romans began to revive, +and they proceeded to send out generals and armies. The most distinguished +commands were held by Fabius Maximus and Claudius Marcellus, both generals of +great fame, though upon opposite grounds. For Marcellus, as we have set forth +in his life, was a man of action and high spirit, ready and bold with his own +hand, and, as Homer describes his warriors, fierce, and delighting in fights. +Boldness, enterprise, and daring, to match those of Hannibal, constituted his +tactics, and marked his engagements. But Fabius adhered to his former +principles, still persuaded that, by following close and not fighting him, +Hannibal and his army would at last be tired out and consumed, like a wrestler +in too high condition, whose very excess of strength makes him the more likely +suddenly to give way and lose it. Posidonius tells us that the Romans called +Marcellus their sword, and Fabius their buckler; and that the vigor of the one, +mixed with the steadiness of the other, made a happy compound that proved the +salvation of Rome. So that Hannibal found by experience that, encountering the +one, he met with a rapid, impetuous river, which drove him back, and still made +some breach upon him; and by the other, though silently and quietly passing by +him, he was insensibly washed away and consumed; and, at last, was brought to +this, that he dreaded Marcellus when he was in motion, and Fabius when he sat +still. During the whole course of this war, he had still to do with one or both +of these generals; for each of them was five times consul, and, as praetors or +proconsuls or consuls, they had always a part in the government of the army, +till, at last, Marcellus fell into the trap which Hannibal had laid for him, +and was killed in his fifth consulship. But all his craft and subtlety were +unsuccessful upon Fabius, who only once was in some danger of being caught, +when counterfeit letters came to him from the principal inhabitants of +Metapontum, with promises to deliver up their town if he would come before it +with his army, and intimations that they should expect him, This train had +almost drawn him in; he resolved to march to them with part of his army, and +was diverted only by consulting the omens of the birds, which he found to be +inauspicious; and not long after it was discovered that the letters had been +forged by Hannibal, who, for his reception, had laid an ambush to entertain +him. This, perhaps, we must rather attribute to the favor of the gods than to +the prudence of Fabius. +</p> + +<p> +In preserving the towns and allies from revolt by fair and gentle treatment, +and in not using rigor, or showing a suspicion upon every light suggestion, his +conduct was remarkable. It is told of him, that, being informed of a certain +Marsian, eminent for courage and good birth, who had been speaking underhand +with some of the soldiers about deserting, Fabius was so far from using +severity against him, that he called for him, and told him he was sensible of +the neglect that had been shown to his merit and good service, which, he said, +was a great fault in the commanders who reward more by favor than by desert; +“but henceforward, whenever you are aggrieved,” said Fabius, “I shall consider +it your fault, if you apply yourself to any but to me;” and when he had so +spoken, he bestowed an excellent horse and other presents upon him; and, from +that time forwards, there was not a faithfuller and more trusty man in the +whole army. With good reason he judged, that, if those who have the government +of horses and dogs endeavor by gentle usage to cure their angry and untractable +tempers, rather than by cruelty and beating, much more should those who have +the command of men try to bring them to order and discipline by the mildest and +fairest means, and not treat them worse than gardeners do those wild plants, +which, with care and attention, lose gradually the savageness of their nature, +and bear excellent fruit. +</p> + +<p> +At another time, some of his officers informed him that one of their men was +very often absent from his place, and out at nights; he asked them what kind of +man he was; they all answered, that the whole army had not a better man, that +he was a native of Lucania, and proceeded to speak of several actions which +they had seen him perform. Fabius made strict inquiry, and discovered at last +that these frequent excursions which he ventured upon were to visit a young +girl, with whom he was in love. Upon which he gave private order to some of his +men to find out the woman and secretly convey her into his own tent; and then +sent for the Lucanian, and, calling him aside, told him, that he very well knew +how often he had been out away from the camp at night, which was a capital +transgression against military discipline and the Roman laws, but he knew also +how brave he was, and the good services he had done; therefore, in +consideration of them, he was willing to forgive him his fault; but to keep him +in good order, he was resolved to place one over him to be his keeper, who +should be accountable for his good behavior. Having said this, he produced the +woman, and told the soldier, terrified and amazed at the adventure, “This is +the person who must answer for you; and by your future behavior we shall see +whether your night rambles were on account of love, or for any other worse +design.” +</p> + +<p> +Another passage there was, something of the same kind, which gained him +possession of Tarentum. There was a young Tarentine in the army that had a +sister in Tarentum, then in possession of the enemy, who entirely loved her +brother, and wholly depended upon him. He, being informed that a certain +Bruttian, whom Hannibal had made a commander of the garrison, was deeply in +love with his sister, conceived hopes that he might possibly turn it to the +advantage of the Romans. And having first communicated his design to Fabius, he +left the army as a deserter in show, and went over to Tarentum. The first days +passed, and the Bruttian abstained from visiting the sister; for neither of +them knew that the brother had notice of the amour between them. The young +Tarentine, however, took an occasion to tell his sister how he had heard that a +man of station and authority had made his addresses to her; and desired her, +therefore, to tell him who it was; “for,” said he, “if he be a man that has +bravery and reputation, it matters not what countryman he is, since at this +time the sword mingles all nations, and makes them equal; compulsion makes all +things honorable; and in a time when right is weak, we may be thankful if might +assumes a form of gentleness.” Upon this the woman sends for her friend, and +makes the brother and him acquainted; and whereas she henceforth showed more +countenance to her lover than formerly, in the same degrees that her kindness +increased, his friendship, also, with the brother advanced. So that at last our +Tarentine thought this Bruttian officer well enough prepared to receive the +offers he had to make him; and that it would be easy for a mercenary man, who +was in love, to accept, upon the terms proposed, the large rewards promised by +Fabius. In conclusion, the bargain was struck, and the promise made of +delivering the town. This is the common tradition, though some relate the story +otherwise, and say, that this woman, by whom the Bruttian was inveigled, to +betray the town, was not a native of Tarentum, but a Bruttian born, and was +kept by Fabius as his concubine; and being a countrywoman and an acquaintance +of the Bruttian governor, he privately sent her to him to corrupt him. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst these matters were thus in process, to draw off Hannibal from scenting +the design, Fabius sends orders to the garrison in Rhegium, that they should +waste and spoil the Bruttian country, and should also lay siege to Caulonia, +and storm the place with all their might. These were a body of eight thousand +men, the worst of the Roman army, who had most of them been runaways, and had +been brought home by Marcellus from Sicily, in dishonor, so that the loss of +them would not be any great grief to the Romans. Fabius, therefore, threw out +these men as a bait for Hannibal, to divert him from Tarentum; who instantly +caught at it, and led his forces to Caulonia; in the meantime, Fabius sat down +before Tarentum. On the sixth day of the siege, the young Tarentine slips by +night out of the town, and, having carefully observed the place where the +Bruttian commander, according to agreement, was to admit the Romans, gave an +account of the whole matter to Fabius; who thought it not safe to rely wholly +upon the plot, but, while proceeding with secrecy to the post, gave order for a +general assault to be made on the other side of the town, both by land and sea. +This being accordingly executed, while the Tarentines hurried to defend the +town on the side attacked, Fabius received the signal from the Bruttian, scaled +the walls, and entered the town unopposed. +</p> + +<p> +Here, we must confess, ambition seems to have overcome him. To make it appear +to the world that he had taken Tarentum by force and his own prowess, and not +by treachery, he commanded his men to kill the Bruttians before all others; yet +he did not succeed in establishing the impression he desired, but merely gained +the character of perfidy and cruelty. Many of the Tarentines were also killed, +and thirty thousand of them were sold for slaves; the army had the plunder of +the town, and there was brought into the treasury three thousand talents. +Whilst they were carrying off everything else as plunder, the officer who took +the inventory asked what should be done with their gods, meaning the pictures +and statues; Fabius answered, “Let us leave their angry gods to the +Tarentines.” Nevertheless, he removed the colossal statue of Hercules, and had +it set up in the capitol, with one of himself on horseback, in brass, near it; +proceedings very different from those of Marcellus on a like occasion, and +which, indeed, very much set off in the eyes of the world his clemency and +humanity, as appears in the account of his life. +</p> + +<p> +Hannibal, it is said, was within five miles of Tarentum, when he was informed +that the town was taken. He said openly, “Rome, then, has also got a Hannibal; +as we won Tarentum, so have we lost it.” And, in private with some of his +confidants, he told them, for the first time, that he always thought it +difficult, but now he held it impossible, with the forces he then had, to +master Italy. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this success, Fabius had a triumph decreed him at Rome, much more splendid +than his first; they looked upon him now as a champion who had learned to cope +with his antagonist, and could now easily foil his arts and prove his best +skill ineffectual. And, indeed, the army of Hannibal was at this time partly +worn away with continual action, and partly weakened and become dissolute with +overabundance and luxury. Marcus Livius, who was governor of Tarentum when it +was betrayed to Hannibal, and then retired into the citadel, which he kept till +the town was retaken, was annoyed at these honors and distinctions, and, on one +occasion, openly declared in the senate, that by his resistance, more than by +any action of Fabius, Tarentum had been recovered; on which Fabius laughingly +replied: “You say very true, for if Marcus Livius had not lost Tarentum, Fabius +Maximus had never recovered it.” The people, amongst other marks of gratitude, +gave his son the consulship of the next year; shortly after whose entrance upon +his office, there being some business on foot about provision for the war, his +father, either by reason of age and infirmity, or perhaps out of design to try +his son, came up to him on horseback. While he was still at a distance, the +young consul observed it, and bade one of his lictors command his father to +alight, and tell him that, if be had any business with the consul, he should +come on foot. The standers by seemed offended at the imperiousness of the son +towards a father so venerable for his age and his authority, and turned their +eyes in silence towards Fabius. He, however, instantly alighted from his horse, +and with open arms came up, almost running, and embraced his son, saying, “Yes, +my son, you do well, and understand well what authority you have received, and +over whom you are to use it. This was the way by which we and our forefathers +advanced the dignity of Rome, preferring ever her honor and service to our own +fathers and children.” +</p> + +<p> +And, in fact, it is told that the great-grandfather of our Fabius, who was +undoubtedly the greatest man of Rome in his time, both in reputation and +authority, who had been five times consul, and had been honored with several +triumphs for victories obtained by him, took pleasure in serving as lieutenant +under his own son, when he went as consul to his command. And when afterwards +his son had a triumph bestowed upon him for his good service, the old man +followed, on horseback, his triumphant chariot, as one of his attendants; and +made it his glory, that while he really was, and was acknowledged to be, the +greatest man in Rome, and held a father’s full power over his son, he yet +submitted himself to the laws and the magistrate. +</p> + +<p> +But the praises of our Fabius are not bounded here. He afterwards lost this +son, and was remarkable for bearing the loss with the moderation becoming a +pious father and a wise man, and, as it was the custom amongst the Romans, upon +the death of any illustrious person, to have a funeral oration recited by some +of the nearest relations, he took upon himself that office, and delivered a +speech in the forum, which he committed afterwards to writing. +</p> + +<p> +After Cornelius Scipio, who was sent into Spain, had driven the Carthaginians, +defeated by him in many battles, out of the country, and had gained over to +Rome many towns and nations with large resources, he was received at his coming +home with unexampled joy and acclamation of the people; who, to show their +gratitude, elected him consul for the year ensuing. Knowing what high +expectation they had of him, he thought the occupation of contesting Italy with +Hannibal a mere old man’s employment, and proposed no less a task to himself +than to make Carthage the seat of the war, fill Africa with arms and +devastation, and so oblige Hannibal, instead of invading the countries of +others, to draw back and defend his own. And to this end he proceeded to exert +all the influence he had with the people. Fabius, on the other side, opposed +the undertaking with all his might, alarming the city, and telling them that +nothing but the temerity of a hot young man could inspire them with such +dangerous counsels, and sparing no means, by word or deed, to prevent it. He +prevailed with the senate to espouse his sentiments; but the common people +thought that he envied the fame of Scipio, and that he was afraid lest this +young conqueror should achieve some great and noble exploit, and have the +glory, perhaps, of driving Hannibal out of Italy, or even of ending the war, +which had for so many years continued and been protracted under his management. +</p> + +<p> +To say the truth, when Fabius first opposed this project of Scipio, he probably +did it out of caution and prudence, in consideration only of the public safety, +and of the danger which the commonwealth might incur; but when he found Scipio +every day increasing in the esteem of the people, rivalry and ambition led him +further, and made him violent and personal in his opposition. For he even +applied to Crassus, the colleague of Scipio, and urged him not to yield the +command to Scipio, but that, if his inclinations were for it, he should himself +in person lead the army to Carthage. He also hindered the giving money to +Scipio for the war; so that he was forced to raise it upon his own credit and +interest from the cities of Etruria, which were extremely attached to him. On +the other side, Crassus would not stir against him, nor remove out of Italy, +being, in his own nature, averse to all contention, and also having, by his +office of high priest, religious duties to retain him. Fabius, therefore, tried +other ways to oppose the design; he impeded the levies, and he declaimed, both +in the senate and to the people, that Scipio was not only himself flying from +Hannibal, but was also endeavoring to drain Italy of all its forces, and to +spirit away the youth of the country to a foreign war, leaving behind them +their parents, wives, and children, and the city itself, a defenseless prey to +the conquering and undefeated enemy at their doors. With this he so far alarmed +the people, that at last they would only allow Scipio for the war the legions +which were in Sicily, and three hundred, whom he particularly trusted, of those +men who had served with him in Spain. In these transactions, Fabius seems to +have followed the dictates of his own wary temper. +</p> + +<p> +But, after that Scipio was gone over into Africa, when news almost immediately +came to Rome of wonderful exploits and victories, of which the fame was +confirmed by the spoils he sent home; of a Numidian king taken prisoner; of a +vast slaughter of their men; of two camps of the enemy burnt and destroyed, and +in them a great quantity of arms and horses; and when, hereupon, the +Carthaginians were compelled to send envoys to Hannibal to call him home, and +leave his idle hopes in Italy, to defend Carthage; when, for such eminent and +transcending services, the whole people of Rome cried up and extolled the +actions of Scipio; even then, Fabius contended that a successor should be sent +in his place, alleging for it only the old reason of the mutability of fortune, +as if she would be weary of long favoring the same person. With this language +many did begin to feel offended; it seemed to be morosity and ill-will, the +pusillanimity of old age, or a fear, that had now become exaggerated, of the +skill of Hannibal. Nay, when Hannibal had put his army on shipboard, and taken +his leave of Italy, Fabius still could not forbear to oppose and disturb the +universal joy of Rome, expressing his fears and apprehensions, telling them +that the commonwealth was never in more danger than now, and that Hannibal was +a more formidable enemy under the walls of Carthage than ever he had been in +Italy; that it would be fatal to Rome, whenever Scipio should encounter his +victorious army, still warm with the blood of so many Roman generals, +dictators, and consuls slain. And the people were, in some degree, startled +with these declamations, and were brought to believe, that the further off +Hannibal was, the nearer was their danger. Scipio, however, shortly afterwards +fought Hannibal, and utterly defeated him, humbled the pride of Carthage +beneath his feet, gave his countrymen joy and exultation beyond all their +hopes, and +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Long shaken on the seas restored the state.” +</p> + +<p> +Fabius Maximus, however, did not live to see the prosperous end of this war, +and the final overthrow of Hannibal, nor to rejoice in the reestablished +happiness and security of the commonwealth; for about the time that Hannibal +left Italy, he fell sick and died. At Thebes, Epaminondas died so poor that he +was buried at the public charge; one small iron coin was all, it is said, that +was found in his house. Fabius did not need this, but the people, as a mark of +their affection, defrayed the expenses of his funeral by a private contribution +from each citizen of the smallest piece of coin; thus owning him their common +father, and making his end no less honorable than his life. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap14"></a>COMPARISON OF PERICLES WITH FABIUS</h2> + +<p> +We have here had two lives rich in examples, both of civil and military +excellence. Let us first compare the two men in their warlike capacity. +Pericles presided in his commonwealth when it was in its most flourishing and +opulent condition, great and growing in power; so that it may be thought it was +rather the common success and fortune that kept him from any fall or disaster. +But the task of Fabius, who undertook the government in the worst and most +difficult times, was not to preserve and maintain the well-established felicity +of a prosperous state, but to raise and uphold a sinking and ruinous +commonwealth. Besides, the victories of Cimon, the trophies of Myronides and +Leocrates, with the many famous exploits of Tolmides, were employed by Pericles +rather to fill the city with festive entertainments and solemnities than to +enlarge and secure its empire. Whereas Fabius, when he took upon him the +government, had the frightful object before his eyes of Roman armies destroyed, +of their generals and consuls slain, of lakes and plains and forests strewed +with the dead bodies, and rivers stained with the blood of his fellow-citizens; +and yet, with his mature and solid cousels, with the firmness of his +resolution, he, as it were, put his shoulder to the falling commonwealth, and +kept it up from foundering through the failings and weakness of others. Perhaps +it may be more easy to govern a city broken and tamed with calamities and +adversity, and compelled by danger and necessity to listen to wisdom, than to +set a bridle on wantonness and temerity, and rule a people pampered and restive +with long prosperity as were the Athenians when Pericles held the reins of +government. But then again, not to be daunted nor discomposed with the vast +heap of calamities under which the people of Rome at that time groaned and +succumbed, argues a courage in Fabius and a strength of purpose more than +ordinary. +</p> + +<p> +We may set Tarentum retaken against Samos won by Pericles, and the conquest of +Euboea we may well balance with the towns of Campania; though Capua itself was +reduced by the consuls Fulvius and Appius. I do not find that Fabius won any +set battle but that against the Ligurians, for which he had his triumph; +whereas Pericles erected nine trophies for as many victories obtained by land +and by sea. But no action of Pericles can be compared to that memorable rescue +of Minucius, when Fabius redeemed both him and his army from utter destruction; +a noble act, combining the highest valor, wisdom, and humanity. On the other +side, it does not appear that Pericles was ever so overreached as Fabius was by +Hannibal with his flaming oxen. His enemy there had, without his agency, put +himself accidentally into his power, yet Fabius let him slip in the night, and, +when day came, was worsted by him, was anticipated in the moment of success, +and mastered by his prisoner. If it is the part of a good general, not only to +provide for the present, but also to have a clear foresight of things to come, +in this point Pericles is the superior; for he admonished the Athenians, and +told them beforehand the ruin the war would bring upon them, by their grasping +more than they were able to manage. But Fabius was not so good a prophet, when +he denounced to the Romans that the undertaking of Scipio would be the +destruction of the commonwealth. So that Pericles was a good prophet of bad +success, and Fabius was a bad prophet of success that was good. And, indeed, to +lose an advantage through diffidence is no less blamable in a general than to +fall into danger for want of foresight; for both these faults, though of a +contrary nature, spring from the same root, want of judgment and experience. +</p> + +<p> +As for their civil policy, it is imputed to Pericles that he occasioned the +war, since no terms of peace, offered by the Lacedaemonians, would content him. +It is true, I presume, that Fabius, also, was not for yielding any point to the +Carthaginians, but was ready to hazard all, rather than lessen the empire of +Rome. The mildness of Fabius towards his colleague Minucius does, by way of +comparison, rebuke and condemn the exertions of Pericles to banish Cimon and +Thucydides, noble, aristocratic men, who by his means suffered ostracism. The +authority of Pericles in Athens was much greater than that of Fabius in Rome. +Hence it was more easy for him to prevent miscarriages arising from the +mistakes and insufficiency of other officers; only Tolmides broke loose from +him, and, contrary to his persuasions, unadvisedly fought with the Boeotians, +and was slain. The greatness of his influence made all others submit and +conform themselves to his judgment. Whereas Fabius, sure and unerring himself, +for want of that general power, had not the means to obviate the miscarriages +of others; but it had been happy for the Romans if his authority had been +greater, for so, we may presume, their disasters had been fewer. +</p> + +<p> +As to liberality and public spirit, Pericles was eminent in never taking any +gifts, and Fabius, for giving his own money to ransom his soldiers, though the +sum did not exceed six talents. Than Pericles, meantime, no man had ever +greater opportunities to enrich himself, having had presents offered him from +so many kings and princes and allies, yet no man was ever more free from +corruption. And for the beauty and magnificence of temples and public edifices +with which he adorned his country, it must be confessed, that all the ornaments +and structures of Rome, to the time of the Caesars, had nothing to compare, +either in greatness of design or of expense, with the luster of those which +Pericles only erected at Athens. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap15"></a>ALCIBIADES</h2> + +<p> +Alcibiades, as it is supposed, was anciently descended from Eurysaces, the son +of Ajax, by his father’s side; and by his mother’s side from Alcmaeon. +Dinomache, his mother, was the daughter of Megacles. His father Clinias, having +fitted out a galley at his own expense, gained great honor in the sea-fight at +Artemisium, and was afterwards slain in the battle of Coronea, fighting against +the Boeotians. Pericles and Ariphron, the sons of Xanthippus, nearly related to +him, became the guardians of Alcibiades. It has been said not untruly that the +friendship which Socrates felt for him has much contributed to his fame; and +certain it is, that, though we have no account from any writer concerning the +mother of Nicias or Demosthenes, of Lamachus or Phormion, of Thrasybulus or +Theramenes, notwithstanding these were all illustrious men of the same period, +yet we know even the nurse of Alcibiades, that her country was Lacedaemon, and +her name Amycla; and that Zopyrus was his teacher and attendant; the one being +recorded by Antisthenes, and the other by Plato. +</p> + +<p> +It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of Alcibiades, only +that it bloomed with him in all the ages of his life, in his infancy, in his +youth, and in his manhood; and, in the peculiar character becoming to each of +these periods, gave him, in every one of them, a grace and a charm. What +Euripides says, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Of all fair things the autumn, too, is fair,” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +is by no means universally true. But it happened so with Alcibiades, amongst +few others, by reason of his happy constitution and natural vigor of body. It +is said that his lisping, when he spoke, became him well, and gave a grace and +persuasiveness to his rapid speech. Aristophanes takes notice of it in the +verses in which he jests at Theorus; “How like a colax he is,” says Alcibiades, +meaning a corax; on which it is remarked, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“How very happily he lisped the truth.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Archippus also alludes to it in a passage where he ridicules the son of +Alcibiades; +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“That people may believe him like his father,<br/> +He walks like one dissolved in luxury,<br/> +Lets his robe trail behind him on the ground,<br/> +Carelessly leans his head, and in his talk affects to lisp.” +</p> + +<p> +His conduct displayed many great inconsistencies and variations, not +unnaturally, in accordance with the many and wonderful vicissitudes of his +fortunes; but among the many strong passions of his real character, the one +most prevailing of all was his ambition and desire of superiority, which +appears in several anecdotes told of his sayings whilst he was a child. Once +being hard pressed in wrestling, and fearing to be thrown, he got the hand of +his antagonist to his mouth, and bit it with all his force; and when the other +loosed his hold presently, and said, “You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman.” +“No,” replied he, “like a lion.” Another time as he played at dice in the +street, being then but a child, a loaded cart came that way, when it was his +turn to throw; at first he called to the driver to stop, because he was to +throw in the way over which the cart was to pass; but the man giving him no +attention and driving on, when the rest of the boys divided and gave way, +Alcibiades threw himself on his face before the cart, and, stretching himself +out, bade the carter pass on now if he would; which so startled the man, that +he put back his horses, while all that saw it were terrified, and, crying out, +ran to assist Alcibiades. When he began to study, he obeyed all his other +masters fairly well, but refused to learn upon the flute, as a sordid thing, +and not becoming a free citizen; saying, that to play on the lute or the harp +does not in any way disfigure a man’s body or face, but one is hardly to be +known by the most intimate friends, when playing on the flute. Besides, one who +plays on the harp may speak or sing at the same time; but the use of the flute +stops the mouth, intercepts the voice, and prevents all articulation. +“Therefore,” said he, “let the Theban youths pipe, who do not know how to +speak, but we Athenians, as our ancestors have told us, have Minerva for our +patroness, and Apollo for our protector, one of whom threw away the flute, and +the other stripped the Flute-player of his skin.” Thus, between raillery and +good earnest, Alcibiades kept not only himself but others from learning, as it +presently became the talk of the young boys, how Alcibiades despised playing on +the flute, and ridiculed those who studied it. In consequence of which, it +ceased to be reckoned amongst the liberal accomplishments, and became generally +neglected. +</p> + +<p> +It is stated in the invective which Antiphon wrote against Alcibiades, that +once, when he was a boy, he ran away to the house of Democrates, one of those +who made a favorite of him, and that Ariphron had determined to cause +proclamation to be made for him, had not Pericles diverted him from it, by +saying, that if he were dead, the proclaiming of him could only cause it to be +discovered one day sooner, and if he were safe, it would be a reproach to him +as long as he lived. Antiphon also says, that he killed one of his own servants +with the blow of a staff in Sibyrtius’s wrestling ground. But it is +unreasonable to give credit to all that is objected by an enemy, who makes open +profession of his design to defame him. +</p> + +<p> +It was manifest that the many well-born persons who were continually seeking +his company, and making their court to him, were attracted and captivated by +his brilliant and extraordinary beauty only. But the affection which Socrates +entertained for him is a great evidence of the natural noble qualities and good +disposition of the boy, which Socrates, indeed, detected both in and under his +personal beauty; and, fearing that his wealth and station, and the great number +both of strangers and Athenians who flattered and caressed him, might at last +corrupt him, resolved, if possible, to interpose, and preserve so hopeful a +plant from perishing in the flower, before its fruit came to perfection. For +never did fortune surround and enclose a man with so many of those things which +we vulgarly call goods, or so protect him from every weapon of philosophy, and +fence him from every access of free and searching words, as she did Alcibiades; +who, from the beginning, was exposed to the flatteries of those who sought +merely his gratification, such as might well unnerve him, and indispose him to +listen to any real adviser or instructor. Yet such was the happiness of his +genius, that he discerned Socrates from the rest, and admitted him, whilst he +drove away the wealthy and the noble who made court to him. And, in a little +time, they grew intimate, and Alcibiades, listening now to language entirely +free from every thought of unmanly fondness and silly displays of affection, +finding himself with one who sought to lay open to him the deficiencies of his +mind, and repress his vain and foolish arrogance, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Dropped like the craven cock his conquered wing.” +</p> + +<p> +He esteemed these endeavors of Socrates as most truly a means which the gods +made use of for the care and preservation of youth, and began to think meanly +of himself, and to admire him; to be pleased with his kindness, and to stand in +awe of his virtue; and, unawares to himself, there became formed in his mind +that reflex image and reciprocation of Love, or Anteros, that Plato talks of. +It was a matter of general wonder, when people saw him joining Socrates in his +meals and his exercises, living with him in the same tent, whilst he was +reserved and rough to all others who made their addresses to him, and acted, +indeed, with great insolence to some of them. As in particular to Anytus, the +son of Anthemion, one who was very fond of him, and invited him to an +entertainment which he had prepared for some strangers. Alcibiades refused the +invitation; but, having drunk to excess at his own house with some of his +companions, went thither with them to play some frolic; and, standing at the +door of the room where the guests were enjoying themselves, and seeing the +tables covered with gold and silver cups, he commanded his servants to take +away the one half of them, and carry them to his own house; and then, +disdaining so much as to enter into the room himself, as soon as he had done +this, went away. The company was indignant, and exclaimed at his rude and +insulting conduct; Anytus, however, said, on the contrary he had shown great +consideration and tenderness in taking only a part, when he might have taken +all. +</p> + +<p> +He behaved in the same manner to all others who courted him, except only one +stranger, who, as the story is told, having but a small estate, sold it all for +about a hundred staters, which he presented to Alcibiades, and besought him to +accept. Alcibiades, smiling and well pleased at the thing, invited him to +supper, and, after a very kind entertainment, gave him his gold again, +requiring him, moreover, not to fail to be present the next day, when the +public revenue was offered to farm, and to outbid all others. The man would +have excused himself, because the contract was so large, and would cost many +talents; but Alcibiades, who had at that time a private pique against the +existing farmers of the revenue, threatened to have him beaten if he refused. +The next morning, the stranger, coming to the marketplace, offered a talent +more than the existing rate; upon which the farmers, enraged and consulting +together, called upon him to name his sureties, concluding that he could find +none. The poor man, being startled at the proposal, began to retire; but +Alcibiades, standing at a distance, cried out to the magistrates, “Set my name +down, he is a friend of mine; I will be security for him.” When the other +bidders heard this, they perceived that all their contrivance was defeated; for +their way was, with the profits of the second year to pay the rent for the year +preceding; so that, not seeing any other way to extricate themselves out of the +difficulty, they began to entreat the stranger, and offered him a sum of money. +Alcibiades would not suffer him to accept of less than a talent; but when that +was paid down, he commanded him to relinquish the bargain, having by this +device relieved his necessity. +</p> + +<p> +Though Socrates had many and powerful rivals, yet the natural good qualities of +Alcibiades gave his affection the mastery. His words overcame him so much, as +to draw tears from his eyes, and to disturb his very soul. Yet sometimes he +would abandon himself to flatterers, when they proposed to him varieties of +pleasure, and would desert Socrates; who, then, would pursue him, as if he had +been a fugitive slave. He despised everyone else, and had no reverence or awe +for any but him. Cleanthes the philosopher; speaking of one to whom he was +attached, says his only hold on him was by his ears, while his rivals had all +the others offered them; and there is no question that Alcibiades was very +easily caught by pleasures; and the expression used by Thucydides about the +excesses of his habitual course of living gives occasion to believe so. But +those who endeavored to corrupt Alcibiades, took advantage chiefly of his +vanity and ambition, and thrust him on unseasonably to undertake great +enterprises, persuading him, that as soon as he began to concern himself in +public affairs, he would not only obscure the rest of the generals and +statesmen, but outdo the authority and the reputation which Pericles himself +had gained in Greece. But in the same manner as iron which is softened by the +fire grows hard with the cold, and all its parts are closed again; so, as often +as Socrates observed Alcibiades to be misled by luxury or pride, he reduced and +corrected him by his addresses, and made him humble and modest, by showing him +in how many things he was deficient, and how very far from perfection in +virtue. +</p> + +<p> +When he was past his childhood, he went once to a grammar-school, and asked the +master for one of Homer’s books; and he making answer that he had nothing of +Homer’s, Alcibiades gave him a blow with his fist, and went away. Another +schoolmaster telling him that he had Homer corrected by himself; “How,” said +Alcibiades, “and do you employ your time in teaching children to read? You, who +are able to amend Homer, may well undertake to instruct men.” Being once +desirous to speak with Pericles, he went to his house and was told there that +he was not at leisure, but busied in considering how to give up his accounts to +the Athenians; Alcibiades, as he went away, said, “It were better for him to +consider how he might avoid giving up his accounts at all.” +</p> + +<p> +Whilst he was very young, he was a soldier in the expedition against Potidaea, +where Socrates lodged in the same tent with him, and stood next him in battle. +Once there happened a sharp skirmish, in which they both behaved with signal +bravery; but Alcibiades receiving a wound, Socrates threw himself before him to +defend him, and beyond any question saved him and his arms from the enemy, and +so in all justice might have challenged the prize of valor. But the generals +appearing eager to adjudge the honor to Alcibiades, because of his rank, +Socrates, who desired to increase his thirst after glory of a noble kind, was +the first to give evidence for him, and pressed them to crown him, and to +decree to him the complete suit of armor. Afterwards, in the battle of Delium, +when the Athenians were routed and Socrates with a few others was retreating on +foot, Alcibiades, who was on horseback, observing it, would not pass on, but +stayed to shelter him from the danger, and brought him safe off, though the +enemy pressed hard upon them, and cut off many. But this happened some time +after. +</p> + +<p> +He gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, the father of Callias, whose birth and +wealth made him a person of great influence and repute. And this he did +unprovoked by any passion or quarrel between them, but only because, in a +frolic, he had agreed with his companions to do it. People were justly offended +at this insolence, when it became known through the city; but early the next +morning, Alcibiades went to his house and knocked at the door, and, being +admitted to him, took off his outer garment, and, presenting his naked body, +desired him to scourge and chastise him as he pleased. Upon this Hipponicus +forgot all his resentment, and not only pardoned him, but soon after gave him +his daughter Hipparete in marriage. Some say that it was not Hipponicus, but +his son Callias, who gave Hipparete to Alcibiades, together with a portion of +ten talents, and that after, when she had a child, Alcibiades forced him to +give ten talents more, upon pretense that such was the agreement if she brought +him any children. Afterwards, Callias, for fear of coming to his death by his +means, declared, in a full assembly of the people, that if he should happen to +die without children, the state should inherit his house and all his goods. +Hipparete was a virtuous and dutiful wife, but, at last, growing impatient of +the outrages done to her by her husband’s continual entertaining of courtesans, +as well strangers as Athenians, she departed from him and retired to her +brother’s house. Alcibiades seemed not at all concerned at this, and lived on +still in the same luxury; but the law requiring that she should deliver to the +archon in person, and not by proxy, the instrument by which she claimed a +divorce, when, in obedience to the law, she presented herself before him to +perform this, Alcibiades came in, caught her up, and carried her home through +the marketplace, no one daring to oppose him, nor to take her from him. She +continued with him till her death, which happened not long after, when +Alcibiades had gone to Ephesus. Nor is this violence to be thought so very +enormous or unmanly. For the law, in making her who desires to be divorced +appear in public, seems to design to give her husband an opportunity of +treating with her, and of endeavoring to retain her. +</p> + +<p> +Alcibiades had a dog which cost him seventy minas, and was a very large one, +and very handsome. His tail, which was his principal ornament, he caused to be +cut off, and his acquaintance exclaiming at him for it, and telling him that +all Athens was sorry for the dog, and cried out upon him for this action, he +laughed, and said, “Just what I wanted has happened, then. I wished the +Athenians to talk about this, that they might not say something worse of me.” +</p> + +<p> +It is said that the first time he came into the assembly was upon occasion of a +largess of money which he made to the people. This was not done by design, but +as he passed along he heard a shout, and inquiring the cause, and having +learned that there was a donative making to the people, he went in amongst them +and gave money also. The multitude thereupon applauding him, and shouting, he +was so transported at it, that he forgot a quail which he had under his robe, +and the bird, being frighted with the noise, flew off; upon which the people +made louder acclamations than before, and many of them started up to pursue the +bird; and one Antiochus, a pilot, caught it and restored it to him, for which +he was ever after a favorite with Alcibiades. +</p> + +<p> +He had great advantages for entering public life; his noble birth, his riches, +the personal courage he had shown in divers battles, and the multitude of his +friends and dependents, threw open, so to say, folding doors for his +admittance. But he did not consent to let his power with the people rest on any +thing, rather than on his own gift of eloquence. That he was a master in the +art of speaking, the comic poets bear him witness; and the most eloquent of +public speakers, in his oration against Midias, allows that Alcibiades, among +other perfections, was a most accomplished orator. If, however, we give credit +to Theophrastus, who of all philosophers was the most curious inquirer, and the +greatest lover of history, we are to understand that Alcibiades had the highest +capacity for inventing, for discerning what was the right thing to be said for +any purpose, and on any occasion; but, aiming not only at saying what was +required, but also at saying it well, in respect, that is, of words and +phrases, when these did not readily occur, he would often pause in the middle +of his discourse for want of the apt word, and would be silent and stop till he +could recollect himself, and had considered what to say. +</p> + +<p> +His expenses in horses kept for the public games, and in the number of his +chariots, were matter of great observation; never did anyone but he, either +private person or king, send seven chariots to the Olympic games. And to have +carried away at once the first, the second, and the fourth prize, as Thucydides +says, or the third, as Euripides relates it, outdoes far away every distinction +that ever was known or thought of in that kind. Euripides celebrates his +success in this manner:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“—But my song to you, Son of Clinias, is due.<br/> +Victory is noble; how much more<br/> +To do as never Greek before;<br/> +To obtain in the great chariot race<br/> +The first, the second, and third place;<br/> +With easy step advanced to fame,<br/> +To bid the herald three times claim<br/> +The olive for one victor’s name.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The emulation displayed by the deputations of various states, in the presents +which they made to him, rendered this success yet more illustrious. The +Ephesians erected a tent for him, adorned magnificently; the city of Chios +furnished him with provender for his horses and with great numbers of beasts +for sacrifice; and the Lesbians sent him wine and other provisions for the many +great entertainments which he made. Yet in the midst of all this he escaped not +without censure, occasioned either by the ill-nature of his enemies or by his +own misconduct. For it is said, that one Diomedes, all Athenian, a worthy man +and a friend to Alcibiades, passionately desiring to obtain the victory at the +Olympic games, and having heard much of a chariot which belonged to the state +at Argos, where he knew that Alcibiades had great power and many friends, +prevailed with him to undertake to buy the chariot. Alcibiades did indeed buy +it, but then claimed it for his own, leaving Diomedes to rage at him, and to +call upon the gods and men to bear witness to the injustice. It would seem +there was a suit at law commenced upon this occasion, and there is yet extant +an oration concerning the chariot, written by Isocrates in defense of the son +of Alcibiades. But the plaintiff in this action is named Tisias, and not +Diomedes. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he began to intermeddle in the government, which was when he was +very young, he quickly lessened the credit of all who aspired to the confidence +of the people, except Phaeax, the son of Erasistratus, and Nicias, the son of +Niceratus, who alone could contest it with him. Nicias was arrived at a mature +age, and was esteemed their first general. Phaeax was but a rising statesman +like Alcibiades; he was descended from noble ancestors, but was his inferior, +as in many other things, so, principally, in eloquence. He possessed rather the +art of persuading in private conversation than of debate before the people, and +was, as Eupolis said of him, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“The best of talkers, and of speakers worst.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +There is extant an oration written by Phaeax against Alcibiades, in which, +amongst other things, it is said, that Alcibiades made daily use at his table +of many gold and silver vessels, which belonged to the commonwealth, as if they +had been his own. +</p> + +<p> +There was a certain Hyperbolus, of the township of Perithoedae, whom Thucydides +also speaks of as a man of bad character, a general butt for the mockery of all +the comic writers of the time, but quite unconcerned at the worst things they +could say, and, being careless of glory, also insensible of shame; a temper +which some people call boldness and courage, whereas it is indeed impudence and +recklessness. He was liked by nobody, yet the people made frequent use of him, +when they had a mind to disgrace or calumniate any persons in authority. At +this time, the people, by his persuasions, were ready to proceed to pronounce +the sentence of ten years’ banishment, called ostracism. This they made use of +to humiliate and drive out of the city such citizens as outdid the rest in +credit and power, indulging not so much perhaps their apprehensions as their +jealousies in this way. And when, at this time, there was no doubt but that the +ostracism would fall upon one of those three, Alcibiades contrived to form a +coalition of parties, and, communicating his project to Nicias, turned the +sentence upon Hyperbolus himself. Others say, that it was not with Nicias, but +Phaeax, that he consulted, and, by help of his party, procured the banishment +of Hyperbolus, when he suspected nothing less. For, before that time, no mean +or obscure person had ever fallen under that punishment, so that Plato, the +comic poet, speaking of Hyperbolus, might well say, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“The man deserved the fate; deny ’t who can?<br/> +Yes, but the fate did not deserve the man;<br/> +Not for the like of him and his slave-brands<br/> +Did Athens put the sherd into our hands.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But we have given elsewhere a fuller statement of what is known to us of the +matter. +</p> + +<p> +Alcibiades was not less disturbed at the distinctions which Nicias gained +amongst the enemies of Athens, than at the honors which the Athenians +themselves paid to him. For though Alcibiades was the proper appointed person +to receive all Lacedaemonians when they came to Athens, and had taken +particular care of those that were made prisoners at Pylos, yet, after they had +obtained the peace and restitution of the captives, by the procurement chiefly +of Nicias, they paid him very special attentions. And it was commonly said in +Greece, that the war was begun by Pericles, and that Nicias made an end of it, +and the peace was generally called the peace of Nicias. Alcibiades was +extremely annoyed at this, and, being full of envy, set himself to break the +league. First, therefore, observing that the Argives, as well out of fear as +hatred to the Lacedaemonians, sought for protection against them, he gave them +a secret assurance of alliance with Athens. And communicating, as well in +person as by letters, with the chief advisers of the people there, he +encouraged them not to fear the Lacedaemonians, nor make concessions to them, +but to wait a little, and keep their eyes on the Athenians, who, already, were +all but sorry they had made peace, and would soon give it up. And, afterwards, +when the Lacedaemonians had made a league with the Boeotians, and had not +delivered up Panactum entire, as they ought to have done by the treaty, but +only after first destroying it, which gave great offense to the people of +Athens, Alcibiades laid hold of that opportunity to exasperate them more +highly. He exclaimed fiercely against Nicias, and accused him of many things, +which seemed probable enough: as that, when he was general, he made no attempt +himself to capture their enemies that were shut up in the isle of Sphacteria, +but, when they were afterwards made prisoners by others, he procured their +release and sent them back to the Lacedaemonians, only to get favor with them; +that he would not make use of his credit with them, to prevent their entering +into this confederacy with the Boeotians and Corinthians, and yet, on the other +side, that he sought to stand in the way of those Greeks who were inclined to +make an alliance and friendship with Athens, if the Lacedaemonians did not like +it. +</p> + +<p> +It happened, at the very time when Nicias was by these arts brought into +disgrace with the people, that ambassadors arrived from Lacedaemon, who, at +their first coming, said what seemed very satisfactory, declaring that they had +full powers to arrange all matters in dispute upon fair and equal terms. The +council received their propositions, and the people was to assemble on the +morrow to give them audience. Alcibiades grew very apprehensive of this, and +contrived to gain a secret conference with the ambassadors. When they were met, +he said: “What is it you intend, you men of Sparta? Can you be ignorant that +the council always act with moderation and respect towards ambassadors, but +that the people are full of ambition and great designs? So that, if you let +them know what full powers your commission gives you, they will urge and press +you to unreasonable conditions. Quit therefore, this indiscreet simplicity, if +you expect to obtain equal terms from the Athenians, and would not have things +extorted from you contrary to your inclinations, and begin to treat with the +people upon some reasonable articles, not avowing yourselves plenipotentiaries; +and I will be ready to assist you, out of good-will to the Lacedaemonians.” +When he had said thus, he gave them his oath for the performance of what he +promised, and by this way drew them from Nicias to rely entirely upon himself, +and left them full of admiration of the discernment and sagacity they had seen +in him. The next day, when the people were assembled and the ambassadors +introduced, Alcibiades, with great apparent courtesy, demanded of them, With +what powers they were come? They made answer that they were not come as +plenipotentiaries. +</p> + +<p> +Instantly upon that, Alcibiades, with a loud voice, as though he had received +and not done the wrong, began to call them dishonest prevaricators, and to urge +that such men could not possibly come with a purpose to say or do anything that +was sincere. The council was incensed, the people were in a rage, and Nicias, +who knew nothing of the deceit and the imposture, was in the greatest +confusion, equally surprised and ashamed at such a change in the men. So thus +the Lacedaemonian ambassadors were utterly rejected, and Alcibiades was +declared general, who presently united the Argives, the Eleans, and the people +of Mantinea, into a confederacy with the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +No man commended the method by which Alcibiades effected all this, yet it was a +great political feat thus to divide and shake almost all Peloponnesus, and to +combine so many men in arms against the Lacedaemonians in one day before +Mantinea; and, moreover, to remove the war and the danger so far from the +frontier of the Athenians, that even success would profit the enemy but little, +should they be conquerors, whereas, if they were defeated, Sparta itself was +hardly safe. +</p> + +<p> +After this battle at Mantinea, the select thousand of the army of the Argives +attempted to overthrow the government of the people in Argos, and make +themselves masters of the city; and the Lacedaemonians came to their aid and +abolished the democracy. But the people took arms again, and gained the +advantage, and Alcibiades came in to their aid and completed the victory, and +persuaded them to build long walls, and by that means to join their city to the +sea, and so to bring it wholly within the reach of the Athenian power. To this +purpose, he procured them builders and masons from Athens, and displayed the +greatest zeal for their service, and gained no less honor and power to himself +than to the commonwealth of Athens. He also persuaded the people of Patrae to +join their city to the sea, by building long walls; and when some one told +them, by way of warning, that the Athenians would swallow them up at last +Alcibiades made answer, “Possibly it may be so, but it will be by little and +little, and beginning at the feet, whereas the Lacedaemonians will begin at the +head and devour you all at once.” Nor did he neglect either to advise the +Athenians to look to their interests by land, and often put the young men in +mind of the oath which they had made at Agraulos, to the effect that they would +account wheat and barley, and vines and olives, to be the limits of Attica; by +which they were taught to claim a title to all land that was cultivated and +productive. +</p> + +<p> +But with all these words and deeds, and with all this sagacity and eloquence, +he intermingled exorbitant luxury and wantonness in his eating and drinking and +dissolute living; wore long purple robes like a woman, which dragged after him +as he went through the market-place; caused the planks of his galley to be cut +away, that so he might lie the softer, his bed not being placed on the boards, +but hanging upon girths. His shield, again, which was richly gilded, had not +the usual ensigns of the Athenians, but a Cupid, holding a thunderbolt in his +hand, was painted upon it. The sight of all this made the people of good repute +in the city feel disgust and abhorrence, and apprehension also, at his +free-living, and his contempt of law, as things monstrous in themselves, and +indicating designs of usurpation. Aristophanes has well expressed the people’s +feeling towards him:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“They love, and hate, and cannot do without him.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And still more strongly, under a figurative expression, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Best rear no lion in your state, ’tis true;<br/> +But treat him like a lion if you do.” +</p> + +<p> +The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other munificence to the +people, which were such as nothing could exceed, the glory of his ancestors, +the force of his eloquence, the grace of his person, his strength of body, +joined with his great courage and knowledge in military affairs, prevailed upon +the Athenians to endure patiently his excesses, to indulge many things to him, +and, according to their habit, to give the softest names to his faults, +attributing them to youth and good nature. As, for example, he kept Agatharcus, +the painter, a prisoner till he had painted his whole house, but then dismissed +him with a reward. He publicly struck Taureas, who exhibited certain shows in +opposition to him and contended with him for the prize. He selected for himself +one of the captive Melian women, and had a son by her, whom he took care to +educate. This the Athenians styled great humanity; and yet he was the principal +cause of the slaughter of all the inhabitants of the isle of Melos who were of +age to bear arms, having spoken in favor of that decree. When Aristophon, the +painter, had drawn Nemea sitting and holding Alcibiades in her arms, the +multitude seemed pleased with the piece, and thronged to see it, but older +people disliked and disrelished it, and looked on these things as enormities, +and movements towards tyranny. So that it was not said amiss by Archestratus, +that Greece could not support a second Alcibiades. Once, when Alcibiades +succeeded well in an oration which he made, and the whole assembly attended +upon him to do him honor, Timon the misanthrope did not pass slightly by him, +nor avoid him, as he did others, but purposely met him, and, taking him by the +hand, said, “Go on boldly, my son, and increase in credit with the people, for +thou wilt one day bring them calamities enough.” Some that were present laughed +at the saying, and some reviled Timon; but there were others upon whom it made +a deep impression; so various was the judgment which was made of him, and so +irregular his own character. +</p> + +<p> +The Athenians, even in the lifetime of Pericles, had already cast a longing eye +upon Sicily; but did not attempt any thing till after his death. Then, under +pretense of aiding their confederates, they sent succors upon all occasions to +those who were oppressed by the Syracusans, preparing the way for sending over +a greater force. But Alcibiades was the person who inflamed this desire of +theirs to the height, and prevailed with them no longer to proceed secretly, +and by little and little, in their design, but to sail out with a great fleet, +and undertake at once to make themselves masters of the island. He possessed +the people with great hopes, and he himself entertained yet greater; and the +conquest of Sicily, which was the utmost bound of their ambition, was but the +mere outset of his expectation. Nicias endeavored to divert the people from the +expedition, by representing to them that the taking of Syracuse would be a work +of great difficulty; but Alcibiades dreamed of nothing less than the conquest +of Carthage and Libya, and by the accession of these conceiving himself at once +made master of Italy and of Peloponnesus, seemed to look upon Sicily as little +more than a magazine for the war. The young men were soon elevated with these +hopes, and listened gladly to those of riper years, who talked wonders of the +countries they were going to; so that you might see great numbers sitting in +the wrestling grounds and public places, drawing on the ground the figure of +the island and the situation of Libya and Carthage. Socrates the philosopher +and Meton the astrologer are said, however, never to have hoped for any good to +the commonwealth from this war; the one, it is to be supposed, presaging what +would ensue, by the intervention of his attendant Genius; and the other, either +upon rational consideration of the project, or by use of the art of divination, +conceived fears for its issue, and, feigning madness, caught up a burning +torch, and seemed as if he would have set his own house on fire. Others report, +that he did not take upon him to act the madman, but secretly in the night set +his house on fire, and the next morning besought the people, that for his +comfort, after such a calamity, they would spare his son from the expedition. +By which artifice, he deceived his fellow-citizens, and obtained of them what +he desired. +</p> + +<p> +Together with Alcibiades, Nicias, much against his will, was appointed general: +and he endeavored to avoid the command, not the less on account of his +colleague. But the Athenians thought the war would proceed more prosperously, +if they did not send Alcibiades free from all restraint, but tempered his heat +with the caution of Nicias. This they chose the rather to do, because Lamachus, +the third general, though he was of mature years, yet in several battles had +appeared no less hot and rash than Alcibiades himself. When they began to +deliberate of the number of forces, and of the manner of making the necessary +provisions, Nicias made another attempt to oppose the design, and to prevent +the war; but Alcibiades contradicted him, and carried his point with the +people. And one Demostratus, an orator, proposing to give the generals absolute +power over the preparations and the whole management of the war, it was +presently decreed so. When all things were fitted for the voyage, many unlucky +omens appeared. At that very time the feast of Adonis happened, in which the +women were used to expose, in all parts of the city, images resembling dead men +carried out to their burial, and to represent funeral solemnities by +lamentations and mournful songs. The mutilation, however, of the images of +Mercury, most of which, in one night, had their faces all disfigured, terrified +many persons who were wont to despise most things of that nature. It was given +out that it was done by the Corinthians, for the sake of the Syracusans, who +were their colony, in hopes that the Athenians, by such prodigies, might be +induced to delay or abandon the war. But the report gained no credit with the +people, nor yet the opinion of those who would not believe that there was +anything ominous in the matter, but that it was only an extravagant action, +committed, in that sort of sport which runs into license, by wild young men +coming from a debauch. Alike enraged and terrified at the thing, looking upon +it to proceed from a conspiracy of persons who designed some commotions in the +state, the council, as well as the assembly of the people, which was held +frequently in a few days’ space, examined diligently everything that might +administer ground for suspicion. During this examination, Androcles, one of the +demagogues, produced certain slaves and strangers before them, who accused +Alcibiades and some of his friends of defacing other images in the same manner, +and of having profanely acted the sacred mysteries at a drunken meeting, where +one Theodorus represented the herald, Polytion the torch- bearer, and +Alcibiades the chief priest, while the rest of the party appeared as candidates +for initiation, and received the title of Initiates. These were the matters +contained in the articles of information, which Thessalus, the son of Cimon, +exhibited against Alcibiades, for his impious mockery of the goddesses, Ceres +and Proserpine. The people were highly exasperated and incensed against +Alcibiades upon this accusation, which, being aggravated by Androcles, the most +malicious of all his enemies, at first disturbed his friends exceedingly. But +when they perceived that all the sea-men designed for Sicily were for him, and +the soldiers also, and when the Argive and Mantinean auxiliaries, a thousand +men at arms, openly declared that they had undertaken this distant maritime +expedition for the sake of Alcibiades, and that, if he was ill-used, they would +all go home, they recovered their courage, and became eager to make use of the +present opportunity for justifying him. At this his enemies were again +discouraged, fearing lest the people should be more gentle to him in their +sentence, because of the occasion they had for his service. Therefore, to +obviate this, they contrived that some other orators, who did not appear to be +enemies to Alcibiades, but really hated him no less than those who avowed it, +should stand up in the assembly and say, that it was a very absurd thing that +one who was created general of such an army with absolute power, after his +troops were assembled, and the confederates were come, should lose the +opportunity, whilst the people were choosing his judges by lot, and appointing +times for the hearing of the cause. And, therefore, let him set sail at once; +good fortune attend him; and when the war should be at an end, he might then in +person make his defense according to the laws. +</p> + +<p> +Alcibiades perceived the malice of this postponement, and, appearing in the +assembly represented that it was monstrous for him to be sent with the command +of so large an army, when he lay under such accusations and calumnies; that he +deserved to die, if he could not clear himself of the crimes objected to him; +but when he had so done, and had proved his innocence, he should then +cheerfully apply himself to the war, as standing no longer in fear of false +accusers. But he could not prevail with the people, who commanded him to sail +immediately. So he departed, together with the other generals, having with them +near 140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1,300 archers, slingers, and +light-armed men, and all the other provisions corresponding. +</p> + +<p> +Arriving on the coast of Italy, he landed at Rhegium, and there stated his +views of the manner in which they ought to conduct the war. He was opposed by +Nicias, but Lamachus being of his opinion, they sailed for Sicily forthwith, +and took Catana. This was all that was done while he was there, for he was soon +after recalled by the Athenians to abide his trial. At first, as we before +said, there were only some slight suspicions advanced against Alcibiades, and +accusations by certain slaves and strangers. But afterwards, in his absence, +his enemies attacked him more violently, and confounded together the breaking +the images with the profanation of the mysteries, as though both had been +committed in pursuance of the same conspiracy for changing the government. The +people proceeded to imprison all that were accused, without distinction, and +without hearing them, and repented now, considering the importance of the +charge, that they had not immediately brought Alcibiades to his trial, and +given judgment against him. Any of his friends or acquaintance who fell into +the people’s hands, whilst they were in this fury, did not fail to meet with +very severe usage. Thucydides has omitted to name the informers, but others +mention Dioclides and Teucer. Amongst whom is Phrynichus, the comic poet, in +whom we find the following:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“O dearest Hermes! only do take care,<br/> +And mind you do not miss your footing there;<br/> +Should you get hurt, occasion may arise<br/> +For a new Dioclides to tell lies.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +To which he makes Mercury return this answer:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“I will so, for I feel no inclination<br/> +To reward Teucer for more information.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The truth is, his accusers alleged nothing that was certain or solid against +him. One of them, being asked how he knew the men who defaced the images, +replying, that he saw them by the light of the moon, made a palpable +misstatement, for it was just new moon when the fact was committed. This made +all men of understanding cry out upon the thing; but the people were as eager +as ever to receive further accusations, nor was their first heat at all abated, +but they instantly seized and imprisoned every one that was accused. Amongst +those who were detained in prison for their trials was Andocides the orator, +whose descent the historian Hellanicus deduces from Ulysses. He was always +supposed to hate popular government, and to support oligarchy. The chief ground +of his being suspected of defacing the images was because the great Mercury, +which stood near his house, and was an ancient monument of the tribe Aegeis, +was almost the only statue of all the remarkable ones, which remained entire. +For this cause, it is now called the Mercury of Andocides, all men giving it +that name, though the inscription is evidence to the contrary. It happened that +Andocides, amongst the rest who were prisoners upon the same account, +contracted particular acquaintance and intimacy with one Timaeus, a person +inferior to him in repute, but of remarkable dexterity and boldness. He +persuaded Andocides to accuse himself and some few others of this crime, urging +to him that, upon his confession, he would be, by the decree of the people, +secure of his pardon, whereas the event of judgment is uncertain to all men, +but to great persons, such as he was, most formidable. So that it was better +for him, if he regarded himself, to save his life by a falsity, than to suffer +an infamous death, as really guilty of the crime. And if he had regard to the +public good, it was commendable to sacrifice a few suspected men, by that means +to rescue many excellent persons from the fury of the people. Andocides was +prevailed upon, and accused himself and some others, and, by the terms of the +decree, obtained his pardon, while all the persons named by him, except some +few who had saved themselves by flight, suffered death. To gain the greater +credit to his information, he accused his own servants amongst others. But +notwithstanding this, the people’s anger was not wholly appeased; and being now +no longer diverted by the mutilators, they were at leisure to pour out their +whole rage upon Alcibiades. And, in conclusion, they sent the galley named the +Salaminian, to recall him. But they expressly commanded those that were sent, +to use no violence, nor seize upon his person, but address themselves to him in +the mildest terms, requiring him to follow them to Athens in order to abide his +trial, and clear himself before the people. For they feared mutiny and sedition +in the army in an enemy’s country, which indeed it would have been easy for +Alcibiades to effect, if he had wished it. For the soldiers were dispirited +upon his departure, expecting for the future tedious delays, and that the war +would be drawn out into a lazy length by Nicias, when Alcibiades, who was the +spur to action, was taken away. For though Lamachus was a soldier, and a man of +courage, poverty deprived him of authority and respect in the army. Alcibiades, +just upon his departure, prevented Messena from falling into the hands of the +Athenians. There were some in that city who were upon the point of delivering +it up, but he, knowing the persons, gave information to some friends of the +Syracusans, and so defeated the whole contrivance. When he arrived at Thurii, +he went on shore, and, concealing himself there, escaped those who searched +after him. But to one who knew him, and asked him if he durst not trust his own +native country, he made answer, “In everything else, yes; but in a matter that +touches my life, I would not even my own mother, lest she might by mistake +throw in the black ball instead of the white.” When, afterwards, he was told +that the assembly had pronounced judgment of death against him, all he said +was, “I will make them feel that I am alive.” +</p> + +<p> +The information against him was conceived in this form:— +</p> + +<p> +“Thessalus, the son of Cimon, of the township of Lacia, lays information that +Alcibiades, the son of Clinias, of the township of the Scambonidae, has +committed a crime against the goddesses Ceres and Proserpine, by representing +in derision the holy mysteries, and showing them to his companions in his own +house. Where, being habited in such robes as are used by the chief priest when +he shows the holy things, he named himself the chief priest, Polytion the +torch-bearer, and Theodorus, of the township of Phegaea, the herald; and +saluted the rest of his company as Initiates and Novices. All which was done +contrary to the laws and institutions of the Eumolpidae, and the heralds and +priests of the temple at Eleusis.” +</p> + +<p> +He was condemned as contumacious upon his not appearing, his property +confiscated, and it was decreed that all the priests and priestesses should +solemnly curse him. But one of them, Theano, the daughter of Menon, of the +township of Agraule, is said to have opposed that part of the decree, saying +that her holy office obliged her to make prayers, but not execrations. +</p> + +<p> +Alcibiades, lying under these heavy decrees and sentences, when first he fled +from Thurii, passed over into Peloponnesus and remained some time at Argos. But +being there in fear of his enemies and seeing himself utterly hopeless of +return to his native country, he sent to Sparta, desiring safe conduct, and +assuring them that he would make them amends by his future services for all the +mischief he had done them while he was their enemy. The Spartans giving him the +security he desired, he went eagerly, was well received, and, at his very first +coming, succeeded in inducing them, without any further caution or delay, to +send aid to the Syracusans; and so roused and excited them, that they forthwith +dispatched Gylippus into Sicily, to crush the forces which the Athenians had in +Sicily. A second point was, to renew the war upon the Athenians at home. But +the third thing, and the most important of all, was to make them fortify +Decelea, which above everything reduced and wasted the resources of the +Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +The renown which he earned by these public services was equaled by the +admiration he attracted to his private life; he captivated and won over +everybody by his conformity to Spartan habits. People who saw him wearing his +hair close cut, bathing in cold water, eating coarse meal, and dining on black +broth, doubted, or rather could not believe, that he ever had a cook in his +house, or had ever seen a perfumer, or had worn a mantle of Milesian purple. +For he had, as it was observed, this peculiar talent and artifice for gaining +men’s affections, that he could at once comply with and really embrace and +enter into their habits and ways of life, and change faster than the chameleon. +One color, indeed, they say the chameleon cannot assume; it cannot make itself +appear white; but Alcibiades, whether with good men or with bad, could adapt +himself to his company, and equally wear the appearance of virtue or vice. At +Sparta, he was devoted to athletic exercises, was frugal and reserved; in +Ionia, luxurious, gay, and indolent; in Thrace, always drinking; in Thessaly, +ever on horseback; and when he lived with Tisaphernes, the Persian satrap, he +exceeded the Persians themselves in magnificence and pomp. Not that his natural +disposition changed so easily, nor that his real character was so very +variable, but, whenever he was sensible that by pursuing his own inclinations +he might give offense to those with whom he had occasion to converse, he +transformed himself into any shape, and adopted any fashion, that he observed +to be most agreeable to them. So that to have seen him at Lacedaemon, a man, +judging by the outward appearance, would have said, “’Tis not Achilles’s son, +but he himself, the very man” that Lycurgus designed to form; while his real +feelings and acts would have rather provoked the exclamation, “’Tis the same +woman still.” For while king Agis was absent, and abroad with the army, he +corrupted his wife Timaea, and had a child born by her. Nor did she even deny +it, but when she was brought to bed of a son, called him in public Leotychides, +but, amongst her confidants and attendants, would whisper that his name was +Alcibiades. To such a degree was she transported by her passion for him. He, on +the other side, would say, in his vain way, he had not done this thing out of +mere wantonness of insult, nor to gratify a passion, but that his race might +one day be kings over the Lacedaemonians. +</p> + +<p> +There were many who told Agis that this was so, but time itself gave the +greatest confirmation to the story. For Agis, alarmed by an earthquake, had +quitted his wife, and, for ten months after, was never with her; Leotychides, +therefore, being born after those ten months, he would not acknowledge him for +his son; which was the reason that afterwards he was not admitted to the +succession. +</p> + +<p> +After the defeat which the Athenians received in Sicily, ambassadors were +dispatched to Sparta at once from Chios and Lesbos and Cyzicus, to signify +their purpose of revolting from the Athenians. The Boeotians interposed in +favor of the Lesbians, and Pharnabazus of the Cyzicenes, but the +Lacedaemonians, at the persuasion of Alcibiades, chose to assist Chios before +all others. He himself, also, went instantly to sea, procured the immediate +revolt of almost all Ionia, and, cooperating with the Lacedaemonian generals, +did great mischief to the Athenians. But Agis was his enemy, hating him for +having dishonored his wife, and also impatient of his glory, as almost every +enterprise and every success was ascribed to Alcibiades. Others, also, of the +most powerful and ambitious amongst the Spartans, were possessed with jealousy +of him, and, at last, prevailed with the magistrates in the city to send orders +into Ionia that he should be killed. Alcibiades, however, had secret +intelligence of this, and, in apprehension of the result, while he communicated +all affairs to the Lacedaemonians, yet took care not to put himself into their +power. At last he retired to Tisaphernes, the king of Persia’s satrap, for his +security, and immediately became the first and most influential person about +him. For this barbarian, not being himself sincere, but a lover of guile and +wickedness, admired his address and wonderful subtlety. And, indeed, the charm +of daily intercourse with him was more than any character could resist or any +disposition escape. Even those who feared and envied him could not but take +delight, and have a sort of kindness for him, when they saw him and were in his +company. So that Tisaphernes, otherwise a cruel character, and, above all other +Persians, a hater of the Greeks, was yet so won by the flatteries of +Alcibiades, that he set himself even to exceed him in responding to them. The +most beautiful of his parks, containing salubrious streams and meadows, where +he had built pavilions, and places of retirement royally and exquisitely +adorned, received by his direction the name of Alcibiades, and was always so +called and so spoken of. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Alcibiades, quitting the interests of the Spartans, whom he could no +longer trust, because he stood in fear of Agis, endeavored to do them ill +offices, and render them odious to Tisaphernes, who, by his means, was hindered +from assisting them vigorously, and from finally ruining the Athenians. For his +advice was to furnish them but sparingly with money, and so wear them out, and +consume them insensibly; when they had wasted their strength upon one another, +they would both become ready to submit to the king. Tisaphernes readily pursued +his counsel, and so openly expressed the liking and admiration which he had for +him, that Alcibiades was looked up to by the Greeks of both parties, and the +Athenians, now in their misfortunes, repented them of their severe sentence +against him. And he, on the other side, began to be troubled for them, and to +fear lest, if that commonwealth were utterly destroyed, he should fall into the +hands of the Lacedaemonians, his enemies. +</p> + +<p> +At that time the whole strength of the Athenians was in Samos. Their fleet +maintained itself here, and issued from these head-quarters to reduce such as +had revolted, and protect the rest of their territories; in one way or other +still contriving to be a match for their enemies at sea. What they stood in +fear of, was Tisaphernes and the Phoenician fleet of one hundred and fifty +galleys, which was said to be already under sail; if those came, there remained +then no hopes for the commonwealth of Athens. Understanding this, Alcibiades +sent secretly to the chief men of the Athenians, who were then at Samos, giving +them hopes that he would make Tisaphernes their friend; he was willing, he +implied, to do some favor, not to the people, nor in reliance upon them, but to +the better citizens, if only, like brave men, they would make the attempt to +put down the insolence of the people, and, by taking upon them the government, +would endeavor to save the city from ruin. All of them gave a ready ear to the +proposal made by Alcibiades, except only Phrynichus of the township of Dirades, +one of the generals, who suspected, as the truth was, that Alcibiades concerned +not himself whether the government were in the people or the better citizens, +but only sought by any means to make way for his return into his native +country, and to that end inveighed against the people, thereby to gain the +others, and to insinuate himself into their good opinion. But when Phrynichus +found his counsel to be rejected, and that he was himself become a declared +enemy of Alcibiades, he gave secret intelligence to Astyochus, the enemy’s +admiral, cautioning him to beware of Alcibiades, and to seize him as a double +dealer, unaware that one traitor was making discoveries to another. For +Astyochus, who was eager to gain the favor of Tisaphernes, observing the credit +Alcibiades had with him, revealed to Alcibiades all that Phrynichus had said +against him. Alcibiades at once dispatched messengers to Samos, to accuse +Phrynichus of the treachery. Upon this, all the commanders were enraged with +Phrynichus, and set themselves against him, and he, seeing no other way to +extricate himself from the present danger, attempted to remedy one evil by a +greater. He sent to Astyochus to reproach him for betraying him, and to make an +offer to him at the same time, to deliver into his hands both the army and the +navy of the Athenians. This occasioned no damage to the Athenians, because +Astyochus repeated his treachery, and revealed also this proposal to +Alcibiades. But this again was foreseen by Phrynichus, who, expecting a second +accusation from Alcibiades, to anticipate him, advertised the Athenians +beforehand that the enemy was ready to sail in order to surprise them, and +therefore advised them to fortify their camp, and to be in a readiness to go +aboard their ships. While the Athenians were intent upon doing these things, +they received other letters from Alcibiades, admonishing them to beware of +Phrynichus, as one who designed to betray their fleet to the enemy, to which +they then gave no credit at all, conceiving that Alcibiades, who knew perfectly +the counsels and preparations of the enemy, was merely making use of that +knowledge, in order to impose upon them in this false accusation of Phrynichus. +Yet, afterwards, when Phrynichus was stabbed with a dagger in the market-place +by Hermon, one of the guard, the Athenians, entering into an examination of the +cause, solemnly condemned Phrynichus of treason, and decreed crowns to Hermon +and his associates. And now the friends of Alcibiades, carrying all before them +at Samos, dispatched Pisander to Athens, to attempt a change of government, and +to encourage the aristocratical citizens to take upon themselves the +government, and overthrow the democracy, representing to them, that, upon these +terms, Alcibiades would procure them the friendship and alliance of +Tisaphernes. +</p> + +<p> +This was the color and pretense made use of by those who desired to change the +government of Athens to an oligarchy. But as soon as they prevailed, and had +got the administration of affairs into their hands, under the name of the Five +Thousand (whereas, indeed, they were but four hundred), they slighted +Alcibiades altogether, and prosecuted the war with less vigor; partly because +they durst not yet trust the citizens, who secretly detested this change, and +partly because they thought the Lacedaemonians, who always befriended the +government of the few, would be inclined to give them favorable terms. +</p> + +<p> +The people in the city were terrified into submission, many of those who had +dared openly to oppose the four hundred having been put to death. But those who +were at Samos, indignant when they heard this news, were eager to set sail +instantly for the Piraeus; and, sending for Alcibiades, they declared him +general, requiring him to lead them on to put down the tyrants. He, however, in +that juncture, did not, as it might have been thought a man would, on being +suddenly exalted by the favor of a multitude, think himself under an obligation +to gratify and submit to all the wishes of those who, from a fugitive and an +exile, had created him general of so great an army, and given him the command +of such a fleet. But, as became a great captain, he opposed himself to the +precipitate resolutions which their rage led them to, and, by restraining them +from the great error they were about to commit, unequivocally saved the +commonwealth. For if they then had sailed to Athens, all Ionia and the islands +and the Hellespont would have fallen into the enemies’ hands without +opposition, while the Athenians, involved in civil war, would have been +fighting with one another within the circuit of their own walls. It was +Alcibiades alone, or, at least, principally, who prevented all this mischief; +for he not only used persuasion to the whole army, and showed them the danger, +but applied himself to them, one by one, entreating some, and constraining +others. He was much assisted, however, by Thrasybulus of Stiria, who, having +the loudest voice, as we are told of all the Athenians, went along with him, +and cried out to those who were ready to be gone. A second great service which +Alcibiades did for them was, his undertaking that the Phoenician fleet, which +the Lacedaemonians expected to be sent to them by the king of Persia, should +either come in aid of the Athenians, or otherwise should not come at all. He +sailed off with all expedition in order to perform this, and the ships, which +had already been seen as near as Aspendus, were not brought any further by +Tisaphernes, who thus deceived the Lacedaemonians; and it was by both sides +believed that they had been diverted by the procurement of Alcibiades. The +Lacedaemonians, in particular, accused him, that he had advised the Barbarian +to stand still, and suffer the Greeks to waste and destroy one another, as it +was evident that the accession of so great a force to either party would enable +them to take away the entire dominion of the sea from the other side. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after this, the four hundred usurpers were driven out, the friends of +Alcibiades vigorously assisting those who were for the popular government. And +now the people in the city not only desired, but commanded Alcibiades to return +home from his exile. He, however, desired not to owe his return to the mere +grace and commiseration of the people, and resolved to come back, not with +empty hands, but with glory, and after some service done. To this end, he +sailed from Samos with a few ships, and cruised on the sea of Cnidos, and about +the isle of Cos; but receiving intelligence there that Mindarus, the Spartan +admiral, had sailed with his whole army into the Hellespont, and that the +Athenians had followed him, he hurried back to succor the Athenian commanders, +and, by good fortune, arrived with eighteen galleys at a critical time. For +both the fleets having engaged near Abydos, the fight between them had lasted +till night, the one side having the advantage on one quarter, and the other on +another. Upon his first appearance, both sides formed a false impression; the +enemy was encouraged, and the Athenians terrified. But Alcibiades suddenly +raised the Athenian ensign in the admiral ship, and fell upon those galleys of +the Peloponnesians which had the advantage and were in pursuit. He soon put +these to flight, and followed them so close that he forced them on shore, and +broke the ships in pieces, the sailors abandoning them and swimming away, in +spite of all the efforts of Pharnabazus, who had come down to their assistance +by land, and did what he could to protect them from the shore. In fine, the +Athenians, having taken thirty of the enemy’s ships, and recovered all their +own, erected a trophy. After the gaining of so glorious a victory, his vanity +made him eager to show himself to Tisaphernes, and, having furnished himself +with gifts and presents, and an equipage suitable to his dignity, he set out to +visit him. But the thing did not succeed as he had imagined, for Tisaphernes +had been long suspected by the Lacedaemonians, and was afraid to fall into +disgrace with his king, upon that account, and therefore thought that +Alcibiades arrived very opportunely, and immediately caused him to be seized, +and sent away prisoner to Sardis; fancying, by this act of injustice, to clear +himself from all former imputations. +</p> + +<p> +But about thirty days after, Alcibiades escaped from his keepers, and, having +got a horse, fled to Clazomenae, where he procured Tisaphernes’ additional +disgrace by professing he was a party to his escape. From there he sailed to +the Athenian camp, and, being informed there that Mindarus and Pharnabazus were +together at Cyzicus, he made a speech to the soldiers, telling them that +sea-fighting, land-fighting, and, by the gods, fighting against fortified +cities too, must be all one for them, as, unless they conquered everywhere, +there was no money for them. As soon as ever he got them on shipboard, he +hasted to Proconnesus, and gave command to seize all the small vessels they +met, and guard them safely in the interior of the fleet, that the enemy might +have no notice of his coming; and a great storm of rain, accompanied with +thunder and darkness, which happened at the same time, contributed much to the +concealment of his enterprise. Indeed, it was not only undiscovered by the +enemy, but the Athenians themselves were ignorant of it, for he commanded them +suddenly on board, and set sail when they had abandoned all intention of it. As +the darkness presently passed away, the Peloponnesian fleet were seen riding +out at sea in front of the harbor of Cyzicus. Fearing, if they discovered the +number of his ships, they might endeavor to save themselves by land, he +commanded the rest of the captains to slacken, and follow him slowly, whilst +he, advancing with forty ships, showed himself to the enemy, and provoked them +to fight. The enemy, being deceived as to their numbers; despised them, and, +supposing they were to contend with those only, made themselves ready and began +the fight. But as soon as they were engaged, they perceived the other part of +the fleet coming down upon them, at which they were so terrified that they fled +immediately. Upon that, Alcibiades, breaking through the midst of them with +twenty of his best ships, hastened to the shore, disembarked, and pursued those +who abandoned their ships and fled to land, and made a great slaughter of them. +Mindarus and Pharnabazus, coming to their succor, were utterly defeated. +Mindarus was slain upon the place, fighting valiantly; Pharnabazus saved +himself by flight. The Athenians slew great numbers of their enemies, won much +spoil, and took all their ships. They also made themselves masters of Cyzicus, +which was deserted by Pharnabazus, and destroyed its Peloponnesian garrison, +and thereby not only secured to themselves the Hellespont, but by force drove +the Lacedaemonians from out of all the rest of the sea. They intercepted some +letters written to the ephors, which gave an account of this fatal overthrow, +after their short laconic manner. “Our hopes are at an end. Mindarus is slain. +The men starve. We know not what to do.” +</p> + +<p> +The soldiers who followed Alcibiades in this last fight were so exalted with +their success, and felt that degree of pride, that, looking on themselves as +invincible, they disdained to mix with the other soldiers, who had been often +overcome. For it happened not long before, Thrasyllus had received a defeat +near Ephesus, and, upon that occasion, the Ephesians erected their brazen +trophy to the disgrace of the Athenians. The soldiers of Alcibiades reproached +those who were under the command of Thrasyllus with this misfortune, at the +same time magnifying themselves and their own commander, and it went so far +that they would not exercise with them, nor lodge in the same quarters. But +soon after, Pharnabazus, with a great force of horse and foot, falling upon the +soldiers of Thrasyllus, as they were laying waste the territory of Abydos, +Alcibiades came to their aid, routed Pharnabazus, and, together with +Thrasyllus, pursued him till it was night; and in this action the troops +united, and returned together to the camp, rejoicing and congratulating one +another. The next day he erected a trophy, and then proceeded to lay waste with +fire and sword the whole province which was under Pharnabazus, where none +ventured to resist; and he took divers priests and priestesses, but released +them without ransom. He prepared next to attack the Chalcedonians, who had +revolted from the Athenians, and had received a Lacedaemonian governor and +garrison. But having intelligence that they had removed their corn and cattle +out of the fields, and were conveying it all to the Bithynians, who were their +friends, he drew down his army to the frontier of the Bithynians, and then sent +a herald to charge them with this proceeding. The Bithynians, terrified at his +approach, delivered up to him the booty, and entered into alliance with him. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards he proceeded to the siege of Chalcedon, and enclosed it with a wall +from sea to sea. Pharnabazus advanced with his forces to raise the siege, and +Hippocrates, the governor of the town, at the same time, gathering together all +the strength he had, made a sally upon the Athenians. Alcibiades divided his +army so as to engage them both at once, and not only forced Pharnabazus to a +dishonorable flight, but defeated Hippocrates, and killed him and a number of +the soldiers with him. After this he sailed into the Hellespont, in order to +raise supplies of money, and took the city of Selymbria, in which action, +through his precipitation, he exposed himself to great danger. For some within +the town had undertaken to betray it into his hands, and, by agreement, were to +give him a signal by a lighted torch about midnight. But one of the +conspirators beginning to repent himself of the design, the rest, for fear of +being discovered, were driven to give the signal before the appointed hour. +Alcibiades, as soon as he saw the torch lifted up in the air, though his army +was not in readiness to march, ran instantly towards the walls, taking with him +about thirty men only, and commanding the rest of the army to follow him with +all possible speed. When he came thither, he found the gate opened for him, and +entered with his thirty men, and about twenty more light-armed men, who were +come up to them. They were no sooner in the city, but he perceived the +Selymbrians all armed, coming down upon him; so that there was no hope of +escaping if he stayed to receive them; and, on the other hand, having been +always successful till that day, wherever he commanded, he could not endure to +be defeated and fly. So, requiring silence by sound of a trumpet, he commanded +one of his men to make proclamation that the Selymbrians should not take arms +against the Athenians. This cooled such of the inhabitants as were fiercest for +the fight, for they supposed that all their enemies were within the walls, and +it raised the hopes of others who were disposed to an accommodation. Whilst +they were parleying, and propositions making on one side and the other, +Alcibiades’s whole army came up to the town. And now, conjecturing rightly, +that the Selymbrians were well inclined to peace, and fearing lest the city +might be sacked by the Thracians, who came in great numbers to his army to +serve as volunteers, out of kindness for him, he commanded them all to retreat +without the walls. And upon the submission of the Selymbrians, he saved them +from being pillaged, only taking of them a sum of money, and, after placing an +Athenian garrison in the town, departed. +</p> + +<p> +During this action, the Athenian captains who besieged Chalcedon concluded a +treaty with Pharnabazus upon these articles: that he should give them a sum of +money; that the Chalcedonians should return to the subjection of Athens; and +that the Athenians should make no inroad into the province whereof Pharnabazus +was governor; and Pharnabazus was also to provide safe conducts for the +Athenian ambassadors to the king of Persia. Afterwards, when Alcibiades +returned thither, Pharnabazus required that he also should be sworn to the +treaty; but he refused it, unless Pharnabazus would swear at the same time. +When the treaty was sworn to on both sides Alcibiades went against the +Byzantines, who had revolted from the Athenians, and drew a line of +circumvallation about the city. But Anaxilaus and Lycurgus, together with some +others, having undertaken to betray the city to him upon his engagement to +preserve the lives and property of the inhabitants, he caused a report to be +spread abroad, as if, by reason of some unexpected movement in Ionia, he should +be obliged to raise the siege. And, accordingly, that day he made a show to +depart with his whole fleet; but returned the same night, and went ashore with +all his men at arms, and, silently and undiscovered, marched up to the walls. +At the same time, his ships rowed into the harbor with all possible violence, +coming on with much fury, and with great shouts and outcries. The Byzantines, +thus surprised and astonished, while they all hurried to the defense of their +port and shipping, gave opportunity to those who favored the Athenians, +securely to receive Alcibiades into the city. Yet the enterprise was not +accomplished without fighting, for the Peloponnesians, Boeotians, and Megarians +not only repulsed those who came out of the ships, and forced them on board +again, but, hearing that the Athenians were entered on the other side, drew up +in order, and went to meet them. Alcibiades, however, gained the victory after +some sharp fighting, in which he himself had the command of the right wing, and +Theramenes of the left, and took about three hundred, who survived of the +enemy, prisoners of war. After the battle, not one of the Byzantines was slain, +or driven out of the city, according to the terms upon which the city was put +into his hands, that they should receive no prejudice in life or property. And +thus Anaxilaus, being afterwards accused at Lacedaemon for this treason, +neither disowned nor professed to be ashamed of the action; for he urged that +he was not a Lacedaemonian, but a Byzantine and saw not Sparta, but Byzantium, +in extreme danger; the city so blockaded that it was not possible to bring in +any new provisions, and the Peloponnesians and Boeotians, who were in garrison, +devouring the old stores, whilst the Byzantines, with their wives and children, +were starving; that he had not, therefore, betrayed his country to enemies, but +had delivered it from the calamities of war, and had but followed the example +of the most worthy Lacedaemonians, who esteemed nothing to be honorable and +just, but what was profitable for their country. The Lacedaemonians, upon +hearing his defense, respected it, and discharged all that were accused. +</p> + +<p> +And now Alcibiades began to desire to see his native country again, or rather +to show his fellow-citizens a person who had gained so many victories for them. +He set sail for Athens, the ships that accompanied him being adorned with great +numbers of shields and other spoils, and towing after them many galleys taken +from the enemy, and the ensigns and ornaments of many others which he had sunk +and destroyed; all of them together amounting to two hundred. Little credit, +perhaps, can be given to what Duris the Samian, who professed to be descended +from Alcibiades, adds, that Chrysogonus, who had gained a victory at the +Pythian games, played upon his flute for the galleys, whilst the oars kept time +with the music; and that Callippides, the tragedian, attired in his buskins, +his purple robes, and other ornaments used in the theater, gave the word to the +rowers, and that the admiral galley entered into the port with a purple sail. +Neither Theopompus, nor Ephorus, nor Xenophon, mention them. Nor, indeed, is it +credible, that one who returned from so long an exile, and such variety of +misfortunes, should come home to his countrymen in the style of revelers +breaking up from a drinking-party. On the contrary, he entered the harbor full +of fear, nor would he venture to go on shore, till, standing on the deck, he +saw Euryptolemus, his cousin, and others of his friends and acquaintance, who +were ready to receive him, and invited him to land. As soon as he was landed, +the multitude who came out to meet him scarcely seemed so much as to see any of +the other captains, but came in throngs about Alcibiades, and saluted him with +loud acclamations, and still followed him; those who could press near him +crowned him with garlands, and they who could not come up so close yet stayed +to behold him afar off, and the old men pointed him out, and showed him to the +young ones. Nevertheless, this public joy was mixed with some tears, and the +present happiness was allayed by the remembrance of the miseries they had +endured. They made reflections, that they could not have so unfortunately +miscarried in Sicily, or been defeated in any of their other expectations, if +they had left the management of their affairs formerly, and the command of +their forces, to Alcibiades, since, upon his undertaking the administration, +when they were in a manner driven from the sea, and could scarce defend the +suburbs of their city by land, and, at the same time, were miserably distracted +with intestine factions, he had raised them up from this low and deplorable +condition, and had not only restored them to their ancient dominion of the sea, +but had also made them everywhere victorious over their enemies on land. +</p> + +<p> +There had been a decree for recalling him from his banishment already passed by +the people, at the instance of Critias, the son of Callaeschrus, as appears by +his elegies, in which he puts Alcibiades in mind of this service:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +From my proposal did that edict come,<br/> +Which from your tedious exile brought you home;<br/> +The public vote at first was moved by me,<br/> +And my voice put the seal to the decree. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The people being summoned to an assembly, Alcibiades came in amongst them, and +first bewailed and lamented his own sufferings, and, in gentle terms +complaining of the usage he had received, imputed all to his hard fortune, and +some ill genius that attended him: then he spoke at large of their prospects, +and exhorted them to courage and good hope. The people crowned him with crowns +of gold, and created him general, both at land and sea, with absolute power. +They also made a decree that his estate should be restored to him, and that the +Eumolpidae and the holy heralds should absolve him from the curses which they +had solemnly pronounced against him by sentence of the people. Which when all +the rest obeyed, Theodorus, the high-priest, excused himself, “For,” said he, +“if he is innocent, I never cursed him.” +</p> + +<p> +But notwithstanding the affairs of Alcibiades went so prosperously, and so much +to his glory, yet many were still somewhat disturbed, and looked upon the time +of his arrival to be ominous. For on the day that he came into the port, the +feast of the goddess Minerva, which they call the Plynteria, was kept. It is +the twenty-fifth day of Thargelion, when the Praxiergidae solemnize their +secret rites, taking all the ornaments from off her image, and keeping the part +of the temple where it stands close covered. Hence the Athenians esteem this +day most inauspicious and never undertake any thing of importance upon it; and, +therefore, they imagined that the goddess did not receive Alcibiades graciously +and propitiously, thus hiding her face and rejecting him. Yet, notwithstanding, +everything succeeded according to his wish. When the one hundred galleys, that +were to return with him, were fitted out and ready to sail, an honorable zeal +detained him till the celebration of the mysteries was over. For ever since +Decelea had been occupied, as the enemy commanded the roads leading from Athens +to Eleusis, the procession, being conducted by sea, had not been performed with +any proper solemnity; they were forced to omit the sacrifices and dances and +other holy ceremonies, which had usually been performed in the way, when they +led forth Iacchus. Alcibiades, therefore, judged it would be a glorious action, +which would do honor to the gods and gain him esteem with men, if he restored +the ancient splendor to these rites, escorting the procession again by land, +and protecting it with his army in the face of the enemy. For either, if Agis +stood still and did not oppose, it would very much diminish and obscure his +reputation, or, in the other alternative, Alcibiades would engage in a holy +war, in the cause of the gods, and in defense of the most sacred and solemn +ceremonies; and this in the sight of his country, where he should have all his +fellow- citizens witnesses of his valor. As soon as he had resolved upon this +design, and had communicated it to the Eumolpidae and heralds, he placed +sentinels on the tops of the hills, and at the break of day sent forth his +scouts. And then taking with him the priests and Initiates and the Initiators, +and encompassing them with his soldiers, he conducted them with great order and +profound silence; an august and venerable procession, wherein all who did not +envy him said, he performed at once the office of a high-priest and of a +general. The enemy did not dare to attempt any thing against them, and thus he +brought them back in safety to the city. Upon which, as he was exalted in his +own thought, so the opinion which the people had of his conduct was raised to +that degree, that they looked upon their armies as irresistible and invincible +while he commanded them; and he so won, indeed, upon the lower and meaner sort +of people, that they passionately desired to have him “tyrant” over them, and +some of them did not scruple to tell him so, and to advise him to put himself +out of the reach of envy, by abolishing the laws and ordinances of the people, +and suppressing the idle talkers that were ruining the state, that so he might +act and take upon him the management of affairs, without standing in fear of +being called to an account. +</p> + +<p> +How far his own inclinations led him to usurp sovereign power, is uncertain, +but the most considerable persons in the city were so much afraid of it, that +they hastened him on ship-board as speedily as they could, appointing the +colleagues whom he chose, and allowing him all other things as he desired. +Thereupon he set sail with a fleet of one hundred ships, and, arriving at +Andros, he there fought with and defeated as well the inhabitants as the +Lacedaemonians who assisted them. He did not, however, take the city; which +gave the first occasion to his enemies for all their accusations against him. +Certainly, if ever man was ruined by his own glory, it was Alcibiades. For his +continual success had produced such an idea of his courage and conduct, that, +if he failed in anything he undertook, it was imputed to his neglect, and no +one would believe it was through want of power. For they thought nothing was +too hard for him, if he went about it in good earnest. They fancied, every day, +that they should hear news of the reduction of Chios, and of the rest of Ionia, +and grew impatient that things were not effected as fast and as rapidly as they +could wish for them. They never considered how extremely money was wanting, and +that, having to carry on war with an enemy who had supplies of all things from +a great king, he was often forced to quit his armament, in order to procure +money and provisions for the subsistence of his soldiers. This it was which +gave occasion for the last accusation which was made against him. For Lysander, +being sent from Lacedaemon with a commission to be admiral of their fleet, and +being furnished by Cyrus with a great sum of money, gave every sailor four +obols a day, whereas before they had but three. Alcibiades could hardly allow +his men three obols, and therefore was constrained to go into Caria to furnish +himself with money. He left the care of the fleet, in his absence, to +Antiochus, an experienced seaman, but rash and inconsiderate, who had express +orders from Alcibiades not to engage, though the enemy provoked him. But he +slighted and disregarded these directions to that degree, that, having made +ready his own galley and another, he stood for Ephesus, where the enemy lay, +and, as he sailed before the heads of their galleys, used every provocation +possible, both in words and deeds. Lysander at first manned out a few ships, +and pursued him. But all the Athenian ships coming in to his assistance, +Lysander, also, brought up his whole fleet, which gained an entire victory. He +slew Antiochus himself, took many men and ships, and erected a trophy. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Alcibiades heard this news, he returned to Samos, and loosing from +thence with his whole fleet, came and offered battle to Lysander. But Lysander, +content with the victory he had gained, would not stir. Amongst others in the +army who hated Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, the son of Thrason, was his particular +enemy, and went purposely to Athens to accuse him, and to exasperate his +enemies in the city against him. Addressing the people, he represented that +Alcibiades had ruined their affairs and lost their ships by mere self-conceited +neglect of his duties, committing the government of the army, in his absence, +to men who gained his favor by drinking and scurrilous talking, whilst he +wandered up and down at pleasure to raise money, giving himself up to every +sort of luxury and excess amongst the courtesans of Abydos and Ionia, at a time +when the enemy’s navy were on the watch close at hand. It was also objected to +him, that he had fortified a castle near Bisanthe in Thrace, for a safe retreat +for himself, as one that either could not, or would not, live in his own +country. The Athenians gave credit to these informations, and showed the +resentment and displeasure which they had conceived against him, by choosing +other generals. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Alcibiades heard of this, he immediately forsook the army, afraid of +what might follow; and, collecting a body of mercenary soldiers, made war upon +his own account against those Thracians who called themselves free, and +acknowledged no king. By this means he amassed to himself a considerable +treasure, and, at the same time, secured the bordering Greeks from the +incursions of the barbarians. +</p> + +<p> +Tydeus, Menander, and Adimantus, the new-made generals, were at that time +posted at Aegospotami, with all the ships which the Athenians had left. From +whence they were used to go out to sea every morning, and offer battle to +Lysander, who lay near Lampsacus; and when they had done so, returning back +again, lay, all the rest of the day, carelessly and without order, in contempt +of the enemy. Alcibiades, who was not far off, did not think so slightly of +their danger, nor neglect to let them know it, but, mounting his horse, came to +the generals, and represented to them that they had chosen a very inconvenient +station, where there was no safe harbor, and where they were distant from any +town; so that they were constrained to send for their necessary provisions as +far as Sestos. He also pointed out to them their carelessness in suffering the +soldiers, when they went ashore, to disperse and wander up and down at their +pleasure, while the enemy’s fleet, under the command of one general, and +strictly obedient to discipline, lay so very near them. He advised them to +remove the fleet to Sestos. But the admirals not only disregarded what he said, +but Tydeus, with insulting expressions; commanded him to be gone, saying, that +now not he, but others, had the command of the forces. Alcibiades, suspecting +something of treachery in them, departed, and told his friends, who accompanied +him out of the camp, that if the generals had not used him with such +insupportable contempt, he would within a few days have forced the +Lacedaemonians, however unwilling, either to have fought the Athenians at sea, +or to have deserted their ships. Some looked upon this as a piece of +ostentation only; others said, the thing was probable, for that he might have +brought down by land great numbers of the Thracian cavalry and archers, to +assault and disorder them in their camp. The event however, soon made it +evident how rightly he had judged of the errors which the Athenians committed. +For Lysander fell upon them on a sudden, when they least suspected it, with +such fury that Conon alone, with eight galleys, escaped him; all the rest, +which were about two hundred, he took and carried away, together with three +thousand prisoners, whom he put to death. And within a short time after, he +took Athens itself, burnt all the ships which he found there, and demolished +their long walls. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Alcibiades, standing in dread of the Lacedaemonians, who were now +masters both at sea and land, retired into Bithynia. He sent thither great +treasure before him, took much with him, but left much more in the castle where +he had before resided. But he lost great part of his wealth in Bithynia, being +robbed by some Thracians who lived in those parts, and thereupon determined to +go to the court of Artaxerxes, not doubting but that the king, if he would make +trial of his abilities, would find him not inferior to Themistocles, besides +that he was recommended by a more honorable cause. For he went, not as +Themistocles did, to offer his service against his fellow-citizens, but against +their enemies, and to implore the king’s aid for the defense of his country. He +concluded that Pharnabazus would most readily procure him a safe conduct, and +therefore went into Phrygia to him, and continued to dwell there some time, +paying him great respect, and being honorably treated by him. The Athenians, in +the meantime, were miserably afflicted at their loss of empire, but when they +were deprived of liberty also, and Lysander set up thirty despotic rulers in +the city, in their ruin now they began to turn to those thoughts which, while +safety was yet possible, they would not entertain; they acknowledged and +bewailed their former errors and follies, and judged this second ill-usage of +Alcibiades to be of all the most inexcusable. For he was rejected, without any +fault committed by himself; and only because they were incensed against his +subordinate for having shamefully lost a few ships, they much more shamefully +deprived the commonwealth of its most valiant and accomplished general. Yet in +this sad state of affairs, they had still some faint hopes left them, nor would +they utterly despair of the Athenian commonwealth, while Alcibiades was safe. +For they persuaded themselves that if before, when he was an exile, he could +not content himself to live idly and at ease, much less now, if he could find +any favorable opportunity, would he endure the insolence of the Lacedaemonians, +and the outrages of the Thirty. Nor was it an absurd thing in the people to +entertain such imaginations, when the Thirty themselves were so very solicitous +to be informed and to get intelligence of all his actions and designs. In fine, +Critias represented to Lysander that the Lacedaemonians could never securely +enjoy the dominion of Greece, till the Athenian democracy was absolutely +destroyed; and though now the people of Athens seemed quietly and patiently to +submit to so small a number of governors, yet so long as Alcibiades lived, the +knowledge of this fact would never suffer them to acquiesce in their present +circumstances. +</p> + +<p> +Yet Lysander would not be prevailed upon by these representations, till at last +he received secret orders from the magistrates of Lacedaemon, expressly +requiring him to get Alcibiades dispatched: whether it was that they feared his +energy and boldness in enterprising what was hazardous, or that it was done to +gratify king Agis. Upon receipt of this order, Lysander sent away a messenger +to Pharnabazus, desiring him to put it in execution. Pharnabazus committed the +affair to Magaeus, his brother, and to his uncle Susamithres. Alcibiades +resided at that time in a small village in Phrygia, together with Timandra, a +mistress of his. As he slept, he had this dream: he thought himself attired in +his mistress’s habit, and that she, holding him in her arms, dressed his head +and painted his face as if he had been a woman; others say, he dreamed that he +saw Magaeus cut off his head and burn his body; at any rate, it was but a +little while before his death that he had these visions. Those who were sent to +assassinate him had not courage enough to enter the house, but surrounded it +first, and set it on fire. Alcibiades, as soon as he perceived it, getting +together great quantities of clothes and furniture, threw them upon the fire to +choke it, and, having wrapped his cloak about his left arm, and holding his +naked sword in his right, he cast himself into the middle of the fire, and +escaped securely through it, before his clothes were burnt. The barbarians, as +soon as they saw him, retreated, and none of them durst stay to expect him, or +to engage with him, but, standing at a distance, they slew him with their darts +and arrows. When he was dead, the barbarians departed, and Timandra took up his +dead body, and, covering and wrapping it up in her own robes, she buried it as +decently and as honorably as her circumstances would allow. It is said, that +the famous Lais, who was called the Corinthian, though she was a native of +Hyccara, a small town in Sicily, from whence she was brought a captive, was the +daughter of this Timandra. There are some who agree with this account of +Alcibiades’s death in all points, except that they impute the cause of it +neither to Pharnabazus, nor Lysander, nor the Lacedaemonians: but, they say, he +was keeping with him a young lady of a noble house, whom he had debauched, and +that her brothers, not being able to endure the indignity, set fire by night to +the house where he was living, and, as he endeavored to save himself from the +flames, slew him with their darts, in the manner just related. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap16"></a>CORIOLANUS</h2> + +<p> +The patrician house of the Marcii in Rome produced many men of distinction, and +among the rest, Ancus Marcius, grandson to Numa by his daughter, and king after +Tullus Hostilius. Of the same family were also Publius and Quintus Marcius, +which two conveyed into the city the best and most abundant supply of water +they have at Rome. As likewise Censorinus, who, having been twice chosen censor +by the people, afterwards himself induced them to make a law that nobody should +bear that office twice. But Caius Marcius, of whom I now write, being left an +orphan, and brought up under the widowhood of his mother, has shown us by +experience, that, although the early loss of a father may be attended with +other disadvantages, yet it can hinder none from being either virtuous or +eminent in the world, and that it is no obstacle to true goodness and +excellence; however bad men may be pleased to lay the blame of their +corruptions upon that misfortune and the neglect of them in their minority. Nor +is he less an evidence to the truth of their opinion, who conceive that a +generous and worthy nature without proper discipline, like a rich soil without +culture, is apt, with its better fruits, to produce also much that is bad and +faulty. While the force and vigor of his soul, and a persevering constancy in +all he undertook, led him successfully into many noble achievements, yet, on +the other side, also, by indulging the vehemence of his passion, and through +all obstinate reluctance to yield or accommodate his humors and sentiments to +those of people about him, he rendered himself incapable of acting and +associating with others. Those who saw with admiration how proof his nature was +against all the softnesses of pleasure, the hardships of service, and the +allurements of gain, while allowing to that universal firmness of his the +respective names of temperance, fortitude, and justice, yet, in the life of the +citizen and the statesman, could not choose but be disgusted at the severity +and ruggedness of his deportment, and with his overbearing, haughty, and +imperious temper. Education and study, and the favors of the muses, confer no +greater benefit on those that seek them, than these humanizing and civilizing +lessons, which teach our natural qualities to submit to the limitations +prescribed by reason, and to avoid the wildness of extremes. +</p> + +<p> +Those were times at Rome in which that kind of worth was most esteemed which +displayed itself in military achievements; one evidence of which we find in the +Latin word for virtue, which is properly equivalent to manly courage. As if +valor and all virtue had been the same thing, they used as the common term the +name of the particular excellence. But Marcius, having a more passionate +inclination than any of that age for feats of war, began at once, from his very +childhood, to handle arms; and feeling that adventitious implements and +artificial arms would effect little, and be of small use to such as have not +their native and natural weapons well fixed and prepared for service, he so +exercised and inured his body to all sorts of activity and encounter, that, +besides the lightness of a racer, he had a weight in close seizures and +wrestlings with an enemy, from which it was hard for any to disengage himself; +so that his competitors at home in displays of bravery, loath to own themselves +inferior in that respect, were wont to ascribe their deficiencies to his +strength of body, which they said no resistance and no fatigue could exhaust. +</p> + +<p> +The first time he went out to the wars, being yet a stripling, was when +Tarquinius Superbus, who had been king of Rome and was afterwards expelled, +after many unsuccessful attempts, now entered upon his last effort, and +proceeded to hazard all as it were upon a single throw. A great number of the +Latins and other people of Italy joined their forces, and were marching with +him toward the city, to procure his restoration; not, however, so much out of a +desire to serve and oblige Tarquin, as to gratify their own fear and envy at +the increase of the Roman greatness, which they were anxious to check and +reduce. The armies met and engaged in a decisive battle, in the vicissitudes of +which, Marcius, while fighting bravely in the dictator’s presence, saw a Roman +soldier struck down at a little distance, and immediately stepped in and stood +before him, and slew his assailant. The general, after having gained the +victory, crowned him for this act, one of the first, with a garland of oaken +branches; it being the Roman custom thus to adorn those who had saved the life +of a citizen; whether that the law intended some special honor to the oak, in +memory of the Arcadians, a people the oracle had made famous by the name of +acorn-eaters; or whether the reason of it was because they might easily, and in +all places where they fought, have plenty of oak for that purpose; or, finally, +whether the oaken wreath, being sacred to Jupiter, the guardian of the city, +might, therefore, be thought a propel ornament for one who preserved a citizen. +And the oak, in truth, is the tree which bears the most and the prettiest fruit +of any that grow wild, and is the strongest of all that are under cultivation; +its acorns were the principal diet of the first mortals, and the honey found in +it gave them drink. I may say, too, it furnished fowl and other creatures as +dainties, in producing mistletoe for birdlime to ensnare them. In this battle, +meantime, it is stated that Castor and Pollux appeared, and, immediately after +the battle, were seen at Rome just by the fountain where their temple now +stands, with their horses foaming with sweat, and told the news of the victory +to the people in the Forum. The fifteenth of July, being the day of this +conquest, became consequently a solemn holiday sacred to the Twin Brothers. +</p> + +<p> +It may be observed in general, that when young men arrive early at fame and +repute, if they are of a nature but slightly touched with emulation, this early +attainment is apt to extinguish their thirst and satiate their small appetite; +whereas the first distinctions of more solid and weighty characters do but +stimulate and quicken them and take them away, like a wind, in the pursuit of +honor; they look upon these marks and testimonies to their virtue not as a +recompense received for what they have already done, but as a pledge given by +themselves of what they will perform hereafter, ashamed now to forsake or +underlive the credit they have won, or, rather, not to exceed and obscure all +that is gone before by the luster of their following actions. Marcius, having a +spirit of this noble make, was ambitious always to surpass himself, and did +nothing, how extraordinary soever, but he thought he was bound to outdo it at +the next occasion; and ever desiring to give continual fresh instances of his +prowess he added one exploit to another, and heaped up trophies upon trophies, +so as to make it a matter of contest also among his commanders, the later still +vying with the earlier, which should pay him the greatest honor and speak +highest in his commendation. Of all the numerous wars and conflicts in those +days, there was not one from which he returned without laurels and rewards. +And, whereas others made glory the end of their daring, the end of his glory +was his mother’s gladness; the delight she took to hear him praised and to see +him crowned, and her weeping for joy in his embraces, rendered him, in his own +thoughts, the most honored and most happy person in the world. Epaminondas is +similarly said to have acknowledged his feeling, that it was the greatest +felicity of his whole life that his father and mother survived to hear of his +successful generalship and his victory at Leuctra. And he had the advantage, +indeed, to have both his parents partake with him, and enjoy the pleasure of +his good fortune. But Marcius, believing himself bound to pay his mother +Volumnia all that gratitude and duty which would have belonged to his father, +had he also been alive, could never satiate himself in his tenderness and +respect to her. He took a wife, also, at her request and wish, and continued, +even after he had children, to live still with his mother, without parting +families. +</p> + +<p> +The repute of his integrity and courage had, by this time, gained him a +considerable influence and authority in Rome, when the senate, favoring the +wealthier citizens, began to be at variance with the common people, who made +sad complaints of the rigorous and inhuman usage they received from the +money-lenders. For as many as were behind with them, and had any sort of +property, they stripped of all they had, by the way of pledges and sales; and +such as through former exactions were reduced already to extreme indigence, and +had nothing more to be deprived of, these they led away in person and put their +bodies under constraint, notwithstanding the scars and wounds that they could +show in attestation of their public services in numerous campaigns; the last of +which had been against the Sabines, which they undertook upon a promise made by +their rich creditors that they would treat them with more gentleness for the +future, Marcus Valerius, the consul, having, by order from the senate, engaged +also for the performance of it. But when, after they had fought courageously +and beaten the enemy, there was, nevertheless, no moderation or forbearance +used, and the senate also professed to remember nothing of that agreement, and +sat without testifying the least concern to see them dragged away like slaves +and their goods seized upon as formerly, there began now to be open disorders +and dangerous meetings in the city; and the enemy, also, aware of the popular +confusion, invaded and laid waste the country. And when the consuls now gave +notice, that all who were of an age to bear arms should make their personal +appearance, but found no one regard the summons, the members of the government, +then coming to consult what course should be taken, were themselves again +divided in opinion: some thought it most advisable to comply a little in favor +of the poor, by relaxing their overstrained rights, and mitigating the extreme +rigor of the law, while others withstood this proposal; Marcius in particular, +with more vehemence than the rest, alleging that the business of money on +either side was not the main thing in question, urged that this disorderly +proceeding was but the first insolent step towards open revolt against the +laws, which it would become the wisdom of the government to check at the +earliest moment. +</p> + +<p> +There had been frequent assemblies of the whole senate, within a small compass +of time, about this difficulty, but without any certain issue; the poor +commonalty, therefore, perceiving there was likely to be no redress of their +grievances, on a sudden collected in a body, and, encouraging each other in +their resolution, forsook the city with one accord and seizing the hill which +is now called the Holy Mount, sat down by the river Anio, without committing +any sort of violence or seditious outrage, but merely exclaiming, as they went +along, that they had this long time past been, in fact, expelled and excluded +from the city by the cruelty of the rich; that Italy would everywhere afford +them the benefit of air and water and a place of burial, which was all they +could expect in the city, unless it were, perhaps, the privilege of being +wounded and killed in time of war for the defense of their creditors. The +senate, apprehending the consequences, sent the most moderate and popular men +of their own order to treat with them. +</p> + +<p> +Menenius Agrippa, their chief spokesman, after much entreaty to the people, and +much plain speaking on behalf of the senate, concluded, at length, with the +celebrated fable. “It once happened,” he said, “that all the other members of a +man mutinied against the stomach, which they accused as the only idle, +uncontributing part in the whole body, while the rest were put to hardships and +the expense of much labor to supply and minister to its appetites. The stomach, +however, merely ridiculed the silliness of the members, who appeared not to be +aware that the stomach certainly does receive the general nourishment, but only +to return it again, and redistribute it amongst the rest. Such is the case,” he +said, “ye citizens, between you and the senate. The counsels and plans that are +there duly digested, convey and secure to all of you, your proper benefit and +support.” +</p> + +<p> +A reconciliation ensued, the senate acceding to the request of the people for +the annual election of five protectors for those in need of succor, the same +that are now called the tribunes of the people; and the first two they pitched +upon were Junius Brutus and Sicinnius Vellutus, their leaders in the secession. +</p> + +<p> +The city being thus united, the commons stood presently to their arms, and +followed their commanders to the war with great alacrity. As for Marcius, +though he was not a little vexed himself to see the populace prevail so far and +gain ground of the senators, and might observe many other patricians have the +same dislike of the late concessions, he yet besought them not to yield at +least to the common people in the zeal and forwardness they now allowed for +their country’s service, but to prove that they were superior to them, not so +much in power and riches as in merit and worth. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans were now at war with the Volscian nation, whose principal city was +Corioli; when, therefore, Cominius the consul had invested this important +place, the rest of the Volscians, fearing it would be taken, mustered up +whatever force they could from all parts, to relieve it, designing to give the +Romans battle before the city, and so attack them on both sides. Cominius, to +avoid this inconvenience, divided his army, marching himself with one body to +encounter the Volscians on their approach from without, and leaving Titus +Lartius, one of the bravest Romans of his time, to command the other and +continue the siege. Those within Corioli, despising now the smallness of their +number, made a sally upon them, and prevailed at first, and pursued the Romans +into their trenches. Here it was that Marcius, flying out with a slender +company, and cutting those in pieces that first engaged him, obliged the other +assailants to slacken their speed; and then, with loud cries, called upon the +Romans to renew the battle. For he had, what Cato thought a great point in a +soldier, not only strength of hand and stroke, but also a voice and look that +of themselves were a terror to an enemy. Divers of his own party now rallying +and making up to him, the enemies soon retreated; but Marcius, not content to +see them draw off and retire, pressed hard upon the rear, and drove them, as +they fled away in haste, to the very gates of their city; where, perceiving the +Romans to fall back from their pursuit, beaten off by the multitude of darts +poured in upon them from the walls, and that none of his followers had the +hardiness to think of falling in pellmell among the fugitives and so entering a +city full of enemies in arms, he, nevertheless, stood and urged them to the +attempt, crying out, that fortune had now set open Corioli, not so much to +shelter the vanquished, as to receive the conquerors. Seconded by a few that +were willing to venture with him, he bore along through the crowd, made good +his passage, and thrust himself into the gate through the midst of them, nobody +at first daring to resist him. But when the citizens, on looking about, saw +that a very small number had entered, they now took courage, and came up and +attacked them. A combat ensued of the most extraordinary description, in which +Marcius, by strength of hand, and swiftness of foot, and daring of soul, +overpowering every one that he assailed, succeeded in driving the enemy to seek +refuge, for the most part, in the interior of the town, while the remainder +submitted, and threw down their arms; thus affording Lartius abundant +opportunity to bring in the rest of the Romans with ease and safety. +</p> + +<p> +Corioli being thus surprised and taken, the greater part of the soldiers +employed themselves in spoiling and pillaging it, while Marcius indignantly +reproached them, and exclaimed that it was a dishonorable and unworthy thing, +when the consul and their fellow-citizens had now perhaps encountered the other +Volscians, and were hazarding their lives in battle, basely to misspend the +time in running up and down for booty, and, under a pretense of enriching +themselves, keep out of danger. Few paid him any attention, but, putting +himself at the head of these, he took the road by which the consul’s army had +marched before him, encouraging his companions, and beseeching them, as they +went along, not to give up, and praying often to the gods, too, that he might +be so happy as to arrive before the fight was over, and come seasonably up to +assist Cominius, and partake in the peril of the action. +</p> + +<p> +It was customary with the Romans of that age, when they were moving into battle +array, and were on the point of taking up their bucklers, and girding their +coats about them, to make at the same time an unwritten will, or verbal +testament, and to name who should be their heirs, in the hearing of three or +four witnesses. In this precise posture Marcius found them at his arrival, the +enemy being advanced within view. +</p> + +<p> +They were not a little disturbed by his first appearance, seeing him covered +with blood and sweat, and attended with a small train; but when he hastily made +up to the consul with gladness in his looks, giving him his hand, and +recounting to him how the city had been taken, and when they saw Cominius also +embrace and salute him, every one took fresh heart; those that were near enough +hearing, and those that were at a distance guessing, what had happened; and all +cried out to be led to battle. First, however, Marcius desired to know of him +how the Volscians had arrayed their army, and where they had placed their best +men, and on his answering that he took the troops of the Antiates in the center +to be their prime warriors, that would yield to none in bravery, “Let me then +demand and obtain of you,” said Marcius, “that we may be posted against them.” +The consul granted the request, with much admiration of his gallantry. And when +the conflict began by the soldiers darting at each other, and Marcius sallied +out before the rest, the Volscians opposed to him were not able to make head +against him; wherever he fell in, he broke their ranks, and made a lane through +them; but the parties turning again, and enclosing him on each side with their +weapons, the consul, who observed the danger he was in, dispatched some of the +choicest men he had for his rescue. The conflict then growing warm and sharp +about Marcius, and many falling dead in a little space, the Romans bore so hard +upon the enemies, and pressed them with such violence, that they forced them at +length to abandon their ground, and to quit the field. And, going now to +prosecute the victory, they besought Marcius, tired out with his toils, and +faint and heavy through the loss of blood, that he would retire to the camp. He +replied, however, that weariness was not for conquerors, and joined with them +in the pursuit. The rest of the Volscian army was in like manner defeated, +great numbers killed, and no less taken captive. +</p> + +<p> +The day after, when Marcius, with the rest of the army, presented themselves at +the consul’s tent, Cominius rose, and having rendered all due acknowledgment to +the gods for the success of that enterprise, turned next to Marcius, and first +of all delivered the strongest encomium upon his rare exploits, which he had +partly been an eyewitness of himself, in the late battle, and had partly +learned from the testimony of Lartius. And then he required him to choose a +tenth part of all the treasure and horses and captives that had fallen into +their hands, before any division should be made to others; besides which, he +made him the special present of a horse with trappings and ornaments, in honor +of his actions. The whole army applauded; Marcius, however, stepped forth, and +declaring his thankful acceptance of the horse, and his gratification at the +praises of his general, said, that all other things, which he could only regard +rather as mercenary advantages than any significations of honor, he must waive, +and should be content with the ordinary proportion of such rewards. “I have +only,” said he; “one special grace to beg, and this I hope you will not deny +me. There was a certain hospitable friend of mine among the Volscians, a man of +probity and virtue, who is become a prisoner, and from former wealth and +freedom is now reduced to servitude. Among his many misfortunes let my +intercession redeem him from the one of being sold as a common slave.” Such a +refusal and such a request on the part of Marcius were followed with yet louder +acclamations; and he had many more admirers of this generous superiority to +avarice, than of the bravery he had shown in battle. The very persons who +conceived some envy and despite to see him so specially honored, could not but +acknowledge, that one who so nobly could refuse reward, was beyond others +worthy to receive it; and were more charmed with that virtue which made him +despise advantage, than with any of those former actions that had gained him +his title to it. It is the hither accomplishment to use money well than to use +arms; but not to need it is more noble than to use it. +</p> + +<p> +When the noise of approbation and applause ceased, Cominius, resuming, said, +“It is idle, fellow-soldiers, to force and obtrude those other gifts of ours on +one who is unwilling to accept them ; let us, therefore, give him one of such a +kind that he cannot well reject it; let us pass a vote, I mean, that he shall +hereafter be called Coriolanus, unless you think that his performance at +Corioli has itself anticipated any such resolution.” Hence, therefore, he had +his third name of Coriolanus, making it all the plainer that Caius was a +personal proper name, and the second, or surname, Marcius, one common to his +house and family; the third being a subsequent addition which used to be +imposed either from some particular act or fortune, bodily characteristic, or +good quality of the bearer. Just as the Greeks, too, gave additional names in +old time, in some cases from some achievement, Soter, for example, and +Callinicus; or personal appearance, as Physcon and Grypus; good qualities, +Euergetes and Philadelphus; good fortune, Eudaemon, the title of the second +Battus. Several monarchs have also had names given them in mockery, as +Antigonus was called Doson, and Ptolemy, Lathyrus. This sort of title was yet +more common among the Romans. One of the Metelli was surnamed Diadematus, +because he walked about for a long time with a bandage on his head, to conceal +a scar; and another, of the same family, got the name of Celer, from the +rapidity he displayed in giving a funeral entertainment of gladiators within a +few days after his father’s death, his speed and energy in doing which was +thought extraordinary. There are some, too, who even at this day take names +from certain casual incidents at their nativity; a child that is born when his +father is away from home is called Proculus; or Postumus, if after his decease; +and when twins come into the world, and one dies at the birth, the survivor has +the name of Vopiscus. From bodily peculiarities they derive not only their +Syllas and Nigers, but their Caeci and Claudii; wisely endeavoring to accustom +their people not to reckon either the loss of sight, or any other bodily +misfortune, as a matter of disgrace to them, but to answer to such names +without shame, as if they were really their own. But this discussion better +befits another place. +</p> + +<p> +The war against the Volscians was no sooner at an end, than the popular orators +revived domestic troubles, and raised another sedition, without any new cause +of complaint or just grievance to proceed upon, but merely turning the very +mischiefs that unavoidably ensued from their former contests into a pretext +against the patricians. The greatest part of their arable land had been left +unsown and without tillage, and the time of war allowing them no means or +leisure to import provision from other countries, there was an extreme +scarcity. The movers of the people then observing, that there was no corn to be +bought, and that, if there had been, they had no money to buy it, began to +calumniate the wealthy with false stories, and whisper it about, as if they, +out of malice, had purposely contrived the famine. Meanwhile, there came an +embassy from the Velitrani, proposing to deliver up their city to the Romans, +and desiring they would send some new inhabitants to people it, as a late +pestilential disease had swept away so many of the natives, that there was +hardly a tenth part remaining of their whole community. This necessity of the +Velitrani was considered by all more prudent people as most opportune in the +present state of affairs; since the dearth made it needful to ease the city of +its superfluous members, and they were in hope also, at the same time, to +dissipate the gathering sedition by ridding themselves of the more violent and +heated partisans, and discharging, so to say, the elements of disease and +disorder in the state. The consuls, therefore, singled out such citizens to +supply the desolation at Velitrae, and gave notice to others, that they should +be ready to march against the Volscians, with the politic design of preventing +intestine broils by employment abroad, and in the hope, that when rich as well +as poor, plebeians and patricians, should be mingled again in the same army and +the same camp, and engage in one common service for the public, it would +mutually dispose them to reconciliation and friendship. +</p> + +<p> +But Sicinnius and Brutus, the popular orators, interposed, crying out, that the +consuls disguised the most cruel and barbarous action in the world under that +mild and plausible name of a colony, and were simply precipitating so many poor +citizens into a mere pit of destruction, bidding them settle down in a country +where the air was charged with disease, and the ground covered with dead +bodies, and expose themselves to the evil influence of a strange and angered +deity. And then, as if it would not satisfy their hatred to destroy some by +hunger, and offer others to the mercy of a plague, they must proceed to involve +them also in a needless war of their own making, that no calamity might be +wanting to complete the punishment of the citizens for refusing to submit to +that of slavery to the rich. +</p> + +<p> +By such addresses, the people were so possessed, that none of them would appear +upon the consular summons to be enlisted for the war; and they showed entire +aversion to the proposal for a new plantation; so that the senate was at a loss +what to say or do. But Marcius, who began now to bear himself higher and to +feel confidence in his past actions, conscious, too, of the admiration of the +best and greatest men of Rome, openly took the lead in opposing the favorers of +the people. The colony was dispatched to Velitrae, those that were chosen by +lot being compelled to depart upon high penalties; and when they obstinately +persisted in refusing to enroll themselves for the Volscian service, he +mustered up his own clients, and as many others as could be wrought upon by +persuasion, and with these made an inroad into the territories of the Antiates, +where, finding a considerable quantity of corn, and collecting much booty, both +of cattle and prisoners, he reserved nothing for himself in private, but +returned safe to Rome, while those that ventured out with him were seen laden +with pillage, and driving their prey before them. This sight filled those that +had stayed at home with regret for their perverseness, with envy at their +fortunate fellow-citizens, and with feelings of dislike to Marcius, and +hostility to his growing reputation and power, which might probably be used +against the popular interest. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after he stood for the consulship; when, however, the people began to +relent and incline to favor him, being sensible what a shame it would be to +repulse and affront a man of his birth and merit, after he had done them so +many signal services. It was usual for those who stood for offices among them +to solicit and address themselves personally to the citizens, presenting +themselves in the forum with the toga on alone, and no tunic under it; either +to promote their supplications by the humility of their dress, or that such as +had received wounds might more readily display those marks of their fortitude. +Certainly, it was not out of suspicion of bribery and corruption that they +required all such petitioners for their favor to appear ungirt and open, +without any close garment; as it was much later, and many ages after this, that +buying and selling crept in at their elections, and money became an ingredient +in the public suffrages; proceeding thence to attempt their tribunals, and even +attack their camps, till, by hiring the valiant, and enslaving iron to silver, +it grew master of the state, and turned their commonwealth into a monarchy. For +it was well and truly said that the first destroyer of the liberties of a +people is he who first gave them bounties and largesses. At Rome the mischief +seems to have stolen secretly in, and by little and little, not being at once +discerned and taken notice of. It is not certainly known who the man was that +did there first either bribe the citizens, or corrupt the courts; whereas, in +Athens, Anytus, the son of Anthemion, is said to have been the first that gave +money to the judges, when on his trial, toward the latter end of the +Peloponnesian war, for letting the fort of Pylos fall into the hands of the +enemy; in a period while the pure and golden race of men were still in +possession of the Roman forum. +</p> + +<p> +Marcius, therefore, as the fashion of candidates was showing the scars and +gashes that were still visible on his body, from the many conflicts in which he +had signalized himself during a service of seventeen years together they were, +so to say, put out of countenance at this display of merit, and told one +another that they ought in common modesty to create him consul. But when the +day of election was now come, and Marcius appeared in the forum, with a pompous +train of senators attending him; and the patricians all manifested greater +concern, and seemed to be exerting greater efforts, than they had ever done +before on the like occasion, the commons then fell off again from the kindness +they had conceived for him, and in the place of their late benevolence, began +to feel something of indignation and envy; passions assisted by the fear they +entertained, that if a man of such aristocratic temper, and so influential +among the patricians, should be invested with the power which that office would +give him, he might employ it to deprive the people of all that liberty which +was yet left them. In conclusion, they rejected Marcius. Two other names were +announced, to the great mortification of the senators, who felt as if the +indignity reflected rather upon themselves than on Marcius. He, for his part, +could not bear the affront with any patience. He had always indulged his +temper, and had regarded the proud and contentious element of human nature as a +sort of nobleness and magnanimity; reason and discipline had not imbued him +with that solidity and equanimity which enters so largely into the virtues of +the statesman. He had never learned how essential it is for any one who +undertakes public business, and desires to deal with mankind, to avoid above +all things that self-will, which, as Plato says, belongs to the family of +solitude; and to pursue, above all things, that capacity so generally +ridiculed, of submission to ill treatment. Marcius, straightforward and direct, +and possessed with the idea that to vanquish and overbear all apposition is the +true part of bravery, and never imagining that it was the weakness and +womanishness of his nature that broke out, so to say, in these ulcerations of +anger, retired, full of fury and bitterness against the people. The young +patricians, too, all that were proudest and most conscious of their noble +birth, had always been devoted to his interest, and, adhering to him now, with +a fidelity that did him no good, aggravated his resentment with the expression +of their indignation and condolence. He had been their captain, and their +willing instructor in the arts of war, when out upon expeditions, and their +model in that true emulation and love of excellence which makes men extol, +without envy or jealousy, each other’s brave achievements. +</p> + +<p> +In the midst of these distempers, a large quantity of corn reached Rome, a +great part bought up in Italy, but an equal amount sent as a present from +Syracuse, from Gelo, then reigning there. Many began now to hope well of their +affairs, supposing the city, by this means, would be delivered at once, both of +its want and discord. A council, therefore, being presently held, the people +came flocking about the senate-house, eagerly awaiting the issue of that +deliberation, expecting that the market prices would now be less cruel, and +that what had come as a gift would be distributed as such. There were some +within who so advised the senate; but Marcius, standing up, sharply inveighed +against those who spoke in favor of the multitude, calling them flatterers of +the rabble traitors to the nobility, and alleging, that, by such +gratifications, they did but cherish those ill seeds of boldness and petulance +that had been sown among the people, to their own prejudice, which they should +have done well to observe and stifle at their first appearance, and not have +suffered the plebeians to grow so strong, by granting them magistrates of such +authority as the tribunes. They were, indeed, even now formidable to the state, +since everything they desired was granted them; no constraint was put on their +will; they refused obedience to the consuls, and, overthrowing all law and +magistracy, gave the title of magistrate to their private factious leaders. +“When things are come to such a pass, for us to sit here and decree largesses +and bounties for them, like those Greeks where the populace is supreme and +absolute, what would it be else,” said he, “but to take their disobedience into +pay, and maintain it for the common ruin of us all? They certainly cannot look +upon these liberalities as a reward of public service, which they know they +have so often deserted; nor yet of those secessions, by which they openly +renounced their country; much less of the calumnies and slanders they have been +always so ready to entertain against the senate; but will rather conclude that +a bounty which seems to have no other visible cause or reason, must needs be +the effect of our fear and flattery; and will, therefore, set no limit to their +disobedience, nor ever cease from disturbances and sedition. Concession is mere +madness; if we have any wisdom and resolution at all, we shall, on the +contrary, never rest till we have recovered from them that tribunician power +they have extorted from us; as being a plain subversion of the consulship, and +a perpetual ground of separation in our city, that is no longer one, as +heretofore, but has in this received such a wound and rupture, as is never +likely to close and unite again, or suffer us to be of one mind, and to give +over inflaming our distempers, and being a torment to each other.” +</p> + +<p> +Marcius, with much more to this purpose, succeeded, to an extraordinary degree, +in inspiring the younger men with the same furious sentiments, and had almost +all the wealthy on his side, who cried him up as the only person their city +had, superior alike to force and flattery; some of the older men, however, +opposed him, suspecting the consequences. As, indeed, there came no good of it; +for the tribunes, who were present, perceiving how the proposal of Marcius +took, ran out into the crowd with exclamations, calling on the plebeians to +stand together, and come in to their assistance. The assembly met, and soon +became tumultuous. The sum of what Marcius had spoken, having been reported to +the people, excited them to such fury, that they were ready to break in upon +the senate. The tribunes prevented this, by laying all the blame on Coriolanus, +whom, therefore, they cited by their messengers to come before them, and defend +himself. And when he contemptuously repulsed the officers who brought him the +summons, they came themselves, with the Aediles, or overseers of the market, +proposing to carry him away by force, and, accordingly, began to lay hold on +his person. The patricians, however, coming to his rescue, not only thrust off +the tribunes, but also beat the Aediles, that were their seconds in the +quarrel; night, approaching, put an end to the contest. But, as soon as it was +day, the consuls, observing the people to be highly exasperated, and that they +ran from all quarters and gathered in the forum, were afraid for the whole +city, so that, convening the senate afresh, they desired them to advise how +they might best compose and pacify the incensed multitude by equitable language +and indulgent decrees; since, if they wisely considered the state of things, +they would find that it was no time to stand upon terms of honor, and a mere +point of glory; such a critical conjuncture called for gentle methods, and for +temperate and humane counsels. The majority, therefore, of the senators giving +way, the consuls proceeded to pacify the people in the best manner they were +able, answering gently to such imputations and charges as had been cast upon +the senate, and using much tenderness and moderation in the admonitions and +reproof they gave them. On the point of the price of provisions, they said, +there should be no difference at all between them. When a great part of the +commonalty was grown cool, and it appeared from their orderly and peaceful +behavior that they had been very much appeased by what they had heard, the +tribunes, standing up, declared, in the name of the people, that since the +senate was pleased to act soberly and do them reason, they, likewise, should be +ready to yield in all that was fair and equitable on their side; they must +insist, however, that Marcius should give in his answer to the several charges +as follows: first, could he deny that he instigated the senate to overthrow the +government and annul the privileges of the people? and, in the next place, when +called to account for it, did he not disobey their summons? and, lastly, by the +blows and other public affronts to the Aediles, had he not done all he could to +commence a civil war? +</p> + +<p> +These articles were brought in against him, with a design either to humble +Marcius, and show his submission if, contrary to his nature, he should now +court and sue the people; or, if he should follow his natural disposition, +which they rather expected from their judgment of his character, then that he +might thus make the breach final between himself and the people. +</p> + +<p> +He came, therefore, as it were, to make his apology, and clear himself; in +which belief the people kept silence, and gave him a quiet hearing. But when, +instead of the submissive and deprecatory language expected from him, he began +to use not only an offensive kind of freedom, seeming rather to accuse than +apologize, but, as well by the tone of his voice as the air of his countenance, +displayed a security that was not far from disdain and contempt of them, the +whole multitude then became angry, and gave evident signs of impatience and +disgust; and Sicinnius, the most violent of the tribunes, after a little +private conference with his colleagues, proceeded solemnly to pronounce before +them all, that Marcius was condemned to die by the tribunes of the people, and +bid the Aediles take him to the Tarpeian rock, and without delay throw him +headlong from the precipice. When they, however, in compliance with the order, +came to seize upon his body, many, even of the plebeian party, felt it to be a +horrible and extravagant act; the patricians, meantime, wholly beside +themselves with distress and horror, hurried up with cries to the rescue; and +while some made actual use of their hands to hinder the arrest, and, +surrounding Marcius, got him in among them, others, as in so great a tumult no +good could be done by words, stretched out theirs, beseeching the multitude +that they would not proceed to such furious extremities; and at length, the +friends and acquaintance of the tribunes, wisely perceiving how impossible it +would be to carry off Marcius to punishment without much bloodshed and +slaughter of the nobility, persuaded them to forbear everything unusual and +odious; not to dispatch him by any sudden violence, or without regular process, +but refer the cause to the general suffrage of the people. Sicinnius then, +after a little pause, turning to the patricians, demanded what their meaning +was, thus forcibly to rescue Marcius out of the people’s hands, as they were +going to punish him; when it was replied by them, on the other side, and the +question put, “Rather, how came it into your minds, and what is it you design, +thus to drag one of the worthiest men of Rome, without trial, to a barbarous +and illegal execution?” “Very well,” said Sicinnius, “you shall have no ground +in this respect for quarrel or complaint against the people. The people grant +your request, and your partisan shall be tried. We appoint you, Marcius,” +directing his speech to him, “the third market-day ensuing, to appear and +defend yourself, and to try if you can satisfy the Roman citizens of your +innocence, who will then judge your case by vote.” The patricians were content +with such a truce and respite for that time, and gladly returned home, having +for the present brought off Marcius in safety. +</p> + +<p> +During the interval before the appointed time (for the Romans hold their +sessions every ninth day, which from that cause are called nundinae in Latin), +a war fell out with the Antiates, likely to be of some continuance, which gave +them hope they might one way or other elude the judgment. The people, they +presumed, would become tractable, and their indignation lessen and languish by +degrees in so long a space, if occupation and war did not wholly put it out of +their mind. But when, contrary to expectation, they made a speedy agreement +with the people of Antium, and the army came back to Rome, the patricians were +again in great perplexity, and had frequent meetings to consider how things +might be arranged, without either abandoning Marcius, or yet giving occasion to +the popular orators to create new disorders. Appius Claudius, whom they counted +among the senators most averse to the popular interest, made a solemn +declaration, and told them beforehand, that the senate would utterly destroy +itself and betray the government, if they should once suffer the people to +assume the authority of pronouncing sentence upon any of the patricians; but +the oldest senators and most favorable to the people maintained, on the other +side, that the people would not be so harsh and severe upon them, as some were +pleased to imagine, but rather become more gentle and humane upon the +concession of that power, since it was not contempt of the senate, but the +impression of being contemned by it, which made them pretend to such a +prerogative. Let that be once allowed them as a mark of respect and kind +feeling, and the mere possession of this power of voting would at once +dispossess them of their animosity. +</p> + +<p> +When, therefore, Marcius saw that the senate was in pain and suspense upon his +account, divided, as it were, betwixt their kindness for him and their +apprehensions from the people, he desired to know of the tribunes what the +crimes were they intended to charge him with, and what the heads of the +indictment they would oblige him to plead to before the people; and being told +by them that he was to be impeached for attempting usurpation, and that they +would prove him guilty of designing to establish arbitrary government, stepping +forth upon this, “Let me go then,” he said, “to clear myself from that +imputation before an assembly of them; I freely offer myself to any sort of +trial, nor do I refuse any kind of punishment whatsoever; only,” he continued, +“let what you now mention be really made my accusation, and do not you play +false with the senate.” On their consenting to these terms, he came to his +trial. But when the people met together, the tribunes, contrary to all former +practice, extorted first, that votes should be taken, not by centuries, but +tribes; a change, by which the indigent and factious rabble, that had no +respect for honesty and justice, would be sure to carry it against those who +were rich and well known, and accustomed to serve the state in war. In the next +place, whereas they had engaged to prosecute Marcius upon no other head but +that of tyranny, which could never be made out against him, they relinquished +this plea, and urged instead, his language in the senate against an abatement +of the price of corn, and for the overthrow of the tribunician power; adding +further, as a new impeachment, the distribution that was made by him of the +spoil and booty he had taken from the Antiates, when he overran their country, +which he had divided among those that had followed him, whereas it ought rather +to have been brought into the public treasury; which last accusation did, they +say, more discompose Marcius than all the rest, as he had not anticipated he +should ever be questioned on that subject, and, therefore, was less provided +with any satisfactory answer to it on the sudden. And when, by way of excuse, +he began to magnify the merits of those who had been partakers with him in the +action, those that had stayed at home, being more numerous than the other, +interrupted him with outcries. In conclusion, when they came to vote, a +majority of three tribes condemned him; the penalty being perpetual banishment. +The sentence of his condemnation being pronounced, the people went away with +greater triumph and exultation than they had ever shown for any victory over +enemies; while the senate was in grief and deep dejection, repenting now and +vexed to the soul that they had not done and suffered all things rather than +give way to the insolence of the people, and permit them to assume and abuse so +great an authority. There was no need then to look at men’s dresses, or other +marks of distinction, to know one from another: any one who was glad was, +beyond all doubt, a plebeian; any one who looked sorrowful, a patrician. +</p> + +<p> +Marcius alone, himself, was neither stunned nor humiliated. In mien, carriage, +and countenance, he bore the appearance of entire composure, and while all his +friends were full of distress, seemed the only man that was not touched with +his misfortune. Not that either reflection taught him, or gentleness of temper +made it natural for him, to submit: he was wholly possessed, on the contrary, +with a profound and deep- seated fury, which passes with many for no pain at +all. And pain, it is true, transmuted, so to say, by its own fiery heat into +anger, loses every appearance of depression and feebleness; the angry man makes +a show of energy, as the man in a high fever does of natural heat, while, in +fact, all this action of the soul is but mere diseased palpitation, distention, +and inflammation. That such was his distempered state appeared presently +plainly enough in his actions. On his return home, after saluting his mother +and his wife, who were all in tears and full of loud lamentations, and +exhorting them to moderate the sense they had of his calamity, he proceeded at +once to the city gates, whither all the nobility came to attend him; and so, +not so much as taking anything with him, or making any request to the company, +he departed from them, having only three or four clients with him. He continued +solitary for a few days in a place in the country, distracted with a variety of +counsels, such as rage and indignation suggested to him; and proposing to +himself no honorable or useful end, but only how he might best satisfy his +revenge on the Romans, he resolved at length to raise up a heavy war against +them from their nearest neighbors. He determined, first to make trial of the +Volscians, whom he knew to be still vigorous and flourishing, both in men and +treasure, and he imagined their force and power was not so much abated, as +their spite and auger increased, by the late overthrows they had received from +the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +There was a man of Antium, called Tullus Aufidius, who, for his wealth and +bravery and the splendor of his family, had the respect and privilege of a king +among the Volscians, but whom Marcius knew to have a particular hostility to +himself, above all other Romans. Frequent menaces and challenges had passed in +battle between them, and those exchanges of defiance to which their hot and +eager emulation is apt to prompt young soldiers had added private animosity to +their national feelings of opposition. Yet for all this, considering Tullus to +have a certain generosity of temper, and knowing that no Volscian, so much as +he, desired an occasion to requite upon the Romans the evils they had done, he +did what much confirms the saying, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Hard and unequal is with wrath the strife,<br/> +Which makes us buy its pleasure with our life. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Putting on such a dress as would make him appear to any whom he might meet most +unlike what he really was, thus, like Ulysses, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The town he entered of his mortal foes. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +His arrival at Antium was about evening, and though several met him in the +streets, yet he passed along without being known to any, and went directly to +the house of Tullus, and, entering undiscovered, went up to the fire-hearth, +and seated himself there without speaking a word, covering up his head. Those +of the family could not but wonder, and yet they were afraid either to raise or +question him, for there was a certain air of majesty both in his posture and +silence, but they recounted to Tullus, being then at supper, the strangeness of +this accident. He immediately rose from table and came in, and asked him who he +was, and for what business he came thither; and then Marcius, unmuffling +himself, and pausing awhile, “If,” said he, “you cannot yet call me to mind, +Tullus, or do not believe your eyes concerning me, I must of necessity be my +own accuser. I am Caius Marcius, the author of so much mischief to the +Volscians; of which, were I seeking to deny it, the surname of Coriolanus I now +bear would be a sufficient evidence against me. The one recompense I received +for all the hardships and perils I have gone through, was the title that +proclaims my enmity to your nation, and this is the only thing which is still +left me. Of all other advantages, I have been stripped and deprived by the envy +and outrage of the Roman people, and the cowardice and treachery of the +magistrates and those of my own order. I am driven out as an exile, and become +an humble suppliant at your hearth, not so much for safety and protection +(should I have come hither, had I been afraid to die?), as to seek vengeance +against those that expelled me; which, methinks, I have already obtained, by +putting myself into your hands. If, therefore, you have really a mind to attack +your enemies, come then, make use of that affliction you see me in to assist +the enterprise, and convert my personal infelicity into a common blessing to +the Volscians; as, indeed, I am likely to be more serviceable in fighting for +than against you, with the advantage, which I now possess, of knowing all the +secrets of the enemy that I am attacking. But if you decline to make any +further attempts, I am neither desirous to live myself, nor will it be well in +you to preserve a person who has been your rival and adversary of old, and now, +when he offers you his service, appears unprofitable and useless to you.” +</p> + +<p> +Tullus, on hearing this, was extremely rejoiced, and giving him his right hand, +exclaimed, “Rise, Marcius, and be of good courage; it is a great happiness you +bring to Antium, in the present you make us of yourself; expect everything that +is good from the Volscians.” He then proceeded to feast and entertain him with +every display of kindness, and for several days after they were in close +deliberation together on the prospects of a war. +</p> + +<p> +While this design was forming, there were great troubles and commotions at +Rome, from the animosity of the senators against the people, heightened just +now by the late condemnation of Marcius. Besides that, their soothsayers and +priests, and even private persons, reported signs and prodigies not to be +neglected; one of which is stated to have occurred as follows: Titus Latinus, a +man of ordinary condition, but of a quiet and virtuous character, free from all +superstitious fancies, and yet more from vanity and exaggeration, had an +apparition in his sleep, as if Jupiter came and bade him tell the senate, that +it was with a bad and unacceptable dancer that they had headed his procession. +Having beheld the vision, he said, he did not much attend to it at the first +appearance; but after he had seen and slighted it a second and third time, he +had lost a hopeful son, and was himself struck with palsy. He was brought into +the senate on a litter to tell this, and the story goes, that he had no sooner +delivered his message there, but he at once felt his strength return, and got +upon his legs, and went home alone, without need of any support. The senators, +in wonder and surprise, made a diligent search into the matter. That which his +dream alluded to was this: some citizen had, for some heinous offense, given up +a servant of his to the rest of his fellows, with charge to whip him first +through the market, and then to kill him; and while they were executing this +command, and scourging the wretch, who screwed and turned himself into all +manner of shapes and unseemly motions, through the pain he was in, the solemn +procession in honor of Jupiter chanced to follow at their heels. Several of the +attendants on which were, indeed, scandalized at the sight, yet no one of them +interfered, or acted further in the matter than merely to utter some common +reproaches and execrations on a master who inflicted so cruel a punishment. For +the Romans treated their slaves with great humanity in these times, when, +working and laboring themselves, and living together among them, they naturally +were more gentle and familiar with them. It was one of the severest punishments +for a slave who had committed a fault, to have to take the piece of wood which +supports the pole of a wagon, and carry it about through the neighborhood; a +slave who had once undergone the shame of this, and been thus seen by the +household and the neighbors, had no longer any trust or credit among them, and +had the name of furcifer; furca being the Latin word for a prop, or support. +</p> + +<p> +When, therefore, Latinus had related his dream, and the senators were +considering who this disagreeable and ungainly dancer could be, some of the +company, having been struck with the strangeness of the punishment, called to +mind and mentioned the miserable slave who was lashed through the streets and +afterward put to death. The priests, when consulted, confirmed the conjecture; +the master was punished; and orders given for a new celebration of the +procession and the spectacles in honor of the god. Numa, in other respects also +a wise arranger of religious offices, would seem to have been especially +judicious in his direction, with a view to the attentiveness of the people, +that, when the magistrates or priests performed any divine worship, a herald +should go before, and proclaim with a loud voice, Hoc age, Do this you are +about, and so warn them to mind whatever sacred action they were engaged in, +and not suffer any business or worldly avocation to disturb and interrupt it; +most of the things which men do of this kind, being in a manner forced from +them, and effected by constraint. It is usual with the Romans to recommence +their sacrifices and processions and spectacles, not only upon such a cause as +this, but for any slighter reason. If but one of the horses which drew the +chariots called Tensae, upon which the images of their gods were placed, +happened to fail and falter, or if the driver took hold of the reins with his +left hand, they would decree that the whole operation should commence anew; +and, in latter ages, one and the same sacrifice was performed thirty times +over, because of the occurrence of some defect or mistake or accident in the +service. Such was the Roman reverence and caution in religious matters. +</p> + +<p> +Marcius and Tullus were now secretly discoursing of their project with the +chief men of Antium, advising them to invade the Romans while they were at +variance among themselves. And when shame appeared to hinder them from +embracing the motion, as they had sworn to a truce and cessation of arms for +the space of two years, the Romans themselves soon furnished them with a +pretense, by making proclamation, out of some jealousy or slanderous report, in +the midst of the spectacles, that all the Volscians who had come to see them +should depart the city before sunset. Some affirm that this was a contrivance +of Marcius, who sent a man privately to the consuls, falsely to accuse the +Volscians of intending to fall upon the Romans during the games, and to set the +city on fire. This public affront roused and inflamed their hostility to the +Romans, and Tullus, perceiving it, made his advantage of it, aggravating the +fact, and working on their indignation, till he persuaded them, at last, to +dispatch ambassadors to Rome, requiring the Romans to restore that part of +their country and those towns which they had taken from the Volscians in the +late war. When the Romans heard the message, they indignantly replied, that the +Volscians were the first that took up arms, but the Romans would be the last to +lay them down. This answer being brought back, Tullus called a general assembly +of the Volscians; and the vote passing for a war, he then proposed that they +should call in Marcius, laying aside the remembrance of former grudges, and +assuring themselves that the services they should now receive from him as a +friend and associate, would abundantly outweigh any harm or damage he had done +them when he was their enemy. Marcius was accordingly summoned, and having made +his entrance, and spoken to the people, won their good opinion of his capacity, +his skill, counsel, and boldness, not less by his present words than by his +past actions. They joined him in commission with Tullus, to have full power as +general of their forces in all that related to the war. And he, fearing lest +the time that would be requisite to bring all the Volscians together in full +preparation might be so long as to lose him the opportunity of action, left +order with the chief persons and magistrates of the city to provide other +things, while he himself, prevailing upon the most forward to assemble and +march out with him as volunteers without staying to be enrolled, made a sudden +inroad into the Roman confines, when nobody expected him, and possessed himself +of so much booty, that the Volscians found they had more than they could either +carry away or use in the camp. The abundance of provision which he gained, and +the waste and havoc of the country which he made, were, however, of themselves +and in his account, the smallest results of that invasion; the great mischief +he intended, and his special object in all, was to increase at Rome the +suspicions entertained of the patricians, and to make them upon worse terms +with the people. With this view, while spoiling all the fields and destroying +the property of other men, he took special care to preserve their farms and +lands untouched, and would not allow his soldiers to ravage there, or seize +upon anything which belonged to them. From hence their invectives and quarrels +against one another broke out afresh, and rose to a greater height than ever; +the senators reproaching those of the commonalty with their late injustice to +Marcius; while the plebeians, on their side, did not hesitate to accuse them of +having, out of spite and revenge, solicited him to this enterprise, and thus, +when others were involved in the miseries of a war by their means, they sat +like unconcerned spectators, as being furnished with a guardian and protector +abroad of their wealth and fortunes, in the very person of the public enemy. +After this incursion and exploit, which was of great advantage to the +Volscians, as they learned by it to grow more hardy and to contemn their enemy, +Marcius drew them off, and returned in safety. +</p> + +<p> +But when the whole strength of the Volscians was brought together into the +field, with great expedition and alacrity, it appeared so considerable a body, +that they agreed to leave part in garrison, for the security of their towns, +and with the other part to march against the Romans. Marcius now desired Tullus +to choose which of the two charges would be most agreeable to him. Tullus +answered, that since he knew Marcius to be equally valiant with himself, and +far more fortunate, he would have him take the command of those that were going +out to the war, while he made it his care to defend their cities at home, and +provide all conveniences for the army abroad. Marcius thus reinforced, and much +stronger than before, moved first towards the city called Circaeum, a Roman +colony. He received its surrender, and did the inhabitants no injury; passing +thence, he entered and laid waste the country of the Latins, where he expected +the Romans would meet him, as the Latins were their confederates and allies, +and had often sent to demand succors from them. The people, however, on their +part, showing little inclination for the service, and the consuls themselves +being unwilling to run the hazard of a battle, when the time of their office +was almost ready to expire, they dismissed the Latin ambassadors without any +effect; so that Marcius, finding no army to oppose him, marched up to their +cities, and, having taken by force Toleria, Lavici, Peda, and Bola, all of +which offered resistance, not only plundered their houses, but made a prey +likewise of their persons. Meantime, he showed particular regard for all such +as came over to his party, and, for fear they might sustain any damage against +his will, encamped at the greatest distance he could, and wholly abstained from +the lands of their property. +</p> + +<p> +After, however, that he had made himself master of Bola, a town not above ten +miles from Rome, where he found great treasure, and put almost all the adults +to the sword; and when, on this, the other Volscians that were ordered to stay +behind and protect their cities, hearing of his achievements and success, had +not patience to remain any longer at home, but came hastening in their arms to +Marcius, saying that he alone was their general and the sole commander they +would own; with all this, his name and renown spread throughout all Italy, and +universal wonder prevailed at the sudden and mighty revolution in the fortunes +of two nations which the loss and the accession of a single man had effected. +</p> + +<p> +All at Rome was in great disorder; they were utterly averse from fighting, and +spent their whole time in cabals and disputes and reproaches against each +other; until news was brought that the enemy had laid close siege to Lavinium, +where were the images and sacred things of their tutelar gods, and from whence +they derived the origin of their nation, that being the first city which Aeneas +built in Italy. These tidings produced a change as universal as it was +extraordinary in the thoughts inclinations of the people, but occasioned a yet +stranger revulsion of feeling among the patricians. The people now were for +repealing the sentence against Marcius, an calling him back into the city; +whereas the senate, being assembled to preconsider the decree, opposed and +finally rejected the proposal, either out of the mere humor of contradicting +and withstanding the people in whatever they should desire, or because they +were unwilling, perhaps, that he should owe his restoration to their kindness +or having now conceived a displeasure against Marcius himself, who was bringing +distress upon all alike, though he had not been ill treated by all, and was +become, declared enemy to his whole country, though he knew well enough that +the principal and all the better men condoled with him, and suffered in his +injuries. +</p> + +<p> +This resolution of theirs being made public, the people could proceed no +further, having no authority to pass anything by suffrage, and enact it for a +law, without a previous decree from the senate. When Marcius heard of this, he +was more exasperated than ever, and, quitting the seige of Lavinium, marched +furiously towards Rome, and encamped at a place called the Cluilian ditches, +about five miles from the city. The nearness of his approach did, indeed, +create much terror and disturbance, yet it also ended their dissensions for the +present; as nobody now, whether consul or senator, durst any longer contradict +the people in their design of recalling Marcius but, seeing their women running +affrighted up and down the streets, and the old men at prayer in every temple +with tears and supplications, and that, in short, there was a general absence +among them both of courage and wisdom to provide for their own safety, they +came at last to be all of one mind, that the people had been in the right to +propose as they did a reconciliation with Marcius, and that the senate was +guilty of a fatal error to begin a quarrel with him when it was a time to +forget offenses, and they should have studied rather to appease him. It was, +therefore, unanimously agreed by all parties, that ambassadors should be +dispatched, offering him return to his country, and desiring he would free them +from the terrors and distresses of the war. The persons sent by the senate with +this message were chosen out of his kindred and acquaintance, who naturally +expected a very kind reception at their first interview, upon the score of that +relation and their old familiarity and friendship with him; in which, however, +they were much mistaken. Being led through the enemy’s camp, they found him +sitting in state amidst the chief men of the Volscians, looking insupportably +proud and arrogant. He bade them declare the cause of their coming, which they +did in the most gentle and tender terms, and with a behavior suitable to their +language. When they had made an end of speaking, he returned them a sharp +answer, full of bitterness and angry resentment, as to what concerned himself, +and the ill usage he had received from them; but as general of the Volscians, +he demanded restitution of the cities and the lands which had been seized upon +during the late war, and that the same rights and franchises should be granted +them at Rome, which had been before accorded to the Latins; since there could +be no assurance that a peace would be firm and lasting, without fair and just +conditions on both sides. He allowed them thirty days to consider and resolve. +</p> + +<p> +The ambassadors being departed, he withdrew his forces out of the Roman +territory. This, those of the Volscians who had long envied his reputation, and +could not endure to see the influence he had with the people laid hold of, as +the first matter of complaint against him. Among them was also Tullus himself, +not for any wrong done him personally by Marcius, but through the weakness +incident to human nature. He could not help feeling mortified to find his own +glory thus totally obscured, and himself overlooked and neglected now by the +Volscians, who had so great an opinion of their new leader that he alone was +all to them, while other captains, they thought, should be content with that +share of power, which he might think fit to accord. From hence the first seeds +of complaint and accusation were scattered about in secret, and the malcontents +met and heightened each other’s indignation, saying, that to retreat as he did +was in effect to betray and deliver up, though not their cities and their arms, +yet what was as bad, the critical times and opportunities for action, on which +depend the preservation or the loss of everything else; since in less than +thirty days’ space, for which he had given a respite from the war, there might +happen the greatest changes in the world. Yet Marcius spent not any part of the +time idly, but attacked the confederates of the enemy ravaged their land, and +took from them seven great and populous cities in that interval. The Romans, in +the meanwhile, durst not venture out to their relief; but were utterly fearful, +and showed no more disposition or capacity for action, than if their bodies had +been struck with a palsy, and become destitute of sense and motion. But when +the thirty days were expired, and Marcius appeared again with his whole army, +they sent another embassy- to beseech him that he would moderate his +displeasure, and would withdraw the Volscian army, and then make any proposals +he thought best for both parties; the Romans would make no concessions to +menaces, but if it were his opinion that the Volscians ought to have any favor +shown them, upon laying down their arms they might obtain all they could in +reason desire. +</p> + +<p> +The reply of Marcius was, that he should make no answer to this as general of +the Volscians, but, in the quality still of a Roman citizen, he would advise +and exhort them, as the case stood, not to carry it so high, but think rather +of just compliance, and return to him, before three days were at an end, with a +ratification of his previous demands; otherwise, they must understand that they +could not have any further freedom of passing through his camp upon idle +errands. +</p> + +<p> +When the ambassadors were come back, and had acquainted the senate with the +answer, seeing the whole state now threatened as it were by a tempest, and the +waves ready to overwhelm them, they were forced, as we say in extreme perils, +to let down the sacred anchor. A decree was made, that the whole order of their +priests, those who initiated in the mysteries or had the custody of them, and +those who, according to the ancient practice of the country, divined from +birds, should all and every one of them go in full procession to Marcius with +their pontifical array, and the dress and habit which they respectively used in +their several functions, and should urge him, as before, to withdraw his +forces, and then treat with his countrymen in favor of the Volscians. He +consented so far, indeed, as to give the deputation an admittance into his +camp, but granted nothing at all, nor so much as expressed himself more mildly; +but, without capitulating or receding, bade them once for all choose whether +they would yield or fight, since the old terms were the only terms of peace. +When this solemn application proved ineffectual, the priests, too, returning +unsuccessful, they determined to sit still within the city, and keep watch +about their walls, intending only to repulse the enemy, should he offer to +attack them, and placing their hopes chiefly in time and in extraordinary +accidents of fortune; as to themselves, they felt incapable of doing any thing +for their own deliverance; mere confusion and terror and ill-boding reports +possessed the whole city; till at last a thing happened not unlike what we so +often find represented, without, however, being accepted as true by people in +general, in Homer. On some great and unusual occasion we find him say: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But him the blue-eyed goddess did inspire; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and elsewhere: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But some immortal turned my mind away,<br/> +To think what others of the deed would say; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and again: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Were ’t his own thought or were ’t a god’s command. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +People are apt, in such passages, to censure and disregard the poet, as if, by +the introduction of mere impossibilities and idle fictions, he were denying the +action of a man’s own deliberate thought and free choice; which is not, in the +least, the case in Homer’s representation, where the ordinary, probable, and +habitual conclusions that common reason leads to are continually ascribed to +our own direct agency. He certainly says frequently enough: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But I consulted with my own great soul; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +or, as in another passage: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He spoke. Achilles, with quick pain possessed,<br/> +Revolved two purposes in his strong breast; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and in a third: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— Yet never to her wishes won<br/> +The just mind of the brave Bellerophon. +</p> + +<p> +But where the act is something out of the way and extraordinary, and seems in a +manner to demand some impulse of divine possession and sudden inspiration to +account for it here he does introduce divine agency, not to destroy, but to +prompt the human will; not to create in us another agency, but offering images +to stimulate our own; images that in no sort or kind make our action +involuntary, but give occasion rather to spontaneous action, aided and +sustained by feelings of confidence and hope. For either we must totally +dismiss and exclude divine influences from every kind of causality and +origination in what we do, or else what other way can we conceive in which +divine aid and cooperation can act? Certainly we cannot suppose that the divine +beings actually and literally turn our bodies and direct our hands and our feet +this way or that, to do what is right: it is obvious that they must actuate the +practical and elective element of our nature, by certain initial occasions, by +images presented to the imagination, and thoughts suggested to the mind, such +either as to excite it to, or avert and withhold it from, any particular +course. +</p> + +<p> +In the perplexity which I have described, the Roman women went, some to other +temples, but the greater part, and the ladies of highest rank, to the altar of +Jupiter Capitolinus. Among these suppliants was Valeria, sister to the great +Poplicola, who did the Romans eminent service both in peace and war. Poplicola +himself was now deceased, as is told in the history of his life; but Valeria +lived still, and enjoyed great respect and honor at Rome, her life and conduct +no way disparaging her birth. She, suddenly seized with the sort of instinct or +emotion of mind which I have described, and happily lighting, not without +divine guidance, on the right expedient, both rose herself, and bade the others +rise, and went directly with them to the house of Volumnia, the mother of +Marcius. And coming in and finding her sitting with her daughter-in- law, and +with her little grandchildren on her lap, Valeria, then surrounded by her +female companions, spoke in the name of them all:— +</p> + +<p> +“We that now make our appearance, O Volumnia, and you, Vergilia, are come as +mere women to women, not by direction of the senate, or an order from the +consuls, or the appointment of any other magistrate; but the divine being +himself, as I conceive, moved to compassion by prayers, prompted us to visit +you in a body, and request a thing on which our own and the common safety +depends, and which, if you consent to it, will raise your glory above that of +the daughters of the Sabines, who won over their fathers and their husbands +from mortal enmity to peace and friendship. Arise and come with us to Marcius; +join in our supplication, and bear for your country this true and just +testimony on her behalf: that, notwithstanding the many mischiefs that have +been done her, yet she has never outraged you, nor so much as thought of +treating you ill, in all her resentment, but does now restore you safe into his +hands, though there be small likelihood she should obtain from him any +equitable terms.” +</p> + +<p> +The words of Valeria were seconded by the acclamations of the other women, to +which Volumnia made answer:— +</p> + +<p> +“I and Vergilia, my countrywomen, have an equal share with you all in the +common miseries, and we have the additional sorrow, which is wholly ours, that +we have lost the merit and good fame of Marcius, and see his person confined, +rather than protected, by the arms of the enemy. Yet I account this the +greatest of all misfortunes, if indeed the affairs of Rome be sunk to so feeble +a state as to have their last dependence upon us. For it is hardly imaginable +he should have any consideration left for us, when he has no regard for the +country which he was wont to prefer before his mother and wife and children. +Make use, however, of our service; and lead us, if you please, to him; we are +able, if nothing more, at least to spend our last breath in making suit to him +for our country.” +</p> + +<p> +Having spoken thus, she took Vergilia by the hand, and the young children, and +so accompanied them to the Volscian camp. So lamentable a sight much affected +the enemies themselves, who viewed them in respectful silence. Marcius was then +sitting in his place, with his chief officers about him, and, seeing the party +of women advance toward them, wondered what should be the matter; but +perceiving at length that his mother was at the head of them, he would fain +have hardened himself in his former inexorable temper, but, overcome by his +feelings, and confounded at what he saw, he did not endure they should approach +him sitting in state, but came down hastily to meet them, saluting his mother +first, and embracing her a long time, and then his wife and children, sparing +neither tears nor caresses, but suffering himself to be borne away and carried +headlong, as it were, by the impetuous violence of his passion. +</p> + +<p> +When he had satisfied himself, and observed that his mother Volumnia was +desirous to say something, the Volscian council being first called in, he heard +her to the following effect: “Our dress and our very persons, my son, might +tell you, though we should say nothing ourselves, in how forlorn a condition we +have lived at home since your banishment and absence from us; and now consider +with yourself, whether we may not pass for the most unfortunate of all women, +to have that sight, which should be the sweetest that we could see, converted, +through I know not what fatality, to one of all others the most formidable and +dreadful, — Volumnia to behold her son, and Vergilia her husband, in arms +against the walls of Rome. Even prayer itself, whence others gain comfort and +relief in all manner of misfortunes, is that which most adds to our confusion +and distress; since our best wishes are inconsistent with themselves, nor can +we at the same time petition the gods for Rome’s victory and your preservation, +but what the worst of our enemies would imprecate as a curse, is the very +object of our vows. Your wife and children are under the sad necessity, that +they must either be deprived of you, or of their native soil. As for myself, I +am resolved not to wait till war shall determine this alternative for me; but +if I cannot prevail with you to prefer amity and concord to quarrel and +hostility, and to be the benefactor to both parties, rather than the destroyer +of one of them, be assured of this from me, and reckon steadfastly upon it, +that you shall not be able to reach your country, unless you trample first upon +the corpse of her that brought you into life. For it will be ill in me to wait +and loiter in the world till the day come wherein I shall see a child of mine, +either led in triumph by his own countrymen, or triumphing over them. Did I +require you to save your country by ruining the Volscians, then, I confess, my +son, the case would be hard for you to solve. It is base to bring destitution +on our fellow- citizens; it is unjust to betray those who have placed their +confidence in us. But, as it is, we do but desire a deliverance equally +expedient for them and us; only more glorious and honorable on the Volscian +side, who, as superior in arms, will be thought freely to bestow the two +greatest of blessings, peace and friendship, even when they themselves receive +the same. If we obtain these, the common thanks will be chiefly due to you as +the principal cause; but if they be not granted, you alone must expect to bear +the blame from both nations. The chance of all war is uncertain, yet thus much +is certain in the present, that you, by conquering Rome, will only get the +reputation of having undone your country; but if the Volscians happen to be +defeated under your conduct, then the world will say, that, to satisfy a +revengeful humor, you brought misery on your friends and patrons.” +</p> + +<p> +Marcius listened to his mother while she spoke, without answering her a word; +and Volumnia, seeing him stand mute also for a long time after she had ceased, +resumed: “O my son,” said she, “what is the meaning of this silence? Is it a +duty to postpone everything to a sense of injuries, and wrong to gratify a +mother in a request like this? Is it the characteristic of a great man to +remember wrongs that have been done him, and not the part of a great and good +man to remember benefits such as those that children receive from parents, and +to requite them with honor and respect? You, methinks, who are so relentless in +the punishment of the ungrateful, should not be more careless than others to be +grateful yourself. You have punished your country already; you have not yet +paid your debt to me. Nature and religion, surely, unattended by any +constraint, should have won your consent to petitions so worthy and so just as +these; but if it must be so, I will even use my last resource.” Having said +this, she threw herself down at his feet, as did also his wife and children; +upon which Marcius, crying out, “O mother! what is it you have done to me?” +raised her up from the ground, and pressing her right hand with more than +ordinary vehemence, “You have gained a victory,” said he, “fortunate enough for +the Romans, but destructive to your son; whom you, though none else, have +defeated.” After which, and a little private conference with his mother and his +wife, he sent them back again to Rome, as they desired of him. +</p> + +<p> +The next morning, he broke up his camp, and led the Volscians homeward, +variously affected with what he had done; some of them complaining of him and +condemning his act, others, who were inclined to a peaceful conclusion, +unfavorable to neither. A third party, while much disliking his proceedings, +yet could not look upon Marcius as a treacherous person, but thought it +pardonable in him to be thus shaken and driven to surrender at last, under such +compulsion. None, however, opposed his commands; they all obediently followed +him, though rather from admiration of his virtue, than any regard they now had +to his authority. The Roman people, meantime, more effectually manifested how +much fear and danger they had been in while the war lasted, by their deportment +after they were freed from it. Those that guarded the walls had no sooner given +notice that the Volscians were dislodged and drawn off, but they set open all +their temples in a moment, and began to crown themselves with garlands and +prepare for sacrifice, as they were wont to do upon tidings brought of any +signal victory. But the joy and transport of the whole city was chiefly +remarkable in the honors and marks of affection paid to the women, as well by +the senate as the people in general; every one declaring that they were, beyond +all question, the instruments of the public safety. And the senate having +passed a decree that whatsoever they would ask in the way of any favor or honor +should be allowed and done for them by the magistrates, they demanded simply +that a temple might be erected to Female Fortune, the expense of which they +offered to defray out of their own contributions, if the city would be at the +cost of sacrifices, and other matters pertaining to the due honor of the gods, +out of the common treasury. The senate, much commending their public spirit, +caused the temple to be built and a statue set up in it at the public charge; +they, however, made up a sum among themselves, for a second image of Fortune, +which the Romans say uttered, as it was putting up, words to this effect, +“Blessed of the gods, O women, is your gift.” +</p> + +<p> +These words they profess were repeated a second time, expecting our belief for +what seems pretty nearly an impossibility. It may be possible enough, that +statues may seem to sweat, and to run with tears, and to stand with certain +dewy drops of a sanguine color; for timber and stones are frequently known to +contract a kind of scurf and rottenness, productive of moisture; and various +tints may form on the surfaces, both from within and from the action of the air +outside; and by these signs it is not absurd to imagine that the deity may +forewarn us. It may happen, also, that images and statues may sometimes make a +noise not unlike that of a moan or groan, through a rupture or violent internal +separation of the parts; but that an articulate voice, and such express words, +and language so clear and exact and elaborate, should proceed from inanimate +things, is, in my judgment, a thing utterly out of possibility. For it was +never known that either the soul of man, or the deity himself, uttered vocal +sounds and language, alone, without an organized body and members fitted for +speech. But where history seems in a manner to force our assent by the +concurrence of numerous and credible witnesses, we are to conclude that an +impression distinct from sensation affects the imaginative part of our nature, +and then carries away the judgment, so as to believe it to be a sensation: just +as in sleep we fancy we see and hear, without really doing either. Persons, +however, whose strong feelings of reverence to the deity, and tenderness for +religion, will not allow them to deny or invalidate anything of this kind, have +certainly a strong argument for their faith, in the wonderful and transcendent +character of the divine power; which admits no manner of comparison with ours, +either in its nature or its action, the modes or the strength of its +operations. It is no contradiction to reason that it should do things that we +cannot do, and effect what for us is impracticable: differing from us in all +respects, in its acts yet more than in other points we may well believe it to +be unlike us and remote from us. Knowledge of divine things for the most part, +as Heraclitus says, is lost to us by incredulity. +</p> + +<p> +When Marcius came back to Antium, Tullus, who thoroughly hated and greatly +feared him, proceeded at once to contrive how he might immediately dispatch +him; as, if he escaped now, he was never likely to give him such another +advantage. Having, therefore, got together and suborned several partisans +against him, he required Marcius to resign his charge, and give the Volscians +all account of his administration. He, apprehending the danger of a private +condition, while Tullus held the office of general and exercised the greatest +power among his fellow- citizens, made answer, that he was ready to lay down +his commission, whenever those from whose common authority he had received it, +should think fit to recall it; and that in the meantime he was ready to give +the Antiates satisfaction, as to all particulars of his conduct, if they were +desirous of it. +</p> + +<p> +An assembly was called, and popular speakers, as had been concerted, came +forward to exasperate and incense the multitude; but when Marcius stood up to +answer, the more unruly and tumultuous part of the people became quiet on a +sudden, and out of reverence allowed him to speak without the least +disturbance; while all the better people, and such as were satisfied with a +peace, made it evident by their whole behavior, that they would give him a +favorable hearing, and judge and pronounce according to equity. +</p> + +<p> +Tullus, therefore, began to dread the issue of the defense he was going to make +for himself; for he was an admirable speaker, and the former services he had +done the Volscians had procured and still preserved for him greater kindness +than could be outweighed by any blame for his late conduct. Indeed, the very +accusation itself was a proof and testimony of the greatness of his merits, +since people could never have complained or thought themselves wronged, because +Rome was not brought into their power, but that by his means they had come so +near to taking it. For these reasons, the conspirators judged it prudent not to +make any further delays, nor to test the general feeling; but the boldest of +their faction, crying out that they ought not to listen to a traitor, nor allow +him still to retain office and play the tyrant among them, fell upon Marcius in +a body, and slew him there, none of those that were present offering to defend +him. But it quickly appeared that the action was in nowise approved by the +majority of the Volscians, who hurried out of their several cities to show +respect to his corpse; to which they gave honorable interment, adorning his +sepulchre with arms and trophies, as the monument of a noble hero and a famous +general. When the Romans heard tidings of his death, they gave no other +signification either of honor or of anger towards him, but simply granted the +request of the women, that they might put themselves into mourning and bewail +him for ten months, as the usage was upon the loss of a father or a son or a +brother; that being the period fixed for the longest lamentation by the laws of +Numa Pompilius, as is more amply told in the account of him. +</p> + +<p> +Marcius was no sooner deceased, but the Volscians felt the need of his +assistance. They quarreled first with the Aequians, their confederates and +their friends, about the appointment of the general of their joint forces, and +carried their dispute to the length of bloodshed and slaughter; and were then +defeated by the Romans in a pitched battle, where not only Tullus lost his +life, but the principal flower of their whole army was cut in pieces; so that +they were forced to submit and accept of peace upon very dishonorable terms, +becoming subjects of Rome, and pledging themselves to submission. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap17"></a>COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES WITH CORIOLANUS</h2> + +<p> +Having described all their actions that seem to deserve commemoration, their +military ones, we may say, incline the balance very decidedly upon neither +side. They both, in pretty equal measure, displayed on numerous occasions the +daring and courage of the soldier, and the skill and foresight of the general; +unless, indeed, the fact that Alcibiades was victorious and successful in many +contests both by sea and land, ought to gain him the title of a more complete +commander. That so long as they remained and held command in their respective +countries, they eminently sustained, and when they were driven into exile, yet +more eminently damaged the fortunes of those countries, is common to both. All +the sober citizens felt disgust at the petulance, the low flattery, and base +seductions which Alcibiades, in his public life, allowed himself to employ with +the view of winning the people’s favor; and the ungraciousness, pride, and +oligarchical haughtiness which Marcius, on the other hand, displayed in his, +were the abhorrence of the Roman populace. Neither of these courses can be +called commendable; but a man who ingratiates himself by indulgence and +flattery, is hardly so censurable as one who, to avoid the appearance of +flattering, insults. To seek power by servility to the people is a disgrace, +but to maintain it by terror, violence, and oppression, is not a disgrace only, +but an injustice. +</p> + +<p> +Marcius, according to our common conceptions of his character, was undoubtedly +simple and straightforward; Alcibiades, unscrupulous as a public man, and +false. He is more especially blamed for the dishonorable and treacherous way in +which, as Thucydides relates, he imposed upon the Lacedaemonian ambassadors, +and disturbed the continuance of the peace. Yet this policy, which engaged the +city again in war, nevertheless placed it in a powerful and formidable +position, by the accession, which Alcibiades obtained for it, of the alliance +of Argos and Mantinea. And Coriolanus also, Dionysius relates, used unfair +means to excite war between the Romans and the Volscians, in the false report +which he spread about the visitors at the Games; and the motive of this action +seems to make it the worse of the two; since it was not done, like the other, +out of ordinary political jealousy, strife, and competition. Simply to gratify +anger, from which, as Ion says, no one ever yet got any return, he threw whole +districts of Italy into confusion, and sacrificed to his passion against his +country numerous innocent cities. It is true, indeed, that Alcibiades also, by +his resentment, was the occasion of great disasters to his country, but he +relented as soon as he found their feelings to be changed; and after he was +driven out a second time, so far from taking pleasure in the errors and +inadvertencies of their commanders, or being indifferent to the danger they +were thus incurring, he did the very thing that Aristides is so highly +commended for doing to Themistocles: he came to the generals who were his +enemies, and pointed out to them what they ought to do. Coriolanus, on the +other hand, first of all attacked the whole body of his countrymen, though only +one portion of them had done him any wrong, while the other, the better and +nobler portion, had actually suffered, as well as sympathized, with him. And, +secondly, by the obduracy with which he resisted numerous embassies and +supplications, addressed in propitiation of his single anger and offense, he +showed that it had been to destroy and overthrow, not to recover and regain his +country, that he had excited bitter and implacable hostilities against it. +There is, indeed, one distinction that may be drawn. Alcibiades, it may be +said, was not safe among the Spartans, and had the inducements at once of fear +and of hatred to lead him again to Athens; whereas Marcius could not honorably +have left the Volscians, when they were behaving so well to him: he, in the +command of their forces and the enjoyment of their entire confidence, was in a +very different position from Alcibiades, whom the Lacedaemonians did not so +much wish to adopt into their service, as to use, and then abandon. Driven +about from house to house in the city, and from general to general in the camp, +the latter had no resort but to place himself in the hands of Tisaphernes; +unless, indeed, we are to suppose that his object in courting favor with him +was to avert the entire destruction of his native city, whither he wished +himself to return. +</p> + +<p> +As regards money, Alcibiades, we are told, was often guilty of procuring it by +accepting bribes, and spent it in in luxury and dissipation. Coriolanus +declined to receive it, even when pressed upon him by his commanders as all +honor; and one great reason for the odium he incurred with the populace in the +discussions about their debts was, that he trampled upon the poor, not for +money’s sake, but out of pride and insolence. +</p> + +<p> +Antipater, in a letter written upon the death of Aristotle the philosopher, +observes, “Amongst his other gifts he had that of persuasiveness;” and the +absence of this in the character of Marcius made all his great actions and +noble qualities unacceptable to those whom they benefited: pride, and +self-will, the consort, as Plato calls it, of solitude, made him insufferable. +With the skill which Alcibiades on the contrary, possessed to treat every one +in the way most agreeable to him, we cannot wonder that all his successes were +attended with the most exuberant favor and honor; his very errors, at times, +being accompanied by something of grace and felicity. And so, in spite of great +and frequent hurt that he had done the city, he was repeatedly appointed to +office and command; while Coriolanus stood in vain for a place which his great +services had made his due. The one, in spite of the harm he occasioned, could +not make himself hated, nor the other, with all the admiration he attracted, +succeed in being beloved by his countrymen. +</p> + +<p> +Coriolanus, moreover, it should be said, did not as a general obtain any +successes for his country, but only for his enemies against his country. +Alcibiades was often of service to Athens, both as a soldier and as a +commander. So long as he was personally present, he had the perfect mastery of +his political adversaries; calumny only succeeded in his absence. Coriolanus +was condemned in person at Rome; and in like manner killed by the Volscians, +not indeed with any right or justice, yet not without some pretext occasioned +by his own acts; since, after rejecting all conditions of peace in public, in +private he yielded to the solicitations of the women, and, without establishing +peace, threw up the favorable chances of war. He ought, before retiring, to +have obtained the consent of those who had placed their trust in him; if indeed +he considered their claims on him to be the strongest. Or, if we say that he +did not care about the Volscians, but merely had prosecuted the war, which he +now abandoned, for the satisfaction of his own resentment, then the noble thing +would have been, not to spare his country for his mother’s sake, but his mother +in and with his country; since both his mother and his wife were part and +parcel of that endangered country. After harshly repelling public +supplications, the entreaties of ambassadors, and the prayers of priests, to +concede all as a private favor to his mother was less an honor to her than a +dishonor to the city which thus escaped, in spite, it would seem, of its own +demerits, through the intercession of a single woman. Such a grace could, +indeed, seem merely invidious, ungracious, and unreasonable in the eyes of both +parties; he retreated without listening to the persuasions of his opponents, or +asking the consent of his friends. The origin of all lay in his unsociable, +supercilious, and self-willed disposition, which, in all cases, is offensive to +most people; and when combined with a passion for distinction passes into +absolute savageness and mercilessness. Men decline to ask favors of the people, +professing not to need any honors from them; and then are indignant if they do +not obtain them. Metellus, Aristides, and Epaminondas certainly did not beg +favors of the multitude; but that was because they, in real truth, did not +value the gifts which a popular body can either confer or refuse; and when they +were more than once driven into exile, rejected at elections, and condemned in +courts of justice, they showed no resentment at the ill-humor of their +fellow-citizens, but were willing and contented to return and be reconciled +when the feeling altered and they were wished for. He who least likes courting +favor, ought also least to think of resenting neglect: to feel wounded at being +refused a distinction can only arise from an overweening appetite to have it. +</p> + +<p> +Alcibiades never professed to deny that it was pleasant to him to be honored, +and distasteful to him to be overlooked; and, accordingly, he always tried to +place himself upon good terms with all that he met; Coriolanus’s pride forbade +him to pay attentions to those who could have promoted his advancement, and yet +his love of distinction made him feel hurt and angry when he was disregarded. +Such are the faulty parts of his character, which in all other respects was a +noble one. For his temperance, continence, and probity, he might claim to be +compared with the best and purest of the Greeks; not in any sort or kind with +Alcibiades, the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human beings in +all these points. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap18"></a>TIMOLEON</h2> + +<p> +It was for the sake of others that I first commenced writing biographies; but I +find myself proceeding and attaching myself to it for my own; the virtues of +these great men serving me as a sort of looking-glass, in which I may see how +to adjust and adorn my own life. Indeed, it can be compared to nothing but +daily living and associating together; we receive, as it were, in our inquiry, +and entertain each successive guest, view +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Their stature and their qualities, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and select from their actions all that is noblest and worthiest to know. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Ah, and what greater pleasure could one have? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +or, what more effective means to one’s moral improvement? Democritus tells us +we ought to pray that of the phantasms appearing in the circumambient air, such +may present themselves to us as are propitious, and that we may rather meet +with those that are agreeable to our natures and are good, than the evil and +unfortunate; which is simply introducing into philosophy a doctrine untrue in +itself, and leading to endless superstitions. My method, on the contrary, is, +by the study of history, and by the familiarity acquired in writing, to +habituate my memory to receive and retain images of the best and worthiest +characters. I thus am enabled to free myself from any ignoble, base, or vicious +impressions, contracted from the contagion of ill company that I may be +unavoidably engaged in, by the remedy of turning my thoughts in a happy and +calm temper to view these noble examples. Of this kind are those of Timoleon +the Corinthian, and Paulus Aemilius, to write whose lives is my present +business; men equally famous, not only for their virtues, but success; insomuch +that they have left it doubtful whether they owe their greatest achievements to +good fortune, or their own prudence and conduct. +</p> + +<p> +The affairs of the Syracusans, before Timoleon was sent into Sicily, were in +this posture: after Dion had driven out Dionysius the tyrant, he was slain by +treachery, and those that had assisted him in delivering Syracuse were divided +among themselves; and thus the city, by a continual change of governors, and a +train of mischiefs that succeeded each other, became almost abandoned; while of +the rest of Sicily, part was now utterly depopulated and desolate through long +continuance of war, and most of the cities that had been left standing were in +the hands of barbarians and soldiers out of employment, that were ready to +embrace every turn of government. Such being the state of things, Dionysius +takes the opportunity, and in the tenth year of his banishment, by the help of +some mercenary troops he had got together, forces out Nysaeus, then master of +Syracuse, recovers all afresh, and is again settled in his dominion; and as at +first he had been strangely deprived of the greatest and most absolute power +that ever was, by a very small party, so now in a yet stranger manner; when in +exile and of mean condition, he became the sovereign of those who had ejected +him. All, therefore, that remained in Syracuse, had to serve under a tyrant, +who at the best was of an ungentle nature, and exasperated now to a degree of +savageness by the late misfortunes and calamities he had suffered. The better +and more distinguished citizens, having timely retired thence to Hicetes, ruler +of the Leontines, put themselves under his protection, and chose him for their +general in the war; not that he was much preferable to any open and avowed +tyrant; but they had no other sanctuary at present, and it gave them some +ground of confidence, that he was of a Syracusan family, and had forces able to +encounter those of Dionysius. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, the Carthaginians appeared before Sicily with a great navy, +watching when and where they might make a descent upon the island; and terror +at this fleet made the Sicilians incline to send an embassy into Greece to +demand succors from the Corinthians, whom they confided in rather than others, +not only upon the account of their near kindred, and the great benefits they +had often received by trusting them, but because Corinth had ever shown herself +attached to freedom and averse from tyranny, and had engaged in many noble +wars, not for empire or aggrandizement, but for the sole liberty of the Greeks. +But Hicetes, who made it the business of his command not so much to deliver the +Syracusans from other tyrants, as to enslave them to himself, had already +entered into some secret conferences with those of Carthage, while in public he +commended the design of his Syracusan clients, and dispatched ambassadors from +himself, together with theirs, into Peloponnesus; not that he really desired +any relief to come from there, but, in case the Corinthians, as was likely +enough, on account of the troubles of Greece and occupation at home, should +refuse their assistance, hoping then he should be able with less difficulty to +dispose and incline things for the Carthaginian interest, and so make use of +these foreign pretenders, as instruments and auxiliaries for himself, either +against the Syracusans or Dionysius, as occasion served. This was discovered a +while after. +</p> + +<p> +The ambassadors being arrived, and their request known, the Corinthians, who +had always a great concern for all their colonies and plantations, but +especially for Syracuse, since by good fortune there was nothing to molest them +in their own country, where they were enjoying peace and leisure at that time, +readily and with one accord passed a vote for their assistance. And when they +were deliberating about the choice of a captain for the expedition, and the +magistrates were urging the claims of various aspirants for reputation, one of +the crowd stood up and named Timoleon, son of Timodemus, who had long absented +himself from public business, and had neither any thoughts of, nor the least +pretension to, an employment of that nature. Some god or other, it might rather +seem, had put it in the man’s heart to mention him; such favor and good-will on +the part of Fortune seemed at once to be shown in his election, and to +accompany all his following actions, as though it were on purpose to commend +his worth, and add grace and ornament to his personal virtues. As regards his +parentage, both Timodemus his father, and his mother Demariste, were of high +rank in the city; and as for himself, he was noted for his love of his country, +and his gentleness of temper, except in his extreme hatred to tyrants and +wicked men. His natural abilities for war were so happily tempered, that while +a rare prudence might be seen in all the enterprises of his younger years, an +equal courage showed itself in the last exploits of his declining age. He had +an elder brother, whose name was Timophanes, who was every way unlike him, +being indiscreet and rash, and infected by the suggestions of some friends and +foreign soldiers, whom he kept always about him, with a passion for absolute +power. He seemed to have a certain force and vehemence in all military service, +and even to delight in dangers, and thus he took much with the people, and was +advanced to the highest charges, as a vigorous and effective warrior; in the +obtaining of which offices and promotions, Timoleon much assisted him, helping +to conceal or at least to extenuate his errors, embellishing by his praise +whatever was commendable in him, and setting off his good qualities to the best +advantage. +</p> + +<p> +It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against the forces of +Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the infantry, when Timophanes, +commanding their cavalry, was brought into extreme danger; as his horse being +wounded fell forward, and threw him headlong amidst the enemies, while part of +his companions dispersed at once in a panic, and the small number that +remained, bearing up against a great multitude, had much ado to maintain any +resistance. As soon, therefore, as Timoleon was aware of the accident, he ran +hastily in to his brother’s rescue, and covering the fallen Timophanes with his +buckler, after having received abundance of darts, and several strokes by the +sword upon his body and his armor, he at length with much difficulty obliged +the enemies to retire, and brought off his brother alive and safe. But when the +Corinthians, for fear of losing their city a second time, as they had once +before, by admitting their allies, made a decree to maintain four hundred +mercenaries for its security, and gave Timophanes the command over them, he, +abandoning all regard to honor and equity, at once proceeded to put into +execution his plans for making himself absolute, and bringing the place under +his own power; and having cut off many principal citizens, uncondemned and +without trial, who were most likely to hinder his design, he declared himself +tyrant of Corinth; a procedure that infinitely afflicted Timoleon, to whom the +wickedness of such a brother appeared to be his own reproach and calamity. He +undertook to persuade him by reasoning, that, desisting from that wild and +unhappy ambition, he would bethink himself how he should make the Corinthians +some amends, and find out an expedient to remedy and correct the evils he had +done them. When his single admonition was rejected and contemned by him, he +makes a second attempt, taking with him Aeschylus his kinsman, brother to the +wife of Timophanes, and a certain diviner, that was his friend, whom Theopompus +in his history calls Satyrus, but Ephorus and Timaeus mention in theirs by the +name of Orthagoras. After a few days, then, he returns to his brother with this +company, all three of them surrounding and earnestly importuning him upon the +same subject, that now at length he would listen to reason, and be of another +mind. But when Timophanes began first to laugh at the men’s simplicity, and +presently broke out into rage and indignation against them, Timoleon stepped +aside from him and stood weeping with his face covered, while the other two, +drawing out their swords, dispatched him in a moment. +</p> + +<p> +On the rumor of this act being soon scattered about, the better and more +generous of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the hatred of wrong +and the greatness of soul that had made him, though of a gentle disposition and +full of love and kindness for his family, think the obligations to his country +stronger than the ties of consanguinity, and prefer that which is good and just +before gain and interest and his own particular advantage. For the same +brother, who with so much bravery had been saved by him when he fought +valiantly in the cause of Corinth, he had now as nobly sacrificed for enslaving +her afterward by a base and treacherous usurpation. But then, on the other +side, those that knew not how to live in a democracy, and had been used to make +their humble court to the men of power, though they openly professed to rejoice +at the death of the tyrant, nevertheless, secretly reviling Timoleon, as one +that had committed an impious and abominable act, drove him into melancholy and +dejection. And when he came to understand how heavily his mother took it, and +that she likewise uttered the saddest complaints and most terrible imprecations +against him, he went to satisfy and comfort her as to what had happened; and +finding that she would not endure so much as to look upon him, but caused her +doors to be shut, that he might have no admission into her presence, with grief +at this he grew so disordered in his mind and so disconsolate, that he +determined to put an end to his perplexity with his life, by abstaining from +all manner of sustenance. But through the care and diligence of his friends, +who were very instant with him, and added force to their entreaties, he came to +resolve and promise at last, that he would endure living, provided it might be +in solitude, and remote from company; so that, quitting all civil transactions +and commerce with the world, for a long while after his first retirement he +never came into Corinth, but wandered up and down the fields, full of anxious +and tormenting thoughts, and spent his time in desert places, at the farthest +distance from society and human intercourse. So true it is that the minds of +men are easily shaken and carried off from their own sentiments through the +casual commendation or reproof of others, unless the judgments that we make, +and the purposes we conceive, be confirmed by reason and philosophy, and thus +obtain strength and steadiness. An action must not only be just and laudable in +its own nature, but it must proceed likewise from solid motives and a lasting +principle, that so we may fully and constantly approve the thing, and be +perfectly satisfied in what we do; for otherwise, after having put our +resolution into practice, we shall out of pure weakness come to be troubled at +the performance, when the grace and goodliness, which rendered it before so +amiable and pleasing to us, begin to decay and wear out of our fancy; like +greedy people, who, seizing on the more delicious morsels of any dish with a +keen appetite, are presently disgusted when they grow full, and find themselves +oppressed and uneasy now by what they before so greedily desired. For a +succeeding dislike spoils the best of actions, and repentance makes that which +was never so well done, become base and faulty; whereas the choice that is +founded upon knowledge and wise reasoning, does not change by disappointment, +or suffer us to repent, though it happen perchance to be less prosperous in the +issue. And thus Phocion, of Athens, having always vigorously opposed the +measures of Leosthenes, when success appeared to attend them, and he saw his +countrymen rejoicing and offering sacrifice in honor of their victory, “I +should have been as glad,” said he to them, “that I myself had been the author +of what Leosthenes has achieved for you, as I am that I gave you my own counsel +against it.” A more vehement reply is recorded to have been made by Aristides +the Locrian, one of Plato’s companions, to Dionysius the elder, who demanded +one of his daughters in marriage: “I had rather,” said he to him, “see the +virgin in her grave, than in the palace of a tyrant.” And when Dionysius, +enraged at the affront, made his sons be put to death a while after, and then +again insultingly asked, whether he were still in the same mind as to the +disposal of his daughters, his answer was, “I cannot but grieve at the cruelty +of your deeds, but am not sorry for the freedom of my own words.” Such +expressions as these may belong perhaps to a more sublime and accomplished +virtue. +</p> + +<p> +The grief, however, of Timoleon at what had been done, whether it arose from +commiseration of his brother’s fate, or the reverence he bore his mother, so +shattered and broke his spirits, that for the space of almost twenty years, he +had not offered to concern himself in any honorable or public action. When, +therefore, he was pitched upon for a general, and joyfully accepted as such by +the suffrages of the people, Teleclides, who was at that time the most powerful +and distinguished man in Corinth, began to exhort him that he would act now +like a man of worth and gallantry: “For,” said he, “if you do bravely in this +service, we shall believe that you delivered us from a tyrant; but if +otherwise, that you killed your brother.” While he was yet preparing to set +sail, and enlisting soldiers to embark with him, there came letters to the +Corinthians from Hicetes, plainly disclosing his revolt and treachery. For his +ambassadors were no sooner gone for Corinth, but he openly joined the +Carthaginians, negotiating that they might assist him to throw out Dionysius, +and become master of Syracuse in his room. And fearing he might be disappointed +of his aim, if troops and a commander should come from Corinth before this were +effected, he sent a letter of advice thither, in all haste, to prevent their +setting out, telling them they need not be at any cost and trouble upon his +account, or run the hazard of a Sicilian voyage, especially since the +Carthaginians, alliance with whom against Dionysius the slowness of their +motions had compelled him to embrace, would dispute their passage, and lay in +wait to attack them with a numerous fleet. This letter being publicly read, if +any had been cold and indifferent before as to the expedition in hand, the +indignation they now conceived against Hicetes so exasperated and inflamed them +all, that they willingly contributed to supply Timoleon, and endeavored, with +one accord, to hasten his departure. +</p> + +<p> +When the vessels were equipped, and his soldiers every way provided for, the +female priests of Proserpina had a dream or vision, wherein she and her mother +Ceres appeared to them in a traveling garb, and were heard to say that they +were going to sail with Timoleon into Sicily; whereupon the Corinthians, having +built a sacred galley, devoted it to them, and called it the galley of the +goddesses. Timoleon went in person to Delphi, where he sacrificed to Apollo, +and, descending into the place of prophecy, was surprised with the following +marvelous occurrence. A riband with crowns and figures of victory embroidered +upon it, slipped off from among the gifts that were there consecrated and hung +up in the temple, and fell directly down upon his head; so that Apollo seemed +already to crown him with success, and send him thence to conquer and triumph. +He put to sea only with seven ships of Corinth, two of Corcyra, and a tenth +which was furnished by the Leucadians; and when he was now entered into the +deep by night, and carried with a prosperous gale, the heaven seemed all on a +sudden to break open, and a bright spreading flame to issue forth from it, and +hover over the ship he was in; and, having formed itself into a torch, not +unlike those that are used in the mysteries, it began to steer the same course, +and run along in their company, guiding them by its light to that quarter of +Italy where they designed to go ashore. The soothsayers affirmed, that this +apparition agreed with the dream of the holy women, since the goddesses were +now visibly joining in the expedition, and sending this light from heaven +before them: Sicily being thought sacred to Proserpina, as poets feign that the +rape was committed there, and that the island was given her in dowry when she +married Pluto. +</p> + +<p> +These early demonstrations of divine favor greatly encouraged his whole army; +so that, making all the speed they were able, by a voyage across the open sea, +they were soon passing along the coast of Italy. But the tidings that came from +Sicily much perplexed Timoleon, and disheartened his soldiers. For Hicetes, +having already beaten Dionysius out of the field, and reduced most of the +quarters of Syracuse itself, now hemmed him in and besieged him in the citadel +and what is called the Island, whither he was fled for his last refuge; while +the Carthaginians, by agreement, were to make it their business to hinder +Timoleon from landing in any port of Sicily; so that he and his party being +driven back, they might with ease and at their own leisure divide the island +among themselves. In pursuance of which design, the Carthaginians sent away +twenty of their galleys to Rhegium, having aboard them certain ambassadors from +Hicetes to Timoleon, who carried instructions suitable to these proceedings, +specious amusements and plausible stories, to color and conceal dishonest +purposes. They had order to propose and demand that Timoleon himself, if he +liked the offer, should come to advise with Hicetes, and partake of all his +conquests, but that he might send back his ships and forces to Corinth, since +the war was in a manner finished, and the Carthaginians had blocked up the +passage, determined to oppose them if they should try to force their way +towards the shore. When, therefore, the Corinthians met with these envoys at +Rhegium, and received their message, and saw the Phoenician vessels riding at +anchor in the bay, they became keenly sensible of the abuse that was put upon +them, and felt a general indignation against Hicetes, and great apprehensions +for the Siceliots, whom they now plainly perceived to be as it were a prize and +recompense to Hicetes on one side for his perfidy, and to the Carthaginians on +the other for the sovereign power they secured to him. For it seemed utterly +impossible to force and overbear the Carthaginian ships that lay before them +and were double their number, as also to vanquish the victorious troops which +Hicetes had with him in Syracuse, to take the lead of which very troops they +had undertaken their voyage. +</p> + +<p> +The case being thus, Timoleon, after some conference with the envoys of Hicetes +and the Carthaginian captains, told them he should readily submit to their +proposals (to what purpose would it be to refuse compliance?): he was desirous +only, before his return to Corinth, that what had passed between them in +private might be solemnly declared before the people of Rhegium, a Greek city, +and a common friend to the parties; this, he said, would very much conduce to +his own security and discharge; and they likewise would more strictly observe +articles of agreement, on behalf of the Syracusans, which they had obliged +themselves to in the presence of so many witnesses. The design of all which +was, only to divert their attention, while he got an opportunity of slipping +away from their fleet: a contrivance that all the principal Rhegians were privy +and assisting to, who had a great desire that the affairs of Sicily should fall +into Corinthian hands, and dreaded the consequences of having barbarian +neighbors. An assembly was therefore called, and the gates shut, that the +citizens might have no liberty to turn to other business; and a succession of +speakers came forward, addressing the people at great length, to the same +effect, without bringing the subject to any conclusion, making way each for +another and purposely spinning out the time, till the Corinthian galleys should +get clear of the haven; the Carthaginian commanders being detained there +without any suspicion, as also Timoleon still remained present, and gave signs +as if he were just preparing to make an oration. But upon secret notice that +the rest of the galleys were already gone on, and that his alone remained +waiting for him, by the help and concealment of those Rhegians that were about +the hustings and favored his departure, he made shift to slip away through the +crowd, and, running down to the port, set sail with all speed; and having +reached his other vessels, they came all safe to Tauromenium in Sicily, whither +they had been formerly invited, and where they were now kindly received by +Andromachus, then ruler of the city. This man was father of Timaeus the +historian, and incomparably the best of all those that bore sway in Sicily at +that time, governing his citizens according to law and justice, and openly +professing an aversion and enmity to all tyrants; upon which account he gave +Timoleon leave to muster up his troops there, and to make that city the seat of +war, persuading the inhabitants to join their arms with the Corinthian forces, +and assist them in the design of delivering Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +But the Carthaginians who were left in Rhegium perceiving, when the assembly +was dissolved, that Timoleon had given them the go by, were not a little vexed +to see themselves outwitted, much to the amusement of the Rhegians, who could +not but smile to find Phoenicians complain of being cheated. However, they +dispatched a messenger aboard one of their galleys to Tauromenium, who, after +much blustering in the insolent barbaric way, and many menaces to Andromachus +if he did not forthwith send the Corinthians off, stretched out his hand with +the inside upward, and then turning it down again, threatened he would handle +their city even so, and turn it topsy-turvy in as little time, and with as much +ease. Andromachus, laughing at the man’s confidence, made no other reply, but, +imitating his gesture, bid him hasten his own departure, unless he had a mind +to see that kind of dexterity practiced first upon the galley which brought him +thither. +</p> + +<p> +Hicetes, informed that Timoleon had made good his passage, was in great fear of +what might follow, and sent to desire the Carthaginians that a large number of +galleys might be ordered to attend and secure the coast. And now it was that +the Syracusans began wholly to despair of safety, seeing the Carthaginians +possessed of their haven, Hicetes master of the town, and Dionysius supreme in +the citadel; while Timoleon had as yet but a slender hold of Sicily, as it were +by the fringe or border of it, in the small city of the Tauromenians, with a +feeble hope and a poor company; having but a thousand soldiers at the most, and +no more provisions, either of corn or money, than were just necessary for the +maintenance and the pay of that inconsiderable number. Nor did the other towns +of Sicily confide in him, overpowered as they were with violence and outrage, +and embittered against all that should offer to lead armies, by the treacherous +conduct chiefly of Callippus, an Athenian, and Pharax, a Lacedaemonian captain, +both of whom, after giving out that the design of their coming was to introduce +liberty and depose tyrants, so tyrannized themselves, that the reign of former +oppressors seemed to be a golden age in comparison, and the Sicilians began to +consider those more happy who had expired in servitude, than any that had lived +to see such a dismal freedom. +</p> + +<p> +Looking, therefore, for no better usage from the Corinthian general, but +imagining that it was only the same old course of things once more, specious +presences and false professions to allure them by fair hopes and kind promises +into the obedience of a new master, they all, with one accord, unless it were +the people of Adranum, suspected the exhortations, and rejected the overtures +that were made them in his name. These were inhabitants of a small city, +consecrated to Adranus, a certain god that was in high veneration throughout +Sicily, and, as it happened, they were then at variance among themselves, +insomuch that one party called in Hicetes and the Carthaginians to assist them, +while the other sent proposals to Timoleon. It so fell out that these +auxiliaries, striving which should be soonest, both arrived at Adranum about +the same time; Hicetes bringing with him at least five thousand fighting men, +while all the force Timoleon could make did not exceed twelve hundred. With +these he marched out of Tauromenium, which was about three hundred and forty +furlongs distant from that city. The first day he moved but slowly, and took up +his quarters betimes after a short journey; but the day following he quickened +his pace, and, having passed through much difficult ground, towards evening +received advice that Hicetes was just approaching Adranum, and pitching his +camp before it; upon which intelligence, his captains and other officers caused +the vanguard to halt, that the army being refreshed, and having reposed a +while, might engage the enemy with better heart. But Timoleon, coming up in +haste, desired them not to stop for that reason, but rather use all possible +diligence to surprise the enemy, whom probably they would now find in disorder, +as having lately ended their march, and being taken up at present in erecting +tents and preparing supper; which he had no sooner said, but laying hold of his +buckler and putting himself in the front, he led them on as it were to certain +victory. The braveness of such a leader made them all follow him with like +courage and assurance. They were now within less than thirty furlongs of +Adranum, which they quickly traversed, and immediately fell in upon the enemy, +who were seized with confusion, and began to retire at their first approaches; +one consequence of which was that amidst so little opposition, and so early and +general a flight, there were not many more than three hundred slain, and about +twice the number made prisoners. Their camp and baggage, however, was all +taken. The fortune of this onset soon induced the Adranitans to unlock their +gates, and embrace the interest of Timoleon, to whom they recounted, with a +mixture of affright and admiration, how, at the very minute of the encounter, +the doors of their temple flew open of their own accord, that the javelin also, +which their god held in his hand, was observed to tremble at the point, and +that drops of sweat had been seen running down his face: prodigies that not +only presaged the victory then obtained, but were an omen, it seems, of all his +future exploits, to which this first happy action gave the occasion. +</p> + +<p> +For now the neighboring cities and potentates sent deputies, one upon another, +to seek his friendship and make offer of their service. Among the rest, +Mamercus, the tyrant of Catana, an experienced warrior and a wealthy prince, +made proposals of alliance with him, and, what was of greater importance still, +Dionysius himself being now grown desperate, and wellnigh forced to surrender, +despising Hicetes who had been thus shamefully baffled, and admiring the valor +of Timoleon, found means to advertise him and his Corinthians that he should be +content to deliver up himself and the citadel into their hands. Timoleon, +gladly embracing this unlooked for advantage, sends away Euclides and +Telemachus, two Corinthian captains, with four hundred men, for the seizure and +custody of the castle, with directions to enter not all at once, or in open +view, that being impracticable so long as the enemy kept guard, but by stealth, +and in small companies. And so they took possession of the fortress, and the +palace of Dionysius, with all the stores and ammunition he had prepared and +laid up to maintain the war. They found a good number of horses, every variety +of engines, a multitude of darts, and weapons to arm seventy thousand men (a +magazine that had been formed from ancient time), besides two thousand soldiers +that were then with him, whom he gave up with the rest for Timoleon’s service. +Dionysius himself, putting his treasure aboard, and taking a few friends, +sailed away unobserved by Hicetes, and being brought to the camp of Timoleon, +there first appeared in the humble dress of a private person, and was shortly +after sent to Corinth with a single ship and a small sum of money. Born and +educated in the most splendid court and the most absolute monarchy that ever +was, which he held and kept up for the space of ten years succeeding his +father’s death, he had, after Dion’s expedition, spent twelve other years in a +continual agitation of wars and contests, and great variety of fortune, during +which time all the mischiefs he had committed in his former reign were more +than repaid by the ills he himself then suffered; since he lived to see the +deaths of his sons in the prime and vigor of their age, and the rape of his +daughters in the flower of their virginity, and the wicked abuse of his sister +and his wife, who, after being first exposed to all the lawless insults of the +soldiery, was then murdered with her children, and cast into the sea; the +particulars of which are more exactly given in the life of Dion. +</p> + +<p> +Upon the news of his landing at Corinth, there was hardly a man in Greece who +had not the curiosity to come and view the late formidable tyrant, and say some +words to him; part, rejoicing at his disasters, were led thither out of mere +spite and hatred, that they might have the pleasure of trampling, as it were, +on the ruins of his broken fortune; but others, letting their attention and +their sympathy turn rather to the changes and revolutions of his life, could +not but see in them a proof of the strength and potency with which divine and +unseen causes operate amidst the weakness of human and visible things. For +neither art nor nature did in that age produce anything comparable to this work +and wonder of fortune, which showed the very same man, that was not long before +supreme monarch of Sicily, loitering about perhaps in the fish-market, or +sitting in a perfumer’s shop, drinking the diluted wine of taverns, or +squabbling in the street with common women, or pretending to instruct the +singing women of the theater, and seriously disputing with them about the +measure and harmony of pieces of music that were performed there. Such behavior +on his part was variously criticized. He was thought by many to act thus out of +pure compliance with his own natural indolent and vicious inclinations; while +finer judges were of opinion, that in all this he was playing a politic part, +with a design to be contemned among them, and that the Corinthians might not +feel any apprehension or suspicion of his being uneasy under his reverse of +fortune, or solicitous to retrieve it; to avoid which dangers, he purposely and +against his true nature affected an appearance of folly and want of spirit in +his private life and amusements. +</p> + +<p> +However it be, there are sayings and repartees of his left still upon record, +which seem to show that he not ignobly accommodated himself to his present +circumstances; as may appear in part from the ingenuousness of the avowal he +made on coming to Leucadia, which, as well as Syracuse, was a Corinthian +colony, where he told the inhabitants, that he found himself not unlike boys +who have been in fault, who can talk cheerfully with their brothers, but are +ashamed to see their father; so, likewise, he, he said, could gladly reside +with them in that island, whereas he felt a certain awe upon his mind, which +made him averse to the sight of Corinth, that was a common mother to them both. +The thing is further evident from the reply he once made to a stranger in +Corinth, who deriding him in a rude and scornful manner about the conferences +he used to have with philosophers, whose company had been one of his pleasures +while yet a monarch, and demanding, in fine, what he was the better now for all +those wise and learned discourses of Plato, “Do you think,” said he, “I have +made no profit of his philosophy, when you see me bear my change of fortune as +I do?” And when Aristoxenus the musician, and several others, desired to know +how Plato offended him, and what had been the ground of his displeasure with +him, he made answer, that, of the many evils attaching to the condition of +sovereignty, the one greatest infelicity was that none of those who were +accounted friends would venture to speak freely, or tell the plain truth; and +that by means of such he had been deprived of Plato’s kindness. At another +time, when one of those pleasant companions that are desirous to pass for wits, +in mockery to Dionysius, as if he were still the tyrant, shook out the folds of +his cloak, as he was entering into the room where he was, to show there were no +concealed weapons about him, Dionysius, by way of retort, observed, that he +would prefer he would do so on leaving the room, as a security that he was +carrying nothing off with him. And when Philip of Macedon, at a drinking party, +began to speak in banter about the verses and tragedies which his father, +Dionysius the elder, had left behind him, and pretended to wonder how he could +get any time from his other business to compose such elaborate and ingenious +pieces, he replied, very much to the purpose, “It was at those leisurable +hours, which such as you and I, and those we call happy men, bestow upon our +cups.” Plato had not the opportunity to see Dionysius at Corinth, being already +dead before he came thither; but Diogenes of Sinope, at their first meeting in +the street there, saluted him with the ambiguous expression, “O Dionysius, how +little you deserve your present life!” Upon which Dionysius stopped and +replied, “I thank you, Diogenes, for your condolence.” “Condole with you!” +replied Diogenes; “do you not suppose that, on the contrary, I am indignant +that such a slave as you, who, if you had your due, should have been let alone +to grow old, and die in the state of tyranny, as your father did before you, +should now enjoy the ease of private persons, and be here to sport and frolic +it in our society?” So that when I compare those sad stories of Philistus, +touching the daughters of Leptines, where he makes pitiful moan on their +behalf, as fallen from all the blessings and advantages of powerful greatness +to the miseries of a humble life, they seem to me like the lamentations of a +woman who has lost her box of ointment, her purple dresses, and her golden +trinkets. Such anecdotes will not, I conceive, be thought either foreign to my +purpose of writing Lives, or unprofitable in themselves, by such readers as are +not in too much haste, or busied and taken up with other concerns. +</p> + +<p> +But if the misfortune of Dionysius appear strange and extraordinary, we shall +have no less reason to wonder at the good fortune of Timoleon, who, within +fifty days after his landing in Sicily, both recovered the citadel of Syracuse, +and sent Dionysius an exile into Peloponnesus. This lucky beginning so animated +the Corinthians, that they ordered him a supply of two thousand foot and two +hundred horse, who, reaching Thurii, intended to cross over thence into Sicily; +but finding the whole sea beset with Carthaginian ships, which made their +passage impracticable, they were constrained to stop there, and watch their +opportunity: which time, however, was employed in a noble action. For the +Thurians, going out to war against their Bruttian enemies, left their city in +charge with these Corinthian strangers, who defended it as carefully as if it +had been their own country, and faithfully resigned it up again. +</p> + +<p> +Hicetes, in the interim, continued still to besiege the castle of Syracuse, and +hindered all provisions from coming in by sea to relieve the Corinthians that +were in it. He had engaged also, and dispatched towards Adranum, two unknown +foreigners to assassinate Timoleon, who at no time kept any standing guard +about his person, and was then altogether secure, diverting himself, without +any apprehension, among the citizens of the place, it being a festival in honor +of their gods. The two men that were sent, having casually heard that Timoleon +was about to sacrifice, came directly into the temple with poniards under their +cloaks, and pressing in among the crowd, by little and little got up close to +the altar; but, as they were just looking for a sign from each other to begin +the attempt, a third person struck one of them over the head with a sword, upon +whose sudden fall, neither he that gave the blow, nor the partisan of him that +received it, kept their stations any longer; but the one, making way with his +bloody sword, put no stop to his flight, till he gained the top of a certain +lofty precipice, while the other, laying hold of the altar, besought Timoleon +to spare his life, and he would reveal to him the whole conspiracy. His pardon +being granted, he confessed that both himself and his dead companion were sent +thither purposely to slay him. While this discovery was made, he that killed +the other conspirator had been fetched down from his sanctuary of the rock, +loudly and often protesting, as he came along, that there was no injustice in +the fact, as he had only taken righteous vengeance for his father’s blood, whom +this man had murdered before in the city of Leontini; the truth of which was +attested by several there present, who could not choose but wonder too at the +strange dexterity of fortune’s operations, the facility with which she makes +one event the spring and motion to something wholly different, uniting every +scattered accident and lose particular and remote action, and interweaving them +together to serve her purposes; so that things that in themselves seem to have +no connection or interdependence whatsoever, become in her hands, so to say, +the end and the beginning of each other. The Corinthians, satisfied as to the +innocence of this seasonable feat, honored and rewarded the author with a +present of ten pounds in their money, since he had, as it were, lent the use of +his just resentment to the tutelar genius that seemed to be protecting +Timoleon, and had not preexpended this anger, so long ago conceived, but had +reserved and deferred, under fortune’s guidance, for his preservation, the +revenge of a private quarrel. +</p> + +<p> +But this fortunate escape had effects and consequences beyond the present, as +it inspired the highest hopes and future expectations of Timoleon, making +people reverence and protect him as a sacred person sent by heaven to avenge +and redeem Sicily. Hicetes, having missed his aim in this enterprise, and +perceiving, also, that many went off and sided with Timoleon, began to chide +himself for his foolish modesty, that, when so considerable a force of the +Carthaginians lay ready to be commanded by him, he had employed them hitherto +by degrees and in small numbers, introducing their reinforcements by stealth +and clandestinely, as if he had been ashamed of the action. Therefore, now +laying aside his former nicety, he calls in Mago, their admiral, with his whole +navy, who presently set sail, and seized upon the port with a formidable fleet +of at least a hundred and fifty vessels, landing there sixty thousand foot +which were all lodged within the city of Syracuse; so that, in all men’s +opinion, the time anciently talked of and long expected, wherein Sicily should +be subjugated by barbarians, was now come to its fatal period. For in all their +preceding wars and many desperate conflicts with Sicily, the Carthaginians had +never been able, before this, to take Syracuse; whereas Hicetes now receiving +them, and putting the city into their hands, you might see it become now as it +were a camp of barbarians. By this means, the Corinthian soldiers that kept the +castle found themselves brought into great danger and hardship; as, besides +that their provision grew scarce, and they began to be in want, because the +havens were strictly guarded and blocked up, the enemy exercised them still +with skirmishes and combats about their walls, and they were not only obliged +to be continually in arms, but to divide and prepare themselves for assaults +and encounters of every kind, and to repel every variety of the means of +offense employed by a besieging army. +</p> + +<p> +Timoleon made shift to relieve them in these straits, sending corn from Catana +by small fishing-boats and little skiffs, which commonly gained a passage +through the Carthaginian galleys in times of storm, stealing up when the +blockading ships were driven apart and dispersed by the stress of weather; +which Mago and Hicetes observing, they agreed to fall upon Catana, from whence +these supplies were brought in to the besieged, and accordingly put off from +Syracuse, taking with them the best soldiers in their whole army. Upon this, +Neon the Corinthian, who was captain of those that kept the citadel, taking +notice that the enemies who stayed there behind were very negligent and +careless in keeping guard, made a sudden sally upon them as they lay scattered, +and, killing some and putting others to flight, he took and possessed himself +of that quarter which they call Acradina, and was thought to be the strongest +and most impregnable part of Syracuse, a city made up and compacted as it were, +of several towns put together. Having thus stored himself with corn and money, +he did not abandon the place, nor retire again into the castle, but fortifying +the precincts of Acradina, and joining it by works to the citadel, he undertook +the defense of both. Mago and Hicetes were now come near to Catana, when a +horseman, dispatched from Syracuse, brought them tidings that Acradina was +taken; upon which they returned, in all haste, with great disorder and +confusion, having neither been able to reduce the city they went against, nor +to preserve that they were masters of. +</p> + +<p> +These successes, indeed, were such as might leave foresight and courage a +pretence still of disputing it with fortune, which contributed most to the +result. But the next following event can scarcely be ascribed to anything but +pure felicity. The Corinthian soldiers who stayed at Thurii, partly for fear of +the Carthaginian galleys which lay in wait for them under the command of Hanno, +and partly because of tempestuous weather which had lasted for many days, and +rendered the sea dangerous, took a resolution to march by land over the +Bruttian territories, and, what with persuasion and force together, made good +their passage through those barbarians to the city of Rhegium, the sea being +still rough and raging as before. But Hanno, not expecting the Corinthians +would venture out, and supposing it would be useless to wait there any longer, +bethought himself, as he imagined, of a most ingenious and clever stratagem apt +to delude and ensnare the enemy; in pursuance of which he commanded the seamen +to crown themselves with garlands, and, adorning his galleys with bucklers both +of the Greek and Carthaginian make, he sailed away for Syracuse in this +triumphant equipage, and using all his oars as he passed under the castle with +much shouting and laughter, cried out, on purpose to dishearten the besieged, +that he was come from vanquishing and taking the Corinthian succors, which he +fell upon at sea as they were passing over into Sicily. While he was thus +biding and playing his tricks before Syracuse, the Corinthians, now come as far +as Rhegium, observing the coast clear, and that the wind was laid as it were by +miracle, to afford them in all appearance a quiet and smooth passage, went +immediately aboard on such little barks and fishing-boats as were then at hand, +and got over to Sicily with such complete safety and in such an extraordinary +calm, that they drew their horses by the reins, swimming along by them as the +vessels went across. +</p> + +<p> +When they were all landed, Timoleon came to receive them, and by their means at +once obtained possession of Messena, from whence he marched in good order to +Syracuse, trusting more to his late prosperous achievements than his present +strength, as the whole army he had then with him did not exceed the number of +four thousand; Mago, however, was troubled and fearful at the first notice of +his coming, and grew more apprehensive and jealous still upon the following +occasion. The marshes about Syracuse, that receive a great deal of fresh water, +as well from springs as from lakes and rivers discharging themselves into the +sea, breed abundance of eels, which may be always taken there in great +quantities by any that will fish for them. The mercenary soldiers that served +on both sides, were wont to follow the sport together at their vacant hours, +and upon any cessation of arms, who being all Greeks, and having no cause of +private enmity to each other, as they would venture bravely in fight, so in +times of truce used to meet and converse amicably together. And at this present +time, while engaged about this common business of fishing, they fell into talk +together; and some expressing their admiration of the neighboring sea, and +others telling how much they were taken with the convenience and commodiousness +of the buildings and public works, one of the Corinthian party took occasion to +demand of the others: “And is it possible that you who are Grecians born, +should be so forward to reduce a city of this greatness, and enjoying so many +rare advantages, into the state of barbarism; and lend your assistance to plant +Carthaginians, that are the worst and bloodiest of men, so much the nearer to +us? whereas you should rather wish there were many more Sicilies to lie between +them and Greece. Have you so little sense as to believe, that they come hither +with an army, from the Pillars of Hercules and the Atlantic Sea, to hazard +themselves for the establishment of Hicetes? who, if he had had the +consideration which becomes a general, would never have thrown out his +ancestors and founders to bring in the enemies of his country in the room of +them, when he might have enjoyed all suitable honor and command, with consent +of Timoleon and the rest of Corinth.” The Greeks that were in pay with Hicetes, +noising these discourses about their camp, gave Mago some ground to suspect, as +indeed he had long sought for a pretence to be gone, that there was treachery +contrived against him; so that, although Hicetes entreated him to tarry, and +made it appear how much stronger they were than the enemy, yet, conceiving they +came far more short of Timoleon in respect of courage and fortune, than they +surpassed him in number, he presently went aboard, and set sail for Africa, +letting Sicily escape out of his hands with dishonor to himself, and for such +uncertain causes, that no human reason could give an account of his departure. +</p> + +<p> +The day after he went away, Timoleon came up before the city, in array for a +battle. But when he and his company heard of this sudden flight, and saw the +docks all empty, they could not forbear laughing at the cowardice of Mago, and +in mockery caused proclamation to be made through the city, that a reward would +be given to any one who could bring them tidings whither the Carthaginian fleet +had conveyed itself from them. However, Hicetes resolving to fight it out +alone, and not quitting his hold of the city, but sticking close to the +quarters he was in possession of, places that were well fortified and not easy +to be attacked, Timoleon divided his forces into three parts, and fell himself +upon the side where the river Anapus ran, which was most strong and difficult +of access; and he commanded those that were led by Isias, a Corinthian captain, +to make their assault from the post of Acradina, while Dinarchus and Demaretus, +that brought him the last supply from Corinth, were, with a third division, to +attempt the quarter called Epipolae. A considerable impression being made from +every side at once, the soldiers of Hicetes were beaten off and put to flight; +and this, — that the city came to be taken by storm, and fall suddenly into +their hands, upon the defeat and rout of the enemy, — we must in all justice +ascribe to the valor of the assailants, and the wise conduct of their general; +but that not so much as a man of the Corinthians was either slain or wounded in +the action, this the good fortune of Timoleon seems to challenge for her own +work, as though, in a sort of rivalry with his own personal exertions, she made +it her aim to exceed and obscure his actions by her favors, that those who +heard him commended for his noble deeds might rather admire the happiness, than +the merit of them. For the fame of what was done not only passed through all +Sicily, and filled Italy with wonder, but even Greece itself, after a few days, +came to ring with the greatness of his exploit; insomuch that those of Corinth, +who had as yet no certainty that their auxiliaries were landed on the island, +had tidings brought them at the same time that they were safe and were +conquerors. In so prosperous a course did affairs run, and such was the speed +and celerity of execution with which fortune, as with a new ornament, set off +the native lustres of the performance. +</p> + +<p> +Timoleon, being master of the citadel, avoided the error which Dion had been +guilty of. He spared not the place for the beauty and sumptuousness of its +fabric, and, keeping clear of those suspicions which occasioned first the +unpopularity and afterwards the fall of Dion, made a public crier give notice, +that all the Syracusans who were willing to have a hand in the work, should +bring pick-axes and mattocks, and other instruments, and help him to demolish +the fortifications of the tyrants. When they all came up with one accord, +looking upon that order and that day as the surest foundation of their liberty, +they not only pulled down the castle, but overturned the palaces and monuments +adjoining, and whatever else might preserve any memory of former tyrants. +Having soon leveled and cleared the place, he there presently erected courts +for administration of justice, gratifying the citizens by this means, and +building popular government on the fall and ruin of tyranny. But since he had +recovered a city destitute of inhabitants, some of them dead in civil wars and +insurrections, and others being fled to escape tyrants, so that through +solitude and want of people the great marketplace of Syracuse was overgrown +with such quantity of rank herbage that it became a pasture for their horses, +the grooms lying along in the grass as they fed by them; while also other +towns, very few excepted, were become full of stags and wild boars, so that +those who had nothing else to do went frequently a hunting, and found game in +the suburbs and about the walls; and not one of those who had possessed +themselves of castles, or made garrisons in the country, could be persuaded to +quit their present abode, or would accept an invitation to return back into the +city, so much did they all dread and abhor the very name of assemblies and +forms of government and public speaking, that had produced the greater part of +those usurpers who had successively assumed a dominion over them, — Timoleon, +therefore, with the Syracusans that remained, considering this vast desolation, +and how little hope there was to have it otherwise supplied, thought good to +write to the Corinthians, requesting that they would send a colony out of +Greece to repeople Syracuse. For else the land about it would lie unimproved; +and besides this, they expected to be involved in a greater war from Africa, +having news brought them that Mago had killed himself, and that the +Carthaginians, out of rage for his ill conduct in the late expedition, had +caused his body to be nailed upon a cross, and that they were raising a mighty +force, with design to make their descent upon Sicily the next summer. +</p> + +<p> +These letters from Timoleon being delivered at Corinth, and the ambassadors of +Syracuse beseeching them at the same time, that they would take upon them the +care of their poor city, and once again become the founders of it, the +Corinthians were not tempted by any feeling of cupidity to lay hold of the +advantage. Nor did they seize and appropriate the city to themselves, but going +about first to the games that are kept as sacred in Greece, and to the most +numerously attended religious assemblages, they made publication by heralds, +that the Corinthians, having destroyed the usurpation at Syracuse and driven +out the tyrant, did thereby invite the Syracusan exiles, and any other +Siceliots, to return and inhabit the city, with full enjoyment of freedom under +their own laws, the land being divided among them in just and equal +proportions. And after this, sending messengers into Asia and the several +islands where they understood that most of the scattered fugitives were then +residing, they bade them all repair to Corinth, engaging that the Corinthians +would afford them vessels and commanders, and a safe convoy, at their own +charges, to Syracuse. Such generous proposals, being thus spread about, gained +them the just and honorable recompense of general praise and benediction, for +delivering the country from oppressors, and saving it from barbarians, and +restoring it at length to the rightful owners of the place. These, when they +were assembled at Corinth, and found how insufficient their company was, +besought the Corinthians that they might have a supplement of other persons, as +well out of their city as the rest of Greece, to go with them as +joint-colonists; and so raising themselves to the number of ten thousand, they +sailed together to Syracuse. By this time great multitudes, also, from Italy +and Sicily, had flocked in to Timoleon, so that, as Athanis reports, their +entire body amounted now to sixty thousand men. Among these he divided the +whole territory, and sold the houses for a thousand talents; by which method, +he both left it in the power of the old Syracusans to redeem their own, and +made it a means also for raising a stock for the community, which had been so +much impoverished of late, and was so unable to defray other expenses, and +especially those of a war, that they exposed their very statues to sale, a +regular process being observed, and sentence of auction passed upon each of +them by majority of votes, as if they had been so many criminals taking their +trial: in the course of which it is said that while condemnation was pronounced +upon all other statues, that of the ancient usurper Gelo was exempted, out of +admiration and honor and for the sake of the victory he gained over the +Carthaginian forces at the river Himera. +</p> + +<p> +Syracuse being thus happily revived, and replenished again by the general +concourse of inhabitants from all parts, Timoleon was desirous now to rescue +other cities from the like bondage, and wholly and once for all to extirpate +arbitrary government out of Sicily. And for this purpose, marching into the +territories of those that used it, he compelled Hicetes first to renounce the +Carthaginian interest, and, demolishing the fortresses which were held by him, +to live henceforth among the Leontinians as a private person. Leptines, also, +the tyrant of Apollonia and divers other little towns, after some resistance +made, seeing the danger he was in of being taken by force, surrendered himself; +upon which Timoleon spared his life, and sent him away to Corinth, counting it +a glorious thing that the mother city should expose to the view of other Greeks +these Sicilian tyrants, living now in an exiled and a low condition. After this +he returned to Syracuse, that he might have leisure to attend to the +establishment of the new constitution, and assist Cephalus and Dionysius, who +were sent from Corinth to make laws, in determining the most important points +of it. In the meanwhile, desirous that his hired soldiers should not want +action, but might rather enrich themselves by some plunder from the enemy, he +dispatched Dinarchus and Demaretus with a portion of them into the part of the +island belonging to the Carthaginians, where they obliged several cities to +revolt from the barbarians, and not only lived in great abundance themselves, +but raised money from their spoil to carry on the war. +</p> + +<p> +Meantime, the Carthaginians landed at the promontory of Lilybaeum, bringing +with them an army of seventy thousand men on board two hundred galleys, besides +a thousand other vessels laden with engines of battery, chariots, corn, and +other military stores, as if they did not intend to manage the war by piecemeal +and in parts as heretofore, but to drive the Greeks altogether and at once out +of all Sicily. And indeed it was a force sufficient to overpower the Siceliots, +even though they had been at perfect union among themselves, and had never been +enfeebled by intestine quarrels. Hearing that part of their subject territory +was suffering devastation, they forthwith made toward the Corinthians with +great fury, having Asdrubal and Hamilcar for their generals; the report of +whose numbers and strength coming suddenly to Syracuse, the citizens were so +terrified, that hardly three thousand, among so many myriads of them, had the +courage to take up arms and join Timoleon. The foreigners, serving for pay, +were not above four thousand in all, and about a thousand of these grew +fainthearted by the way, and forsook Timoleon in his march towards the enemy, +looking on him as frantic and distracted, destitute of the sense which might +have been expected from his time of life, thus to venture out against an army +of seventy thousand men, with no more than five thousand foot and a thousand +horse; and, when he should have kept those forces to defend the city, choosing +rather to remove them eight days’ journey from Syracuse, so that if they were +beaten from the field, they would have no retreat, nor any burial if they fell +upon it. Timoleon, however, reckoned it some kind of advantage, that these had +thus discovered themselves before the battle, and, encouraging the rest, led +them with all speed to the river Crimesus, where it was told him the +Carthaginians were drawn together. +</p> + +<p> +As he was marching up an ascent, from the top of which they expected to have a +view of the army and of the strength of the enemy, there met him by chance a +train of mules loaded with parsley; which his soldiers conceived to be an +ominous occurrence or ill-boding token, because this is the herb with which we +not unfrequently adorn the sepulchres of the dead; and there is a proverb +derived from the custom, used of one who is dangerously sick, that he has need +of nothing but parsley. So, to ease their minds, and free them from any +superstitious thoughts or forebodings of evil, Timoleon halted, and concluded +an address, suitable to the occasion, by saying, that a garland of triumph was +here luckily brought them, and had fallen into their hands of its own accord, +as an anticipation of victory: the same with which the Corinthians crown the +victors in the Isthmian games, accounting chaplets of parsley the sacred wreath +proper to their country; parsley being at that time still the emblem of victory +at the Isthmian, as it is now at the Nemean sports; and it is not so very long +ago that the pine first began to be used in its place. +</p> + +<p> +Timoleon, therefore, having thus bespoke his soldiers, took part of the +parsley, and with it made himself a chaplet first, his captains and their +companies all following the example of their leader. The soothsayers then, +observing also two eagles on the wing towards them, one of which bore a snake +struck through with her talons, and the other, as she flew, uttered a loud cry +indicating boldness and assurance, at once showed them to the soldiers, who +with one consent fell to supplicate the gods, and call them in to their +assistance. It was now about the beginning of summer, and conclusion of the +month called Thargelion, not far from the solstice; and the river sending up a +thick mist, all the adjacent plain was at first darkened with the fog, so that +for a while they could discern nothing from the enemy’s camp; only a confused +buzz and undistinguished mixture of voices came up to the hill from the distant +motions and clamors of so vast a multitude. When the Corinthians had mounted, +and stood on the top, and had laid down their bucklers to take breath and +repose themselves, the sun coming round and drawing up the vapors from below, +the gross foggy air that was now gathered and condensed above formed in a cloud +upon the mountains; and, all the under places being clear and open, the river +Crimesus appeared to them again, and they could descry the enemies passing over +it, first with their formidable four horse chariots of war, and then ten +thousand footmen bearing white shields, whom they guessed to be all +Carthaginians, from the splendor of their arms, and the slowness and order of +their march. And when now the troops of various other nations, flowing in +behind them, began to throng for passage in a tumultuous and unruly manner, +Timoleon, perceiving that the river gave them opportunity to single off +whatever number of their enemies they had a mind to engage at once, and bidding +his soldiers observe how their forces were divided into two separate bodies by +the intervention of the stream, some being already over, and others still to +ford it, gave Demaretus command to fall in upon the Carthaginians with his +horse, and disturb their ranks before they should be drawn up into form of +battle; and coming down into the plain himself, forming his right and left wing +of other Sicilians, intermingling only a few strangers in each, he placed the +natives of Syracuse in the middle, with the stoutest mercenaries he had about +his own person; and, waiting a little to observe the action of his horse, when +he saw they were not only hindered from grappling with the Carthaginians by the +armed chariots that ran to and fro before the army, but forced continually to +wheel about to escape having their ranks broken, and so to repeat their charges +anew, he took his buckler in his hand, and crying out to the foot that they +should follow him with courage and confidence, he seemed to speak with a more +than human accent, and a voice stronger than ordinary; whether it were that he +naturally raised it so high in the vehemence and ardor of his mind to assault +the enemy, or else, as many then thought, some god or other spoke with him. +When his soldiers quickly gave an echo to it, all besought him to lead them on +without any further delay, he made a sign to the horse, that they should draw +off from the front where the chariots were, and pass sidewards to attack their +enemies in the flank; then, making his vanguard firm by joining man to man and +buckler to buckler, he caused the trumpet to sound, and so bore in upon the +Carthaginians. +</p> + +<p> +They, for their part, stoutly received and sustained his first onset; and +having their bodies armed with breastplates of iron, and helmets of brass on +their heads, besides great bucklers to cover and secure them, they could easily +repel the charge of the Greek spears. But when the business came to a decision +by the sword, where mastery depends no less upon art than strength, all on a +sudden from the mountain tops violent peals of thunder and vivid dashes of +lightning broke out; following upon which the darkness, that had been hovering +about the higher grounds and the crests of the hills, descending to the place +of battle and bringing a tempest of rain and of wind and hail along with it, +was driven upon the Greeks behind, and fell only at their backs, but discharged +itself in the very faces of the barbarians, the rain beating on them, and the +lightning dazzling them without cessation; annoyances that in many ways +distressed at any rate the inexperienced, who had not been used to such +hardships, and, in particular, the claps of thunder, and the noise of the rain +and hail beating on their arms, kept them from hearing the commands of their +officers. Besides which, the very mud also was a great hindrance to the +Carthaginians, who were not lightly equipped, but, as I said before, loaded +with heavy armor; and then their shirts underneath getting drenched, the +foldings about the bosom filled with water, grew unwieldy and cumbersome to +them as they fought, and made it easy for the Greeks to throw them down, and, +when they were once down, impossible for them, under that weight, to disengage +themselves and rise again with weapons in their hand. The river Crimesus, too, +swollen partly by the rain, and partly by the stoppage of its course with the +numbers that were passing through, overflowed its banks; and the level ground +by the side of it, being so situated as to have a number of small ravines and +hollows of the hill-side descending upon it, was now filled with rivulets and +currents that had no certain channel, in which the Carthaginians stumbled and +rolled about, and found themselves in great difficulty. So that, in fine, the +storm bearing still upon them, and the Greeks having cut in pieces four hundred +men of their first ranks, the whole body of their army began to fly. Great +numbers were overtaken in the plain, and put to the sword there; and many of +them, as they were making their way back through the river, falling foul upon +others that were yet coming over, were borne away and overwhelmed by the +waters; but the major part, attempting to get up the hills and so make their +escape, were intercepted and destroyed by the light-armed troops. It is said, +that of ten thousand who lay dead after the fight, three thousand, at least, +were Carthaginian citizens; a heavy loss and great grief to their countrymen; +those that fell being men inferior to none among them as to birth, wealth, or +reputation. Nor do their records mention that so many native Carthaginians were +ever cut off before in any one battle; as they usually employed Africans, +Spaniards, and Numidians in their wars, so that if they chanced to be defeated, +it was still at the cost and damage of other nations. +</p> + +<p> +The Greeks easily discovered of what condition and account the slain were, by +the richness of their spoils; for when they came to collect the booty, there +was little reckoning made either of brass or iron, so abundant were better +metals, and so common were silver and gold Passing over the river, they became +masters of their camp and carriages. As for captives, a great many of them were +stolen away, and sold privately by the soldiers, but about five thousand were +brought in and delivered up for the benefit of the public; two hundred of their +chariots of war were also taken. The tent of Timoleon then presented a most +glorious and magnificent appearance, being heaped up and hung round with every +variety of spoils and military ornaments, among which there were a thousand +breastplates of rare workmanship and beauty, and bucklers to the number of ten +thousand. The victors being but few to strip so many that were vanquished, and +having such valuable booty to occupy them, it was the third day after the fight +before they could erect and finish the trophy of their conquest. Timoleon sent +tidings of his victory to Corinth, with the best and goodliest arms he had +taken as a proof of it; that he thus might render his country an object of +emulation to the whole world, when, of all the cities of Greece, men should +there alone behold the chief temples adorned, not with Grecian spoils, nor +offerings obtained by the bloodshed and plunder of their own countrymen and +kindred, and attended, therefore, with sad and unhappy remembrances, but with +such as had been stripped from barbarians and enemies to their nation, with the +noblest titles inscribed upon them, titles telling of the justice as well as +fortitude of the conquerors; namely, that the people of Corinth, and Timoleon +their general, having redeemed the Greeks of Sicily from Carthaginian bondage, +made oblation of these to the gods, in grateful acknowledgment of their favor. +</p> + +<p> +Having done this, he left his hired soldiers in the enemy’s country, to drive +and carry away all they could throughout the subject-territory of Carthage, and +so marched with the rest of his army to Syracuse, where he issued an edict for +banishing the thousand mercenaries who had basely deserted him before the +battle, and obliged them to quit the city before sunset. They, sailing into +Italy, lost their lives there by the hands of the Bruttians, in spite of a +public assurance of safety previously given them; thus receiving, from the +divine power, a just reward of their own treachery. Mamercus, however, the +tyrant of Catana, and Hicetes, after all, either envying Timoleon the glory of +his exploits, or fearing him as one that would keep no agreement, nor have any +peace with tyrants, made a league with the Carthaginians, and pressed them much +to send a new army and commander into Sicily, unless they would be content to +hazard all, and to be wholly ejected out of that island. And in consequence of +this, Gisco was dispatched with a navy of seventy sail. He took numerous Greek +mercenaries also into pay, that being the first time they had ever been +enlisted for the Carthaginian service; but then it seems the Carthaginians +began to admire them, as the most irresistible soldiers of all mankind. Uniting +their forces in the territory of Messena, they cut off four hundred of +Timoleon’s paid soldiers, and within the dependencies of Carthage, at a place +called Hierae, destroyed, by an ambuscade, the whole body of mercenaries that +served under Euthymus the Leucadian; which accidents, however, made the good +fortune of Timoleon accounted all the more remarkable, as these were the men +that, with Philomelus of Phocis and Onomarchus, had forcibly broken into the +temple of Apollo at Delphi, and were partakers with them in the sacrilege; so +that, being hated and shunned by all, as persons under a curse, they were +constrained to wander about in Peloponnesus; when, for want of others, Timoleon +was glad to take them into service in his expedition for Sicily, where they +were successful in whatever enterprise they attempted under his conduct. But +now, when all the important dangers were past, on his sending them out for the +relief and defense of his party in several places, they perished and were +destroyed at a distance from him, not all together, but in small parties; and +the vengeance which was destined for them, so accommodating itself to the good +fortune which guarded Timoleon as not to allow any harm or prejudice for good +men to arise from the punishment of the wicked, the benevolence and kindness +which the gods had for Timoleon was thus as distinctly recognized in his +disasters as in his successes. +</p> + +<p> +What most annoyed the Syracusans was their being insulted and mocked by the +tyrants; as, for example, by Mamercus, who valued himself much upon his gift +for writing poems and tragedies, and took occasion, when coming to present the +gods with the bucklers of the hired soldiers whom he had killed, to make a +boast of his victory in an insulting elegiac inscription: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +These shields, with purple, gold, and ivory wrought,<br/> +Were won by us that but with poor ones fought. +</p> + +<p> +After this, while Timoleon marched to Calauria, Hicetes made an inroad into the +borders of Syracuse, where he met with considerable booty, and having done much +mischief and havoc, returned back by Calauria itself, in contempt of Timoleon, +and the slender force he had then with him. He, suffering Hicetes to pass +forward, pursued him with his horsemen and light infantry, which Hicetes +perceiving, crossed the river Damyrias, and then stood in a posture to receive +him; the difficulty of the passage, and the height and steepness of the bank on +each side, giving advantage enough to make him confident. A strange contention +and dispute, meantime, among the officers of Timoleon, a little retarded the +conflict; no one of them was willing to let another pass over before him to +engage the enemy; each man claiming it as a right, to venture first and begin +the onset; so that their fording was likely to be tumultuous and without order, +a mere general struggle which should be the foremost. Timoleon, therefore, +desiring to decide the quarrel by lot, took a ring from each of the pretenders, +which he cast into his own cloak, and, after he had shaken all together, the +first he drew out had, by good fortune, the figure of a trophy engraved as a +seal upon it; at the sight of which the young captains all shouted for joy, +and, without waiting any longer to see how chance would determine it for the +rest, took every man his way through the river with all the speed they could +make, and fell to blows with the enemies, who were not able to bear up against +the violence of their attack, but fled in haste and left their arms behind them +all alike, and a thousand dead upon the place. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after, Timoleon, marching up to the city of the Leontines, took +Hicetes alive, and his son Eupolemus, and Euthymus, the commander of his horse, +who were bound and brought to him by their own soldiers. Hicetes and the +stripling his son were then executed as tyrants and traitors; and Euthymus, +though a brave man, and one of singular courage, could obtain no mercy, because +he was charged with contemptuous language in disparagement of the Corinthians +when they first sent their forces into Sicily: it is said that he told the +Leontini in a speech, that the news did not sound terrible, nor was any great +danger to be feared because of +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Corinthian women coming out of doors. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +So true is it that men are usually more stung and galled by reproachful words +than hostile actions; and they bear an affront with less patience than an +injury: to do harm and mischief by deeds is counted pardonable from enemies, as +nothing less can be expected in a state of war whereas virulent and +contumelious words appear to be the expression of needless hatred, and to +proceed from an excess of rancor. +</p> + +<p> +When Timoleon came back to Syracuse, the citizens brought the wives and +daughters of Hicetes and his son to a public trial, and condemned and put them +to death. This seems to be the least pleasing action of Timoleon’s life; since +if he had interposed, the unhappy women would have been spared. He would appear +to have disregarded the thing, and to have given them up to the citizens, who +were eager to take vengeance for the wrongs done to Dion, who expelled +Dionysius; since it was this very Hicetes, who took Arete the wife, and +Aristomache the sister of Dion, with a son that had not yet passed his +childhood, and threw them all together into the sea alive, as related in the +life of Dion. +</p> + +<p> +After this, he moved towards Catana against Mamercus, who gave him battle near +the river Abolus, and was overthrown and put to flight, losing above two +thousand men, a considerable part of whom were the Phoenician troops sent by +Gisco to his assistance. After this defeat, the Carthaginians sued for peace; +which was granted on the conditions that they should confine themselves to the +country within the river Lycus, that those of the inhabitants who wished to +remove to the Syracusan territories should be allowed to depart with their +whole families and fortunes, and, lastly, that Carthage should renounce all +engagements to the tyrants. Mamercus, now forsaken and despairing of success, +took ship for Italy with the design of bringing in the Lucanians against +Timoleon and the people of Syracuse; but the men in his galleys turning back +and landing again and delivering up Catana to Timoleon, thus obliged him to fly +for his own safety to Messena, where Hippo was tyrant. Timoleon, however, +coming up against them, and besieging the city both by sea and land, Hippo, +fearful of the event, endeavored to slip away in a vessel; which the people of +Messena surprised as it was putting off, and seizing on his person, and +bringing all their children from school into the theater, to witness the +glorious spectacle of a tyrant punished, they first publicly scourged and then +put him to death. Mamercus made surrender of himself to Timoleon, with the +proviso, that he should be tried at Syracuse, and Timoleon should take no part +in his accusation. Thither he was brought accordingly, and presenting himself +to plead before the people, he essayed to pronounce an oration he had long +before composed in his own defense; but finding himself interrupted by noise +and clamors, and observing from their aspect and demeanor that the assembly was +inexorable, he threw off his upper garment, and running across the theater as +hard as he could, dashed his head against one of the stones under the seats +with intention to have killed himself; but he had not the fortune to perish, as +he designed, but was taken up alive, and suffered the death of a robber. +</p> + +<p> +Thus did Timoleon cut the nerves of tyranny, and put a period to their wars; +and, whereas, at his first entering upon Sicily, the island was as it were +become wild again, and was hateful to the very natives on account of the evils +and miseries they suffered there, he so civilized and restored it, and rendered +it so desirable to all men, that even strangers now came by sea to inhabit +those towns and places which their own citizens had formerly forsaken and left +desolate. Agrigentum and Gela, two famous cities that had been ruined and laid +waste by the Carthaginians after the Attic war, were then peopled again, the +one by Megellus and Pheristus from Elea, the other by Gorgus, from the island +of Ceos, partly with new settlers, partly with the old inhabitants whom they +collected again from various parts; to all of whom Timoleon not only afforded a +secure and peaceable abode after so obstinate a war, but was further so zealous +in assisting and providing for them that he was honored among them as their +founder. Similar feelings also possessed to such a degree all the rest of the +Sicilians, that there was no proposal for peace, nor reformation of laws, nor +assignation of land, nor reconstitution of government, which they could think +well of, unless he lent his aid as a chief architect, to finish and adorn the +work, and superadd some touches from his own hand, which might render it +pleasing both to God and man. +</p> + +<p> +Although Greece had in his time produced several persons of extraordinary +worth, and much renowned for their achievements, such as Timotheus and +Agesilaus and Pelopidas and (Timoleon’s chief model) Epaminondas, yet the +lustre of their best actions was obscured by a degree of violence and labor, +insomuch that some of them were matter of blame and of repentance; whereas +there is not any one act of Timoleon’s, setting aside the necessity he was +placed under in reference to his brother, to which, as Timaeus observes, we may +not fitly apply that exclamation of Sophocles: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +O gods! what Venus, or what grace divine,<br/> +Did here with human workmanship combine? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For as the poetry of Antimachus, and the painting of Dionysius, the artists of +Colophon, though full of force and vigor, yet appeared to be strained and +elaborate in comparison with the pictures of Nicomachus and the verses of +Homer, which, besides their general strength and beauty, have the peculiar +charm of seeming to have been executed with perfect ease and readiness; so the +expeditions and acts of Epaminondas or Agesilaus, that were full of toil and +effort, when compared with the easy and natural as well as noble and glorious +achievements of Timoleon, compel our fair and unbiased judgment to pronounce +the latter not indeed the effect of fortune, but the success of fortunate +merit. Though he himself indeed ascribed that success to the sole favor of +fortune; and both in the letters which he wrote to his friends at Corinth, and +in the speeches he made to the people of Syracuse, he would say, that he was +thankful unto God, who, designing to save Sicily, was pleased to honor him with +the name and title of the deliverance he vouchsafed it. And having built a +chapel in his house, he there sacrificed to Good Hap, as a deity that had +favored him, and devoted the house itself to the Sacred Genius; it being a +house which the Syracusans had selected for him, as a special reward and +monument of his brave exploits, granting him together with it the most +agreeable and beautiful piece of land in the whole country, where he kept his +residence for the most part, and enjoyed a private life with his wife and +children, who came to him from Corinth. For he returned thither no more, +unwilling to be concerned in the broils and tumults of Greece, or to expose +himself to public envy (the fatal mischief which great commanders continually +run into, from the insatiable appetite for honors and authority); but wisely +chose to spend the remainder of his days in Sicily, and there partake of the +blessings he himself had procured, the greatest of which was, to behold so many +cities flourish, and so many thousands of people live happy through his means. +</p> + +<p> +As, however, not only, as Simonides says, “On every lark must grow a crest,” +but also in every democracy there must spring up a false accuser, so was it at +Syracuse: two of their popular spokesmen, Laphystius and Demaenetus by name, +fell to slander Timoleon. The former of whom requiring him to put in sureties +that he would answer to an indictment that would be brought against him, +Timoleon would not suffer the citizens, who were incensed at this demand, to +oppose it or hinder the proceeding, since he of his own accord had been, he +said, at all that trouble, and run so many dangerous risks for this very end +and purpose, that every one who wished to try matters by law should freely have +recourse to it. And when Demaenetus, in a full audience of the people, laid +several things to his charge which had been done while he was general, he made +no other reply to him, but only said he was much indebted to the gods for +granting the request he had so often made them, namely, that he might live to +see the Syracusans enjoy that liberty of speech which they now seemed to be +masters of. +</p> + +<p> +Timoleon, therefore, having by confession of all done the greatest and the +noblest things of any Greek of his age, and alone distinguished himself in +those actions to which their orators and philosophers, in their harangues and +panegyrics at their solemn national assemblies, used to exhort and incite the +Greeks, and being withdrawn beforehand by happy fortune, unspotted and without +blood, from the calamities of civil war, in which ancient Greece was soon after +involved; having also given full proof, as of his sage conduct and manly +courage to the barbarians and tyrants, so of his justice and gentleness to the +Greeks, and his friends in general; having raised, too, the greater part of +those trophies he won in battle, without any tears shed or any mourning worn by +the citizens either of Syracuse or Corinth, and within less than eight years’ +space delivered Sicily from its inveterate grievances and intestine distempers, +and given it up free to the native inhabitants, began, as he was now growing +old, to find his eyes fail, and awhile after became perfectly blind. Not that +he had done anything himself which might occasion this defect, or was deprived +of his sight by any outrage of fortune; it seems rather to have been some +inbred and hereditary weakness that was founded in natural causes, which by +length of time came to discover itself. For it is said, that several of his +kindred and family were subject to the like gradual decay, and lost all use of +their eyes, as he did, in their declining years. Athanis the historian tells +us, that even during the war against Hippo and Mamercus, while he was in his +camp at Mylae, there appeared a white speck within his eye, from whence all +could foresee the deprivation that was coming on him; this, however, did not +hinder him then from continuing the siege, and prosecuting the war, till he got +both the tyrants into his power; but upon his coming back to Syracuse, he +presently resigned the authority of sole commander, and besought the citizens +to excuse him from any further service, since things were already brought to so +fair an issue. Nor is it so much to be wondered, that he himself should bear +the misfortune without any marks of trouble; but the respect and gratitude +which the Syracusans showed him when he was entirely blind, may justly deserve +our admiration. They used to go themselves to visit him in troops, and brought +all the strangers that traveled through their country to his house and manor, +that they also might have the pleasure to see their noble benefactor; making it +the great matter of their joy and exultation, that when, after so many brave +and happy exploits, he might have returned with triumph into Greece, he should +disregard all the glorious preparations that were there made to receive him, +and choose rather to stay here and end his days among them. Of the various +things decreed and done in honor of Timoleon, I consider one most signal +testimony to have been the vote which they passed, that, whenever they should +be at war with any foreign nation, they should make use of none but a +Corinthian general. The method, also, of their proceeding in council, was a +noble demonstration of the same deference for his person. For, determining +matters of less consequence themselves, they always called him to advise in the +more difficult cases, and such as were of greater moment. He was, on these +occasions, carried through the market-place in a litter, and brought in, +sitting, into the theater, where the people with one voice saluted him by his +name; and then, after returning the courtesy, and pausing for a time, till the +noise of their gratulations and blessings began to cease, he heard the business +in debate, and delivered his opinion. This being confirmed by a general +suffrage, his servants went back with the litter through the midst of the +assembly, the people waiting on him out with acclamations and applauses, and +then returning to consider other public matters, which they could dispatch in +his absence. Being thus cherished in his old age, with all the respect and +tenderness due to a common father, he was seized with a very slight +indisposition, which however was sufficient, with the aid of time, to put a +period to his life. There was an allotment then of certain days given, within +the space of which the Syracusans were to provide whatever should be necessary +for his burial, and all the neighboring country people and strangers were to +make their appearance in a body; so that the funeral pomp was set out with +great splendor and magnificence in all other respects, and the bier, decked +with ornaments and trophies, was borne by a select body of young men over that +ground where the palace and castle of Dionysius stood, before they were +demolished by Timoleon. There attended on the solemnity several thousands of +men and women, all crowned with flowers, and arrayed in fresh and clean attire, +which made it look like the procession of a public festival; while the language +of all, and their tears mingling with their praise and benediction of the dead +Timoleon, manifestly showed that it was not any superficial honor, or commanded +homage, which they paid him, but the testimony of a just sorrow for his death, +and the expression of true affection. The bier at length being placed upon the +pile of wood that was kindled to consume his corpse, Demetrius, one of their +loudest criers, proceeded to read a proclamation to the following purpose: “The +people of Syracuse has made a special decree to inter Timoleon, the son of +Timodemus, the Corinthian, at the common expense of two hundred minas, and to +honor his memory forever, by the establishment of annual prizes to be competed +for in music, and horse races, and all sorts of bodily exercise; and this, +because he suppressed the tyrants, overthrew the barbarians, replenished the +principal cities, that were desolate, with new inhabitants, and then restored +the Sicilian Greeks to the privilege of living by their own laws.” Besides +this, they made a tomb for him in the marketplace, which they afterwards built +round with colonnades, and attached to it places of exercise for the young men, +and gave it the name of the Timoleonteum. And keeping to that form and order of +civil policy and observing those laws and constitutions which he left them, +they lived themselves a long time in great prosperity. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap19"></a>AEMILIUS PAULUS</h2> + +<p> +Almost all historians agree that the Aemilii were one of the ancient and +patrician houses in Rome; and those authors who affirm that king Numa was pupil +to Pythagoras, tell us that the first who gave the name to his posterity was +Mamercus, the son of Pythagoras, who, for his grace and address in speaking, +was called Aemilius. Most of this race that have risen through their merit to +reputation, also enjoyed good fortune; and even the misfortune of Lucius Paulus +at the battle of Cannae, gave testimony to his wisdom and valor. For, not being +able to persuade his colleague not to hazard the battle, he, though against his +judgment, joined with him in the contest, but was no companion in his flight: +on the contrary, when he that was so resolute to engage deserted him in the +midst of danger, he kept the field, and died fighting. This Aemilius had a +daughter named Aemilia, who was married to Scipio the Great, and a son Paulus, +who is the subject of my present history. +</p> + +<p> +In his early manhood, which fell at a time when Rome was flourishing with +illustrious characters, he was distinguished for not attaching himself to the +studies usual with the young men of mark of that age, nor treading the same +paths to fame. For he did not practice oratory with a view to pleading causes, +nor would he stoop to salute, embrace, and entertain the vulgar, which were the +usual insinuating arts by which many grew popular. Not that he was incapable of +either, but he chose to purchase a much more lasting glory by his valor, +justice, and integrity, and in these virtues he soon outstripped all his +equals. +</p> + +<p> +The first honorable office he aspired to was that of aedile, which he carried +against twelve competitors of such merit, that all of them in process of time +were consuls. Being afterwards chosen into the number of priests called augurs, +appointed amongst the Romans to observe and register divinations made by the +flight of birds or prodigies in the air, he so carefully studied the ancient +customs of his country, and so thoroughly understood the religion of his +ancestors, that this office, which was before only esteemed a title of honor +and merely upon that account sought after, by his means rose to the rank of one +of the highest arts, and gave a confirmation to the correctness of the +definition which some philosophers have given of religion, that it is the +science of worshiping the gods. When he performed any part of his duty, he did +it with great skill and utmost care, making it, when he was engaged in it, his +only business, not omitting any one ceremony, or adding the least circumstance, +but always insisting, with his companions of the same order, even on points +that might seem inconsiderable, and urging upon them, that though they might +think the deity was easily pacified, and ready to forgive faults of +inadvertency, yet any such laxity was a very dangerous thing for a commonwealth +to allow: because no man ever began the disturbance of his country’s peace by a +notorious breach of its laws; and those who are careless in trifles, give a +precedent for remissness in important duties. Nor was he less severe, in +requiring and observing the ancient Roman discipline in military affairs; not +endeavoring, when he had the command, to ingratiate himself with his soldiers +by popular flattery, though this custom prevailed at that time amongst many, +who, by favor and gentleness to those that were under them in their first +employment, sought to be promoted to a second; but, by instructing them in the +laws of military discipline with the same care and exactness a priest would use +in teaching ceremonies and dreadful mysteries, and by severity to such as +transgressed and contemned those laws, he maintained his country in its former +greatness, esteeming victory over enemies itself but as an accessory to the +proper training and disciplining of the citizens. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the Romans were engaged in war with Antiochus the Great, against whom +their most experienced commanders were employed, there arose another war in the +west, and they were all up in arms in Spain. Thither they sent Aemilius, in the +quality of praetor, not with six axes, which number other praetors were +accustomed to have carried before them, but with twelve; so that in his +praetorship he was honored with the dignity of a consul. He twice overcame the +barbarians in battle, thirty thousand of whom were slain: successes chiefly to +be ascribed to the wisdom and conduct of the commander, who by his great skill +in choosing the advantage of the ground, and making the onset at the passage of +a river, gave his soldiers an easy victory. Having made himself master of two +hundred and fifty cities, whose inhabitants voluntarily yielded, and bound +themselves by oath to fidelity, he left the province in peace, and returned to +Rome, not enriching himself a drachma by the war. And, indeed, in general, he +was but remiss in making money; though he always lived freely and generously on +what he had, which was so far from being excessive, that after his death there +was but barely enough left to answer his wife’s dowry. +</p> + +<p> +His first wife was Papiria, the daughter of Maso, who had formerly been consul. +With her he lived a considerable time in wedlock, and then divorced her, though +she had made him the father of noble children; being mother of the renowned +Scipio, and Fabius Maximus. The reason of this separation has not come to our +knowledge; but there seems to be a truth conveyed in the account of another +Roman’s being divorced from his wife, which may be applicable here. This person +being highly blamed by his friends, who demanded, Was she not chaste? was she +not fair? was she not fruitful? holding out his shoe, asked them, Whether it +was not new? and well made? Yet, added he, none of you can tell where it +pinches me. Certain it is, that great and open faults have often led to no +separation; while mere petty repeated annoyances, arising from unpleasantness +or incongruity of character, have been the occasion of such estrangement as to +make it impossible for man and wife to live together with any content. +</p> + +<p> +Aemilius, having thus put away Papiria, married a second wife, by whom he had +two sons, whom he brought up in his own house, transferring the two former into +the greatest and most noble families of Rome. The elder was adopted into the +house of Fabius Maximus, who was five times consul; the younger, by the son of +Scipio Africanus, his cousin-german, and was by him named Scipio. +</p> + +<p> +Of the daughters of Aemilius, one was married to the son of Cato, the other to +Aelius Tubero, a most worthy man, and the one Roman who best succeeded in +combining liberal habits with poverty. For there were sixteen near relations, +all of them of the family of the Aelii, possessed of but one farm, which +sufficed them all, whilst one small house, or rather cottage, contained them, +their numerous offspring, and their wives; amongst whom was the daughter of our +Aemilius, who, although her father had been twice consul, and had twice +triumphed, was not ashamed of her husband’s poverty, but proud of his virtue +that kept him poor. Far otherwise it is with the brothers and relations of this +age, who, unless whole tracts of land, or at least walls and rivers, part their +inheritances, and keep them at a distance, never cease from mutual quarrels. +History suggests a variety of good counsel of this sort, by the way, to those +who desire to learn and improve. +</p> + +<p> +To proceed: Aemilius, being chosen consul, waged war with the Ligurians, or +Ligustines, a people near the Alps. They were a bold and warlike nation, and +their neighborhood to the Romans had begun to give them skill in the arts of +war. They occupy the further parts of Italy ending under the Alps, and those +parts of the Alps themselves which are washed by the Tuscan sea and face +towards Africa, mingled there with Gauls and Iberians of the coast. Besides, at +that time they had turned their thoughts to the sea, and sailing as far as the +Pillars of Hercules in light vessels fitted for that purpose, robbed and +destroyed all that trafficked in those parts. They, with an army of forty +thousand, waited the coming of Aemilius, who brought with him not above eight +thousand, so that the enemy was five to one when they engaged; yet he +vanquished and put them to flight, forcing them to retire into their walled +towns, and in this condition offered them fair conditions of accommodation; it +being the policy of the Romans not utterly to destroy the Ligurians, because +they were a sort of guard and bulwark against the frequent attempts of the +Gauls to overrun Italy. Trusting wholly therefore to Aemilius, they delivered +up their towns and shipping into his hands. He, at the utmost, razed only the +fortifications, and delivered their towns to them again, but took away all +their shipping with him, leaving them no vessels bigger than those of three +oars, and set at liberty great numbers of prisoners they had taken both by sea +and land, strangers as well as Romans. These were the acts most worthy of +remark in his first consulship. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards he frequently intimated his desire of being a second time consul, +and was once candidate; but, meeting with a repulse and being passed by, he +gave up all thought of it, and devoted himself to his duties as augur, and to +the education of his children, whom he not only brought up, as he himself had +been, in the Roman and ancient discipline, but also with unusual zeal in that +of Greece. To this purpose he not only procured masters to teach them grammar, +logic, and rhetoric, but had for them also preceptors in modeling and drawing, +managers of horses and dogs, and instructors in field sports, all from Greece. +And, if he was not hindered by public affairs, he himself would be with them at +their studies, and see them perform their exercises, being the most +affectionate father in Rome. +</p> + +<p> +This was the time, in public matters, when the Romans were engaged in war with +Perseus, king of the Macedonians, and great complaints were made of their +commanders, who, either through their want of skill or courage, were conducting +matters so shamefully, that they did less hurt to the enemy than they received +from him. They that not long before had forced Antiochus the Great to quit the +rest of Asia, to retire beyond Mount Taurus, and confine himself to Syria, glad +to buy his peace with fifteen thousand talents; they that not long since had +vanquished king Philip in Thessaly, and freed the Greeks from the Macedonian +yoke; nay, had overcome Hannibal himself, who far surpassed all kings in daring +and power,thought it scorn that Perseus should think himself an enemy fit to +match the Romans, and to be able to wage war with them so long on equal terms, +with the remainder only of his father’s routed forces; not being aware that +Philip after his defeat had greatly improved both the strength and discipline +of the Macedonian army. To make which appear, I shall briefly recount the story +from the beginning. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus, the most powerful amongst the captains and successors of Alexander, +having obtained for himself and his posterity the title of king, had a son +named Demetrius, father to Antigonus, called Gonatas, and he had a son +Demetrius, who, reigning some short time, died and left a young son called +Philip. The chief men of Macedon, fearing great confusion might arise in his +minority, called in Antigonus, cousin-german to the late king, and married him +to the widow, the mother of Philip. At first they only styled him regent and +general, but, when they found by experience that he governed the kingdom with +moderation and to general advantage, gave him the title of king. This was he +that was surnamed Doson, as if he was a great promiser, and a bad performer. To +him succeeded Philip, who in his youth gave great hopes of equaling the best of +kings, and that he one day would restore Macedon to its former state and +dignity, and prove himself the one man able to check the power of the Romans, +now rising and extending over the whole world. But, being vanquished in a +pitched battle by Titus Flamininus near Scotussa, his resolution failed, and he +yielded himself and all that he had to the mercy of the Romans, well contented +that he could escape with paying a small tribute. Yet afterwards, recollecting +himself, he bore it with great impatience, and thought he lived rather like a +slave that was pleased with ease, than a man of sense and courage, whilst he +held his kingdom at the pleasure of his conquerors; which made him turn his +whole mind to war, and prepare himself with as much cunning and privacy as +possible. To this end, he left his cities on the high roads and sea-coast +ungarrisoned, and almost desolate, that they might seem inconsiderable; in the +mean time, collecting large forces up the country, and furnishing his inland +posts, strongholds, and towns, with arms, money, and men fit for service, he +thus provided himself for war, and yet kept his preparations close. He had in +his armory arms for thirty thousand men; in granaries in places of strength, +eight millions of bushels of corn, and as much ready money as would defray the +charge of maintaining ten thousand mercenary soldiers for ten years in defense +of the country. But before he could put these things into motion, and carry his +designs into effect, he died for grief and anguish of mind, being sensible he +had put his innocent son Demetrius to death, upon the calumnies of one that was +far more guilty. Perseus, his son that survived, inherited his hatred to the +Romans as well as his kingdom, but was incompetent to carry out his designs, +through want of courage, and the viciousness of a character in which, among +faults and diseases of various sorts, covetousness bore the chief place. There +is a statement also of his not being true born; that the wife of king Philip +took him from his mother Gnathaenion (a woman of Argos, that earned her living +as a seamstress), as soon as he was born, and passed him upon her husband as +her own. And this might be the chief cause of his contriving the death of +Demetrius; as he might well fear, that so long as there was a lawful successor +in the family, there was no security that his spurious birth might not be +revealed. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding all this, and though his spirit was so mean, and temper so +sordid, yet, trusting to the strength of his resources, he engaged in a war +with the Romans, and for a long time maintained it; repulsing and even +vanquishing some generals of consular dignity, and some great armies and +fleets. He routed Publius Licinius, who was the first that invaded Macedonia, +in a cavalry battle, slew twenty-five hundred practiced soldiers, and took six +hundred prisoners; and, surprising their fleet as they rode at anchor before +Oreus, he took twenty ships of burden with all their lading, sunk the rest that +were freighted with corn, and, besides this, made himself master of four +galleys with five banks of oars. He fought a second battle with Hostilius, a +consular officer, as he was making his way into the country at Elimiae, and +forced him to retreat; and, when he afterwards by stealth designed an invasion +through Thessaly, challenged him to fight, which the other feared to accept. +Nay more, to show his contempt of the Romans, and that he wanted employment, as +a war by the by, he made an expedition against the Dardanians, in which he slew +ten thousand of those barbarian people, and brought a great spoil away. He +privately, moreover, solicited the Gauls (also called Basternae), a warlike +nation, and famous for horsemen, dwelling near the Danube; and incited the +Illyrians, by the means of Genthius their king, to join with him in the war. It +was also reported, that the barbarians, allured by promise of rewards, were to +make an irruption into Italy, through the lower Gaul by the shore of the +Adriatic Sea. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans, being advertised of these things, thought it necessary no longer to +choose their commanders by favor or solicitation, but of their own motion to +select a general of wisdom and capacity for the management of great affairs. +And such was Paulus Aemilius, advanced in years, being nearly threescore, yet +vigorous in his own person, and rich in valiant sons and sons-in-law, besides a +great number of influential relations and friends, all of whom joined in urging +him to yield to the desires of the people, who called him to the consulship. He +at first manifested some shyness of the people, and withdrew himself from their +importunity, professing reluctance to hold office; but, when they daily came to +his doors, urging him to come forth to the place of election, and pressing him +with noise and clamor, he acceded to their request. When he appeared amongst +the candidates, it did not look as if it were to sue for the consulship, but to +bring victory and success, that he came down into the Campus; they all received +him there with such hopes and such gladness, unanimously choosing him a second +time consul; nor would they suffer the lots to be cast, as was usual, to +determine which province should fall to his share, but immediately decreed him +the command of the Macedonian war. It is told, that when he had been proclaimed +general against Perseus, and was honorably accompanied home by great numbers of +people, he found his daughter Tertia, a very little girl, weeping, and taking +her to him asked her why she was crying. She, catching him about the neck and +kissing him, said, “O father, do you not know that Perseus is dead?” meaning a +little dog of that name that was brought up in the house with her; to which +Aemilius replied, “Good fortune, my daughter; I embrace the omen.” This Cicero, +the orator, relates in his book on divination. +</p> + +<p> +It was the custom for such as were chosen consuls, from a stage designed for +such purposes, to address the people, and return them thanks for their favor. +Aemilius, therefore, having gathered an assembly, spoke and said, that he sued +for the first consulship, because he himself stood in need of such honor; but +for the second, because they wanted a general; upon which account he thought +there was no thanks due: if they judged they could manage the war by any other +to more advantage, he would willingly yield up his charge; but, if they +confided in him, they were not to make themselves his colleagues in his office, +or raise reports, and criticize his actions, but, without talking, supply him +with means and assistance necessary to the carrying on of the war; for, if they +proposed to command their own commander, they would render this expedition more +ridiculous than the former. By this speech he inspired great reverence for him +amongst the citizens, and great expectations of future success; all were well +pleased, that they had passed by such as sought to be preferred by flattery, +and fixed upon a commander endued with wisdom and courage to tell them the +truth. So entirely did the people of Rome, that they might rule, and become +masters of the world, yield obedience and service to reason and superior +virtue. +</p> + +<p> +That Aemilius, setting forward to the war, by a prosperous voyage and +successful journey, arrived with speed and safety at his camp, I attribute to +good fortune; but, when I see how the war under his command was brought to a +happy issue, partly by his own daring boldness, partly by his good counsel, +partly by the ready administration of his friends, partly by his presence of +mind and skill to embrace the most proper advice in the extremity of danger, I +cannot ascribe any of his remarkable and famous actions (as I can those of +other commanders) to his so much celebrated good fortune; unless you will say +that the covetousness of Perseus was the good fortune of Aemilius. The truth +is, Perseus’ fear of spending his money was the destruction and utter ruin of +all those splendid and great preparations with which the Macedonians were in +high hopes to carry on the war with success. For there came at his request ten +thousand horsemen of the Basternae, and as many foot, who were to keep pace +with them, and supply their places in case of failure; all of them professed +soldiers, men skilled neither in tilling of land, nor in navigation of ships, +nor able to get their livings by grazing, but whose only business and single +art and trade it was to fight and conquer all that resisted them. When these +came into the district of Maedica, and encamped and mixed with the king’s +soldiers, being men of great stature, admirable at their exercises, great +boasters, and loud in their threats against their enemies, they gave new +courage to the Macedonians, who were ready to think the Romans would not be +able to confront them, but would be struck with terror at their looks and +motions, they were so strange and so formidable to behold. When Perseus had +thus encouraged his men, and elevated them with these great hopes, as soon as a +thousand gold pieces were demanded for each captain, he was so amazed and +beside himself at the vastness of the amount, that out of mere stinginess he +drew back and let himself lose their assistance, as if he had been some +steward, not the enemy of the Romans, and would have to give an exact account +of the expenses of the war, to those with whom he waged it. Nay, when he had +his foes as tutors, to instruct him what he had to do, who, besides their other +preparations, had a hundred thousand men drawn together and in readiness for +their service; yet he that was to engage against so considerable a force, and +in a war that was maintaining such numbers as this, nevertheless doled out his +money, and put seals on his bags, and was as fearful of touching it, as if it +had belonged to some one else. And all this was done by one, not descended from +Lydians or Phoenicians, but who could pretend to some share of the virtues of +Alexander and Philip, whom he was allied to by birth; men who conquered the +world by judging that empire was to be purchased by money, not money by empire. +Certainly it became a proverb, that not Philip, but his gold took the cities of +Greece. And Alexander, when he undertook his expedition against the Indians, +and found his Macedonians encumbered, and appear to march heavily with their +Persian spoils, first set fire to his own carriages, and thence persuaded the +rest to imitate his example, that thus freed they might proceed to the war +without hindrance. Whereas Perseus, abounding in wealth, would not preserve +himself; his children, and his kingdom, at the expense of a small part of his +treasure; but chose rather to be carried away with numbers of his subjects with +the name of the wealthy captive, and show the Romans what great riches he had +husbanded and preserved for them. For he not only played false with the Gauls, +and sent them away, but also, after alluring Genthius, king of the Illyrians, +by the hopes of three hundred talents, to assist him in the war, he caused the +money to be counted out in the presence of his messengers, and to be sealed up. +Upon which Genthius, thinking himself possessed of what he desired, committed a +wicked and shameful act: he seized and imprisoned the ambassadors sent to him +from the Romans. Whence Perseus, concluding that there was now no need of money +to make Genthius an enemy to the Romans, but that he had given a lasting +earnest of his enmity, and by his flagrant injustice sufficiently involved +himself in the war, defrauded the unfortunate king of his three hundred +talents, and without any concern beheld him, his wife, and children, in a short +time after, carried out of their kingdom, as from their nest, by Lucius +Anicius, who was sent against him with an army. +</p> + +<p> +Aemilius, coming against such an adversary, made light indeed of him, but +admired his preparation and power. For he had four thousand horse, and not much +fewer than forty thousand full-armed foot of the phalanx; and planting himself +along the seaside, at the foot of Mount Olympus, in ground with no access on +any side, and on all sides fortified with fences and bulwarks of wood, remained +in great security, thinking by delay and expense to weary out Aemilius. But he, +in the meantime, busy in thought, weighed all counsels and all means of attack, +and perceiving his soldiers, from their former want of discipline, to be +impatient of delay, and ready on all occasions to teach their general his duty, +rebuked them, and bade them not meddle with what was not their concern, but +only take care that they and their arms were in readiness, and to use their +swords like Romans when their commander should think fit to employ them. +Further he ordered, that the sentinels by night should watch without javelins, +that thus they might be more careful and surer to resist sleep, having no arms +to defend themselves against any attacks of an enemy. +</p> + +<p> +What most annoyed the army was the want of water; for only a little, and that +foul, flowed out, or rather came by drops from a spring adjoining the sea; but +Aemilius, considering that he was at the foot of the high and woody mountain +Olympus, and conjecturing by the flourishing growth of the trees that there +were springs that had their course under ground, dug a great many holes and +wells along the foot of the mountain, which were presently filled with pure +water escaping from its confinement into the vacuum they afforded. Although +there are some, indeed, who deny that there are reservoirs of water lying ready +provided out of sight, in the places from whence springs flow, and that when +they appear, they merely issue and run out; on the contrary, they say, they are +then formed and come into existence for the first time, by the liquefaction of +the surrounding matter; and that this change is caused by density and cold, +when the moist vapor, by being closely pressed together, becomes fluid. As +women’s breasts are not like vessels full of milk always prepared and ready to +flow from them; but their nourishment being changed in their breasts, is there +made milk, and from thence is pressed out. In like manner, places of the earth +that are cold and full of springs, do not contain any hidden waters or +receptacles which are capable, as from a source always ready and furnished, of +supplying all the brooks and deep rivers; but, by compressing and condensing +the vapors and air, they turn them into that substance. And thus places that +are dug open flow by that pressure, and afford the more water (as the breasts +of women do milk by their being sucked), the vapor thus moistening and becoming +fluid; whereas ground that remains idle and undug is not capable of producing +any water, whilst it wants that motion which is the cause of liquefaction. But +those that assert this opinion, give occasion to the doubtful to argue, that on +the same ground there should be no blood in living creatures, but that it must +be formed by the wound, some sort of spirit or flesh being changed into a +liquid and flowing matter. Moreover, they are refuted by the fact that men who +dig mines, either in sieges or for metals, meet with rivers, which are not +collected by little and little (as must necessarily be, if they had their being +at the very instant the earth was opened), but break out at once with violence; +and upon the cutting through a rock, there often gush out great quantities of +water, which then as suddenly cease. But of this enough. +</p> + +<p> +Aemilius lay still for some days, and it is said, that there were never two +great armies so nigh, that enjoyed so much quiet. When he had tried and +considered all things, he was informed that there was yet one passage left +unguarded, through Perrhaebia by the temple of Apollo and the Rock. Gathering, +therefore, more hope from the place being left defenseless than fear from the +roughness and difficulty of the passage, he proposed it for consultation. +Amongst those that were present at the council, Scipio, surnamed Nasica, +son-in-law to Scipio Africanus, who afterwards was so powerful in the +senate-house, was the first that offered himself to command those that should +be sent to encompass the enemy. Next to him, Fabius Maximus, eldest son of +Aemilius, although yet very young, offered himself with great zeal. Aemilius, +rejoicing, gave them, not so many as Polybius states, but, as Nasica himself +tells us in a brief letter which he wrote to one of the kings with an account +of the expedition, three thousand Italians that were not Romans, and his left +wing consisting of five thousand. Taking with him, besides these, one hundred +and twenty horsemen, and two hundred Thracians and Cretans intermixed that +Harpalus had sent, he began his journey towards the sea, and encamped near the +temple of Hercules, as if he designed to embark, and so to sail round and +environ the enemy. But when the soldiers had supped and it was dark, he made +the captains acquainted with his real intentions, and marching all night in the +opposite direction, away from the sea, till he came under the temple of Apollo, +there rested his army. At this place Mount Olympus rises in height more than +ten furlongs, as appears by the epigram made by the man that measured it: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The summit of Olympus, at the site<br/> +Where stands Apollo’s temple, has a height<br/> +Of full ten furlongs by the line, and more,<br/> +Ten furlongs, and one hundred feet, less four.<br/> +Eumelus’ son Xenagoras, reached the place.<br/> +Adieu, O king, and do thy pilgrim grace. +</p> + +<p> +It is allowed, say the geometricians, that no mountain in height or sea in +depth exceeds ten furlongs, and yet it seems probable that Xenagoras did not +take his admeasurement carelessly, but according to the rules of art, and with +instruments for the purpose. Here it was that Nasica passed the night. +</p> + +<p> +A Cretan deserter, who fled to the enemy during the march, discovered to +Perseus the design which the Romans had to encompass him: for he, seeing that +Aemilius lay still, had not suspected any such attempt. He was startled at the +news, yet did not put his army in motion, but sent ten thousand mercenary +soldiers and two thousand Macedonians, under command of Milo, with order to +hasten and possess themselves of the passes. Polybius relates that the Romans +found these men asleep when they attacked them; but Nasica says there was a +sharp and severe conflict on the top of the mountain, that he himself +encountered a mercenary Thracian, pierced him through with his javelin, and +slew him; and that the enemy being forced to retreat, Milo stripped to his coat +and fled shamefully without his armor, while he followed without danger, and +conveyed the whole army down into the country. +</p> + +<p> +After this event, Perseus, now grown fearful, and fallen from his hopes, +removed his camp in all haste; he was under the necessity either to stop before +Pydna, and there run the hazard of a battle, or disperse his army into cities, +and there expect the event of the war, which, having once made its way into his +country, could not be driven out without great slaughter and bloodshed. But +Perseus, being told by his friends that he was much superior in number, and +that men fighting in the defense of their wives and children must needs feel +all the more courage, especially when all was done in the sight of their king, +who himself was engaged in equal danger, was thus again encouraged; and, +pitching his camp, prepared himself to fight, viewed the country, and gave out +the commands, as if he designed to set upon the Romans as soon as they +approached. The place was a field fit for the action of a phalanx, which +requires smooth standing and even ground, and also had divers little hills, one +joining another, fit for the motions whether in retreat or advance of light +troops and skirmishers. Through the middle ran the rivers Aeson and Leucus, +which, though not very deep, it being the latter end of summer, yet were likely +enough to give the Romans some trouble. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Aemilius had rejoined Nasica, he advanced in battle array against +the enemy; but when he found how they were drawn up, and the number of their +forces, he regarded them with admiration and surprise, and halted, considering +within himself. The young commanders, eager to fight, riding along, by his +side, pressed him not to delay, and most of all Nasica, flushed with his late +success on Olympus. To whom Aemilius answered with a smile: “So would I do, +were I of your age; but many victories have taught me the ways in which men are +defeated, and forbid me to engage soldiers weary with a long march, against an +army drawn up and prepared for battle.” +</p> + +<p> +Then he gave command that the front of his army, and such as were in sight of +the enemy, should form as if ready to engage, and those in the rear should cast +up the trenches and fortify the camp; so that the hindmost in succession +wheeling off by degrees and withdrawing, their whole order was insensibly +broken up, and the army encamped without noise or trouble. +</p> + +<p> +When it was night, and, supper being over, all were turning to sleep and rest, +on a sudden the moon, which was then at full and high in the heavens, grew +dark, and by degrees losing her light, passed through various colors, and at +length was totally eclipsed. The Romans, according to their custom, clattering +brass pans and lifting up firebrands and torches into the air, invoked the +return of her light; the Macedonians behaved far otherwise: terror and +amazement seized their whole army, and a rumor crept by degrees into their camp +that this eclipse portended even that of their king. Aemilius was no novice in +these things, nor was ignorant of the nature of the seeming irregularities of +eclipses, that in a certain revolution of time, the moon in her course enters +the shadow of the earth and is there obscured, till, passing the region of +darkness, she is again enlightened by the Sun. Yet being a devout man, a +religious observer of sacrifices and the art of divination, as soon as he +perceived the moon beginning to regain her former lustre, he offered up to her +eleven heifers. At the break of day he sacrificed as many as twenty in +succession to Hercules, without any token that his offering was accepted; but +at the one and twentieth, the signs promised victory to defenders. He then +vowed a hecatomb and solemn sports to Hercules, and commanded his captains to +make ready for battle, staying only till the sun should decline and come round +to the west, lest, being in their faces in the morning, it should dazzle the +eyes of his soldiers. Thus he whiled away the time in his tent, which was open +towards the plain where his enemies were encamped. +</p> + +<p> +When it grew towards evening, some tell us, Aemilius himself used a stratagem +to induce the enemy to begin the fight; that he turned loose a horse without a +bridle, and sent some of the Romans to catch him, upon whose following the +beast, the battle began. Others relate that the Thracians, under the command of +one Alexander, set upon the Roman beasts of burden that were bringing forage to +the camp; that to oppose these, a party of seven hundred Ligurians were +immediately detached; and that, relief coming still from both armies, the main +bodies at last engaged. Aemilius, like a wise pilot, foreseeing by the present +waves and motion of the armies, the greatness of the following storm, came out +of his tent, went through the legions, and encouraged his soldiers. Nasica, in +the mean time, who had ridden out to the skirmishers, saw the whole force of +the enemy on the point of engaging. First marched the Thracians, who, he +himself tells us, inspired him with most terror; they were of great stature, +with bright and glittering shields and black frocks under them, their legs +armed with greaves, and they brandished, as they moved, straight and +heavily-ironed spears over their right shoulders. Next the Thracians marched +the mercenary soldiers, armed after different fashions; with these the +Paeonians were mingled. These were succeeded by a third division, of picked +men, native Macedonians, the choicest for courage and strength, in the prime of +life, gleaming with gilt armor and scarlet coats. As these were taking their +places they were followed from the camp by the troops in phalanx called the +Brazen Shields, so that the whole plain seemed alive with the flashing of steel +and the glistening of brass; and the hills also with their shouts, as they +cheered each other on. In this order they marched, and with such boldness and +speed, that those that were first slain died at but two furlongs distance from +the Roman camp. +</p> + +<p> +The battle being begun, Aemilius came in and found that the foremost of the +Macedonians had already fixed the ends of their spears into the shields of his +Romans, so that it was impossible to come near them with their swords. When he +saw this, and observed that the rest of the Macedonians took the targets that +hung on their left shoulders, and brought them round before them, and all at +once stooped their pikes against their enemies’ shields, and considered the +great strength of this wall of shields, and the formidable appearance of a +front thus bristling with arms, he was seized with amazement and alarm; nothing +he had ever seen before had been equal to it; and in after times he frequently +used to speak both of the sight and of his own sensations. These, however, he +dissembled, and rode through his army without either breast-plate or helmet, +with a serene and cheerful countenance. +</p> + +<p> +On the contrary, as Polybius relates, no sooner was the battle begun, but the +Macedonian king basely withdrew to the city Pydna, under a pretence of +sacrificing to Hercules: a God that is not wont to regard the faint offerings +of cowards, or to fulfill unsanctioned vows. For truly it can hardly be a thing +that heaven would sanction, that he that never shoots should carry away the +prize; he triumph that slinks from the battle; he that takes no pains meet with +success, or the wicked man prosper. But to Aemilius’s petitions the god +listened; he prayed for victory with his sword in his hand, and fought while +entreating divine assistance. +</p> + +<p> +A certain Posidonius, who has at some length written a history of Perseus, and +professes to have lived at the time, and to have been himself engaged in these +events, denies that Perseus left the field either through fear or pretence of +sacrificing, but that, the very day before the fight, he received a kick from a +horse on his thigh; that though very much disabled, and dissuaded by all his +friends, he commanded one of his riding-horses to be brought, and entered the +field unarmed; that amongst an infinite number of darts that flew about on all +sides, one of iron lighted on him, and though not with the point, yet by a +glance struck him with such force on his left side, that it tore his clothes +and so bruised his flesh that the mark remained a long time after. This is what +Posidonius says in defense of Perseus. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans not being able to make a breach in the phalanx, one Salius, a +commander of the Pelignians, snatched the ensign of his company and threw it +amongst the enemies; on seeing which, the Pelignians (as amongst the Italians +it is always thought the greatest breach of honor to abandon a standard) rushed +with great violence towards the place, where the conflict grew very fierce, and +the slaughter terrible on both sides. For these endeavored to cut the spears +asunder with their swords, or to beat them back with their shields, or put them +by with their hands; and, on the other side, the Macedonians held their long +sarissas in both hands, and pierced those that came in their way quite through +their armor, no shield or corslet being able to resist the force of that +weapon. The Pelignians and Marrucinians were thrown headlong to the ground, +having without consideration, with mere animal fury, rushed upon a certain +death. Their first ranks being slain, those that were behind were forced to +give back; it cannot be said they fled, but they retreated towards Mount +Olocrus. When Aemilius saw this, Posidonius relates, he rent his clothes, some +of his men being ready to fly, and the rest not willing to engage with a +phalanx into which they could not hope to make any entrance, a sort of +palisade, as it were, impregnable and unapproachable, with its close array of +long spears everywhere meeting the assailant. Nevertheless, the unequalness of +the ground would not permit a widely extended front to be so exactly drawn up +as to have their shields everywhere joined; and Aemilius perceived that there +were a great many interstices and breaches in the Macedonian phalanx; as it +usually happens in all great armies, according to the different efforts of the +combatants, who in one part press forward with eagerness, and in another are +forced to fall back. Taking, therefore, this occasion, with all speed he broke +up his men into their cohorts, and gave them order to fall into the intervals +and openings of the enemy’s body, and not to make one general attack upon them +all, but to engage, as they were divided, in several partial battles. These +commands Aemilius gave to his captains, and they to their soldiers; and no +sooner had they entered the spaces and separated their enemies, but they +charged them, some on their side where they were naked and exposed, and others, +making a circuit, behind; and thus destroyed the force of the phalanx, which +consisted in common action and close union. And now, come to fight man to man, +or in small parties, the Macedonians smote in vain upon firm and long shields +with their little swords, whilst their slight bucklers were not able to sustain +the weight and force of the Roman swords, which pierced through all their armor +to their bodies; they turned, in fine, and fled. +</p> + +<p> +The conflict was obstinate. And here Marcus, the son of Cato, and son- in-law +of Aemilius, whilst he showed all possible courage, let fall his sword. Being a +young man, carefully brought up and disciplined, and, as son of so renowned a +father, bound to give proof of more than ordinary virtue, he thought his life +but a burden, should he live and permit his enemies to enjoy this spoil. He +hurried hither and thither, and wherever he espied a friend or companion, +declared his misfortune, and begged their assistance; a considerable number of +brave men being thus collected, with one accord they made their way through +their fellows after their leader, and fell upon the enemy; whom, after a sharp +conflict, many wounds, and much slaughter, they repulsed, possessed the place +that was now deserted and free, and set themselves to search for the sword, +which at last they found covered with a great heap of arms and dead bodies. +Overjoyed with this success, they raised the song of triumph, and with more +eagerness than ever, charged the foes that yet remained firm and unbroken. In +the end, three thousand of the chosen men, who kept their ground and fought +valiantly to the last, were all cut in pieces, while the slaughter of such as +fled was also very great. The plain and the lower part of the hills were filled +with dead bodies, and the water of the river Leucus, which the Romans did not +pass till the next day after the battle, was then mingled with blood. For it is +said there fell more than twenty-five thousand of the enemy; of the Romans, as +Posidonius relates, a hundred; as Nasica, only fourscore. This battle, though +so great, was very quickly decided, it being three in the afternoon when they +first engaged, and not four when the enemy was vanquished; the rest of the day +was spent in the pursuit of the fugitives, whom they followed about thirteen or +fourteen miles, so that it was far in the night when they returned. +</p> + +<p> +All the others were met by their servants with torches, and brought back with +joy and great triumph to their tents, which were set out with lights, and +decked with wreaths of ivy and laurel. But the general himself was in great +grief. Of the two sons that served under him in the war, the youngest was +missing, whom he held most dear, and whose courage and good qualities he +perceived much to excel those of his brothers. Bold and eager for distinction, +and still a mere child in age, he concluded that he had perished, whilst for +want of experience he had engaged himself too far amongst his enemies. His +sorrow and fears became known to the army; the soldiers, quitting their +suppers, ran about with lights, some to Aemilius’s tent, some out of the +trenches, to seek him amongst such as were slain in the first onset. There was +nothing but grief in the camp, and the plain was filled with the cries of men +calling out for Scipio; for, from his very youth, he was an object of +admiration; endowed above any of his equals with the good qualities requisite +either for command or counsel. At length, when it was late, and they almost +despaired, he returned from the pursuit with only two or three of his +companions, all covered with the fresh blood of his enemies, having been, like +some dog of noble breed, carried away by the pleasure, greater than he could +control, of his first victory. This was that Scipio that afterwards destroyed +Carthage and Numantia, and was, without dispute, the first of the Romans in +merit, and had the greatest authority amongst them. Thus Fortune, deferring her +displeasure and jealousy of such great success to some other time, let Aemilius +at present enjoy this victory, without any detraction or diminution. +</p> + +<p> +As for Perseus, from Pydna he fled to Pella with his cavalry, which was as yet +almost entire. But when the foot came up with them, and, upbraiding them as +cowards and traitors, tried to pull them off their horses, and fell to blows, +Perseus, fearing the tumult, forsook the common road, and, lest he should be +known, pulled off his purple, and carried it before him, and took his crown in +his hand, and, that he might the better converse with his friends, alighted +from his horse and led him. Of those that were about him, one stopped, +pretending to tie his shoe that was loose, another to water his horse, a third +to drink himself; and thus lagging behind, by degrees left him, they having not +so much reason to fear their enemies, as his cruelty; for he, disordered by his +misfortune, sought to clear himself by laying the cause of the overthrow upon +everybody else. He arrived at Pella in the night, where Euctus and Eudaeus, two +of his treasurers, came to him, and, what with their reflecting on his former +faults, and their free and ill-timed admonitions and counsels, so exasperated +him, that he killed them both, stabbing them with his own dagger. After this, +nobody stuck to him but Evander the Cretan, Archedemus the Aetolian, and Neon +the Boeotian. Of the common soldiers there followed him only those from Crete, +not out of any good-will, but because they were as constant to his riches as +the bees to their hive. For he carried a great treasure with him, out of which +he had suffered them to take cups, bowls, and other vessels of silver and gold, +to the value of fifty talents. But when he was come to Amphipolis, and +afterwards to Galepsus, and his fears were a little abated, he relapsed into +his old and constitutional disease of covetousness, and lamented to his friends +that he had, through inadvertency, allowed some gold plate which had belonged +to Alexander the Great to go into the hands of the Cretans, and besought those +that had it, with tears in his eyes, to exchange with him again for money. +Those that understood him thoroughly knew very well he only played the Cretan +with the Cretans, but those that believed him, and restored what they had, were +cheated; as he not only did not pay the money, but by craft got thirty talents +more of his friends into his hands (which in a short time after fell to the +enemy), and with them sailed to Samothrace, and there fled to the temple of +Castor and Pollux for refuge. +</p> + +<p> +The Macedonians were always accounted great lovers of their kings, but now, as +if their chief prop was broken, they all gave way together, and submitted to +Aemilius, and in two days made him master of their whole country. This seems to +confirm the opinion which ascribes whatever he did to good fortune. The omen, +also, that happened at Amphipolis, has a supernatural character. When he was +sacrificing there, and the holy rites were just begun, on a sudden, lightning +fell upon the altar, set the wood on fire, and completed the immolation of the +sacrifice. The most signal manifestation, however, of preternatural agency +appears in the story of the rumor of his success. For on the fourth day after +Perseus was vanquished at Pydna, whilst the people at Rome were seeing the +horse-races, a report suddenly arose at the entrance of the theater that +Aemilius had defeated Perseus in a great battle, and was reducing all Macedonia +under his power; and from thence it spread amongst the people, and created +general joy, with shoutings and acclamations for that whole day through the +city. But when no certain author was found of the news, and every one alike had +taken it at random, it was abandoned for the present and thought no more of, +until, a few days after, certain intelligence came, and then the first was +looked upon as no less than a miracle, having, under an appearance of fiction, +contained what was real and true. It is reported, also, that the news of the +battle fought in Italy, near the river Sagra, was conveyed into Peloponnesus +the same day, and of that at Mycale against the Medes, to Plataea. When the +Romans had defeated the Tarquins, who were combined with the Latins, a little +after, there were seen at Rome two tall and comely men, who professed to bring +the news from the camp. They were conjectured to be Castor and Pollux. The +first man that spoke to them in the forum, near the fountain where they were +cooling their horses, which were all of a foam, expressed surprise at the +report of the victory, when, it is said, they smiled, and gently touched his +beard with their hands, the hair of which from being black was, on the spot, +changed to yellow. This gave credit to what they said, and fixed the name of +Ahenobarbus, or Brazen-beard, on the man. And a thing which happened in our own +time will make all these credible. For when Antonius rebelled against Domitian, +and Rome was in consternation, expecting great wars from the quarter of +Germany, all on a sudden, and nobody knows upon what account, the people +spontaneously gave out a rumor of victory, and the news ran current through the +city, that Antonius himself was slain, his whole army destroyed, and not so +much as a part of it escaped; nay, this belief was so strong and positive, that +many of the magistrates offered up sacrifice. But when, at length, the author +was sought for, and none was to be found, it vanished by degrees, every one +shifting it off from himself to another, and, at last, was lost in the +numberless crowd, as in a vast ocean, and, having no solid ground to support +its credit, was, in a short time, not so much as named in the city. +Nevertheless, when Domitian marched out with his forces to the war, he met with +messengers and letters that gave him a relation of the victory; and the rumor, +it was found, had come the very day it was gained, though the distance between +the places was more than twenty-five hundred miles. The truth of this no man of +our time is ignorant of. +</p> + +<p> +But to proceed. Cnaeus Octavius, who was joined in command with Aemilius, came +to an anchor with his fleet under Samothrace, where, out of respect to the +gods, he permitted Perseus to enjoy the benefit of refuge, but took care that +he should not escape by sea. Notwithstanding, Perseus secretly persuaded +Oroandes of Crete, master of a small vessel, to convey him and his treasure +away. He, however, playing the true Cretan, took in the treasure, and bade him +come, in the night, with his children and most necessary attendants, to the +port by the temple of Ceres; but, as soon as it was evening, set sail without +him. It had been sad enough for Perseus to be forced to let down himself, his +wife and children, through a narrow window by a wall, — people altogether +unaccustomed to hardship and flying; but that which drew a far sadder sigh from +his heart was, when he was told by a man, as he wandered on the shore, that he +had seen Oroandes under sail in the main sea; it being now about daybreak. So, +there being no hopes left of escaping, he fled back again to the wall, which he +and his wife recovered, though they were seen by the Romans, before they could +reach them. His children he himself had delivered into the hands of Ion, one +that had been his favorite, but now proved his betrayer, and was the chief +cause that forced him (beasts themselves will do so when their young ones are +taken) to come and yield himself up to those that had them in their power. His +greatest confidence was in Nasica, and it was for him he called, but he not +being there, he bewailed his misfortune, and, seeing there was no possible +remedy, surrendered himself to Octavius. And here, in particular, he made it +manifest that he was possessed with a vice more sordid than covetousness +itself, namely, the fondness of life; by which he deprived himself even of +pity, the only thing that fortune never takes away from the most wretched. He +desired to be brought to Aemilius, who arose from his seat, and accompanied +with his friends went to receive him, with tears in his eyes, as a great man +fallen by the anger of the gods and his own ill fortune; when Perseus — the +most shameful of sights — threw himself at his feet, embraced his knees, and +uttered unmanly cries and petitions, such as Aemilius was not able to bear, nor +would vouchsafe to hear: but looking on him with a sad and angry countenance he +said, “Why, unhappy man, do you thus take pains to exonerate fortune of your +heaviest charge against her, by conduct that will make it seem that you are not +unjustly in calamity, and that it is not your present condition, but your +former happiness, that was more than your deserts? And why depreciate also my +victory, and make my conquests insignificant, by proving yourself a coward, and +a foe beneath a Roman? Distressed valor challenges great respect, even from +enemies; but cowardice, though never so successful, from the Romans has always +met with scorn.” Yet for all this he took him up, gave him his hand, and +delivered him into the custody of Tubero. Meantime, he himself carried his +sons, his son-in-law, and others of chief rank, especially of the younger sort, +back with him into his tent, where for a long time he sat down without speaking +one word, insomuch that they all wondered at him. At last, he began to +discourse of fortune and human affairs. “Is it meet,” said he, “for him that +knows he is but man, in his greatest prosperity to pride himself, and be +exalted at the conquest of a city, nation, or kingdom, and not rather well to +weigh this change of fortune, in which all warriors may see an example of their +common frailty, and learn a lesson that there is nothing durable or constant? +For what time can men select to think themselves secure, when that of victory +itself forces us more than any to dread our own fortune? and a very little +consideration on the law of things, and how all are hurried round, and each +man’s station changed, will introduce sadness in the midst of the greatest joy. +Or can you, when you see before your eyes the succession of Alexander himself, +who arrived at the height of power and ruled the greatest empire, in the short +space of an hour trodden under foot, — when you behold a king, that was but +even now surrounded with so numerous an army, receiving nourishment to support +his life from the hands of his conquerors, — can you, I say, believe there is +any certainty in what we now possess, whilst there is such a thing as chance? +No, young men, cast off that vain pride and empty boast of victory; sit down +with humility, looking always for what is yet to come, and the possible future +reverses which the divine displeasure may eventually make the end of our +present happiness.” It is said that Aemilius, having spoken much more to the +same purpose, dismissed the young men properly humbled, and with their +vain-glory and insolence thoroughly chastened and curbed by his address. +</p> + +<p> +When this was done, he put his army into garrisons, to refresh themselves, and +went himself to visit Greece, and to spend a short time in relaxations equally +honorable and humane. For, as he passed, he eased the people’s grievances, +reformed their governments, and bestowed gifts upon them; to some, corn, to +others, oil out of the king’s storehouses, in which, they report, there were +such vast quantities laid up, that receivers and petitioners were lacking +before they could be exhausted. In Delphi he found a great square pillar of +white marble, designed for the pedestal of king Perseus’ golden statue, on +which he commanded his own to be placed, alleging that it was but just that the +conquered should give place to the conquerors. In Olympia he is said to have +uttered the saying everybody has heard, that Phidias had carved Homer’s +Jupiter. When the ten commissioners arrived from Rome, he delivered up again to +the Macedonians their cities and country, granting them to live at liberty, and +according to their own laws, only paying the Romans the tribute of a hundred +talents, double which sum they had been wont to pay to their kings. Then he +celebrated all manner of shows and games, and sacrifices to the gods, and made +great entertainments and feasts; the charge of all which he liberally defrayed +out of the king’s treasury; and showed that he understood the ordering and +placing of his guests, and how every man should be received, answerably to +their rank and quality, with such nice exactness, that the Greeks were full of +wonder, finding the care of these matters of pleasure did not escape him, and +that though involved in such important business, he could observe correctness +in these bides. Nor was it least gratifying to him, that, amidst all the +magnificent and splendid preparations, he himself was always the most grateful +sight, and greatest pleasure to those he entertained. And he told those that +seemed to wonder at his diligence, that there was the same spirit shown in +marshaling a banquet as an army; in rendering the one formidable to the enemy, +the other acceptable to the guests. Nor did men less praise his liberality, and +the greatness of his soul, than his other virtues; for he would not so much as +see those great quantities of silver and gold, which were heaped together out +of the king’s palaces, but delivered them to the quaestors, to be put into the +public treasury. He only permitted his own sons, who were great lovers of +learning, to take the king’s books; and when he distributed rewards due to +extraordinary valor, he gave his son-in-law, Aelius Tubero, a bowl that weighed +five pounds. This is that Tubero we have already mentioned, who was one of +sixteen relations that lived together, and were all maintained out of one +little farm; and it is said, that this was the first plate that ever entered +the house of the Aelii, brought thither as an honor and reward of virtue; +before this time, neither they nor their wives ever made use either of silver +or gold. +</p> + +<p> +Having thus settled everything well, taking his leave of the Greeks, and +exhorting the Macedonians, that, mindful of the liberty they had received from +the Romans, they should endeavor to maintain it by their obedience to the laws, +and concord amongst themselves, he departed for Epirus, having orders from the +senate, to give the soldiers that followed him in the war against Perseus the +pillage of the cities of that country. That he might set upon them all at once +by surprise and unawares, he summoned ten of the principal men out of each, +whom he commanded, on such an appointed day, to bring all the gold and silver +they had either in their private houses or temples; and, with every one of +these, as if it were for this very purpose, and under a presence of searching +for and receiving the gold, he sent a centurion and a guard of soldiers; who, +the set day being come, rose all at once, and at the very self-same time fell +upon them, and proceeded to ransack the cities; so that in one hour a hundred +and fifty thousand persons were made slaves, and threescore and ten cities +sacked. Yet what was given to each soldier, out of so vast a destruction and +utter ruin, amounted to no more than eleven drachmas; so that men could only +shudder at the issue of a war, where the wealth of a whole nation, thus +divided, turned to so little advantage and profit to each particular man. +</p> + +<p> +When Aemilius had done this, — an action perfectly contrary to his gentle and +mild nature, — he went down to Oricus, where he embarked his army for Italy. He +sailed up the river Tiber in the king’s galley, that had sixteen banks of oars, +and was richly adorned with captured arms and with cloths of purple and +scarlet; so that, the vessel rowing slowly against the stream, the Romans that +crowded on the shore to meet him had a foretaste of his following triumph. But +the soldiers, who had cast a covetous eye on the treasures of Perseus, when +they did not obtain as much as they thought they deserved, were secretly +enraged and angry with Aemilius for this, but openly complained that he had +been a severe and tyrannical commander over them; nor were they ready to show +their desire of his triumph. When Servius Galba, who was Aemilius’s enemy, +though he commanded as tribune under him, understood this, he had the boldness +plainly to affirm that a triumph was not to be allowed him; and sowed various +calumnies amongst the soldiers, which yet further increased their ill-will. Nay +more, he desired the tribunes of the people, because the four hours that were +remaining of the day could not suffice for the accusation, to let him put it +off till another. But when the tribunes commanded him to speak then, if he had +anything to say, he began a long oration, filled with all manner of reproaches, +in which he spent the remaining part of the time, and the tribunes, when it was +dark, dismissed the assembly. The soldiers, growing more vehement on this, +thronged all to Galba, and entering into a conspiracy, early in the morning +beset the capitol, where the tribunes had appointed the following assembly to +be held. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as it was day, it was put to the vote, and the first tribe was +proceeding to refuse the triumph; and the news spread amongst the people and to +the senate. The people were indeed much grieved that Aemilius should meet with +such ignominy; but this was only in words, which had no effect. The chief of +the senate exclaimed against it as a base action, and excited one another to +repress the boldness and insolence of the soldiers, which would erelong become +altogether ungovernable and violent, were they now permitted to deprive +Aemilius of his triumph. Forcing a passage through the crowd, they came up in +great numbers, and desired the tribunes to defer polling, till they had spoken +what they had to say to the people. All things thus suspended, and silence +being made, Marcus Servilius stood up, a man of consular dignity, and who had +killed twenty-three of his enemies that had challenged him in single combat. +“It is now more than ever,” said he, “clear to my mind how great a commander +our Aemilius Paulus is, when I see he was able to perform such famous and great +exploits with an army so full of sedition and baseness; nor can I sufficiently +wonder, that a people that seemed to glory in the triumphs over Illyrians and +Ligurians, should now through envy refuse to see the Macedonian king led alive, +and all the glory of Philip and Alexander in captivity to the Roman power. For +is it not a strange thing for you who, upon a slight rumor of victory that came +by chance into the city, did offer sacrifices and put up your requests unto the +gods that you might see the report verified, now, when the general is returned +with an undoubted conquest, to defraud the gods of honor, and yourselves of +joy, as if you feared to behold the greatness of his warlike deed, or were +resolved to spare your enemy? And of the two, much better were it to put a stop +to the triumph, out of pity to him, than out of envy to your general; yet to +such a height of power is malice arrived amongst you, that a man without one +scar to show on his skin, that is smooth and sleek with ease and home-keeping +habits, will undertake to define the office and duties of a general before us, +who with our own wounds have been taught how to judge of the valor or the +cowardice of commanders.” And, at the same time, putting aside his garment, he +showed an infinite number of scars upon his breast, and, turning about, he +exposed some parts of his person which it is usual to conceal; and, addressing +Galba, said: “You deride me for these, in which I glory before my +fellow-citizens, for it is in their service, in which I have ridden night and +day, that I received them; but go collect the votes, whilst I follow after, and +note the base and ungrateful, and such as choose rather to be flattered and +courted than commanded by their general.” It is said, this speech so stopped +the soldiers’ mouths, and altered their minds, that all the tribes decreed a +triumph for Aemilius; which was performed after this manner. +</p> + +<p> +The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call their +buildings for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city where they could +best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white garments; all the +temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; the ways were cleared and +kept open by numerous officers, who drove back all who crowded into or ran +across the main avenue. This triumph lasted three days. On the first, which was +scarcely long enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures, and +colossal images, which were taken from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and +fifty chariots. On the second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest +and richest armor of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly +polished and glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged +purposely with the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps +carelessly and by chance; helmets were thrown upon shields, coats of mail upon +greaves; Cretan targets, and Thracian bucklers and quivers of arrows, lay +huddled amongst horses’ bits, and through these there appeared the points of +naked swords, intermixed with long Macedonian sarissas. All these arms were +fastened together with just so much looseness that they struck against one +another as they were drawn along, and made a harsh and alarming noise, so that, +even as spoils of a conquered enemy, they could not be beheld without dread. +After these wagons loaded with armor, there followed three thousand men who +carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and fifty vessels, each of +which weighed three talents, and was carried by four men. Others brought silver +bowls and goblets and cups, all disposed in such order as to make the best +show, and all curious as well for their size as the solidity of their embossed +work. +</p> + +<p> +On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who did not +sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but such a charge as +the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to fight. Next followed young +men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, who led to the sacrifice a hundred +and twenty stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with +ribbons and garlands; and with these were boys that carried basins for +libation, of silver and gold. After this was brought the gold coin, which was +divided into vessels that weighed three talents, like those that contained the +silver; they were in number seventy-seven. These were followed by those that +brought the consecrated bowl which Aemilius had caused to be made, that weighed +ten talents, and was set with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the +cups of Antigonus and Seleucus, and those of the Thericlean make, and all the +gold plate that was used at Perseus’ table. Next to these came Perseus’ +chariot, in which his armor was placed, and on that his diadem. And, after a +little intermission, the king’s children were led captives, and with them a +train of their attendants, masters, and teachers, all shedding tears, and +stretching out hands to the spectators, and making the children themselves also +beg and entreat their compassion. There were two sons and a daughter, whose +tender age made them but little sensible of the greatness of their misery, +which very insensibility of their condition rendered it the more deplorable; +insomuch that Perseus himself was scarcely regarded as he went along, whilst +pity fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the infants; and many of them could not +forbear tears, and all beheld the sight with a mixture of sorrow and pleasure, +until the children were passed. +</p> + +<p> +After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad all in +black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like one altogether +stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his misfortunes. Next +followed a great company of his friends and familiars, whose countenances were +disfigured with grief, and who let the spectators see, by their tears and their +continual looking upon Perseus, that it was his fortune they so much lamented, +and that they were regardless of their own. Perseus sent to Aemilius to entreat +that he might not be led in pomp, but be left out of the triumph; who, +deriding, as was but just, his cowardice and fondness of life, sent him this +answer, that as for that, it had been before, and was now, in his own power; +giving him to understand that the disgrace could be avoided by death; which the +fainthearted man not having the spirit for, and made effeminate by I know not +what hopes, allowed himself to appear as a part of his own spoils. After these +were carried four hundred crowns, all made of gold, sent from the cities by +their respective deputations to Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he +himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy to +be looked at, even without these ensigns of power), dressed in a robe of +purple, interwoven with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right hand. +All the army, in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, divided +into their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their commander; some +singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; others, +songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius’s deeds; who, indeed, was admired +and accounted happy by all men, and unenvied by every one that was good; except +so far as it seems the province of some god to lessen that happiness which is +too great and inordinate, and so to mingle the affairs of human life that no +one should be entirely free and exempt from calamities; but, as we read in +Homer, that those should think themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has +given an equal share of good and evil. +</p> + +<p> +Aemilius had four sons, of whom Scipio and Fabius, as is already related, were +adopted into other families; the other two, whom he had by a second wife, and +who were yet but young, he brought up in his own house. One of these died at +fourteen years of age, five days before his father’s triumph; the other at +twelve, three days after: so that there was no Roman without a deep sense of +his suffering, and who did not shudder at the cruelty of fortune, that had not +scrupled to bring so much sorrow into a house replenished with happiness, +rejoicing, and sacrifices, and to intermingle tears and laments with songs of +victory and triumph. +</p> + +<p> +Aemilius, however, reasoning justly that courage and resolution was not merely +to resist armor and spears, but all the shocks of ill fortune, so met and so +adapted himself to these mingled and contrasting circumstances, as to +outbalance the evil with the good, and his private concerns with those of the +public; and thus did not allow anything either to take away from the grandeur, +or sully the dignity of his victory. For as soon as he had buried the first of +his sons, (as we have already said,) he triumphed; and the second dying almost +as soon as his triumph was over, he gathered together an assembly of the +people, and made an oration to them, not like a man that stood in need of +comfort from others, but one that undertook to support his fellow-citizens in +their grief for the sufferings he himself underwent. +</p> + +<p> +“I,” he said, “who never yet feared anything that was human, have, amongst such +as were divine, always had a dread of fortune as faithless and inconstant; and, +for the very reason that in this war she had been as a favorable gale in all my +affairs, I still expected some change and reflux of things. In one day I passed +the Ionian sea, and reached Corcyra from Brundisium; thence in five more I +sacrificed at Delphi, and in other five days came to my forces in Macedonia, +where, after I had finished the usual sacrifices for the purifying of the army, +I entered on my duties, and, in the space of fifteen days, put an honorable +period to the war. Still retaining a jealousy of fortune, even from the smooth +current of my affairs, and seeing myself secure and free from the danger of any +enemy, I chiefly dreaded the change of the goddess at sea, whilst conveying +home my victorious army, vast spoils, and a captive king. Nay, indeed, after I +was returned to you safe, and saw the city full of joy, congratulating, and +sacrifices, yet still I distrusted, well knowing that fortune never conferred +any great benefits that were unmixed and unattended with probabilities of +reverse. Nor could my mind, that was still as it were in labor, and always +foreseeing something to befall this city, free itself from this fear, until +this great misfortune befell me in my own family, and till, in the midst of +those days set apart for triumph, I carried two of the best of sons, my only +destined successors, one after another to their funerals. Now, therefore, I am +myself safe from danger, at least as to what was my greatest care; and I trust +and am verily persuaded, that for the time to come Fortune will prove constant +and harmless unto you; since she has sufficiently wreaked her jealousy at our +great successes on me and mine, and has made the conqueror as marked an example +of human instability as the captive whom he led in triumph, with this only +difference, that Perseus, though conquered, does yet enjoy his children, while +the conqueror, Aemilius, is deprived of his.” This was the generous and +magnanimous oration Aemilius is said to have spoken to the people, from a heart +truly sincere and free from all artifice. +</p> + +<p> +Although he very much pitied the condition of Perseus, and studied to befriend +him in what he was able, yet he could procure no other favor, than his removal +from the common prison, the Carcer, into a more cleanly and humane place of +security, where, whilst he was guarded, it is said, he starved himself to +death. Others state his death to have been of the strangest and most unusual +character: that the soldiers who were his guard, having conceived a spite and +hatred against him for some reason, and finding no other way to grieve and +afflict him, kept him from sleep, took pains to disturb him when he was +disposed to rest, and found out contrivances to keep him continually awake, by +which means at length he was utterly worn out, and expired. Two of his +children, also, died soon after him; the third, who was named Alexander, they +say proved an exquisite artist in turning and graving small figures, and +learned so perfectly to speak and write the Roman language, that he became +clerk to the magistrates, and behaved himself in his office with great skill +and conduct. +</p> + +<p> +They ascribe to Aemilius’s conquest of Macedonia, this most acceptable benefit +to the people, that he brought so vast a quantity of money into the public +treasury, that they never paid any taxes, until Hirtius and Pansa were consuls, +which was in the first war between Antony and Caesar. This also was peculiar +and remarkable in Aemilius, that though he was extremely beloved and honored by +the people, yet he always sided with the nobles; nor would he either say or do +anything to ingratiate himself with the multitude, but constantly adhered to +the nobility, in all political matters, which in after-times was cast in Scipio +Africanus’s teeth by Appius; these two being in their time the most +considerable men in the city, and standing in competition for the office of +censor. The one had on his side the nobles and the senate, to which party the +Appii were always attached; the other, although his own interest was great, yet +made use of the favor and love of the people. When, therefore, Appius saw +Scipio come to the market-place, surrounded with men of mean rank, and such as +were but newly made free, yet were very fit to manage a debate, to gather +together the rabble, and to carry whatsoever they designed by importunity and +noise, crying out with a loud voice: “Groan now,” said he, “O Aemilius Paulus, +if you have knowledge in your grave of what is done above, that your son +aspires to be censor, by the help of Aemilius, the common crier, and Licinius +Philonicus.” Scipio always had the good-will of the people, because he was +constantly heaping favors on them; but Aemilius, although he still took part +with the nobles, yet was as much the people’s favorite as those who most sought +popularity and used every art to obtain it. This they made manifest, when, +amongst other dignities, they thought him worthy of the office of censor, a +trust accounted most sacred and of great authority, as well in other things, as +in the strict examination into men’s lives. For the censors had power to expel +a senator, and enroll whom they judged most fit in his room, and to disgrace +such young men as lived licentiously, by taking away their horses. Besides +this, they were to value and assess each man’s estate, and register the number +of the people. There were numbered by Aemilius, 337,452 men. He declared Marcus +Aemilius Lepidus first senator, who had already four times held that honor, and +he removed from their office three of the senators of the least note. The same +moderation he and his fellow censor, Marcius Philippus, used at the muster of +the knights. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst he was thus busy about many and weighty affairs, he fell sick of a +disease, which at first seemed hazardous; and although after awhile it proved +without danger, yet was troublesome and difficult to be cured: so that by the +advice of his physicians he sailed to Velia, in South Italy, and there dwelt a +long time near the sea, where he enjoyed all possible quietness. The Romans, in +the meanwhile, longed for his return, and oftentimes by their expressions in +the theaters, gave public testimony of their great desire and impatience to see +him. When, therefore, the time drew nigh that a solemn sacrifice was of +necessity to be offered, and he found, as he thought, his body strong enough, +he came back again to Rome, and there performed the holy rites with the rest of +the priests, the people in the mean time crowding about him, and congratulating +his return. The next day he sacrificed again to the gods for his recovery; and, +having finished the sacrifice, returned to his house and sat down to dinner, +when, all on a sudden and when no change was expected, he fell into a fit of +delirium, and, being quite deprived of his senses, the third day after ended a +life, in which he had wanted no manner of thing which is thought to conduce to +happiness. Nay, his very funeral pomp had something in it remarkable and to be +admired, and his virtue was graced with the most solemn and happy rites at his +burial; consisting, not in gold and ivory, or in the usual sumptuousness and +splendor of such preparations, but in the good-will, honor, and love, not only +of his fellow-citizens, but of his enemies themselves. For as many Spaniards, +Ligurians, and Macedonians, as happened to be present at the solemnity, that +were young and of vigorous bodies, took up the bier and carried it whilst the +more aged followed, calling Aemilius the benefactor and preserver of their +countries. For not only at the time of his conquest had he acted to all with +kindness and clemency, but, through the whole course of his life, he continued +to do them good and look after their concerns, as if they had been his +familiars and relations. They report, that the whole of his estate scarce +amounted to three hundred and seventy thousand drachmas; to which he left his +two sons coheirs; but Scipio, who was the youngest, being adopted into the more +wealthy family of Africanus, gave it all to his brother. Such are said to have +been the life and manners of Aemilius. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap20"></a>COMPARISON OF TIMOLEON WITH AEMILIUS PAULUS</h2> + +<p> +Such being the story of these two great men’s lives, without doubt in the +comparison very little difference will be found between them. They made war +with two powerful enemies: the one against the Macedonians, and the other with +the Carthaginians; and the success was in both cases glorious. One conquered +Macedon from the seventh succeeding heir of Antigonus; the other freed Sicily +from usurping tyrants, and restored the island to its former liberty. Unless, +indeed, it be made a point on Aemilius’s side, that he engaged with Perseus +when his forces were entire, and composed of men that had often successfully +fought with the Romans; whereas, Timoleon found Dionysius in a despairing +condition, his affairs being reduced to the last extremity: or, on the +contrary, it be urged in favor of Timoleon, that he vanquished several tyrants, +and a powerful Carthaginian army, with an inconsiderable number of men gathered +together from all parts, not with such an army as Aemilius had, of well +disciplined soldiers, experienced in war, and accustomed to obey; but with such +as through the hopes of gain resorted to him, unskilled in fighting and +ungovernable. And when actions are equally glorious, and the means to compass +them unequal, the greatest esteem is certainly due to that general who conquers +with the smaller power. +</p> + +<p> +Both have the reputation of having behaved themselves with an uncorrupted +integrity, in all the affairs they managed: but Aemilius had the advantage of +being, from his infancy, by the laws and customs of his country, brought up to +the proper management of public affairs, which Timoleon brought himself to by +his own efforts. And this is plain; for at that time all the Romans were +uniformly orderly and obedient, respectful to the laws and to their +fellow-citizens: whereas it is remarkable, that not one of the Greek generals +commanding in Sicily, could keep himself uncorrupted, except Dion, and of him +many entertained a jealousy that he would establish a monarchy there, after the +Lacedaemonian manner. Timaeus writes, that the Syracusans sent even Gylippus +home dishonorably, and with a reputation lost by the unsatiable covetousness he +displayed when he commanded the army. And numerous historians tell us of the +wicked and perfidious acts committed by Pharax the Spartan, and Callippus the +Athenian, with the view of making themselves kings of Sicily. Yet what were +these men, and what strength had they, to entertain such a thought? The first +of them was a follower of Dionysius, when he was expelled from Syracuse, and +the other a hired captain of foot under Dion, and came into Sicily with him. +But Timoleon at the request and prayers of the Syracusans, was sent to be their +general, and had no need to seek for power, but had a perfect title, founded on +their own offers, to hold it; and yet no sooner had he freed Sicily from her +oppressors, but he willingly surrendered it. +</p> + +<p> +It is truly worthy our admiration in Aemilius, that, though he conquered so +great and so rich a realm as that of Macedon, yet he would not touch, nor see +any of the money, nor did he advantage himself one farthing by it, though he +was very generous of his own to others. I would not intend any reflection on +Timoleon, for accepting of a house and handsome estate in the country, which +the Syracusans presented him with; there is no dishonor in accepting; but yet +there is greater glory in a refusal, and the supremest virtue is shown in not +wanting what it might fairly take. And as that body is, without doubt, the most +strong and healthful, which can the easiest support extreme cold and excessive +heat in the change of seasons, and that the most firm and collected mind which +is not puffed up with prosperity, nor dejected with adversity; so the virtue of +Aemilius was eminently seen in his countenance and behavior continuing as noble +and lofty upon the loss of two dear sons, as when he achieved his greatest +victories and triumphs. But Timoleon, after he had justly punished his brother, +a truly heroic action, let his reason yield to a causeless sorrow, and, +humiliated with grief and remorse, forbore for twenty years to appear in any +public place, or meddle with any affairs of the commonwealth. It is truly very +commendable to abhor and shun the doing any base action; but to stand in fear +of every kind of censure or disrepute, may argue a gentle and open-hearted, but +not a heroic temper. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap21"></a>PELOPIDAS</h2> + +<p> +Cato Major, hearing some commend one that was rash, and inconsiderately daring +in a battle, said, “There is a difference between a man’s prizing valor at a +great rate, and valuing life at little;” a very just remark. Antigonus, we +know, at least, had a soldier, a venturous fellow, but of wretched health and +constitution; the reason of whose ill looks he took the trouble to inquire +into; and, on understanding from him that it was a disease, commanded his +physicians to employ their utmost skill, and if possible recover him; which +brave hero, when once cured, never afterwards sought danger or showed himself +venturous in battle; and, when Antigonus wondered and upbraided him with his +change, made no secret of the reason, and said, “Sir, you are the cause of my +cowardice, by freeing me from those miseries which made me care little for +life.” With the same feeling, the Sybarite seems to have said of the Spartans, +that it was no commendable thing in them to be so ready to die in the wars, +since by that they were freed from such hard labor, and miserable living. In +truth, the Sybarites, a soft and dissolute people, might very well imagine they +hated life, because in their eager pursuit of virtue and glory, they were not +afraid to die: but, in fact, the Lacedaemonians found their virtue secured them +happiness alike in living or in dying; as we see in the epitaph that says: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +They died, but not as lavish of their blood,<br/> +Or thinking death itself was simply good;<br/> +Their wishes neither were to live nor die,<br/> +But to do both alike commendably. +</p> + +<p> +An endeavor to avoid death is not blamable, if we do not basely desire to live; +nor a willingness to die good and virtuous, if it proceeds from a contempt of +life. And therefore Homer always takes care to bring his bravest and most +daring heroes well armed into battle; and the Greek lawgivers punished those +that threw away their shields, but not him that lost his sword or spear; +intimating that self-defense is more a man’s business than offense. This is +especially true of a governor of a city, or a general; for if, as Iphicrates +divides it out, the light-armed are the hands; the horse the feet; the infantry +the breast; and the general the head; he, when he puts himself upon danger, not +only ventures his own person, but all those whose safety depends on his; and so +on the contrary. Callicratidas, therefore, though otherwise a great man, was +wrong in his answer to the augur who advised him, the sacrifice being unlucky, +to be careful of his life; “Sparta,” said he, “will not miss one man.” It was +true, Callicratidas, when simply serving in any engagement either at sea or +land, was but a single person, but as general, he united in his life the lives +of all, and could hardly be called one, when his death involved the ruin of so +many. The saying of old Antigonus was better, who, when he was to fight at +Andros, and one told him, “The enemy’s ships are more than ours;” replied, “For +how many then wilt thou reckon me?” intimating that a brave and experienced +commander is to be highly valued, one of the first duties of whose office +indeed it is to save him on whose safety depends that of others. And therefore +I applaud Timotheus, who, when Chares showed the wounds he had received, and +his shield pierced by a dart, told him, “Yet how ashamed I was, at the siege of +Samos, when a dart fell near me, for exposing myself, more like a boy than like +a general in command of a large army. “Indeed, where the general’s hazarding +himself will go far to decide the result, there he must fight and venture his +person, and not mind their maxims, who would have a general die, if not of, at +least in old age; but when the advantage will be but small if he gets the +better, and the loss considerable if he falls, who then would desire, at the +risk of the commander’s life, a piece of success which a common soldier might +obtain? This I thought fit to premise before the lives of Pelopidas and +Marcellus, who were both great men, but who both fell by their own rashness. +For, being gallant men, and having gained their respective countries great +glory and reputation by their conduct in war against terrible enemies, the one, +as history relates, overthrowing Hannibal, who was till then invincible; the +other, in a set battle beating the Lacedaemonians, then supreme both at sea and +land; they ventured at last too far, and were heedlessly prodigal of their +lives, when there was the greatest need of men and commanders such as they. And +this agreement in their characters and their deaths, is the reason why I +compare their lives. +</p> + +<p> +Pelopidas, the son of Hippoclus, was descended, as likewise Epaminondas was, +from an honorable family in Thebes; and, being brought up to opulence, and +having a fair estate left him whilst he was young, he made it his business to +relieve the good and deserving amongst the poor, that he might show himself +lord and not slave of his estate. For amongst men, as Aristotle observes, some +are too narrow-minded to use their wealth, and some are loose and abuse it; and +these live perpetual slaves to their pleasures, as the others to their gain. +Others permitted themselves to be obliged by Pelopidas, and thankfully made use +of his liberality and kindness; but amongst all his friends, he could never +persuade Epaminondas to be a sharer in his wealth. He, however, stepped down +into his poverty, and took pleasure in the same poor attire, spare diet, +unwearied endurance of hardships, and unshrinking boldness in war: like +Capaneus in Euripides, who had +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Abundant wealth and in that wealth no pride; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +he was ashamed any one should think that he spent more upon his person than the +meanest Theban. Epaminondas made his familiar and hereditary poverty more light +and easy, by his philosophy and single life; but Pelopidas married a woman of +good family, and had children; yet still thinking little of his private +interests, and devoting all his time to the public, he ruined his estate: and, +when his friends admonished and told him how necessary that money which he +neglected was; “Yes,” he replied, “necessary to Nicodemus,” pointing to a blind +cripple. +</p> + +<p> +Both seemed equally fitted by nature for all sorts of excellence; but bodily +exercises chiefly delighted Pelopidas, learning Epaminondas; and the one spent +his spare hours in hunting, and the Palaestra, the other in hearing lectures or +philosophizing. And, amongst a thousand points for praise in both, the +judicious esteem nothing equal to that constant benevolence and friendship, +which they inviolably preserved in all their expeditions, public actions, and +administration of the commonwealth. For if any one looks on the administrations +of Aristides and Themistocles, of Cimon and Pericles, of Nicias and Alcibiades, +what confusion, what envy, what mutual jealousy appears? And if he then casts +his eye on the kindness and reverence that Pelopidas showed Epaminondas, he +must needs confess, that these are more truly and more justly styled colleagues +in government and command than the others, who strove rather to overcome one +another, than their enemies The true cause of this was their virtue; whence it +came that they did not make their actions aim at wealth and glory, an endeavor +sure to lead to bitter and contentious jealousy; but both from the beginning +being inflamed with a divine desire of seeing their country glorious by their +exertions, they used to that end one another’s excellences as their own. Many, +indeed, think this strict and entire affection is to be dated from the battle +at Mantinea, where they both fought, being part of the succors that were sent +from Thebes to the Lacedaemonians, their then friends and allies. For, being +placed together amongst the infantry, and engaging the Arcadians, when the +Lacedaemonian wing, in which they fought, gave ground, and many fled, they +closed their shields together and resisted the assailants. Pelopidas, having +received seven wounds in the forepart of his body, fell upon a heap of slain +friends and enemies; but Epaminondas, though he thought him past recovery, +advanced to defend his arms and body, and singly fought a multitude, resolving +rather to die than forsake his helpless Pelopidas. And now, he being much +distressed, being wounded in the breast by a spear, and in the arm by a sword, +Agesipolis, the king of the Spartans, came to his succor from the other wing, +and beyond hope delivered both. +</p> + +<p> +After this the Lacedaemonians pretended to be friends to Thebes, but in truth +looked with jealous suspicions on the designs and power of the city, and +chiefly hated the party of Ismenias and Androclides, in which Pelopidas also +was an associate, as tending to liberty, and the advancement of the commonalty. +Therefore Archias, Leontidas, and Philip, all rich men, and of oligarchical +principles, and immoderately ambitious, urged Phoebidas the Spartan, as he was +on his way past the city with a considerable force, to surprise the Cadmea, +and, banishing the contrary faction, to establish an oligarchy, and by that +means subject the city to the supremacy of the Spartans. He, accepting the +proposal, at the festival of Ceres unexpectedly fell on the Thebans, and made +himself master of the citadel. Ismenias was taken, carried to Sparta, and in a +short time murdered; but Pelopidas, Pherenicus, Androclides, and many more that +fled were publicly proclaimed outlaws. Epaminondas stayed at home, being not +much looked after, as one whom philosophy had made inactive, and poverty +incapable. +</p> + +<p> +The Lacedaemonians cashiered Phoebidas, and fined him one hundred thousand +drachmas, yet still kept a garrison in the Cadmea; which made all Greece wonder +at their inconsistency, since they punished the doer, but approved the deed. +And though the Thebans, having lost their polity, and being enslaved by Archias +and Leontidas, had no hopes to get free from this tyranny, which they saw +guarded by the whole military power of the Spartans, and had no means to break +the yoke, unless these could be deposed from their command of sea and land; yet +Leontidas and his associates, understanding that the exiles lived at Athens in +favor with the people, and with honor from all the good and virtuous, formed +secret designs against their lives, and, suborning some unknown fellows, +dispatched Androclides, but were not successful on the rest. Letters, besides, +were sent from Sparta to the Athenians, warning them neither to receive nor +countenance the exiles, but expel them as declared common enemies of the +confederacy. But the Athenians, from their natural hereditary inclination to be +kind, and also to make a grateful return to the Thebans, who had very much +assisted them in restoring their democracy, and had publicly enacted, that if +any Athenian would march armed through Boeotia against the tyrants, that no +Boeotian should either see or hear it, did the Thebans no harm. +</p> + +<p> +Pelopidas, though one of the youngest, was active in privately exciting each +single exile; and often told them at their meetings, that it was both +dishonorable and impious to neglect their enslaved and engarrisoned country, +and, lazily contented with their own lives and safety, depend on the decrees of +the Athenians, and through fear fawn on every smooth-tongued orator that was +able to work upon the people: now they must venture for this great prize, +taking Thrasybulus’ bold courage for example, and as he advanced from Thebes +and broke the power of the Athenian tyrants, so they should march from Athens +and free Thebes. When by this method he had persuaded them, they privately +dispatched some persons to those friends they had left at Thebes, and +acquainted them with their designs. Their plans being approved, Charon, a man +of the greatest distinction, offered his house for their reception; Phillidas +contrived to get himself made secretary to Archias and Philip, who then held +the office of polemarch or chief captain; and Epaminondas had already inflamed +the youth. For, in their exercises, he had encouraged them to challenge and +wrestle with the Spartans, and again, when he saw them puffed up with victory +and success, sharply told them, it was the greater shame to be such cowards as +to serve those whom in strength they so much excelled. +</p> + +<p> +The day for action being fixed, it was agreed upon by the exiles, that +Pherenicus with the rest should stay in the Thriasian plain, while some few of +the younger men tried the first danger, by endeavoring to get into the city; +and, if they were surprised by their enemies, the others should take care to +provide for their children and parents. Pelopidas first offered to undertake +the business; then Melon, Damoclides, and Theopompus, men of noble families, +who, in other things loving and faithful to one another, were constant rivals +only in glory and courageous exploits. They were twelve in all, and having +taken leave of those that stayed behind, and sent a messenger to Charon, they +went forward, clad in short coats, and carrying hounds and hunting poles with +them, that they might be taken for hunters beating over the fields, and prevent +all suspicion in those that met them on the way. When the messenger came to +Charon, and told him they were approaching, he did not change his resolution at +the sight of danger, but, being a man of his word, offered them his house. But +one Hipposthenidas, a man of no ill principles, a lover of his country, and a +friend to the exiles, but not of as much resolution as the shortness of time +and the character of the action required, being as it were dizzied at the +greatness of the approaching enterprise; and beginning now for the first time +to comprehend that, relying on that weak assistance which could be expected +from the exiles, they were undertaking no less a task than to shake the +government, and overthrow the whole power of Sparta; went privately to his +house, and sent a friend to Melon and Pelopidas, desiring them to forbear for +the present, to return to Athens and expect a better opportunity. The +messenger’s name was Chlidon, who, going home in haste and bringing out his +horse, asked for the bridle; but, his wife not knowing where it was, and, when +it could not be found, telling him she had lent it to a friend, first they +began to chide, then to curse one another, and his wife wished the journey +might prove ill to him, and those that sent him; insomuch that Chlidon’s +passion made him waste a great part of the day in this quarreling, and then, +looking on this chance as an omen, he laid aside all thoughts of his journey, +and went away to some other business. So nearly had these great and glorious +designs, even in their very birth, lost their opportunity. +</p> + +<p> +But Pelopidas and his companions, dressing themselves like countrymen, divided, +and, whilst it was yet day, entered at different quarters of the city. It was, +besides, a windy day, and it now just began to snow, which contributed much to +their concealment, because most people were gone in doors to avoid the weather. +Those, however, that were concerned in the design, received them as they came, +and conducted them to Charon’s house, where the exiles and the others made up +forty-eight in number. The tyrants’ affairs stood thus: the secretary, +Phillidas, as I have already observed, was an accomplice in, and privy to all +the contrivance of the exiles, and he a while before had invited Archias, with +others, to an entertainment on that day, to drink freely, and meet some women +of the town, on purpose that when they were drunk, and given up to their +pleasures, he might deliver them over to the conspirators. But before Archias +was thoroughly heated, notice was given him that the exiles were privately in +the town; a true report indeed, but obscure, and not well confirmed: +nevertheless, though Phillidas endeavored to divert the discourse, Archias sent +one of his guard to Charon, and commanded him to attend immediately. It was +evening, and Pelopidas and his friends with him in the house, were putting +themselves into a fit posture for action, having their breastplates on already, +and their swords girt: but at the sudden knocking at the door, one stepping +forth to inquire the matter, and learning from the officer that Charon was sent +for by the polemarchs, returned in great confusion and acquainted those within; +and all immediately conjectured that the whole plot was discovered, and they +should be cut in pieces, before so much as achieving any action to do credit to +their bravery; yet all agreed that Charon should obey, and attend the +polemarchs, to prevent suspicion. Charon was, indeed, a man of courage and +resolution in all dangers, yet in this case he was extremely concerned, lest +any should suspect that he was the traitor, and the death of so many brave +citizens be laid on him. And, therefore, when he was ready to depart, he +brought his son out of the women’s apartment, a little boy as yet, but one of +the best looking and strongest of all those of his age, and delivered him to +Pelopidas with these words: “If you find me a traitor, treat this boy as an +enemy without any mercy.” The concern which Charon showed, drew tears from +many; but all protested vehemently against his supposing any one of them so +mean-spirited and base, at the appearance of approaching danger, as to suspect +or blame him; and therefore, desired him not to involve his son, but to set him +out of harm’s way; that so he, perhaps, escaping the tyrant’s power, might live +to revenge the city and his friends. Charon, however, refused to remove him, +and asked, “What life, what safety could be more honorable, than to die bravely +with his father, and such generous companions?” Thus, imploring the protection +of the gods, and saluting and encouraging them all, he departed, considering +with himself, and composing his voice and countenance, that he might look as +little like as possible to what in fact he really was. +</p> + +<p> +When he was come to the door, Archias with Phillidas came out to him, and said, +“I have heard, Charon, that there are some men just come, and lurking in the +town, and that some of the citizens are resorting to them.” Charon was at first +disturbed, but asking, “Who are they? and who conceals them?” and finding +Archias did not thoroughly understand the matter, he concluded that none of +those privy to the design had given this information, and replied, “Do not +disturb yourselves for an empty rumor: I will look into it, however, for no +report in such a case is to be neglected.” Phillidas, who stood by, commended +him, and leading back Archias, got him deep in drink, still prolonging the +entertainment with the hopes of the women’s company at last. But when Charon +returned, and found the men prepared, not as if they hoped for safety and +success, but to die bravely and with the slaughter of their enemies, he told +Pelopidas and his friends the truth, but pretended to others in the house that +Archias talked to him about something else, inventing a story for the occasion. +This storm was just blowing over, when fortune brought another; for a messenger +came with a letter from one Archias, the Hierophant at Athens, to his namesake +Archias, who was his friend and guest. This did not merely contain a vague +conjectural suspicion, but, as appeared afterwards, disclosed every particular +of the design. The messenger being brought in to Archias, who was now pretty +well drunk, and delivering the letter, said to him, “The writer of this desired +it might be read at once; it is on urgent business.” Archias, with a smile, +replied, “Urgent business tomorrow,” and so receiving the letter, he put it +under his pillow, and returned to what he had been speaking of with Phillidas; +and these words of his are a proverb to this day amongst the Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +Now when the opportunity seemed convenient for action, they set out in two +companies; Pelopidas and Damoclides with their party went against Leontidas and +Hypates, that lived near together; Charon and Melon against Archias and Philip, +having put on women’s apparel over their breastplates, and thick garlands of +fir and pine to shade their faces; and so, as soon as they came to the door, +the guests clapped and gave a huzza, supposing them to be the women they +expected. But when the conspirators had looked about the room, and carefully +marked all that were at the entertainment, they drew their swords, and making +at Archias and Philip amongst the tables, disclosed who they were. Phillidas +persuaded some few of his guests to sit still, and those that got up and +endeavored to assist the polemarchs, being drunk were easily dispatched. But +Pelopidas and his party met with a harder task; as they attempted Leontidas, a +sober and formidable man, and when they came to his house found his doors shut, +he being already gone to bed. They knocked a long time before any one would +answer, but, at last, a servant that heard them, coming out and unbarring the +door, as soon as the gate gave way, they rushed in, and, overturning the man, +made all haste to Leontidas’s chamber. But Leontidas, guessing at the matter by +the noise and running, leaped from his bed and drew his dagger, but forgot to +put out the lights, and by that means make them fall foul on one another in the +dark. As it was, being easily seen by reason of the light, he received them at +his chamber door, and stabbed Cephisodorus, the first man that entered: on his +falling, the next that he engaged was Pelopidas; and the passage being narrow +and Cephisodorus’s body lying in the way, there was a fierce and dangerous +conflict. At last Pelopidas prevailed, and having killed Leontidas, he and his +companions went in pursuit of Hypates, and after the same manner broke into his +house. He perceived the design, and fled to his neighbors; but they closely +followed, and caught and killed him. +</p> + +<p> +This done they joined Melon, and sent to hasten the exiles they had left in +Attica: and called upon the citizens to maintain their liberty, and taking down +the spoils from the porches, and breaking open all the armorers’ shops that +were near, equipped those that came to their assistance. Epaminondas and +Gorgidas came in already armed, with a gallant train of young men, and the best +of the old. Now the city was in a great excitement and confusion, a great noise +and hurry, lights set up in every house, men running here and there; however, +the people did not as yet gather into a body, but, amazed at the proceedings, +and not clearly understanding the matter waited for the day. And, therefore, +the Spartan officers were thought to have been in fault for not falling on at +once, since their garrison consisted of about fifteen hundred men, and many of +the citizens ran to them; but, alarmed with the noise, the fires, and the +confused running of the people, they kept quietly within the Cadmea. As soon as +day appeared, the exiles from Attica came in armed, and there was a general +assembly of the people. Epaminondas and Gorgidas brought forth Pelopidas and +his party, encompassed by the priests, who held out garlands, and exhorted the +people to fight for their country and their gods. The assembly, at their +appearance, rose up in a body, and with shouts and acclamations received the +men as their deliverers and benefactors. +</p> + +<p> +Then Pelopidas, being chosen chief captain of Boeotia, together with Melon and +Charon, proceeded at once to blockade the citadel, and stormed it on all sides, +being extremely desirous to expel the Lacedaemonians, and free the Cadmea, +before an army could come from Sparta to their relief. And he just so narrowly +succeeded, that they, having surrendered on terms and departed, on their way +home met Cleombrotus at Megara marching towards Thebes with a considerable +force. The Spartans condemned and executed Herippidas and Arcissus, two of +their governors at Thebes, and Lysanoridas the third being severely fined, fled +Peloponnesus. This action so closely resembling that of Thrasybulus, in the +courage of the actors, the danger, the encounters, and equally crowned with +success, was called the sister of it by the Greeks. For we can scarcely find +any other examples where so small and weak a party of men by bold courage +overcame such numerous and powerful enemies, or brought greater blessings to +their country by so doing. But the subsequent change of affairs made this +action the more famous; for the war which forever ruined the pretensions of +Sparta to command, and put an end to the supremacy she then exercised alike by +sea and by land, proceeded from that night, in which Pelopidas not surprising +any fort, or castle, or citadel, but coming, the twelfth man, to a private +house, loosed and broke, if we may speak truth in metaphor, the chains of the +Spartan sway, which before seemed of adamant and indissoluble. +</p> + +<p> +But now the Lacedaemonians invading Boeotia with a great army, the Athenians, +affrighted at the danger, declared themselves no allies to Thebes, and +prosecuting those that stood for the Boeotian interest, executed some, and +banished and fined others: and the cause of Thebes, destitute of allies, seemed +in a desperate condition. But Pelopidas and Gorgidas, holding the office of +captains of Boeotia, designing to breed a quarrel between the Lacedaemonians +and Athenians, made this contrivance. One Sphodrias, a Spartan, a man famous +indeed for courage in battle, but of no sound judgment, full of ungrounded +hopes and foolish ambition, was left with an army at Thespiae, to receive and +succor the Theban renegades. To him Pelopidas and his colleagues privately sent +a merchant, one of their friends, with money, and, what proved more efficient, +advice, — that it more became a man of his worth to set upon some great +enterprise, and that he should, making a sudden incursion on the unprotected +Athenians, surprise the Piraeus; since nothing could be so grateful to Sparta, +as to take Athens; and the Thebans, of course, would not stir to the assistance +of men whom they now hated and looked upon as traitors. Sphodrias, being at +last wrought upon, marched into Attica by night with his army, and advanced as +far as Eleusis; but there his soldiers’ hearts failing, after exposing his +project and involving the Spartans in a dangerous war, he retreated to +Thespiae. After this, the Athenians zealously sent supplies to Thebes, and +putting to sea, sailed to many places, and offered support and protection to +all those of the Greeks who were willing to revolt. +</p> + +<p> +The Thebans, meantime, singly, having many skirmishes with the Spartans in +Boeotia, and fighting some battles, not great indeed, but important as training +and instructing them, thus had their minds raised, and their bodies inured to +labor, and gained both experience and courage by these frequent encounters; +insomuch that we have it related that Antalcidas, the Spartan, said to +Agesilaus, returning wounded from Boeotia, “Indeed, the Thebans have paid you +handsomely for instructing them in the art of war, against their wills.” In +real truth, however, Agesilaus was not their master in this, but those that +prudently and opportunely, as men do young dogs, set them on their enemies, and +brought them safely off after they had tasted the sweets of victory and +resolution. Of all those leaders, Pelopidas deserves the most honor: as after +they had once chosen him general, he was every year in command as long as he +lived; either captain of the sacred band, or, what was most frequent, chief +captain of Boeotia. About Plataea and Thespiae the Spartans were routed and put +to flight, and Phoebidas, that surprised the Cadmea, slain; and at Tanagra a +considerable force was worsted, and the leader Panthoides killed. But these +encounters, though they raised the victor’s spirits, did not thoroughly +dishearten the unsuccessful; for there was no set battle, or regular fighting, +but mere incursions on advantage, in which, according to occasion, they +charged, retired again, or pursued. But the battle at Tegyrae, which seemed a +prelude to Leuctra, won Pelopidas a great reputation; for none of the other +commanders could claim any hand in the design, nor the enemies any show of +victory. The city of the Orchomenians siding with the Spartans, and having +received two companies for its guard, he kept a constant eye upon it, and +watched his opportunity. Hearing that the garrison had moved into Locris, and +hoping to find Orchomenus defenseless, he marched with his sacred band, and +some few horsemen. But when he approached the city, and found that a +reinforcement of the garrison was on its march from Sparta, he made a circuit +round the foot of the mountains, and retreated with his little army through +Tegyrae, that being the only way he could pass. For the river Melas, almost as +soon as it rises, spreads itself into marshes and navigable pools, and makes +all the plain between impassable. A little below the marshes stands the temple +and oracle of Apollo Tegyraeus, forsaken not long before that time, having +flourished till the Median wars, Echecrates then being priest. Here they +profess that the god was born; the neighboring mountain is called Delos, and +there the river Melas comes again into a channel; behind the temple rise two +springs, admirable for the sweetness, abundance, and coolness of the streams; +one they call Phoenix, the other Elaea, even to the present time, as if Lucina +had not been delivered between two trees, but fountains. A place hard by, +called Ptoum, is shown, where they say she was affrighted by the appearance of +a boar; and the stories of the Python and Tityus are in like manner +appropriated by these localities. I omit many of the points that are used as +arguments. For our tradition does not rank this god amongst those that were +born, and then made immortal, as Hercules and Bacchus, whom their virtue raised +above a mortal and passable condition; but Apollo is one of the eternal +unbegotten deities, if we may collect any certainty concerning these things, +from the statements of the oldest and wisest in such subjects. +</p> + +<p> +As Thebans were retreating from Orchomenus towards Tegyrae, the Spartans, at +the same time marching from Locris, met them. As soon as they came in view, +advancing through the straits, one told Pelopidas, “We are fallen into our +enemy’s hands;” he replied, “And why not they into ours?” and immediately +commanded his horse to come up from the rear and charge, while he himself drew +his infantry, being three hundred in number, into a close body, hoping by that +means, at whatsoever point he made the attack, to break his way through his +more numerous enemies. The Spartans had two companies, (the company consisting, +as Ephorus states, of five hundred; Callisthenes says seven hundred; others, as +Polybius, nine hundred) and their leaders, Gorgoleon and Theopompus, confident +of success, advanced upon the Thebans. The charge being made with much fury, +chiefly where the commanders were posted, the Spartan captains that engaged +Pelopidas were first killed; and those immediately around them suffering +severely, the whole army was thus disheartened, and opened a lane for the +Thebans, as if they desired to pass through and escape. But when Pelopidas +entered, and turning against those that stood their ground, still went on with +a bloody slaughter, an open fight ensued amongst the Spartans. The pursuit was +carried but a little way, because they feared the neighboring Orchomenians, and +the reinforcement from Lacedaemon; they had succeeded, however, in fighting a +way through their enemies, and overpowering their whole force; and, therefore, +erecting a trophy, and spoiling the slain, they returned home extremely +encouraged with their achievements. For in all the great wars there had ever +been against Greeks or barbarians, the Spartans were never before beaten by a +smaller company than their own; nor, indeed, in a set battle, when their number +was equal. Hence their courage was thought irresistible, and their high repute +before the battle made a conquest already of enemies, who thought themselves no +match for the men of Sparta even on equal terms. But this battle first taught +the other Greeks, that not only Eurotas, or the country between Babyce and +Cnacion, breeds men of courage and resolution; but that where the youth are +ashamed of baseness, and ready to venture in a good cause, where they fly +disgrace more than danger, there, wherever it be, are found the bravest and +most formidable opponents. +</p> + +<p> +Gorgidas, according to some, first formed the Sacred Band of three hundred +chosen men, to whom, as being a guard for the citadel, the State allowed +provision, and all things necessary for exercise: and hence they were called +the city band, as citadels of old were usually called cities. Others say that +it was composed of young men attached to each other by personal affection, and +a pleasant saying of Pammenes is current, that Homer’s Nestor was not well +skilled in ordering an army, when he advised the Greeks to rank tribe and +tribe, and family and family together, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +So tribe might tribe, and kinsmen kinsmen aid, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +but that he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men of the same +tribe or family little value one another when dangers press; but a band +cemented by friendship grounded upon love, is never to be broken, and +invincible; since the lovers, ashamed to be base in sight of their beloved, and +the beloved before their lovers, willingly rush into danger for the relief of +one another. Nor can that be wondered at; since they have more regard for their +absent lovers than for others present; as in the instance of the man, who, when +his enemy was going to kill him, earnestly requested him to run him through the +breast, that his lover might not blush to see him wounded in the back. It is a +tradition likewise, that Iolaus, who assisted Hercules in his labors and fought +at his side, was beloved of him; and Aristotle observes, that even in his time, +lovers plighted their faith at Iolaus’s tomb. It is likely, therefore, that +this band was called sacred on this account; as Plato calls a lover a divine +friend. It is stated that it was never beaten till the battle at Chaeronea: and +when Philip, after the fight, took a view of the slain, and came to the place +where the three hundred that fought his phalanx lay dead together, he wondered, +and understanding that it was the band of lovers, he shed tears and said, +“Perish any man who suspects that these men either did or suffered anything +that was base.” +</p> + +<p> +It was not the disaster of Laius, as the poets imagine, that first gave rise to +this form of attachment amongst the Thebans, but their law-givers, designing to +soften, whilst they were young, their natural fierceness, brought, for example, +the pipe into great esteem, both in serious and sportive occasions, and gave +great encouragement to these friendships in the Palaestra, to temper the +manners and characters of the youth. With a view to this they did well, again, +to make Harmony, the daughter of Mars and Venus, their tutelar deity; since, +where force and courage is joined with gracefulness and winning behavior a +harmony ensues that combines all the elements of society in perfect consonance +and order. — Gorgidas distributed this Sacred Band all through the front ranks +of the infantry and thus made their gallantry less conspicuous; not being +united in one body, but mingled with so many others of inferior resolution, +they had no fair opportunity of showing what they could do. But Pelopidas, +having sufficiently tried their bravery at Tegyrae, where they had fought +alone, and around his own person, never afterward divided them, but keeping +them entire, and as one man, gave them the first duty in the greatest battles. +For as horses run brisker in a chariot than singly, not that their joint force +divides the air with greater ease, but because being matched one against the +other, emulation kindles and inflames their courage; thus he thought, brave +men, provoking one another to noble actions, would prove most serviceable and +most resolute, where all were united together. +</p> + +<p> +Now when the Lacedaemonians had made peace with the other Greeks, and united +all their strength against the Thebans only, and their king, Cleombrotus, had +passed the frontier with ten thousand foot and one thousand horse, and not only +subjection, as heretofore, but total dispersion and annihilation threatened, +and Boeotia was in a greater fear than ever, — Pelopidas, leaving his house, +when his wife followed him on his way, and with tears begged him to be careful +of his life, made answer, “Private men, my wife, should be advised to look to +themselves, generals to save others.” And when he came to the camp, and found +the chief captains disagreeing, he, first, joined the side of Epaminondas, who +advised to fight the enemy; though Pelopidas himself was not then in office as +chief captain of Boeotia, but in command of the Sacred Band, and trusted as it +was fit a man should be, who had given his country such proofs of his zeal for +its freedom. And so, when a battle was agreed on, and they encamped in front of +the Spartans at Leuctra, Pelopidas saw a vision, which much discomposed him. In +that plain lie the bodies of the daughters of one Scedasus, called from the +place Leuctridae, having been buried there, after having been ravished by some +Spartan strangers. When this base and lawless deed was done, and their father +could get no satisfaction at Lacedaemon, with bitter imprecations on the +Spartans, he killed himself at his daughters’ tombs: and, from that time, the +prophecies and oracles still warned them to have a great care of the divine +vengeance at Leuctra. Many, however, did not understand the meaning, being +uncertain about the place, because there was a little maritime town of Laconia +called Leuctron, and near Megalopolis in Arcadia a place of the same name; and +the villainy was committed long before this battle. +</p> + +<p> +Now Pelopidas, being asleep in the camp, thought he saw the maidens weeping +about their tombs, and cursing the Spartans, and Scedasus commanding, if they +desired the victory, to sacrifice a virgin with chestnut hair to his daughters. +Pelopidas looked on this as an harsh and impious injunction, but rose and told +it to the prophets and commanders of the army, some of whom contended, that it +was fit to obey, and adduced as examples from the ancients, Menoeceus, son of +Creon; Macaria, daughter of Hercules; and from later times, Pherecydes the +philosopher, slain by the Lacedaemonians, and his skin, as the oracles advised, +still kept by their kings. Leonidas, again, warned by the oracle, did as it +were sacrifice himself for the good of Greece; Themistocles offered human +victims to Bacchus Omestes, before the engagement at Salamis; and success +showed their actions to be good. On the contrary, Agesilaus going from the same +place, and against the same enemies that Agamemnon did, and, being commanded in +a dream at Aulis to sacrifice his daughter, was so weak as to disobey; the +consequence of which was, that his expedition was unsuccessful and inglorious. +But some on the other side urged, that such a barbarous and impious oblation +could not be pleasing to any Superior Beings: that typhons and giants did not +preside over the world, but the general father of gods and men; that it was +absurd to imagine any divinities or powers delighted in slaughter and +sacrifices of men; or, if there were an, such, they were to be neglected, as +weak and unable to assist; such unreasonable and cruel desires could only +proceed from, and live in weak and depraved minds. +</p> + +<p> +The commanders thus disputing, and Pelopidas being in a great perplexity, a +mare colt, breaking from the herd, ran through the camp, and when she came to +the place where they were, stood still; and whilst some admired her bright +chestnut color, others her mettle, or the strength and fury of her neighing, +Theocritus, the augur, took thought, and cried out to Pelopidas, “O good +friend! look, the sacrifice is come; expect no other virgin, but use that which +the gods have sent thee.” With that they took the colt, and, leading her to the +maidens’ sepulchres, with the usual solemnity and prayers, offered her with +joy, and spread through the whole army the account of Pelopidas’s dream, and +how they had given the required sacrifice. +</p> + +<p> +In the battle, Epaminondas, bending his phalanx to the left, that, as much as +possible, he might divide the right wing, composed of Spartans, from the other +Greeks, and distress Cleombrotus, by a fierce charge in column on that wing, +the enemies perceived the design, and began to change their order, to open and +extend their right wing, and, as they far exceeded him in number, to encompass +Epaminondas. But Pelopidas with the three hundred came rapidly up, before +Cleombrotus could extend his line, and close up his divisions, and so fell upon +the Spartans while in disorder; though the Lacedaemonians, the expertest and +most practiced soldiers of all mankind, used to train and accustom themselves +to nothing so much as to keep themselves from confusion upon any change of +position, and to follow any leader, or right hand man, and form in order, and +fight on what part soever dangers press. In this battle, however, Epaminondas +with his phalanx, neglecting the other Greeks, and charging them alone, and +Pelopidas coming up with such incredible speed and fury, so broke their +courage, and baffled their art, that there began such a flight and slaughter +amongst the Spartans, as was never before known. And so Pelopidas, though in no +high office, but only captain of a small band, got as much reputation by the +victory, as Epaminondas, who was general and chief captain of Boeotia. +</p> + +<p> +Into Peloponnesus, however, they both advanced together as colleagues in +supreme command, and gained the greater part of the nations there from the +Spartan confederacy; Elis, Argo, all Arcadia, and much of Laconia itself. It +was the dead of winter, and but few of the last days of the month remained, +and, in the beginning of the next, new officers were to succeed, and whoever +failed to deliver up his charge, forfeited his head. Therefore, the other chief +captains fearing the law, and to avoid the sharpness of the winter, advised a +retreat. But Pelopidas joined with Epaminondas, and, encouraging his +countrymen, led them against Sparta, and, passing the Eurotas, took many of the +towns, and wasted the country as far as the sea. This army consisted of seventy +thousand Greeks, of which number the Thebans could not make the twelfth part; +but the reputation of the men made all their allies contented to follow them as +leaders, though no articles to that effect had been made. For, indeed, it seems +the first and paramount law, that he that wants a defender, is naturally a +subject to him that is able to defend: as mariners, though in a calm or in the +port they grow insolent, and brave the pilot, yet when a storm comes, and +danger is at hand, they all attend, and put their hopes in him. So the Argives, +Eleans, and Arcadians, in their congresses, would contend with the Thebans for +superiority in command, yet in a battle, or any hazardous undertaking, of their +own will followed their Theban captains. In this expedition, they united all +Arcadia into one body, and, expelling the Spartans that inhabited Messenia, +they called back the old Messenians, and established them in Ithome in one +body; — and, returning through Cenchreae, they dispersed the Athenians, who +designed to set upon them in the straits, and hinder their march. +</p> + +<p> +For these exploits, all the other Greeks loved their courage, and admired their +success; but among their own citizens, envy, still increasing with their glory, +prepared them no pleasing nor agreeable reception. Both were tried for their +lives, because they did not deliver up their command in the first month, +Bucatius, as the law required, but kept it four months longer, in which time +they did these memorable actions in Messenia, Arcadia, and Laconia. Pelopidas +was first tried, and therefore in greatest danger, but both were acquitted. +Epaminondas bore the accusation and trial very patiently, esteeming it a great +and essential part of courage and generosity, not to resent injuries in +political life. But Pelopidas, being a man of a fiercer temper, and stirred on +by his friends to revenge the affront, took the following occasion. Meneclidas, +the orator, was one of those that had met with Melon and Pelopidas at Charon’s +house; but not receiving equal honor, and being powerful in his speech, but +loose in his manners, and ill-natured, he abused his natural endowments, even +after this trial, to accuse and calumniate his betters. He excluded Epaminondas +from the chief captaincy, and for a long time kept the upper hand of him; but +he was not powerful enough to bring Pelopidas out of the people’s favor, and +therefore endeavored to raise a quarrel between him and Charon. And since it is +some comfort to the envious, to make those men, whom themselves cannot excel, +appear worse than others, he studiously enlarged upon Charon’s actions in his +speeches to the people, and made panegyrics on his expeditions and victories; +and, of the victory which the horsemen won at Plataea, before the battle at +Leuctra, under Charon’s command, he endeavored to make the following sacred +memorial. Androcydes, the Cyzicenian, had undertaken to paint a previous battle +for the city, and was at work in Thebes; and when the revolt began, and the war +came on, the Thebans kept the picture that was then almost finished. This +picture Meneclidas persuaded them to dedicate, inscribed with Charon’s name, +designing by that means to obscure the glory of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. This +was a ludicrous piece of pretension; to set a single victory, where only one +Gerandas, an obscure Spartan, and forty more were slain, above such numerous +and important battles. This motion Pelopidas opposed, as contrary to law, +alleging that it was not the custom of the Thebans to honor any single man, but +to attribute the victory to their country; yet in all the contest, he extremely +commended Charon, and confined himself to showing Meneclidas to be a +troublesome and envious fellow, asking the Thebans, if they had done nothing +that was excellent, .... insomuch that Meneclidas was severely fined; and he, +being unable to pay, endeavored afterwards to disturb the government. These +things give us some light into Pelopidas’s life. +</p> + +<p> +Now when Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae, made open war against some of the +Thessalians, and had designs against all, the cities sent an embassy to Thebes, +to desire succors and a general; and Pelopidas, knowing that Epaminondas was +detained by the Peloponnesian affairs, offered himself to lead the Thessalians, +being unwilling to let his courage and skill lie idle, and thinking it unfit +that Epaminondas should be withdrawn from his present duties. When he came into +Thessaly with his army, he presently took Larissa, and endeavored to reclaim +Alexander, who submitted, and bring him, from being a tyrant, to govern gently, +and according to law; but finding him untractable and brutish, and hearing +great complaints of his lust and cruelty, Pelopidas began to be severe, and +used him roughly, insomuch that the tyrant stole away privately with his guard. +But Pelopidas, leaving the Thessalians fearless of the tyrant, and friends +amongst themselves, marched into Macedonia, where Ptolemy was then at war with +Alexander, the king of Macedon; both parties having sent for him to hear and +determine their differences, and assist the one that appeared injured. When he +came, he reconciled them, called back the exiles, and, receiving for hostages +Philip the king’s brother, and thirty children of the nobles, he brought them +to Thebes; showing the other Greeks how wide a reputation the Thebans had +gained for honesty and courage. This was that Philip who afterward endeavored +to enslave the Greeks: then he was a boy, and lived with Pammenes in Thebes; +and hence some conjecture, that he took Epaminondas’s actions for the rule of +his own; and perhaps, indeed, he did take example from his activity and skill +in war, which, however, was but a small portion of his virtues; of his +temperance, justice, generosity, and mildness, in which he was truly great, +Philip enjoyed no share, either by nature or imitation. +</p> + +<p> +After this, upon a second complaint of the Thessalians against Alexander of +Pherae, as a disturber of the cities, Pelopidas was joined with Ismenias, in an +embassy to him; but led no forces from Thebes, not expecting any war, and +therefore was necessitated to make use of the Thessalians upon the emergency. +At the same time, also, Macedon was in confusion again, as Ptolemy had murdered +the king, and seized the government: but the king’s friends sent for Pelopidas, +and he, being willing to interpose in the matter, but having no soldiers of his +own, enlisted some mercenaries in the country, and with them marched against +Ptolemy. When they faced one another, Ptolemy corrupted these mercenaries with +a sum of money, and persuaded them to revolt to him; but yet, fearing the very +name and reputation of Pelopidas, he came to him as his superior, submitted, +begged his pardon, and protested that he kept the government only for the +brothers of the dead king, and would prove a friend to the friends, and an +enemy to the enemies of Thebes; and, to confirm this, he gave his son, +Philoxenus, and fifty of his companions, for hostages. These Pelopidas sent to +Thebes; but he himself, being vexed at the treachery of the mercenaries, and +understanding that most of their goods, their wives and children, lay at +Pharsalus, so that if he could take them, the injury would be sufficiently +revenged, got together some of the Thessalians, and marched to Pharsalus. When +he had just entered the city, Alexander, the tyrant, appeared before it with an +army; but Pelopidas and his friends, thinking that he came to clear himself +from those crimes that were laid to his charge, went to him; and though they +knew very well that he was profligate and cruel, yet they imagined that the +authority of Thebes, and their own dignity and reputation, would secure them +from violence. But the tyrant, seeing them come unarmed and alone, seized them, +and made himself master of Pharsalus. Upon this his subjects were much +intimidated, thinking that after so great and so bold an iniquity, he would +spare none, but behave himself toward all, and in all matters, as one +despairing of his life. The Thebans, when they heard of this, were very much +enraged, and dispatched an army, Epaminondas being then in disgrace, under the +command of other leaders. When the tyrant brought Pelopidas to Pherae, at first +he permitted those that desired it to speak with him, imagining that this +disaster would break his spirit, and make him appear contemptible. But when +Pelopidas advised the complaining Pheraeans to be comforted, as if the tyrant +was now certain in a short time to smart for his injuries, and sent to tell +him, “That it was absurd daily to torment and murder his wretched innocent +subjects, and yet spare him, who, he well knew, if ever he got his liberty, +would be bitterly revenged;” the tyrant, wondering at his boldness and freedom +of speech, replied, “And why is Pelopidas in haste to die?” He, hearing of it, +rejoined, “That you may be the sooner ruined, being then more hated by the gods +than now.” From that time he forbade any to converse with him; but Thebe, the +daughter of Jason and wife to Alexander, hearing from the keepers of the +bravery and noble behavior of Pelopidas, had a great desire to see and speak +with him. Now when she came into the prison, and, as a woman, could not at once +discern his greatness in his calamity, only, judging by the meanness of his +attire and general appearance, that he was used basely and not befitting a man +of his reputation, she wept. Pelopidas, at first not knowing who she was, stood +amazed; but when he understood, saluted her by her father’s name — Jason and he +having been friends and familiars — and she saying, “I pity your wife, Sir,” he +replied, “And I you, that though not in chains, can endure Alexander.” This +touched the woman, who already hated Alexander for his cruelty and injustice, +for his general debaucheries, and for his abuse of her youngest brother. She, +therefore, often went to Pelopidas, and, speaking freely of the indignities she +suffered, grew more enraged, and more exasperated against Alexander. +</p> + +<p> +The Theban generals that were sent into Thessaly did nothing, but, being either +unskillful or unfortunate, made a dishonorable retreat, for which the city +fined each of them ten thousand drachmas, and sent Epaminondas with their +forces. The Thessalians, inspirited by the fame of this general, at once began +to stir, and the tyrant’s affairs were at the verge of destruction; so great +was the fear that possessed his captains and his friends, and so eager the +desire of his subjects to revolt, in hope of his speedy punishment. But +Epaminondas, more solicitous for the safety of Pelopidas than his own glory, +and fearing that if things came to extremity, Alexander would grow desperate, +and, like a wild beast, turn and worry him, did not prosecute the war to the +utmost; but, hovering still over him with his army, he so handled the tyrant as +not to leave him any confidence, and yet not to drive him to despair and fury. +He was aware of his savageness, and the little value he had for right and +justice, insomuch that sometimes he buried men alive, and sometimes dressed +them in bear’s and boar’s skins, and then baited them with dogs, or shot at +them for his divertisement. At Meliboea and Scotussa, two cities, his allies, +he called all the inhabitants to an assembly, and then surrounded them and cut +them to pieces with his guards. He consecrated the spear with which he killed +his uncle Polyphron, and, crowning it with garlands, sacrificed to it as a god, +and called it Tychon. And once seeing a tragedian act Euripides’s Troades, he +left the theater; but sending for the actor, bade him not to be concerned at +his departure, but act as he had been used to do, as it was not in contempt of +him that he departed, but because he was ashamed that his citizens should see +him, who never pitied any man that he murdered, weep at the sufferings of +Hecuba and Andromache. This tyrant, however, alarmed at the very name, report, +and appearance of an expedition under the conduct of Epaminondas, presently +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Dropped like a craven cock his conquered wing, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and sent an embassy to entreat and offer satisfaction. Epaminondas refused to +admit such a man as an ally to the Thebans, but granted him a truce of thirty +days, and, Pelopidas and Ismenias being delivered up, returned home. +</p> + +<p> +Now the Thebans, understanding that the Spartans and Athenians had sent an +embassy to the Persians for assistance, themselves, likewise, sent Pelopidas; +an excellent design to increase his glory, no man having ever before passed +through the dominions of the king with greater fame and reputation. For the +glory that he won against the Spartans, did not creep slowly or obscurely; but, +after the fame of the first battle at Leuctra was gone abroad, the report of +new victories continually following, exceedingly increased, and spread his +celebrity far and near. Whatever satraps or generals or commanders he met, he +was the object of their wonder and discourse; “This is the man,” they said, +“who hath beaten the Lacedaemonians from sea and land, and confined that Sparta +within Taygetus and Eurotas, which, but a little before, under the conduct of +Agesilaus, was entering upon a war with the great king about Susa and +Ecbatana.” This pleased Artaxerxes, and he was the more inclined to show +Pelopidas attention and honor, being desirous to seem reverenced, and attended +by the greatest. But when he saw him and heard his discourse, more solid than +the Athenians, and not so haughty as the Spartans, his regard was heightened, +and, truly acting like a king, he openly showed the respect that he felt for +him; and this the other ambassadors perceived. Of all other Greeks he had been +thought to have done Antalcidas, the Spartan, the greatest honor, by sending +him that garland dipped in an unguent, which he himself had worn at an +entertainment. Indeed, he did not deal so delicately with Pelopidas, but, +according to the custom, gave him the most splendid and considerable presents, +and granted him his desires, that the Grecians should be free, Messenia +inhabited, and the Thebans accounted the king’s hereditary friends. With these +answers, but not accepting one of the presents, except what was a pledge of +kindness and good-will, he returned. This behavior of Pelopidas ruined the +other ambassadors: the Athenians condemned and executed their Timagoras, and, +indeed, if they did it for receiving so many presents from the king, their +sentence was just and good; as he not only took gold and silver, but a rich +bed, and slaves to make it, as if the Greeks were unskillful in that art; +besides eighty cows and herdsmen, professing he needed cow’s milk for some +distemper; and, lastly, he was carried in a litter to the seaside, with a +present of four talents for his attendants. But the Athenians, perhaps, were +not so much irritated at his greediness for the presents. For Epicrates the +baggage-carrier not only confessed to the people that he had received gifts +from the king, but made a motion, that instead of nine archons, they should +yearly choose nine poor citizens to be sent ambassadors to the king, and +enriched by his presents, and the people only laughed at the joke. But they +were vexed that the Thebans obtained their desires, never considering that +Pelopidas’s fame was more powerful than all their rhetorical discourse, with a +man who still inclined to the victorious in arms. This embassy, having obtained +the restitution of Messenia, and the freedom of the other Greeks, got Pelopidas +a great deal of good-will at his return. +</p> + +<p> +At this time, Alexander the Pheraean falling back to his old nature, and having +seized many of the Thessalian cities, and put garrisons upon the Achaeans of +Phthiotis, and the Magnesians, the cities, hearing that Pelopidas was returned, +sent an embassy to Thebes, requesting succors, and him for their leader. The +Thebans willingly granted their desire; and now when all things were prepared, +and the general beginning to march, the sun was eclipsed, and darkness spread +over the city at noonday. Now when Pelopidas saw them startled at the prodigy, +he did not think it fit to force on men who were afraid and out of heart, nor +to hazard seven thousand of his citizens; and therefore with only three hundred +horse volunteers, set forward himself to Thessaly, much against the will of the +augurs and his fellow-citizens in general, who all imagined this marked portent +to have reference to this great man. But he was heated against Alexander for +the injuries he had received, and hoped likewise, from the discourse which +formerly he had with Thebe, that his family by this time was divided and in +disorder. But the glory of the expedition chiefly excited him; for he was +extremely desirous at this time, when the Lacedaemonians were sending out +military officers to assist Dionysius the Sicilian tyrant, and the Athenians +took Alexander’s pay, and honored him with a brazen statue as a benefactor, +that the Thebans should be seen, alone, of all the Greeks, undertaking the +cause of those who were oppressed by tyrants, and destroying the violent and +illegal forms of government in Greece. +</p> + +<p> +When Pelopidas was come to Pharsalus, he formed an army, and presently marched +against Alexander; and Alexander understanding that Pelopidas had few Thebans +with him, and that his own infantry was double the number of the Thessalians, +faced him at Thetidium. Some one told Pelopidas, “The tyrant meets us with a +great army;” “So much the better,” he replied, “for then we shall overcome the +more.” Between the two armies lay some steep high hills about Cynoscephalae, +which both parties endeavored to take by their foot. Pelopidas commanded his +horse, which were good and many, to charge that of the enemies; they routed and +pursued them through the plain. But Alexander, meantime, took the hills, and +charging the Thessalian foot that came up later, and strove to climb the steep +and craggy ascent, killed the foremost, and the others, much distressed, could +do the enemies no harm. Pelopidas, observing this, sounded a retreat to his +horse, and gave orders that they should charge the enemies that kept their +ground; and he himself, taking his shield, quickly joined those that fought +about the hills, and, advancing to the front, filled his men with such courage +and alacrity, that the enemies imagined they came with other spirits and other +bodies to the onset. They stood two or three charges, but finding these come on +stoutly, and the horse, also, returning from the pursuit, gave ground, and +retreated in order. Pelopidas now perceiving, from the rising ground, that the +enemy’s army was, though not yet routed, full of disorder and confusion, stood +and looked about for Alexander; and when he saw him in the right wing, +encouraging and ordering his mercenaries, he could not moderate his anger, but +inflamed at the sight, and blindly following his passion, regardless alike of +his own life and his command, advanced far before his soldiers, crying out and +challenging the tyrant who did not dare to receive him, but retreating, hid +himself amongst his guard. The foremost of the mercenaries that came hand to +hand were driven back by Pelopidas, and some killed; but many at a distance +shot through his armor and wounded him, till the Thessalians, in anxiety for +the result, ran down from the hill to his relief, but found him already slain. +The horse came up, also, and routed the phalanx, and, following the pursuit a +great way, filled the whole country with the slain, which were above three +thousand. +</p> + +<p> +No one can wonder that the Thebans then present, should show great grief at the +death of Pelopidas, calling him their father, deliverer, and instructor in all +that was good and commendable. But the Thessalians and the allies out-doing in +their public edicts all the just honors that could be paid to human courage, +gave, in their display of feeling, yet stronger demonstrations of the kindness +they had for him. It is stated, that none of the soldiers, when they heard of +his death, would put off their armor, unbridle their horses, or dress their +wounds, but, still hot and with their arms on, ran to the corpse, and, as if he +had been yet alive and could see what they did, heaped up spoils about his +body. They cut off their horses’ manes and their own hair, many kindled no fire +in their tents, took no supper, and silence and sadness was spread over all the +army; as if they had not gained the greatest and most glorious victory, but +were overcome by the tyrant, and enslaved. As soon as it was known in the +cities, the magistrates, youths, children, and priests, came out to meet the +body, and brought trophies, crowns, and suits of golden armor; and, when he was +to be interred, the elders of the Thessalians came and begged the Thebans, that +they might give the funeral; and one of them said, “Friends, we ask a favor of +you, that will prove both an honor and comfort to us in this our great +misfortune. The Thessalians shall never again wait on the living Pelopidas, +never give honors, of which he can be sensible, but if we may have his body, +adorn his funeral, and inter him, we shall hope to show that we esteem his +death a greater loss to the Thessalians than to the Thebans. You have lost only +a good general, we both a general and our liberty. For how shall we dare to +desire from you another captain, since we cannot restore Pelopidas?” +</p> + +<p> +The Thebans granted their request, and there was never a more splendid funeral +in the opinion of those, who do not think the glory of such solemnities +consists only in gold, ivory, and purple; as Philistus did, who extravagantly +celebrates the funeral of Dionysius, in which his tyranny concluded like the +pompous exit of some great tragedy. Alexander the Great, at the death of +Hephaestion, not only cut off the manes of his horses and his mules, but took +down the battlements from the city walls, that even the towns might seem +mourners, and, instead of their former beauteous appearance, look bald at his +funeral. But such honors, being commanded and forced from the mourners, +attended with feelings of jealousy towards those who received them, and of +hatred towards those who exacted them, were no testimonies of love and respect, +but of the barbaric pride, luxury, and insolence of those who lavished their +wealth in these vain and undesirable displays. But that a man of common rank, +dying in a strange country, neither his wife, children, nor kinsmen present, +none either asking or compelling it, should be attended, buried, and crowned by +so many cities that strove to exceed one another in the demonstrations of their +love, seems to be the sum and completion of happy fortune. For the death of +happy men is not, as Aesop observes, most grievous, but most blessed, since it +secures their felicity, and puts it out of fortune’s power. And that Spartan +advised well, who, embracing Diagoras, that had himself been crowned in the +Olympic Games, and saw his sons and grandchildren victors, said, “Die, +Diagoras, for thou canst not be a god.” And yet who would compare all the +victories in the Pythian and Olympian Games put together, with one of those +enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he successfully performed so many? Having +spent his life in brave and glorious actions, he died at last in the chief +command, for the thirteenth time, of the Boeotians, fighting bravely and in the +act of slaying a tyrant, in defense of the liberty of the Thessalians. +</p> + +<p> +His death, as it brought grief, so likewise it produced advantage to the +allies; for the Thebans, as soon as they heard of his fall, delayed not their +revenge, but presently sent seven thousand foot and seven hundred horse, under +the command of Malcitas and Diogiton. And they, finding Alexander weak and +without forces, compelled him to restore the cities he had taken, to withdraw +his garrisons from the Magnesians and Achaeans of Phthiotis, and swear to +assist the Thebans against whatsoever enemies they should require. This +contented the Thebans, but punishment overtook the tyrant for his wickedness, +and the death of Pelopidas was revenged by Heaven in the following manner. +Pelopidas, as I have already mentioned, had taught his wife Thebe not to fear +the outward splendor and show of the tyrant’s defenses, since she was admitted +within them. She, of herself, too, dreaded his inconstancy, and hated his +cruelty; and, therefore, conspiring with her three brothers, Tisiphonus, +Pytholaus, and Lycophron, made the following attempt upon him. All the other +apartments were full of the tyrant’s night guards, but their bed-chamber was an +upper room, and before the door lay a chained dog to guard it, which would fly +at all but the tyrant and his wife and one servant that fed him. When Thebe, +therefore, designed to kill her husband, she hid her brothers all day in a room +hard by, and she, going in alone, according to her usual custom, to Alexander +who was asleep already, in a little time came out again, and commanded the +servant to lead away the dog, for Alexander wished to rest quietly. She covered +the stairs with wool, that the young men might make no noise as they came up; +and then, bringing up her brothers with their weapons, and leaving them at the +chamber door, she went in, and brought away the tyrant’s sword that hung over +his head and showed it them for a confirmation that he was fast asleep. The +young men appearing fearful, and unwilling to do the murder, she chid them, and +angrily vowed she would wake Alexander, and discover the conspiracy; and so, +with a lamp in her hand, she conducted them in, they being both ashamed and +afraid, and brought them to the bed; when one of them caught him by the feet, +the other pulled him backward by the hair, and the third ran him through. The +death was more speedy, perhaps, than was fit; but, in that he was the first +tyrant that was killed by the contrivance of his wife, and as his corpse was +abused, thrown out, and trodden under foot by the Pheraeans, he seems to have +suffered what his villainies deserved. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap22"></a>MARCELLUS</h2> + +<p> +They say that Marcus Claudius, who was five times consul of the Romans, was the +son of Marcus; and that he was the first of his family called Marcellus; that +is, martial, as Posidonius affirms. He was, indeed, by long experience skillful +in the art of war, of a strong body, valiant of hand, and by natural +inclination addicted to war. This high temper and heat he showed conspicuously +in battle; in other respects he was modest and obliging, and so far studious of +Greek learning and discipline, as to honor and admire those that excelled in +it, though he did not himself attain a proficiency in them equal to his desire, +by reason of his employments. For if ever there were any men, whom, as Homer +says, Heaven, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +From their first youth unto their utmost age<br/> +Appointed the laborious wars to wage, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +certainly they were the chief Romans of that time; who in their youth had war +with the Carthaginians in Sicily, in their middle age with the Gauls in the +defense of Italy itself; and, at last, when now grown old, struggled again with +Hannibal and the Carthaginians, and wanted in their latest years what is +granted to most men, exemption from military toils; their rank and their great +qualities still making them be called upon to undertake the command. +</p> + +<p> +Marcellus, ignorant or unskillful of no kind of fighting, in single combat +surpassed himself; he never declined a challenge, and never accepted without +killing his challenger. In Sicily, he protected and saved his brother Otacilius +when surrounded in battle, and slew the enemies that pressed upon him; for +which act he was by the generals, while he was yet but young, presented with +crowns and other honorable rewards; and, his good qualities more and more +displaying themselves, he was created Curule Aedile by the people, and by the +high-priests Augur; which is that priesthood to which chiefly the law assigns +the observation of auguries. In his aedileship, a certain mischance brought him +to the necessity of bringing an impeachment into the senate. He had a son named +Marcus, of great beauty, in the flower of his age, and no less admired for the +goodness of his character. This youth, Capitolinus, a bold and ill-mannered +man, Marcellus’s colleague, sought to abuse. The boy at first himself repelled +him; but when the other again persecuted him, told his father. Marcellus, +highly indignant, accused the man in the senate, where he, having appealed to +the tribunes of the people, endeavored by various shifts and exceptions to +elude the impeachment; and, when the tribunes refused their protection, by flat +denial rejected the charge. As there was no witness of the fact, the senate +thought fit to call the youth himself before them; on witnessing whose blushes +and tears, and shame mixed with the highest indignation, seeking no further +evidence of the crime, they condemned Capitolinus, and set a fine upon him; of +the money of which, Marcellus caused silver vessels for libation to be made, +which he dedicated to the gods. +</p> + +<p> +After the end of the first Punic war, which lasted one and twenty years, the +seeds of Gallic tumults sprang up, and began again to trouble Rome. The +Insubrians, a people inhabiting the subalpine region of Italy, strong in their +own forces, raised from among the other Gauls aids of mercenary soldiers, +called Gaesatae. And it was a sort of miracle, and special good fortune for +Rome, that the Gallic war was not coincident with the Punic, but that the Gauls +had with fidelity stood quiet as spectators, while the Punic war continued, as +though they had been under engagements to await and attack the victors, and now +only were at liberty to come forward. Still the position itself, and the +ancient renown of the Gauls, struck no little fear into the minds of the +Romans, who were about to undertake a war so near home and upon their own +borders; and regarded the Gauls, because they had once taken their city, with +more apprehension than any people, as is apparent from the enactment which from +that time forth provided, that the high-priests should enjoy an exemption from +all military duty, except only in Gallic insurrections. +</p> + +<p> +The great preparations, also, made by the Romans for war, (for it is not +reported that the people of Rome ever had at one time so many legions in arms, +either before or since,) and their extraordinary sacrifices, were plain +arguments of their fear. For though they were most averse to barbarous and +cruel rites, and entertained more than any nation the same pious and reverent +sentiments of the gods with the Greeks; yet, when this war was coming upon +them, they then, from some prophecies in the Sibyls’ books, put alive under +ground a pair of Greeks, one male, the other female; and likewise two Gauls, +one of each sex, in the market called the beast-market: continuing even to this +day to offer to these Greeks and Gauls certain secret ceremonial observances in +the month of November. +</p> + +<p> +In the beginning of this war, in which the Romans sometimes obtained remarkable +victories, sometimes were shamefully beaten, nothing was done toward the +determination of the contest, until Flaminius and Furius, being consuls, led +large forces against the Insubrians. At the time of their departure, the river +that runs through the country of Picenum was seen flowing with blood; there was +a report, that three moons had been seen at once at Ariminum; and, in the +consular assembly, the augurs declared, that the consuls had been unduly and +inauspiciously created. The senate, therefore, immediately sent letters to the +camp, recalling the consuls to Rome with all possible speed, and commanding +them to forbear from acting against the enemies, and to abdicate the consulship +on the first opportunity. These letters being brought to Flaminius, he deferred +to open them till, having defeated and put to flight the enemy’s forces, he +wasted and ravaged their borders. The people, therefore, did not go forth to +meet him when he returned with huge spoils; nay, because he had not instantly +obeyed the command in the letters, by which he was recalled, but slighted and +contemned them, they were very near denying him the honor of a triumph. Nor was +the triumph sooner passed than they deposed him, with his colleague, from the +magistracy, and reduced them to the state of private citizens. So much were all +things at Rome made to depend upon religion; they would not allow any contempt +of the omens and the ancient rites, even though attended with the highest +success; thinking it to be of more importance to the public safety, that the +magistrates should reverence the gods, than that they should overcome their +enemies. Thus Tiberius Sempronius, whom for his probity and virtue the citizens +highly esteemed, created Scipio Nasica and Caius Marcius, consuls to succeed +him: and when they were gone into their provinces, lit upon books concerning +the religious observances, where he found something he had not known before; +which was this. When the consul took his auspices, he sat without the city in a +house, or tent, hired for that occasion; but, if it happened that he, for any +urgent cause, returned into the city, without having yet seen any certain +signs, he was obliged to leave that first building, or tent, and to seek +another to repeat the survey from. Tiberius, it appears, in ignorance of this, +had twice used the same building before announcing the new consuls. Now, +understanding his error, he referred the matter to the senate: nor did the +senate neglect this minute fault, but soon wrote expressly of it to Scipio +Nasica and Caius Marcius; who, leaving their provinces and without delay +returning to Rome, laid down their magistracy. This happened at a later period. +About the same time, too, the priesthood was taken away from two men of very +great honor, Cornelius Cethegus and Quintus Sulpicius: from the former, because +he had not rightly held out the entrails of a beast slain for sacrifice; from +the latter, because, while he was immolating, the tufted cap which the Flamens +wear had fallen from his head. Minucius, the dictator, who had already named +Caius Flaminius master of the horse, they deposed from his command, because the +squeak of a mouse was heard, and put others into their places. And yet, +notwithstanding, by observing so anxiously these little niceties they did not +run into any superstition, because they never varied from nor exceeded the +observances of their ancestors. +</p> + +<p> +So soon as Flaminius with his colleague had resigned the consulate, Marcellus +was declared consul by the presiding officers called Interrexes; and, entering +into the magistracy, chose Cnaeus Cornelius his colleague. There was a report +that, the Gauls proposing a pacification, and the senate also inclining to +peace, Marcellus inflamed the people to war; but a peace appears to have been +agreed upon, which the Gaesatae broke; who, passing the Alps, stirred up the +Insubrians, (they being thirty thousand in number, and the Insubrians more +numerous by far) and, proud of their strength, marched directly to Acerrae, a +city seated on the north of the river Po. From thence Britomartus, king of the +Gaesatae, taking with him ten thousand soldiers, harassed the country round +about. News of which being brought to Marcellus, leaving his colleague at +Acerrae with the foot and all the heavy arms and a third part of the horse, and +carrying with him the rest of the horse and six hundred light armed foot, +marching night and day without remission, he staid not till he came up to these +ten thousand near a Gaulish village called Clastidium, which not long before +had been reduced under the Roman jurisdiction. Nor had he time to refresh his +soldiers, or to give them rest. For the barbarians, that were then present, +immediately observed his approach, and contemned him, because he had very few +foot with him. The Gauls were singularly skillful in horsemanship, and thought +to excel in it; and as at present they also exceeded Marcellus in number, they +made no account of him. They, therefore, with their king at their head, +instantly charged upon him, as if they would trample him under their horses’ +feet, threatening all kind of cruelties. Marcellus, because his men were few, +that they might not be encompassed and charged on all sides by the enemy, +extended his wings of horse, and, riding about, drew out his wings of foot in +length, till he came near to the enemy. Just as he was in the act of turning +round to face the enemy, it so happened that his horse, startled with their +fierce look and their cries, gave back, and carried him forcibly aside. Fearing +lest this accident, if converted into an omen, might discourage his soldiers, +he quickly brought his horse round to confront the enemy, and made a gesture of +adoration to the sun, as if he had wheeled about not by chance, but for a +purpose of devotion. For it was customary to the Romans, when they offered +worship to the gods, to turn round; and in this moment of meeting the enemy, he +is said to have vowed the best of the arms to Jupiter Feretrius. +</p> + +<p> +The king of the Gauls beholding Marcellus, and from the badges of his authority +conjecturing him to be the general, advanced some way before his embattled +army, and with a loud voice challenged him, and, brandishing his lance, +fiercely ran in full career at him; exceeding the rest of the Gauls in stature, +and with his armor, that was adorned with gold and silver and various colors, +shining like lightning. These arms seeming to Marcellus, while he viewed the +enemy’s army drawn up in battalia, to be the best and fairest, and thinking +them to be those he had vowed to Jupiter, he instantly ran upon the king, and +pierced through his breastplate with his lance; then pressing upon him with the +weight of his horse, threw him to the ground, and with two or three strokes +more, slew him. Immediately he leapt from his horse, laid his hand upon the +dead king’s arms, and, looking up toward Heaven, thus spoke: “O Jupiter +Feretrius, arbiter of the exploits of captains, and of the acts of commanders +in war and battles, be thou witness that I, a general, have slain a general; I, +a consul, have slain a king with my own hand, third of all the Romans; and that +to thee I consecrate these first and most excellent of the spoils. Grant to us +to dispatch the relics of the war, with the same course of fortune.” Then the +Roman horse joining battle not only with the enemy’s horse, but also with the +foot who attacked them, obtained a singular and unheard of victory. For never +before or since have so few horse defeated such numerous forces of horse and +foot together. The enemies being to a great number slain, and the spoils +collected, he returned to his colleague, who was conducting the war, with ill +success, against the enemies near the greatest and most populous of the Gallic +cities, Milan. This was their capital, and, therefore, fighting valiantly in +defense of it, they were not so much besieged by Cornelius, as they besieged +him. But Marcellus having returned, and the Gaesatae retiring as soon as they +were certified of the death of the king and the defeat of his army, Milan was +taken. The rest of their towns, and all they had, the Gauls delivered up of +their own accord to the Romans, and had peace upon equitable conditions granted +to them. +</p> + +<p> +Marcellus alone, by a decree of the senate, triumphed. The triumph was in +magnificence, opulence, spoils, and the gigantic bodies of the captives, most +remarkable. But the most grateful and most rare spectacle of all was the +general himself, carrying the arms of the barbarian king to the god to whom he +had vowed them. He had taken a tall and straight stock of an oak, and had +lopped and formed it to a trophy. Upon this he fastened and hung round about +the arms of the king, arranging all the pieces in their suitable places. The +procession advancing solemnly, he, carrying this trophy, ascended the chariot; +and thus, himself the fairest and most glorious triumphant image, was conveyed +into the city. The army adorned with shining armor followed in order, and with +verses composed for the occasion and with songs of victory celebrated the +praises of Jupiter and of their general. Then entering the temple of Jupiter +Feretrius, he dedicated his gift; the third, and to our memory the last, that +ever did so. The first was Romulus, after having slain Acron, king of the +Caeninenses: the second, Cornelius Cossus, who slew Tolumnius the Etruscan: +after them Marcellus, having killed Britomartus king of the Gauls; after +Marcellus, no man. The god to whom these spoils were consecrated is called +Jupiter Feretrius, from the trophy carried on the feretrum, one of the Greek +words which at that time still existed in great numbers in Latin: or, as others +say, it is the surname of the Thundering Jupiter, derived from ferire, to +strike. Others there are who would have the name to be deduced from the strokes +that are given in fight; since even now in battles, when they press upon their +enemies, they constantly call out to each other, strike, in Latin, feri. Spoils +in general they call Spolia, and these in particular Opima; though, indeed, +they say that Numa Pompilius in his commentaries, makes mention of first, +second, and third Spolia Opima; and that he prescribes that the first taken be +consecrated to Jupiter Feretrius, the second to Mars, the third to Quirinus; as +also that the reward of the first be three hundred asses; of the second, two +hundred; of the third, one hundred. The general account, however, prevails, +that those spoils only are Opima, which the general first takes in set battle, +and takes from the enemy’s chief captain whom he has slain with his own hand. +But of this enough. The victory and the ending of the war was so welcome to the +people of Rome, that they sent to Apollo of Delphi, in testimony of their +gratitude, a present of a golden cup of a hundred pound weight, and gave a +great part of the spoil to their associate cities, and took care that many +presents should be sent also to Hiero, king of the Syracusans, their friend and +ally. +</p> + +<p> +When Hannibal invaded Italy, Marcellus was dispatched with a fleet into Sicily. +And when the army had been defeated at Cannae, and many thousands of them +perished, and few had saved themselves by flying to Canusium, and all feared +lest Hannibal, who had destroyed the strength of the Roman army, should advance +at once with his victorious troops to Rome, Marcellus first sent for the +protection of the city fifteen hundred solders, from the fleet. Then, by decree +of the senate, going to Canusium, having heard that many of the soldiers had +come together in that place, he led them out of the fortifications to prevent +the enemy from ravaging the country. The chief Roman commanders had most of +them fallen in battles; and the citizens complained, that the extreme caution +of Fabius Maximus, whose integrity and wisdom gave him the highest authority, +verged upon timidity and inaction. They confided in him to keep them out of +danger, but could not expect that he would enable them to retaliate. Fixing, +therefore, their thoughts upon Marcellus, and hoping to combine his boldness, +confidence, and promptitude with Fabius’s caution and prudence, and to temper +the one by the other, they sent, sometimes both with consular command, +sometimes one as consul, the other as proconsul, against the enemy. Posidonius +writes, that Fabius was called the buckler, Marcellus the sword of Rome. +Certainly, Hannibal himself confessed that he feared Fabius as a schoolmaster, +Marcellus as an adversary: the former, lest he should be hindered from doing +mischief; the latter, lest he should receive harm himself. +</p> + +<p> +And first, when among Hannibal’s soldiers, proud of their victory, carelessness +and boldness had grown to a great height, Marcellus, attacking all their +stragglers and plundering parties, cut them off, and by little and little +diminished their forces. Then carrying aid to the Neapolitans and Nolans, he +confirmed the minds of the former, who, indeed, were of their own accord +faithful enough to the Romans; but in Nola he found a state of discord, the +senate not being able to rule and keep in the common people, who were generally +favorers of Hannibal. There was in the town one Bantius, a man renowned for his +high birth and courage. This man, after he had fought most fiercely at Cannae, +and had killed many of the enemies, at last was found lying in a heap of dead +bodies, covered with darts, and was brought to Hannibal, who so honored him, +that he not only dismissed him without ransom, but also contracted friendship +with him, and made him his guest. In gratitude for this great favor, he became +one of the strongest of the partisans of Hannibal, and urged the people to +revolt. Marcellus could not be induced to put to death a man of such eminence, +and who had endured such dangers in fighting on the Roman side; but, knowing +himself able, by the general kindliness of his disposition and in particular by +the attractiveness of his address, to gain over a character whose passion was +for honor, one day when Bantius saluted him, he asked him who he was; not that +he knew him not before, but seeking an occasion of further conference. When +Bantius had told who he was, Marcellus, seeming surprised with joy and wonder, +replied: “Are you that Bantius, whom the Romans commend above the rest that +fought at Cannae, and praise as the one man that not only did not forsake the +consul Paulus Aemilius, but received in his own body many darts thrown at him?” +Bantius owning himself to be that very man, and showing his scars: “Why then,” +said Marcellus, “did not you, having such proofs to show of your affection to +us, come to me at my first arrival here? Do you think that we are unwilling to +requite with favor those who have well deserved, and who are honored even by +our enemies?” He followed up his courtesies by a present of a war-horse, and +five hundred drachmas in money. From that time Bantius became the most faithful +assistant and ally of Marcellus, and a most keen discoverer of those that +attempted innovation and sedition. +</p> + +<p> +These were many, and had entered into a conspiracy to plunder the baggage of +the Romans, when they should make an irruption against the enemy. Marcellus, +therefore, having marshaled his army within the city, placed the baggage near +to the gates, and, by an edict, forbade the Nolans to go to the walls. Thus, +outside the city, no arms could be seen; by which prudent device he allured +Hannibal to move with his army in some disorder to the city, thinking that +things were in a tumult there. Then Marcellus, the nearest gate being, as he +had commanded, thrown open, issuing forth with the flower of his horse in +front, charged the enemy. By and by the foot, sallying out of another gate, +with a loud shout joined in the battle. And while Hannibal opposes part of his +forces to these, the third gate also is opened, out of which the rest break +forth, and on all quarters fall upon the enemies, who were dismayed at this +unexpected encounter, and did but feebly resist those with whom they had been +first engaged, because of their attack by these others that sallied out later. +Here Hannibal’s soldiers, with much bloodshed and many wounds, were beaten back +to their camp, and for the first time turned their backs to the Romans. There +fell in this action, as it is related, more than five thousand of them; of the +Romans, not above five hundred. Livy does not affirm, that either the victory, +or the slaughter of the enemy was so great; but certain it is, that the +adventure brought great glory to Marcellus, and to the Romans, after their +calamities, a great revival of confidence, as they began now to entertain a +hope, that the enemy with whom they contended was not invincible, but liable +like themselves to defeats. +</p> + +<p> +Therefore, the other consul being deceased, the people recalled Marcellus, that +they might put him into his place; and, in spite of the magistrates, succeeded +in postponing the election till his arrival, when he was by all the suffrages +created consul. But because it happened to thunder, the augurs accounting that +he was not legitimately created, and yet not daring, for fear of the people, to +declare their sentence openly, Marcellus voluntarily resigned the consulate, +retaining however his command. Being created proconsul, and returning to the +camp at Nola, he proceeded to harass those that followed the party of the +Carthaginian; on whose coming with speed to succor them, Marcellus declined a +challenge to a set battle, but when Hannibal had sent out a party to plunder, +and now expected no fight, he broke out upon him with his army. He had +distributed to the foot long lances, such as are commonly used in naval fights; +and instructed them to throw them with great force at convenient distance +against the enemies who were inexperienced in that way of darting, and used to +fight with short darts hand to hand. This seems to have been the cause of the +total rout and open flight of all the Carthaginians who were then engaged: +there fell of them five thousand; four elephants were killed, and two taken; +but, what was of greatest moment, on the third day after, more than three +hundred horse, Spaniards and Numidians mixed, deserted to him, a disaster that +had never to that day happened to Hannibal, who had long kept together in +harmony an army of barbarians, collected out of many various and discordant +nations. Marcellus and his successors in all this war made good use of the +faithful service of these horsemen. +</p> + +<p> +He now was a third time created consul, and sailed over into Sicily. For the +success of Hannibal had excited the Carthaginians to lay claim to that whole +island; chiefly because after the murder of the tyrant Hieronymus, all things +had been in tumult and confusion at Syracuse. For which reason the Romans also +had sent before to that city a force under the conduct of Appius, as praetor. +While Marcellus was receiving that army, a number of Roman soldiers cast +themselves at his feet, upon occasion of the following calamity. Of those that +survived the battle at Cannae, some had escaped by flight, and some were taken +alive by the enemy; so great a multitude, that it was thought there were not +remaining Romans enough to defend the walls of the city. And yet the +magnanimity and constancy of the city was such, that it would not redeem the +captives from Hannibal, though it might have done so for a small ransom; a +decree of the senate forbade it, and chose rather to leave them to be killed by +the enemy, or sold out of Italy; and commanded that all who had saved +themselves by flight should be transported into Sicily, and not permitted to +return into Italy, until the war with Hannibal should be ended. These, +therefore, when Marcellus was arrived in Sicily, addressed themselves to him in +great numbers; and casting themselves at his feet, with much lamentation and +tears humbly besought him to admit them to honorable service; and promised to +make it appear by their future fidelity and exertions, that that defeat had +been received rather by misfortune than by cowardice. Marcellus, pitying them, +petitioned the senate by letters, that he might have leave at all times to +recruit his legions out of them. After much debate about the thing, the senate +decreed they were of opinion that the commonwealth did not require the service +of cowardly soldiers; if Marcellus perhaps thought otherwise, he might make use +of them, provided no one of them be honored on any occasion with a crown or +military gift, as a reward of his virtue or courage. This decree stung +Marcellus; and on his return to Rome, after the Sicilian war was ended, he +upbraided the senate, that they had denied to him, who had so highly deserved +of the republic, liberty to relieve so great a number of citizens in great +calamity. +</p> + +<p> +At this time Marcellus, first incensed by injures done him by Hippocrates, +commander of the Syracusans, (who, to give proof of his good affection to the +Carthaginians, and to acquire the tyranny to himself, had killed a number of +Romans at Leontini,) besieged and took by force the city of Leontini; yet +violated none of the townsmen; only deserters, as many as he took, he subjected +to the punishment of the rods and axe. But Hippocrates, sending a report to +Syracuse, that Marcellus had put all the adult population to the sword, and +then coming upon the Syracusans, who had risen in tumult upon that false +report, made himself master of the city. Upon this Marcellus moved with his +whole army to Syracuse, and, encamping near the wall, sent ambassadors into the +city to relate to the Syracusans the truth of what had been done in Leontini. +When these could not prevail by treaty, the whole power being now in the hands +of Hippocrates, he proceeded to attack the city both by land and by sea. The +land forces were conducted by Appius Marcellus, with sixty galleys, each with +five rows of oars, furnished with all sorts of arms and missiles, and a huge +bridge of planks laid upon eight ships chained together, upon which was carried +the engine to cast stones and darts, assaulted the walls, relying on the +abundance and magnificence of his preparations, and on his own previous glory; +all which, however, were, it would seem, but trifles for Archimedes and his +machines. +</p> + +<p> +These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any importance, +but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance with king Hiero’s desire and +request, some little time before, that he should reduce to practice some part +of his admirable speculations in science, and by accommodating the theoretic +truth to sensation and ordinary use, bring it more within the appreciation of +people in general. Eudoxus and Archytas had been the first originators of this +far-famed and highly prized art of mechanics, which they employed as an elegant +illustration of geometrical truths, and as a means of sustaining +experimentally, to the satisfaction of the senses, conclusions too intricate +for proof by words and diagrams. As, for example, to solve the problem, so +often required in constructing geometrical figures, given the two extreme, to +find the two mean lines of a proportion, both these mathematicians had recourse +to the aid of instruments, adapting to their purpose certain curves and +sections of lines. But what with Plato’s indignation at it, and his invectives +against it as the mere corruption and annihilation of the one good of geometry, +— which was thus shamefully turning its back upon the unembodied objects of +pure intelligence to recur to sensation, and to ask help (not to be obtained +without base subservience and depravation) from matter; so it was that +mechanics came to be separated from geometry, and, repudiated and neglected by +philosophers, took its place as a military art. Archimedes, however, in writing +to king Hiero, whose friend and near relation he was, had stated, that given +the force, any given weight might be moved, and even boasted, we are told, +relying on the strength of demonstration, that if there were another earth, by +going into it he could remove this. Hiero being struck with amazement at this, +and entreating him to make good this problem by actual experiment, and show +some great weight moved by a small engine, he fixed accordingly upon a ship of +burden out of the king’s arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock +without great labor and many men; and, loading her with many passengers and a +full freight, sitting himself the while far off, with no great endeavor, but +only holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing the cord by +degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly, as if she +had been in the sea. The king, astonished at this, and convinced of the power +of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes to make him engines accommodated to all +the purposes, offensive and defensive, of a siege. These the king himself never +made use of, because he spent almost all his life in a profound quiet, and the +highest affluence. But the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready at +hand for the Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. +</p> + +<p> +When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, fear and +consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing was able to +resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes began to ply his +engines, he at once shot against the land forces all sorts of missile weapons, +and immense masses of stone that came down with incredible noise and violence, +against which no man could stand; for they knocked down those upon whom they +fell, in heaps, breaking all their ranks and files. In the meantime huge poles +thrust out from the walls over the ships, sunk some by the great weights which +they let down from on high upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an +iron hand or beak like a crane’s beak, and, when they had drawn them up by the +prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the +sea; or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed +against steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with great +destruction of the soldiers that were aboard them. A ship was frequently lifted +up to a great height in the air (a dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to +and fro, and kept swinging, until the mariners were all thrown out, when at +length it was dashed against the rocks, or let fall. At the engine that +Marcellus brought upon the bridge of ships, which was called Sambuca from some +resemblance it had to an instrument of music, while it was as yet approaching +the wall, there was discharged a piece of a rock of ten talents’ weight, then a +second and a third, which, striking upon it with immense force and with a noise +like thunder, broke all its foundation to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, +and completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, doubtful what +counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, and sounded a +retreat to his forces on land. They then took a resolution of coming up under +the walls, if it were possible, in the night; thinking that as Archimedes used +ropes stretched at length in playing his engines, the soldiers would now be +under the shot, and the darts would, for want of sufficient distance to throw +them, fly over their heads without effect. But he, it appeared, had long before +framed for such occasion engines accommodated to any distance, and shorter +weapons; and had made numerous small openings in the walls, through which, with +engines of a shorter range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the assailants. +Thus, when they who thought to deceive the defenders came close up to the +walls, instantly a shower of darts and other missile weapons was again cast +upon them. And when stones came tumbling down perpendicularly upon their heads, +and, as it were, the whole wall shot out arrows at them, they retired. And now, +again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of a longer range indicted a +great slaughter among them, and their ships were driven one against another; +while they themselves were not able to retaliate in any way. For Archimedes had +provided and fixed most of his engines immediately under the wall; whence the +Romans, seeing that infinite mischiefs overwhelmed them from no visible means, +began to think they were fighting with the gods. +</p> + +<p> +Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers and engineers, +“What,” said he, “must we give up fighting with this geometrical Briareus, who +plays pitch and toss with our ships, and, with the multitude of darts which he +showers at a single moment upon us, really outdoes the hundred-handed giants of +mythology?” And, doubtless, the rest of the Syracusans were but the body of +Archimedes’ designs, one soul moving and governing all; for, laying aside all +other arms, with his alone they infested the Romans, and protected themselves. +In fine, when such terror had seized upon the Romans, that, if they did but see +a little rope or a piece of wood from the wall, instantly crying out, that +there it was again, Archimedes was about to let fly some engine at them, they +turned their backs and fled, Marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, +putting all his hope in a long siege. Yet Archimedes possessed so high a +spirit, so profound a soul, and such treasures of scientific knowledge, that +though these inventions had now obtained him the renown of more than human +sagacity, he yet would not deign to leave behind him any commentary or writing +on such subjects; but, repudiating as sordid and ignoble the whole trade of +engineering, and every sort of art that lends itself to mere use and profit, he +placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there +can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life; studies, the superiority of +which to all others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be, +whether the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined, or the precision and +cogency of the methods and means of proof, most deserve our admiration. It is +not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and intricate questions, or +more simple and lucid explanations. Some ascribe this to his natural genius; +while others think that incredible effort and toil produced these, to all +appearance, easy and unlabored results. No amount of investigation of yours +would succeed in attaining the proof, and yet, once seen, you immediately +believe you would have discovered it; by so smooth and so rapid a path he leads +you to the conclusion required. And thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is +commonly told of him), the charm of his familiar and domestic Siren made him +forget his food and neglect his person, to that degree that when he was +occasionally carried by absolute violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, +he used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in +the oil on his body, being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, in the +truest sense, divine possession with his love and delight in science. His +discoveries were numerous and admirable; but he is said to have requested his +friends and relations that when he was dead, they would place over his tomb a +sphere containing a cylinder, inscribing it with the ratio which the containing +solid bears to the contained. +</p> + +<p> +Such was Archimedes, who now showed himself, and, so far as lay in him, the +city also, invincible. While the siege continued, Marcellus took Megara, one of +the earliest founded of the Greek cities in Sicily, and capturing also the camp +of Hippocrates at Acilae, killed above eight thousand men, having attacked them +whilst they were engaged in forming their fortifications. He overran a great +part of Sicily; gained over many towns from the Carthaginians, and overcame all +that dared to encounter him. As the siege went on, one Damippus, a +Lacedaemonian, putting to sea in a ship from Syracuse, was taken. When the +Syracusans much desired to redeem this man, and there were many meetings and +treaties about the matter betwixt them and Marcellus, he had opportunity to +notice a tower into which a body of men might be secretly introduced, as the +wall near to it was not difficult to surmount, and it was itself carelessly +guarded. Coming often thither, and entertaining conferences about the release +of Damippus, he had pretty well calculated the height of the tower, and got +ladders prepared. The Syracusans celebrated a feast to Diana; this juncture of +time, when they were given up entirely to wine and sport, Marcellus laid hold +of, and, before the citizens perceived it, not only possessed himself of the +tower, but, before the break of day, filled the wall around with soldiers, and +made his way into the Hexapylum. The Syracusans now beginning to stir, and to +be alarmed at the tumult, he ordered the trumpets everywhere to sound, and thus +frightened them all into flight, as if all parts of the city were already won, +though the most fortified, and the fairest, and most ample quarter was still +ungained. It is called Acradina, and was divided by a wall from the outer city, +one part of which they call Neapolis, the other Tycha. Possessing himself of +these, Marcellus, about break of day, entered through the Hexapylum, all his +officers congratulating him. But looking down from the higher places upon the +beautiful and spacious city below, he is said to have wept much, commiserating +the calamity that hung over it, when his thoughts represented to him, how +dismal and foul the face of the city would in a few hours be, when plundered +and sacked by the soldiers. For among the officers of his army there was not +one man that durst deny the plunder of the city to the soldiers’ demands; nay, +many were instant that it should be set on fire and laid level to the ground: +but this Marcellus would not listen to. Yet he granted, but with great +unwillingness and reluctance, that the money and slaves should be made prey; +giving orders, at the same time, that none should violate any free person, nor +kill, misuse, or make a slave of any of the Syracusans. Though he had used this +moderation, he still esteemed the condition of that city to be pitiable, and, +even amidst the congratulations and joy, showed his strong feelings of sympathy +and commiseration at seeing all the riches accumulated during a long felicity, +now dissipated in an hour. For it is related, that no less prey and plunder was +taken here, than afterward in Carthage. For not long after, they obtained also +the plunder of the other parts of the city, which were taken by treachery; +leaving nothing untouched but the king’s money, which was brought into the +public treasury. But nothing afflicted Marcellus so much as the death of +Archimedes; who was then, as fate would have it, intent upon working out some +problem by a diagram, and having fixed his mind alike and his eyes upon the +subject of his speculation, he never noticed the incursion of the Romans, nor +that the city was taken. In this transport of study and contemplation, a +soldier, unexpectedly coming up to him, commanded him to follow to Marcellus; +which he declining to do before he had worked out his problem to a +demonstration, the soldier, enraged, drew his sword and ran him through. Others +write, that a Roman soldier, running upon him with a drawn sword, offered to +kill him; and that Archimedes, looking back, earnestly besought him to hold his +hand a little while, that he might not leave what he was then at work upon +inconclusive and imperfect; but the soldier, nothing moved by his entreaty, +instantly killed him. Others again relate, that as Archimedes was carrying to +Marcellus mathematical instruments, dials, spheres, and angles, by which the +magnitude of the sun might be measured to the sight, some soldiers seeing him, +and thinking that he carried gold in a vessel, slew him. Certain it is, that +his death was very afflicting to Marcellus; and that Marcellus ever after +regarded him that killed him as a murderer; and that he sought for his kindred +and honored them with signal favors. +</p> + +<p> +Indeed, foreign nations had held the Romans to be excellent soldiers and +formidable in battle; but they had hitherto given no memorable example of +gentleness, or humanity, or civil virtue; and Marcellus seems first to have +shown to the Greeks, that his countrymen were most illustrious for their +justice. For such was his moderation to all with whom he had anything to do, +and such his benignity also to many cities and private men, that, if anything +hard or severe was decreed concerning the people of Enna, Megara, or Syracuse, +the blame was thought to belong rather to those upon whom the storm fell, than +to those who brought it upon them. One example of many I will commemorate. In +Sicily there is a town called Engyium, not indeed great, but very ancient and +ennobled by the presence of the goddesses, called the Mothers. The temple, they +say, was built by the Cretans; and they show some spears and brazen helmets, +inscribed with the names of Meriones, and (with the same spelling as in Latin) +of Ulysses, who consecrated them to the goddesses. This city highly favoring +the party of the Carthaginians, Nicias, the most eminent of the citizens, +counseled them to go over to the Romans; to that end acting freely and openly +in harangues to their assemblies, arguing the imprudence and madness of the +opposite course. They, fearing his power and authority, resolved to deliver him +in bonds to the Carthaginians. Nicias, detecting the design, and seeing that +his person was secretly kept in watch, proceeded to speak irreligiously to the +vulgar of the Mothers, and showed many signs of disrespect, as if he denied and +contemned the received opinion of the presence of those goddesses; his enemies +the while rejoicing, that he, of his own accord, sought the destruction hanging +over his head. When they were just now about to lay hands upon him, an assembly +was held, and here Nicias, making a speech to the people concerning some affair +then under deliberation, in the midst of his address, cast himself upon the +ground; and soon after, while amazement (as usually happens on such surprising +occasions) held the assembly immovable, raising and turning his head round, he +began in a trembling and deep tone, but by degrees raised and sharpened his +voice. When he saw the whole theater struck with horror and silence, throwing +off his mantle and rending his tunic, he leaps up half naked, and runs towards +the door, crying out aloud that he was driven by the wrath of the Mothers. When +no man durst, out of religious fear, lay hands upon him or stop him, but all +gave way before him, he ran out of the gate, not omitting any shriek or gesture +of men possessed and mad. His wife, conscious of his counterfeiting, and privy +to his design, taking her children with her, first cast herself as a suppliant +before the temple of the goddesses; then, pretending to seek her wandering +husband, no man hindering her, went out of the town in safety; and by this +means they all escaped to Marcellus at Syracuse. After many other such affronts +offered him by the men of Engyium, Marcellus, having taken them all prisoners +and cast them into bonds, was preparing to inflict upon them the last +punishment; when Nicias, with tears in his eyes, addressed himself to him. In +fine, casting himself at Marcellus’s feet, and deprecating for his citizens, he +begged most earnestly their lives, chiefly those of his enemies. Marcellus, +relenting, set them all at liberty, and rewarded Nicias with ample lands and +rich presents. This history is recorded by Posidonius the philosopher. +</p> + +<p> +Marcellus, at length recalled by the people of Rome to the immediate war at +home, to illustrate his triumph, and adorn the city, carried away with him a +great number of the most beautiful ornaments of Syracuse. For, before that, +Rome neither had, nor had seen, any of those fine and exquisite rarities; nor +was any pleasure taken in graceful and elegant pieces of workmanship. Stuffed +with barbarous arms and spoils stained with blood, and everywhere crowned with +triumphal memorials and trophies, she was no pleasant or delightful spectacle +for the eyes of peaceful or refined spectators: but, as Epaminondas named the +fields of Boeotia the stage of Mars; and Xenophon called Ephesus the workhouse +of war; so, in my judgment, may you call Rome, at that time, (to use the words +of Pindar,) “the precinct of the peaceless Mars.” Whence Marcellus was more +popular with the people in general, because he had adorned the city with +beautiful objects that had all the charms of Grecian grace and symmetry; but +Fabius Maximus, who neither touched nor brought away anything of this kind from +Tarentum, when he had taken it, was more approved of by the elder men. He +carried off the money and valuables, but forbade the statues to be moved; +adding, as it is commonly related, “Let us leave to the Tarentines these +offended gods.” They blamed Marcellus, first, for placing the city in an +invidious position, as it seemed now to celebrate victories and lead +processions of triumph, not only over men, but also over the gods as captives; +then, that he had diverted to idleness, and vain talk about curious arts and +artificers, the common people, which, bred up in wars and agriculture, had +never tasted of luxury and sloth, and, as Euripides said of Hercules, had been +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Rude, unrefined, only for great things good, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +so that now they misspent much of their time in examining and criticizing +trifles. And yet, notwithstanding this reprimand, Marcellus made it his glory +to the Greeks themselves, that he had taught his ignorant countrymen to esteem +and admire the elegant and wonderful productions of Greece. +</p> + +<p> +But when the envious opposed his being brought triumphant into the city, +because there were some relics of the war in Sicily, and a third triumph would +be looked upon with jealousy, he gave way. He triumphed upon the Alban mount, +and thence entered the city in ovation, as it is called in Latin, in Greek eua; +but in this ovation he was neither carried in a chariot, nor crowned with +laurel, nor ushered by trumpets sounding; but went afoot with shoes on, many +flutes or pipes sounding in concert, while he passed along, wearing a garland +of myrtle, in a peaceable aspect, exciting rather love and respect than fear. +Whence I am, by conjecture, led to think that, originally, the difference +observed betwixt ovation and triumph, did not depend upon the greatness of the +achievements, but the manner of performing them. For they who, having fought a +set battle, and slain the enemy, returned victors, led that martial, terrible +triumph, and, as the ordinary custom then was, in lustrating the army, adorned +the arms and the soldiers with a great deal of laurel. But they who, without +force, by colloquy, persuasion, and reasoning, had done the business, to these +captains custom gave the honor of the unmilitary and festive ovation. For the +pipe is the badge of peace, and myrtle the plant of Venus, who more than the +rest of the gods and goddesses abhors force and war. It is called ovation, not, +as most think, from the Greek euasmus, because they act it with shouting and +cries of Eau: for so do they also the proper triumphs. The Greeks have wrested +the word to their own language, thinking that this honor, also, must have some +connection with Bacchus, who in Greek has the titles of Euius and Thriambus. +But the thing is otherwise. For it was the custom for commanders, in their +triumph, to immolate an ox, but in their ovation, a sheep: hence they named it +Ovation, from the Latin ovis. It is worth observing, how exactly opposite the +sacrifices appointed by the Spartan legislator are, to those of the Romans. For +at Lacedaemon, a captain, who had performed the work he undertook by cunning, +or courteous treaty, on laying down his command immolated an ox; he that did +the business by battle, offered a cock; the Lacedaemonians, though most +warlike, thinking an exploit performed by reason and wisdom, to be more +excellent and more congruous to man, than one effected by mere force and +courage. Which of the two is to be preferred, I leave to the determination of +others. +</p> + +<p> +Marcellus being the fourth time consul, his enemies suborned the Syracusans to +come to Rome to accuse him, and to complain that they had suffered indignities +and wrongs, contrary to the conditions granted them. It happened that Marcellus +was in the capitol offering sacrifice when the Syracusans petitioned the +senate, yet sitting, that they might have leave to accuse him and present their +grievances. Marcellus’s colleague, eager to protect him in his absence, put +them out of the court. But Marcellus himself came as soon as he heard of it. +And first, in his curule chair as consul, he referred to the senate the +cognizance of other matters; but when these were transacted, rising from his +seat, he passed as a private man into the place where the accused were wont to +make their defense, and gave free liberty to the Syracusans to impeach him. But +they, struck with consternation by his majesty and confidence, stood +astonished, and the power of his presence now, in his robe of state, appeared +far more terrible and severe than it had done when he was arrayed in armor. Yet +reanimated at length by Marcellus’s rivals, they began their impeachment, and +made an oration in which pleas of justice mingled with lamentation and +complaint; the sum of which was, that being allies and friends of the people of +Rome, they had, notwithstanding, suffered things which other commanders had +abstained from inflicting upon enemies. To this Marcellus answered; that they +had committed many acts of hostility against the people of Rome, and had +suffered nothing but what enemies conquered and captured in war cannot possibly +be protected from suffering: that it was their own fault they had been made +captives, because they refused to give ear to his frequent attempts to persuade +them by gentle means: neither were they forced into war by the power of +tyrants, but had rather chosen the tyrants themselves for the express object +that they might make war. The orations ended, and the Syracusans, according to +the custom, having retired, Marcellus left his colleague to ask the sentences, +and withdrawing with the Syracusans, staid expecting at the doors of the +senate-house; not in the least discomposed in spirit, either with alarm at the +accusation, or by anger against the Syracusans; but with perfect calmness and +serenity attending the issue of the cause. The sentences at length being all +asked, and a decree of the senate made in vindication of Marcellus, the +Syracusans, with tears flowing from their eyes, cast themselves at his knees, +beseeching him to forgive themselves there present, and to be moved by the +misery of the rest of their city, which would ever be mindful of, and grateful +for, his benefits. Thus Marcellus, softened by their tears and distress, was +not only reconciled to the deputies, but ever afterwards continued to find +opportunity of doing kindness to the Syracusans. The liberty which he had +restored to them, and their rights, laws, and goods that were left, the senate +confirmed. Upon which account the Syracusans, besides other signal honors, made +a law, that if Marcellus should at anytime come into Sicily, or any of his +posterity, the Syracusans should wear garlands and offer public sacrifice to +the gods. +</p> + +<p> +After this he moved against Hannibal. And whereas the other consuls and +commanders, since the defeat received at Cannae, had all made use of the same +policy against Hannibal, namely, to decline coming to a battle with him; and +none had had the courage to encounter him in the field, and put themselves to +the decision by the sword; Marcellus entered upon the opposite course, thinking +that Italy would be destroyed by the very delay by which they looked to wear +out Hannibal; and that Fabius, who, adhering to his cautious policy, waited to +see the war extinguished, while Rome itself meantime wasted away, (like timid +physicians, who, dreading to administer remedies, stay waiting, and believe +that what is the decay of the patient’s strength is the decline of the +disease,) was not taking a right course to heal the sickness of his country. +And first, the great cities of the Samnites, which had revolted, came into his +power; in which he found a large quantity of corn and money, and three thousand +of Hannibal’s soldiers, that were left for the defense. After this, the +proconsul Cnaeus Fulvius with eleven tribunes of the soldiers being slain in +Apulia, and the greatest part of the army also at the same time cut off, he +dispatched letters to Rome, and bade the people be of good courage, for that he +was now upon the march against Hannibal, to turn his triumph into sadness. On +these letters being read, Livy writes, that the people were not only not +encouraged, but more discouraged, than before. For the danger, they thought, +was but the greater in proportion as Marcellus was of more value than Fulvius. +He, as he had written, advancing into the territories of the Lucanians, came up +to him at Numistro, and, the enemy keeping himself upon the hills, pitched his +camp in a level plain, and the next day drew forth his army in order for fight. +Nor did Hannibal refuse the challenge. They fought long and obstinately on both +sides, victory yet seeming undecided, when, after three hours conflict, night +hardly parted them. The next day, as soon as the sun was risen, Marcellus again +brought forth his troops, and ranged them among the dead bodies of the slain, +challenging Hannibal to solve the question by another trial. When he dislodged +and drew off, Marcellus, gathering up the spoils of the enemies, and burying +the bodies of his slain soldiers, closely followed him. And though Hannibal +often used stratagems, and laid ambushes to entrap Marcellus, yet he could +never circumvent him. By skirmishes, meantime, in all of which he was superior, +Marcellus gained himself such high repute, that, when the time of the Comitia +at Rome was near at hand, the senate thought fit rather to recall the other +consul from Sicily, than to withdraw Marcellus from his conflict with Hannibal; +and on his arrival they bid him name Quintus Fulvius dictator. For the dictator +is created neither by the people, nor by the senate; but the consul or the +praetor, before the popular assembly, pronounces him to be dictator, whom he +himself chooses. Hence he is called dictator, dicere meaning to name. Others +say, that he is named dictator, because his word is a law, and he orders what +he pleases, without submitting it to the vote. For the Romans call the orders +of magistrates, Edicts. +</p> + +<p> +And now because Marcellus’s colleague, who was recalled from Sicily, had a mind +to name another man dictator, and would not be forced to change his opinion, he +sailed away by night back to Sicily. So the common people made an order, that +Quintus Fulvius should be chosen dictator: and the senate, by an express, +commanded Marcellus to nominate him. He obeying proclaimed him dictator +according to the order of the people; but the office of proconsul was continued +to himself for a year. And having arranged with Fabius Maximus, that while he +besieged Tarentum, he himself would, by following Hannibal and drawing him up +and down, detain him from coming to the relief of the Tarentines, he overtook +him at Canusium: and as Hannibal often shifted his camp, and still declined the +combat, he everywhere sought to engage him. At last pressing upon him while +encamping, by light skirmishes he provoked him to a battle; but night again +divided them in the very heat of the conflict. The next day Marcellus again +showed himself in arms, and brought up his forces in array. Hannibal, in +extreme grief, called his Carthaginians together to an harangue; and vehemently +prayed them, to fight today worthily of all their former successes; “For you +see,” said he, “how, after such great victories, we have not liberty to +respire, nor to repose ourselves, though victors; unless we drive this man +back.” Then the two armies joining battle, fought fiercely; when the event of +an untimely movement showed Marcellus to have been guilty of an error. The +right wing being hard pressed upon, he commanded one of the legions to be +brought up to the front. This change disturbing the array and posture of the +legions, gave the victory to the enemies; and there fell two thousand seven +hundred Romans. Marcellus, after he had retreated into his camp, called his +soldiers together; “I see,” said he, “many Roman arms and bodies, but I see not +so much as one Roman.” To their entreaties for his pardon, he returned a +refusal while they remained beaten, but promised to give it so soon as they +should overcome; and he resolved to bring them into the field again the next +day, that the fame of their victory might arrive at Rome before that of their +flight. Dismissing the assembly, he commanded barley instead of wheat to be +given to those companies that had turned their backs. These rebukes were so +bitter to the soldiers, that though a great number of them were grievously +wounded, yet they relate there was not one to whom the general’s oration was +not more painful and smarting than his wounds. +</p> + +<p> +The day breaking, a scarlet toga, the sign of instant battle, was displayed. +The companies marked with ignominy, begged they might be posted in the foremost +place, and obtained their request. Then the tribunes bring forth the rest of +the forces, and draw them up. On news of which, “O strange!” said Hannibal, +“what will you do with this man, who can bear neither good nor bad fortune? He +is the only man who neither suffers us to rest when he is victor, nor rests +himself when he is overcome. We shall have, it seems, perpetually to fight with +him; as in good success his confidence, and in ill success his shame, still +urges him to some further enterprise?” Then the armies engaged. When the fight +was doubtful, Hannibal commanded the elephants to be brought into the first +battalion, and to be driven upon the van of the Romans. When the beasts, +trampling upon many, soon caused disorder, Flavius, a tribune of soldiers, +snatching an ensign, meets them, and wounding the first elephant with the spike +at the bottom of the ensign staff, puts him to flight. The beast turned round +upon the next, and drove back both him and the rest that followed. Marcellus, +seeing this, pours in his horse with great force upon the elephants, and upon +the enemy disordered by their flight. The horse, making a fierce impression, +pursued the Carthaginians home to their camp, while the elephants, wounded, and +running upon their own party, caused a considerable slaughter. It is said, more +than eight thousand were slain; of the Roman army three thousand, and almost +all wounded. This gave Hannibal opportunity to retire in the silence of the +night, and to remove to greater distance from Marcellus; who was kept from +pursuing by the number of his wounded men, and removed, by gentle marches, into +Campania, and spent the summer at Sinuessa, engaged in restoring them. +</p> + +<p> +But as Hannibal, having disentangled himself from Marcellus, ranged with his +army round about the country, and wasted Italy free from all fear, at Rome +Marcellus was evil spoken of. His detractors induced Publicius Bibulus, tribune +of the people, an eloquent and violent man, to undertake his accusation. He, by +assiduous harangues, prevailed upon the people to withdraw from Marcellus the +command of the army; “Seeing that Marcellus,” said he, “after brief exercise in +the war, has withdrawn as it might be from the wrestling ground to the warm +baths to refresh himself.” Marcellus, on hearing this, appointed lieutenants +over his camp, and hasted to Rome to refute the charges against him: and there +found ready drawn up an impeachment consisting of these calumnies. At the day +prefixed, in the Flaminian circus, into which place the people had assembled +themselves, Bibulus rose and accused him. Marcellus himself answered, briefly +and simply: but the first and most approved men of the city spoke largely and +in high terms, very freely advising the people not to show themselves worse +judges than the enemy, condemning Marcellus of timidity, from whom alone of all +their captains the enemy fled, and as perpetually endeavored to avoid fighting +with him, as to fight with others. When they made an end of speaking, the +accuser’s hope to obtain judgment so far deceived him, that Marcellus was not +only absolved, but the fifth time created consul. +</p> + +<p> +No sooner had he entered upon this consulate, but he suppressed a great +commotion in Etruria, that had proceeded near to revolt, and visited and +quieted the cities. Then, when the dedication of the temple, which he had vowed +out of his Sicilian spoils to Honor and Virtue, was objected to by the priests, +because they denied that one temple could be lawfully dedicated to two gods, he +began to adjoin another to it, resenting the priests’ opposition, and almost +converting the thing into an omen. And, truly, many other prodigies also +affrighted him; some temples had been struck with lightning, and in Jupiter’s +temple mice had gnawed the gold; it was reported also, that an ox had spoke, +and that a boy had been born with a head like an elephant’s. All which +prodigies had indeed been attended to, but due reconciliation had not been +obtained from the gods. The aruspices therefore detained him at Rome, glowing +and burning with desire to return to the war. For no man was ever inflamed with +so great desire of any thing, as was he to fight a battle with Hannibal. It was +the subject of his dreams in the night, the topic of all his consultations with +his friends and familiars, nor did he present to the gods any other wish, but +that he might meet Hannibal in the field. And I think, that he would most +gladly have set upon him, with both armies environed within a single camp. Had +he not been even loaded with honors, and had he not given proofs in many ways +of his maturity of judgment and of prudence equal to that of any commander, you +might have said, that he was agitated by a youthful ambition, above what became +a man of that age: for he had passed the sixtieth year of his life when he +began his fifth consulship. +</p> + +<p> +The sacrifices having been offered, and all that belonged to the propitiation +of the gods performed, according to the prescription of the diviners, he at +last with his colleague went forth to carry on the war. He tried all possible +means to provoke Hannibal, who at that time had a standing camp betwixt Bantia +and Venusia. Hannibal declined an engagement, but having obtained intelligence +that some troops were on their way to the town of Locri Epizephyrii, placing an +ambush under the little hill of Petelia, he slew two thousand five hundred +soldiers. This incensed Marcellus to revenge; and he therefore moved nearer +Hannibal. Betwixt the two camps was a little hill, a tolerably secure post, +covered with wood; it had steep descents on either side, and there were springs +of water seen trickling down. This place was so fit and advantageous, that the +Romans wondered that Hannibal, who had come thither before them, had not seized +upon it, but had left it to the enemies. But to him the place had seemed +commodious indeed for a camp, but yet more commodious for an ambuscade; and to +that use he chose to put it. So in the wood and the hollows he hid a number of +archers and spearmen, confident that the commodiousness of the place would +allure the Romans. Nor was he deceived in his expectation. For presently in the +Roman camp they talked and disputed, as if they had all been captains, how the +place ought to be seized, and what great advantage they should thereby gain +upon the enemies, chiefly if they transferred their camp thither, at any rate, +if they strengthened the place with a fort. Marcellus resolved to go, with a +few horse, to view it. Having called a diviner he proceeded to sacrifice. In +the first victim the aruspex showed him the liver without a head; in the second +the head appeared of unusual size, and all the other indications highly +promising. When these seemed sufficient to free them from the dread of the +former, the diviners declared, that they were all the more terrified by the +latter: because entrails too fair and promising, when they appear after others +that are maimed and monstrous, render the change doubtful and suspicious But +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Nor fire nor brazen wall can keep out fate; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +as Pindar observes. Marcellus, therefore, taking with him his colleague +Crispinus, and his son, a tribune of soldiers, with two hundred and twenty +horse at most, (among whom there was not one Roman, but all were Etruscans, +except forty Fregellans, of whose courage and fidelity he had on all occasions +received full proof,) goes to view the place. The hill was covered with woods +all over; on the top of it sat a scout concealed from the sight of the enemy, +but having the Roman camp exposed to his view. Upon signs received from him, +the men that were placed in ambush, stirred not till Marcellus came near; and +then all starting up in an instant, and encompassing him from all sides, +attacked him with darts, struck about and wounded the backs of those that fled, +and pressed upon those who resisted. These were the forty Fregellans. For +though the Etruscans fled in the very beginning of the fight, the Fregellans +formed themselves into a ring, bravely defending the consuls, till Crispinus, +struck with two darts, turned his horse to fly away; and Marcellus’s side was +run through with a lance with a broad head. Then the Fregellans, also, the few +that remained alive, leaving the fallen consul, and rescuing young Marcellus, +who also was wounded, got into the camp by flight. There were slain not much +above forty; five lictors and eighteen horsemen came alive into the enemy’s +hands. Crispinus also died of his wounds a few days after. Such a disaster as +the loss of both consuls in a single engagement, was one that had never before +befallen the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +Hannibal, little valuing the other events, so soon as he was told of +Marcellus’s death, immediately hasted to the hilt. Viewing the body, and +continuing for some time to observe its strength and shape, he allowed not a +word to fall from him expressive of the least pride or arrogancy, nor did he +show in his countenance any sign of gladness, as another perhaps would have +done, when his fierce and troublesome enemy had been taken away; but amazed by +so sudden and unexpected an end, taking off nothing but his ring, gave order to +have the body properly clad and adorned, and honorably burned. The relics, put +into a silver urn, with a crown of gold to cover it, he sent back to his son. +But some of the Numidians setting upon those that were carrying the urn, took +it from them by force, and cast away the bones; which being told to Hannibal, +“It is impossible, it seems then,” he said, “to do anything against the will of +God!” He punished the Numidians; but took no further care of sending or +recollecting the bones; conceiving that Marcellus so fell, and so lay unburied, +by a certain fate. So Cornelius Nepos and Valerius Maximus have left upon +record: but Livy and Augustus Caesar affirm, that the urn was brought to his +son, and honored with a magnificent funeral. Besides the monuments raised for +him at Rome, there was dedicated to his memory at Catana in Sicily, an ample +wrestling place called after him; statues and pictures, out of those he took +from Syracuse, were set up in Samothrace, in the temple of the gods, named +Cabiri, and in that of Minerva at Lindus, where also there was a statue of him, +says Posidonius, with the following inscription: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +This was, O stranger, once Rome’s star divine,<br/> +Claudius Marcellus of an ancient line;<br/> +To fight her wars seven times her consul made,<br/> +Low in the dust her enemies he laid. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The writer of the inscription has added to Marcellus’s five consulates, his two +proconsulates. His progeny continued in high honor even down to Marcellus, son +of Octavia, sister of Augustus, whom she bore to her husband Caius Marcellus; +and who died, a bridegroom, in the year of his aedileship, having not long +before married Caesar’s daughter. His mother, Octavia, dedicated the library to +his honor and memory, and Caesar, the theater which bears his name. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap23"></a>COMPARISION OF PELOPIDAS WITH MARCELLUS</h2> + +<p> +These are the memorable things I have found in historians, concerning Marcellus +and Pelopidas. Betwixt which two great men, though in natural character and +manners they nearly resembled each other, because both were valiant and +diligent, daring and high-spirited, there was yet some diversity in the one +point, that Marcellus in many cities which he reduced under his power, +committed great slaughter; but Epaminondas and Pelopidas never after any +victory put men to death, or reduced citizens to slavery. And we are told, too, +that the Thebans would not, had these been present, have taken the measures +they did, against the Orchomenians. Marcellus’s exploits against the Gauls are +admirable and ample; when, accompanied by a few horse, he defeated and put to +fight a vast number of horse and foot together, (an action you cannot easily in +historians find to have been done by any other captain,) and took their king +prisoner. To which honor Pelopidas aspired, but did not attain; he was killed +by the tyrant in the attempt. But to these you may perhaps oppose those two +most glorious battles at Leuctra and Tegyrae; and we have no statement of any +achievement of Marcellus, by stealth or ambuscade, such as were those of +Pelopidas, when he returned from exile, and killed the tyrants at Thebes; +which, indeed, may claim to be called the first in rank of all achievements +ever performed by secrecy and cunning. Hannibal was, indeed, a most formidable +enemy for the Romans but so for that matter were the Lacedaemonians for the +Thebans. And that these were, in the fights of Leuctra and Tegyrae, beaten and +put to fight by Pelopidas, is confessed; whereas, Polybius writes, that +Hannibal was never so much as once vanquished by Marcellus, but remained +invincible in all encounters, till Scipio came. I myself, indeed, have followed +rather Livy, Caesar, Cornelius Nepos, and, among the Greeks, king Juba, in +stating that the troops of Hannibal were in some encounters routed and put to +flight by Marcellus; but certainly these defeats conduced little to the sum of +the war. It would seem as if they had been merely feints of some sort on the +part of the Carthaginian. What was indeed truly and really admirable was, that +the Romans, after the defeat of so many armies, the slaughter of so many +captains, and, in fine, the confusion of almost the whole Roman empire, still +showed a courage equal to their losses, and were as willing as their enemies to +engage in new battles. And Marcellus was the one man who overcame the great and +inveterate fear and dread, and revived, raised, and confirmed the spirits of +the soldiers to that degree of emulation and bravery, that would not let them +easily yield the victory, but made them contend for it to the last. For the +same men, whom continual defeats had accustomed to think themselves happy, if +they could but save themselves by running from Hannibal, were by him taught to +esteem it base and ignominious to return safe but unsuccessful; to be ashamed +to confess that they had yielded one step in the terrors of the fight; and to +grieve to extremity if they were not victorious. +</p> + +<p> +In short, as Pelopidas was never overcome in any battle, where himself was +present and commanded in chief, and as Marcellus gained more victories than any +of his contemporaries, truly he that could not be easily overcome, considering +his many successes, may fairly be compared with him who was undefeated. +Marcellus took Syracuse; whereas Pelopidas was frustrated of his hope of +capturing Sparta. But in my judgment, it was more difficult to advance his +standard even to the walls of Sparta, and to be the first of mortals that ever +passed the river Eurotas in arms, than it was to reduce Sicily; unless, indeed, +we say that that adventure is with more of right to be attributed to +Epaminondas, as was also the Leuctrian battle; whereas Marcellus’s renown, and +the glory of his brave actions came entire and undiminished to him alone. For +he alone took Syracuse; and without his colleague’s help defeated the Gauls, +and, when all others declined, alone, without one companion, ventured to engage +with Hannibal; and changing the aspect of the war first showed the example of +daring to attack him. +</p> + +<p> +I cannot commend the death of either of these great men; the suddenness and +strangeness of their ends gives me a feeling rather of pain and distress. +Hannibal has my admiration, who, in so many severe conflicts, more than can be +reckoned in one day, never received so much as one wound. I honor Chrysantes +also, (in Xenophon’s Cyropaedia,) who, having raised his sword in the act of +striking his enemy, so soon as a retreat was sounded, left him, and retired +sedately and modestly. Yet the anger which provoked Pelopidas to pursue revenge +in the heat of fight, may excuse him. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The first thing for a captain is to gain<br/> +Safe victory; the next to be with honor slain, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +as Euripides says. For then he cannot be said to suffer death; it is rather to +be called an action. The very object, too, of Pelopidas’s victory, which +consisted in the slaughter of the tyrant, presenting itself to his eyes, did +not wholly carry him away unadvisedly: he could not easily expect again to have +another equally glorious occasion for the exercise of his courage, in a noble +and honorable cause. But Marcellus, when it made little to his advantage, and +when no such violent ardor as present danger naturally calls out transported +him to passion, throwing himself into danger, fell into an unexplored ambush; +he, namely, who had borne five consulates, led three triumphs, won the spoils +and glories of kings and victories, to act the part of a mere scout or +sentinel, and to expose all his achievements to be trod under foot by the +mercenary Spaniards and Numidians, who sold themselves and their lives to the +Carthaginians; so that even they themselves felt unworthy, and almost grudged +themselves the unhoped for success of having cut off, among a few Fregellan +scouts, the most valiant, the most potent, and most renowned of the Romans. Let +no man think that we have thus spoken out of a design to accuse these noble +men; it is merely an expression of frank indignation in their own behalf, at +seeing them thus wasting all their other virtues upon that of bravery, and +throwing away their lives, as if the loss would be only felt by themselves, and +not by their country, allies, and friends. +</p> + +<p> +After Pelopidas’s death, his friends, for whom he died, made a funeral for him; +the enemies, by whom he had been killed, made one for Marcellus. A noble and +happy lot indeed the former, yet there is something higher and greater in the +admiration rendered by enemies to the virtue that had been their own obstacle, +than in the grateful acknowledgments of friends. Since, in the one case, it is +virtue alone that challenges itself the honor; while, in the other, it may be +rather men’s personal profit and advantage that is the real origin of what they +do. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap24"></a>ARISTIDES</h2> + +<p> +Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was of the tribe Antiochis, and township of +Alopece. As to his wealth, statements differ; some say he passed his life in +extreme poverty, and left behind him two daughters whose indigence long kept +them unmarried: but Demetrius, the Phalerian, in opposition to this general +report, professes in his Socrates, to know a farm at Phalerum going by +Aristides’s name, where he was interred; and, as marks of his opulence, adduces +first, the office of archon eponymus, which he obtained by the lot of the bean; +which was confined to the highest assessed families, called the +Pentacosiomedimni; second, the ostracism, which was not usually inflicted on +the poorer citizens, but on those of great houses, whose elation exposed them +to envy; third and last, that he left certain tripods in the temple of Bacchus, +offerings for his victory in conducting the representation of dramatic +performances, which were even in our age still to be seen, retaining this +inscription upon them, “The tribe Antiochis obtained the victory: Aristides +defrayed the charges: Archestratus’s play was acted.” But this argument, though +in appearance the strongest, is of the least moment of any. For Epaminondas, +who all the world knows was educated, and lived his whole life, in much +poverty, and also Plato, the philosopher, exhibited magnificent shows, the one +an entertainment of flute-players the other of dithyrambic singers; Dion, the +Syracusan, supplying the expenses of the latter, and Pelopidas those of +Epaminondas. For good men do not allow themselves in any inveterate and +irreconcilable hostility to receiving presents from their friends, but while +looking upon those that are accepted to be hoarded up and with avaricious +intentions, as sordid and mean, they do not refuse such as, apart from all +profit, gratify the pure love of honor and magnificence. Panaetius, again, +shows that Demetrius was deceived concerning the tripod by an identity of name. +For, from the Persian war to the end of the Peloponnesian, there are upon +record only two of the name of Aristides, who defrayed the expense of +representing plays and gained the prize neither of which was the same with the +son of Lysimachus; but the father of the one was Xenophilus, and the other +lived at a much later time, as the way of writing, which is that in use since +the time of Euclides, and the addition of the name of Archestratus prove, a +name which, in the time of the Persian war, no writer mentions, but which +several, during the Peloponnesian war, record as that of a dramatic poet. The +argument of Panaetius requires to be more closely considered. But as for the +ostracism, everyone was liable to it, whom his reputation, birth, or eloquence +raised above the common level; insomuch that even Damon, preceptor to Pericles, +was thus banished, because he seemed a man of more than ordinary sense. And, +moreover, Idomeneus says, that Aristides was not made archon by the lot of the +bean, but the free election of the people. And if he held the office after the +battle of Plataea, as Demetrius himself has written, it is very probable that +his great reputation and success in the war, made him be preferred for his +virtue to an office which others received in consideration of their wealth. But +Demetrius manifestly is eager not only to exempt Aristides but Socrates +likewise, from poverty, as from a great evil; telling us that the latter had +not only a house of his own, but also seventy minae put out at interest with +Crito. +</p> + +<p> +Aristides being the friend and supporter of that Clisthenes, who settled the +government after the expulsion of the tyrants, and emulating and admiring +Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian above all politicians, adhered to the aristocratical +principles of government; and had Themistocles, son to Neocles, his adversary +on the side of the populace. Some say that, being boys and bred up together +from their infancy, they were always at variance with each other in all their +words and actions as well serious as playful, and that in this their early +contention they soon made proof of their natural inclinations; the one being +ready, adventurous, and subtle, engaging readily and eagerly in everything; the +other of a staid and settled temper, intent on the exercise of justice, not +admitting any degree of falsity, indecorum, or trickery, no, not so much as at +his play. Ariston of Chios says the first origin of the enmity which rose to so +great a height, was a love affair; they were rivals for the affection of the +beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond all moderation, and did +not lay aside their animosity when the beauty that had excited it passed away; +but, as if it had only exercised them in it, immediately carried their heats +and differences into public business. +</p> + +<p> +Themistocles, therefore, joining an association of partisans, fortified himself +with considerable strength; insomuch that when some one told him that were he +impartial, he would make a good magistrate; “I wish,” replied he, “I may never +sit on that tribunal where my friends shall not plead a greater privilege than +strangers.” But Aristides walked, so to say, alone on his own path in politics, +being unwilling, in the first place, to go along with his associates in ill +doing, or to cause them vexation by not gratifying their wishes; and, secondly, +observing that many were encouraged by the support they had in their friends to +act injuriously, he was cautious; being of opinion that the integrity of his +words and actions was the only right security for a good citizen. +</p> + +<p> +However, Themistocles making many dangerous alterations, and withstanding and +interrupting him in the whole series of his actions, Aristides also was +necessitated to set himself against all Themistocles did, partly in +self-defense, and partly to impede his power from still increasing by the favor +of the multitude; esteeming it better to let slip some public conveniences, +rather than that he by prevailing should become powerful in all things. In +fine, when he once had opposed Themistocles in some measures that were +expedient, and had got the better of him, he could not refrain from saying, +when he left the assembly, that unless they sent Themistocles and himself to +the barathrum, there could be no safety for Athens. Another time, when urging +some proposal upon the people, though there were much opposition and stirring +against it, he yet was gaining the day; but just as the president of the +assembly was about to put it to the vote, perceiving by what had been said in +debate the inexpediency of his advice, he let it fall. Also he often brought in +his bills by other persons, lest Themistocles, through party spirit against +him, should be any hindrance to the good of the public. +</p> + +<p> +In all the vicissitudes of public affairs, the constancy he showed was +admirable, not being elated with honors, and demeaning himself tranquilly and +sedately in adversity; holding the opinion that he ought to offer himself to +the service of his country without mercenary news and irrespectively of any +reward, not only of riches, but even of glory itself. Hence it came, probably, +that at the recital of these verses of Aeschylus in the theater, relating to +Amphiaraus, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For not at seeming just, but being so<br/> +He aims; and from his depth of soil below,<br/> +Harvests of wise and prudent counsels grow, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +the eyes of all the spectators turned on Aristides, as if this virtue, in an +especial manner, belonged to him. +</p> + +<p> +He was a most determined champion for justice, not only against feelings of +friendship and favor, but wrath and malice. Thus it is reported of him that +when prosecuting the law against one who was his enemy, on the judges after +accusation refusing to hear the criminal, and proceeding immediately to pass +sentence upon him, he rose in haste from his seat and joined in petition with +him for a hearing, and that he might enjoy the privilege of the law. Another +time, when judging between two private persons, on the one declaring his +adversary had very much injured Aristides; “Tell me rather, good friend,” he +said, “what wrong he has done you: for it is your cause, not my own, which I +now sit judge of.” Being chosen to the charge of the public revenue, he made it +appear that not only those of his time, but the preceding officers, had +alienated much treasure, and especially Themistocles:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Well known he was an able man to be,<br/> +But with his fingers apt to be too flee. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Therefore, Themistocles associating several persons against Aristides, and +impeaching him when he gave in his accounts, caused him to be condemned of +robbing the public; so Idomeneus states; but the best and chiefest men of the +city much resenting it, he was not only exempted from the fine imposed upon +him, but likewise again called to the same employment. Pretending now to repent +him of his former practice, and carrying himself with more remissness, he +became acceptable to such as pillaged the treasury, by not detecting or calling +them to an exact account. So that those who had their fill of the public money +began highly to applaud Aristides, and sued to the people, making interest to +have him once more chosen treasurer. But when they were upon the point of +election, he reproved the Athenians. “When I discharged my office well and +faithfully,” said he, “I was insulted and abused; but now that I have allowed +the public thieves in a variety of malpractices, I am considered an admirable +patriot. I am more ashamed, therefore, of this present honor than of the former +sentence; and I commiserate your condition, with whom it is more praiseworthy +to oblige ill men than to conserve the revenue of the public.” Saying thus, and +proceeding to expose the thefts that had been committed, he stopped the mouths +of those who cried him up and vouched for him, but gained real and true +commendation from the best men. +</p> + +<p> +When Datis, being sent by Darius under pretense of punishing the Athenians for +their burning of Sardis, but in reality to reduce the Greeks under his +dominion, landed at Marathon and laid waste the country, among the ten +commanders appointed by the Athenians for the war, Militiades was of the +greatest name; but the second place, both for reputation and power, was +possessed by Aristides: and when his opinion to join battle was added to that +of Miltiades, it did much to incline the balance. Every leader by his day +having the command in chief when it came to Aristides’ turn, he delivered it +into the hands of Miltiades, showing his fellow officers, that it is not +dishonorable to obey and follow wise and able men, but, on the contrary, noble +and prudent. So appeasing their rivalry, and bringing them to acquiesce in one +and the best advice, he confirmed Miltiades in the strength of an undivided and +unmolested authority. For now everyone, yielding his day of command, looked for +orders only to him. During the fight the main body of the Athenians being the +hardest put to it, the barbarians, for a long time, making opposition there +against the tribes Leontis and Antiochis, Themistocles and Aristides being +ranged together, fought valiantly; the one being of the tribe Leontis, the +other of the Antiochis. But after they had beaten the barbarians back to their +ships, and perceived that they sailed not for the isles, but were driven in by +the force of sea and wind towards the country of Attica; fearing lest they +should take the city, unprovided of defense, they hurried away thither with +nine tribes, and reached it the same day. Aristides, being left with his tribe +at Marathon to guard the plunder and prisoners, did not disappoint the opinion +they had of him. Amidst the profusion of gold and silver, all sorts of apparel, +and other property, more than can be mentioned, that were in the tents and the +vessels which they had taken, he neither felt the desire to meddle with +anything himself, nor suffered others to do it; unless it might be some who +took away anything unknown to him; as Callias, the torchbearer, did. One of the +barbarians, it seems, prostrated himself before this man, supposing him to be a +king by his hair and fillet; and, when he had so done, taking him by the hand, +showed him a great quantity of gold hid in a ditch. But Callias, most cruel and +impious of men, took away the treasure, but slew the man, lest he should tell +of him. Hence, they say, the comic poets gave his family the name of +Laccopluti, or enriched by the ditch, alluding to the place where Callias found +the gold. Aristides, immediately after this, was archon; although Demetrius, +the Phalerian, says he held the office a little before he died, after the +battle of Plataea. But in the records of the successors of Xanthippides, in +whose year Mardonius was overthrown at Plataea, amongst very many there +mentioned, there is not so much as one of the same name as Aristides: while +immediately after Phaenippus, during whose term of office they obtained the +victory of Marathon, Aristides is registered. +</p> + +<p> +Of all his virtues, the common people were most affected with his justice, +because of its continual and common use; and thus, although of mean fortune and +ordinary birth, he possessed himself of the most kingly and divine appellation +of Just; which kings, however, and tyrants have never sought after; but have +taken delight to be surnamed besiegers of cities, thunderers, conquerors, or +eagles again, and hawks ; affecting, it seems, the reputation which proceeds +from power and violence, rather than that of virtue. Although the divinity, to +whom they desire to compare and assimilate themselves, excels, it is supposed, +in three things, immortality, power, and virtue; of which three, the noblest +and divinest is virtue. For the elements and vacuum have an everlasting +existence; earthquakes, thunders, storms, and torrents have great power; but in +justice and equity nothing participates except by means of reason and the +knowledge of that which is divine. And thus, taking the three varieties of +feeling commonly entertained towards the deity, the sense of his happiness, +fear, and honor of him, people would seem to think him blest and happy for his +exemption from death and corruption, to fear and dread him for his power and +dominion, but to love, honor, and adore him for his justice. Yet though thus +disposed, they covet that immortality which our nature is not capable of, and +that power the greatest part of which is at the disposal of fortune; but give +virtue, the only divine good really in our reach, the last place, most +unwisely; since justice makes the life of such as are in prosperity, power, and +authority the life of a god, and injustice turns it to that of a beast. +</p> + +<p> +Aristides, therefore, had at first the fortune to be beloved for this surname, +but at length envied. Especially when Themistocles spread a rumor amongst the +people, that, by determining and judging all matters privately, he had +destroyed the courts of judicature, and was secretly making way for a monarchy +in his own person, without the assistance of guards. Moreover, the spirit of +the people, now grown high, and confident with their late victory, naturally +entertained feelings of dislike to all of more than common fame and reputation. +Coming together, therefore, from all parts into the city, they banished +Aristides by the ostracism, giving their jealousy of his reputation the name of +fear of tyranny. For ostracism was not the punishment of any criminal act, but +was speciously said to be the mere depression and humiliation of excessive +greatness and power; and was in fact a gentle relief and mitigation of envious +feeling, which was thus allowed to vent itself in inflicting no intolerable +injury, only a ten years’ banishment. But after it came to be exercised upon +base and villainous fellows, they desisted from it; Hyperbolus, being the last +whom they banished by the ostracism. +</p> + +<p> +The cause of Hyperbolus’s banishment is said to have been this. Alcibiades and +Nicias, men that bore the greatest sway in the city, were of different +factions. As the people, therefore, were about to vote the ostracism, and +obviously to decree it against one of them, consulting together and uniting +their parties, they contrived the banishment of Hyperbolus. Upon which the +people, being offended, as if some contempt or affront was put upon the thing, +left off and quite abolished it. It was performed, to be short, in this manner. +Every one taking an ostracon, a sherd, that is, or piece of earthenware, wrote +upon it the citizen’s name he would have banished, and carried it to a certain +part of the market-place surrounded with wooden rails. First, the magistrates +numbered all the sherds in gross (for if there were less than six thousand, the +ostracism was imperfect); then, laying every name by itself, they pronounced +him whose name was written by the larger number, banished for ten years, with +the enjoyment of his estate. As, therefore, they were writing the names on the +sherds, it is reported that an illiterate clownish fellow, giving Aristides his +sherd, supposing him a common citizen, begged him to write Aristides upon it; +and he being surprised and asking if Aristides had ever done him any injury, +“None at all,” said he, “neither know I the man; but I am tired of hearing him +everywhere called the Just.” Aristides, hearing this, is said to have made no +reply, but returned the sherd with his own name inscribed. At his departure +from the city, lifting up his hands to heaven, he made a prayer, (the reverse, +it would seem, of that of Achilles,) that the Athenians might never have any +occasion which should constrain them to remember Aristides. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless, three years after, when Xerxes marched through Thessaly and +Boeotia into the country of Attica, repealing the law, they decreed the return +of the banished: chiefly fearing Aristides, lest, joining himself to the enemy, +he should corrupt and bring over many of his fellow-citizens to the party of +the barbarians; much mistaking the man, who, already before the decree, was +exerting himself to excite and encourage the Greeks to the defense of their +liberty. And afterwards, when Themistocles was general with absolute power, he +assisted him in all ways both in action and counsel; rendering, in +consideration of the common security, the greatest enemy he had the most +glorious of men. For when Eurybiades was deliberating to desert the isle of +Salamis, and the gallies of the barbarians putting out by night to sea +surrounded and beset the narrow passage and islands, and nobody was aware how +they were environed, Aristides, with great hazard, sailed from Aegina through +the enemy’s fleet; and coming by night to Themistocles’s tent, and calling him +out by himself; “If we have any discretion,” said he, “Themistocles, laying +aside at this time our vain and childish contention, let us enter upon a safe +and honorable dispute, vying with each other for the preservation of Greece; +you in the ruling and commanding, I in the subservient and advising part; even, +indeed, as I now understand you to be alone adhering to the best advice, in +counseling without any delay to engage in the straits. And in this, though our +own party oppose, the enemy seems to assist you. For the sea behind, and all +around us, is covered with their fleet; so that we are under a necessity of +approving ourselves men of courage, and fighting, whether we will or no; for +there is no room left us for flight.” To which Themistocles answered, “I would +not willingly, Aristides, be overcome by you on this occasion; and shall +endeavor, in emulation of this good beginning, to outdo it in my actions.” Also +relating to him the stratagem he had framed against the barbarians, he +entreated him to persuade Eurybiades and show him how it was impossible they +should save themselves without an engagement; as he was the more likely to be +believed. Whence, in the council of war, Cleocritus, the Corinthian, telling +Themistocles that Aristides did not like his advice, as he was present and said +nothing, Aristides answered, That he should not have held his peace if +Themistocles had not been giving the best advice; and that he was now silent +not out of any good-will to the person, but in approbation of his counsel. +</p> + +<p> +Thus the Greek captains were employed. But Aristides perceiving Psyttalea, a +small island that lies within the straits over against Salamis, to be filled by +a body of the enemy, put aboard his small boats the most forward and courageous +of his countrymen, and went ashore upon it; and, joining battle with the +barbarians, slew them all, except such more remarkable persons as were taken +alive. Amongst these were three children of Sandauce, the king’s sister, whom +he immediately sent away to Themistocles, and it is stated that in accordance +with a certain oracle, they were, by the command of Euphrantides, the seer, +sacrificed to Bacchus, called Omestes, or the devourer. But Aristides, placing +armed men all around the island, lay in wait for such as were cast upon it, to +the intent that none of his friends should perish, nor any of his enemies +escape. For the closest engagement of the ships, and the main fury of the whole +battle, seems to have been about this place; for which reason a trophy was +erected in Psyttalea. +</p> + +<p> +After the fight, Themistocles, to sound Aristides, told him they had performed +a good piece of service, but there was a better yet to be done, the keeping +Asia in Europe, by sailing forthwith to the Hellespont, and cutting in sunder +the bridge. But Aristides, with an exclamation, bid him think no more of it, +but deliberate and find out means for removing the Mede, as quickly as +possible, out of Greece; lest being enclosed, through want of means to escape, +necessity should compel him to force his way with so great an army. So +Themistocles once more dispatched Arnaces, the eunuch, his prisoner, giving him +in command privately to advertise the king that he had diverted the Greeks from +their intention of setting sail for the bridges, out of the desire he felt to +preserve him. +</p> + +<p> +Xerxes, being much terrified with this, immediately hasted to the Hellespont. +But Mardonius was left with the most serviceable part of the army, about three +hundred thousand men, and was a formidable enemy, confident in his infantry, +and writing messages of defiance to the Greeks: “You have overcome by sea men +accustomed to fight on land, and unskilled at the oar; but there lies now the +open country of Thessaly; and the plains of Boeotia offer a broad and worthy +field for brave men, either horse or foot, to contend in.” But he sent +privately to the Athenians, both by letter and word of mouth from the king, +promising to rebuild their city, to give them a vast sum of money, and +constitute them lords of all Greece on condition they were not engaged in the +war. The Lacedaemonians, receiving news of this, and fearing, dispatched an +embassy to the Athenians, entreating that they would send their wives and +children to Sparta, and receive support from them for their superannuated. For, +being despoiled both of their city and country, the people were suffering +extreme distress. Having given audience to the ambassadors, they returned an +answer, upon the motion of Aristides, worthy of the highest admiration; +declaring, that they forgave their enemies if they thought all things +purchasable by wealth, than which they knew nothing of greater value; but that +they felt offended at the Lacedaemonians, for looking only to their present +poverty and exigence, without any remembrance of their valor and magnanimity, +offering them their victuals, to fight in the cause of Greece. Aristides, +making this proposal and bringing back the ambassadors into the assembly, +charged them to tell the Lacedaemonians that all the treasure on the earth or +under it, was of less value with the people of Athens, than the liberty of +Greece. And, showing the sun to those who came from Mardonius, “as long as that +retains the same course, so long,” said he, “shall the citizens of Athens wage +war with the Persians for the country which has been wasted, and the temples +that have been profaned and burnt by them.” Moreover, he proposed a decree, +that the priests should anathematize him who sent any herald to the Medes, or +deserted the alliance of Greece. +</p> + +<p> +When Mardonius made a second incursion into the country of Attica, the people +passed over again into the isle of Salamis. Aristides, being sent to +Lacedaemon, reproved them for their delay and neglect in abandoning Athens once +more to the barbarians; and demanded their assistance for that part of Greece, +which was not yet lost. The Ephori, hearing this, made show of sporting all +day, and of carelessly keeping holy day, (for they were then celebrating the +Hyacinthian festival,) but in the night, selecting five thousand Spartans, each +of whom was attended by seven Helots, they sent them forth unknown to those +from Athens. And when Aristides again reprehended them, they told him in +derision that he either doted or dreamed, for the army was already at Oresteum, +in their march towards the strangers; as they called the Persians. Aristides +answered that they jested unseasonably, deluding their friends, instead of +their enemies. Thus says Idomeneus. But in the decree of Aristides, not +himself, but Cimon, Xanthippus, and Myronides are appointed ambassadors. +</p> + +<p> +Being chosen general for the war, he repaired to Plattea, with eight thousand +Athenians, where Pausanias, generalissimo of all Greece, joined him with the +Spartans; and the forces of the other Greeks came in to them. The whole +encampment of the barbarians extended all along the bank of the river Asopus, +their numbers being so great, there was no enclosing them all, but their +baggage and most valuable things were surrounded with a square bulwark, each +side of which was the length of ten furlongs. +</p> + +<p> +Tisamenus, the Elean, had prophesied to Pausanias and all the Greeks, and +foretold them victory if they made no attempt upon the enemy, but stood on +their defense. But Aristides sending to Delphi, the god answered, that the +Athenians should overcome their enemies, in case they made supplication to +Jupiter and Juno of Cithaeron, Pan, and the nymphs Sphragitides, and sacrificed +to the heroes Androcrates, Leucon, Pisander, Damocrates, Hypsion, Actaeon, and +Polyidus; and if they fought within their own territories in the plain of Ceres +Eleusinia and Proserpine. Aristides was perplexed upon the tidings of this +oracle: since the heroes to whom it commanded him to sacrifice had been +chieftains of the Plataeans, and the cave of the nymphs Sphragitides was on the +top of Mount Cithaeron, on the side facing the setting sun of summer time; in +which place, as the story goes, there was formerly an oracle, and many that +lived in the district were inspired with it, whom they called Nympholepti, +possessed with the nymphs. But the plain of Ceres Eleusinia, and the offer of +victory to the Athenians, if they fought in their own territories, recalled +them again, and transferred the war into the country of Attica. In this +juncture, Arimnestus, who commanded the Plataeans, dreamed that Jupiter, the +Saviour, asked him what the Greeks had resolved upon; and that he answered, +“Tomorrow, my Lord, we march our army to Eleusis, and there give the barbarians +battle according to the directions of the oracle of Apollo.” And that the god +replied, they were utterly mistaken, for that the places spoken of by the +oracle were within the bounds of Plataea, and if they sought there they should +find them. This manifest vision having appeared to Arimnestus, when he awoke he +sent for the most aged and experienced of his countrymen, with whom +communicating and examining the matter, he found that near Hysiae, at the foot +of Mount Cithaeron, there was a very ancient temple called the temple of Ceres +Eleusinia and Proserpine. He therefore forthwith took Aristides to the place, +which was very convenient for drawing up an army of foot, because the slopes at +the bottom of the mountain Cithaeron rendered the plain, where it comes up to +the temple, unfit for the movements of cavalry. Also, in the same place, there +was the fane of Androcrates, environed with a thick shady grove. And that the +oracle might be accomplished in all particulars for the hope of victory, +Arimnestus proposed, and the Plataeans decreed, that the frontiers of their +country towards Attica should be removed, and the land given to the Athenians, +that they might fight in defense of Greece in their own proper territory. This +zeal and liberality of the Plataeans became so famous, that Alexander, many +years after, when he had obtained the dominion of all Asia, upon erecting the +walls of Plataea, caused proclamation to be made by the herald at the Olympic +games, that the king did the Plataeans this favor in consideration of their +nobleness and magnanimity, because, in the war with the Medes, they freely gave +up their land and zealously fought with the Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +The Tegeatans, contesting the post of honor with the Athenians, demanded, that, +according to custom, the Lacedaemonians being ranged on the right wing of the +battle, they might have the left, alleging several matters in commendation of +their ancestors. The Athenians being indignant at the claim, Aristides came +forward; “To contend with the Tegeatans,” said he, “for noble descent and +valor, the present time permits not: but this we say to you, O you Spartans, +and you the rest of the Greeks, that place neither takes away nor contributes +courage: we shall endeavor by crediting and maintaining the post you assign us, +to reflect no dishonor on our former performances. For we are come, not to +differ with our friends, but to fight our enemies; not to extol our ancestors, +but ourselves to behave as valiant men. This battle will manifest how much each +city, captain, and private soldier is worth to Greece.” The council of war, +upon this address, decided for the Athenians, and gave them the other wing of +the battle. +</p> + +<p> +All Greece being in suspense, and especially the affairs of the Athenians +unsettled, certain persons of great families and possessions having been +impoverished by the war, and seeing all their authority and reputation in the +city vanished with their wealth, and others in possession of their honors and +places, convened privately at a house in Plataea, and conspired for the +dissolution of the democratic government; and, if the plot should not succeed, +to ruin the cause and betray all to the barbarians. These matters being in +agitation in the camp, and many persons already corrupted, Aristides, +perceiving the design, and dreading the present juncture of time, determined +neither to let the business pass unanimadverted upon, nor yet altogether to +expose it; not knowing how many the accusation might reach, and willing to set +bounds to his justice with a view to the public convenience. Therefore, of many +that were concerned, he apprehended eight only, two of whom, who were first +proceeded against and most guilty, Aeschines of Lampra, and Agesias of +Acharnae, made their escape out of the camp. The rest he dismissed; giving +opportunity to such as thought themselves concealed, to take courage and +repent; intimating that they had in the war a great tribunal, where they might +clear their guilt by manifesting their sincere and good intentions towards +their country. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Mardonius made trial of the Grecian courage, by sending his whole +number of horse, in which he thought himself much the stronger, against them, +while they were all pitched at the foot of Mount Cithaeron, in strong and rocky +places, except the Megarians. They, being three thousand in number, were +encamped on the plain, where they were damaged by the horse charging and making +inroads upon them on all hands. They sent, therefore, in haste to Pausanias, +demanding relief, as not being able alone to sustain the great numbers of the +barbarians. Pausanias, hearing this, and perceiving the tents of the Megarians +already hid by the multitude of darts and arrows, and themselves driven +together into a narrow space, was at a loss himself how to aid them with his +battalion of heavy-armed Lacedaemonians. He proposed it, therefore, as a point +of emulation in valor and love of distinction, to the commanders and captains +who were around him, if any would voluntarily take upon them the defense and +succor of the Megarians. The rest being backward, Aristides undertook the +enterprise for the Athenians, and sent Olympiodorus, the most valiant of his +inferior officers, with three hundred chosen men and some archers under his +command. These being soon in readiness, and running upon the enemy, as soon as +Masistius, who commanded the barbarians’ horse, a man of wonderful courage and +of extraordinary bulk and comeliness of person, perceived it, turning his steed +he made towards them. And they sustaining the shock and joining battle with +him, there was a sharp conflict, as though by this encounter they were to try +the success of the whole war. But after Masistius’s horse received a wound, and +flung him, and he falling could hardly raise himself through the weight of his +armor, the Athenians, pressing upon him with blows, could not easily get at his +person, armed as he was, his breast, his head, and his limbs all over, with +gold and brass and iron; but one of them at last, running him in at the visor +of his helmet, slew him; and the rest of the Persians, leaving the body, fled. +The greatness of the Greek success was known, not by the multitude of the +slain, (for an inconsiderable number were killed,) but by the sorrow the +barbarians expressed. For they shaved themselves, their horses, and mules for +the death of Masistius, and filled the plain with howling and lamentation; +having lost a person, who, next to Mardonius himself, was by many degrees the +chief among them, both for valor and authority. +</p> + +<p> +After this skirmish of the horse, they kept from fighting a long time; for the +soothsayers, by the sacrifices, foretold the victory both to Greeks and +Persians, if they stood upon the defensive part only, but if they became +aggressors, the contrary. At length Mardonius, when he had but a few days’ +provision, and the Greek forces increased continually by some or other that +came in to them, impatient of delay, determined to lie still no longer, but, +passing Asopus by daybreak, to fall unexpectedly upon the Greeks; and signified +the same over night to the captains of his host. But about midnight, a certain +horseman stole into the Greek camp, and coming to the watch, desired them to +call Aristides, the Athenian, to him. He coming speedily; “I am,” said the +stranger, “Alexander, king of the Macedonians, and am arrived here through the +greatest danger in the world for the good-will I bear you, lest a sudden onset +should dismay you, so as to behave in the fight worse than usual. For tomorrow +Mardonius will give you battle, urged, not by any hope of success or courage, +but by want of victuals; since, indeed, the prophets prohibit him the battle, +the sacrifices and oracles being unfavorable; and the army is in despondency +and consternation; but necessity forces him to try his fortune, or sit still +and endure the last extremity of want.” Alexander, thus saying, entreated +Aristides to take notice and remember him, but not to tell any other. But he +told him, it was not convenient to conceal the matter from Pausanias (because +he was general); as for any other, he would keep it secret from them till the +battle was fought; but if the Greeks obtained the victory, that then no one +should be ignorant of Alexander’s good-will and kindness towards them. After +this, the king of the Macedonians rode back again, and Aristides went to +Pausanias’s tent and told him; and they sent for the rest of the captains and +gave orders that the army should be in battle array. +</p> + +<p> +Here, according to Herodotus, Pausanias spoke to Aristides, desiring him to +transfer the Athenians to the right wing of the army opposite to the Persians, +(as they would do better service against them, having been experienced in their +way of combat, and emboldened with former victories,) and to give him the left, +where the Medizing Greeks were to make their assault. The rest of the Athenian +captains regarded this as an arrogant and interfering act on the part of +Pausanias; because, while permitting the rest of the army to keep their +stations, he removed them only from place to place, like so many Helots, +opposing them to the greatest strength of the enemy. But Aristides said, they +were altogether in the wrong. If so short a time ago they contested the left +wing with the Tegeatans, and gloried in being preferred before them, now, when +the Lacedaemonians give them place in the right, and yield them in a manner the +leading of the army, how is it they are discontented with the honor that is +done them, and do not look upon it as an advantage to have to fight, not +against their countrymen and kindred, but barbarians, and such as were by +nature their enemies? After this, the Athenians very readily changed places +with the Lacedaemonians, and there went words amongst them as they were +encouraging each other, that the enemy approached with no better arms or +stouter hearts than those who fought the battle of Marathon; but had the same +bows and arrows, and the same embroidered coats and gold, and the same delicate +bodies and effeminate minds within; “while we have the same weapons and bodies, +and our courage augmented by our victories; and fight not like others in +defense of our country only, but for the trophies of Salamis and Marathon; that +they may not be looked upon as due to Miltiades or fortune, but to the people +of Athens.” Thus, therefore, were they making haste to change the order of +their battle. But the Thebans, understanding it by some deserters, forthwith +acquainted Mardonius; and he, either for fear of the Athenians, or a desire to +engage the Lacedaemonians, marched over his Persians to the other wing, and +commanded the Greeks of his party to be posted opposite to the Athenians. But +this change was observed on the other side, and Pausanias, wheeling about +again, ranged himself on the right, and Mardonius, also, as at first, took the +left wing over against the Lacedaemonians. So the day passed without action. +</p> + +<p> +After this, the Greeks determined in council to remove their camp some +distance, to possess themselves of a place convenient for watering; because the +springs near them were polluted and destroyed by the barbarian cavalry. But +night being come, and the captains setting out towards the place designed for +their encamping, the soldiers were not very ready to follow, and keep in a +body, but, as soon as they had quitted their first entrenchments, made towards +the city of Plataea; and there was much tumult and disorder as they dispersed +to various quarters and proceeded to pitch their tents. The Lacedaemonians, +against their will, had the fortune to be left by the rest. For Amompharetus, a +brave and daring man, who had long been burning with desire of the fight, and +resented their many lingerings and delays, calling the removal of the camp a +mere running away and flight, protested he would not desert his post, but would +there remain with his company, and sustain the charge of Mardonius. And when +Pausanias came to him and told him he did these things by the common vote and +determination of the Greeks, Amompharetus taking up a great stone and flinging +it at Pausanias’ feet, and “by this token,” said he, “do I give my suffrage for +the battle, nor have I any concern with the cowardly consultations and decrees +of other men.” Pausanias, not knowing what to do in the present juncture, sent +to the Athenians, who were drawing off, to stay to accompany him; and so he +himself set off with the rest of the army for Plataea, hoping thus to make +Amompharetus move. +</p> + +<p> +Meantime, day came upon them; and Mardonius (for he was not ignorant of their +deserting their camp) having his army in array, fell upon the Lacedaemonians +with great shouting and noise of barbarous people, as if they were not about to +join battle, but crush the Greeks in their flight. Which within a very little +came to pass. For Pausanias, perceiving what was done, made a halt, and +commanded every one to put themselves in order for the battle; but either +through his anger with Amompharetus, or the disturbance he was in by reason of +the sudden approach of the enemy, he forgot to give the signal to the Greeks in +general. Whence it was, that they did not come in immediately, or in a body, to +their assistance, but by small companies and straggling, when the fight was +already begun. Pausanias, offering sacrifice, could not procure favorable +omens, and so commanded the Lacedaemonians, setting down their shields at their +feet to abide quietly and attend his directions, making no resistance to any of +their enemies. And, he sacrificing again a second time, the horse charged, and +some of the Lacedaemonians were wounded. At this time, also, Callicrates, who, +we are told, was the most comely man in the army, being shot with an arrow and +upon the point of expiring, said, that he lamented not his death (for he came +from home to lay down his life in the defense of Greece) but that he died +without action. The case was indeed hard, and the forbearance of the men +wonderful; for they let the enemy charge without repelling them; and, expecting +their proper opportunity from the gods and their general, suffered themselves +to be wounded and slain in their ranks. And some say, that while Pausanias was +at sacrifice and prayers, some space out of the battle-array, certain Lydians, +falling suddenly upon him, plundered and scattered the sacrifice: and that +Pausanias and his company, having no arms, beat them with staves and whips; and +that in imitation of this attack, the whipping the boys about the altar, and +after it the Lydian procession, are to this day practiced in Sparta. +</p> + +<p> +Pausanias, therefore, being troubled at these things, while the priest went on +offering one sacrifice after another, turns himself towards the temple with +tears in his eyes, and, lifting up his hands to heaven, besought Juno of +Cithaeron, and the other tutelar gods of the Plataeans, if it were not in the +fates for the Greeks to obtain the victory, that they might not perish, without +performing some remarkable thing, and by their actions demonstrating to their +enemies, that they waged war with men of courage, and soldiers. While Pausanias +was thus in the act of supplication, the sacrifices appeared propitious, and +the soothsayers foretold victory. The word being given, the Lacedaemonian +battalion of foot seemed, on the sudden, like some one fierce animal, setting +up his bristles, and betaking himself to the combat; and the barbarians +perceived that they encountered with men who would fight it to the death. +Therefore, holding their wicker-shields before them, they shot their arrows +amongst the Lacedaemonians. But they, keeping together in the order of a +phalanx, and falling upon the enemies, forced their shields out of their hands, +and, striking with their pikes at the breasts and faces of the Persians, +overthrew many of them; who, however, fell not either unrevenged or without +courage. For taking hold of the spears with their bare hands, they broke many +of them, and betook themselves not without effect to the sword; and making use +of their falchions and scimitars, and wresting the Lacedaemonians’ shields from +them, and grappling with them, it was a long time that they made resistance. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, for some time, the Athenians stood still, waiting for the +Lacedaemonians to come up. But when they heard much noise as of men engaged in +fight, and a messenger, they say, came from Pausanias, to advertise them of +what was going on, they soon hasted to their assistance. And as they passed +through the plain to the place where the noise was, the Greeks, who took part +with the enemy, came upon them. Aristides, as soon as he saw them, going a +considerable space before the rest, cried out to them, conjuring them by the +guardian gods of Greece to forbear the fight, and be no impediment or stop to +those, who were going to succor the defenders of Greece. But when he perceived +they gave no attention to him, and had prepared themselves for the battle, then +turning from the present relief of the Lacedaemonians, he engaged them, being +five thousand in number. But the greatest part soon gave way and retreated, as +the barbarians also were put to flight. The sharpest conflict is said to have +been against the Thebans, the chiefest and most powerful persons among them at +that time siding zealously with the Medes, and leading the multitude not +according to their own inclinations, but as being subjects of an oligarchy. +</p> + +<p> +The battle being thus divided, the Lacedaemonians first beat off the Persians; +and a Spartan, named Arimnestus, slew Mardonius by a blow on the head with a +stone, as the oracle in the temple of Amphiaraus had foretold to him. For +Mardonius sent a Lydian thither, and another person, a Carian, to the cave of +Trophonius. This latter, the priest of the oracle answered in his own language. +But the Lydian sleeping in the temple of Amphiaraus, it seemed to him that a +minister of the divinity stood before him and commanded him to be gone; and on +his refusing to do it, flung a great stone at his head, so that he thought +himself slain with the blow. Such is the story. — They drove the fliers within +their walls of wood; and, a little time after, the Athenians put the Thebans to +flight, killing three hundred of the chiefest and of greatest note among them +in the actual fight itself. For when they began to fly, news came that the army +of the barbarians was besieged within their palisade: and so giving the Greeks +opportunity to save themselves, they marched to assist at the fortifications; +and coming in to the Lacedaemonians, who were altogether unhandy and +inexperienced in storming, they took the camp with great slaughter of the +enemy. For of three hundred thousand, forty thousand only are said to have +escaped with Artabazus; while on the Greeks’ side there perished in all +thirteen hundred and sixty: of which fifty-two were Athenians, all of the tribe +Aeantis, that fought, says Clidemus, with the greatest courage of any; and for +this reason the men of this tribe used to offer sacrifice for the victory, as +enjoined by the oracle, to the nymphs Sphragitides at the expense of the +public: ninety-one were Lacedaemonians and sixteen Tegeatans. It is strange, +therefore, upon what grounds Herodotus can say, that they only, and none other, +encountered the enemy; for the number of the slain and their monuments testify +that the victory was obtained by all in general; and if the rest had been +standing still, while the inhabitants of three cities only had been engaged in +the fight, they would not have set on the altar the inscription: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The Greeks, when by their courage and their might,<br/> +They had repelled the Persian in the fight,<br/> +The common altar of freed Greece to be,<br/> +Reared this to Jupiter who guards the free. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +They fought this battle on the fourth day of the month Boedromion, according to +the Athenians, but according to the Boeotians, on the twenty-seventh of +Panemus; — on which day there is still a convention of the Greeks at Plataea, +and the Plataeans still offer sacrifice for the victory to Jupiter of freedom. +As for the difference of days, it is not to be wondered at, since even at the +present time, when there is a far more accurate knowledge of astronomy, some +begin the month at one time, and some at another. +</p> + +<p> +After this, the Athenians not yielding the honor of the day to the +Lacedaemonians, nor consenting they should erect a trophy, things were not far +from being ruined by dissension amongst the armed Greeks; had not Aristides, by +much soothing and counseling the commanders, especially Leocrates and +Myronides, pacified and persuaded them to leave the thing to the decision of +the Greeks. And on their proceeding to discuss the matter, Theogiton, the +Megarian, declared the honor of the victory was to be given some other city, if +they would prevent a civil war; after him Cleocritus of Corinth rising up, made +people think he would ask the palm for the Corinthians, (for next to Sparta and +Athens, Corinth was in greatest estimation); but he delivered his opinion, to +the general admiration, in favor of the Plataeans; and counseled to take away +all contention by giving them the reward and glory of the victory, whose being +honored could be distasteful to neither party. This being said, first Aristides +gave consent in the name of the Athenians, and Pausanias, then, for the +Lacedaemonians. So, being reconciled, they set apart eighty talents for the +Plataeans, with which they built the temple and dedicated the image to Minerva, +and adorned the temple with pictures, which even to this very day retain their +luster. But the Lacedaemonians and Athenians each erected a trophy apart by +themselves. On their consulting the oracle about offering sacrifice, Apollo +answered that they should dedicate an altar to Jupiter of freedom, but should +not sacrifice till they had extinguished the fires throughout the country, as +having been defiled by the barbarians, and had kindled unpolluted fire at the +common altar at Delphi. The magistrates of Greece, therefore, went forthwith +and compelled such as had fire to put it out; and Euchidas, a Plataean, +promising to fetch fire, with all possible speed, from the altar of the god, +went to Delphi, and having sprinkled and purified his body, crowned himself +with laurel; and taking the fire from the altar ran back to Plataea, and got +back there before sunset, performing in one day a journey of a thousand +furlongs; and saluting his fellow-citizens and delivering them the fire, he +immediately fell down, and in a short time after expired. But the Plataeans, +taking him up, interred him in the temple of Diana Euclia, setting this +inscription over him: “Euchidas ran to Delphi and back again in one day.” Most +people believe that Euclia is Diana, and call her by that name. But some say +she was the daughter of Hercules, by Myrto, the daughter of Menoetius, and +sister of Patroclus, and, dying a virgin, was worshipped by the Boeotians and +Locrians. Her altar and image are set up in all their marketplaces, and those +of both sexes that are about marrying, sacrifice to her before the nuptials. +</p> + +<p> +A general assembly of all the Greeks being called, Aristides proposed a decree, +that the deputies and religious representatives of the Greek states should +assemble annually at Plataea, and every fifth year celebrate the Eleutheria, or +games of freedom. And that there should be a levy upon all Greece, for the war +against the barbarians, of ten thousand spearmen, one thousand horse, and a +hundred sail of ships; but the Plataeans to be exempt, and sacred to the +service of the gods, offering sacrifice for the welfare of Greece. These things +begin ratified, the Plataeans undertook the performance of annual sacrifice to +such as were slain and buried in that place; which they still perform in the +following manner. On the sixteenth day of Maemacterion (which with the +Boeotians is Alalcomenus) they make their procession, which, beginning by break +of day, is led by a trumpeter sounding for onset; then follow certain chariots +loaded with myrrh and garlands; and then a black bull; then come the young men +of free birth carrying libations of wine and milk in large two-handed vessels, +and jars of oil and precious ointments, none of servile condition being +permitted to have any hand in this ministration, because the men died in +defense of freedom; after all comes the chief magistrate of Plataea, (for whom +it is unlawful at other times either to touch iron, or wear any other colored +garment but white,) at that time appareled in a purple robe; and, taking a +water-pot out of the city record-office, he proceeds, bearing a sword in his +hand, through the middle of the town to the sepulchres. Then drawing water out +of a spring, he washes and anoints the monument, and sacrificing the bull upon +a pile of wood, and making supplication to Jupiter and Mercury of the earth, +invites those valiant men who perished in the defense of Greece, to the banquet +and the libations of blood. After this, mixing a bowl of wine, and pouring out +for himself, he says, “I drink to those who lost their lives for the liberty of +Greece.” These solemnities the Plataeans observe to this day. +</p> + +<p> +Aristides perceived that the Athenians, after their return into the city, were +eager for a democracy; and deeming the people to deserve consideration on +account of their valiant behavior, as also that it was a matter of difficulty, +they being well armed, powerful, and full of spirit with their victories, to +oppose them by force, he brought forward a decree, that every one might share +in the government, and the archons be chosen out of the whole body of the +Athenians. And on Themistocles telling the people in assembly that he had some +advice for them, which could not be given in public, but was most important for +the advantage and security of the city, they appointed Aristides alone to hear +and consider it with him. And on his acquainting Aristides that his intent was +to set fire to the arsenal of the Greeks, for by that means should the +Athenians become supreme masters of all Greece, Aristides, returning to the +assembly, told them, that nothing was more advantageous than what Themistocles +designed, and nothing more unjust. The Athenians, hearing this, gave +Themistocles order to desist; such was the love of justice felt by the people, +and such the credit and confidence they reposed in Aristides. +</p> + +<p> +Being sent in joint commission with Cimon to the war, he took notice that +Pausanias and the other Spartan captains made themselves offensive by +imperiousness and harshness to the confederates; and by being himself gentle +and considerate with them and by the courtesy and disinterested temper which +Cimon, after his example, manifested in the expeditions, he stole away the +chief command from the Lacedaemonians, neither by weapons, ships, or horses, +but by equity and wise policy. For the Athenians being endeared to the Greeks +by the justice of Aristides and by Cimon’s moderation, the tyranny and +selfishness of Pausanias rendered them yet more desirable. He on all occasions +treated the commanders of the confederates haughtily and roughly; and the +common soldiers he punished with stripes, or standing under the iron anchor for +a whole day together; neither was it permitted for any to provide straw for +themselves to lie on, or forage for their horses, or to come near the springs +to water before the Spartans were furnished, but servants with whips drove away +such as approached. And when Aristides once was about to complain and +expostulate with Pausanias, he told him, with an angry look, that he was not at +leisure, and gave no attention to him. The consequence was that the sea +captains and generals of the Greeks, in particular, the Chians, Samians, and +Lesbians, came to Aristides and requested him to be their general, and to +receive the confederates into his command, who had long desired to relinquish +the Spartans and come over to the Athenians. But he answered, that he saw both +equity and necessity in what they said, but their fidelity required the test of +some action, the commission of which would make it impossible for the multitude +to change their minds again. Upon which Uliades, the Samian, and Antagoras of +Chios, conspiring together, ran in near Byzantium on Pausanias’s galley, +getting her between them as she was sailing before the rest. But when +Pausanias, beholding them, rose up and furiously threatened soon to make them +know that they had been endangering not his galley, but their own countries, +they bid him go his way, and thank Fortune that fought for him at Plataea; for +hitherto, in reverence to that, the Greeks had forborne from indicting on him +the punishment he deserved. In fine, they all went off and joined the +Athenians. And here the magnanimity of the Lacedaemonians was wonderful. For +when they perceived that their generals were becoming corrupted by the +greatness of their authority, they voluntarily laid down the chief command, and +left off sending any more of them to the wars, choosing rather to have citizens +of moderation and consistent in the observance of their customs, than to +possess the dominion of all Greece. +</p> + +<p> +Even during the command of the Lacedaemonians, the Greeks paid a certain +contribution towards the maintenance of the war; and being desirous to be rated +city by city in their due proportion, they desired Aristides of the Athenians, +and gave him command, surveying the country and revenue, to assess every one +according to their ability and what they were worth. But he, being so largely +empowered, Greece as it were submitting all her affairs to his sole management, +went out poor, and returned poorer; laying the tax not only without corruption +and injustice, but to the satisfaction and convenience of all. For as the +ancients celebrated the age of Saturn, so did the confederates of Athens +Aristides’s taxation, terming it the happy time of Greece; and that more +especially, as the sum was in a short time doubled, and afterwards trebled. For +the assessment which Aristides made, was four hundred and sixty talents. But to +this Pericles added very near one third part more; for Thucydides says, that in +the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had coming in from their +confederates six hundred talents. But after Pericles’s death, the demagogues, +increasing by little and little, raised it to the sum of thirteen hundred +talents; not so much through the war’s being so expensive and chargeable either +by its length or ill success, as by their alluring the people to spend upon +largesses and play-house allowances, and in erecting statues and temples. +Aristides, therefore, having acquired a wonderful and great reputation by this +levy of the tribute, Themistocles is said to have derided him, as if this had +been not the commendation of a man, but a money-bag; a retaliation, though not +in the same kind, for some free words which Aristides had used. For he, when +Themistocles once was saying that he thought the highest virtue of a general +was to understand and foreknow the measures the enemy would take, replied, +“This, indeed, Themistocles, is simply necessary, but the excellent thing in a +general is to keep his hands from taking money.” +</p> + +<p> +Aristides, moreover, made all the people of Greece swear to keep the league, +and himself took the oath in the name of the Athenians, flinging wedges of red +hot iron into the sea, after curses against such as should make breach of their +vow. But afterwards, it would seem, when things were in such a state as +constrained them to govern with a stronger hand, he bade the Athenians to throw +the perjury upon him, and manage affairs as convenience required. And, in +general, Theophrastus tells us, that Aristides was, in his own private affairs, +and those of his fellow-citizens, rigorously just, but that in public matters +he acted often in accordance with his country’s policy, which demanded, +sometimes, not a little injustice. It is reported of him that he said in a +debate, upon the motion of the Samians for removing the treasure from Delos to +Athens, contrary to the league, that the thing indeed was not just, but was +expedient. +</p> + +<p> +In fine, having established the dominion of his city over so many people, he +himself remained indigent; and always delighted as much in the glory of being +poor, as in that of his trophies; as is evident from the following story. +Callias, the torchbearer, was related to him: and was prosecuted by his enemies +in a capital cause, in which, after they had slightly argued the matters on +which they indicted him, they proceeded, beside the point, to address the +judges: “You know,” said they, “Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, who is the +admiration of all Greece. In what a condition do you think his family is in at +his house, when you see him appear in public in such a threadbare cloak? Is it +not probable that one who, out of doors, goes thus exposed to the cold, must +want food and other necessaries at home? Callias, the wealthiest of the +Athenians, does nothing to relieve either him or his wife and children in their +poverty, though he is his own cousin, and has made use of him in many cases, +and often reaped advantage by his interest with you.” But Callias, perceiving +the judges were moved more particularly by this, and were exasperated against +him, called in Aristides, requiring him to testify that when he frequently +offered him divers presents, and entreated him to accept them, he had refused, +answering, that it became him better to be proud of his poverty than Callias of +his wealth: since there are many to be seen that make a good, or a bad use of +riches, but it is difficult, comparatively, to meet with one who supports +poverty in a noble spirit; those only should be ashamed of it who incurred it +against their wills. On Aristides deposing these facts in favor of Callias, +there was none who heard them, that went not away desirous rather to be poor +like Aristides, than rich as Callias. Thus Aeschines, the scholar of Socrates, +writes. But Plato declares, that of all the great and renowned men in the city +of Athens, he was the only one worthy of consideration; for Themistocles, +Cimon, and Pericles filled the city with porticoes, treasure, and many other +vain things, but Aristides guided his public life by the rule of justice. He +showed his moderation very plainly in his conduct towards Themistocles himself. +For though Themistocles had been his adversary in all his undertakings, and was +the cause of his banishment, yet when he afforded a similar opportunity of +revenge, being accused to the city, Aristides bore him no malice; but while +Alcmaeon, Cimon, and many others, were prosecuting and impeaching him, +Aristides alone, neither did, nor said any ill against him, and no more +triumphed over his enemy in his adversity, than he had envied him his +prosperity. +</p> + +<p> +Some say Aristides died in Pontus, during a voyage upon the affairs of the +public. Others that he died of old age at Athens, being in great honor and +veneration amongst his fellow-citizens. But Craterus, the Macedonian, relates +his death as follows. After the banishment of Themistocles, he says, the people +growing insolent, there sprung up a number of false and frivolous accusers, +impeaching the best and most influential men and exposing them to the envy of +the multitude, whom their good fortune and power had filled with self-conceit. +Amongst these, Aristides was condemned of bribery, upon the accusation of +Diophantus of Amphitrope, for taking money from the Ionians when he was +collector of the tribute; and being unable to pay the fine, which was fifty +minae, sailed to Ionia, and died there. But of this Craterus brings no written +proof, neither the sentence of his condemnation, nor the decree of the people; +though in general it is tolerably usual with him to set down such things and to +cite his authors. Almost all others who have spoken of the misdeeds of the +people towards their generals, collect them all together, and tell us of the +banishment of Themistocles, Miltiades’s bonds, Pericles’s fine, and the death +of Paches in the judgment hall, who, upon receiving sentence, killed himself on +the hustings, with many things of the like nature. They add the banishment of +Aristides; but of this his condemnation, they make no mention. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, his monument is to be seen at Phalerum, which they say was built him +by the city, he not having left enough even to defray funeral charges. And it +is stated, that his two daughters were publicly married out of the prytaneum, +or state-house, by the city, which decreed each of them three thousand drachmas +for her portion; and that upon his son Lysimachus, the people bestowed a +hundred minas of money, and as many acres of planted land, and ordered him +besides, upon the motion of Alcibiades, four drachmas a day. Furthermore, +Lysimachus leaving a daughter, named Polycrite, as Callisthenes says, the +people voted her, also, the same allowance for food with those that obtained +the victory in the Olympic Games. But Demetrius the Phalerian, Hieronymus the +Rhodian, Aristoxenus the musician, and Aristotle, (if the Treatise of Nobility +is to be reckoned among the genuine pieces of Aristotle,) say that Myrto, +Aristides’s granddaughter, lived with Socrates the philosopher, who indeed had +another wife, but took her into his house, being a widow, by reason of her +indigence, and want of the necessaries of life. But Panaetius sufficiently +confutes this in his books concerning Socrates. Demetrius the Phalerian, in his +Socrates, says, he knew one Lysimachus, son to the daughter of Aristides, +extremely poor, who used to sit near what is called the Iaccheum, and sustained +himself by a table for interpreting dreams; and that, upon his proposal and +representations, a decree was passed by the people, to give the mother and aunt +of this man half a drachma a day. The same Demetrius, when he was legislating +himself, decreed each of these women a drachma per diem. And it is not to be +wondered at, that the people of Athens should take such care of people living +in the city, since hearing the granddaughter of Aristogiton was in a low +condition in the isle of Lemnos, and so poor nobody would marry her they +brought her back to Athens, and, marrying her to a man of good birth, gave a +farm at Potamus as her marriage-portion; and of similar humanity and bounty the +city of Athens, even in our age, has given numerous proofs, and is justly +admired and respected in consequence. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap25"></a>MARCUS CATO</h2> + +<p> +Marcus Cato, we are told, was born at Tusculum, though (till he betook himself +to civil and military affairs) he lived and was bred up in the country of the +Sabines, where his father’s estate lay. His ancestors seeming almost entirely +unknown, he himself praises his father Marcus, as a worthy man and a brave +soldier, and Cato, his great grandfather too, as one who had often obtained +military prizes, and who, having lost five horses under him, received, on the +account of his valor, the worth of them out of the public exchequer. Now it +being the custom among the Romans to call those who, having no repute by birth, +made themselves eminent by their own exertions, new men or upstarts, they +called even Cato himself so, and so he confessed himself to be as to any public +distinction or employment, but yet asserted that in the exploits and virtues of +his ancestors he was very ancient. His third name originally was not Cato, but +Priscus, though afterwards he had the surname of Cato, by reason of his +abilities; for the Romans call a skillful or experienced man, Catus. He was of +a ruddy complexion, and gray-eyed; as the writer, who, with no good-will, made +the following epigram upon him, lets us see:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Porcius, who snarls at all in every place,<br/> +With his gray eyes, and with his fiery face,<br/> +Even after death will scarce admitted be<br/> +Into the infernal realms by Hecate. +</p> + +<p> +He gained, in early life, a good habit of body by working with his own hands, +and living temperately, and serving in war; and seemed to have an equal +proportion troth of health and strength. And he exerted and practiced his +eloquence through all the neighborhood and little villages; thinking it as +requisite as a second body, and an all but necessary organ to one who looks +forward to something above a mere humble and inactive life. He would never +refuse to be counsel for those who needed him, and was, indeed, early reckoned +a good lawyer, and, ere long, a capable orator. +</p> + +<p> +Hence his solidity and depth of character showed itself gradually, more and +more to those with whom he was concerned, and claimed, as it were, employment +in great affairs, and places of public command. Nor did he merely abstain from +taking fees for his counsel and pleading, but did not even seem to put any high +price on the honor which proceeded from such kind of combats, seeming much more +desirous to signalize himself in the camp and in real fights; and while yet but +a youth, had his breast covered with scars he had received from the enemy; +being (as he himself says) but seventeen years old, when he made his first +campaign; in the time when Hannibal, in the height of his success, was burning +and pillaging all Italy. In engagements he would strike boldly, without +flinching, stand firm to his ground, fix a bold countenance upon his enemies, +and with a harsh threatening voice accost them, justly thinking himself and +telling others, that such a rugged kind of behavior sometimes terrifies the +enemy more than the sword itself. In his marches, he bore his own arms on foot, +whilst one servant only followed, to carry the provisions for his table, with +whom he is said never to have been angry or hasty, whilst he made ready his +dinner or supper, but would, for the most part, when he was free from military +duty, assist and help him himself to dress it. When he was with the army, he +used to drink only water; unless, perhaps, when extremely thirsty, he might +mingle it with a little vinegar; or if he found his strength fail him, take a +little wine. +</p> + +<p> +The little country house of Manius Curius, who had been thrice carried in +triumph, happened to be near his farm; so that often going thither, and +contemplating the small compass of the place, and plainness of the dwelling, he +formed an idea of the mind of the person, who, being one of the greatest of the +Romans, and having subdued the most warlike nations, nay, had driven Pyrrhus +out of Italy, now, after three triumphs, was contented to dig in so small a +piece of ground, and live in such a cottage. Here it was that the ambassadors +of the Samnites, finding him boiling turnips in the chimney corner, offered him +a present of gold; but he sent them away with this saying; that he, who was +content with such a supper, had no need of gold; and that he thought it more +honorable to conquer those who possessed the gold, than to possess the gold +itself. Cato, after reflecting upon these things, used to return, and reviewing +his own farm, his servants, and housekeeping, increase his labor, and retrench +all superfluous expenses. +</p> + +<p> +When Fabius Maximus took Tarentum, Cato, being then but a youth, was a soldier +under him; and being lodged with one Nearchus, a Pythagorean, desired to +understand some of his doctrine, and hearing from him the language, which Plato +also uses, — that pleasure is evil’s chief bait; the body the principal +calamity of the soul; and that those thoughts which most separate and take it +off from the affections of the body, most enfranchise and purify it; he fell in +love the more with frugality and temperance. With this exception, he is said +not to have studied Greek until when he was pretty old; and rhetoric, to have +then profited a little by Thucydides, but more by Demosthenes: his writings, +however, are considerably embellished with Greek sayings and stories; nay, many +of these, translated word for word, are placed with his own apothegms and +sentences. +</p> + +<p> +There was a man of the highest rank, and very influential among the Romans, +called Valerius Flaccus, who was singularly skillful in discerning excellence +yet in the bud, and, also, much disposed to nourish and advance it. He, it +seems, had lands bordering upon Cato’s; nor could he but admire, when he +understood from his servants the manner of his living, how he labored with his +own hands, went on foot betimes in the morning to the courts to assist those +who wanted his counsel; how, returning home again, when it was winter, he would +throw a loose frock over his shoulders, and in the summer time would work +without anything on among his domestics, sit down with them, eat of the same +bread, and drink of the same wine. When they spoke, also, of other good +qualities, his fair dealing and moderation, mentioning also some of his wise +sayings, he ordered, that he should be invited to supper; and thus becoming +personally assured of his fine temper and his superior character which, like a +plant, seemed only to require culture and a better situation, he urged and +persuaded him to apply himself to state affairs at Rome. Thither, therefore, he +went, and by his pleading soon gained many friends and admirers; but, Valerius +chiefly assisting his promotion, he first of all got appointed tribune in the +army, and afterwards was made quaestor, or treasurer. And now becoming eminent +and noted, he passed, with Valerius himself, through the greatest commands, +being first his colleague as consul, and then censor. But among all the ancient +senators, he most attached himself to Fabius Maximus; not so much for the honor +of his person, and greatness of his power, as that he might have before him his +habit and manner of life, as the best examples to follow: and so he did not +hesitate to oppose Scipio the Great, who, being then but a young man, seemed to +set himself against the power of Fabius, and to be envied by him. For being +sent together with him as treasurer, when he saw him, according to his natural +custom, make great expenses, and distribute among the soldiers without sparing, +he freely told him that the expense in itself was not the greatest thing to be +considered, but that he was corrupting the ancient frugality of the soldiers, +by giving them the means to abandon themselves to unnecessary pleasures and +luxuries. Scipio answered, that he had no need for so accurate a treasurer, +(bearing on as he was, so to say, full sail to the war,) and that he owed the +people an account of his actions, and not of the money he spent. Hereupon Cato +returned from Sicily, and, together with Fabius, made loud complaints in the +open senate of Scipio’s lavishing unspeakable sums, and childishly loitering +away his time in wrestling matches and comedies, as if he were not to make war, +but holiday; and thus succeeded in getting some of the tribunes of the people +sent to call him back to Rome, in case the accusations should prove true. But +Scipio demonstrating, as it were, to them, by his preparations, the coming +victory, and, being found merely to be living pleasantly with his friends, when +there was nothing else to do, but in no respect because of that easiness and +liberality at all the more negligent in things of consequence and moment, +without impediment, set sail towards the war. +</p> + +<p> +Cato grew more and more powerful by his eloquence, so that he was commonly +called the Roman Demosthenes; but his manner of life was yet more famous and +talked of. For oratorical skill was, as an accomplishment, commonly studied and +sought after by all young men; but he was very rare who would cultivate the old +habits of bodily labor, or prefer a light supper, and a breakfast which never +saw the fire; or be in love with poor clothes and a homely lodging, or could +set his ambition rather on doing without luxuries than on possessing them. For +now the state, unable to keep its purity by reason of its greatness, and having +so many affairs, and people from all parts under its government, was fain to +admit many mixed customs, and new examples of living. With reason, therefore, +everybody admired Cato, when they saw others sink under labors, and grow +effeminate by pleasures; and yet beheld him unconquered by either, and that not +only when he was young and desirous of honor, but also when old and greyheaded, +after a consulship and triumph; like some famous victor in the games, +persevering in his exercise and maintaining his character to the very last. He +himself says, that he never wore a suit of clothes which cost more than a +hundred drachmas; and that, when he was general and consul, he drank the same +wine which his workmen did; and that the meat or fish which was bought in the +market for his dinner, did not cost above thirty asses. All which was for the +sake of the commonwealth, that so his body might be the hardier for the war. +Having a piece of embroidered Babylonian tapestry left him, he sold it; because +none of his farm-houses were so much as plastered. Nor did he ever buy a slave +for above fifteen hundred drachmas; as he did not seek for effeminate and +handsome ones, but able, sturdy workmen, horse-keepers and cow-herds: and these +he thought ought to be sold again, when they grew old, and no useless servants +fed in a house. In short, he reckoned nothing a good bargain, which was +superfluous; but whatever it was, though sold for a farthing, he would think it +a great price, if you had no need of it; and was for the purchase of lands for +sowing and feeding, rather than grounds for sweeping and watering. +</p> + +<p> +Some imputed these things to petty avarice, but others approved of him, as if +he had only the more strictly denied himself for the rectifying and amending of +others. Yet certainly, in my judgment, it marks an over-rigid temper, for a man +to take the work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, turning them off +and selling them in their old age, and thinking there ought to be no further +commerce between man and man, than whilst there arises some profit by it. We +see that kindness or humanity has a larger field than bare justice to exercise +itself in; law and justice we cannot, in the nature of things, employ on others +than men; but we may extend our goodness and charity even to irrational +creatures; and such acts flow from a gentle nature, as water from an abundant +spring. It is doubtless the part of a kind-natured man to keep even worn-out +horses and dogs, and not only take care of them when they are foals and whelps, +but also when they are grown old. The Athenians, when they built their +Hecatompedon, turned those mules loose to feed freely, which they had observed +to have done the hardest labor. One of these (they say) came once of itself to +offer its service, and ran along with, nay, and went before, the teams which +drew the wagons up to the acropolis, as if it would incite and encourage them +to draw more stoutly; upon which there passed a vote, that the creature should +be kept at the public charge even till it died. The graves of Cimon’s horses, +which thrice won the Olympian races, are yet to be seen close by his own +monument. Old Xanthippus, too, (amongst many others who buried the dogs they +had bred up,) entombed his which swam after his galley to Salamis, when the +people fled from Athens, on the top of a cliff, which they call the dog’s tomb +to this day. Nor are we to use living creatures like old shoes or dishes, and +throw them away when they are worn out or broken with service; but if it were +for nothing else, but by way of study and practice in humanity, a man ought +always to prehabituate himself in these things to be of a kind and sweet +disposition. As to myself, I would not so much as sell my draught ox on the +account of his age, much less for a small piece of money sell a poor old man, +and so chase him, as it were, from his own country, by turning him not only out +of the place where he has lived a long while, but also out of the manner of +living he has been accustomed to, and that more especially when he would be as +useless to the buyer as to the seller. Yet Cato for all this glories that he +left that very horse in Spain, which he used in the wars when he was consul, +only because he would not put the public to the charge of his freight. Whether +these acts are to be ascribed to the greatness or pettiness of his spirit, let +every one argue as they please. +</p> + +<p> +For his general temperance, however, and self-control, he really deserves the +highest admiration. For when he commanded the army, he never took for himself, +and those that belonged to him, above three bushels of wheat for a month, and +somewhat less than a bushel and a half a day of barley for his baggage-cattle. +And when he entered upon the government of Sardinia, where his predecessors had +been used to require tents, bedding, and clothes upon the public account, and +to charge the state heavily with the cost of provisions and entertainments for +a great train of servants and friends, the difference he showed in his economy +was something incredible. There was nothing of any sort for which he put the +public to expense; he would walk without a carriage to visit the cities, with +one only of the common town officers, who carried his dress, and a cup to offer +libation with. Yet, though he seemed thus easy and sparing to all who were +under his power, he, on the other hand, showed most inflexible severity and +strictness, in what related to public justice, and was rigorous, and precise in +what concerned the ordinances of the commonwealth; so that the Roman +government, never seemed more terrible, nor yet more mild, than under his +administration. +</p> + +<p> +His very manner of speaking seemed to have such a kind of idea with it; for it +was courteous, and yet forcible; pleasant, yet overwhelming; facetious, yet +austere; sententious, and yet vehement: like Socrates, in the description of +Plato, who seemed outwardly to those about him to be but a simple, talkative, +blunt fellow; whilst at the bottom he was full of such gravity and matter, as +would even move tears, and touch the very hearts of his auditors. And, +therefore, I know not what has persuaded some to say, that Cato’s style was +chiefly like that of Lysias. However, let us leave those to judge of these +things, who profess most to distinguish between the several kinds of oratorical +style in Latin; whilst we write down some of his memorable sayings; being of +the opinion that a man’s character appears much more by his words, than, as +some think it does, by his looks. +</p> + +<p> +Being once desirous to dissuade the common people of Rome, from their +unseasonable and impetuous clamor for largesses and distributions of corn, he +began thus to harangue them: “It is a difficult task, O citizens, to make +speeches to the belly, which has no ears.” Reproving, also, their sumptuous +habits, he said, it was hard to preserve a city, where a fish sold for more +than an ox. He had a saying, also, that the Roman people were like sheep; for +they, when single, do not obey, but when altogether in a flock, they follow +their leaders: “So you,” said he, “when you have got together in a body, let +yourselves be guided by those whom singly you would never think of being +advised by.” Discoursing of the power of women: “Men,” said he, “usually +command women; but we command all men, and the women command us.” But this, +indeed, is borrowed from the sayings of Themistocles, who, when his son was +making many demands of him by means of the mother, said, “O woman, the +Athenians govern the Greeks; I govern the Athenians, but you govern me, and +your son governs you; so let him use his power sparingly, since, simple as he +is, he can do more than all the Greeks together.” Another saying of Cato’s was, +that the Roman people did not only fix the value of such and such purple dyes, +but also of such and such habits of life: “For,” said he, “as dyers most of all +dye such colors as they see to be most agreeable, so the young men learn, and +zealously affect what is most popular with you.” He also exhorted them, that if +they were grown great by their virtue and temperance, they should not change +for the worse; but if intemperance and vice had made them great, they should +change for the better; for by that means they were grown indeed quite great +enough. He would say, likewise, of men who wanted to be continually in office, +that apparently they did not know their road; since they could not do without +beadles to guide them on it. He also reproved the citizens for choosing still +the same men as their magistrates: “For you will seem,” said he, “either not to +esteem government worth much, or to think few worthy to hold it.” Speaking, +too, of a certain enemy of his, who lived a very base and discreditable life: +“It is considered,” he said, “rather as a curse than a blessing on him, that +this fellow’s mother prays that she may leave him behind her.” Pointing at one +who had sold the land which his father had left him, and which lay near the +sea-side, he pretended to express his wonder at his being stronger even than +the sea itself; for what it washed away with a great deal of labor, he with a +great deal of ease drank away. When the senate, with a great deal of splendor, +received king Eumenes on his visit to Rome, and the chief citizens strove who +should be most about him, Cato appeared to regard him with suspicion and +apprehension; and when one that stood by, too, took occasion to say, that he +was a very good prince, and a great lover of the Romans: “It may be so,” said +Cato, “but by nature this same animal of a king, is a kind of man-eater;” nor, +indeed, were there ever kings who deserved to be compared with Epaminondas, +Pericles, Themistocles, Manius Curius, or Hamilcar, surnamed Barcas. He used to +say, too, that his enemies envied him; because he had to get up every day +before light, and neglect his own business to follow that of the public. He +would also tell you, that he had rather be deprived of the reward for doing +well, than not to suffer the punishment for doing ill; and that he could pardon +all offenders but himself. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans having sent three ambassadors to Bithynia, of whom one was gouty, +another had his skull trepanned, and the other seemed little better than a +fool; Cato, laughing, gave out, that the Romans had sent an embassy, which had +neither feet, head, nor heart. His interest being entreated by Scipio, on +account of Polybius, for the Achaean exiles, and there happening to be a great +discussion in the senate about it, some being for, and some against their +return; Cato, standing up, thus delivered himself: “Here do we sit all day +long, as if we had nothing to do, but beat our brains whether these old Greeks +should be carried to their graves by the bearers here or by those in Achaea.” +The senate voting their return, it seems that a few days after Polybius’s +friends further wished that it should be moved in the senate, that the said +banished persons should receive again the honors which they first had in +Achaea; and, to this purpose, they sounded Cato for his opinion; but he, +smiling, answered, that Polybius, Ulysses-like, having escaped out of the +Cyclops’ den, wanted, it would seem, to go back again because he had left his +cap and belt behind him. He used to assert, also, that wise men profited more +by fools, than fools by wise men; for that wise men avoided the faults of +fools, but that fools would not imitate the good examples of wise men. He would +profess, too, that he was more taken with young men that blushed, than with +those who looked pale; and that he never desired to have a soldier that moved +his hands too much in marching, and his feet too much in fighting; or snored +louder than he shouted. Ridiculing a fat overgrown man: “What use,” said he, +“can the state turn a man’s body to, when all between the throat and groin is +taken up by the belly?” When one who was much given to pleasures desired his +acquaintance, begging his pardon, he said, he could not live with a man whose +palate was of a quicker sense than his heart. He would likewise say, that the +soul of a lover lived in the body of another: and that in his whole life he +most repented of three things; one was, that he had trusted a secret to a +woman; another, that he went by water when he might have gone by land; the +third, that he had remained one whole day without doing any business of moment. +Applying himself to an old man who was committing some vice: “Friend,” said he, +“old age has of itself blemishes enough; do not you add to it the deformity of +vice.” Speaking to a tribune, who was reputed a poisoner, and was very violent +for the bringing in of a bill, in order to make a certain law: “Young man,” +cried he, “I know not which would be better, to drink what you mix, or confirm +what you would put up for a law.” Being reviled by a fellow who lived a +profligate and wicked life: “A contest,” replied he, “is unequal between you +and me; for you can hear ill words easily, and can as easily give them; but it +is unpleasant to me to give such, and unusual to hear them.” Such was his +manner of expressing himself in his memorable sayings. +</p> + +<p> +Being chosen consul, with his friend and familiar Valerius Flaccus, the +government of that part of Spain which the Romans call the Hither Spain, fell +to his lot. Here, as he was engaged in reducing some of the tribes by force, +and bringing over others by good words, a large army of barbarians fell upon +him, so that there was danger of being disgracefully forced out again. He +therefore called upon his neighbors, the Celtiberians, for help; and on their +demanding two hundred talents for their assistance, everybody else thought it +intolerable, that ever the Romans should promise barbarians a reward for their +aid; but Cato said, there was no discredit or harm in it; for if they overcame, +they would pay them out of the enemy’s purse, and not out of their own; but if +they were overcome, there would be nobody left either to demand the reward or +to pay it. However, he won that battle completely, and after that, all his +other affairs succeeded splendidly. Polybius says, that by his command the +walls of all the cities, on this side the river Baetis, were in one day’s time +demolished, and yet there were a great many of them full of brave and warlike +men. Cato himself says, that he took more cities than he stayed days in Spain. +Neither is this a mere rhodomontade, if it be true, that the number was four +hundred. And though the soldiers themselves had got much in the fights, yet he +distributed a pound of silver to every man of them, saying, it was better, that +many of the Romans should return home with silver, rather than a few with gold. +For himself he affirms, that of all the things that were taken, nothing came to +him beyond what he ate and drank. “Neither do I find fault,” continued he, +“with those that seek to profit by these spoils, but I had rather compete in +valor with the best, than in wealth with the richest, or with the most covetous +in love of money.” Nor did he merely keep himself clear from taking anything, +but even all those who more immediately belonged to him. He had five servants +with him in the army; one of whom called Paccus, bought three boys, out of +those who were taken captive; which Cato coming to understand, the man rather +than venture into his presence, hanged himself. Cato sold the boys, and carried +the price he got for them into the public exchequer. +</p> + +<p> +Scipio the Great, being his enemy, and desiring, whiles he was carrying all +things so successfully, to obstruct him, and take the affairs of Spain into his +own hands, succeeded in getting himself appointed his successor in the +government, and, making all possible haste, put a term to Cato’s authority. But +he, taking with him a convoy of five cohorts of foot, and five hundred horse to +attend him home, overthrew by the way the Lacetanians, and salting from them +six hundred deserters, caused them all to be beheaded; upon which Scipio seemed +to be in indignation, but Cato, in mock disparagement of himself, said, “Rome +would become great indeed, if the most honorable and great men would not yield +up the first place of valor to those who were more obscure, and when they who +were of the commonalty (as he himself was) would contend in valor with those +who were most eminent in birth and honor.” The senate having voted to change +nothing of what had been established by Cato, the government passed away under +Scipio to no manner of purpose, in idleness and doing nothing; and so +diminished his credit much more than Cato’s. Nor did Cato, who now received a +triumph, remit after this and slacken the reins of virtue, as many do, who +strive not so much for virtue’s sake, as for vainglory, and having attained the +highest honors, as the consulship and triumphs, pass the rest of their life in +pleasure and idleness, and quit all public affairs. But he, like those who are +just entered upon public life for the first time, and thirst after gaining +honor and glory in some new office, strained himself, as if he were but just +setting out; and offering still publicly his service to his friends and +citizens, would give up neither his pleadings nor his soldiery. +</p> + +<p> +He accompanied and assisted Tiberius Sempronius, as his lieutenant, when he +went into Thrace and to the Danube; and, in the quality of tribune, went with +Manius Acilius into Greece, against Antiochus the Great, who, after Hannibal, +more than anyone struck terror into the Romans. For having reduced once more +under a single command almost the whole of Asia, all, namely, that Seleucus +Nicator had possessed, and having brought into obedience many warlike nations +of the barbarians, he longed to fall upon the Romans, as if they only were now +worthy to fight with him. So across he came with his forces, pretending, as a +specious cause of the war, that it was to free the Greeks, who had indeed no +need of it, they having been but newly delivered from the power of king Philip +and the Macedonians, and made independent, with the free use of their own laws, +by the goodness of the Romans themselves; so that all Greece was in commotion +and excitement, having been corrupted by the hopes of royal aid which the +popular leaders in their cities put them into. Manius, therefore, sent +ambassadors to the different cities; and Titus Flamininus (as is written in the +account of him) suppressed and quieted most of the attempts of the innovators, +without any trouble. Cato brought over the Corinthians, those of Patrae and of +Aegium, and spent a good deal of time at Athens. There is also an oration of +his said to be extant, which he spoke in Greek to the people; in which he +expressed his admiration of the virtue of the ancient Athenians, and signified +that he came with a great deal of pleasure to be a spectator of the beauty and +greatness of their city. But this is a fiction; for he spoke to the Athenians +by an interpreter, though he was able to have spoken himself; but he wished to +observe the usage of his own country, and laughed at those who admired nothing +but what was in Greek. Jesting upon Postumius Albinus, who had written a +historical work in Greek, and requested that allowances might be made for his +attempt, he said, that allowance indeed might be made, if he had done it under +the express compulsion of an Amphictyonic decree. The Athenians, he says, +admired the quickness and vehemence of his speech; for an interpreter would be +very long in repeating what he expressed with a great deal of brevity; but on +the whole he professed to believe, that the words of the Greeks came only from +their lips, whilst those of the Romans came from their hearts. +</p> + +<p> +Now Antiochus, having occupied with his army the narrow passages about +Thermopylae, and added palisades and walls to the natural fortifications of the +place, sat down there, thinking he had done enough to divert the war; and the +Romans, indeed, seemed wholly to despair of forcing the passage; but Cato, +calling to mind the compass and circuit which the Persians had formerly made to +come at this place, went forth in the night, taking along with him part of the +army. Whilst they were climbing up, the guide, who was a prisoner, missed the +way, and wandering up and down by impracticable and precipitous paths, filled +the soldiers with fear and despondency. Cato, perceiving the danger, commanded +all the rest to halt, and stay where they were, whilst he himself, taking along +with him one Lucius Manlius, a most expert man at climbing mountains, went +forward with a great deal of labor and danger, in the dark night, and without +the least moonshine, among the wild olive trees, and steep craggy rocks, there +being nothing but precipices and darkness before their eyes, till they struck +into a little pass which they thought might lead down into the enemy’s camp. +There they put up marks upon some conspicuous peaks which surmount the hill +called Callidromon, and returning again, they led the army along with them to +the said marks, till they got into their little path again, and there once made +a halt; but when they began to go further, the path deserted them at a +precipice, where they were in another strait and fear; nor did they perceive +that they were all this while near the enemy. And now the day began to give +some light, when they seemed to hear a noise, and presently after to see the +Greek trenches and the guard at the foot of the rock. Here, therefore, Cato +halted his forces, and commanded the troops from Firmum only, without the rest, +to stick by him, as he had always found them faithful and ready. And when they +came up and formed around him in close order, he thus spoke to them. “I +desire,” he said, “to take one of the enemy alive, that so I may understand +what men these are who guard the passage; their number; and with what +discipline, order, and preparation they expect us; but this feat,” continued +he, “must be an act of a great deal of quickness and boldness, such as that of +lions, when they dart upon some timorous animal.” Cato had no sooner thus +expressed himself, but the Firmans forthwith rushed down the mountain, just as +they were, upon the guard, and, falling unexpectedly upon them, affrighted and +dispersed them all. One armed man they took, and brought to Cato, who quickly +learned from him, that the rest of the forces lay in the narrow passage about +the king; that those who kept the tops of the rocks were six hundred choice +Aetolians. Cato, therefore, despising the smallness of their number and +carelessness, forthwith drawing his sword, fell upon them with a great noise of +trumpets and shouting. The enemy, perceiving them thus tumbling, as it were, +upon them from the precipices, flew to the main body, and put all things into +disorder there. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, whilst Manius was forcing the works below, and pouring the +thickest of his forces into the narrow passages, Antiochus was hit in the mouth +with a stone, so that his teeth being beaten out by it, he felt such excessive +pain, that he was fain to turn away with his horse; nor did any part of his +army stand the shock of the Romans. Yet, though there seemed no reasonable hope +of flight, where all paths were so difficult, and where there were deep marshes +and steep rocks, which looked as if they were ready to receive those who should +stumble, the fugitives, nevertheless, crowding and pressing together. In the +narrow passages, destroyed even one another in their terror of the swords and +blows of the enemy. Cato (as it plainly appears) was never oversparing of his +own praises, and seldom shunned boasting of any exploit; which quality, indeed, +he seems to have thought the natural accompaniment of great actions; and with +these particular exploits he was highly puffed up; he says, that those who saw +him that day pursuing and slaying the enemies, were ready to assert, that Cato +owed not so much to the public, as the public did to Cato; nay, he adds, that +Manius the consul, coming hot from the fight, embraced him for a great while, +when both were all in a sweat; and then cried out with joy, that neither he +himself, no, nor all the people together, could make him a recompense equal to +his actions. After the fight he was sent to Rome, that he himself might be the +messenger of it; and so, with a favorable wind, he sailed to Brundusium, and in +one day got from thence to Tarentum; and having traveled four days more, upon +the fifth, counting from the time of his landing, he arrived at Rome, and so +brought the first news of the victory himself; and filled the whole city with +joy and sacrifices, and the people with the belief, that they were able to +conquer every sea and every land. +</p> + +<p> +These are pretty nearly all the eminent actions of Cato, relating to military +affairs: in civil policy, he was of opinion, that one chief duty consisted in +accusing and indicting criminals. He himself prosecuted many, and he would also +assist others who prosecuted them, nay would even procure such, as he did the +Petilii against Scipio; but not being able to destroy him, by reason of the +nobleness of his family, and the real greatness of his mind, which enabled him +to trample all calumnies underfoot, Cato at last would meddle no more with him; +yet joining with the accusers against Scipio’s brother Lucius, he succeeded in +obtaining a sentence against him, which condemned him to the payment of a large +sum of money to the state; and being insolvent, and in danger of being thrown +into jail, he was, by the interposition of the tribunes of the people, with +much ado dismissed. It is also said of Cato, that when he met a certain youth, +who had effected the disgrace of one of his father’s enemies, walking in the +market-place, he shook him by the hand, telling him, that this was what we +ought to sacrifice to our dead parents— not lambs and goats, but the tears and +condemnations of their adversaries. But neither did he himself escape with +impunity in his management of affairs; for if he gave his enemies but the least +hold, he was still in danger, and exposed to be brought to justice. He is +reported to have escaped at least fifty indictments; and one above the rest, +which was the last, when he was eighty-six years old, about which time he +uttered the well-known saying, that it was hard for him who had lived with one +generation of men, to plead now before another. Neither did he make this the +last of his lawsuits; for, four years after, when he was fourscore and ten, he +accused Servilius Galba: so that his life and actions extended, we may say, as +Nestor’s did, over three ordinary ages of man. For, having had many contests, +as we have related, with Scipio the Great, about affairs of state, he continued +them down even to Scipio the younger, who was the adopted grandson of the +former, and the son of that Paulus, who overthrew Perseus and the Macedonians. +</p> + +<p> +Ten years after his consulship, Cato stood for the office of censor, which was +indeed the summit of all honor, and in a manner the highest step in civil +affairs; for besides all other power, it had also that of an inquisition into +everyone’s life and manners. For the Romans thought that no marriage, or +rearing of children, nay, no feast or drinking-bout ought to be permitted +according to everyone’s appetite or fancy, without being examined and inquired +into; being indeed of opinion, that a man’s character was much sooner perceived +in things of this sort, than in what is done publicly and in open day. They +chose, therefore, two persons, one out of the patricians, the other out of the +commons, who were to watch, correct, and punish, if any one ran too much into +voluptuousness, or transgressed the usual manner of life of his country; and +these they called Censors. They had power to take away a horse, or expel out of +the senate any one who lived intemperately and out of order. It was also their +business to take an estimate of what everyone was worth, and to put down in +registers everybody’s birth and quality; besides many other prerogatives. And +therefore the chief nobility opposed his pretensions to it. Jealousy prompted +the patricians, who thought that it would be a stain to everybody’s nobility, +if men of no original honor should rise to the highest dignity and power; while +others, conscious of their own evil practices, and of the violation of the laws +and customs of their country, were afraid of the austerity of the man; which, +in an office of such great power was likely to prove most uncompromising and +severe. And so consulting among themselves, they brought forward seven +candidates in opposition to him, who sedulously set themselves to court the +people’s favor by fair promises, as though what they wished for was indulgent +and easy government. Cato, on the contrary, promising no such mildness, but +plainly threatening evil livers, from the very hustings openly declared +himself; and exclaiming, that the city needed a great and thorough purgation, +called upon the people, if they were wise, not to choose the gentlest, but the +roughest of physicians; such a one, he said, he was, and Valerius Flaccus, one +of the patricians, another; together with him, he doubted not but he should do +something worth the while, and that, by cutting to pieces and burning like a +hydra, all luxury and voluptuousness. He added, too, that he saw all the rest +endeavoring after the office with ill intent, because they were afraid of those +who would exercise it justly, as they ought. And so truly great and so worthy +of great men to be its leaders was, it would seem, the Roman people, that they +did not fear the severity end grim countenance of Cato, but rejecting those +smooth promisers who were ready to do all things to ingratiate themselves, they +took him, together with Flaccus; obeying his recommendations not as though he +were a candidate, but as if he had had the actual power of commanding and +governing already. +</p> + +<p> +Cato named as chief of the senate, his friend and colleague Lucius Valerius +Flaccus, and expelled, among many others, Lucius Quintius, who had been consul +seven years before, and (which was greater honor to him than the consulship) +brother to that Titus Flamininus, who overthrew king Philip. The reason he had +for his expulsion, was this. Lucius, it seems, took along with him in all his +commands, a youth, whom he had kept as his companion from the flower of his +age, and to whom he gave as much power and respect as to the chiefest of his +friends and relations. +</p> + +<p> +Now it happened that Lucius being consular governor of one of the provinces, +the youth setting himself down by him, as he used to do, among other flatteries +with which he played upon him, when he wee in his cups, told him he loved him +so dearly that, “though there was a show of gladiators to be seen at Rome, and +I,” he said, “had never beheld one in my life; and though I, as it were, longed +to see a man killed, yet I made all possible haste to come to you.” Upon this +Lucius, returning his fondness, replied, “Do not be melancholy on that account; +I can remedy that.” Ordering therefore, forthwith, one of those condemned to +die to be brought to the feast, together with the headsman and axe, he asked +the youth if he wished to see him executed. The boy answering that he did, +Lucius commanded the executioner to cut off his neck; and this several +historians mention; and Cicero, indeed, in his dialogue de Senectute, +introduces Cato relating it himself. But Livy says, that he that was killed was +a Gaulish deserter, and that Lucius did not execute him by the stroke of the +executioner, but with his own hand; and that it is so stated in Cato’s speech. +</p> + +<p> +Lucius being thus expelled out of the senate by Cato, his brother took it very +ill, and appealing to the people, desired that Cato should declare his reasons; +and when he began to relate this transaction of the feast, Lucius endeavored to +deny it; but Cato challenging him to a formal investigation, he fell off and +refused it, so that he was then acknowledged to suffer deservedly. Afterwards, +however, when there was some show at the theater, he passed by the seats where +those who had been consuls used to be placed, and taking his seat a great way +off, excited the compassion of the common people, who presently with a great +noise made him go forward, and as much as they could, tried to set right and +salve over what had happened. Manilius, also, who, according to the public +expectation, would have been next consul, he threw out of the senate, because, +in the presence of his daughter, and in open day, he had kissed his wife. He +said, that as for himself, his wife never came into his arms except when there +was great thunder; so that it was a jest with him, that it was a pleasure for +him, when Jupiter thundered. +</p> + +<p> +His treatment of Lucius, likewise, the brother of Scipio, and one who had been +honored with a triumph, occasioned some odium against Cato; for he took his +horse from him, and was thought to do it with a design of putting an affront on +Scipio Africanus, now dead. But he gave most general annoyance, by retrenching +people’s luxury; for though (most of the youth being thereby already corrupted) +it seemed almost impossible to take it away with an open hand and directly, yet +going, as it were, obliquely around, he caused all dress, carriages, women’s +ornaments, household furniture, whose price exceeded one thousand five hundred +drachmas, to be rated at ten times as much as they were worth; intending by +thus making the assess-ments greater, to increase the taxes paid upon them. He +also ordained that upon every thousand asses of property of this kind, three +should be paid, so that people, burdened with these extra charges, and seeing +others of as good estates, but more frugal and sparing, paying less into the +public exchequer, might be tired out of their prodigality. And thus, on the one +side, not only those were disgusted at Cato, who bore the taxes for the sake of +their luxury, but those, too, who on the other side laid by their luxury for +fear of the taxes. For people in general reckon, that an order not to display +their riches, is equivalent to the taking away their riches; because riches are +seen much more in superfluous, than in necessary, things. Indeed, this was what +excited the wonder of Ariston the philosopher; that we account those who +possess superfluous things more happy than those who abound with what is +necessary and useful. But when one of his friends asked Scopas, the rich +Thessalian, to give him some article of no great utility, saying that it was +not a thing that he had any great need or use for himself, “In truth,” replied +he, “it is just these useless and unnecessary things that make my wealth and +happiness.” Thus the desire of riches does not proceed from a natural passion +within us, but arises rather from vulgar out-of-doors opinion of other people. +</p> + +<p> +Cato, notwithstanding, being little solicitous as to those who exclaimed +against him, increased his austerity. He caused the pipes, through which some +persons brought the public water into their own houses and gardens, to be cut, +and threw down all buildings which jutted out into the common streets. He beat +down also the price in contracts for public works to the lowest, and raised it +in contracts for farming the taxes to the highest sum; by which proceedings he +drew a great deal of hatred on himself. Those who were of Titus Flamininus’s +party canceled in the senate all the bargains and contracts made by him for the +repairing and carrying on of the sacred and public buildings, as unadvantageous +to the commonwealth. They incited also the boldest of the tribunes of the +people to accuse him, and to fine him two talents. They likewise much opposed +him in building the court or basilica, which he caused to be erected at the +common charge, just by the senate-house, in the market-place, and called by his +own name, the Porcian. However, the people, it seems, liked his censorship +wondrously well; for, setting up a statue for him in the temple of the goddess +of Health, they put an inscription under it, not recording his commands in war +or his triumph, but to the effect, that this was Cato the Censor, who, by his +good discipline and wise and temperate ordinances, reclaimed the Roman +commonwealth when it was declining and sinking down into vice. Before this +honor was done to himself, he used to laugh at those who loved such kind of +things, saying, that they did not see that they were taking pride in the +workmanship of brass-founders and painters; whereas the citizens bore about his +best likeness in their breasts. And when any seemed to wonder, that he should +have never a statue, while many ordinary persons had one; “I would,” said he, +“much rather be asked, why I have not one, than why I have one.” In short, he +would not have any honest citizen endure to be praised, except it might prove +advantageous to the commonwealth. Yet still he had passed the highest +commendation on himself; for he tells us that those who did anything wrong, and +were found fault with, used to say, it was not worthwhile to blame them; for +they were not Catos. He also adds, that they who awkwardly mimicked some of his +actions, were called left-handed Catos; and that the senate in perilous times +would cast their eyes on him, as upon a pilot in a ship, and that often when he +was not present they put off affairs of greatest consequence. These things are +indeed also testified of him by others; for he had a great authority in the +city, alike for his life, his eloquence, and his age. +</p> + +<p> +He was also a good father, an excellent husband to his wife, and an +extraordinary economist; and as he did not manage his affairs of this kind +carelessly, and as things of little moment, I think I ought to record a little +further whatever was commendable in him in these points. He married a wife more +noble than rich; being of opinion that the rich and the high-born are equally +haughty and proud; but that those of noble blood, would be more ashamed of base +things, and consequently more obedient to their husbands in all that was fit +and right. A man who beat his wife or child, laid violent hands, he said, on +what was most sacred; and a good husband he reckoned worthy of more praise than +a great senator; and he admired the ancient Socrates for nothing so much as for +having lived a temperate and contented life with a wife who was a scold, and +children who were half-witted. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he had a son born, though he had never such urgent business upon his +hands, unless it were some public matter, he would be by when his wife washed +it, and dressed it in its swaddling clothes. For she herself suckled it, nay, +she often too gave her breast to her servants’ children, to produce, by sucking +the same milk, a kind of natural love in them to her son. When he began to come +to years of discretion, Cato himself would teach him to read, although he had a +servant, a very good grammarian, called Chilo, who taught many others; but he +thought not fit, as he himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a slave, or +pulled, it may be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson: nor would he +have him owe to a servant the obligation of so great a thing as his learning; +he himself, therefore, (as we were saying,) taught him his grammar, law, and +his gymnastic exercises. Nor did he only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to +fight in armor, and to ride, but to box also and to endure both heat and cold, +and to swim over the most rapid and rough rivers. He says, likewise, that he +wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that so his son, +without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about his countrymen and +forefathers: nor did he less abstain from speaking anything obscene before his +son, than if it had been in the presence of the sacred virgins, called vestals. +Nor would he ever go into the bath with him; which seems indeed to have been +the common custom of the Romans. Sons-in-law used to avoid bathing with +fathers-in-law, disliking to see one another naked: but having, in time, +learned of the Greeks to strip before men, they have since taught the Greeks to +do it even with the women themselves. +</p> + +<p> +Thus, like an excellent work, Cato formed and fashioned his son to virtue; nor +had he any occasion to find fault with his readiness and docility; but as he +proved to be of too weak a constitution for hardships, he did not insist on +requiring of him any very austere way of living. However, though delicate in +health, he proved a stout man in the field, and behaved himself valiantly when +Paulus Aemilius fought against Perseus; where when his sword was struck from +him by a blow, or rather slipped out of his hand by reason of its moistness, he +so keenly resented it, that he turned to some of his friends about him, and +taking them along with him again, fell upon the enemy; and having by a long +fight and much force cleared the place, at length found it among great heaps of +arms, and the dead bodies of friends as well as enemies piled one upon another. +Upon which Paulus, his general, much commended the youth; and there is a letter +of Cato’s to his son, which highly praises his honorable eagerness for the +recovery of his sword. Afterwards he married Tertia, Aemilius Paulus’s +daughter, and sister to Scipio; nor was he admitted into this family less for +his own worth than his father’s. So that Cato’s care in his son’s education +came to a very fitting result. +</p> + +<p> +He purchased a great many slaves out of the captives taken in war, but chiefly +bought up the young ones, who were capable to be, as it were, broken and taught +like whelps and colts. None of these ever entered another man’s house, except +sent either by Cato himself or his wife. If any one of them were asked what +Cato did, they answered merely, that they did not know. When a servant was at +home, he was obliged either to do some work or sleep; for indeed Cato loved +those most who used to lie down often to sleep, accounting them more docile +than those who were wakeful, and more fit for anything when they were refreshed +with a little slumber. Being also of opinion, that the great cause of the +laziness and misbehavior of slaves was their running after their pleasures, he +fixed a certain price for them to pay for permission amongst themselves, but +would suffer no connections out of the house. At first, when he was but a poor +soldier, he would not be difficult in anything which related to his eating, but +looked upon it as a pitiful thing to quarrel with a servant for the belly’s +sake; but afterwards, when he grew richer, and made any feasts for his friends +and colleagues in office, as soon as supper was over he used to go with a +leathern thong and scourge those who had waited or dressed the meat carelessly. +He always contrived, too, that his servants should have some difference one +among another, always suspecting and fearing a good understanding between them. +Those who had committed anything worthy of death, he punished, if they were +found guilty by the verdict of their fellow-servants. But being after all much +given to the desire of gain, he looked upon agriculture rather as a pleasure +than profit; resolving, therefore, to lay out his money in safe and solid +things, he purchased ponds, hot baths, grounds full of fuller’s earth, +remunerative lands, pastures, and woods; from all which he drew large returns, +nor could Jupiter himself, he used to say, do him much damage. He was also +given to the form of usury, which is considered most odious, in traffic by sea; +and that thus: — he desired that those whom he put out his money to, should +have many partners; and when the number of them and their ships came to be +fifty, he himself took one share through Quintio his freedman, who therefore +was to sail with the adventurers, and take a part in all their proceedings; so +that thus there was no danger of losing his whole stock, but only a little +part, and that with a prospect of great profit. He likewise lent money to those +of his slaves who wished to borrow, with which they bought also other young +ones, whom, when they had taught and bred up at his charges, they would sell +again at the year’s end; but some of them Cato would keep for himself, giving +just as much for them as another had offered. To incline his son to be of this +kind of temper, he used to tell him, that it was not like a man, but rather +like a widow woman, to lessen an estate. But the strongest indication of Cato’s +avaricious humor was when he took the boldness to affirm, that he was a most +wonderful, nay, a godlike man, who left more behind him than he had received. +</p> + +<p> +He was now grown old, when Carneades the Academic, and Diogenes the Stoic, came +as deputies from Athens to Rome, praying for release from a penalty of five +hundred talents laid on the Athenians, in a suit, to which they did not appear, +in which the Oropians were plaintiffs, and Sicyonians judges. All the most +studious youth immediately waited on these philosophers, and frequently, with +admiration, heard them speak. But the gracefulness of Carneades’s oratory, +whose ability was really greatest, and his reputation equal to it, gathered +large and favorable audiences, and erelong filled, like a wind, all the city +with the sound of it. So that it soon began to be told, that a Greek, famous +even to admiration, winning and carrying all before him, had impressed so +strange a love upon the young men, that quitting all their pleasures and +pastimes, they ran mad, as it were, after philosophy; which indeed much pleased +the Romans in general; nor could they but with much pleasure see the youth +receive so welcomely the Greek literature, and frequent the company of learned +men. But Cato, on the other side, seeing this passion for words flowing into +the city, from the beginning, took it ill, fearing lest the youth should be +diverted that way, and so should prefer the glory of speaking well before that +of arms, and doing well. And when the fame of the philosophers increased in the +city, and Caius Acilius, a person of distinction, at his own request, became +their interpreter to the senate at their first audience, Cato resolved, under +some specious presence, to have all philosophers cleared out of the city; and, +coming into the senate, blamed the magistrates for letting these deputies stay +so long a time without being dispatched, though they were persons that could +easily persuade the people to what they pleased; that therefore in all haste +something should be determined about their petition, that so they might go home +again to their own schools, and declaim to the Greek children, and leave the +Roman youth, to be obedient, as hitherto, to their own laws and governors. +</p> + +<p> +Yet he did this not out of any anger, as some think, to Carneades; but because +he wholly despised philosophy, and out of a kind of pride, scoffed at the Greek +studies and literature; as, for example, he would say, that Socrates was a +prating seditious fellow, who did his best to tyrannize over his country, to +undermine the ancient customs, and to entice and withdraw the citizens to +opinions contrary to the laws. Ridiculing the school of Isocrates, he would +add, that his scholars grew old men before they had done learning with him, as +if they were to use their art and plead causes in the court of Minos in the +next world. And to frighten his son from anything that was Greek, in a more +vehement tone than became one of his age, he pronounced, as it were, with the +voice of an oracle, that the Romans would certainly be destroyed when they +began once to be infected with Greek literature; though time indeed has shown +the vanity of this his prophecy; as, in truth, the city of Rome has risen to +its highest fortune, while entertaining Grecian learning. Nor had he an +aversion only against the Greek philosophers, but the physicians also; for +having, it seems, heard how Hippocrates, when the king of Persia sent for him, +with offers of a fee of several talents, said, that he would never assist +barbarians who were enemies to the Greeks; he affirmed, that this was now +become a common oath taken by all physicians, and enjoined his son to have a +care and avoid them; for that he himself had written a little book of +prescriptions for curing those who were sick in his family; he never enjoined +fasting to anyone, but ordered them either vegetables, or the meat of a duck, +pigeon, or leveret; such kind of diet being of light digestion, and fit for +sick folks, only it made those who ate it dream a little too much; and by the +use of this kind of physic, he said, he not only made himself and those about +him well, but kept them so. +</p> + +<p> +However, for this his presumption, he seemed not to have escaped unpunished; +for he lost both his wife and his son; though he himself, being of a strong +robust constitution, held out longer; so that he would often, even in his old +days, address himself to women, and when he was past a lover’s age, married a +young woman, upon the following pretense. Having lost his own wife, he married +his son to the daughter of Paulus Aemilius, who was sister to Scipio; so that +being now a widower himself, he had a young girl who came privately to visit +him; but the house being very small, and a daughter-in-law also in it, this +practice was quickly discovered; for the young woman seeming once to pass +through it a little too boldly, the youth, his son, though he said nothing, +seemed to look somewhat indignantly upon her. The old man perceiving and +understanding that what he did was disliked, without finding any fault, or +saying a word, went away as his custom was, with his usual companions to the +market: and among the rest, he called aloud to one Salonius, who had been a +clerk under him, and asked him whether he had married his daughter? He +answered, no, nor would he, till he had consulted him. Said Cato, “Then I have +found out a fit son-in-law for you, if he should not displease by reason of his +age; for in all other points there is no fault to be found in him; but he is +indeed, as I said, extremely old.” However, Salonius desired him to undertake +the business, and to give the young girl to whom he pleased, she being a humble +servant of his, who stood in need of his care and patronage. Upon this Cato, +without any more ado, told him, he desired to have the damsel himself. These +words, as may well be imagined, at first astonished the man, conceiving that +Cato was as far off from marrying, as he from a likelihood of being allied to +the family of one who had been consul, and had triumphed; but perceiving him in +earnest, he consented willingly; and, going onwards to the forum, they quickly +completed the bargain. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the marriage was in hand, Cato’s son, taking some of his friends along +with him, went and asked his father if it were for any offense he brought in a +stepmother upon him? But Cato cried out, “Far from it, my son, I have no fault +to find with you nor anything of yours; only I desire to have many children, +and to leave the commonwealth more such citizens as you are.” Pisistratus, the +tyrant of Athens, made, they say, this answer to his sons, when they were grown +men, when he married his second wife, Timonassa of Argos, by whom he had, it is +said, Iophon and Thessalus. Cato had a son by this second wife, to whom from +his mother, he gave the surname of Salonius. In the mean time, his eldest died +in his praetorship; of whom Cato often makes mention in his books, as having +been a good man. He is said, however, to have borne the loss moderately, and +like a philosopher, and was nothing the more remiss in attending to affairs of +state; so that he did not, as Lucius Lucullus and Metellus Pius did, grow +languid in his old age, as though public business were a duty once to be +discharged, and then quitted; nor did he, like Scipio Africanus, because envy +had struck at his glory, turn from the public, and change and pass away the +rest of his life without doing anything; but as one persuaded Dionysius, that +the most honorable tomb he could have, would be to die in the exercise of his +dominion; so Cato thought that old age to be the most honorable, which was +busied in public affairs; though he would, now and then, when he had leisure, +recreate himself with husbandry and writing. +</p> + +<p> +And, indeed, he composed various books and histories; and in his youth, he +addicted himself to agriculture for profit’s sake; for he used to say, he had +but two ways of getting — agriculture and parsimony; and now, in his old age, +the first of these gave him both occupation and a subject of study. He wrote +one book on country matters, in which he treated particularly even of making +cakes, and preserving fruit; it being his ambition to be curious and singular +in all things. His suppers, at his country-house, used also to be plentiful; he +daily invited his friends and neighbors about him, and passed the time merrily +with them; so that his company was not only agreeable to those of the same age, +but even to younger men; for he had had experience in many things, and had been +concerned in much, both by word and deed, that was worth the hearing. He looked +upon a good table, as the best place for making friends; where the +commendations of brave and good citizens were usually introduced, and little +said of base and unworthy ones; as Cato would not give leave in his company to +have anything, either good or ill, said about them. +</p> + +<p> +Some will have the overthrow of Carthage to have been one of his last acts of +state; when, indeed, Scipio the younger, did by his valor give it the last +blow, but the war, chiefly by the counsel and advice of Cato, was undertaken on +the following occasion. Cato was sent to the Carthaginians and Masinissa, king +of Numidia, who were at war with one another, to know the cause of their +difference. He, it seems, had been a friend of the Romans from the beginning; +and they, too, since they were conquered by Scipio, were of the Roman +confederacy, having been shorn of their power by loss of territory, and a heavy +tax. Finding Carthage, not (as the Romans thought) low and in an ill condition, +but well manned, full of riches and all sorts of arms and ammunition, and +perceiving the Carthaginians carry it high, he conceived that it was not a time +for the Romans to adjust affairs between them and Masinissa; but rather that +they themselves would fall into danger, unless they should find means to check +this rapid new growth of Rome’s ancient irreconcilable enemy. Therefore, +returning quickly to Rome, he acquainted the senate, that the former defeats +and blows given to the Carthaginians, had not so much diminished their +strength, as it had abated their imprudence and folly; that they were not +become weaker, but more experienced in war, and did only skirmish with the +Numidians, to exercise themselves the better to cope with the Romans: that the +peace and league they had made was but a kind of suspension of war which +awaited a fairer opportunity to break out again. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, they say that, shaking his gown, he took occasion to let drop some +African figs before the senate. And on their admiring the size and beauty of +them, he presently added, that the place that bore them was but three days’ +sail from Rome. Nay, he never after this gave his opinion, but at the end he +would be sure to come out with this sentence, “Also, Carthage, methinks, ought +utterly to be destroyed.” But Publius Scipio Nasica would always declare his +opinion to the contrary, in these words, “It seems requisite to me that +Carthage should still stand.” For seeing his countrymen to be grown wanton and +insolent, and the people made, by their prosperity, obstinate and disobedient +to the senate, and drawing the whole city, whither they would, after them, he +would have had the fear of Carthage to serve as a bit to hold in the contumacy +of the multitude; and he looked upon the Carthaginians as too weak to overcome +the Romans, and too great to be despised by them. On the other side, it seemed +a perilous thing to Cato, that a city which had been always great, and was now +grown sober and wise, by reason of its former calamities, should still lie, as +it were, in wait for the follies and dangerous excesses of the overpowerful +Roman people; so that he thought it the wisest course to have all outward +dangers removed, when they had so many inward ones among themselves. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Cato, they say, stirred up the third and last war against the +Carthaginians: but no sooner was the said war begun, than he died, prophesying +of the person that should put an end to it, who was then only a young man; but, +being tribune in the army, he in several fights gave proof of his courage and +conduct. The news of which being brought to Cato’s ears at Rome, he thus +expressed himself: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The only wise man of them all is he,<br/> +The others e’en as shadows flit and flee. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +This prophecy Scipio soon confirmed by his actions. +</p> + +<p> +Cato left no posterity, except one son by his second wife, who was named, as we +said, Cato Salonius; and a grandson by his eldest son, who died. Cato Salonius +died when he was praetor, but his son Marcus was afterwards consul, and he was +grandfather of Cato the philosopher, who for virtue and renown was one of the +most eminent personages of his time. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap26"></a>COMPARISON OF ARISTIDES WITH MARCUS CATO.</h2> + +<p> +Having mentioned the most memorable actions of these great men, if we now +compare the whole life of the one with that of the other, it will not be easy +to discern the difference between them, lost as it is amongst such a number of +circumstances in which they resemble each other. If, however, we examine them +in detail as we might some piece of poetry, or some picture, we shall find this +common to them both, that they advanced themselves to great honor and dignity +in the commonwealth, by no other means than their own virtue and industry. But +it seems when Aristides appeared, Athens was not at its height of grandeur and +plenty, the chief magistrates and officers of his time being men only of +moderate and equal fortunes among themselves. The estimate of the greatest +estates then, was five hundred medimns; that of the second, or knights, three +hundred; of the third and last called Zeugitae, two hundred. But Cato, out of a +petty village from a country life, leaped into the commonwealth, as it were +into a vast ocean; at a time when there were no such governors as the Curii, +Fabricii, and Hostilii. Poor laboring men were not then advanced from the plow +and spade to be governors and magistrates; but greatness of family, riches, +profuse gifts, distributions, and personal application were what the city +looked to; keeping a high hand, and, in a manner, insulting over those that +courted preferment. It was not as great a matter to have Themistocles for an +adversary, a person of mean extraction and small fortune, (for he was not +worth, it is said, more than four or five talents when he first applied himself +to public affairs,) as to contest with a Scipio Africanus, a Servius Galba, and +a Quintius Flamininus, having no other aid but a tongue free to assert right. +</p> + +<p> +Besides, Aristides at Marathon, and again at Plataea, was but one commander out +of ten; whereas Cato was chosen consul with a single colleague, having many +competitors, and with a single colleague, also, was preferred before seven most +noble and eminent pretenders to be censor. But Aristides was never principal in +any action; for Miltiades carried the day at Marathon, at Salamis Themistocles, +and at Plataea, Herodotus tells us, Pausanias got the glory of that noble +victory: and men like Sophanes, and Aminias, Callimachus, and Cynaegyrus, +behaved themselves so well in all those engagements, as to contest it with +Aristides even for the second place. But Cato not only in his consulship was +esteemed the chief in courage and conduct in the Spanish war, but even whilst +he was only serving as tribune at Thermopylae, under another’s command, he +gained the glory of the victory, for having, as it were, opened a wide gate for +the Romans to rush in upon Antiochus, and for having brought the war on his +back, whilst he only minded what was before his face. For that victory, which +was beyond dispute all Cato’s own work, cleared Asia out of Greece, and by that +means made way afterwards for Scipio into Asia. Both of them, indeed, were +always victorious in war; but at home Aristides stumbled, being banished and +oppressed by the faction of Themistocles; yet Cato, notwithstanding he had +almost all the chief and most powerful of Rome for his adversaries, and +wrestled with them even to his old age, kept still his footing. Engaging also +in many public suits, sometimes plaintiff, sometimes defendant, he cast the +most, and came off clear with all; thanks to his eloquence, that bulwark and +powerful instrument to which more truly, than to chance or his fortune, he owed +it, that he sustained himself unhurt to the last. Antipater justly gives it as +a high commendation to Aristotle the philosopher, writing of him after his +death, that among his other virtues, he was endowed with a faculty of +persuading people which way he pleased. +</p> + +<p> +Questionless, there is no perfecter endowment in man than political virtue, and +of this Economics is commonly esteemed not the least part; for a city, which is +a collection of private households, grows into a stable commonwealth by the +private means of prosperous citizens that compose it. Lycurgus by prohibiting +gold and silver in Sparta, and making iron, spoiled by the fire, the only +currency, did not by these measures discharge them from minding their household +affairs, but cutting off luxury, the corruption and tumor of riches, he +provided there should be an abundant supply of all necessary and useful things +for all persons, as much as any other lawmaker ever did; being more +apprehensive of a poor, needy, and indigent member of a community, than of the +rich and haughty. And in this management of domestic concerns, Cato was as +great as in the government of public affairs; for he increased his estate, and +became a master to others in economy and husbandry; upon which subjects he +collected in his writings many useful observations. On the contrary Aristides, +by his poverty, made justice odious, as if it were the pest and impoverisher of +a family and beneficial to all, rather than to those that were endowed with it. +Yet Hesiod urges us alike to just dealing and to care of our households, and +inveighs against idleness as the origin of injustice; and Homer admirably says: +— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Work was not dear, nor household cares to me,<br/> +Whose increase rears the thriving family;<br/> +But well-rigged ships were always my delight,<br/> +And wars, and darts, and arrows of the fight: +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +as if the same characters carelessly neglected their own estates, and lived by +injustice and rapine from others. For it is not as the physicians say of oil, +that outwardly applied, it is very wholesome, but taken inwardly detrimental, +that thus a just man provides carefully for others, and is heedless of himself +and his own affairs: but in this Aristides’s political virtues seem to be +defective; since, according to most authors, he took no care to leave his +daughters a portion, or himself enough to defray his funeral charges: whereas +Cato’s family produced senators and generals to the fourth generation; his +grandchildren, and their children, came to the highest preferments. But +Aristides, who was the principal man of Greece, through extreme poverty reduced +some of his to get their living by juggler’s tricks, others, for want, to hold +out their hands for public alms; leaving none means to perform any noble +action, or worthy his dignity. +</p> + +<p> +Yet why should this needs follow? since poverty is dishonorable not in itself, +but when it is a proof of laziness, intemperance, luxury, and carelessness; +whereas in a person that is temperate, industrious, just, and valiant, and who +uses all his virtues for the public good, it shows a great and lofty mind. For +he has no time for great matters, who concerns himself with petty ones; nor can +he relieve many needs of others, who himself has many needs of his own. What +most of all enables a man to serve the public is not wealth, but content and +independence; which, requiring no superfluity at home, distracts not the mind +from the common good. God alone is entirely exempt from all want: of human +virtues, that which needs least, is the most absolute and most divine. For as a +body bred to a good habit requires nothing exquisite either in clothes or food, +so a sound man and a sound household keep themselves up with a small matter. +Riches ought to be proportioned to the use we have of them; for he that scrapes +together a great deal, making use of but little, is not independent; for if he +wants them not, it is folly in him to make provision for things which he does +not desire; or if he does desire them, and restrains his enjoyment out of +sordidness, he is miserable. I would fain know of Cato himself, if we seek +riches that we may enjoy them, why is he proud of having a great deal, and +being contented with little? But if it be noble, as it is, to feed on coarse +bread, and drink the same wine with our hinds, and not to covet purple, and +plastered houses, neither Aristides, nor Epaminondas, nor Manius Curius, nor +Caius Fabricius wanted necessaries, who took no pains to get those things whose +use they approved not. For it was not worth the while of a man who esteemed +turnips a most delicate food, and who boiled them himself, whilst his wife made +bread, to brag so often of a halfpenny, and write a book to show how a man may +soonest grow rich; the very good of being contented with little is because it +cuts off at once the desire and the anxiety for superfluities. Hence Aristides, +it is told, said, on the trial of Callias, that it was for them to blush at +poverty, who were poor against their wills; they who like him were willingly +so, might glory in it. For it is ridiculous to think Aristides’s neediness +imputable to his sloth, who might fairly enough by the spoil of one barbarian, +or seizing one tent, have become wealthy. But enough of this. +</p> + +<p> +Cato’s expeditions added no great matter to the Roman empire, which already was +so great, as that in a manner it could receive no addition; but those of +Aristides are the noblest, most splendid, and distinguished actions the +Grecians ever did, the battles at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea. Nor indeed is +Antiochus, nor the destruction of the walls of the Spanish towns, to be +compared with Xerxes, and the destruction by sea and land of so many myriads of +enemies; in all of which noble exploits Aristides yielded to none, though he +left the glory and the laurels, like the wealth and money, to those who needed +and thirsted more greedily after them: because he was superior to those also. I +do not blame Cato for perpetually boasting and preferring himself before all +others, though in one of his orations he says, that it is equally absurd to +praise and dispraise one’s self: yet he who does not so much as desire others’ +praises, seems to me more perfectly virtuous, than he who is always extolling +himself. A mind free from ambition is a main help to political gentleness: +ambition, on the contrary, is hard-hearted, and the greatest fomenter of envy; +from which Aristides was wholly exempt; Cato very subject to it. Aristides +assisted Themistocles in matters of highest importance, and, as his subordinate +officer, in a manner raised Athens: Cato, by opposing Scipio, almost broke and +defeated his expedition against the Carthaginians, in which he overthrew +Hannibal, who till then was even invincible; and, at last, by continually +raising suspicions and calumnies against him, he chased him from the city, and +inflicted a disgraceful sentence on his brother for robbing the state. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, that temperance which Cato always highly cried up, Aristides preserved +truly pure and untainted. But Cato’s marriage, unbecoming his dignity and age, +is a considerable disparagement, in this respect, to his character. For it was +not decent for him at that age to bring home to his son and his wife a young +woman, the daughter of a common paid clerk in the public service: but whether +it were for his own gratification or out of anger at his son, both the fact and +the presence were unworthy. For the reason he pretended to his son was false: +for if he desired to get more as worthy children, he ought to have married a +well-born wife; not to have contented himself, so long as it was unnoticed, +with a woman to whom he was not married; and, when it was discovered, he ought +not to have chosen such a father-in-law as was easiest to be got, instead of +one whose affinity might be honorable to him. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap27"></a>PHILOPOEMEN</h2> + +<p> +Cleander was a man of high birth and great power in the city of Mantinea, but +by the chances of the time happened to be driven from thence. There being an +intimate friendship betwixt him and Craugis, the father of Philopoemen, who was +a person of great distinction, he settled at Megalopolis, where, while his +friend lived, he had all he could desire. When Craugis died, he repaid the +father’s hospitable kindness in the care of the orphan son; by which means +Philopoemen was educated by him, as Homer says Achilles was by Phoenix, and +from his infancy molded to lofty and noble inclinations. But Ecdemus and +Demophanes had the principal tuition of him, after he was past the years of +childhood. They were both Megalopolitans; they had been scholars in the +academic philosophy, and friends to Arcesilaus, and had, more than any of their +contemporaries, brought philosophy to bear upon action, and state affairs. They +had freed their country from tyranny by the death of Aristodemus, whom they +caused to be killed; they had assisted Aratus in driving out the tyrant +Nicocles from Sicyon; and, at the request of the Cyreneans, whose city was in a +state of extreme disorder and confusion, went thither by sea, and succeeded in +establishing good government and happily settling their commonwealth. And among +their best actions they themselves counted the education of Philopoemen, +thinking they had done a general good to Greece, by giving him the nurture of +philosophy. And indeed all Greece (which looked upon him as a kind of latter +birth brought forth, after so many noble leaders, in her decrepit age) loved +him wonderfully; and, as his glory grew, increased his power. And one of the +Romans, to praise him, calls him the last of the Greeks; as if after him Greece +had produced no great man, nor who deserved the name of Greek. +</p> + +<p> +His person was not, as some fancy, deformed; for his likeness is yet to be seen +at Delphi. The mistake of the hostess of Megara was occasioned, it would seem, +merely by his easiness of temper and his plain manners. This hostess having +word brought her, that the General of the Achaeans was coming to her house in +the absence of her husband, was all in a hurry about providing his supper. +Philopoemen, in an ordinary cloak, arriving in this point of time, she took him +for one of his own train who had been sent on before, and bid him lend her his +hand in her household work. He forthwith threw off his cloak, and fell to +cutting up the fire-wood. The husband returning, and seeing him at it, “What,” +says he, “may this mean, O Philopoemen?” “I am,” replied he in his Doric +dialect, “paying the penalty of my ugly looks.” Titus Flamininus, jesting with +him upon his figure, told him one day, he had well-shaped hands and feet, but +no belly: and he was indeed slender in the waist. But this raillery was meant +to the poverty of his fortune; for he had good horse and foot, but often wanted +money to entertain and pay them. These are the common anecdotes told of +Philopoemen. +</p> + +<p> +The love of honor and distinction was, in his character, not unalloyed with +feelings of personal rivalry and resentment. He made Epaminondas his great +example, and came not far behind him in activity, sagacity, and incorruptible +integrity; but his hot contentious temper continually carried him out of the +bounds of that gentleness, composure, and humanity which had marked +Epaminondas, and this made him thought a pattern rather of military than of +civil virtue. He was strongly inclined to the life of a soldier even from his +childhood, and he studied and practiced all that belonged to it, taking great +delight in managing of horses, and handling of weapons. Because he was +naturally fitted to excel in wrestling, some of his friends and tutors +recommended his attention to athletic exercises. But he would first be +satisfied whether it would not interfere with his becoming a good soldier. They +told him, as was the truth, that the one life was directly opposite to the +other; the requisite state of body, the ways of living, and the exercises all +different: the professed athlete sleeping much, and feeding plentifully, +punctually regular in his set times of exercise and rest, and apt to spoil all +by every little excess, or breach of his usual method; whereas the soldier +ought to train himself in every variety of change and irregularity, and, above +all, to bring himself to endure hunger and loss of sleep without difficulty. +Philopoemen, hearing this, not only laid by all thoughts of wrestling and +contemned it then, but when he came to be general, discouraged it by all marks +of reproach and dishonor he could imagine, as a thing which made men, otherwise +excellently fit for war, to be utterly useless and unable to fight on necessary +occasions. +</p> + +<p> +When he left off his masters and teachers, and began to bear arms in the +incursions which his citizens used to make upon the Lacedaemonians for pillage +and plunder, he would always march out the first, and return the last. When +there was nothing to do, he sought to harden his body, and make it strong and +active by hunting, or laboring in his ground. He had a good estate about twenty +furlongs from the town, and thither he would go every day after dinner and +supper; and when night came, throw himself upon the first mattress in his way, +and there sleep as one of the laborers. At break of day he would rise with the +rest, and work either in the vineyard or at the plow; from thence return again +to the town, and employ his time with his friends, or the magistrates in public +business. What he got in the wars, he laid out on horses, or arms, or in +ransoming captives; but endeavored to improve his own property the justest way, +by tillage; and this not slightly, by way of diversion, but thinking it his +strict duty, so to manage his own fortune, as to be out of the temptation of +wronging others. +</p> + +<p> +He spent much time on eloquence and philosophy, but selected his authors, and +cared only for those by whom he might profit in virtue. In Homer’s fictions his +attention was given to whatever he thought apt to raise the courage. Of all +other books he was most devoted to the commentaries of Evangelus on military +tactics, and also took delight, at leisure hours, in the histories of +Alexander; thinking that such reading, unless undertaken for mere amusement and +idle conversation, was to the purpose for action. Even in speculations on +military subjects it was his habit to neglect maps and diagrams, and to put the +theorems to practical proof on the ground itself. He would be exercising his +thoughts, and considering, as he traveled, and arguing with those about him of +the difficulties of steep or broken ground, what might happen at rivers, +ditches, or mountain-passes, in marching in close or in open, in this or in +that particular form of battle. The truth is, he indeed took an immoderate +pleasure in military operations and in warfare, to which he devoted himself, as +the special means for exercising all sorts of virtue, and utterly contemned +those who were not soldiers, as drones and useless in the commonwealth. +</p> + +<p> +When he was thirty years of age, Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, +surprised Megalopolis by night, forced the guards, broke in, and seized the +marketplace. Philopoemen came out upon the alarm, and fought with desperate +courage, but could not beat the enemy out again; yet he succeeded in effecting +the escape of the citizens, who got away while he made head against the +pursuers, and amused Cleomenes, till, after losing his horse and receiving +several wounds, with much ado he came off himself, being the last man in the +retreat. The Megalopolitans escaped to Messene, whither Cleomenes sent to offer +them their town and goods again. Philopoemen perceiving them to be only too +glad at the news, and eager to return, checked them with a speech, in which he +made them sensible, that what Cleomenes called restoring the city, was, rather, +possessing himself of the citizens, and through their means securing also the +city for the future. The mere solitude would, of itself, erelong force him +away, since there was no staying to guard empty houses and naked walls. These +reasons withheld the Megalopolitans, but gave Cleomenes a pretext to pillage +and destroy a great part of the city, and carry away a great booty. +</p> + +<p> +Awhile after king Antigonus coming down to succor the Achaeans, they marched +with their united forces against Cleomenes; who, having seized the avenues, lay +advantageously posted on the hills of Sellasia. Antigonus drew up close by him, +with a resolution to force him in his strength. Philopoemen, with his citizens, +was that day placed among the horse, next to the Illyrian foot, a numerous body +of bold fighters, who completed the line of battle, forming, together with the +Achaeans, the reserve. Their orders were to keep their ground, and not engage +till from the other wing, where the king fought in person, they should see a +red coat lifted up on the point of a spear. The Achaeans obeyed their order, +and stood fast; but the Illyrians were led on by their commanders to the +attack. Euclidas, the brother of Cleomenes, seeing the foot thus severed from +the horse, detached the best of his light-armed men, commanding them to wheel +about, and charge the unprotected Illyrians in the rear. This charge putting +things in confusion, Philopoemen, considering those light-armed men would be +easily repelled, went first to the king’s officers to make them sensible what +the occasion required. But they not minding what he said, but slighting him as +a hare-brained fellow, (as indeed he was not yet of any repute sufficient to +give credit to a proposal of such importance,) he charged with his own +citizens, and at the first encounter disordered, and soon after put the troops +to flight with great slaughter. Then, to encourage the king’s army further, to +bring them all upon the enemy while he was in confusion, he quitted his horse, +and fighting with extreme difficulty in his heavy horseman’s dress, in rough +uneven ground, full of watercourses and hollows, had both his thighs struck +through with a thonged javelin. It was thrown with great force, so that the +head came out on the other side, and made a severe, though not a mortal, wound. +There he stood awhile, as if he had been shackled, unable to move. The +fastening which joined the thong to the javelin made it difficult to get it +drawn out, nor would any about him venture to do it. But the fight being now at +the hottest, and likely to be quickly decided, he was transported with the +desire of partaking in it, and struggled and strained so violently, setting one +leg forward, the other back, that at last he broke the shaft in two; and thus +got the pieces pulled out. Being in this manner set at liberty, he caught up +his sword, and running through the midst of those who were fighting in the +first ranks, animated his men, and set them afire with emulation. Antigonus, +after the victory, asked the Macedonians, to try them, how it happened the +horse had charged without orders before the signal? They answering, that they +were against their wills forced to it by a young man of Megalopolis, who had +fallen in before his time: “that young man,” replied Antigonus, smiling, “did +like an experienced commander.” +</p> + +<p> +This, as was natural, brought Philopoemen into great reputation. Antigonus was +earnest to have him in his service, and offered him very advantageous +conditions, both as to command and pay. But Philopoemen, who knew that his +nature brooked not to be under another, would not accept them; yet not enduring +to live idle, and hearing of wars in Crete, for practice’ sake he passed over +thither. He spent some time among those very warlike, and, at the same time, +sober and temperate men, improving much by experience in all sorts of service; +and then returned with so much fame, that the Achaeans presently chose him +commander of the horse. These horsemen at that time had neither experience nor +bravery, it being the custom to take any common horses, the first and cheapest +they could procure, when they were to march; and on almost all occasions they +did not go themselves, but hired others in their places, and staid at home. +Their former commanders winked at this, because, it being an honor among the +Achaeans to serve on horseback, these men had great power in the commonwealth, +and were able to gratify or molest whom they pleased. Philopoemen, finding them +in this condition, yielded not to any such considerations, nor would pass it +over as formerly; but went himself from town to town, where, speaking with the +young men, one by one, he endeavored to excite a spirit of ambition and love of +honor among them, using punishment also, where it was necessary. And then by +public exercises, reviews, and contests in the presence of numerous spectators, +in a little time he made them wonderfully strong and bold, and, which is +reckoned of greatest consequence in military service, light and agile. With use +and industry they grew so perfect, to such a command of their horses, such a +ready exactness in wheeling round in their troops, that in any change of +posture the whole body seemed to move with all the facility and promptitude, +and, as it were, with the single will of one man. In the great battle, which +they fought with the Aetolians and Eleans by the river Larissus, he set them an +example himself. Damophantus, general of the Elean horse, singled out +Philopoemen, and rode with full speed at him. Philopoemen awaited his charge, +and, before receiving the stroke, with a violent blow of his spear threw him +dead to the ground: upon whose fall the enemy fled immediately. And now +Philopoemen was in everybody’s mouth, as a man who in actual fighting with his +own hand yielded not to the youngest, nor in good conduct to the oldest, and +than whom there came not into the field any better soldier or commander. +</p> + +<p> +Aratus, indeed, was the first who raised the Achaeans, inconsiderable till +then, into reputation and power, by uniting their divided cities into one +commonwealth, and establishing amongst them a humane and truly Grecian form of +government; and hence it happened, as in running waters, where when a few +little particles of matter once stop, others stick to them, and one part +strengthening another, the whole becomes firm and solid; so in a general +weakness, when every city relying only on itself, all Greece was giving way to +an easy dissolution, the Achaeans, first forming themselves into a body, then +drawing in their neighbors round about, some by protection, delivering them +from their tyrants, others by peaceful consent and by naturalization, designed +at last to bring all Peloponnesus into one community. Yet while Aratus lived, +they depended much on the Macedonians, courting first Ptolemy, then Antigonus +and Philip, who all took part continually in whatever concerned the affairs of +Greece. But when Philopoemen came to command, the Achaeans, feeling themselves +a match for the most powerful of their enemies, declined foreign support. The +truth is, Aratus, as we have written in his life, was not of so warlike a +temper, but did most by policy and gentleness, and friendships with foreign +princes; but Philopoemen being a man both of execution and command, a great +soldier, and fortunate in his first attempts, wonderfully heightened both the +power and courage of the Achaeans, accustomed to victory under his conduct. +</p> + +<p> +But first he altered what he found amiss in their arms, and form of battle. +Hitherto they had used light, thin bucklers, too narrow to cover the body, and +javelins much shorter than pikes. By which means they were skillful in +skirmishing at a distance, but in a close fight had much the disadvantage. Then +in drawing their forces up for battle, they were never accustomed to form in +regular divisions; and their line being unprotected either by the thick array +of projecting spears or by their shields, as in the Macedonian phalanx, where +the soldiers shoulder close and their shields touch, they were easily opened, +and broken. Philopoemen reformed all this, persuading them to change the narrow +target and short javelin, into a large shield and long pike; to arm their +heads, bodies, thighs, and legs; and instead of loose skirmishing, fight firmly +and foot to foot. After he had brought them all to wear full armor, and by that +means into the confidence of thinking themselves now invincible, he turned what +before had been idle profusion and luxury into an honorable expense. For being +long used to vie with each other in their dress, the furniture of their houses, +and service of their tables, and to glory in outdoing one another, the disease +by custom was grown incurable, and there was no possibility of removing it +altogether. But he diverted the passion, and brought them, instead of these +superfluities, to love useful and more manly display, and, reducing their other +expenses, to take delight in appearing magnificent in their equipage of war. +Nothing then was to be seen in the shops but plate breaking up, or melting +down, gilding of breastplates, and studding bucklers and bits with silver; +nothing in the places of exercise, but horses managing, and young men +exercising their arms; nothing in the hands of the women, but helmets and +crests of feathers to be dyed, and military cloaks and riding-frocks to be +embroidered; the very sight of all which quickening and raising their spirits, +made them contemn dangers, and feel ready to venture on any honorable dangers. +Other kinds of sumptuosity give us pleasure, but make us effeminate; the +tickling of the sense slackening the vigor of the mind; but magnificence of +this kind strengthens and heightens the courage; as Homer makes Achilles at the +sight of his new arms exulting with joy, and on fire to use them. When +Philopoemen had obtained of them to arm, and set themselves out in this manner, +he proceeded to train them, mustering and exercising them perpetually; in which +they obeyed him with great zeal and eagerness. For they were wonderfully +pleased with their new form of battle, which, being so knit and cemented +together, seemed almost incapable of being broken. And then their arms, which +for their riches and beauty they wore with pleasure, becoming light and easy to +them with constant use, they longed for nothing more than to try them with an +enemy, and fight in earnest. +</p> + +<p> +The Achaeans at that time were at war with Machanidas, the tyrant of +Lacedaemon, who, having a strong army watched all opportunities of becoming +entire master of Peloponnesus. When intelligence came that he was fallen upon +the Mantineans, Philopoemen forthwith took the field, and marched towards him. +They met near Mantinea, and drew up in sight of the city. Both, besides the +whole strength of their several cities, had a good number of mercenaries in +pay. When they came to fall on, Machanidas, with his hired soldiers, beat the +spearmen and the Tarentines whom Philopoemen had placed in the front. But when +he should have charged immediately into the main battle, which stood close and +firm, he hotly followed the chase; and instead of attacking the Achaeans, +passed on beyond them, while they remained drawn up in their place. With so +untoward a beginning the rest of the confederates gave themselves up for lost; +but Philopoemen, professing to make it a matter of small consequence, and +observing the enemy’s oversight, who had thus left an opening in their main +body, and exposed their own phalanx, made no sort of motion to oppose them, but +let them pursue the chase freely, till they had placed themselves at a great +distance from him. Then seeing the Lacedaemonians before him deserted by their +horse, with their flanks quite bare, he charged suddenly, and surprised them +without a commander, and not so much as expecting an encounter, as, when they +saw Machanidas driving the beaten enemy before him, they thought the victory +already gained. He overthrew them with great slaughter, (they report above four +thousand killed in the place,) and then faced about against Machanidas, who was +returning with his mercenaries from the pursuit. There happened to be a broad +deep ditch between them, along side of which both rode their horses for awhile, +the one trying to get over and fly, the other to hinder him. It looked less +like the contest between two generals than like the last defense of some wild +beast, brought to bay by the keen huntsman Philopoemen, and forced to fight for +his life. The tyrant’s horse was mettled and strong; and feeling the bloody +spurs in his sides, ventured to take the ditch. He had already so far reached +the other side, as to have planted his fore-feet upon it, and was struggling to +raise himself with these, when Simmias and Polyaenus, who used to fight by the +side of Philopoemen, came up on horseback to his assistance. But Philopoemen, +before either of them, himself met Machanidas; and perceiving that the horse +with his head high reared, covered his master’s body, he turned his own a +little, and holding his javelin by the middle, drove it against the tyrant with +all his force, and tumbled him dead into the ditch. Such is the precise posture +in which he stands at Delphi in the brazen statue which the Achaeans set up of +him, in admiration of his valor in this single combat, and conduct during the +whole day. +</p> + +<p> +We are told that at the Nemean games, a little after this victory, Philopoemen +being then General the second time, and at leisure on the occasion of the +solemnity, first showed the Greeks his army drawn up in full array as if they +were to fight, and executed with it all the maneuvers of a battle with +wonderful order, strength, and celerity. After which he went into the theater, +while the musicians were singing for the prize, followed by the young soldiers +in their military cloaks and their scarlet frocks under their armor, all in the +very height of bodily vigor, and much alike in age, showing a high respect to +their general; yet breathing at the same time a noble confidence in themselves, +raised by success in many glorious encounters. Just at their coming in, it so +happened, that the musician Pylades, with a voice well suited to the lofty +style of the poet, was in the act of commencing the Persians of Timotheus, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Under his conduct Greece was glorious and was free. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The whole theater at once turned to look at Philopoemen, and clapped with +delight; their hopes venturing once more to return to their country’s former +reputation; and their feelings almost rising to the height of their ancient +spirit. +</p> + +<p> +It was with the Achaeans as with young horses, which go quietly with their +usual riders, but grow unruly and restive under strangers. The soldiers, when +any service was in hand, and Philopoemen not at their head, grew dejected and +looked about for him; but if he once appeared, came presently to themselves, +and recovered their confidence and courage, being sensible that this was the +only one of their commanders whom the enemy could not endure to face; but, as +appeared in several occasions, were frighted with his very name. Thus we find +that Philip, king of Macedon, thinking to terrify the Achaeans into subjection +again, if he could rid his hands of Philopoemen, employed some persons +privately to assassinate him. But the treachery coming to light, he became +infamous, and lost his character through Greece. The Boeotians besieging +Megara, and ready to carry the town by storm, upon a groundless rumor that +Philopoemen was at hand with succor, ran away, and left their scaling ladders +at the wall behind them. Nabis, (who was tyrant of Lacedaemon after +Machanidas,) had surprised Messene at a time when Philopoemen was out of +command. He tried to persuade Lysippus, then General of the Achaeans, to succor +Messene: but not prevailing with him, because, he said, the enemy being now +within it, the place was irrecoverably lost, he resolved to go himself, without +order or commission, followed merely by his own immediate fellow-citizens who +went with him as their general by commission from nature, which had made him +fittest to command. Nabis, hearing of his coming, though his army quartered +within the town, thought it not convenient to stay; but stealing out of the +furthest gate with his men, marched away with all the speed he could, thinking +himself a happy man if he could get off with safety. And he did escape; but +Messene was rescued. +</p> + +<p> +All hitherto makes for the praise and honor of Philopoemen. But when at the +request of the Gortynians he went away into Crete to command for them, at a +time when his own country was distressed by Nabis, he exposed himself to the +charge of either cowardice, or unseasonable ambition of honor amongst +foreigners. For the Megalopolitans were then so pressed, that, the enemy being +master of the field and encamping almost at their gates, they were forced to +keep themselves within their walls, and sow their very streets. And he in the +mean time, across the seas, waging war and commanding in chief in a foreign +nation, furnished his ill-wishers with matter enough for their reproaches. Some +said he took the offer of the Gortynians, because the Achaeans chose other +generals, and left him but a private man. For he could not endure to sit still, +but looking upon war and command in it as his great business, always coveted to +be employed. And this agrees with what he once aptly said of king Ptolemy. +Somebody was praising him for keeping his army and himself in an admirable +state of discipline and exercise: “And what praise,” replied Philopoemen, “for +a king of his years, to be always preparing, and never performing?” However, +the Megalopolitans, thinking themselves betrayed, took it so ill, that they +were about to banish him. But the Achaeans put an end to that design, by +sending their General, Aristaeus, to Megalopolis, who, though he were at +difference with Philopoemen about affairs of the commonwealth, yet would not +suffer him to be banished. Philopoemen finding himself upon this account out of +favor with his citizens, induced divers of the little neighboring places to +renounce obedience to them, suggesting to them to urge that from the beginning +they were not subject to their taxes, or laws, or any way under their command. +In these pretenses he openly took their part, and fomented seditious movements +amongst the Achaeans in general against Megalopolis. But these things happened +a while after. +</p> + +<p> +While he stayed in Crete, in the service of the Gortynians, he made war not +like a Peloponnesian and Arcadian, fairly in the open field, but fought with +them at their own weapon, and turning their stratagems and tricks against +themselves, showed them they played craft against skill, and were but children +to an experienced soldier. Having acted here with great bravery, and great +reputation to himself, he returned into Peloponnesus, where he found Philip +beaten by Titus Quintius, and Nabis at war both with the Romans and Achaeans. +He was at once chosen general against Nabis, but venturing to fight by sea, +met, like Epaminondas, with a result very contrary to the general expectation, +and his own former reputation. Epaminondas, however, according to some +statements, was backward by design, unwilling to give his countrymen an +appetite for the advantages of the sea, lest from good soldiers, they should by +little and little turn, as Plato says, to ill mariners. And therefore he +returned from Asia and the Islands without doing any thing, on purpose. Whereas +Philopoemen, thinking his skill in land-service would equally avail at sea, +learned how great a part of valor experience is, and how much it imports in the +management of things to be accustomed to them. For he was not only put to the +worst in the fight for want of skill, but having rigged up an old ship, which +had been a famous vessel forty years before, and shipped his citizens in her, +she foundering, he was in danger of losing them all. But finding the enemy, as +if he had been driven out of the sea, had, in contempt of him, besieged +Gythium, he presently set sail again, and, taking them unexpectedly, dispersed +and careless after their victory, landed in the night, burnt their camp, and +killed a great number. +</p> + +<p> +A few days after, as he was marching through a rough country, Nabis came +suddenly upon him. The Achaeans were dismayed, and in such difficult ground +where the enemy had secured the advantage, despaired to get off with safety. +Philopoemen made a little halt, and, viewing the ground, soon made it appear, +that the one important thing in war is skill in drawing up an army. For by +advancing only a few paces, and, without any confusion or trouble, altering his +order according to the nature of the place, he immediately relieved himself +from every difficulty, and then charging, put the enemy to flight. But when he +saw they fled, not towards the city, but dispersed every man a different way +all over the field, which for wood and hills, brooks and hollows was not +passable by horse, he sounded a retreat, and encamped by broad daylight. Then +foreseeing the enemy would endeavor to steal scatteringly into the city in the +dark, he posted strong parties of the Achaeans all along the watercourses and +sloping ground near the walls. Many of Nabis’s men fell into their hands. For +returning not in a body, but as the chance of flight had disposed of every one, +they were caught like birds ere they could enter into the town. +</p> + +<p> +These actions obtained him distinguished marks of affection and honor in all +the theaters of Greece, but not without the secret ill-will of Titus +Flamininus, who was naturally eager for glory, and thought it but reasonable a +consul of Rome should be otherwise esteemed by the Achaeans, than a common +Arcadian; especially as there was no comparison between what he, and what +Philopoemen had done for them, he having by one proclamation restored all +Greece, as much as had been subject to Philip and the Macedonians, to liberty. +After this, Titus made peace with Nabis, and Nabis was circumvented and slain +by the Aetolians. Things being then in confusion at Sparta, Philopoemen laid +hold of the occasion, and coming upon them with an army, prevailed with some by +persuasion, with others by fear, till he brought the whole city over to the +Achaeans. As it was no small matter for Sparta to become a member of Achaea, +this action gained him infinite praise from the Achaeans, for having +strengthened their confederacy by the addition of so great and powerful a city, +and not a little good-will from the nobility of Sparta itself, who hoped they +had now procured an ally, who would defend their freedom. Accordingly, having +raised a sum of one hundred and twenty silver talents by the sale of the house +and goods of Nabis, they decreed him the money, and sent a deputation in the +name of the city to present it. But here the honesty of Philopoemen showed +itself clearly to be a real, uncounterfeited virtue. For first of all, there +was not a man among them who would undertake to make him this offer of a +present, but every one excusing himself, and shifting it off upon his fellow, +they laid the office at last on Timolaus, with whom he had lodged at Sparta. +Then Timolaus came to Megalopolis, and was entertained by Philopoemen; but +struck into admiration with the dignity of his life and manners, and the +simplicity of his habits, judging him to be utterly inaccessible to any such +considerations, he said nothing, but pretending other business, returned +without a word mentioned of the present. He was sent again, and did just as +formerly. But the third time with much ado, and faltering in his words, he +acquainted Philopoemen with the good-will of the city of Sparta to him. +Philopoemen listened obligingly and gladly; and then went himself to Sparta, +where he advised them, not to bribe good men and their friends, of whose virtue +they might be sure without charge to themselves; but to buy off and silence ill +citizens, who disquieted the city with their seditious speeches in the public +assemblies; for it was better to bar liberty of speech in enemies, than +friends. Thus it appeared how much Philopoemen was above bribery. +</p> + +<p> +Diophanes being afterwards General of the Achaeans, and hearing the +Lacedaemonians were bent on new commotions, resolved to chastise them; they, on +the other side, being set upon war, were embroiling all Peloponnesus. +Philopoemen on this occasion did all he could to keep Diophanes quiet and to +make him sensible that as the times went, while Antiochus and the Romans were +disputing their pretensions with vast armies in the heart of Greece, it +concerned a man in his position to keep a watchful eye over them, and +dissembling, and putting up with any less important grievances, to preserve all +quiet at home. Diophanes would not be ruled, but joined with Titus, and both +together falling into Laconia, marched directly to Sparta. Philopoemen, upon +this, took, in his indignation, a step which certainly was not lawful, nor in +the strictest sense just, but boldly and loftily conceived. Entering into the +town himself, he, a private man as he was, refused admission to both the consul +of Rome, and the General of the Achaeans, quieted the disorders in the city, +and reunited it on the same terms as before to the Achaean confederacy. +</p> + +<p> +Yet afterwards, when he was General himself, upon some new misdemeanor of the +Lacedaemonians, he brought back those who had been banished, put, as Polybius +writes, eighty, according to Aristocrates three hundred and fifty, Spartans to +death, razed the walls, took away a good part of their territory and +transferred it to the Megalopolitans, forced out of the country and carried +into Achaea all who had been made citizens of Sparta by tyrants, except three +thousand who would not submit to banishment. These he sold for slaves, and with +the money, as if to insult over them, built a colonnade at Megalopolis. Lastly, +unworthily trampling upon the Lacedaemonians in their calamities, and +gratifying his hostility by a most oppressive and arbitrary action, he +abolished the laws of Lycurgus, and forced them to educate their children, and +live after the manner of the Achaeans; as though, while they kept to the +discipline of Lycurgus, there was no humbling their haughty spirits. In their +present distress and adversity they allowed Philopoemen thus to cut the sinews +of their commonwealth asunder, and behaved themselves humbly and submissively. +But afterwards in no long time, obtaining the support of the Romans, they +abandoned their new Achaean citizenship; and as much as in so miserable and +ruined a condition they could, reestablished their ancient discipline. +</p> + +<p> +When the war betwixt Antiochus and the Romans broke out in Greece, Philopoemen +was a private man. He repined grievously, when he saw Antiochus lay idle at +Chalcis, spending his time in unseasonable courtship and weddings, while his +men lay dispersed in several towns, without order or commanders, and minding +nothing but their pleasures. He complained much that he was not himself in +office, and said he envied the Romans their victory; and that if he had had the +fortune to be then in command, he would have surprised and killed the whole +army in the taverns. +</p> + +<p> +When Antiochus was overcome, the Romans pressed harder upon Greece, and +encompassed the Achaeans with their power; the popular leaders in the several +cities yielded before them; and their power speedily, under the divine +guidance, advanced to the consummation due to it in the revolutions of fortune. +Philopoemen, in this conjuncture, carried himself like a good pilot in a high +sea, sometimes shifting sail, and sometimes yielding, but still steering +steady; and omitting no opportunity nor effort to keep all who were +considerable, whether for eloquence or riches, fast to the defense of their +common liberty. +</p> + +<p> +Aristaenus, a Megalopolitan of great credit among the Achaeans, but always a +favorer of the Romans, saying one day in the senate, that the Romans should not +be opposed, or displeased in any way, Philopoemen heard him with an impatient +silence; but at last, not able to hold longer, said angrily to him, “And why be +in such haste, wretched man, to behold the end of Greece?” Manius, the Roman +consul, after the defeat of Antiochus, requested the Achaeans to restore the +banished Lacedaemonians to their country, which motion was seconded and +supported by all the interest of Titus. But Philopoemen crossed it, not from +ill-will to the men, but that they might be beholden to him and the Achaeans, +not to Titus and the Romans. For when he came to be General himself, he +restored them. So impatient was his spirit of any subjection, and so prone his +nature to contest everything with men in power. +</p> + +<p> +Being now threescore and ten, and the eighth time General, he was in hope to +pass in quiet, not only the year of his magistracy, but his remaining life. For +as our diseases decline, as it is supposed, with our declining bodily strength, +so the quarreling humor of the Greeks abated much with their failing political +greatness. But fortune or some divine retributive power threw him down the in +close of his life, like a successful runner who stumbles at the goal. It is +reported, that being in company where one was praised for a great commander, he +replied, there was no great account to be made of a man, who had suffered +himself to be taken alive by his enemies. +</p> + +<p> +A few days after, news came that Dinocrates the Messenian, a particular enemy +to Philopoemen, and for his wickedness and villanies generally hated, had +induced Messene to revolt from the Achaeans, and was about to seize upon a +little place called Colonis. Philopoemen lay then sick of a fever at Argos. +Upon the news he hasted away, and reached Megalopolis, which was distant above +four hundred furlongs, in a day. From thence he immediately led out the horse, +the noblest of the city, young men in the vigor of their age, and eager to +proffer their service, both from attachment to Philopoemen, and zeal for the +cause. As they marched towards Messene, they met with Dinocrates, near the hill +of Evander, charged and routed him. But five hundred fresh men, who, being left +for a guard to the country, came in late, happening to appear, the flying enemy +rallied again about the hills. Philopoemen, fearing to be enclosed, and +solicitous for his men, retreated over ground extremely disadvantageous, +bringing up the rear himself. As he often faced, and made charges upon the +enemy, he drew them upon himself; though they merely made movements at a +distance, and shouted about him, nobody daring to approach him. In his care to +save every single man, he left his main body so often, that at last he found +himself alone among the thickest of his enemies. Yet even then none durst come +up to him, but being pelted at a distance, and driven to stony steep places, he +had great difficulty, with much spurring, to guide his horse aright. His age +was no hindrance to him, for with perpetual exercise it was both strong and +active; but being weakened with sickness, and tired with his long journey, his +horse stumbling, he fell encumbered with his arms, and faint, upon a hard and +rugged piece of ground. His head received such a shock with the fall, that he +lay awhile speechless, so that the enemy, thinking him dead, began to turn and +strip him. But when they saw him lift up his head and open his eyes, they threw +themselves all together upon him, bound his hands behind him, and carried him +off, every kind of insult and contumely being lavished on him who truly had +never so much as dreamed of being led in triumph by Dinocrates. +</p> + +<p> +The Messenians, wonderfully elated with the news, thronged in swarms to the +city gates. But when they saw Philopoemen in a posture so unsuitable to the +glory of his great actions and famous victories, most of them, struck with +grief and cursing the deceitful vanity of human fortune, even shed tears of +compassion at the spectacle. Such tears by little and little turned to kind +words, and it was almost in everybody’s mouth that they ought to remember what +he had done for them, and how he had preserved the common liberty, by driving +away Nabis. Some few, to make their court to Dinocrates, were for torturing and +then putting him to death as a dangerous and irreconcilable enemy; all the more +formitable to Dinocrates, who had taken him prisoner, should he after this +misfortune, regain his liberty. They put him at last into a dungeon +underground, which they called the treasury, a place into which there came no +air nor light from abroad; and, which, having no doors, was closed with a great +stone. This they rolled into the entrance and fixed, and placing a guard about +it, left him. In the mean time Philopoemen’s soldiers, recovering themselves +after their flight, and fearing he was dead when he appeared nowhere, made a +stand, calling him with loud cries, and reproaching one another with their +unworthy and shameful escape; having betrayed their general, who, to preserve +their lives, had lost his own. Then returning after much inquiry and search, +hearing at last that he was taken, they sent away messengers round about with +the news. The Achaeans resented the misfortune deeply, and decreed to send and +demand him; and, in the meantime, drew their army together for his rescue. +</p> + +<p> +While these things passed in Achaea, Dinocrates, fearing that any delay would +save Philopoemen, and resolving to be beforehand with the Achaeans, as soon as +night had dispersed the multitude, sent in the executioner with poison, with +orders not to stir from him till he had taken it. Philopoemen had then laid +down, wrapt up in his cloak, not sleeping, but oppressed with grief and +trouble; but seeing light, and a man with poison by him, struggled to sit up; +and, taking the cup, asked the man if he heard anything of the horsemen, +particularly Lycortas? The fellow answering, that the most part had got off +safe, he nodded, and looking cheerfully upon him, “It is well,” he said, “that +we have not been every way unfortunate;” and without a word more, drank it off, +and laid him down, again. His weakness offering but little resistance to the +poison, it dispatched him presently. +</p> + +<p> +The news of his death filled all Achaea with grief and lamentation. The youth, +with some of the chief of the several cities, met at Megalopolis with a +resolution to take revenge without delay. They chose Lycortas general, and +falling upon the Messenians, put all to fire and sword, till they all with one +consent made their submission. Dinocrates, with as many as had voted for +Philopoemen’s death, anticipated their vengeance and killed themselves. Those +who would have had him tortured, Lycortas put in chains and reserved for +severer punishment. They burnt his body, and put the ashes into an urn, and +then marched homeward, not as in an ordinary march, but with a kind of solemn +pomp, half triumph, half funeral, crowns of victory on their heads, and tears +in their eyes, and their captive enemies in fetters by them. Polybius, the +general’s son, carried the urn, so covered with garlands and ribbons as +scarcely to be visible; and the noblest of the Achaeans accompanied him. The +soldiers followed fully armed and mounted, with looks neither altogether sad as +in mourning, nor lofty as in victory. The people from all towns and villages in +their way, flocked out to meet him, as at his return from conquest, and, +saluting the urn, fell in with the company, and followed on to Megalopolis; +where, when the old men, the women and children were mingled with the rest, the +whole city was filled with sighs, complaints, and cries, the loss of +Philopoemen seeming to them the loss of their own greatness, and of their rank +among the Achaeans. Thus he was honorably buried according to his worth, and +the prisoners were stoned about his tomb. +</p> + +<p> +Many statues were set up, and many honors decreed to him by the several cities. +One of the Romans in the time of Greece’s affliction, after the destruction of +Corinth, publicly accusing Philopoemen, as if he had been still alive, of +having been the enemy of Rome, proposed that these memorials should all be +removed. A discussion ensued, speeches were made, and Polybius answered the +sycophant at large. And neither Mummius nor the lieutenants would suffer the +honorable monuments of so great a man to be defaced, though he had often +crossed both Titus and Manius. They justly distinguished, and as became honest +men, betwixt usefulness and virtue, — what is good in itself, and what is +profitable to particular parties, — judging thanks and reward due to him who +does a benefit, from him who receives it, and honor never to be denied by the +good to the good. And so much concerning Philopoemen. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap28"></a>FLAMININUS</h2> + +<p> +What Titus Quintius Flamininus, whom we select as a parallel to Philopoemen, +was in personal appearance, those who are curious may see by the brazen statue +of him, which stands in Rome near that of the great Apollo, brought from +Carthage, opposite to the Circus Maximus, with a Greek inscription upon it. The +temper of his mind is said to have been of the warmest both in anger and in +kindness; not indeed equally so in both respects; as in punishing, he was ever +moderate, never inflexible; but whatever courtesy or good turn he set about, he +went through with it, and was as perpetually kind and obliging to those on whom +he had poured his favors, as if they, not he, had been the benefactors: +exerting himself for the security and preservation of what he seemed to +consider his noblest possessions, those to whom he had done good. But being +ever thirsty after honor, and passionate for glory, if anything of a greater +and more extraordinary nature were to be done, he was eager to be the doer of +it himself; and took more pleasure in those that needed, than in those that +were capable of conferring favors; looking on the former as objects for his +virtue, and on the latter as competitors in glory. +</p> + +<p> +Rome had then many sharp contests going on, and her youth betaking themselves +early to the wars, learned betimes the art of commanding; and Flamininus, +having passed through the rudiments of soldiery, received his first charge in +the war against Hannibal, as tribune under Marcellus, then consul. Marcellus, +indeed, falling into an ambuscade, was cut off. But Titus, receiving the +appointment of governor, as well of Tarentum, then retaken, as of the country +about it, grew no less famous for his administration of justice, than for his +military skill. This obtained him the office of leader and founder of two +colonies which were sent into the cities of Narnia and Cossa; which filled him +with loftier hopes, and made him aspire to step over those previous honors +which it was usual first to pass through, the offices of tribune of the people, +praetor and aedile, and to level his aim immediately at the consulship. Having +these colonies, and all their interest ready at his service, he offered himself +as candidate; but the tribunes of the people, Fulvius and Manius, and their +party, strongly opposed him; alleging how unbecoming a thing it was, that a man +of such raw years, one who was yet, as it were, untrained, uninitiated in the +first sacred rites and mysteries of government, should, in contempt of the +laws, intrude and force himself into the sovereignty. +</p> + +<p> +However, the senate remitted it to the people’s choice and suffrage; who +elected him (though not then arrived at his thirtieth year) consul with Sextus +Aelius. The war against Philip and the Macedonians fell to Titus by lot, and +some kind fortune, propitious at that time to the Romans, seems to have so +determined it; as neither the people nor the state of things which were now to +be dealt with, were such as to require a general who would always be upon the +point of force and mere blows, but rather were accessible to persuasion and +gentle usage. It is true that the kingdom of Macedon furnished supplies enough +to Philip for actual battle with the Romans; but to maintain a long and +lingering war, he must call in aid from Greece; must thence procure his +supplies; there find his means of retreat; Greece, in a word, would be his +resource for all the requisites of his army. Unless, therefore, the Greeks +could be withdrawn from siding with Philip, this war with him must not expect +its decision from a single battle. Now Greece (which had not hitherto held much +correspondence with the Romans, but first began an intercourse on this +occasion) would not so soon have embraced a foreign authority, instead of the +commanders she had been inured to, had not the general of these strangers been +of a kind gentle nature, one who worked rather by fair means than force; of a +persuasive address in all applications to others, and no less courteous, and +open to all addresses of others to him; and above all bent and determined on +justice. But the story of his actions will best illustrate these particulars. +</p> + +<p> +Titus observed that both Sulpicius and Publius, who had been his predecessors +in that command, had not taken the field against the Macedonians till late in +the year; and then, too, had not set their hands properly to the war, but had +kept skirmishing and scouting here and there for passes and provisions, and +never came to close fighting with Philip. He resolved not to trifle away a +year, as they had done, at home in ostentation of the honor, and in domestic +administration, and only then to join the army, with the pitiful hope of +protracting the term of office through a second year, acting as consul in the +first, and as general in the latter. He was, moreover, infinitely desirous to +employ his authority with effect upon the war, which made him slight those +home-honors and prerogatives. Requesting, therefore, of the senate, that his +brother Lucius might act with him as admiral of the navy, and taking with him +to be the edge, as it were, of the expedition three thousand still young and +vigorous soldiers, of those who, under Scipio, had defeated Asdrubal in Spain, +and Hannibal in Africa, he got safe into Epirus; and found Publius encamped +with his army, over against Philip, who had long made good the pass over the +river Apsus, and the straits there; Publius not having been able, for the +natural strength of the place, to effect anything against him. Titus therefore +took upon himself the conduct of the army, and, having dismissed Publius, +examined the ground. The place is in strength not inferior to Tempe, though it +lacks the trees and green woods, and the pleasant meadows and walks that adorn +Tempe. The Apsus, making its way between vast and lofty mountains which all but +meet above a single deep ravine in the midst, is not unlike the river Peneus, +in the rapidity of its current, and in its general appearance. It covers the +foot of those hills, and leaves only a craggy, narrow path cut out beside the +stream, not easily passable at any time for an army, but not at all when +guarded by an enemy. +</p> + +<p> +There were some, therefore, who would have had Titus make a circuit through +Dassaretis, and take an easy and safe road by the district of Lyncus. But he, +fearing that if he should engage himself too far from the sea in barren and +untilled countries, and Philip should decline fighting, he might, through want +of provisions, be constrained to march back again to the seaside without +effecting anything, as his predecessor had done before him, embraced the +resolution of forcing his way over the mountains. But Philip, having possessed +himself of them with his army, showered down his darts and arrows from all +parts upon the Romans. Sharp encounters took place, and many fell wounded and +slain on both sides, and there seemed but little likelihood of thus ending the +war; when some of the men, who fed their cattle thereabouts, came to Titus with +a discovery, that there was a roundabout way which the enemy neglected to +guard; through which they undertook to conduct his army, and to bring it within +three days at furthest, to the top of the hills. To gain the surer credit with +him, they said that Charops, son of Machatas, a leading man in Epirus, who was +friendly to the Romans, and aided them (though, for fear of Philip, secretly), +was privy to the design. Titus gave their information belief, and sent a +captain with four thousand foot, and three hundred horse; these herdsmen being +their guides, but kept in bonds. In the daytime they lay still under the covert +of the hollow and woody places, but in the night they marched by moonlight, the +moon being then at the full. Titus, having detached this party, lay quiet with +his main body, merely keeping up the attention of the enemy by some slight +skirmishing. But when the day arrived, that those who stole round, were +expected upon the top of the hill, he drew up his forces early in the morning, +as well the light-armed as the heavy, and, dividing them into three parts, +himself led the van, marching his men up the narrow passage along the bank, +darted at by the Macedonians, and engaging, in this difficult ground, hand to +hand with his assailants; whilst the other two divisions on either side of him, +threw themselves with great alacrity among the rocks. Whilst they were +struggling forward, the sun rose, and a thin smoke, like a mist, hanging on the +hills, was seen rising at a distance, unperceived by the enemy, being behind +them, as they stood on the heights; and the Romans, also, as yet under +suspense, in the toil and difficulty they were in, could only doubtfully +construe the sight according to their desires. But as it grew thicker and +thicker, blackening the air, and mounting to a greater height, they no longer +doubted but it was the fire-signal of their companions; and, raising a +triumphant shout, forcing their way onwards, they drove the enemy back into the +roughest ground; while the other party echoed back their acclamations from the +top of the mountain. +</p> + +<p> +The Macedonians fled with all the speed they could make; there fell, indeed, +not more than two thousand of them; for the difficulties of the place rescued +them from pursuit. But the Romans pillaged their camp, seized upon their money +and slaves, and, becoming absolute masters of the pass, traversed all Epirus; +but with such order and discipline, with such temperance and moderation, that, +though they were far from the sea, at a great distance from their vessels, and +stinted of their monthly allowance of corn, and though they had much difficulty +in buying, they nevertheless abstained altogether from plundering the country, +which had provisions enough of all sorts in it. For intelligence being received +that Philip making a flight, rather than a march, through Thessaly, forced the +inhabitants from the towns to take shelter in the mountains, burnt down the +towns themselves, and gave up as spoil to his soldiers all the property which +it had been found impossible to remove, abandoning, as it would seem, the whole +country to the Romans. Titus was, therefore, very desirous, and entreated his +soldiers that they would pass through it as if it were their own, or as if a +place trusted into their hands; and, indeed, they quickly perceived, by the +event, what benefit they derived from this moderate and orderly conduct. For +they no sooner set foot in Thessaly, but the cities opened their gates, and the +Greeks, within Thermopylae, were all eagerness and excitement to ally +themselves with them. The Achaeans abandoned their alliance with Philip, and +voted to join with the Romans in actual arms against him; and the Opuntians, +though the Aetolians, who were zealous allies of the Romans, were willing and +desirous to undertake the protection of the city, would not listen to proposals +from them; but, sending for Titus, entrusted and committed themselves to his +charge. +</p> + +<p> +It is told of Pyrrhus, that when first, from an adjacent hill or watchtower +which gave him a prospect of the Roman army, he descried them drawn up in +order, he observed, that he saw nothing barbarian-like in this barbarian line +of battle. And all who came near Titus, could not choose but say as much of +him, at their first view. For they who had been told by the Macedonians of an +invader, at the head of a barbarian army, carrying everywhere slavery and +destruction on his sword’s point; when in lieu of such an one, they met a man, +in the flower of his age, of a gentle and humane aspect, a Greek in his voice +and language, and a lover of honor, were wonderfully pleased and attracted; and +when they left him, they filled the cities, wherever they went, with favorable +feelings for him, and with the belief that in him they might find the protector +and asserter of their liberties. And when afterwards, on Philip’s professing a +desire for peace, Titus made a tender to him of peace and friendship, upon the +condition that the Greeks be left to their own laws, and that he should +withdraw his garrisons, which he refused to comply with, now after these +proposals, the universal belief even of the favorers and partisans of Philip, +was, that the Romans came not to fight against the Greeks, but for the Greeks, +against the Macedonians. +</p> + +<p> +Accordingly, all the rest of Greece came to peaceable terms with him. But as he +marched into Boeotia, without committing the least act of hostility, the +nobility and chief men of Thebes came out of their city to meet him, devoted +under the influence of Brachylles to the Macedonian alliance, but desirous at +the same time to show honor and deference to Titus; as they were, they +conceived, in amity with both parties. Titus received them in the most obliging +and courteous manner, but kept going gently on, questioning and inquiring of +them, and sometimes entertaining them with narratives of his own, till his +soldiers might a little recover from the weariness of their journey. Thus +passing on, he and the Thebans came together into their city not much to their +satisfaction; but yet they could not well deny him entrance, as a good number +of his men attended him in. Titus, however, now he was within, as if he had not +had the city at his mercy, came forward and addressed them, urging them to join +the Roman interest. King Attalus followed to the same effect. And he, indeed, +trying to play the advocate, beyond what it seems his age could bear, was +seized, in the midst of his speech, with a sudden flux or dizziness, and +swooned away; and, not long after, was conveyed by ship into Asia, and died +there. The Boeotians joined the Roman alliance. +</p> + +<p> +But now, when Philip sent an embassy to Rome, Titus dispatched away agents on +his part, too, to solicit the senate, if they should continue the war, to +continue him in his command, or if they determined an end to that, that he +might have the honor of concluding the peace. Having a great passion for +distinction, his fear was, that if another general were commissioned to carry +on the war, the honor even of what was passed, would be lost to him; and his +friends transacted matters so well on his behalf, that Philip was unsuccessful +in his proposals, and the management of the war was confirmed in his hands. He +no sooner received the senate’s determination, but, big with hopes, he marches +directly into Thessaly, to engage Philip; his army consisting of twenty-six +thousand men, out of which the Aetolians furnished six thousand foot and four +hundred horse. The forces of Philip were much about the same number. In this +eagerness to encounter, they advanced against each other, till both were near +Scotussa, where they resolved to hazard a battle. Nor had the approach of these +two formidable armies the effect that might have been supposed, to strike into +the generals a mutual terror of each other; it rather inspired them with ardor +and ambition; on the Romans’ part, to be the conquerors of Macedon, a name +which Alexander had made famous amongst them for strength and valor; whilst the +Macedonians, on the other hand, esteeming of the Romans as an enemy very +different from the Persians, hoped, if victory stood on their side, to make the +name of Philip more glorious than that of Alexander. Titus, therefore, called +upon his soldiers to play the part of valiant men, because they were now to act +their parts upon the most illustrious theater of the world, Greece, and to +contend with the bravest antagonists. And Philip, on the other side, commenced +an harangue to his men, as usual before an engagement, and to be the better +heard, (whether it were merely a mischance, or the result of unseasonable +haste, not observing what he did,) mounted an eminence outside their camp, +which proved to be a burying-place; and much disturbed by the despondency that +seized his army at the unluckiness of the omen, all that day kept in his camp, +and declined fighting. +</p> + +<p> +But on the morrow, as day came on, after a soft and rainy night, the clouds +changing into a mist filled all the plain with thick darkness; and a dense +foggy air descending, by the time it was full day, from the adjacent mountains +into the ground betwixt the two camps, concealed them from each other’s view. +The parties sent out on either side, some for ambuscade, some for discovery, +falling in upon one another quickly after they were thus detached, began the +fight at what are called the Cynos Cephalae, a number of sharp tops of hills +that stand close to one another, and have the name from some resemblance in +their shape. Now many vicissitudes and changes happening, as may well be +expected, in such an uneven field of battle, sometimes hot pursuit, and +sometimes as rapid a flight, the generals on both sides kept sending in succors +from the main bodies, as they saw their men pressed or giving ground, till at +length the heavens clearing up, let them see what was going on, upon which the +whole armies engaged. Philip, who was in the right wing, from the advantage of +the higher ground which he had, threw on the Romans the whole weight of his +phalanx, with a force which they were unable to sustain; the dense array of +spears, and the pressure of the compact mass overpowering them. But the king’s +left wing being broken up by the hilliness of the place, Titus observing it, +and cherishing little or no hopes on that side where his own gave ground, makes +in all haste to the other, and there charges in upon the Macedonians; who, in +consequence of the inequality and roughness of the ground, could not keep their +phalanx entire, nor line their ranks to any great depth, (which is the great +point of their strength,) but were forced to fight man for man under heavy and +unwieldy armor. For the Macedonian phalanx is like some single powerful animal, +irresistible so long as it is embodied into one, and keeps its order, shield +touching shield, all as in a piece; but if it be once broken, not only is the +joint-force lost, but the individual soldiers also who composed it; lose each +one his own single strength, because of the nature of their armor; and because +each of them is strong, rather, as he makes a part of the whole, than in +himself. When these were routed, some gave chase to the flyers, others charged +the flanks of those Macedonians who were still fighting, so that the conquering +wing, also, was quickly disordered, took to flight, and threw down its arms. +There were then slain no less than eight thousand, and about five thousand were +taken prisoners; and the Aetolians were blamed as having been the main occasion +that Philip himself got safe off. For whilst the Romans were in pursuit, they +fell to ravaging and plundering the camp, and did it so completely, that when +the others returned, they found no booty in it. +</p> + +<p> +This bred at first hard words, quarrels, and misunderstandings betwixt them. +But, afterwards, they galled Titus more, by ascribing the victory to +themselves, and prepossessing the Greeks with reports to that effect; insomuch +that poets, and people in general in the songs that were sung or written in +honor of the action, still ranked the Aetolians foremost. One of the pieces +most current was the following epigram: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Naked and tombless see, O passer-by,<br/> +The thirty thousand men of Thessaly,<br/> +Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band,<br/> +That came with Titus from Italia’s land:<br/> +Alas for mighty Macedon! that day,<br/> +Swift as a roe, king Philip fled away. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +This was composed by Alcaeus in mockery of Philip, exaggerating the number of +the slain. However, being everywhere repeated, and by almost everybody, Titus +was more nettled at it than Philip. The latter merely retorted upon Alcaeus +with some elegiac verses of his own: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Naked and leafless see, O passer-by,<br/> +The cross that shall Alcaeus crucify. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But such little matters extremely fretted Titus, who was ambitious of a +reputation among the Greeks; and he, therefore, acted in all after-occurrences +by himself, paying but very slight regard to the Aetolians. This offended them +in their turn; and when Titus listened to terms of accommodation, and admitted +an embassy upon the proffers of the Macedonian king, the Aetolians made it +their business to publish through all the cities of Greece, that this was the +conclusion of all; that he was selling Philip a peace, at a time when it was in +his hand to destroy the very roots of the war, and to overthrow the power which +had first inflicted servitude upon Greece. But whilst with these and the like +rumors, the Aetolians labored to shake the Roman confederates, Philip, making +overtures of submission of himself and his kingdom to the discretion of Titus +and the Romans, puts an end to those jealousies, as Titus by accepting them, +did to the war. For he reinstated Philip in his kingdom of Macedon, but made it +a condition that he should quit Greece, and that he should pay one thousand +talents; he took from him also, all his shipping, save ten vessels; and sent +away Demetrius, one of his sons, hostage to Rome; improving his opportunity to +the best advantage, and taking wise precautions for the future. For Hannibal +the African, a professed enemy to the Roman name, an exile from his own +country, and not long since arrived at king Antiochus’s court, was already +stimulating that prince, not to be wanting to the good fortune that had been +hitherto so propitious to his affairs; the magnitude of his successes having +gained him the surname of the Great. He had begun to level his aim at universal +monarchy, but above all he was eager to measure himself with the Romans. Had +not, therefore, Titus upon a principle of prudence and foresight, lent all ear +to peace, and had Antiochus found the Romans still at war in Greece with +Philip, and had these two, the most powerful and warlike princes of that age, +confederated for their common interests against the Roman state, Rome might +once more have run no less a risk, and been reduced to no less extremities than +she had experienced under Hannibal. But now, Titus opportunely introducing this +peace between the wars, dispatching the present danger before the new one had +arrived, at once disappointed Antiochus of his first hopes, and Philip of his +last. +</p> + +<p> +When the ten commissioners, delegated to Titus from the senate; advised him to +restore the rest of Greece to their liberty, but that Corinth, Chalcis, and +Demetrias should be kept garrisoned for security against Antiochus; the +Aetolians, on this, breaking out into loud accusations, agitated all the +cities, calling upon Titus to strike off the shackles of Greece, (so Philip +used to term those three cities,) and asking the Greeks, whether it were not +matter of much consolation to them, that, though their chains weighed heavier, +yet they were now smoother and better polished than formerly, and whether Titus +were not deservedly admired by them as their benefactor, who had unshackled the +feet of Greece, and tied her up by the neck? Titus, vexed and angry at this, +made it his request to the senate, and at last prevailed in it, that the +garrisons in these cities should be dismissed, that so the Greeks might be no +longer debtors to him for a partial, but for an entire, favor. It was now the +time of the celebration of the Isthmian games; and the seats around the +racecourse were crowded with an unusual multitude of spectators; Greece, after +long wars, having regained not only peace, but hopes of liberty, and being able +once more to keep holiday in safety. A trumpet sounded to command silence; and +the crier, stepping forth amidst the spectators, made proclamation, that the +Roman senate, and Titus Quintius, the proconsular general, having vanquished +king Philip and the Macedonians, restored the Corinthians, Locrians, Phocians, +Euboeans, Achaeans of Phthiotis, Magnetians, Thessalians, and Perrhaebians to +their own lands, laws, and liberties; remitting all impositions upon them, and +withdrawing all garrisons from their cities. At first, many heard not at all, +and others not distinctly, what was said; but there was a confused and +uncertain stir among the assembled people, some wondering, some asking, some +calling out to have it proclaimed again. When, therefore, fresh silence was +made, the crier raising his voice, succeeded in making himself generally heard; +and recited the decree again. A shout of joy followed it, so loud that it was +heard as far as the sea. The whole assembly rose and stood up; there was no +further thought of the entertainment; all were only eager to leap up and salute +and address their thanks to the deliverer and champion of Greece. What we often +hear alleged, in proof of the force of human voices, was actually verified upon +this occasion. Crows that were accidentally flying over the course, fell down +dead into it. The disruption of the air must be the cause of it; for the voices +being numerous, and the acclamation violent, the air breaks with it, and can no +longer give support to the birds; but lets them tumble, like one that should +attempt to walk upon a vacuum; unless we should rather imagine them to fall and +die, shot with the noise as with a dart. It is possible, too, that there may be +a circular agitation of the air, which, like marine whirlpools, may have a +violent direction of this sort given to it from the excess of its fluctuation. +</p> + +<p> +But for Titus, the sports being now quite at an end, so beset was he on every +side, and by such multitudes, that had he not, foreseeing the probable throng +and concourse of the people, timely withdrawn, he would scarce, it is thought, +have ever got clear of them. When they had tired themselves with acclamations +all about his pavilion, and night was now come, wherever friends or +fellow-citizens met, they joyfully saluted and embraced each other, and went +home to feast and carouse together. And there, no doubt, redoubling their joy, +they began to recollect and talk of the state of Greece, what wars she had +incurred in defense of her liberty, and yet was never perhaps mistress of a +more settled or grateful one that this which other men’s labors had won for +her: almost without one drop of blood, or one citizen’s loss to be mourned for, +she had this day had put into her hands the most glorious of rewards, and best +worth the contending for. Courage and wisdom are, indeed, rarities amongst men, +but of all that is good, a just man it would seem is the most scarce. Such as +Agesilaus, Lysander, Nicias, and Alcibiades, knew how to play the general’s +part, how to manage a war, how to bring off their men victorious by land and +sea; but how to employ that success to generous and honest purposes, they had +not known. For should a man except the achievement at Marathon, the sea-fight +at Salamis, the engagements at Plataea and Thermopylae, Cimon’s exploits at +Eurymedon, and on the coasts of Cyprus, Greece fought all her battles against, +and to enslave, herself; she erected all her trophies to her own shame and +misery, and was brought to ruin and desolation almost wholly by the guilt and +ambition of her great men. A foreign people, appearing just to retain some +embers, as it were, some faint remainders of a common character derived to them +from their ancient sires, a nation from whom it was a mere wonder that Greece +should reap any benefit by word or thought, these are they who have retrieved +Greece from her severest dangers and distresses, have rescued her out of the +hands of insulting lords and tyrants, and reinstated her in her former +liberties. +</p> + +<p> +Thus they entertained their tongues and thoughts; whilst Titus by his actions +made good what had been proclaimed. For he immediately dispatched away Lentulus +to Asia, to set the Bargylians free, Titillius to Thrace, to see the garrisons +of Philip removed out of the towns and islands there, while Publius Villius set +sail, in order to treat with Antiochus about the freedom of the Greeks under +him. Titus himself passed on to Chalcis, and sailing thence to Magnesia, +dismantled the garrisons there, and surrendered the government into the +people’s hands. Shortly after, he was appointed at Argos to preside in the +Nemean games, and did his part in the management of that solemnity singularly +well; and made a second publication there by the crier, of liberty to the +Greeks; and, visiting all the cities, he exhorted them to the practice of +obedience to law, of constant justice, and unity, and friendship one towards +another. He suppressed their factions, brought home their political exiles; +and, in short, his conquest over the Macedonians did not seem to give him a +more lively pleasure, than to find himself prevalent in reconciling Greeks with +Greeks; so that their liberty seemed now the least part of the kindness he +conferred upon them. +</p> + +<p> +The story goes, that when Lycurgus the orator had rescued Xenocrates the +philosopher from the collectors who were hurrying him away to prison for +non-payment of the alien tax, and had them punished for the license they had +been guilty of, Xenocrates afterwards meeting the children of Lycurgus, “My +sons,” said he, “I am nobly repaying your father for his kindness; he has the +praises of the whole people in return for it.” But the returns which attended +Titus Quintius and the Romans, for their beneficence to the Greeks, terminated +not in empty praises only; for these proceedings gained them, deservedly, +credit and confidence, and thereby power, among all nations, for many not only +admitted the Roman commanders, but even sent and entreated to be under their +protection; neither was this done by popular governments alone, or by single +cities; but kings oppressed by kings, cast themselves into these protecting +hands. Insomuch that in a very short time (though perchance not without divine +influence in it) all the world did homage to them. Titus himself thought more +highly of his liberation of Greece than of any other of his actions, as appears +by the inscription with which he dedicated some silver targets, together with +his own shield, to Apollo at Delphi: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove,<br/> +Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love,<br/> +Titus, of great Aeneas’ race, leaves this<br/> +In honor of the liberty of Greece. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +He offered also to Apollo a golden crown, with this inscription: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +This golden crown upon thy locks divine,<br/> +O blest Latona’s son, was set to shine<br/> +By the great captain of the Aenean name.<br/> +O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame! +</p> + +<p> +The same event has twice occurred to the Greeks in the city of Corinth. Titus, +then, and Nero again in our days, both at Corinth, and both alike at the +celebration of the Isthmian games, permitted the Greeks to enjoy their own laws +and liberty. The former (as has been said) proclaimed it by the crier; but Nero +did it in the public meeting place from the tribunal, in a speech which he +himself made to the people. This, however, was long after. +</p> + +<p> +Titus now engaged in a most gallant and just war upon Nabis, that most +profligate and lawless tyrant of the Lacedaemonians, but in the end +disappointed the expectations of the Greeks. For when he had an opportunity of +taking him, he purposely let it slip, and struck up a peace with him, leaving +Sparta to bewail an unworthy slavery; whether it were that he feared, if the +war should be protracted, Rome would send a new general who might rob him of +the glory of it; or that emulation and envy of Philopoemen (who had signalized +himself among the Greeks upon all other occasions, but in that war especially +had done wonders both for matter of courage and counsel, and whom the Achaeans +magnified in their theaters, and put into the same balance of glory with +Titus,) touched him to the quick; and that he scorned that an ordinary +Arcadian, who had but commanded in a few re- encounters upon the confines of +his native district, should be spoken of in terms of equality with a Roman +consul, waging war as the protector of Greece in general. But, besides, Titus +was not without an apology too for what he did, namely, that he put an end to +the war only when he foresaw that the tyrant’s destruction must have been +attended with the ruin of the other Spartans. +</p> + +<p> +The Achaeans, by various decrees, did much to show Titus honor: none of these +returns, however, seemed to come up to the height of the actions that merited +them, unless it were one present they made him, which affected and pleased him +beyond all the rest; which was this. The Romans, who in the war with Hannibal +had the misfortune to be taken captives, were sold about here and there, and +dispersed into slavery; twelve hundred in number were at that time in Greece. +The reverse of their fortune always rendered them objects of compassion; but +more particularly, as well might be, when they now met, some with their sons, +some with their brothers, others with their acquaintance; slaves with their +free, and captives with their victorious countrymen. Titus, though deeply +concerned on their behalf, yet took none of them from their masters by +constraint. But the Achaeans, redeeming them at five pounds a man, brought them +altogether into one place, and made a present of them to him, as he was just +going on shipboard, so that he now sailed away with the fullest satisfaction; +his generous actions having procured him as generous returns, worthy a brave +man and a lover of his country. This seemed the most glorious part of all his +succeeding triumph; for these redeemed Romans (as it is the custom for slaves, +upon their manumission, to shave their heads and wear felt-hats) followed in +that habit in the procession. To add to the glory of this show, there were the +Grecian helmets, the Macedonian targets and long spears, borne with the rest of +the spoils in public view, besides vast sums of money; Tuditanus says, 3,713 +pounds weight of massy gold, 43,270 of silver, 14,514 pieces of coined gold, +called Philippics, which was all over and above the thousand talents which +Philip owed, and which the Romans were afterwards prevailed upon, chiefly by +the mediation of Titus, to remit to Philip, declaring him their ally and +confederate, and sending him home his hostage son. +</p> + +<p> +Shortly after, Antiochus entered Greece with a numerous fleet, and a powerful +army, soliciting the cities there to sedition and revolt; abetted in all and +seconded by the Aetolians, who for this long time had borne a grudge and secret +enmity to the Romans, and now suggested to him, by way of a cause and pretext +of war, that he came to bring the Greeks liberty. When, indeed, they never +wanted it less, as they were free already, but, in lack of really honorable +grounds, he was instructed to employ these lofty professions. The Romans, in +the interim, in great apprehension of revolutions and revolt in Greece, and of +his great reputation for military strength, dispatched the consul Manius +Acilius to take the charge of the war, and Titus, as his lieutenant, out of +regard to the Greeks; some of whom he no sooner saw, but he confirmed them in +the Roman interests; others, who began to falter, like a timely physician, by +the use of the strong remedy of their own affection for himself, he was able to +arrest in the first stage of the disease, before they had committed themselves +to any great error. Some few there were whom the Aetolians were beforehand +with, and had so wholly perverted that he could do no good with them; yet +these, however angry and exasperated before, he saved and protected when the +engagement was over. For Antiochus, receiving a defeat at Thermopylae, not only +fled the field, but hoisted sail instantly for Asia. Manius, the consul, +himself invaded and besieged a part of the Aetolians, while king Philip had +permission to reduce the rest. Thus while, for instance, the Dolopes and +Magnetians on the one hand, the Athamanes and Aperantians on the other, were +ransacked by the Macedonians, and while Manius laid Heraclea waste, and +besieged Naupactus, then in the Aetolians’ hands, Titus, still with a +compassionate care for Greece, sailed across from Peloponnesus to the consul; +and began first of all to chide him, that the victory should be owing alone to +his arms, and yet he should suffer Philip to bear away the prize and profit of +the war, and sit wreaking his anger upon a single town, whilst the Macedonians +overran several nations and kingdoms. But as he happened to stand then in view +of the besieged, they no sooner spied him out, but they call to him from their +wall, they stretch forth their hands, they supplicate and entreat him. At the +time, he said not a word more, but turning about with tears in his eyes, went +his way. Some little while after, he discussed the matter so effectually with +Manius, that he won him over from his passion, and prevailed with him to give a +truce and time to the Aetolians, to send deputies to Rome to petition the +senate for terms of moderation. +</p> + +<p> +But the hardest task, and that which put Titus to the greatest difficulty was, +to entreat with Manius for the Chalcidians, who had incensed him on account of +a marriage which Antiochus had made in their city, even whilst the war was on +foot; a match noways suitable in point of age, he an elderly man being enamored +with a mere girl; and as little proper for the time, in the midst of a war. She +was the daughter of one Cleoptolemus, and is said to have been wonderfully +beautiful. The Chalcidians, in consequence, embraced the king’s interests with +zeal and alacrity, and let him make their city the basis of his operations +during the war. Thither, therefore, he made with all speed, when he was routed, +and fled; and reaching Chalcis, without making any stay, taking this young +lady, and his money and friends with him, away he sails to Asia. And now +Manius’s indignation carrying him in all haste against the Chalcidians, Titus +hurried after him, endeavoring to pacify and to entreat him; and, at length, +succeeded both with him and the chief men among the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +The Chalcidians, thus owing their lives to Titus, dedicated to him all the best +and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, inscriptions upon which may be +seen to run thus to this day:THE PEOPLE DEDICATE THIS GYMNASIUM TO TITUS AND TO +HERCULES; so again: THE PEOPLE CONSECRATE THE DELPHINIUM TO TITUS AND TO +HERCULES; and what is yet more, even in our time, a priest of Titus was +formally elected and declared; and after sacrifice and libation, they sing a +set song, much of which for the length of it we omit, but shall transcribe the +closing verses: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The Roman Faith, whose aid of yore,<br/> +Our vows were offered to implore,<br/> +We worship now and evermore.<br/> +To Rome, to Titus, and to Jove,<br/> +O maidens, in the dances move.<br/> +Dances and Io-Paeans too<br/> +Unto the Roman Faith are due,<br/> +O Savior Titus, and to you. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Other parts of Greece also heaped honors upon him suitable to his merits, and +what made all those honors true and real, was the surprising good-will and +affection which his moderation and equity of character had won for him. For if +he were at any time at variance with anybody in matters of business, or out of +emulation and rivalry, (as with Philopoemen, and again with Diophanes, when in +office as General of the Achaeans,) his resentment never went far, nor did it +ever break out into acts; but when it had vented itself in some citizen-like +freedom of speech, there was an end of it. In fine, nobody charged malice or +bitterness upon his nature, though many imputed hastiness and levity to it; in +general, he was the most attractive and agreeable of companions, and could +speak too, both with grace, and forcibly. For instance, to divert the Achaeans +from the conquest of the isle of Zacynthus, “If,” said he, “they put their head +too far out of Peloponnesus, they may hazard themselves as much as a tortoise +out of its shell.” Again, when he and Philip first met to treat of a cessation +and peace, the latter complaining that Titus came with a mighty train, while he +himself came alone and unattended, “Yes,” replied Titus, “you have left +yourself alone by killing your friends.” At another time, Dinocrates the +Messenian, having drunk too much at a merry-meeting in Rome, danced there in +woman’s clothes, and the next day addressed himself to Titus for assistance in +his design to get Messene out of the hands of the Achaeans. “This,” replied +Titus, “will be matter for consideration; my only surprise is that a man with +such purposes on his hands should be able to dance and sing at drinking +parties.” When, again, the ambassadors of Antiochus were recounting to those of +Achaea, the various multitudes composing their royal master’s forces, and ran +over a long catalog of hard names, “I supped once,” said Titus, “with a friend, +and could not forbear expostulating with him at the number of dishes he had +provided, and said I wondered where he had furnished himself with such a +variety; ‘Sir,’ replied he, ‘to confess the truth, it is all hog’s flesh +differently cooked.’ And so, men of Achaea, when you are told of Antiochus’s +lancers, and pikemen, and foot guards, I advise you not to be surprised; since +in fact they are all Syrians differently armed.” +</p> + +<p> +After his achievements in Greece, and when the war with Antiochus was at an +end, Titus was created censor; the most eminent office, and, in a manner, the +highest preferment in the commonwealth. The son of Marcellus, who had been five +times consul, was his colleague. These, by virtue of their office, cashiered +four senators of no great distinction, and admitted to the roll of citizens all +freeborn residents. But this was more by constraint than their own choice; for +Terentius Culeo, then tribune of the people, to spite the nobility, spurred on +the populace to order it to be done. At this time, the two greatest and most +eminent persons in the city, Africanus Scipio and Marcus Cato, were at +variance. Titus named Scipio first member of the senate; and involved himself +in a quarrel with Cato, on the following unhappy occasion. Titus had a brother, +Lucius Flamininus, very unlike him in all points of character, and, in +particular, low and dissolute in his pleasures, and flagrantly regardless of +all decency. He kept as a companion a boy whom he used to carry about with him, +not only when he had troops under his charge, but even when the care of a +province was committed to him. One day at a drinking-bout, when the youngster +was wantoning with Lucius, “I love you, Sir, so dearly,” said he, “that, +preferring your satisfaction to my own, I came away without seeing the +gladiators, though I have never seen a man killed in my life.” Lucius, +delighted with what the boy said, answered, “Let not that trouble you; I can +satisfy that longing,” and with that, orders a condemned man to be fetched out +of the prison, and the executioner to be sent for, and commands him to strike +off the man’s head, before they rose from table. Valerius Antias only so far +varies the story as to make it woman for whom he did it. But Livy says that in +Cato’s own speech the statement is, that a Gaulish deserter coming with his +wife and children to the door, Lucius took him into the banqueting-room, and +killed him with his own hand, to gratify his paramour. Cato, it is probable, +might say this by way of aggravation of the crime; but that the slain was no +such fugitive, but a prisoner, and one condemned to die, not to mention other +authorities, Cicero tells us in his treatise On Old Age, where he brings in +Cato, himself, giving that account of the matter. +</p> + +<p> +However, this is certain; Cato during his censorship, made a severe scrutiny +into the senators’ lives in order to the purging and reforming the house, and +expelled Lucius, though he had been once consul before, and though the +punishment seemed to reflect dishonor on his brother also. Both of them +presented themselves to the assembly of the people in a suppliant manner, not +without tears in their eyes, requesting that Cato might show the reason and +cause of his fixing such a stain upon so honorable a family. The citizens +thought it a modest and moderate request. Cato, however, without any retraction +or reserve, at once came forward, and standing up with his colleague +interrogated Titus, as to whether he knew the story of the supper. Titus +answering in the negative, Cato related it, and challenged Lucius to a formal +denial of it. Lucius made no reply, whereupon the people adjudged the disgrace +just and suitable, and waited upon Cato home from the tribunal in great state. +But Titus still so deeply resented his brother’s degradation, that he allied +himself with those who had long borne a grudge against Cato; and winning over a +major part of the senate, he revoked and made void all the contracts, leases, +and bargains made by Cato, relating to the public revenues, and also got +numerous actions and accusations brought against him; carrying on against a +lawful magistrate and excellent citizen, for the sake of one who was indeed his +relation, but was unworthy to be so, and had but gotten his deserts, a course +of bitter and violent attacks, which it would be hard to say were either right +or patriotic. Afterwards, however, at a public spectacle in the theater, at +which the senators appeared as usual, sitting, as became their rank, in the +first seats, when Lucius was spied at the lower end, seated in a mean, +dishonorable place, it made a great impression upon the people, nor could they +endure the sight, but kept calling out to him to move, until he did move, and +went in among those of consular dignity, who received him into their seats. +</p> + +<p> +This natural ambition of Titus was well enough looked upon by the world, whilst +the wars we have given a relation of afforded competent fuel to feed it; as, +for instance, when after the expiration of his consulship, he had a command as +military tribune, which nobody pressed upon him. But being now out of all +employ in the government, and advanced in years, he showed his defects more +plainly; allowing himself, in this inactive remainder of life, to be carried +away with the passion for reputation, as uncontrollably as any youth. Some such +transport, it is thought, betrayed him into a proceeding against Hannibal, +which lost him the regard of many. For Hannibal, having fled his country, first +took sanctuary with Antiochus; but he having been glad to obtain a peace, after +the battle in Phrygia, Hannibal was put to shift for himself, by a second +flight, and, after wandering through many countries, fixed at length in +Bithynia, proffering his service to king Prusias. Every one at Rome knew where +he was, but looked upon him, now in his weakness and old age, with no sort of +apprehension, as one whom fortune had quite cast off. Titus, however, coming +thither as ambassador, though he was sent from the senate to Prusias upon +another errand, yet, seeing Hannibal resident there, it stirred up resentment +in him to find that he was yet alive. And though Prusias used much intercession +and entreaties in favor of him, as his suppliant and familiar friend, Titus was +not to be entreated. There was an ancient oracle, it seems, which prophesied +thus of Hannibal’s end: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Libyssan shall Hannibal enclose. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +He interpreted this to be meant of the African Libya, and that he should be +buried in Carthage; as if he might yet expect to return and end his life there. +But there is a sandy place in Bithynia, bordering on the sea, and near it a +little village called Libyssa. It was Hannibal’s chance to be staying here, and +having ever from the beginning had a distrust of the easiness and cowardice of +Prusias, and a fear of the Romans, he had, long before, ordered seven +underground passages to be dug from his house, leading from his lodging, and +running a considerable distance in various opposite directions, all +undiscernible from without. As soon, therefore, as he heard what Titus had +ordered, he attempted to make his escape through these mines; but finding them +beset with the king’s guards, he resolved upon making away with himself. Some +say that wrapping his upper garment about his neck, he commanded his servant to +set his knee against his back, and not to cease twisting and pulling it, till +he had completely strangled him. Others say, he drank bull’s blood, after the +example of Themistocles and Midas. Livy writes that he had poison in readiness, +which he mixed for the purpose, and that taking the cup into his hand, “Let us +ease,” said he, “the Romans of their continual dread and care, who think it +long and tedious to await the death of a hated old man. Yet Titus will not bear +away a glorious victory, nor one worthy of those ancestors who sent to caution +Pyrrhus, an enemy, and a conqueror too, against the poison prepared for him by +traitors.” +</p> + +<p> +Thus venous are the reports of Hannibal’s death; but when the news of it came +to the senators’ ears, some felt indignation against Titus for it, blaming as +well his officiousness as his cruelty; who, when there was nothing to urge it, +out of mere appetite for distinction, to have it said that he had caused +Hannibal’s death, sent him to his grave when he was now like a bird that in its +old age has lost its feathers, and incapable of flying is let alone to live +tamely without molestation. +</p> + +<p> +They began also now to regard with increased admiration the clemency and +magnanimity of Scipio Africanus, and called to mind how he, when he had +vanquished in Africa the till then invincible and terrible Hannibal, neither +banished him his country, nor exacted of his countrymen that they should give +him up. At a parley just before they joined battle, Scipio gave him his hand, +and in the peace made after it, he put no hard article upon him, nor insulted +over his fallen fortune. It is told, too, that they had another meeting +afterwards, at Ephesus, and that when Hannibal, as they were walking together, +took the upper hand, Africanus let it pass, and walked on without the least +notice of it; and that then they began to talk of generals, and Hannibal +affirmed that Alexander was the greatest commander the world had seen, next to +him Pyrrhus, and the third was himself; Africanus, with a smile, asked, “What +would you have said, if I had not defeated you?” “I would not then, Scipio,” he +replied, “have made myself the third, but the first commander.” Such conduct +was much admired in Scipio, and that of Titus, who had as it were insulted the +dead whom another had slain, was no less generally found fault with. Not but +that there were some who applauded the action, looking upon a living Hannibal +as a fire, which only wanted blowing to become a flame. For when he was in the +prime and flower of his age, it was not his body, nor his hand, that had been +so formidable, but his consummate skill and experience, together with his +innate malice and rancor against the Roman name, things which do not impair +with age. For the temper and bent of the soul remains constant, while fortune +continually varies; and some new hope might easily rouse to a fresh attempt +those whose hatred made them enemies to the last. And what really happened +afterwards does to a certain extent tend yet further to the exculpation of +Titus. Aristonicus, of the family of a common musician, upon the reputation of +being the son of Eumenes, filled all Asia with tumults and rebellion. Then +again, Mithridates, after his defeats by Sylla and Fimbria, and vast slaughter, +as well among his prime officers as common soldiers, made head again, and +proved a most dangerous enemy, against Lucullus, both by sea and land. Hannibal +was never reduced to so contemptible a state as Caius Marius; he had the +friendship of a king, and the free exercise of his faculties, employment and +charge in the navy, and over the horse and foot, of Prusias; whereas those who +but now were laughing to hear of Marius wandering about Africa, destitute and +begging, in no long time after were seen entreating his mercy in Rome, with his +rods at their backs, and his axes at their necks. So true it is, that looking +to the possible future, we can call nothing that we see either great or small; +as nothing puts an end to the mutability and vicissitude of things, but what +puts an end to their very being. Some authors accordingly tell us, that Titus +did not do this of his own head, but that he was joined in commission with +Lucius Scipio, and that the whole object of the embassy was, to effect +Hannibal’s death. And now, as we find no further mention in history of anything +done by Titus, either in war or in the administration of the government, but +simply that he died in peace; it is time to look upon him as he stands in +comparison with Philopoemen. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap29"></a>COMPARISON OF PHILOPOEMEN WITH FLAMININUS</h2> + +<p> +First, then, as for the greatness of the benefits which Titus conferred on +Greece, neither Philopoemen, nor many braver men than he, can make good the +parallel. They were Greeks fighting against Greeks, but Titus, a stranger to +Greece, fought for her. And at the very time when Philopoemen went over into +Crete, destitute of means to succor his besieged countrymen, Titus, by a defeat +given to Philip in the heart of Greece, set them and their cities free. Again, +if we examine the battles they fought, Philopoemen, whilst he was the Achaeans’ +general, slew more Greeks than Titus, in aiding the Greeks, slew Macedonians. +As to their failings, ambition was Titus’s weak side, and obstinacy +Philopoemen’s; in the former, anger was easily kindled, in the latter, it was +as hardly quenched. Titus reserved to Philip the royal dignity; he pardoned the +Aetolians, and stood their friend; but Philopoemen, exasperated against his +country, deprived it of its supremacy over the adjacent villages. Titus was +ever constant to those he had once befriended, the other, upon any offense, as +prone to cancel kindnesses. He who had once been a benefactor to the +Lacedaemonians, afterwards laid their walls level with the ground, wasted their +country, and in the end changed and destroyed the whole frame of their +government. He seems, in truth, to have prodigalled away his own life, through +passion and perverseness; for he fell upon the Messenians, not with that +conduct and caution that characterized the movements of Titus, but with +unnecessary and unreasonable haste. +</p> + +<p> +The many battles he fought, and the many trophies he won, may make us ascribe +to Philopoemen the more thorough knowledge of war. Titus decided the matter +betwixt Philip and himself in two engagements; but Philopoemen came off +victorious in ten thousand encounters, to all which fortune had scarcely any +presence, so much were they owing to his skill. Besides, Titus got his renown, +assisted by the power of a flourishing Rome; the other flourished under a +declined Greece, so that his successes may be accounted his own; in Titus’s +glory Rome claims a share. The one had brave men under him, the other made his +brave, by being over them. And though Philopoemen was unfortunate certainly, in +always being opposed to his countrymen, yet this misfortune is at the same time +a proof of his merit. Where the circumstances are the same, superior success +can only be ascribed to superior merit. And he had, indeed, to do with the two +most warlike nations of all Greece, the Cretans on the one hand, and the +Lacedaemonians on the other, and he mastered the craftiest of them by art and +the bravest of them by valor. It may also be said that Titus, having his men +armed and disciplined to his hand, had in a manner his victories made for him; +whereas Philopoemen was forced to introduce a discipline and tactics of his +own, and to new-mold and model his soldiers; so that what is of greatest import +towards insuring a victory was in his case his own creation, while the other +had it ready provided for his benefit. Philopoemen effected many gallant things +with his own hand, but Titus none; so much so that one Archedemus, an Aetolian, +made it a jest against him that while he, the Aetolian, was running with his +drawn sword, where he saw the Macedonians drawn up closest and fighting +hardest, Titus was standing still, and with hands stretched out to heaven, +praying to the gods for aid. +</p> + +<p> +It is true, Titus acquitted himself admirably, both as a governor, and as an +ambassador; but Philopoemen was no less serviceable and useful to the Achaeans +in the capacity of a private man, than in that of a commander. He was a private +citizen when he restored the Messenians to their liberty, and delivered their +city from Nabis; he was also a private citizen when he rescued the +Lacedaemonians, and shut the gates of Sparta against the General Diophanes, and +Titus. He had a nature so truly formed for command that he could govern even +the laws themselves for the public good; he did not need to wait for the +formality of being elected into command by the governed, but employed their +service, if occasion required, at his own discretion; judging that he who +understood their real interests, was more truly their supreme magistrate, than +he whom they had elected to the office. The equity, clemency, and humanity of +Titus towards the Greeks, display a great and generous nature; but the actions +of Philopoemen, full of courage, and forward to assert his country’s liberty +against the Romans, have something yet greater and nobler in them. For it is +not as hard a task to gratify the indigent and distressed, as to bear up +against, and to dare to incur the anger of the powerful. To conclude, since it +does not appear to be easy, by any review or discussion, to establish the true +difference of their merits, and decide to which a preference is due, will it be +an unfair award in the case, if we let the Greek bear away the crown for +military conduct and warlike skill, and the Roman for justice and clemency? +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap30"></a>PYRRHUS</h2> + +<p> +Of the Thesprotians and Molossians after the great inundation, the first king, +according to some historians, was Phaethon, one of those who came into Epirus +with Pelasgus. Others tell us that Deucalion and Pyrrha, having set up the +worship of Jupiter at Dodona, settled there among the Molossians. In after +time, Neoptolemus, Achilles’s son, planting a colony, possessed these parts +himself, and left a succession of kings, who, after him, were named Pyrrhidae; +as he in his youth was called Pyrrhus, and of his legitimate children, one born +of Lanassa, daughter of Cleodaeus, Hyllus’s son, had also that name. From him, +Achilles came to have divine honors in Epirus, under the name of Aspetus, in +the language of the country. After these first kings, those of the following +intervening times becoming barbarous, and insignificant both in their power and +their lives, Tharrhypas is said to have been the first, who by introducing +Greek manners and learning, and humane laws into his cities, left any fame of +himself. Alcetas was the son of Tharrhypas, Arybas of Alcetas, and of Arybas +and Troas his queen, Aeacides: he married Phthia, the daughter of Menon, the +Thessalian, a man of note at the time off the Lamiac war, and of highest +command in the confederate army next to Leosthenes. To Aeacides were born of +Phthia, Deidamia and Troas daughters, and Pyrrhus a son. +</p> + +<p> +The Molossians, afterwards falling into factions, and expelling Aeacides, +brought in the sons of Neoptolemus, and such friends of Aeacides as they could +take were all cut off; Pyrrhus, yet an infant, and searched for by the enemy, +had been stolen away and carried off by Androclides end Angelus; who, however, +being obliged to take with them a few servants, and women to nurse the child, +were much impeded and retarded in their flight, and when they were now +overtaken, they delivered the infant to Androcleon, Hippias, and Neander, +faithful and able young fellows, giving them in charge to make for Megara, a +town of Macedon, with all their might, while they themselves, partly by +entreaty, and partly by force, stopped the course of the pursuers till late in +the evening. At last, having hardly forced them back, they joined those who had +the care of Pyrrhus; but the sun being already set, at the point of attaining +their object they suddenly found themselves cut off from it. For on reaching +the river that runs by the city they found it looking formidable and rough, and +endeavoring to pass over, they discovered it was not fordable; late rains +having heightened the water, and made the current violent. The darkness of the +night added to the horror of all, so that they durst not venture of themselves +to carry over the child and the women that attended it; but, perceiving some of +the country people on the other side, they desired them to assist their +passage, and showed them Pyrrhus, calling out aloud, and importuning them. +They, however, could not hear for the noise and roaring of the water. Thus time +was spent while those called out, and the others did not understand what was +said, till one recollecting himself, stripped off a piece of bark from an oak, +and wrote on it with the tongue of a buckle, stating the necessities and the +fortunes of the child, and then rolling it about a stone, which was made use of +to give force to the motion, threw it over to the other side, or, as some say, +fastened it to the end of a javelin, and darted it over. When the men on the +other shore read what was on the bark, and saw how time pressed, without delay +they cut down some trees, and lashing them together, came over to them. And it +so fell out, that he who first got ashore, and took Pyrrhus in his arms, was +named Achilles, the rest being helped over by others as they came to hand. +</p> + +<p> +Thus being safe, and out of the reach of pursuit, they addressed themselves to +Glaucias, then king of the Illyrians, and finding him sitting at home with his +wife, they laid down the child before them. The king began to weigh the matter, +fearing Cassander, who was a mortal enemy of Aeacides, and, being in deep +consideration, said nothing for a long time; while Pyrrhus, crawling about on +the ground, gradually got near and laid hold with his hand upon the king’s +robe, and so helping himself upon his feet against the knees of Glaucias, first +moved laughter, and then pity, as a little humble, crying petitioner. Some say +he did not throw himself before Glaucias, but catching hold of an altar of the +gods, and spreading his hands about it, raised himself up by that; and that +Glaucias took the act as an omen. At present, therefore, he gave Pyrrhus into +the charge of his wife, commanding he should be brought up with his own +children; and a little after, the enemies sending to demand him, and Cassander +himself offering two hundred talents, he would not deliver him up; but when he +was twelve years old, bringing him with an army into Epirus, made him king. +Pyrrhus in the air of his face had something more of the terrors, than of the +augustness of kingly power; he had not a regular set of upper teeth, but in the +place of them one continued bone, with small lines marked on it, resembling the +divisions of a row of teeth. It was a general belief he could cure the spleen, +by sacrificing a white cock, and gently pressing with his right foot on the +spleen of the persons as they lay down on their backs, nor was any one so poor +or inconsiderable as not to be welcome, if he desired it, to the benefit of his +touch. He accepted the cock for the sacrifice as a reward, and was always much +pleased with the present. The large toe of that foot was said to have a divine +virtue; for after his death, the rest of the body being consumed, this was +found unhurt and untouched by the fire. But of these things hereafter. +</p> + +<p> +Being now about seventeen years old, and the government in appearance well +settled, he took a journey out of the kingdom to attend the marriage of one of +Glaucias’s sons, with whom he was brought up; upon which opportunity the +Molossians again rebelling, turned out all of his party, plundered his +property, and gave themselves up to Neoptolemus. Pyrrhus, having thus lost the +kingdom, and being in want of all things, applied to Demetrius the son of +Antigonus, the husband of his sister Deidamia, who, while she was but a child, +had been in name the wife of Alexander, son of Roxana, but their affairs +afterwards proving unfortunate, when she came to age, Demetrius married her. At +the great battle of Ipsus, where so many kings were engaged, Pyrrhus, taking +part with Demetrius, though yet but a youth, routed those that encountered him, +and highly signalized himself among all the soldiery; and afterwards, when +Demetrius’s fortunes were low, he did not forsake him then, but secured for him +the cities of Greece with which he was entrusted; and upon articles of +agreement being made between Demetrius and Ptolemy, he went over as an hostage +for him into Egypt, where both in hunting and other exercises, he gave Ptolemy +an ample proof of his courage and strength. Here observing Berenice in greatest +power, and of all Ptolemy’s wives highest in esteem for virtue and +understanding, he made his court principally to her. He had a particular art of +gaining over the great to his own interest, as on the other hand he readily +overlooked such as were below him; and being also well-behaved and temperate in +his life, among all the young princes then at court, he was thought most fit to +have Antigone for his wife, one of the daughters of Berenice by Philip, before +she married Ptolemy. +</p> + +<p> +After this match, advancing in honor, and Antigone being a very good wife to +him, having procured a sum of money, and raised an army, he so ordered matters +as to be sent into his kingdom of Epirus, and arrived there to the great +satisfaction of many, from their hate to Neoptolemus, who was governing in a +violent and arbitrary way. But fearing lest Neoptolemus should enter into +alliance with some neighboring princes, he came to terms and friendship with +him, agreeing that they should share the government between them. There were +people, however, who, as time went on, secretly exasperated them, and fomented +jealousies between them. The cause chiefly moving Pyrrhus is said to have had +this beginning. It was customary for the kings to offer sacrifice to Mars, at +Passaro, a place in the Molossian country, and that done to enter into a solemn +covenant with the Epirots; they to govern according to law, these to preserve +the government as by law established. This was performed in the presence of +both kings, who were there with their immediate friends, giving and receiving +many presents; here Gelo, one of the friends of Neoptolemus, taking Pyrrhus by +the hand, presented him with two pair of draught oxen. Myrtilus, his +cup-bearer, being then by, begged these of Pyrrhus, who not giving them to him, +but to another, Myrtilus extremely resented it, which Gelo took notice of, and, +inviting him to a banquet, (amidst drinking and other excesses, as some relate, +Myrtilus being then in the flower of his youth,) he entered into discourse, +persuading him to adhere to Neoptolemus, and destroy Pyrrhus by poison. +Myrtilus received the design, appearing to approve and consent to it, but +privately discovered it to Pyrrhus, by whose command he recommended +Alexicrates, his chief cup-bearer, to Gelo, as a fit instrument for their +design, Pyrrhus being very desirous to have proof of the plot by several +evidences. So Gelo being deceived, Neoptolemus, who was no less deceived, +imagining the design went prosperously on, could not forbear, but in his joy +spoke of it among his friends, and once at an entertainment at his sister +Cadmea’s, talked openly of it, thinking none heard but themselves. Nor was +anyone there but Phaenarete the wife of Samon, who had the care of +Neoptolemus’s flocks and herds. She, turning her face towards the wall upon a +couch, seemed fast asleep, and having heard all that passed, unsuspected, next +day came to Antigone, Pyrrhus’s wife, and told her what she had heard +Neoptolemus say to his sister. On understanding which Pyrrhus for the present +said little, but on a sacrifice day, making an invitation for Neoptolemus, +killed him; being satisfied before that the great men of the Epirots were his +friends, and that they were eager for him to rid himself of Neoptolemus, and +not to content himself with a mere petty share of the government, but to follow +his own natural vocation to great designs, and now when just ground of +suspicion appeared, to anticipate Neoptolemus by taking him off first. +</p> + +<p> +In memory of Berenice and Ptolemy, he named his son by Antigone, Ptolemy, and +having built a city in the peninsula of Epirus, called it Berenicis. From this +time he began to revolve many and vast projects in his thoughts; but his first +special hope and design lay near home, and he found means to engage himself in +the Macedonian affairs under the following pretext. Of Cassander’s sons, +Antipater, the eldest, killed Thessalonica his mother, and expelled his brother +Alexander, who sent to Demetrius entreating his assistance, and also called in +Pyrrhus; but Demetrius being retarded by multitude of business, Pyrrhus, coming +first, demanded in reward of his service the districts called Tymphaea and +Parauaea in Macedon itself, and, of their new conquests, Ambracia, Acarnania, +and Amphilochia. The young prince giving way, he took possession of these +countries, and secured them with good garrisons, and proceeded to reduce for +Alexander himself other parts of the kingdom which he gained from Antipater. +Lysimachus, designing to send aid to Antipater, was involved in much other +business, but knowing Pyrrhus would not disoblige Ptolemy, or deny him +anything, sent pretended letters to him as from Ptolemy, desiring him to give +up his expedition, upon the payment of three hundred talents to him by +Antipater. Pyrrhus, opening the letter, quickly discovered the fraud of +Lysimachus; for it had not the accustomed style of salutation, “The father to +the son, health,” but “King Ptolemy to Pyrrhus, the king, health;” and +reproaching Lysimachus, he notwithstanding made a peace, and they all met to +confirm it by a solemn oath upon sacrifice. A goat, a bull, and a ram being +brought out, the ram on a sudden fell dead. The others laughed, but Theodotus +the prophet forbade Pyrrhus to swear, declaring that Heaven by that portended +the death of one of the three kings, upon which he refused to ratify the peace. +</p> + +<p> +The affairs of Alexander being now in some kind of settlement, Demetrius +arrived, contrary, as soon appeared, to the desire and indeed not without the +alarm of Alexander. After they had been a few days together, their mutual +jealousy led them to conspire against each other; and Demetrius taking +advantage of the first occasion, was beforehand with the young king, and slew +him, and proclaimed himself king of Macedon. There had been formerly no very +good understanding between him and Pyrrhus; for besides the inroads he made +into Thessaly, the innate disease of princes, ambition of greater empire, had +rendered them formidable and suspected neighbors to each other, especially +since Deidamia’s death; and both having seized Macedon, they came into conflict +for the same object, and the difference between them had the stronger motives. +Demetrius having first attacked the Aetolians and subdued them, left Pantauchus +there with a considerable army, and marched direct against Pyrrhus, and +Pyrrhus, as he thought, against him; but by mistake of the ways they passed by +one another, and Demetrius falling into Epirus wasted the country, and Pyrrhus, +meeting with Pantauchus, prepared for an engagement. The soldiers fell to, and +there was a sharp and terrible conflict, especially where the generals were. +Pantauchus, in courage, dexterity, and strength of body, being confessedly the +best of all Demetrius’s captains, and having both resolution and high spirit, +challenged Pyrrhus to fight hand to hand; on the other side Pyrrhus, professing +not to yield to any king in valor and glory, and esteeming the fame of Achilles +more truly to belong to him for his courage than for his blood, advanced +against Pantauchus through the front of the army. First they used their lances, +then came to a close fight, and managed their swords both with art and force; +Pyrrhus receiving one wound, but returning two for it, one in the thigh, the +other near the neck, repulsed and overthrew Pantauchus, but did not kill him +outright, as he was rescued by his friends. But the Epirots exulting in the +victory of their king, and admiring his courage, forced through and cut in +pieces the phalanx of the Macedonians, and pursuing those that fled, killed +many, and took five thousand prisoners. +</p> + +<p> +This fight did not so much exasperate the Macedonians with anger for their +loss, or with hatred to Pyrrhus, as it caused esteem, and admiration of his +valor, and great discourse of him among those that saw what he did, and were +engaged against him in the action. They thought his countenance, his swiftness, +and his motions expressed those of the great Alexander, and that they beheld +here an image and resemblance of his rapidity and strength in fight; other +kings merely by their purple and their guards, by the formal bending of their +necks, and lofty tone of speech, Pyrrhus only by arms, and in action, +represented Alexander. Of his knowledge of military tactics and the art of a +general, and his great ability that way, we have the best information from the +commentaries he left behind him. Antigonus, also, we are told, being asked who +was the greatest soldier, said, “Pyrrhus, if he lives to be old,” referring +only to those of his own time; but Hannibal of all great commanders esteemed +Pyrrhus for skill and conduct the first, Scipio the second, and himself the +third, as is related in the life of Scipio. In a word, he seemed ever to make +this all his thought and philosophy, as the most kingly part of learning; other +curiosities he held in no account. He is reported, when asked at a feast +whether he thought Python or Caphisias the best musician, to have said, +Polysperchon was the best soldier, as though it became a king to examine and +understand only such things. Towards his familiars he was mild, and not easily +incensed; zealous, and even vehement in returning kindnesses. Thus when Aeropus +was dead, he could not bear it with moderation, saying, he indeed had suffered +what was common to human nature, but condemning and blaming himself, that by +puttings off and delays he had not returned his kindness in time. For our debts +may be satisfied to the creditor’s heirs, but not to have made the +acknowledgment of received favors, while they to whom it is due can be sensible +of it, afflicts a good and a worthy nature. Some thinking it fit that Pyrrhus +should banish a certain ill-tongued fellow in Ambracia, who had spoken very +indecently of him, “Let him rather,” said he, “speak against us here to a few, +than rambling about to a great many.” And others who in their wine had made +redactions upon him, being afterward questioned for it, and asked by him +whether they had said such words, on one of the young fellows answering, “Yes, +all that, king; and should have said more if we had had more wine;” he laughed +and discharged them. After Antigone’s death, he married several wives to +enlarge his interest and power. He had the daughter of Autoleon, king of the +Paeonians, Bircenna, Bardyllis the Illyrian’s daughter, Lanassa, daughter of +Agathocles the Syracusan, who brought with her in dower the city of Corcyra +which had been taken by Agathocles. By Antigone he had Ptolemy, Alexander by +Lanassa, and Helenus, his youngest son, by Bircenna; he brought them up all in +arms, hot and eager youths, and by him sharpened and whetted to war from their +very infancy. It is said, when one of them, while yet a child, asked him to +which he would leave the kingdom, he replied, to him that had the sharpest +sword, which indeed was much like that tragical curse of Oedipus to his sons: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Not by the lot decide.<br/> +But with the sword the heritage divide. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +So unsocial and wild-beast-like is the nature of ambition and cupidity. +</p> + +<p> +After this battle Pyrrhus, returning gloriously home, enjoyed his fame and +reputation, and being called “Eagle” by the Epirots, “By you,” said he, “I am +an eagle; for how should I not be such, while I have your arms as wings to +sustain me?” A little after, having intelligence that Demetrius was dangerously +sick, he entered on a sudden into Macedonia, intending only an incursion, and +to harass the country; but was very near seizing upon all, and taking the +kingdom without a blow. He marched as far as Edessa unresisted, great numbers +deserting, and coming in to him. This danger excited Demetrius beyond his +strength, and his friends and commanders in a short time got a considerable +army together, and with all their forces briskly attacked Pyrrhus, who, coming +only to pillage, would not stand a fight but retreating lost part of his army, +as he went off, by the close pursuit of the Macedonians. Demetrius, however, +although he had easily and quickly forced Pyrrhus out of the country, yet did +not slight him, but having resolved upon great designs, and to recover his +father’s kingdom with an army of one hundred thousand men, and a fleet of five +hundred ships, would neither embroil himself with Pyrrhus, nor leave the +Macedonians so active and troublesome a neighbor; and since he had no leisure +to continue the war with him, he was willing to treat and conclude a peace, and +to turn his forces upon the other kings. Articles being agreed upon, the +designs of Demetrius quickly discovered themselves by the greatness of his +preparation. And the other kings, being alarmed, sent to Pyrrhus ambassadors +and letters, expressing their wonder that he should choose to let his own +opportunity pass by, and wait till Demetrius could use his; and whereas he was +now able to chase him out of Macedon, involved in designs and disturbed, he +should expect till Demetrius at leisure, and grown great, should bring the war +home to his own door, and make him fight for his temples and sepulchers in +Molossia; especially having so lately, by his means, lost Corcyra and his wife +together. For Lanassa had taken offense at Pyrrhus for too great an inclination +to those wives of his that were barbarians, and so withdrew to Corcyra, and +desiring to marry some king, invited Demetrius, knowing of all the kings he was +most ready to entertain offers of marriage; so he sailed thither, married +Lanassa, and placed a garrison in the city. The kings having written thus to +Pyrrhus, themselves likewise contrived to find Demetrius work, while he was +delaying and making his preparations. Ptolemy, setting out with a great fleet, +drew off many of the Greek cities. Lysimachus out of Thrace wasted the upper +Macedon; and Pyrrhus, also, taking arms at the same time, marched to Beroea, +expecting, as it fell out, that Demetrius, collecting his forces against +Lysimachus, would leave the lower country undefended. That very night he seemed +in his sleep to be called by Alexander the Great, and approaching saw him sick +abed, but was received with very kind words and much respect, and promised +zealous assistance. He making bold to reply: “How, Sir, can you, being sick, +assist me?” “With my name,” said he, and mounting a Nisaean horse, seemed to +lead the way. At the sight of this vision he was much assured, and with swift +marches overrunning all the interjacent places, takes Beroea, and making his +head-quarters there, reduced the rest of the country by his commanders. When +Demetrius received intelligence of this, and perceived likewise the Macedonians +ready to mutiny in the army, he was afraid to advance further, lest coming near +Lysimachus, a Macedonian king, and of great fame, they should revolt to him. So +returning, he marched directly against Pyrrhus, as a stranger, and hated by the +Macedonians. But while he lay encamped there near him, many who came out of +Beroea infinitely praised Pyrrhus as invincible in arms, a glorious warrior, +who treated those he had taken kindly and humanely. Several of these Pyrrhus +himself sent privately, pretending to be Macedonians, and saying, now was the +time to be delivered from the severe government of Demetrius, by coming over to +Pyrrhus, a gracious prince, and a lover of soldiers. By this artifice a great +part of the army was in a state of excitement, and the soldiers began to look +every way about, inquiring for Pyrrhus. It happened he was without his helmet, +till understanding they did not know him, he put it on again, and so was +quickly recognized by his lofty crest, and the goat’s horns he wore upon it. +Then the Macedonians, running to him, desired to be told his password, and some +put oaken boughs upon their heads, because they saw them worn by the soldiers +about him. Some persons even took the confidence to say to Demetrius himself, +that he would be well advised to withdraw, and lay down the government. And he, +indeed, seeing the mutinous movements of the army to be only too consistent +with what they said, privately got away, disguised in a broad hat, and a common +soldier’s coat. So Pyrrhus became master of the army without fighting, and was +declared king of the Macedonians. +</p> + +<p> +But Lysimachus now arriving, and claiming the defeat of Demetrius as the joint +exploit of them both, and that therefore the kingdom should be shared between +them, Pyrrhus, not as yet quite assured of the Macedonians, and in doubt of +their faith, consented to the proposition of Lysimachus, and divided the +country and cities between them accordingly. This was for the present useful, +and prevented a war; but shortly after they found the partition not so much a +peaceful settlement, as an occasion of further complaint and difference. For +men whose ambition neither seas nor mountains, nor unpeopled deserts can limit, +nor the bounds dividing Europe from Asia confine their vast desires, it would +be hard to expect to forbear from injuring one another when they touch, and are +close together. These are ever naturally at war, envying and seeking advantages +of one another, and merely make use of those two words, peace and war, like +current coin, to serve their occasions, not as justice but as expediency +suggests, and are really better men when they openly enter on a war, than when +they give to the mere forbearance from doing wrong, for want of opportunity, +the sacred names of justice and friendship. Pyrrhus was an instance of this; +for setting himself against the rise of Demetrius again, and endeavoring to +hinder the recovery of his power, as it were from a kind of sickness, he +assisted the Greeks, and came to Athens, where, having ascended the Acropolis, +he offered sacrifice to the goddess, and the same day came down again, and told +the Athenians he was much gratified by the good-will and the confidence they +had shown to him; but if they were wise, he advised them never to let any king +come thither again, or open their city gates to him. He concluded also a peace +with Demetrius, but shortly after he was gone into Asia, at the persuasion of +Lysimachus, he tampered with the Thessalians to revolt, and besieged his cities +in Greece; finding he could better preserve the attachment of the Macedonians +in war than in peace, and being of his own inclination not much given to rest. +At last, after Demetrius had been overthrown in Syria, Lysimachus, who had +secured his affairs, and had nothing to do, immediately turned his whole forces +upon Pyrrhus, who was in quarters at Edessa, and falling upon and seizing his +convoy of provisions, brought first a great scarcity into the army; then partly +by letters, partly by spreading rumors abroad, he corrupted the principal +officers of the Macedonians, reproaching them that they had made one their +master who was both a stranger and descended from those who had ever been +servants to the Macedonians, and that they had thrust the old friends and +familiars of Alexander out of the country. The Macedonian soldiers being much +prevailed upon, Pyrrhus withdrew himself with his Epirots and auxiliary forces, +relinquishing Macedon just after the same manner he took it. So little reason +have kings to condemn popular governments for changing sides as suits their +interests, as in this they do but imitate them who are the great instructors of +unfaithfulness and treachery; holding him the wisest that makes the least +account of being an honest man. +</p> + +<p> +Pyrrhus having thus retired into Epirus, and left Macedon, fortune gave him a +fair occasion of enjoying himself in quiet, and peaceably governing his own +subjects; but he who thought it a nauseous course of life not to be doing +mischief to others, or receiving some from them, like Achilles, could not +endure repose, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— But sat and languished far,<br/> +Desiring battle and the shout of war, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and gratified his inclination by the following pretext for new troubles. The +Romans were at war with the Tarentines, who, not being able to go on with the +war, nor yet, through the foolhardiness and the viciousness of their popular +speakers, to come to terms and give it up, proposed now to make Pyrrhus their +general, and engage him in it, as of all the neighboring kings the most at +leisure, and the most skillful as a commander. The more grave and discreet +citizens opposing these counsels, were partly overborne by the noise and +violence of the multitude; while others, seeing this, absented themselves from +the assemblies; only one Meton, a very sober man, on the day this public decree +was to be ratified, when the people were now seating themselves, came dancing +into the assembly like one quite drunk, with a withered garland and a small +lamp in his hand, and a woman playing on a flute before him. And as in great +multitudes met at such popular assemblies, no decorum can be well observed, +some clapped him, others laughed, none forbade him, but called to the woman to +play, and to him to sing to the company, and when they thought he was going to +do so, “’Tis only right of you, O men of Tarentum,” he said, “not to hinder any +from making themselves merry, that have a mind to it, while it is yet in their +power; and if you are wise, you will take out your pleasure of your freedom +while you can, for you must change your course of life, and follow other diet +when Pyrrhus comes to town.” These words made a great impression upon many of +the Tarentines, and a confused murmur went about, that he had spoken much to +the purpose; but some who feared they should be sacrificed if a peace were made +with the Romans, reviled the whole assembly for so tamely suffering themselves +to be abused by a drunken sot, and crowding together upon Meton, thrust him +out. So the public order was passed, and ambassadors sent into Epirus, not only +in their own names, but in those of all the Italian Greeks, carrying presents +to Pyrrhus, and letting him know they wanted a general of reputation and +experience; and that they could furnish him with large forces of Lucanians, +Messapians, Samnites, and Tarentines, amounting to twenty thousand horse, and +three hundred and fifty thousand foot. This did not only quicken Pyrrhus, but +raised an eager desire for the expedition in the Epirots. +</p> + +<p> +There was one Cineas, a Thessalian, considered to be a man of very good sense, +a disciple of the great orator Demosthenes, who of all that were famous at that +time for speaking well, most seemed, as in a picture, to revive in the minds of +the audience the memory of his force and vigor of eloquence; and being always +about Pyrrhus, and sent about in his service to several cities, verified the +saying of Euripides, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— the force of words<br/> +Can do whate’er is done by conquering swords. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And Pyrrhus was used to say, that Cineas had taken more towns with his words, +than he with his arms, and always did him the honor to employ him in his most +important occasions. This person, seeing Pyrrhus eagerly preparing for Italy, +led him one day when he was at leisure into the following reasonings: “The +Romans, sir, are reported to be great warriors and conquerors of many warlike +nations; if God permit us to overcome them, how should we use our victory?” +“You ask,” said Pyrrhus, “a thing evident of itself. The Romans once conquered, +there is neither Greek nor barbarian city that will resist us, but we shall +presently be masters of all Italy, the extent and resources and strength of +which anyone should rather profess to be ignorant of, than yourself.” Cineas, +after a little pause, “And having subdued Italy, what shall we do next?” +Pyrrhus not yet discovering his intention, “Sicily,” he replied, “next holds +out her arms to receive us, a wealthy and populous island, and easy to be +gained; for since Agathocles left it, only faction and anarchy, and the +licentious violence of the demagogues prevail.” “You speak,” said Cineas, “what +is perfectly probable, but will the possession of Sicily put an end to the +war?” “God grant us,” answered Pyrrhus, “victory and success in that, and we +will use these as forerunners of greater things; who could forbear from Libya +and Carthage then within reach, which Agathocles, even when forced to fly from +Syracuse, and passing the sea only with a few ships, had all but surprised? +These conquests once perfected, will any assert that of the enemies who now +pretend to despise us, anyone will dare to make further resistance?” “None,” +replied Cineas, “for then it is manifest we may with such mighty forces regain +Macedon, and make all absolute conquest of Greece; and when all these are in +our power, what shall we do then?” Said Pyrrhus, smiling, “we will live at our +ease, my dear friend, and drink all day, and divert ourselves with pleasant +conversation.” When Cineas had led Pyrrhus with his argument to this point: +“And what hinders us now, sir, if we have a mind to be merry, and entertain one +another, since we have at hand without trouble all those necessary things, to +which through much blood and great labor, and infinite hazards and mischief +done to ourselves and to others, we design at last to arrive?” Such reasonings +rather troubled Pyrrhus with the thought of the happiness he was quitting, than +any way altered his purpose, being unable to abandon the hopes of what he so +much desired. +</p> + +<p> +And first, he sent away Cineas to the Tarentines with three thousand men; +presently after, many vessels for transport of horse, and galleys, and +flat-bottomed boats of all sorts arriving from Tarentum, he shipped upon them +twenty elephants, three thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, two thousand +archers, and five hundred slingers. All being thus in readiness, he set sail, +and being half way over, was driven by the wind, blowing, contrary to the +season of the year, violently from the north, and carried from his course, but +by the great skill and resolution of his pilots and seamen, he made the land +with infinite labor, and beyond expectation. The rest of the fleet could not +get up, and some of the dispersed ships, losing the coast of Italy, were driven +into the Libyan and Sicilian Sea; others not able to double the Cape of +Japygium, were overtaken by the night; and with a boisterous and heavy sea, +throwing them upon a dangerous and rocky shore, they were all very much +disabled except the royal galley. She, while the sea bore upon her sides, +resisted with her bulk and strength, and avoided the force of it, till the wind +coming about, blew directly in their teeth from the shore, and the vessel +keeping up with her head against it, was in danger of going to pieces; yet on +the other hand, to suffer themselves to be driven off to sea again, which was +thus raging and tempestuous, with the wind shifting about every way, seemed to +them the most dreadful of all their present evils. Pyrrhus, rising up, threw +himself overboard. His friends and guards strove eagerly who should be most +ready to help him, but night and the sea with its noise and violent surge, made +it extremely difficult to do this; so that hardly, when with the morning the +wind began to subside, he got ashore, breathless, and weakened in body, but +with high courage and strength of mind resisting his hard fortune. The +Messapians, upon whose shore they were thrown by the tempest, came up eagerly +to help them in the best manner they could; and some of the straggling vessels +that had escaped the storm arrived; in which were a very few horse, and not +quite two thousand foot, and two elephants. +</p> + +<p> +With these Pyrrhus marched straight to Tarentum, where Cineas, being informed +of his arrival, led out the troops to meet him. Entering the town, he did +nothing unpleasing to the Tarentines, nor put any force upon them, till his +ships were all in harbor, and the greatest part of the army got together; but +then perceiving that the people, unless some strong compulsion was used to +them, were not capable either of saving others or being saved themselves, and +were rather intending, while he engaged for them in the field, to remain at +home bathing and feasting themselves, he first shut up the places of public +exercise, and the walks where, in their idle way, they fought their country’s +battles and conducted her campaigns in their talk; he prohibited likewise all +festivals, revels, and drinking-parties, as unseasonable, and summoning them to +arms, showed himself rigorous and inflexible in carrying out the conscription +for service in the war. So that many, not understanding what it was to be +commanded, left the town, calling it mere slavery not to do as they pleased. He +now received intelligence that Laevinus, the Roman consul, was upon his march +with a great army, and plundering Lucania as he went. The confederate forces +were not come up to him, yet he thought it impossible to suffer so near an +approach of an enemy, and drew out with his army, but first sent an herald to +the Romans to know if before the war they would decide the differences between +them and the Italian Greeks by his arbitrament and mediation. But Laevinus +returning answer, that the Romans neither accepted him as arbitrator. nor +feared him as an enemy, Pyrrhus advanced, and encamped in the plain between the +cities of Pandosia and Heraclea, and having notice the Romans were near, and +lay on the other side of the river Siris, he rode up to take a view of them, +and seeing their order, the appointment of the watches, their method and the +general form of their encampment, he was amazed, and addressing one of his +friends next to him: “This order,” said he, “Megacles, of the barbarians, is +not at all barbarian in character; we shall see presently what they can do;” +and, growing a little more thoughtful of the event, resolved to expect the +arriving of the confederate troops. And to hinder the Romans, if in the +meantime they should endeavor to pass the river, he planted men all along the +bank to oppose them. But they, hastening to anticipate the coming up of the +same forces which he had determined to wait for, attempted the passage with +their infantry, where it was fordable, and with the horse in several places, so +that the Greeks, fearing to be surrounded, were obliged to retreat, and +Pyrrhus, perceiving this and being much surprised, bade his foot officers draw +their men up in line of battle, and continue in arms, while he himself, with +three thousand horse, advanced, hoping to attack the Romans as they were coming +over, scattered and disordered. But when he saw a vast number of shields +appearing above the water, and the horse following them in good order, +gathering his men in a closer body, himself at the head of them, he began the +charge, conspicuous by his rich and beautiful armor, and letting it be seen +that his reputation had not outgone what he was able effectually to perform. +While exposing his hands and body in the fight, and bravely repelling all that +engaged him, he still guided the battle with a steady and undisturbed reason, +and such presence of mind, as if he had been out of the action and watching it +from a distance, passing still from point to point, and assisting those whom he +thought most pressed by the enemy. Here Leonnatus the Macedonian, observing one +of the Italians very intent upon Pyrrhus, riding up towards him, and changing +places as he did, and moving as he moved: “Do you see, sir,” said he, “that +barbarian on the black horse with white feet? he seems to me one that designs +some great and dangerous thing, for he looks constantly at you, and fixes his +whole attention, full of vehement purpose, on you alone, taking no notice of +others. Be on your guard, sir, against him.” “Leonnatus,” said Pyrrhus, “it is +impossible for any man to avoid his fate; but neither he nor any other Italian +shall have much satisfaction in engaging with me.” While they were in this +discourse, the Italian, lowering his spear and quickening his horse, rode +furiously at Pyrrhus, and run his horse through with his lance; at the same +instant Leonnatus ran his through. Both horses falling, Pyrrhus’s friends +surrounded him and brought him off safe, and killed the Italian, bravely +defending himself. He was by birth a Frentanian, captain of a troop, and named +Oplacus. +</p> + +<p> +This made Pyrrhus use greater caution, and now seeing his horse give ground, he +brought up the infantry against the enemy, and changing his scarf and his arms +with Megacles, one of his friends, and, obscuring himself, as it were, in his, +charged upon the Romans, who received and engaged him, and a great while the +success of the battle remained undetermined; and it is said there were seven +turns of fortune both of pursuing and being pursued. And the change of his arms +was very opportune for the safety of his person, but had like to have +overthrown his cause and lost him the victory; for several falling upon +Megacles, the first that gave him his mortal wound was one Dexous, who, +snatching away his helmet and his robe, rode at once to Laevinus, holding them +up, and saying aloud he had killed Pyrrhus. These spoils being carried about +and shown among the ranks, the Romans were transported with joy, and shouted +aloud; while equal discouragement and terror prevailed among the Greeks, until +Pyrrhus, understanding what had happened, rode about the army with his face +bare, stretching out his hand to his soldiers, and telling them aloud it was +he. At last, the elephants more particularly began to distress the Romans, +whose horses, before they came near, not enduring them, went back with their +riders; and upon this, he commanded the Thessalian cavalry to charge them in +their disorder, and routed them with great loss. Dionysius affirms near fifteen +thousand of the Romans fell; Hieronymus, no more than seven thousand. On +Pyrrhus’s side, the same Dionysius makes thirteen thousand slain, the other +under four thousand; but they were the flower of his men, and amongst them his +particular friends as well as officers whom he most trusted and made use of. +However, be possessed himself of the Romans’ camp which they deserted, and +gained over several confederate cities, and wasted the country round about, and +advanced so far that he was within about thirty-seven miles of Rome itself. +After the fight many of the Lucanians and Samnites came in and joined him, whom +he chid for their delay, but yet he was evidently well pleased and raised in +his thoughts, that he had defeated so great an army of the Romans with the +assistance of the Tarentines alone. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans did not remove Laevinus from the consulship; though it is told that +Caius Fabricius said, that the Epirots had not beaten the Romans, but only +Pyrrhus, Laevinus; insinuating that their loss was not through want of valor +but of conduct; but filled up their legions, and enlisted fresh men with all +speed, talking high and boldly of war, which struck Pyrrhus with amazement. He +thought it advisable by sending first to make an experiment whether they had +any inclination to treat, thinking that to take the city and make an absolute +conquest was no work for such an army as his was at that time, but to settle a +friendship, and bring them to terms, would be highly honorable after his +victory. Cineas was dispatched away, and applied himself to several of the +great ones, with presents for themselves and their ladies from the king; but +not a person would receive any, and answered, as well men as women, that if an +agreement were publicly concluded, they also should be ready, for their parts, +to express their regard to the king. And Cineas, discoursing; with the senate +in the most persuasive and obliging manner in the world, yet was not heard with +kindness or inclination, although Pyrrhus offered also to return all the +prisoners he had taken in the fight without ransom, and promised his assistance +for the entire conquest of all Italy, asking only their friendship for himself, +and security for the Tarentines, and nothing further. Nevertheless, most were +well-inclined to a peace, having already received one great defeat, and fearing +another from an additional force of the native Italians, now joining with +Pyrrhus. At this point Appius Claudius, a man of great distinction, but who, +because of his great age and loss of sight, had declined the fatigue of public +business, after these propositions had been made by the king, hearing a report +that the senate was ready to vote the conditions of peace, could not forbear, +but commanding his servants to take him up, was carried in his chair through +the forum to the senate house. When he was set down at the door, his sons and +sons-in-law took him up in their arms, and, walking close round about him, +brought him into the senate. Out of reverence for so worthy a man, the whole +assembly was respectfully silent. +</p> + +<p> +And a little after raising up himself: “I bore,” said he, “until this time, the +misfortune of my eyes with some impatience, but now while I hear of these +dishonorable motions and resolves of yours, destructive to the glory of Rome, +it is my affliction, that being already blind, I am not deaf too. Where is now +that discourse of yours that became famous in all the world, that if he, the +great Alexander, had come into Italy, and dared to attack us when we were young +men, and our fathers, who were then in their prime, he had not now been +celebrated as invincible, but either flying hence, or falling here, had left +Rome more glorious? You demonstrate now that all that was but foolish arrogance +and vanity, by fearing Molossians and Chaonians, ever the Macedonian’s prey, +and by trembling at Pyrrhus who was himself but a humble servant to one of +Alexander’s life-guard, and comes here, not so much to assist the Greeks that +inhabit among us, as to escape from his enemies at home, a wanderer about +Italy, and yet dares to promise you the conquest of it all by that army which +has not been able to preserve for him a little part of Macedon. Do not persuade +yourselves that making him your friend is the way to send him back, it is the +way rather to bring over other invaders from thence, contemning you as easy to +be reduced, if Pyrrhus goes off without punishment for his outrages on you, +but, on the contrary, with the reward of having enabled the Tarentines and +Samnites to laugh at the Romans.” When Appius had done, eagerness for the war +seized on every man, and Cineas was dismissed with this answer, that when +Pyrrhus had withdrawn his forces out of Italy, then, if he pleased, they would +treat with him about friendship and alliance, but while he stayed there in +arms, they were resolved to prosecute the war against him with all their force, +though he should have defeated a thousand Laevinuses. It is said that Cineas, +while he was managing this affair, made it his business carefully to inspect +the manners of the Romans, and to understand their methods of government, and +having conversed with their noblest citizens, he afterwards told Pyrrhus, among +other things, that the senate seemed to him an assembly of kings, and as for +the people, he feared lest it might prove that they were fighting with a +Lernaean hydra, for the consul had already raised twice as large an army as the +former, and there were many times over the same number of Romans able to bear +arms. +</p> + +<p> +Then Caius Fabricius came in embassy from the Romans to treat about the +prisoners that were taken, one whom Cineas had reported to be a man of highest +consideration among them as an honest man and a good soldier, but extremely +poor. Pyrrhus received him with much kindness, and privately would have +persuaded him to accept of his gold, not for any evil purpose, but calling it a +mark of respect and hospitable kindness. Upon Fabricius’s refusal, he pressed +him no further, but the next day, having a mind to discompose him, as he had +never seen an elephant before, he commanded one of the largest, completely +armed, to be placed behind the hangings, as they were talking together. Which +being done, upon a sign given the hanging was drawn aside, and the elephant, +raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, made an horrid and ugly noise. +He, gently turning about and smiling, said to Pyrrhus, “neither your money +yesterday, nor this beast today make any impression upon me.” At supper, +amongst all sorts of things that were discoursed of, but more particularly +Greece and the philosophers there, Cineas, by accident, had occasion to speak +of Epicurus, and explained the opinions his followers hold about the gods and +the commonwealth, and the object of life, placing the chief happiness of man in +pleasure, and declining public affairs as an injury and disturbance of a happy +life, removing the gods afar off both from kindness or anger, or any concern +for us at all, to a life wholly without business and flowing in pleasures. +Before he had done speaking, “O Hercules!” Fabricius cried out to Pyrrhus, “may +Pyrrhus and the Samnites entertain themselves with this sort of opinions as +long as they are in war with us.” Pyrrhus, admiring the wisdom and gravity of +the man, was the more transported with desire of making friendship instead of +war with the city, and entreated him, personally, after the peace should be +concluded, to accept of living with him as the chief of his ministers and +generals. Fabricius answered quietly, “Sir, this will not be for your +advantage, for they who now honor and admire you, when they have had experience +of me, will rather choose to be governed by me, than by you.” Such was +Fabricius. And Pyrrhus received his answer without any resentment or tyrannic +passion; nay, among his friends he highly commended the great mind of +Fabricius, and entrusted the prisoners to him alone, on condition that if the +senate should not vote a peace, after they had conversed with their friends and +celebrated the festival of Saturn, they should be remanded. And, accordingly, +they were sent back after the holidays; it being decreed pain of death for any +that stayed behind. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Fabricius taking the consulate, a person came with a letter to the +camp written by the king’s principal physician, offering to take off Pyrrhus by +poison, and so end the war without further hazard to the Romans, if he might +have a reward proportionable to his service. Fabricius, hating the villainy of +the man, and disposing the other consul to the same opinion, sent dispatches +immediately to Pyrrhus to caution him against the treason. His letter was to +this effect: “Caius Fabricius and Quintus Aemilius, consuls of the Romans, to +Pyrrhus the king, health. You seem to have made an ill judgment both of your +friends and enemies; you will understand by reading this letter sent to us, +that you are at war with honest men, and trust villains and knaves. Nor do we +disclose this to you out of any favor to you, but lest your ruin might bring a +reproach upon us, as if we had ended the war by treachery, as not able to do it +by force.” When Pyrrhus had read the letter, and made inquiry into the treason, +he punished the physician, and as an acknowledgment to the Romans sent to Rome +the prisoners without ransom, and again employed Cineas to negotiate a peace +for him. But they, regarding it as at once too great a kindness from an enemy, +and too great a reward of not doing an ill thing to accept their prisoners so, +released in return an equal number of the Tarentines and Samnites, but would +admit of no debate of alliance or peace until he had removed his arms and +forces out of Italy, and sailed back to Epirus with the same ships that brought +him over. Afterwards, his affairs demanding a second fight, when he had +refreshed his men, he decamped, and met the Romans about the city Asculum, +where, however, he was much incommoded by a woody country unfit for his horse, +and a swift river, so that the elephants, for want of sure treading, could not +get up with the infantry. After many wounded and many killed, night put an end +to the engagement. Next day, designing to make the fight on even ground, and +have the elephants among the thickest of the enemy, he caused a detachment to +possess themselves of those incommodious grounds, and, mixing slingers and +archers among the elephants, with full strength and courage, he advanced in a +close and well-ordered body. The Romans, not having those advantages of +retreating and falling on as they pleased, which they had before, were obliged +to fight man to man upon plain ground, and, being anxious to drive back the +infantry before the elephants could get up, they fought fiercely with their +swords among the Macedonian spears, not sparing themselves, thinking only to +wound and kill, without regard of what they suffered. After a long and +obstinate fight, the first giving ground is reported to have been where Pyrrhus +himself engaged with extraordinary courage; but they were most carried away by +the overwhelming force of the elephants, not being able to make use of their +valor, but overthrown as it were by the irruption of a sea or an earthquake, +before which it seemed better to give way than to die without doing anything, +and not gain the least advantage by suffering the utmost extremity, the retreat +to their camp not being far. Hieronymus says, there fell six thousand of the +Romans, and of Pyrrhus’s men, the king’s own commentaries reported three +thousand five hundred and fifty lost in this action. Dionysius, however, +neither gives any account of two engagements at Asculum, nor allows the Romans +to have been certainly beaten, stating that once only, after they had fought +till sunset, both armies were unwillingly separated by the night, Pyrrhus being +wounded by a javelin in the arm, and his baggage plundered by the Samnites, +that in all there died of Pyrrhus’s men and the Romans above fifteen thousand. +The armies separated; and, it is said, Pyrrhus replied to one that gave him joy +of his victory, that one other such would utterly undo him. For he had lost a +great part of the forces he brought with him, and almost all his particular +friends and principal commanders; there were no others there to make recruits, +and he found the confederates in Italy backward. On the other hand, as from a +fountain continually flowing out of the city, the Roman camp was quickly and +plentifully filled up with fresh men, not at all abating in courage for the +losses they sustained, but even from their very anger gaining new force and +resolution to go on with the war. +</p> + +<p> +Among these difficulties he fell again into new hopes and projects distracting +his purposes. For at the same time some persons arrived from Sicily, offering +into his hands the cities of Agrigentum, Syracuse, and Leontini, and begging +his assistance to drive out the Carthaginians, and rid the island of tyrants; +and others brought him news out of Greece that Ptolemy, called Ceraunus, was +slain in a fight, and his army cut in pieces by the Gauls, and that now, above +all others, was his time to offer himself to the Macedonians, in great need of +a king. Complaining much of fortune for bringing him so many occasions of great +things all together at a time, and thinking that to have both offered to him, +was to lose one of them, he was doubtful, balancing in his thoughts. But the +affairs of Sicily seeming to hold out the greater prospects, Africa lying so +near, he turned himself to them, and presently dispatched away Cineas, as he +used to do, to make terms beforehand with the cities. Then he placed a garrison +in Tarentum, much to the Tarentines’ discontent, who required him either to +perform what he came for, and continue with them in a war against the Romans, +or leave the city as he found it. He returned no pleasing answer, but commanded +them to be quiet and attend his time, and so sailed away. Being arrived in +Sicily, what he had designed in his hopes was confirmed effectually, and the +cities frankly surrendered to him; and wherever his arms and force were +necessary, nothing at first made any considerable resistance. For advancing +with thirty thousand foot, and twenty-five hundred horse, and two hundred +ships, he totally routed the Phoenicians, and overran their whole province, and +Eryx being the strongest town they held, and having a great garrison in it, he +resolved to take it by storm. The army being in readiness to give the assault, +he put on his arms, and coming to the head of his men, made a vow of plays and +sacrifices in honor to Hercules, if he signalized himself in that day’s action +before the Greeks that dwelt in Sicily, as became his great descent and his +fortunes. The sign being given by sound of trumpet, he first scattered the +barbarians with his shot, and then brought his ladders to the wall, and was the +first that mounted upon it himself, and, the enemy appearing in great numbers, +he beat them back; some he threw down from the walls on each side, others he +laid dead in a heap round about him with his sword, nor did he receive the +least wound, but by his very aspect inspired terror in the enemy; and gave a +clear demonstration that Homer was in the right, and pronounced according to +the truth of fact, that fortitude alone, of all the virtues, is wont to display +itself in divine transports and frenzies. The city being taken, he offered to +Hercules most magnificently, and exhibited all varieties of shows and plays. +</p> + +<p> +A sort of barbarous people about Messena, called Mamertines, gave much trouble +to the Greeks, and put several of them under contribution. These being numerous +and valiant (from whence they had their name, equivalent in the Latin tongue to +warlike), he first intercepted the collectors of the contribution money, and +cut them off, then beat them in open fight, and destroyed many of their places +of strength. The Carthaginians being now inclined to composition, and offering +him a round sum of money, and to furnish him with shipping, if a peace were +concluded, he told them plainly, aspiring still to greater things, there was +but one way for a friendship and right understanding between them, if they, +wholly abandoning Sicily, would consent to make the African sea the limit +between them and the Greeks. And being elevated with his good fortune, and the +strength of his forces, and pursuing those hopes in prospect of which he first +sailed thither, his immediate aim was at Africa; and as he had abundance of +shipping, but very ill equipped, he collected seamen, not by fair and gentle +dealing with the cities, but by force in a haughty and insolent way, and +menacing them with punishments. And as at first he had not acted thus, but had +been unusually indulgent and kind, ready to believe, and uneasy to none; now of +a popular leader becoming a tyrant by these severe proceedings, he got the name +of an ungrateful and a faithless man. However, they gave way to these things as +necessary, although they took them very ill from him; and especially when he +began to show suspicion of Thoenon and Sosistratus, men of the first position +in Syracuse, who invited him over into Sicily, and when he was come, put the +cities into his power, and were most instrumental in all he had done there +since his arrival, whom he now would neither suffer to be about his person, nor +leave at home; and when Sosistratus out of fear withdrew himself, and then he +charged Thoenon, as in a conspiracy with the other, and put him to death, with +this all his prospects changed, not by little and little, nor in a single place +only, but a mortal hatred being raised in the cities against him, some fell off +to the Carthaginians, others called in the Mamertines. And seeing revolts in +all places, and desires of alteration, and a potent faction against him, at the +same time he received letters from the Samnites and Tarentines, who were beaten +quite out of the field, and scarce able to secure their towns against the war, +earnestly begging his help. This served as a color to make his relinquishing +Sicily no flight, nor a despair of good success; but in truth not being able to +manage Sicily, which was as a ship laboring in a storm, and willing to be out +of her, he suddenly threw himself over into Italy. It is reported that at his +going off he looked back upon the island, and said to those about him, “How +brave a field of war do we leave, my friends, for the Romans and Carthaginians +to fight in,” which, as he then conjectured, fell out indeed not long after. +</p> + +<p> +When he was sailing off, the barbarians having conspired together, he was +forced to a fight with the Carthaginians in the very road, and lost many of his +ships; with the rest he fled into Italy. There, about one thousand Mamertines, +who had crossed the sea a little before, though afraid to engage him in open +field, setting upon him where the passages were difficult, put the whole army +in confusion. Two elephants fell, and a great part of his rear was cut off. He, +therefore, coming up in person, repulsed the enemy, but ran into great danger +among men long trained and bold in war. His being wounded in the head with a +sword, and retiring a little out of the fight, much increased their confidence, +and one of them advancing a good way before the rest, large of body and in +bright armor, with an haughty voice challenged him to come forth if he were +alive. Pyrrhus, in great anger, broke away violently from his guards, and, in +his fury, besmeared with blood, terrible to look upon, made his way through his +own men, and struck the barbarian on the head with his sword such a blow, as +with the strength of his arm, and the excellent temper of the weapon, passed +downward so far that his body being cut asunder fell in two pieces. This +stopped the course of the barbarians, amazed and confounded at Pyrrhus, as one +more than man; so that continuing his march all the rest of the way +undisturbed, he arrived at Tarentum with twenty thousand foot and three +thousand horse, where, reinforcing himself with the choicest troops of the +Tarentines, he advanced immediately against the Romans, who then lay encamped +in the territories of the Samnites, whose affairs were extremely shattered, and +their counsels broken, having been in many fights beaten by the Romans. There +was also a discontent amongst them at Pyrrhus for his expedition into Sicily, +so that not many came in to join him. +</p> + +<p> +He divided his army into two parts, and dispatched the first into Lucania to +oppose one of the consuls there, so that he should not come in to assist the +other; the rest he led against Manius Curius, who had posted himself very +advantageously near Beneventum, and expected the other consul’s forces, and +partly because the priests had dissuaded him by unfavorable omens, was resolved +to remain inactive. Pyrrhus, hastening to attack these before the other could +arrive, with his best men, and the most serviceable elephants, marched in the +night toward their camp. But being forced to go round about, and through a very +woody country, their lights failed them, and the soldiers lost their way. A +council of war being called, while they were in debate, the night was spent, +and, at the break of day, his approach, as he came down the hills, was +discovered by the enemy, and put the whole camp into disorder and tumult. But +the sacrifices being auspicious, and the time absolutely obliging them to +fight, Manius drew his troops out of the trenches, and attacked the vanguard, +and, having routed them all, put the whole army into consternation, so that +many were cut off, and some of the elephants taken. This success drew on Manius +into the level plain, and here, in open battle, he defeated part of the enemy; +but, in other quarters, finding himself overpowered by the elephants and forced +back to his trenches, he commanded out those who were left to guard them, a +numerous body, standing thick at the ramparts, all in arms and fresh. These +coming down from their strong position, and charging the elephants, forced them +to retire; and they in the flight turning back upon their own men, caused great +disorder and confusion, and gave into the hands of the Romans the victory, and +the future supremacy. Having obtained from these efforts and these contests the +feeling, as well as the fame of invincible strength, they at once reduced Italy +under their power, and not long after Sicily too. +</p> + +<p> +Thus fell Pyrrhus from his Italian and Sicilian hopes, after he had consumed +six years in these wars, and though unsuccessful in his affairs, yet preserved +his courage unconquerable among all these misfortunes, and was held, for +military experience, and personal valor and enterprise much the bravest of all +the princes of his time, only what he got by great actions he lost again by +vain hopes, and by new desires of what he had not, kept nothing of what he had. +So that Antigonus used to compare him to a player with dice, who had excellent +throws, but knew not how to use them. He returned into Epirus with eight +thousand foot and five hundred horse, and for want of money to pay them, was +fain to look out for a new war to maintain the army. Some of the Gauls joining +him, he invaded Macedonia, where Antigonus, son of Demetrius, governed, +designing merely to plunder and waste the country. But after he had made +himself master of several towns, and two thousand men came over to him, he +began to hope for something greater, and adventured upon Antigonus himself, and +meeting him at a narrow passage, put the whole army in disorder. The Gauls, who +brought up Antigonus’s rear, were very numerous and stood firm, but after a +sharp encounter, the greatest part of them were cut off, and they who had the +charge of the elephants being surrounded every way, delivered up both +themselves and the beasts. Pyrrhus, taking this advantage, and advising more +with his good fortune than his reason, boldly set upon the main body of the +Macedonian foot, already surprised with fear, and troubled at the former loss. +They declined any action or engagement with him; and he, holding out his hand +and calling aloud both to the superior and under officers by name, brought over +the foot from Antigonus, who, flying away secretly, was only able to retain +some of the seaport towns. Pyrrhus, among all these kindnesses of fortune, +thinking what he had effected against the Gauls the most advantageous for his +glory, hung up their richest and goodliest spoils in the temple of Minerva +Itonis, with this inscription: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Pyrrhus, descendant of Molossian kings,<br/> +These shields to thee, Itonian goddess, brings,<br/> +Won from the valiant Gauls when in the fight<br/> +Antigonus and all his host took flight;<br/> +’Tis not today nor yesterday alone<br/> +That for brave deeds the Aeacidae are known. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +After this victory in the field, he proceeded to secure the cities, and having +possessed himself of Aegae, beside other hardships put upon the people there, +he left in the town a garrison of Gauls, some of those in his own army, who, +being insatiably desirous of wealth, instantly dug up the tombs of the kings +that lay buried there, and took away the riches, and insolently scattered about +their bones. Pyrrhus, in appearance, made no great matter of it, either +deferring it on account of the pressure of other business, or wholly passing it +by, out of a fear of punishing those barbarians; but this made him very ill +spoken of among the Macedonians, and his affairs being yet unsettled and +brought to no firm consistence, he began to entertain new hopes and projects, +and in raillery called Antigonus a shameless man, for still wearing his purple +and not changing it for an ordinary dress; but upon Cleonymus, the Spartan, +arriving and inviting him to Lacedaemon, he frankly embraced the overture. +Cleonymus was of royal descent, but seeming too arbitrary and absolute, had no +great respect nor credit at home; and Areus was king there. This was the +occasion of an old and public grudge between him and the citizens; but, beside +that, Cleonymus, in his old age, had married a young lady of great beauty and +royal blood, Chilonis, daughter of Leotychides, who, falling desperately in +love with Acrotatus, Areus’s son, a youth in the flower of manhood, rendered +this match both uneasy and dishonorable to Cleonymus, as there was none of the +Spartans who did not very well know how much his wife slighted him; so these +domestic troubles added to his public discontent. He brought Pyrrhus to Sparta +with an army of twenty-five thousand foot, two thousand horse, and twenty-four +elephants. So great a preparation made it evident to the whole world, that he +came not so much to gain Sparta for Cleonymus, as to take all Peloponnesus for +himself, although he expressly denied this to the Lacedaemonian ambassadors +that came to him at Megalopolis, affirming he came to deliver the cities from +the slavery of Antigonus, and declaring he would send his younger sons to +Sparta, if he might, to be brought up in Spartan habits, that so they might be +better bred than all other kings. With these pretensions amusing those who came +to meet him in his march, as soon as ever he entered Laconia, he began to +plunder and waste the country, and on the ambassadors complaining that he began +the war upon them before it was proclaimed: “We know,” said he, “very well, +that neither do you Spartans, when you design anything, talk of it beforehand.” +One Mandroclidas, then present, told him, in the broad Spartan dialect: “If you +are a god, you will do us no harm, we are wronging no man; but if you are a +man, there may be another stronger than you.” +</p> + +<p> +He now marched away directly for Lacedaemon, and being advised by Cleonymus to +give the assault as soon as he arrived, fearing, as it is said, lest the +soldiers, entering by night, should plunder the city, he answered, they might +do it as well next morning, because there were but few soldiers in town, and +those unprovided against his sudden approach, as Areus was not there in person, +but gone to aid the Gortynians in Crete. And it was this alone that saved the +town, because he despised it as not tenable, and so imagining no defense would +be made, he sat down before it that night. Cleonymus’s friends, and the Helots, +his domestic servants, had made great preparation at his house, as expecting +Pyrrhus there at supper. In the night the Lacedaemonians held a consultation to +ship over all the women into Crete, but they unanimously refused, and +Archidamia came into the senate with a sword in her hand, in the name of them +all, asking if the men expected the women to survive the ruins of Sparta. It +was next resolved to draw a trench in a line directly over against the enemy’s +camp, and, here and there in it, to sink wagons in the ground, as deep as the +naves of the wheels, that, so being firmly fixed, they might obstruct the +passage of the elephants. When they had just begun the work, both maids and +women came to them, the married women with their robes tied like girdles round +their underfrocks, and the unmarried girls in their single frocks only, to +assist the elder men at the work. As for the youth that were next day to +engage, they left them to their rest, and undertaking their proportion, they +themselves finished a third part of the trench, which was in breadth six +cubits, four in depth, and eight hundred feet long, as Phylarchus says; +Hieronymus makes it somewhat less. The enemy beginning to move by break of day, +they brought their arms to the young men, and giving them also in charge the +trench, exhorted them to defend and keep it bravely, as it would be happy for +them to conquer in the view of their whole country, and glorious to die in the +arms of their mothers and wives, falling as became Spartans. As for Chilonis, +she retired with a halter about her neck, resolving to die so rather than fall +into the hands of Cleonymus, if the city were taken. +</p> + +<p> +Pyrrhus himself, in person, advanced with his foot to force through the shields +of the Spartans ranged against him, and to get over the trench, which was +scarce passable, because the looseness of the fresh earth afforded no firm +footing for the soldiers. Ptolemy, his son, with two thousand Gauls, and some +choice men of the Chaonians, went around the trench, and endeavored to get over +where the wagons were. But they, being so deep in the ground, and placed close +together, not only made his passage, but also the defense of the Lacedaemonians +very troublesome. Yet now the Gauls had got the wheels out of the ground, and +were drawing off the wagons toward the river, when young Acrotatus, seeing the +danger, passing through the town with three hundred men, surrounded Ptolemy +undiscerned, taking the advantage of some slopes of the ground, until he fell +upon his rear, and forced him to wheel about. And thrusting one another into +the ditch, and falling among the wagons, at last with much loss, not without +difficulty, they withdrew. The elderly men and all the women saw this brave +action of Acrotatus, and when he returned back into the town to his first post, +all covered with blood, and fierce and elate with victory, he seemed to the +Spartan women to have become taller and more beautiful than before, and they +envied Chilonis so worthy a lover. And some of the old men followed him, crying +aloud, “Go on, Acrotatus, be happy with Chilonis, and beget brave sons for +Sparta.” Where Pyrrhus himself fought was the hottest of the action, and many +of the Spartans did gallantly, but in particular one Phyllius signalized +himself, made the best resistance, and killed most assailants; and when he +found himself ready to sink with the many wounds he had received, retiring a +little out of his place behind another, he fell down among his fellow-soldiers, +that the enemy might not carry off his body. The fight ended with the day, and +Pyrrhus, in his sleep, dreamed that he threw thunderbolts upon Lacedaemon, and +set it all on fire, and rejoiced at the sight; and waking, in this transport of +joy, he commanded his officers to get all things ready for a second assault, +and relating his dream among his friends, supposing it to mean that he should +take the town by storm, the rest assented to it with admiration, but Lysimachus +was not pleased with the dream, and told him he feared, lest as places struck +with lightning are held sacred, and not to be trodden upon, so the gods might +by this let him know the city should not be taken. Pyrrhus replied, that all +these things were but idle talk, full of uncertainty, and only fit to amuse the +vulgar; their thought, with their swords in their hands, should always be +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The one good omen is king Pyrrhus’ cause, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and so got up, and drew out his army to the walls by break of day. The +Lacedaemonians, in resolution and courage, made a defense even beyond their +power; the women were all by, helping them to arms, and bringing bread and +drink to those that desired it, and taking care of the wounded. The Macedonians +attempted to fill up the trench, bringing huge quantities of materials and +throwing them upon the arms and dead bodies, that lay there and were covered +over. While the Lacedaemonians opposed this with all their force, Pyrrhus, in +person, appeared on their side of the trench and the wagons, pressing on +horseback toward the city, at which the men who had that post calling out, and +the women shrieking and running about, while Pyrrhus violently pushed on, and +beat down all that disputed his way, his horse received a shot in the belly +from a Cretan arrow, and, in his convulsions as he died, threw off Pyrrhus on +slippery and steep ground. And all about him being in confusion at this, the +Spartans came boldly up, and making good use of their missiles, forced them off +again. After this Pyrrhus, in other quarters also, put an end to the combat, +imagining the Lacedaemonians would be inclined to yield, as almost all of them +were wounded, and very great numbers killed outright; but the good fortune of +the city, either satisfied with the experiment upon the bravery of the +citizens, or willing to prove how much even in the last extremities such +interposition may effect, brought, when the Lacedaemonians had now but very +slender hopes left, Aminias, the Phocian, one of Antigonus’s commanders, from +Corinth to their assistance, with a force of mercenaries; and they were no +sooner received into the town, but Areus, their king, arrived there himself, +too, from Crete, with two thousand men more. The women upon this went all home +to their houses, finding it no longer necessary for them to meddle with the +business of the war; and they also were sent back, who, though not of military +age, were by necessity forced to take arms, while the rest prepared to fight +Pyrrhus. +</p> + +<p> +He, upon the coming of these additional forces, was indeed possessed with a +more eager desire and ambition than before, to make himself master of the town; +but his designs not succeeding, and receiving fresh losses every day, he gave +over the siege, and fell to plundering the country, determining to winter +thereabout. But fate is unavoidable, and a great feud happening at Argos +between Aristeas and Aristippus, two principal citizens, after Aristippus had +resolved to make use of the friendship of Antigonus, Aristeas, to anticipate +him, invited Pyrrhus thither. And he always revolving hopes upon hopes, and +treating all his successes as occasions of more, and his reverses as defects to +be amended by new enterprises, allowed neither losses nor victories to limit +him in his receiving or giving trouble, and so presently went for Argos. Areus, +by frequent ambushes, and seizing positions where the ways were most +unpracticable, harassed the Gauls and Molossians that brought up the rear. It +had been told Pyrrhus by one of the priests that found the liver of the +sacrificed beast imperfect, that some of his near relations would be lost; in +this tumult and disorder of his rear, forgetting the prediction, he commanded +out his son Ptolemy with some of his guards to their assistance, while he +himself led on the main body rapidly out of the pass. And the fight being very +warm where Ptolemy was, (for the most select men of the Lacedaemonians, +commanded by Evalcus, were there engaged,) one Oryssus of Aptera in Crete, a +stout man and swift of foot, running on one side of the young prince, as he was +fighting bravely, gave him a mortal wound and slew him. On his fall those about +him turned their backs, and the Lacedaemonian horse, pursuing and cutting off +many, got into the open plain, and found themselves engaged with the enemy +before they were aware, without their infantry; Pyrrhus, who had received the +ill news of his son, and was in great affliction, drew out his Molossian horse +against them, and charging at the head of his men, satiated himself with the +blood and slaughter of the Lacedaemonians, as indeed he always showed himself a +terrible and invincible hero in actual fight, but now he exceeded all he had +ever done before in courage and force. On his riding his horse up to Evalcus, +he, by declining a little to one side, had almost cut off Pyrrhus’s hand in +which he held the reins, but lighting on the reins, only cut them; at the same +instant Pyrrhus, running him through with his spear, fell from his horse, and +there on foot as he was, proceeded to slaughter all those choice men that +fought about the body of Evalcus; a severe additional loss to Sparta, incurred +after the war itself was now at an end, by the mere animosity of the +commanders. Pyrrhus having thus offered, as it were, a sacrifice to the ghost +of his son, and fought a glorious battle in honor of his obsequies, and having +vented much of his pain in action against the enemy, marched away to Argos. And +having intelligence that Antigonus was already in possession of the high +grounds, he encamped about Nauplia, and the next day dispatched a herald to +Antigonus, calling him a villain, and challenging him to descend into the plain +field and fight with him for the kingdom. He answered, that his conduct should +be measured by times as well as by arms, and that if Pyrrhus had no leisure to +live, there were ways enough open to death. To both the kings, also, came +ambassadors from Argos, desiring each party to retreat, and to allow the city +to remain in friendship with both, without falling into the hands of either. +Antigonus was persuaded, and sent his son as a hostage to the Argives; but, +Pyrrhus, although he consented to retire, yet, as he sent no hostage, was +suspected. A remarkable portent happened at this time to Pyrrhus; the heads of +the sacrificed oxen, lying apart from the bodies, were seen to thrust out their +tongues and lick up their own gore. And in the city of Argos, the priestess of +Apollo Lycius rushed out of the temple, crying she saw the city full of +carcasses and slaughter, and an eagle coming out to fight, and presently +vanishing again. +</p> + +<p> +In the dead of the night, Pyrrhus, approaching the walls, and finding the gate +called Diamperes set open for them by Aristeas, was undiscovered long enough to +allow all his Gauls to enter and take possession of the marketplace. But the +gate being too low to let in the elephants, they were obliged to take down the +towers which they carried on their backs, and put them on again in the dark and +in disorder, so that time being lost, the city took the alarm, and the people +ran, some to Aspis the chief citadel, and others to other places of defense, +and sent away to Antigonus to assist them. He, advancing within a short +distance, made an halt, but sent in some of his principal commanders, and his +son with a considerable force. Areus came thither, too, with one thousand +Cretans, and some of the most active men among the Spartans, and all falling on +at once upon the Gauls, put them in great disorder. Pyrrhus, entering in with +noise and shouting near the Cylarabis, when the Gauls returned the cry, noticed +that it did not express courage and assurance, but was the voice of men +distressed, and that had their hands full. He, therefore, pushed forward in +haste the van of his horse that marched but slowly and dangerously, by reason +of the drains and sinks of which the city is full. In this night engagement, +there was infinite uncertainty as to what was being done, or what orders were +given; there was much mistaking and straggling in the narrow streets; all +generalship was useless in that darkness and noise and pressure; so both sides +continued without doing anything, expecting daylight. At the first dawn, +Pyrrhus, seeing the great citadel Aspis full of enemies, was disturbed, and +remarking, among a variety of figures dedicated in the market-place, a wolf and +bull of brass, as it were ready to attack one another, he was struck with +alarm, recollecting an oracle that formerly predicted fate had determined his +death when he should see a wolf fighting with a bull. The Argives say, these +figures were set up in record of a thing that long ago had happened there. For +Danaus, at his first landing in the country, near the Pyramia in Thyreatis, as +he was on his way towards Argos, espied a wolf fighting with a bull, and +conceiving the wolf to represent him, (for this stranger fell upon a native, as +he designed to do,) stayed to see the issue of the fight, and the wolf +prevailing, he offered vows to Apollo Lycius, and thus made his attempt upon +the town, and succeeded; Gelanor, who was then king, being displaced by a +faction. And this was the cause of dedicating those figures. +</p> + +<p> +Pyrrhus, quite out of heart at this sight, and seeing none of his designs +succeed, thought best to retreat, but fearing the narrow passage at the gate, +sent to his son Helenus, who was left without the town with a great part of his +forces, commanding him to break down part of the wall, and assist the retreat +if the enemy pressed hard upon them. But what with haste and confusion, the +person that was sent delivered nothing clearly; so that quite mistaking, the +young prince with the best of his men and the remaining elephants marched +straight through the gates into the town to assist his father. Pyrrhus was now +making good his retreat, and while the marketplace afforded them ground enough +both to retreat and fight, frequently repulsed the enemy that bore upon him. +But when he was forced out of that broad place into the narrow street leading +to the gate, and fell in with those who came the other way to his assistance +some did not hear him call out to them to give back, and those who did, however +eager to obey him, were pushed forward by others behind, who poured in at the +gate. Besides, the largest of his elephants falling down on his side in the +very gate, and lying roaring on the ground, was in the way of those that would +have got out. Another of the elephants already in the town, called Nicon, +striving to take up his rider, who, after many wounds received, was fallen off +his back, bore forward upon those that were retreating, and, thrusting upon +friends as well as enemies, tumbled them all confusedly upon one another, till +having found the body, and taken it up with his trunk, he carried it on his +tusks, and, returning in a fury, trod down all before him. Being thus pressed +and crowded together, not a man could do anything for himself, but being +wedged, as it were, together into one mass, the whole multitude rolled and +swayed this way and that all together, and did very little execution either +upon the enemy in their rear, or on any of them who were intercepted in the +mass, but very much harm to one another. For he who had either drawn his sword +or directed his lance, could neither restore it again, nor put his sword up; +with these weapons they wounded their own men, as they happened to come in the +way, and they were dying by mere contact with each other. +</p> + +<p> +Pyrrhus, seeing this storm and confusion of things, took off the crown he wore +upon his helmet, by which he was distinguished, and gave it to one nearest his +person, and trusting to the goodness of his horse, rode in among the thickest +of the enemy, and being wounded with a lance through his breastplate, but not +dangerously, nor indeed very much, he turned about upon the man who struck him, +who was an Argive, not of any illustrious birth, but the son of a poor old +woman; she was looking upon the fight among other women from the top of a +house, and perceiving her son engaged with Pyrrhus, and affrighted at the +danger he was in, took up a tile with both hands, and threw it at Pyrrhus. This +falling on his head below the helmet, and bruising the vertebrae of the lower +part of the neck, stunned and blinded him; his hands let go the reins, and +sinking down from his horse, he fell just by the tomb of Licymnius. The common +soldiers knew not who it was; but one Zopyrus, who served under Antigonus, and +two or three others running thither, and knowing it was Pyrrhus, dragged him to +a door way hard by, just as he was recovering a little from the blow. But when +Zopyrus drew out an Illyrian sword, ready to cut off his head, Pyrrhus gave him +so fierce a look, that confounded with terror, and sometimes his hands +trembling, and then again endeavoring to do it, full of fear and confusion, he +could not strike him right, but cutting over his mouth and chin, it was a long +time before he got off the head. By this time what had happened was known to a +great many, and Alcyoneus hastening to the place, desired to look upon the +head, and see whether he knew it, and taking it in his hand rode away to his +father, and threw it at his feet, while he was sitting with some of his +particular favorites. Antigonus, looking upon it, and knowing it, thrust his +son from him, and struck him with his staff, calling him wicked and barbarous, +and covering his eyes with his robe, shed tears, thinking of his own father and +grandfather, instances in his own family of the changefulness of fortune, and +caused the head and body of Pyrrhus to be burned with all due solemnity. After +this, Alcyoneus, discovering Helenus under a mean disguise in a threadbare +coat, used him very respectfully, and brought him to his father. When Antigonus +saw him, “This, my son,” said he, “is better; and yet even now you have not +done wholly well in allowing these clothes to remain, to the disgrace of those +who it seems now are the victors.” And treating Helenus with great kindness, +and as became a prince, he restored him to his kingdom of Epirus, and gave the +same obliging reception to all Pyrrhus’s principal commanders, his camp and +whole army having fallen into his hands. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap31"></a>CAIUS MARIUS</h2> + +<p> +We are altogether ignorant of any third name of Caius Marius; as also of +Quintus Sertorius, that possessed himself of Spain; or of Lucius Mummius that +destroyed Corinth, though this last was surnamed Achaicus from his conquests, +as Scipio was called Africanus, and Metellus, Macedonicus. Hence Posidonius +draws his chief argument to confute those that hold the third to be the Roman +proper name, as Camillus, Marcellus, Cato; as in this case, those that had but +two names would have no proper name at all. He did not, however, observe that +by his own reasoning he must rob the women absolutely of their names; for none +of them have the first, which Posidonius imagines the proper name with the +Romans. Of the other two, one was common to the whole family, Pompeii, Manlii, +Cornelii, (as with us Greeks, the Heraclidae, and Pelopidae,) the other +titular, and personal, taken either from their natures, or actions, or bodily +characteristics, as Macrinus, Torquatus, Sylla; such as are Mnemon, Grypus, or +Callinicus among the Greeks. On the subject of names, however, the irregularity +of custom, would we insist upon it, might furnish us with discourse enough. +</p> + +<p> +There is a likeness of Marius in stone at Ravenna, in Gaul, which I myself saw, +quite corresponding with that roughness and harshness of character that is +ascribed to him. Being naturally valiant and warlike, and more acquainted also +with the discipline of the camp than of the city, he could not moderate his +passion when in authority. He is said never to have either studied Greek, or to +have made use of that language in any matter of consequence; thinking it +ridiculous to bestow time in that learning, the teachers of which were little +better than slaves. So after his second triumph, when at the dedication of a +temple he presented some shows after the Greek fashion, coming into the +theater, he only sat down and immediately departed. And, accordingly, as Plato +often used to say to Xenocrates the philosopher, who was thought to show more +than ordinary harshness of disposition, “I pray you, good Xenocrates, sacrifice +to the Graces”; so if any could have persuaded Marius to pay his devotions to +the Greek Muses and Graces, he had never brought his incomparable actions, both +in war and peace, to so unworthy a conclusion, or wrecked himself, so to say, +upon an old age of cruelty and vindictiveness, through passion, ill-timed +ambition, and insatiable cupidity. But this will further appear by and by from +the facts. +</p> + +<p> +He was born of parents altogether obscure and indigent, who supported +themselves by their daily labor; his father of the same name with himself, his +mother called Fulcinia. He had spent a considerable part of his life before he +saw and tasted the pleasures of the city; having passed previously in +Cirrhaeaton, a village of the territory of Arpinum, a life, compared with city +delicacies, rude and unrefined, yet temperate, and conformable to the ancient +Roman severity. He first served as a soldier in the war against the +Celtiberians, when Scipio Africanus besieged Numantia; where he signalized +himself to his general by courage far above his comrades, and, particularly, by +his cheerfully complying with Scipio’s reformation of his army, before almost +ruined by pleasures and luxury. It is stated, too, that he encountered and +vanquished an enemy in single combat, in his general’s sight. In consequence of +all this he had several honors conferred upon him; and once when at an +entertainment a question arose about commanders, and one of the company +(whether really desirous to know, or only in complaisance) asked Scipio where +the Romans, after him, should obtain such another general, Scipio, gently +clapping Marius on the shoulder as he sat next him, replied, “Here, perhaps.” +So promising was his early youth of his future greatness, and so discerning was +Scipio to detect the distant future in the present first beginnings. It was +this speech of Scipio, we are told, which, like a divine admonition, chiefly +emboldened Marius to aspire to a political career. He sought, and by the +assistance of Caecilius Metellus, of whose family he as well as his father were +dependents, obtained the office of tribune of the people. In which place, when +he brought forward a bill for the regulation of voting, which seemed likely to +lessen the authority of the great men in the courts of justice, the consul +Cotta opposed him, and persuaded the senate to declare against the law, and +call Marius to account for it. He, however, when this decree was prepared, +coming into the senate, did not behave like a young man newly and undeservedly +advanced to authority, but, assuming all the courage that his future actions +would have warranted, threatened Cotta unless he recalled the decree, to throw +him into prison. And on his turning to Metellus, and asking his vote, and +Metellus rising up to concur with the consul, Marius, calling for the officer +outside, commanded him to take Metellus into custody. He appealed to the other +tribunes, but not one of them assisted him; so that the senate, immediately +complying, withdrew the decree. Marius came forth with glory to the people and +confirmed his law, and was henceforth esteemed a man of undaunted courage and +assurance, as well as a vigorous opposer of the senate in favor of the commons. +But he immediately lost their opinion of him by a contrary action; for when a +law for the distribution of corn was proposed, he vigorously and successfully +resisted it, making himself equally honored by both parties, in gratifying +neither, contrary to the public interest. +</p> + +<p> +After his tribuneship, he was candidate for the office of chief aedile; there +being two orders of them, one the curules, from the stool with crooked feet on +which they sat when they performed their duty; the other and inferior, called +aediles of the people. As soon as they have chosen the former, they give their +voices again for the latter. Marius, finding he was likely to be put by for the +greater, immediately changed and stood for the less; but because he seemed too +forward and hot, he was disappointed of that also. And yet though he was in one +day twice frustrated of his desired preferment, (which never happened to any +before,) yet he was not at all discouraged, but a little while after sought for +the praetorship, and was nearly suffering a repulse, and then, too, though he +was returned last of all, was nevertheless accused of bribery. +</p> + +<p> +Cassius Sabaco’s servant, who was observed within the rails among those that +voted, chiefly occasioned the suspicion, as Sabaco was an intimate friend of +Marius; but on being called to appear before the judges, he alleged, that being +thirsty by reason of the heat, he called for cold water, and that his servant +brought him a cup, and as soon as he had drunk, departed; he was, however, +excluded from the senate by the succeeding censors, and not undeservedly +either, as was thought, whether it might be for his false evidence, or his want +of temperance. Caius Herennius was also cited to appear as evidence, but +pleaded that it was not customary for a patron, (the Roman word for protector,) +to witness against his clients, and that the law excused them from that harsh +duty; and both Marius and his parents had always been clients to the family of +the Herennii. And when the judges would have accepted of this plea, Marius +himself opposed it, and told Herennius, that when he was first created +magistrate he ceased to be his client; which was not altogether true. For it is +not every office that frees clients and their posterity from the observance due +to their patrons, but only those to which the law has assigned a curule chair. +Notwithstanding, though at the beginning of the suit it went somewhat hard with +Marius, and he found the judges no way favorable to him; yet, at last, their +voices being equal, contrary to all expectation, he was acquitted. +</p> + +<p> +In his praetorship he did not get much honor, yet after it he obtained the +further Spain; which province he is said to have cleared of robbers, with which +it was much infested, the old barbarous habits still prevailing, and the +Spaniards, in those days, still regarding robbery as a piece of valor. In the +city he had neither riches nor eloquence to trust to, with which the leading +men of the time obtained power with the people, but his vehement disposition, +his indefatigable labors, and his plain way of living, of themselves gained him +esteem and influence; so that he made an honorable match with Julia, of the +distinguished family of the Caesars, to whom that Caesar was nephew who was +afterwards so great among the Romans, and, in some degree, from his +relationship, made Marius his example, as in his life we have observed. +</p> + +<p> +Marius is praised for both temperance and endurance, of which latter he gave a +decided instance in an operation of surgery. For having, as it seems, both his +legs full of great tumors, and disliking the deformity, he determined to put +himself into the hands of an operator; when, without being tied, he stretched +out one of his legs, and silently, without changing countenance, endured most +excessive torments in the cutting, never either flinching or complaining; but +when the surgeon went to the other, he declined to have it done, saying, “I see +the cure is not worth the pain.” +</p> + +<p> +The consul Caecilius Metellus. being declared general in the war against +Jugurtha in Africa, took with him Marius for lieutenant; where, eager himself +to do great deeds and services that would get him distinction, he did not, like +others, consult Metellus’s glory and the serving his interest, and attributing +his honor of lieutenancy not to Metellus, but to fortune, which had presented +him with a proper opportunity and theater of great actions, he exerted his +utmost courage. That war, too, affording several difficulties, he neither +declined the greatest, nor disdained undertaking the least of them; but +surpassing his equals in counsel and conduct, and matching the very common +soldiers in labor and abstemiousness, he gained great popularity with them; as +indeed any voluntary partaking with people in their labor is felt as an easing +of that labor, as it seems to take away the constraint and necessity of it. It +is the most obliging sight in the world to the Roman soldier to see a commander +eat the same bread as himself, or lie upon an ordinary bed, or assist the work +in the drawing a trench and raising a bulwark. For they do not so much admire +those that confer honors and riches upon them, as those that partake of the +same labor and danger with themselves; but love them better that will vouchsafe +to join in their work, than those that encourage their idleness. +</p> + +<p> +Marius thus employed, and thus winning the affections of the soldiers, before +long filled both Africa and Rome with his fame, and some, too, wrote home from +the army that the war with Africa would never be brought to a conclusion, +unless they chose Caius Marius consul. All which was evidently unpleasing to +Metellus; but what more especially grieved him was the calamity of Turpillius. +This Turpillius had, from his ancestors, been a friend of Metellus, and kept up +constant hospitality with him; and was now serving in the war, in command of +the smiths and carpenters of the army. Having the charge of a garrison in Vaga, +a considerable city, and trusting too much to the inhabitants, because he +treated them civilly and kindly, he unawares fell into the enemy’s hands. They +received Jugurtha into the city; yet, nevertheless, at their request, +Turpillius was dismissed safe and without receiving any injury; whereupon he +was accused of betraying it to the enemy. Marius, being one of the council of +war, was not only violent against him himself, but also incensed most of the +others, so that Metellus was forced, much against his will, to put him to +death. Not long after the accusation proved false, and when others were +comforting Metellus, who took heavily the loss of his friend, Marius, rather +insulting and arrogating it to himself, boasted in all companies that he had +involved Metellus in the guilt of putting his friend to death. +</p> + +<p> +Henceforward they were at open variance; and it is reported that Metellus once, +when Marius was present, said, insultingly, “You, sir, design to leave us to go +home and stand for the consulship, and will not be content to wait and be +consul with this boy of mine?” Metellus’s son being a mere boy at the time. Yet +for all this Marius being very importunate to be gone, after several delays, he +was dismissed about twelve days before the election of consuls; and performed +that long journey from the camp to the seaport of Utica, in two days and a +night, and there doing sacrifice before he went on shipboard, it is said the +augur told him, that heaven promised him some incredible good fortune, and such +as was beyond all expectation. Marius, not a little elated with this good omen, +began his voyage, and in four days, with a favorable wind, passed the sea; he +was welcomed with great joy by the people, and being brought into the assembly +by one of the tribunes, sued for the consulship, inveighing in all ways against +Metellus, and promising either to slay Jugurtha or take him alive. +</p> + +<p> +He was elected triumphantly, and at once proceeded to levy soldiers, contrary +both to law and custom, enlisting slaves and poor people; whereas former +commanders never accepted of such, but bestowed arms, like other favors, as a +matter of distinction, on persons who had the proper qualification, a man’s +property being thus a sort of security for his good behavior. These were not +the only occasions of ill-will against Marius; some haughty speeches, uttered +with great arrogance and contempt, gave great offense to the nobility; as, for +example, his saying that he had carried off the consulship as a spoil from the +effeminacy of the wealthy and high-born citizens, and telling the people that +he gloried in wounds he had himself received for them, as much as others did in +the monuments of dead men and images of their ancestors. Often speaking of the +commanders that had been unfortunate in Africa, naming Bestia, for example, and +Albinus, men of very good families, but unfit for war, and who had miscarried +through want of experience, he asked the people about him, if they did not +think that the ancestors of these nobles had much rather have left a descendant +like him, since they themselves grew famous not by nobility, but by their valor +and great actions? This he did not say merely out of vanity and arrogance, or +that he were willing, without any advantage, to offend the nobility; but the +people always delighting in affronts and scurrilous contumelies against the +senate, making boldness of speech their measure of greatness of spirit, +continually encouraged him in it, and strengthened his inclination not to spare +persons of repute, so he might gratify the multitude. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he arrived again in Africa, Metellus, no longer able to control his +feelings of jealousy, and his indignation that now when he had really finished +the war, and nothing was left but to secure the person of Jugurtha, Marius, +grown great merely through his ingratitude to him, should come to bereave him +both of his victory and triumph, could not bear to have any interview with him; +but retired himself, whilst Rutilius, his lieutenant, surrendered up the army +to Marius, whose conduct, however, in the end of the war, met with some sort of +retribution, as Sylla deprived him of the glory of the action, as he had done +Metellus. I shall state the circumstances briefly here, as they are given at +large in the life of Sylla. Bocchus was king of the more distant barbarians, +and was father-in-law to Jugurtha, yet sent him little or no assistance in his +war, professing fears of his unfaithfulness, and really jealous of his growing +power; but after Jugurtha fled, and in his distress came to him as his last +hope, he received him as a suppliant, rather because ashamed to do otherwise, +than out of real kindness; and when he had him in his power, he openly +entreated Marius on his behalf, and interceded for him with bold words, giving +out that he would by no means deliver him. Yet privately designing to betray +him, he sent for Lucius Sylla, quaestor to Marius, and who had on a previous +occasion befriended Bocchus in the war. When Sylla, relying on his word, came +to him, the African began to doubt and repent of his purpose, and for several +days was unresolved with himself, whether he should deliver Jugurtha or retain +Sylla; at length he fixed upon his former treachery, and put Jugurtha alive +into Sylla’s possession. Thus was the first occasion given of that fierce and +implacable hostility which so nearly ruined the whole Roman empire. For many +that envied Marius, attributed the success wholly to Sylla; and Sylla himself +got a seal made on which was engraved Bocchus betraying Jugurtha to him, and +constantly used it, irritating the hot and jealous temper of Marius, who was +naturally greedy of distinction, and quick to resent any claim to share in his +glory, and whose enemies took care to promote the quarrel, ascribing the +beginning and chief business of the war to Metellus, and its conclusion to +Sylla; that so the people might give over admiring and esteeming Marius as the +worthiest person. +</p> + +<p> +But these envyings and calumnies were soon dispersed and cleared away from +Marius, by the danger that threatened Italy from the west; when the city, in +great need of a good commander, sought about whom she might set at the helm, to +meet the tempest of so great a war, no one would have anything to say to any +members of noble or potent families who offered themselves for the consulship, +and Marius, though then absent, was elected. +</p> + +<p> +Jugurtha’s apprehension was only just known, when the news of the invasion of +the Teutones and Cimbri began. The accounts at first exceeded all credit, as to +the number and strength of the approaching army; but in the end, report proved +much inferior to the truth, as they were three hundred thousand effective +fighting men, besides a far greater number of women and children. They +professed to be seeking new countries to sustain these great multitudes, and +cities where they might settle and inhabit, in the same way as they had heard +the Celti before them had driven out the Tyrrhenians, and possessed themselves +of the best part of Italy. Having had no commerce with the southern nations, +and traveling over a wide extent of country, no man knew what people they were, +or whence they came, that thus like a cloud burst over Gaul and Italy; yet by +their gray eyes and the largeness of their stature, they were conjectured to be +some of the German races dwelling by the northern sea; besides that, the +Germans call plunderers Cimbri. +</p> + +<p> +There are some that say, that the country of the Celti, in its vast size and +extent, reaches from the furthest sea and the arctic regions to the lake +Maeotis eastward, and to that part of Scythia which is near Pontus, and that +there the nations mingle together; that they did not swarm out of their country +all at once, or on a sudden, but advancing by force of arms, in the summer +season, every year, in the course of time they crossed the whole continent. And +thus, though each party had several appellations, yet the whole army was called +by the common name of Celto-Scythians. Others say that the Cimmerii, anciently +known to the Greeks, were only a small part of the nation, who were driven out +upon some quarrel among the Scythians, and passed all along from the lake +Maeotis to Asia, under the conduct of one Lygdamis; and that the greater and +more warlike part of them still inhabit the remotest regions lying upon the +outer ocean. These, they say, live in a dark and woody country hardly +penetrable by the sunbeams, the trees are so close and thick, extending into +the interior as far as the Hercynian forest; and their position on the earth is +under that part of heaven, where the pole is so elevated, that by the +declination of the parallels, the zenith of the inhabitants seems to be but +little distant from it; and that their days and nights being almost of an equal +length, they divide their year into one of each. This was Homer’s occasion for +the story of Ulysses calling up the dead, and from this region the people, +anciently called Cimmerii, and afterwards, by an easy change, Cimbri, came into +Italy. All this, however, is rather conjecture than an authentic history. +</p> + +<p> +Their numbers, most writers agree, were not less, but rather greater than was +reported. They were of invincible strength and fierceness in their wars, and +hurried into battle with the violence of a devouring flame; none could +withstand them; all they assaulted became their prey. Several of the greatest +Roman commanders with their whole armies, that advanced for the defense of +Transalpine Gaul, were ingloriously overthrown, and, indeed, by their faint +resistance, chiefly gave them the impulse of marching towards Rome. Having +vanquished all they had met, and found abundance of plunder, they resolved to +settle themselves nowhere till they should have razed the city, and wasted all +Italy. The Romans, being from all parts alarmed with this news, sent for Marius +to undertake the war, and nominated him the second time consul, though the law +did not permit any one that was absent, or that had not waited a certain time +after his first consulship, to be again created. But the people rejected all +opposers; for they considered this was not the first time that the law gave +place to the common interest; nor the present occasion less urgent than that +when, contrary to law, they made Scipio consul, not in fear for the destruction +of their own city, but desiring the ruin of that of the Carthaginians. +</p> + +<p> +Thus it was decided; and Marius, bringing over his legions out of Africa on the +very first day of January, which the Romans count the beginning of the year, +received the consulship, and then, also, entered in triumph, showing Jugurtha a +prisoner to the people, a sight they had despaired of ever beholding, nor could +any, so long as he lived, hope to reduce the enemy in Africa; so fertile in +expedients was he to adapt himself to every turn of fortune, and so bold as +well as subtle. When, however, he was led in triumph, it is said that he fell +distracted, and when he was afterwards thrown into prison, where some tore off +his clothes by force, and others, whilst they struggled for his golden +ear-ring, with it pulled off the tip of his ear, and when he was, after this, +cast naked into the dungeon, in his amazement and confusion, with a ghastly +laugh, he cried out, “O Hercules! how cold your bath is!” Here for six days +struggling with hunger, and to the very last minute desirous of life, he was +overtaken by the just reward of his villainies. In this triumph was brought, as +is stated, of gold three thousand and seven pounds weight, of silver bullion +five thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, of money in gold and silver coin +two hundred and eighty-seven thousand drachmas. After the solemnity, Marius +called together the senate in the capitol, and entered, whether through +inadvertency or unbecoming exultation with his good fortune, in his triumphal +habit; but presently observing the senate offended at it, went out, and +returned in his ordinary purple-bordered robe. +</p> + +<p> +On the expedition he carefully disciplined and trained his army whilst on their +way, giving them practice in long marches, and running of every sort, and +compelling every man to carry his own baggage and prepare his own victuals; +insomuch that thenceforward laborious soldiers, who did their work silently +without grumbling, had the name of “Marius’s mules.” Some, however, think the +proverb had a different occasion; that when Scipio besieged Numantia, and was +careful to inspect not only their horses and arms, but their mules and +carriages too, and see how well equipped and in what readiness each one’s was, +Marius brought forth his horse which he had fed extremely well, and a mule in +better case, stronger and gentler than those of others; that the general was +very well pleased, and often afterwards mentioned Marius’s beasts; and that +hence the soldiers, when speaking jestingly in the praise of a drudging, +laborious fellow, called him Marius’s mule. +</p> + +<p> +But to proceed; very great good fortune seemed to attend Marius, for by the +enemy in a manner changing their course, and falling first upon Spain, he had +time to exercise his soldiers, and confirm their courage, and, which was most +important, to show them what he himself was. For that fierce manner of his in +command, and inexorableness in punishing, when his men became used not to do +amiss or disobey, was felt to be wholesome and advantageous, as well as just, +and his violent spirit, stern voice, and harsh aspect, which in a little while +grew familiar to them, they esteemed terrible not to themselves, but only to +their enemies. But his uprightness in judging, more especially pleased the +soldiers, one remarkable instance of which is as follows. One Caius Lusius, his +own nephew, had a command under him in the army, a man not in other respects of +bad character, but shamefully licentious with young men. He had one young man +under his command called Trebonius, with whom notwithstanding many +solicitations he could never prevail. At length one night, he sent a messenger +for him, and Trebonius came, as it was not lawful for him to refuse when he was +sent for, and being brought into his tent, when Lusius began to use violence +with him, he drew his sword and ran him through. This was done whilst Marius +was absent. When he returned, he appointed Trebonius a time for his trial, +where, whilst many accused him, and not any one appeared in his defense, he +himself boldly related the whole matter, and brought witness of his previous +conduct to Lusius, who had frequently offered him considerable presents. +Marius, admiring his conduct and much pleased, commanded the garland, the usual +Roman reward of valor, to be brought, and himself crowned Trebonius with it, as +having performed an excellent action, at a time that very much wanted such good +examples. +</p> + +<p> +This being told at Rome, proved no small help to Marius towards his third +consulship; to which also conduced the expectation of the barbarians at the +summer season, the people being unwilling to trust their fortunes with any +other general but him. However, their arrival was not so early as was imagined, +and the time of Marius’s consulship was again expired. The election coming on, +and his colleague being dead, he left the command of the army to Manius +Aquilius, and hastened to Rome, where, several eminent persons being candidates +for the consulship, Lucius Saturninus, who more than any of the other tribunes +swayed the populace, and of whom Marius himself was very observant, exerted his +eloquence with the people, advising them to choose Marius consul. He playing +the modest part, and professing to decline the office, Saturninus called him +traitor to his country, if, in such apparent danger, he would avoid command. +And though it was not difficult to discover that he was merely helping Marius +in putting this presence upon the people, yet, considering that the present +juncture much required his skill, and his good fortune too, they voted him the +fourth time consul, and made Catulus Lutatius his colleague, a man very much +esteemed by the nobility, and not unagreeable to the commons. +</p> + +<p> +Marius, having notice of the enemy’s approach, with all expedition passed the +Alps, and pitching his camp by the river Rhone, took care first for plentiful +supplies of victuals; lest at any time he should be forced to fight at a +disadvantage for want of necessaries. The carriage of provision for the army +from the sea, which was formerly long and expensive, he made speedy and easy. +For the mouth of the Rhone, by the influx of the sea, being barred and almost +filled up with sand and mud mixed with clay, the passage there became narrow, +difficult, and dangerous for the ships that brought their provisions. Hither, +therefore, bringing his army, then at leisure, he drew a great trench; and by +turning the course of great part of the river, brought it to a convenient point +on the shore where the water was deep enough to receive ships of considerable +burden, and where there was a calm and easy opening to the sea. And this still +retains the name it took from him. +</p> + +<p> +The enemy dividing themselves into two parts, the Cimbri arranged to go against +Catulus higher up through the country of the Norici, and to force that passage; +the Teutones and Ambrones to march against Marius by the sea-side through +Liguria. The Cimbri were a considerable time in doing their part. But the +Teutones and Ambrones with all expedition passing over the interjacent country, +soon came in sight, in numbers beyond belief, of a terrible aspect, and +uttering strange cries and shouts. Taking up a great part of the plain with +their camp, they challenged Marius to battle; he seemed to take no notice of +them, but kept his soldiers within their fortifications, and sharply +reprehended those that were too forward and eager to show their courage, and +who, out of passion, would needs be fighting, calling them traitors to their +country, and telling them they were not now to think of the glory of triumphs +and trophies, but rather how they might repel such an impetuous tempest of war, +and save Italy. +</p> + +<p> +Thus he discoursed privately with his officers and equals, but placed the +soldiers by turns upon the bulwarks to survey the enemy, and so made them +familiar with their shape and voice, which were indeed altogether extravagant +and barbarous, and he caused them to observe their arms, and way of using them, +so that in a little time what at first appeared terrible to their +apprehensions, by often viewing, became familiar. For he very rationally +supposed, that the strangeness of things often makes them seem formidable when +they are not so; and that by our better acquaintance, even things which are +really terrible, lose much of their frightfulness. This daily converse not only +diminished some of the soldiers’ fear, but their indignation warmed and +inflamed their courage, when they heard the threats and insupportable insolence +of their enemies; who not only plundered and depopulated all the country round, +but would even contemptuously and confidently attack the ramparts. +</p> + +<p> +Complaints of the soldiers now began to come to Marius’s ears. “What effeminacy +does Marius see in us, that he should thus like women lock us up from +encountering our enemies? Come on, let us show ourselves men, and ask him if he +expects others to fight for Italy; and means merely to employ us in servile +offices, when he would dig trenches, cleanse places of mud and dirt, and turn +the course of rivers? It was to do such works as these, it seems, that he gave +us all our long training; he will return home, and boast of these great +performances of his consulships to the people. Does the defeat of Carbo and +Caepio, who were vanquished by the enemy, affright him? Surely they were much +inferior to Marius both in glory and valor, and commanded a much weaker army; +at the worst, it is better to be in action, though we suffer for it like them, +than to sit idle spectators of the destruction of our allies and companions.” +Marius, not a little pleased to hear this, gently appeased them, pretending +that he did not distrust their valor, but that he took his measures as to the +time and place of victory from some certain oracles. +</p> + +<p> +And, in fact, he used solemnly to carry about in a litter, a Syrian woman, +called Martha, a supposed prophetess, and to do sacrifice by her directions. +She had formerly been driven away by the senate, to whom she addressed herself, +offering to inform them about these affairs, and to foretell future events; and +after this betook herself to the women, and gave them proofs of her skill, +especially Marius’s wife, at whose feet she sat when she was viewing a contest +of gladiators, and correctly foretold which of them should overcome. She was +for this and the like predictings sent by her to Marius and the army, where she +was very much looked up to, and, for the most part, carried about in a litter. +When she went to sacrifice, she wore a purple robe lined and buckled up, and +had in her hand a little spear trimmed with ribbons and garlands. This +theatrical show made many question, whether Marius really gave any credit to +her himself, or only played the counterfeit, when he showed her publicly, to +impose upon the soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +What, however, Alexander the Myndian relates about the vultures, does really +deserve admiration; that always before Marius’s victories there appeared two of +them, and accompanied the army, which were known by their brazen collars, (the +soldiers having caught them and put these about their necks, and so let them +go, from which time they in a manner knew and saluted the soldiers,) and +whenever these appeared in their marches, they used to rejoice at it, and +thought themselves sure of some success. Of the many other prodigies that then +were taken notice of, the greater part were but of the ordinary stamp; it was, +however, reported that at Ameria and Tuder, two cities in Italy, there were +seen at nights in the sky, flaming darts and shields, now waved about, and then +again clashing against one another, all in accordance with the postures and +motions soldiers use in fighting; that at length one party retreating, and the +other pursuing, they all disappeared westward. Much about the same time came +Bataces, one of Cybele’s priests, from Pesinus, and reported how the goddess +had declared to him out of her oracle, that the Romans should obtain the +victory. The senate giving credit to him, and voting the goddess a temple to be +built in hopes of the victory, Aulus Pompeius, a tribune, prevented Bataces, +when he would have gone and told the people this same story, calling him +impostor, and ignominiously pulling him off the hustings; which action in the +end was the main thing that gained credit for the man’s story, for Aulus had +scarce dissolved the assembly, and returned home, when a violent fever seized +him, and it was matter of universal remark, and in everybody’s mouth, that he +died within a week after. +</p> + +<p> +Now the Teutones, whilst Marius lay quiet, ventured to attack his camp; from +whence, however, being encountered with showers of darts, and losing several of +their men, they determined to march forward, hoping to reach the other side of +the Alps without opposition, and, packing up their baggage, passed securely by +the Roman camp, where the greatness of their number was especially made evident +by the long time they took in their march, for they were said to be six days +continually going on in passing Marius’s fortifications; they marched pretty +near, and revilingly asked the Romans if they would send any commands by them +to their wives, for they would shortly be with them. As soon as they were +passed and had gone on a little distance ahead, Marius began to move, and +follow them at his leisure, always encamping at some small distance from them; +choosing also strong positions, and carefully fortifying them, that he might +quarter with safety. Thus they marched till they came to the place called +Sextilius’s Waters, from whence it was but a short way before being amidst the +Alps, and here Marius put himself in readiness for the encounter. +</p> + +<p> +He chose a place for his camp of considerable strength, but where there was a +scarcity of water; designing, it is said, by this means, also, to put an edge +on his soldiers’ courage; and when several were not a little distressed, and +complained of thirst, pointing to a river that ran near the enemy’s camp: +“There,” said he, “you may have drink, if you will buy it with your blood.” +“Why, then,” replied they, “do you not lead us to them, before our blood is +dried up in us?” He answered, in a softer tone, “let us first fortify our +camp,” and the soldiers, though not without repining, proceeded to obey. Now a +great company of their boys and camp-followers, having neither drink for +themselves nor for their horses, went down to that river; some taking axes and +hatchets, and some, too, swords and darts with their pitchers, resolving to +have water though they fought for it. These were first encountered by a small +party of the enemies; for most of them had just finished bathing, and were +eating and drinking, and several were still bathing, the country thereabouts +abounding in hot springs; so that the Romans partly fell upon them whilst they +were enjoying themselves, and occupied with the novel sights and pleasantness +of the place. Upon hearing the shouts, greater numbers still joining in the +fight, it was not a little difficult for Marius to contain his soldiers, who +were afraid of losing the camp-servants; and the more warlike part of the +enemies, who had overthrown Manlius and Caepio, (they were called Ambrones, and +were in number, one with another, above thirty thousand,) taking the alarm, +leaped up and hurried to arms. +</p> + +<p> +These, though they had just been gorging themselves with food, and were excited +and disordered with drink, nevertheless did not advance with an unruly step, or +in mere senseless fury, nor were their shouts mere inarticulate cries; but +clashing their arms in concert, and keeping time as they leapt and bounded +onward, they continually repeated their own name, “Ambrones!” either to +encourage one another, or to strike the greater terror into their enemies. Of +all the Italians in Marius’s army, the Ligurians were the first that charged; +and when they caught the word of the enemy’s confused shout, they, too, +returned the same, as it was an ancient name also in their country, the +Ligurians always using it when speaking of their descent. This acclamation, +bandied from one army to the other before they joined, served to rouse and +heighten their fury, while the men on either side strove, with all possible +vehemence, the one to overshout the other. +</p> + +<p> +The river disordered the Ambrones; before they could draw up all their army on +the other side of it, the Ligurians presently fell upon the van, and began to +charge them hand to hand. The Romans, too, coming to their assistance, and from +the higher ground pouring upon the enemy, forcibly repelled them, and the most +of them (one thrusting another into the river) were there slain, and filled it +with their blood and dead bodies. Those that got safe over, not daring to make +head, were slain by the Romans, as they fled to their camp and wagons; where +the women meeting them with swords and hatchets, and making a hideous outcry, +set upon those that fled as well as those that pursued, the one as traitors, +the other as enemies; and, mixing themselves with the combatants, with their +bare arms pulling away the Romans’ shields, and laying hold on their swords, +endured the wounds and slashing of their bodies to the very last, with +undaunted resolution. Thus the battle seems to have happened at that river +rather by accident than by the design of the general. +</p> + +<p> +After the Romans were retired from the great slaughter of the Ambrones, night +came on; but the army was not indulged, as was the usual custom, with songs of +victory, drinking in their tents, and mutual entertainments, and (what is most +welcome to soldiers after successful fighting) quiet sleep, but they passed +that night, above all others, in fears and alarm. For their camp was without +either rampart or palisade, and there remained thousands upon thousands of +their enemies yet unconquered; to whom were joined as many of the Ambrones as +escaped. There were heard from these, all through the night, wild bewailings, +nothing like the sighs and groans of men, but a sort of wild-beastlike howling +and roaring, joined with threats and lamentations rising from the vast +multitude, and echoed among the neighboring hills and hollow banks of the +river. The whole plain was filled with hideous noise, insomuch that the Romans +were not a little afraid, and Marius himself was apprehensive of a confused +tumultuous night engagement. But the enemy did not stir either this night or +the next day, but were employed in disposing and drawing themselves up to the +greatest advantage. +</p> + +<p> +Of this occasion Marius made good use; for there were beyond the enemies some +wooded ascents and deep valleys thickly set with trees, whither he sent +Claudius Marcellus, secretly, with three thousand regular soldiers, giving him +orders to post them in ambush there, and show themselves at the rear of the +enemies, when the fight was begun. The others, refreshed with victuals and +sleep, as soon as it was day he drew up before the camp, and commanded the +horse to sally out into the plain, at the sight of which the Teutones could not +contain themselves till the Romans should come down and fight them on equal +terms, but hastily arming themselves, charged in their fury up the hill-side. +Marius, sending officers to all parts, commanded his men to stand still and +keep their ground; when they came within reach, to throw their javelins, then +use their swords, and, joining their shields, force them back; pointing out to +them that the steepness of the ground would render the enemy’s blows +inefficient, nor could their shields be kept close together, the inequality of +the ground hindering the stability of their footing. +</p> + +<p> +This counsel he gave them, and was the first that followed it; for he was +inferior to none in the use of his body, and far excelled all in resolution. +The Romans accordingly stood for their approach, and, checking them in their +advance upwards, forced them little by little to give way and yield down the +hill, and here, on the level ground no sooner had the Ambrones begun to restore +their van into a posture of resistance, but they found their rear disordered. +For Marcellus had not let slip the opportunity; but as soon as the shout was +raised among the Romans on the hills, he, setting his men in motion, fell in +upon the enemy behind, at full speed, and with loud cries, and routed those +nearest him, and they, breaking the ranks of those that were before them, +filled the whole army with confusion. They made no long resistance after they +were thus broke in upon, but having lost all order, fled. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans, pursuing them, slew and took prisoners above one hundred thousand, +and possessing themselves of their spoil, tents, and carriages, voted all that +was not purloined to Marius’s share, which, though so magnificent a present, +yet was generally thought less than his conduct deserved in so great a danger. +Other authors give a different account, both about the division of the plunder +and the number of the slain. They say, however, that the inhabitants of +Massilia made fences round their vineyards with the bones, and that the ground, +enriched by the moisture of the putrefied bodies, (which soaked in with the +rain of the following winter,) yielded at the season a prodigious crop, and +fully justified Archilochus, who said, that the fallows thus are fattened. It +is an observation, also, that extraordinary rains pretty generally fall after +great battles; whether it be that some divine power thus washes and cleanses +the polluted earth with showers from above, or that moist and heavy +evaporations, steaming forth from the blood and corruption, thicken the air, +which naturally is subject to alteration from the smallest causes. +</p> + +<p> +After the battle, Marius chose out from amongst the barbarians’ spoils and +arms, those that were whole and handsome, and that would make the greatest show +in his triumph; the rest he heaped upon a large pile, and offered a very +splendid sacrifice. Whilst the army stood round about with their arms and +garlands, himself attired (as the fashion is on such occasions) in the +purple-bordered robe, taking a lighted torch, and with both hands lifting it up +towards heaven, he was then going to put it to the pile, when some friends were +espied with all haste coming towards him on horseback. Upon which every one +remained in silence and expectation. They, upon their coming up, leapt off and +saluted Marius, bringing him the news of his fifth consulship, and delivered +him letters to that effect. This gave the addition of no small joy to the +solemnity; and while the soldiers clashed their arms and shouted, the officers +again crowned Marius with a laurel-wreath, and he thus set fire to the pile, +and finished his sacrifice. +</p> + +<p> +But whatever it be, which interferes to prevent the enjoyment of prosperity +ever being pure and sincere, and still diversifies human affairs with the +mixture of good and bad, whether fortune or divine displeasure, or the +necessity of the nature of things, within a few days Marius received an account +of his colleague, Catulus, which as a cloud in serenity and calm, terrified +Rome with the apprehension of another imminent storm. Catulus, who marched +against the Cimbri, despairing of being able to defend the passes of the Alps, +lest, being compelled to divide his forces into several parties, he should +weaken himself, descended again into Italy, and posted his army behind the +river Adige; where he occupied the passages with strong fortifications on both +sides the river, and made a bridge, that so he might cross to the assistance of +his men on the other side, if so be the enemy, having forced their way through +the mountain passes, should storm the fortresses. The barbarians, however, came +on with such insolence and contempt of their enemies, that to show their +strength and courage, rather than out of any necessity, they went naked in the +showers of snow, and through the ice and deep snow climbed up to the tops of +the hills, and from thence, placing their broad shields under their bodies, let +themselves slide from the precipices along their vast slippery descents. +</p> + +<p> +When they had pitched their camp at a little distance from the river, and +surveyed the passage, they began to pile it up, giant-like, tearing down the +neighboring hills; and brought trees pulled up by the roots, and heaps of earth +to the river, damming up its course; and with great heavy materials which they +rolled down the stream and dashed against the bridge, they forced away the +beams which supported it; in consequence of which the greatest part of the +Roman soldiers, much affrighted, left the large camp and fled. Here Catulus +showed himself a generous and noble general, in preferring the glory of his +people before his own; for when he could not prevail with his soldiers to stand +to their colors, but saw how they all deserted them, he commanded his own +standard to be taken up, and running to the foremost of those that fled, he led +them forward, choosing rather that the disgrace should fall upon himself than +upon his country, and that they should not seem to fly, but, following their +captain, to make a retreat. The barbarians assaulted and took the fortress on +the other side the Adige; where much admiring the few Romans there left, who +had shown extreme courage, and had fought worthily of their country, they +dismissed them upon terms, swearing them upon their brazen bull, which was +afterwards taken in the battle, and carried, they say, to Catulus’s house, as +the chief trophy of victory. +</p> + +<p> +Thus falling in upon the country destitute of defense, they wasted it on all +sides. Marius was presently sent for to the city; where, when he arrived, every +one supposing he would triumph, the senate, too, unanimously voting it, he +himself did not think it convenient; whether that he were not willing to +deprive his soldiers and officers of their share of the glory, or that to +encourage the people in this juncture, he would leave the honor due to his past +victory on trust, as it were, in the hands of the city and its future fortune; +deferring it now, to receive it afterwards with the greater splendor. Having +left such orders as the occasion required, he hastened to Catulus, whose +drooping spirits he much raised, and sent for his own army from Gaul: and as +soon as it came, passing the river Po, he endeavored to keep the barbarians out +of that part of Italy which lies south of it. +</p> + +<p> +They professed they were in expectation of the Teutones, and, saying they +wondered they were so long in coming, deferred the battle; either that they +were really ignorant of their defeat, or were willing to seem so. For they +certainly much maltreated those that brought them such news, and, sending to +Marius, required some part of the country for themselves and their brethren, +and cities fit for them to inhabit. When Marius inquired of the ambassadors who +their brethren were, upon their saying, the Teutones, all that were present +began to laugh; and Marius scoffingly answered them, “Do not trouble yourselves +for your brethren, for we have already provided lands for them, which they +shall possess forever.” The ambassadors, understanding the mockery, broke into +insults, and threatened that the Cimbri would make him pay for this, and the +Teutones, too, when they came. “They are not far off,” replied Marius, “and it +will be unkindly done of you to go away before greeting your brethren.” Saying +so, he commanded the kings of the Teutones to be brought out. as they were, in +chains; for they were taken by the Sequani among the Alps, before they could +make their escape. This was no sooner made known to the Cimbri, but they with +all expedition came against Marius, who then lay still and guarded his camp. +</p> + +<p> +It is said, that against this battle, Marius first altered the construction of +the Roman javelins. For before, at the place where the wood was joined to the +iron, it was made fast with two iron pins; but now Marius let one of them alone +as it was, and pulling out the other, put a weak wooden peg in its place, thus +contriving, that when it was driven into the enemy’s shield, it should not +stand right out, but the wooden peg breaking, the iron should bend, and so the +javelin should hold fast by its crooked point, and drag. Boeorix, king of the +Cimbri, came with a small party of horse to the Roman camp, and challenged +Marius to appoint the time and place, where they might meet and fight for the +country. Marius answered, that the Romans never consulted their enemies when to +fight; however, he would gratify the Cimbri so far; and so they fixed upon the +third day after, and for the place, the plain near Vercellae, which was +convenient enough for the Roman horse, and afforded room for the enemy to +display their numbers. +</p> + +<p> +They observed the time appointed, and drew out their forces against each other. +Catulus commanded twenty thousand three hundred, and Marius thirty-two +thousand, who were placed in the two wings, leaving Catulus the center. Sylla, +who was present at the fight, gives this account; saying, also, that Marius +drew up his army in this order, because he expected that the armies would meet +on the wings, since it generally happens that in such extensive fronts the +center falls back, and thus he would have the whole victory to himself and his +soldiers, and Catulus would not be even engaged. They tell us, also, that +Catulus himself alleged this in vindication of his honor, accusing, in various +ways, the enviousness of Marius. The infantry of the Cimbri marched quietly out +of their fortifications, having their flanks equal to their front; every side +of the army taking up thirty furlongs. Their horse, that were in number fifteen +thousand, made a very splendid appearance. They wore helmets, made to resemble +the heads and jaws of wild beasts, and other strange shapes, and heightening +these with plumes of feathers, they made themselves appear taller than they +were. They had breastplates of iron, and white glittering shields; and for +their offensive arms, every one had two darts, and when they came hand to hand, +they used large and heavy swords. +</p> + +<p> +The cavalry did not fall directly upon the front of the Romans, but, turning to +the right, they endeavored to draw them on in that direction by little and +little, so as to get them between themselves and their infantry, who were +placed in the left wing. The Roman commanders soon perceived the design, but +could not contain the soldiers; for one happening to shout out that the enemy +fled, they all rushed to pursue them, while the whole barbarian foot came on, +moving like a great ocean. Here Marius, having washed his hands, and lifting +them up towards heaven, vowed an hecatomb to the gods; and Catulus, too, in the +same posture, solemnly promised to consecrate a temple to the “Fortune of that +day.” They say, too, that Marius, having the victim showed to him as he was +sacrificing, cried out with a loud voice, “the victory is mine.” +</p> + +<p> +However, in the engagement, according to the accounts of Sylla and his friends, +Marius met with what might be called a mark of divine displeasure. For a great +dust being raised, which (as it might very probably happen) almost covered both +the armies, he, leading on his forces to the pursuit, missed the enemy, and +having passed by their array, moved, for a good space, up and down the field; +meanwhile the enemy, by chance, engaged with Catulus, and the heat of the +battle was chiefly with him and his men, among whom Sylla says he was; adding, +that the Romans had great advantage of the heat and sun that shone in the faces +of the Cimbri. For they, well able to endure cold, and having been bred up, (as +we observed before,) in cold and shady countries, were overcome with the +excessive heat; they sweated extremely, and were much out of breath, being +forced to hold their shields before their faces; for the battle was fought not +long after the summer solstice, or, as the Romans reckon, upon the third day +before the new moon of the month now called August, and then Sextilis. The +dust, too, gave the Romans no small addition to their courage, inasmuch as it +hid the enemy. For afar off they could not discover their number; but every one +advancing to encounter those that were nearest to them, they came to fight hand +to hand, before the sight of so vast a multitude had struck terror into them. +They were so much used to labor, and so well exercised, that in all the heat +and toil of the encounter, not one of them was observed either to sweat, or to +be out of breath; so much so, that Catulus himself, they say, recorded it in +commendation of his soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +Here the greatest part and most valiant of the enemies were cut in pieces; for +those that fought in the front, that they might not break their ranks, were +fast tied to one another, with long chains put through their belts. But as they +pursued those that fled to their camp, they witnessed a most fearful tragedy; +the women, standing in black clothes on their wagons, slew all that fled, some +their husbands, some their brethren, others their fathers; and strangling their +little children with their own hands, threw them under the wheels, and the feet +of the cattle, and then killed themselves. They tell of one who hung herself +from the end of the pole of a wagon, with her children tied dangling at her +heels. The men, for want of trees, tied themselves, some to the horns of the +oxen, others by the neck to their legs, that so pricking them on, by the +starting and springing of the beasts, they might be torn and trodden to pieces. +Yet for all they thus massacred themselves, above sixty thousand were taken +prisoners, and those that were slain were said to be twice as many. +</p> + +<p> +The ordinary plunder was taken by Marius’s soldiers, but the other spoils, as +ensigns, trumpets, and the like, they say, were brought to Catulus’s camp; +which he used for the best argument that the victory was obtained by himself +and his army. Some dissensions arising, as was natural, among the soldiers, the +deputies from Parma being then present, were made judges of the controversy; +whom Catulus’s men carried about among their slain enemies, and manifestly +showed them that they were slain by their javelins, which were known by the +inscriptions, having Catulus’s name cut in the wood. Nevertheless, the whole +glory of the action was ascribed to Marius, on account of his former victory, +and under color of his present authority; the populace more especially styling +him the third founder of their city, as having diverted a danger no less +threatening than was that when the Gauls sacked Rome; and every one, in their +feasts and rejoicings at home with their wives and children, made offerings and +libations in honor of “The Gods and Marius;” and would have had him solely have +the honor of both the triumphs. However, he did not do so, but triumphed +together with Catulus, being desirous to show his moderation even in such great +circumstances of good fortune, besides, he was not a little afraid of the +soldiers in Catulus’s army, lest, if he should wholly bereave their general of +the honor, they should endeavor to hinder him of his triumph. +</p> + +<p> +Marius was now in his fifth consulship, and he sued for his sixth in such a +manner as never any man before him, had done, even for his first; he courted +the people’s favor and ingratiated himself with the multitude by every sort of +complaisance; not only derogating from the state and dignity of his office, but +also belying his own character, by attempting to seem popular and obliging, for +which nature had never designed him. His passion for distinction did, indeed, +they say, make him exceedingly timorous in any political matters, or in +confronting public assemblies; and that undaunted presence of mind he always +showed in battle against the enemy, forsook him when he was to address the +people; he was easily upset by the most ordinary commendation or dispraise. It +is told of him, that having at one time given the freedom of the city to one +thousand men of Camerinum who had behaved valiantly in this war, and this +seeming to be illegally done, upon some one or other calling him to an account +for it, he answered, that the law spoke too softly to be heard in such a noise +of war; yet he himself appeared to be more disconcerted and overcome by the +clamor made in the assemblies. The need they had of him in time of war procured +him power and dignity; but in civil affairs, when he despaired of getting the +first place, he was forced to betake himself to the favor of the people, never +caring to be a good man, so that he were but a great one. +</p> + +<p> +He thus became very odious to all the nobility; and, above all, he feared +Metellus, who had been so ungratefully used by him, and whose true virtue made +him naturally an enemy to those that sought influence with the people, not by +the honorable course, but by subservience and complaisance. Marius, therefore, +endeavored to banish him from the city, and for this purpose he contracted a +close alliance with Glaucia and Saturninus, a couple of daring fellows, who had +the great mass of the indigent and seditious multitude at their control; and by +their assistance he enacted various laws, and bringing the soldiers, also, to +attend the assembly, he was enabled to overpower Metellus. And as Rutilius +relates, (in all other respects a fair and faithful authority, but, indeed, +privately an enemy to Marius,) he obtained his sixth consulship by distributing +vast sums of money among the tribes, and by this bribery kept out Metellus, and +had Valerius Flaccus given him as his instrument, rather than his colleague, in +the consulship. The people had never before bestowed so many consulships on any +one man, except on Valerius Corvinus only, and he, too, they say, was +forty-five years between his first and last; but Marius, from his first, ran +through five more, with one current of good fortune. +</p> + +<p> +In the last, especially, he contracted a great deal of hatred, by committing +several gross misdemeanors in compliance with the desires of Saturninus; among +which was the murder of Nonius, whom Saturninus slew, because he stood in +competition with him for the tribuneship. And when, afterwards, Saturninus, on +becoming tribune, brought forward his law for the division of lands, with a +clause enacting that the senate should publicly swear to confirm whatever the +people should vote, and not to oppose them in anything, Marius, in the senate, +cunningly feigned to be against this provision, and said that he would not take +any such oath, nor would any man, he thought, who was wise; for if there were +no ill design in the law, still it would be an affront to the senate, to be +compelled to give their approbation, and not to do it willingly and upon +persuasion. This he said, not that it was agreeable to his own sentiments, but +that he might entrap Metellus beyond any possibility of escape. For Marius, in +whose ideas virtue and capacity consisted largely in deceit, made very little +account of what he had openly professed to the senate; and knowing that +Metellus was one of a fixed resolution, and, as Pindar has it, esteemed Truth +the first principle of heroic virtue; he hoped to ensnare him into a +declaration before the senate, and on his refusing, as he was sure to do, +afterwards to take the oath, he expected to bring him into such odium with the +people, as should never be wiped off. The design succeeded to his wish. As soon +as Metellus had declared that he would not swear to it, the senate adjourned. A +few days after, on Saturninus citing the senators to make their appearance, and +take the oath before the people, Marius stepped forth, amidst a profound +silence, every one being intent to hear him, and bidding farewell to those fine +speeches he had before made in the senate, said, that his back was not so broad +that he should think himself bound, once for all, by any opinion once given on +so important a matter; he would willingly swear and submit to the law, if so be +it were one, a proviso which he added as a mere cover for his effrontery. The +people, in great joy at his taking the oath, loudly clapped and applauded him, +while the nobility stood by ashamed and vexed at his inconstancy; but they +submitted out of fear of the people, and all in order took the oath, till it +came to Metellus’s turn. But he, though his friends begged and entreated him to +take it, and not to plunge himself irrecoverably into the penalties which +Saturninus had provided for those that should refuse it, would not flinch from +his resolution, nor swear; but, according to his fixed custom, being ready to +suffer anything rather than do a base, unworthy action, he left the forum, +telling those that were with him, that to do a wrong thing is base, and to do +well where there is no danger, common; the good man’s characteristic is to do +so, where there is danger. +</p> + +<p> +Hereupon Saturninus put it to the vote, that the consuls should place Metellus +under their interdict, and forbid him fire, water, and lodging. There were +enough, too, of the basest of people ready to kill him. Nevertheless, when many +of the better sort were extremely concerned, and gathered about Metellus, he +would not suffer them to raise a sedition upon his account, but with this calm +reflection left the city, “Either when the posture of affairs is mended and the +people repent, I shall be recalled, or if things remain in their present +condition, it will be best to be absent.” But what great favor and honor +Metellus received in his banishment, and in what manner he spent his time at +Rhodes, in philosophy, will be more fitly our subject, when we write his life. +</p> + +<p> +Marius, in return for this piece of service, was forced to connive at +Saturninus, now proceeding to the very height of insolence and violence, and +was, without knowing it, the instrument of mischief beyond endurance, the only +course of which was through outrages and massacres to tyranny and the +subversion of the government. Standing in some awe of the nobility, and, at the +same time, eager to court the commonalty, he was guilty of a most mean and +dishonest action. When some of the great men came to him at night to stir him +up against Saturninus, at the other door, unknown to them, he let him in; then +making the same presence of some disorder of body to both, he ran from one +party to the other, and staying at one time with them and another with him, he +instigated and exasperated them one against another. At length when the senate +and equestrian order concerted measures together, and openly manifested their +resentment, he did bring his soldiers into the forum, and driving the +insurgents into the capitol, and then cutting off the conduits, forced them to +surrender by want of water. They, in this distress, addressing themselves to +him, surrendered, as it is termed, on the public faith. He did his utmost to +save their lives, but so wholly in vain, that when they came down into the +forum, they were all basely murdered. Thus he had made himself equally odious +both to the nobility and commons, and when the time was come to create censors, +though he was the most obvious man, yet he did not petition for it; but fearing +the disgrace of being repulsed, permitted others, his inferiors, to be elected, +though he pleased himself by giving out, that he was not willing to disoblige +too many by undertaking a severe inspection into their lives and conduct. +</p> + +<p> +There was now an edict preferred to recall Metellus from banishment; this he +vigorously, but in vain, opposed both by word and deed, and was at length +obliged to desist. The people unanimously voted for it; and he, not able to +endure the sight of Metellus’s return, made a voyage to Cappadocia and Galatia; +giving out that he had to perform the sacrifices, which he had vowed to Cybele; +but actuated really by other less apparent reasons. For, in fact, being a man +altogether ignorant of civil life and ordinary politics, he received all his +advancement from war; and supposing his power and glory would by little and +little decrease by his lying quietly out of action, he was eager by every means +to excite some new commotions, and hoped that by setting at variance some of +the kings, and by exasperating Mithridates, especially, who was then apparently +making preparations for war, he himself should be chosen general against him, +and so furnish the city with new matter of triumph, and his own house with the +plunder of Pontus, and the riches of its king. Therefore, though Mithridates +entertained him with all imaginable attention and respect, yet he was not at +all wrought upon or softened by it, but said, “O king, either endeavor to be +stronger than the Romans, or else quietly submit to their commands.” With which +he left Mithridates astonished, as he indeed had often heard the fame of the +bold speaking of the Romans, but now for the first time experienced it. +</p> + +<p> +When Marius returned again to Rome, he built a house close by the forum, +either, as he himself gave out, that he was not willing his clients should be +tired with going far, or that he imagined distance was the reason why more did +not come. This, however, was not so; the real reason was, that being inferior +to others in agreeableness of conversation and the arts of political life, like +a mere tool and implement of war, he was thrown aside in time of peace. Amongst +all those whose brightness eclipsed his glory, he was most incensed against +Sylla, who had owed his rise to the hatred which the nobility bore Marius; and +had made his disagreement with him the one principle of his political life. +When Bocchus, king of Numidia, who was styled the associate of the Romans, +dedicated some figures of Victory in the capitol, and with them a +representation in gold, of himself delivering Jugurtha to Sylla, Marius upon +this was almost distracted with rage and ambition, as though Sylla had +arrogated this honor to himself, and endeavored forcibly to pull down these +presents; Sylla, on the other side, as vigorously resisted him; but the Social +War then on a sudden threatening the city, put a stop to this sedition, when +just ready to break out. For the most warlike and best-peopled countries of all +Italy formed a confederacy together against Rome, and were within a little of +subverting the empire; as they were indeed strong, not only in their weapons +and the valor of their soldiers, but stood nearly upon equal terms with the +Romans, as to the skill and daring of their commanders. +</p> + +<p> +As much glory and power as this war, so various in its events and so uncertain +as to its success, conferred upon Sylla, so much it took away from Marius, who +was thought tardy, unenterprising, and timid, whether it were that his age was +now quenching his former heat and vigor, (for he was above sixty-five years +old,) or that having, as he himself said, some distemper that affected his +muscles, and his body being unfit for action, he did service above his +strength. Yet, for all this, he came off victor in a considerable battle, +wherein he slew six thousand of the enemies, and never once gave them any +advantage over him; and when he was surrounded by the works of the enemy, he +contained himself, and though insulted over, and challenged, did not yield to +the provocation. The story is told that when Publius Silo, a man of the +greatest repute and authority among the enemies, said to him, “If you are +indeed a great general, Marius, leave your camp and fight a battle,” he +replied, “If you are one, make me do so.” And another time, when the enemy gave +them a good opportunity of a battle, and the Romans through fear durst not +charge, so that both parties retreated, he called an assembly of his soldiers +and said, “It is no small question whether I should call the enemies, or you, +the greater cowards, for neither did they dare to face your backs, nor you to +confront theirs.” At length, professing to be worn out with the infirmity of +his body, he laid down his command. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards, when the Italians were worsted, there were several candidates +suing, with the aid of the popular leaders, for the chief command in the war +with Mithridates. Sulpicius, tribune of the people, a bold and confident man, +contrary to everybody’s expectation, brought forward Marius, and proposed him +as proconsul and general in that war. The people were divided; some were on +Marius’s side, others voted for Sylla, and jeeringly bade Marius go to his +baths at Baiae, to cure his body, worn out, as himself confessed, with age and +catarrhs. Marius had, indeed, there, about Misenum, a villa more effeminately +and luxuriously furnished than seemed to become one that had seen service in so +many and great wars and expeditions. This same house Cornelia bought for +seventy-five thousand drachmas, and not long after Lucius Lucullus, for two +million five hundred thousand; so rapid and so great was the growth of Roman +sumptuosity. Yet, in spite of all this, out of a mere boyish passion for +distinction, affecting to shake off his age and weakness, he went down daily to +the Campus Martius, and exercising himself with the youth, showed himself still +nimble in his armor, and expert in riding; though he was undoubtedly grown +bulky in his old age, and inclining to excessive fatness and corpulency. +</p> + +<p> +Some people were pleased with this, and went continually to see him competing +and displaying himself in these exercises; but the better sort that saw him, +pitied the cupidity and ambition that made one who had risen from utter poverty +to extreme wealth, and out of nothing into greatness, unwilling to admit any +limit to his high fortune, or to be content with being admired, and quietly +enjoying what he had already got: why, as if he still were indigent, should he +at so great an age leave his glory and his triumphs to go into Cappadocia and +the Euxine Sea, to fight Archelaus and Neoptolemus, Mithridates’s generals? +Marius’s pretenses for this action of his seemed very ridiculous; for he said +he wanted to go and teach his son to be a general. +</p> + +<p> +The condition of the city, which had long been unsound and diseased, became +hopeless now that Marius found so opportune an instrument for the public +destruction as Sulpicius’s insolence. This man professed, in all other +respects, to admire and imitate Saturninus; only he found fault with him for +backwardness and want of spirit in his designs. He, therefore, to avoid this +fault, got six hundred of the equestrian order about him as his guard, whom he +named anti-senators; and with these confederates he set upon the consuls, +whilst they were at the assembly, and took the son of one of them, who fled +from the forum, and slew him. Sylla, being hotly pursued, took refuge in +Marius’s house, which none could suspect, by that means escaping those that +sought him, who hastily passed by there, and, it is said, was safely conveyed +by Marius himself out at the other door, and came to the camp. Yet Sylla, in +his memoirs, positively denies that he fled to Marius, saying he was carried +thither to consult upon the matters to which Sulpicius would have forced him, +against his will, to consent; that he, surrounding him with drawn swords, +hurried him to Marius, and constrained him thus, till he went thence to the +forum and removed, as they required him to do, the interdict on business. +</p> + +<p> +Sulpicius, having thus obtained the mastery, decreed the command of the army to +Marius, who proceeded to make preparations for his march, and sent two tribunes +to receive the charge of the army from Sylla. Sylla hereupon exasperating his +soldiers, who were about thirty-five thousand full-armed men, led them towards +Rome. First falling upon the tribunes Marius had sent, they slew them; Marius +having done as much for several of Sylla’s friends in Rome, and now offering +their freedom to the slaves on condition of their assistance in the war; of +whom, however, they say, there were but three who accepted his proposal. For +some small time he made head against Sylla’s assault, but was soon overpowered +and fled; those that were with him, as soon as he had escaped out of the city, +were dispersed, and night coming on, he hastened to a country-house of his, +called Solonium. Hence he sent his son to some neighboring farms of his +father-in-law, Mucius, to provide necessaries; he went himself to Ostia, where +his friend Numerius had prepared him a ship, and hence, not staying for his +son, he took with him his son-in-law Granius, and weighed anchor. +</p> + +<p> +Young Marius, coming to Mucius’s farms, made his preparations; and the day +breaking, was almost discovered by the enemy. For there came thither a party of +horse that suspected some such matter; but the farm steward, foreseeing their +approach, hid Marius in a cart full of beans, then yoking in his team and +driving toward the city, met those that were in search of him. Marius, thus +conveyed home to his wife, took with him some necessaries, and came at night to +the sea-side; where, going on board a ship that was bound for Africa, he went +away thither. Marius, the father, when he had put to sea, with a strong gale +passing along the coast of Italy, was in no small apprehension of one Geminius, +a great man at Terracina, and his enemy; and therefore bade the seamen hold off +from that place. They were, indeed, willing to gratify him, but the wind now +blowing in from the sea, and making the waves swell to a great height, they +were afraid the ship would not be able to weather out the storm, and Marius, +too, being indisposed and seasick, they made for land, and not without some +difficulty reached the shore near Circeium. +</p> + +<p> +The storm now increasing and their victuals failing, they left their ship and +wandered up and down without any certain purpose, simply as in great distresses +people shun the present as the greatest evil, and rely upon the hopes of +uncertainties. For the land and sea were both equally unsafe for them; it was +dangerous to meet with people, and it was no less so to meet with none, on +account of their want of necessaries. At length, though late, they lighted upon +a few poor shepherds, that had not anything to relieve them; but knowing +Marius, advised him to depart as soon as might be, for they had seen a little +beyond that place a party of horse that were gone in search of him. Finding +himself in a great straight, especially because those that attended him were +not able to go further, being spent with their long fasting, for the present he +turned aside out of the road, and hid himself in a thick wood, where he passed +the night in great wretchedness. The next day, pinched with hunger, and willing +to make use of the little strength he had, before it were all exhausted, he +traveled by the seaside, encouraging his companions not to fall away from him +before the fulfillment of his final hopes, for which, in reliance on some old +predictions, he professed to be sustaining himself. For when he was yet but +very young, and lived in the country, he caught in the skirt of his garment an +eagle’s nest, as it was falling, in which were seven young ones, which his +parents seeing and much admiring, consulted the augurs about it, who told them +that he should become the greatest man in the world, and that the fates had +decreed he should seven times be possessed of the supreme power and authority. +Some are of opinion that this really happened to Marius, as we have related it; +others say, that those who then and through the rest of his exile heard him +tell these stories, and believed him, have merely repeated a story that is +altogether fabulous; for an eagle never hatches more than two; and even Musaeus +was deceived, who, speaking of the eagle, says that, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“She lays three eggs, hatches two, and rears one.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +However this be, it is certain Marius, in his exile and greatest extremities, +would often say, that he should attain a seventh consulship. +</p> + +<p> +When Marius and his company were now about twenty furlongs distant from +Minturnae, a city in Italy, they espied a troop, of horse making up toward them +with all speed, and by chance, also, at the same time, two ships under sail. +Accordingly, they ran every one with what speed and strength they could to the +sea, and plunging into it, swam to the ships. Those that were with Granius, +reaching one of them, passed over to an island opposite, called Aenaria; Marius +himself whose body was heavy and unwieldy, was with great pains and difficulty +kept above the water by two servants, and put into the other ship. The soldiers +were by this time come to the seaside, and from thence called out to the seamen +to put to shore, or else to throw out Marius, and then they might go whither +they would. Marius besought them with tears to the contrary, and the masters of +the ship, after frequent changes, in a short space of time, of their purpose, +inclining, first to one, then to the other side, resolved at length to answer +the soldiers, that they would not give up Marius. As soon as they had ridden +off in a rage, the seamen, again changing their resolution, came to land, and +casting anchor at the mouth of the river Liris, where it overflows and makes a +great marsh, they advised him to land, refresh himself on shore, and take some +care of his discomposed body, till the wind came fairer; which, said they, will +happen at such an hour, when the wind from the sea will calm, and that from the +marshes rise. Marius, following their advice, did so, and when the sea-men had +set him on shore, he laid him down in an adjacent field, suspecting nothing +less than what was to befall him. They, as soon as they had got into the ship, +weighed anchor and departed, as thinking it neither honorable to deliver Marius +into the hands of those that sought him, nor safe to protect him. +</p> + +<p> +He thus, deserted by all, lay a good while silently on the shore; at length +collecting himself, he advanced with pain and difficulty, without any path, +till, wading through deep bogs and ditches full of water and mud, he came upon +the hut of an old man that worked in the fens, and falling at his feet besought +him to assist and preserve one who, if he escaped the present danger, would +make him returns beyond his expectation. The poor man, whether he had formerly +known him, or were then moved with his superior aspect, told him that if he +wanted only rest, his cottage would be convenient; but if he were flying from +anybody’s search, he would hide him in a more retired place. Marius desiring +him to do so, he carried him into the fens and bade him hide himself in an +hollow place by the river side, where he laid upon him a great many reeds, and +other things that were light, and would cover, but not oppress him. But within +a very short time he was disturbed with a noise and tumult from the cottage, +for Geminius had sent several from Terracina in pursuit of him; some of whom, +happening to come that way, frightened and threatened the old man for having +entertained and hid an enemy of the Romans. Wherefore Marius, arising and +stripping himself, plunged into a puddle full of thick muddy water; and even +there he could not escape their search, but was pulled out covered with mire, +and carried away naked to Minturnae, and delivered to the magistrates. For +there had been orders sent through all the towns, to make public search for +Marius, and if they found him to kill him; however, the magistrates thought +convenient to consider a little better of it first, and sent him prisoner to +the house of one Fannia. +</p> + +<p> +This woman was supposed not very well affected towards him upon an old account. +One Tinnius had formerly married this Fannia; from whom she afterwards being +divorced, demanded her portion, which was considerable, but her husband accused +her of adultery; so the controversy was brought before Marius in his sixth +consulship. When the cause was examined thoroughly, it appeared both that +Fannia had been incontinent, and that her husband knowing her to be so, had +married and lived a considerable time with her. So that Marius was severe +enough with both, commanding him to restore her portion, and laying a fine of +four copper coins upon her by way of disgrace. But Fannia did not then behave +like a woman that had been injured, but as soon as she saw Marius, remembered +nothing less than old affronts; took care of him according to her ability, and +comforted him. He made her his returns and told her he did not despair, for he +had met with a lucky omen, which was thus. When he was brought to Fannia’s +house, as soon as the gate was opened, an ass came running out to drink at a +spring hard by, and giving a bold and encouraging look, first stood still +before him, then brayed aloud and pranced by him. From which Marius drew his +conclusion, and said, that the fates designed him safety, rather by sea than +land, because the ass neglected his dry fodder, and turned from it to the +water. Having told Fannia this story, he bade the chamber door to be shut and +went to rest. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile the magistrates and councilors of Minturnae consulted together, and +determined not to delay any longer, but immediately to kill Marius; and when +none of their citizens durst undertake the business, a certain soldier, a +Gaulish or Cimbrian horseman, (the story is told both ways,) went in with his +sword drawn to him. The room itself was not very light, that part of it +especially where he then lay was dark, from whence Marius’s eyes, they say, +seemed to the fellow to dart out flames at him, and a loud voice to say, out of +the dark, “Fellow, darest thou kill Caius Marius?” The barbarian hereupon +immediately fled, and leaving his sword in the place rushed out of doors, +crying only this, “I cannot kill Caius Marius.” At which they were all at first +astonished, and presently began to feel pity, and remorse, and anger at +themselves for making so unjust and ungrateful a decree against one who had +preserved Italy, and whom it was bad enough not to assist. “Let him go,” said +they, “where he please to banishment, and find his fate somewhere else; we only +entreat pardon of the gods for thrusting Marius distressed and deserted out of +our city.” +</p> + +<p> +Impelled by thoughts of this kind, they went in a body into the room, and +taking him amongst them, conducted him towards the sea-side; on his way to +which, though everyone was very officious to him, and all made what haste they +could, yet a considerable time was likely to be lost. For the grove of Marica, +(as she is called,) which the people hold sacred, and make it a point of +religion not to let anything that is once carried into it be taken out, lay +just in their road to the sea, and if they should go round about, they must +needs come very late thither. At length one of the old men cried out and said, +there was no place so sacred, but they might pass through it for Marius’s +preservation; and thereupon, first of all, he himself, taking up some of the +baggage that was carried for his accommodation to the ship, passed through the +grove, all the rest immediately, with the same readiness, accompanying him. And +one Belaeus, (who afterwards had a picture of these things drawn, and put it in +a temple at the place of embarkation,) having by this time provided him a ship, +Marius went on board, and, hoisting sail, was by fortune thrown upon the island +Aenaria, where meeting with Granius, and his other friends, he sailed with them +for Africa. But their water failing them in the way, they were forced to put in +near Eryx, in Sicily, where was a Roman quaestor on the watch, who all but +captured Marius himself on his landing, and did kill sixteen of his retinue +that went to fetch water. Marius, with all expedition loosing thence, crossed +the sea to the isle of Meninx, where he first heard the news of his son’s +escape with Cethegus, and of his going to implore the assistance of Hiempsal, +king of Numidia. +</p> + +<p> +With this news, being somewhat comforted, he ventured to pass from that isle +towards Carthage. Sextilius, a Roman, was then governor in Africa; one that had +never received either any injury or any kindness from Marius; but who from +compassion, it was hoped, might lend him some help. But he was scarce got +ashore with a small retinue, when an officer met him, and said, “Sextilius, the +governor, forbids you, Marius, to set foot in Africa; if you do, he says, he +will put the decree of the senate in execution, and treat you as an enemy to +the Romans.” When Marius heard this, he wanted words to express his grief and +resentment, and for a good while held his peace, looking sternly upon the +messenger, who asked him what he should say, or what answer he should return to +the governor? Marius answered him with a deep sigh: “Go tell him that you have +seen Caius Marius sitting in exile among the ruins of Carthage;” appositely +applying the example of the fortune of that city to the change of his own +condition. +</p> + +<p> +In the interim, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, dubious of what he should determine +to do, treated young Marius and those that were with him very honorably; but +when they had a mind to depart, he still had some presence or other to detain +them, and it was manifest he made these delays upon no good design. However, +there happened an accident that made well for their preservation. The hard +fortune which attended young Marius, who was of a comely aspect, touched one of +the king’s concubines, and this pity of hers, was the beginning and occasion of +love for him. At first he declined the woman’s solicitations, but when he +perceived that there was no other way of escaping, and that her offers were +more serious than for the gratification of intemperate passion, he accepted her +kindness, and she finding means to convey them away, he escaped with his +friends and fled to his father. As soon as they had saluted each other, and +were going by the sea-side, they saw some scorpions fighting, which Marius took +for an ill omen, whereupon they immediately went on board a little fisher-boat, +and made toward Cercina, an island not far distant from the continent. They had +scarce put off from shore when they espied some horse, sent after them by the +king, with all speed making toward that very place from which they were just +retired. And Marius thus escaped a danger, it might be said, as great as any he +ever incurred. +</p> + +<p> +At Rome news came that Sylla was engaged with Mithridates’s generals in +Boeotia; the consuls, from factious opposition, were fallen to downright +fighting, wherein Octavius prevailing, drove Cinna out of the city for +attempting despotic government, and made Cornelius Merula consul in his stead; +while Cinna, raising forces in other parts of Italy, carried the war against +them. As soon as Marius heard of this, he resolved, with all expedition, to put +to sea again, and taking with him from Africa some Mauritanian horse, and a few +of the refugees out of Italy, all together not above one thousand, he, with +this handful, began his voyage. Arriving at Telamon, in Etruria, and coming +ashore, he proclaimed freedom for the slaves; and many of the countrymen, also, +and shepherds thereabouts, who were already freemen, at the hearing his name +flocked to him to the sea-side. He persuaded the youngest and strongest to join +him, and in a small time got together a competent force with which he filled +forty ships. Knowing Octavius to be a good man and willing to execute his +office with the greatest justice imaginable, and Cinna to be suspected by +Sylla, and in actual warfare against the established government, he determined +to join himself and his forces with the latter. He, therefore, sent a message +to him, to let him know that he was ready to obey him as consul. +</p> + +<p> +When Cinna had joyfully received his offer, naming him proconsul, and sending +him the fasces and other ensigns of authority, he said, that grandeur did not +become his present fortune; but wearing an ordinary habit, and still letting +his hair grow as it had done, from that very day he first went into banishment, +and being now above threescore and ten years old, he came slowly on foot, +designing to move people’s compassion; which did not prevent, however, his +natural fierceness of expression from still predominating, and his humiliation +still let it appear that he was not so much dejected as exasperated, by the +change of his condition. Having saluted Cinna and the soldiers, he immediately +prepared for action, and soon made a considerable alteration in the posture of +affairs. He first cut off the provision ships, and plundering all the +merchants, made himself master of the supplies of corn; then bringing his navy +to the seaport towns, he took them, and at last, becoming master of Ostia by +treachery, he pillaged that town, and slew a multitude of the inhabitants, and, +blocking up the river, took from the enemy all hopes of supply by the sea; then +marched with his army toward the city, and posted himself upon the hill called +Janiculum. +</p> + +<p> +The public interest did not receive so great damage from Octavius’s +unskillfulness in his management of affairs, as from his omitting needful +measures, through too strict observance of the law. As when several advised him +to make the slaves free, he said that he would not give slaves the privilege of +the country from which he then, in defense of the laws, was driving away +Marius. When Metellus, son to that Metellus who was general in the war in +Africa, and afterwards banished through Marius’s means, came to Rome, being +thought a much better commander than Octavius, the soldiers, deserting the +consul, came to him and desired him to take the command of them and preserve +the city; that they, when they had got an experienced valiant commander, should +fight courageously, and come off conquerors. But when Metellus, offended at it, +commanded them angrily to return to the consul, they revolted to the enemy. +Metellus, too, seeing the city in a desperate condition, left it; but a company +of Chaldaeans, sacrificers, and interpreters of the Sibyl’s books, persuaded +Octavius that things would turn out happily, and kept him at Rome. He was, +indeed, of all the Romans the most upright and just, and maintained the honor +of the consulate, without cringing or compliance, as strictly in accordance +with ancient laws and usages, as though they had been immutable mathematical +truths; and yet fell, I know not how, into some weaknesses, giving more +observance to fortune-tellers and diviners, than to men skilled in civil and +military affairs. He therefore, before Marius entered the city, was pulled down +from the rostra, and murdered by those that were sent before by Marius; and it +is reported there was a Chaldaean writing found in his gown, when he was slain. +And it seemed a thing very unaccountable, that of two famous generals, Marius +should be often successful by the observing divinations, and Octavius ruined by +the same means. +</p> + +<p> +When affairs were in this posture, the senate assembled, and sent a deputation +to Cinna and Marius, desiring them to come into the city peaceably and spare +the citizens. Cinna, as consul, received the embassy, sitting in the curule +chair, and returned a kind answer to the messengers; Marius stood by him and +said nothing, but gave sufficient testimony by the gloominess of his +countenance, and the sternness of his looks, that he would in a short time fill +the city with blood. As soon as the council arose, they went toward the city, +where Cinna entered with his guards, but Marius stayed at the gates, and, +dissembling his rage, professed that he was then an exile and banished his +country by course of law; that if his presence were necessary, they must, by a +new decree, repeal the former act by which he was banished; as though he were, +indeed, a religious observer of the laws, and as if he were returning to a city +free from fear or oppression. Hereupon the people were assembled, but before +three or four tribes had given their votes, throwing up his pretenses and his +legal scruples about his banishment, he came into the city with a select guard +of the slaves who had joined him, whom he called Bardyaei. These proceeded to +murder a number of citizens, as he gave command, partly by word of mouth, +partly by the signal of his nod. At length Ancharius, a senator, and one that +had been praetor, coming to Marius, and not being resaluted by him, they with +their drawn swords slew him before Marius’s face; and henceforth this was their +token, immediately to kill all those who met Marius and saluting him were taken +no notice of, nor answered with the like courtesy; so that his very friends +were not without dreadful apprehensions and horror, whensoever they came to +speak with him. +</p> + +<p> +When they had now butchered a great number, Cinna grew more remiss and cloyed +with murders; but Marius’s rage continued still fresh and unsatisfied, and he +daily sought for all that were any way suspected by him. Now was every road and +every town filled with those that pursued and hunted them that fled and hid +themselves; and it was remarkable that there was no more confidence to be +placed, as things stood, either in hospitality or friendship; for there were +found but a very few that did not betray those that fled to them for shelter. +And thus the servants of Cornutus deserve the greater praise and admiration, +who, having concealed their master in the house, took the body of one of the +slain, cut off the head, put a gold ring on the finger, and showed it to +Marius’s guards, and buried it with the same solemnity as if it had been their +own master. This trick was perceived by nobody, and so Cornutus escaped, and +was conveyed by his domestics into Gaul. +</p> + +<p> +Marcus Antonius, the orator, though he, too, found a true friend, had +ill-fortune. The man was but poor and a plebeian, and as he was entertaining a +man of the greatest rank in Rome, trying to provide for him with the best he +could, he sent his servant to get some wine of neighboring vintner. The servant +carefully tasting it and bidding him draw better, the fellow asked him what was +the matter, that he did not buy new and ordinary wine as he used to do, but +richer and of a greater price; he, without any design, told him as his old +friend and acquaintance, that his master entertained Marcus Antonius, who was +concealed with him. The villainous vintner, as soon as the servant was gone, +went himself to Marius, then at supper, and being brought into his presence, +told him, he would deliver Antonius into his hands. As soon as he heard it, it +is said he gave a great shout, and clapped his hands for joy, and had very +nearly risen up and gone to the place himself; but being detained by his +friends, he sent Annius, and some soldiers with him, and commanded him to bring +Antonius’s head to him with all speed. When they came to the house, Annius +stayed at the door, and the soldiers went up stairs into the chamber; where, +seeing Antonius, they endeavored to shuffle off the murder from one to another; +for so great it seems were the graces and charms of his oratory, that as soon +as he began to speak and beg his life, none of them durst touch or so much as +look upon him; but hanging down their heads, every one fell a weeping. When +their stay seemed something tedious, Annius came up himself and found Antonius +discoursing, and the soldiers astonished and quite softened by it, and calling +them cowards, went himself and cut off his head. +</p> + +<p> +Catulus Lutatius, who was colleague with Marius, and his partner in the triumph +over the Cimbri, when Marius replied to those that interceded for him and +begged his life, merely with the words, “he must die,” shut himself up in a +room, and making a great fire, smothered himself. When maimed and headless +carcasses were now frequently thrown about and trampled upon in the streets, +people were not so much moved with compassion at the sight, as struck into a +kind of horror and consternation. The outrages of those that were called +Bardyaei, was the greatest grievance. These murdered the masters of families in +their own houses, abused their children, and ravished their wives, and were +uncontrollable in their rapine and murders, till those of Cinna’s and +Sertorius’s party, taking counsel together, fell upon them in the camp and +killed them every man. +</p> + +<p> +In the interim, as if a change of wind was coming on, there came news from all +parts that Sylla, having put an end to the war with Mithridates, and taken +possession of the provinces, was returning into Italy with a great army. This +gave some small respite and intermission to these unspeakable calamities. +Marius and his friends believing war to be close at hand, Marius was chosen +consul the seventh time, and appearing on the very calends of January, the +beginning of the year, threw one Sextus Lucinus, from the Tarpeian precipice; +an omen, as it seemed, portending the renewed misfortunes both of their party +and of the city. Marius, himself now worn out with labor and sinking under the +burden of anxieties, could not sustain his spirits, which shook within him with +the apprehension of a new war and fresh encounters and dangers, the formidable +character of which he knew by his own experience. He was not now to hazard the +war with Octavius or Merula, commanding an inexperienced multitude or seditious +rabble; but Sylla himself was approaching, the same who had formerly banished +him, and since that, had driven Mithridates as far as the Euxine Sea. +</p> + +<p> +Perplexed with such thoughts as these, and calling to mind his banishment, and +the tedious wanderings and dangers he underwent, both by sea and land, he fell +into despondency, nocturnal frights, and unquiet sleep, still fancying that he +heard some one telling him, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— the lion’s lair<br/> +Is dangerous, though the lion be not there. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Above all things fearing to lie awake, he gave himself up to drinking deep and +besotting himself at night in a way most unsuitable to his age; by all means +provoking sleep, as a diversion to his thoughts. At length, on the arrival of a +messenger from the sea, he was seized with new alarms, and so what with his +fear for the future, and what with the burden and satiety of the present, on +some slight predisposing cause, he fell into a pleurisy, as Posidonius the +philosopher relates, who says he visited and conversed with him when he was +sick, about some business relating to his embassy. Caius Piso, an historian, +tells us, that Marius, walking after supper with his friends, fell into a +conversation with them about his past life, and after reckoning up the several +changes of his condition, that from the beginning had happened to him, said, +that it did not become a prudent man to trust himself any longer with fortune; +and, thereupon, taking leave of those that were with him, he kept his bed seven +days, and then died. +</p> + +<p> +Some say his ambition betrayed itself openly in his sickness. and that he ran +into an extravagant frenzy, fancying himself to be general in the war against +Mithridates, throwing himself into such postures and motions of his body as he +had formerly used when he was in battle, with frequent shouts and loud cries. +With so strong and invincible a desire of being employed in that business had +he been possessed through his pride and emulation. Though he had now lived +seventy years, and was the first man that ever was chosen seven times consul, +and had an establishment and riches sufficient for many kings, he yet +complained of his ill fortune, that he must now die before he had attained what +he desired. Plato, when he saw his death approaching, thanked the guiding +providence and fortune of his life, first, that he was born a man and a +Grecian, not a barbarian or a brute, and next, that he happened to live in +Socrates’s age. And so, indeed, they say Antipater of Tarsus, in like manner, +at his death, calling to mind the happiness that he had enjoyed, did not so +much as omit his prosperous voyage to Athens; thus recognizing every favor of +his indulgent fortune with the greatest acknowledgments, and carefully saving +all to the last in that safest of human treasure chambers, the memory. +Unmindful and thoughtless persons, on the contrary, let all that occurs to them +slip away from them as time passes on. Retaining and preserving nothing, they +lose the enjoyment of their present prosperity by fancying something better to +come; whereas by fortune we may be prevented of this, but that cannot be taken +from us. Yet they reject their present success, as though it did not concern +them, and do nothing but dream of future uncertainties; not indeed unnaturally; +as till men have by reason and education laid good foundation for external +superstructures, in the seeking after and gathering them they can never satisfy +the unlimited desires of their mind. +</p> + +<p> +Thus died Marius on the seventeenth day of his seventh consulship, to the great +joy and content of Rome, which thereby was in good hopes to be delivered from +the calamity of a cruel tyranny; but in a small time they found, that they had +only changed their old and worn-out master for another young and vigorous; so +much cruelty and savageness did his son Marius show in murdering the noblest +and most approved citizens. At first, being esteemed resolute and daring +against his enemies, he was named the son of Mars, but afterwards, his actions +betraying his contrary disposition, he was called the son of Venus. At last, +besieged by Sylla in Praeneste, where he endeavored in many ways, but in vain, +to save his life, when on the capture of the city there was no hope of escape, +he killed himself with his own hand. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap32"></a>LYSANDER</h2> + +<p> +The treasure-chamber of the Acanthians at Delphi has this inscription: “The +spoils which Brasidas and the Acanthians took from the Athenians.” And, +accordingly, many take the marble statue, which stands within the building by +the gates, to be Brasidas’s; but, indeed, it is Lysander’s, representing him +with his hair at full length, after the old fashion, and with an ample beard. +Neither is it true, as some give out, that because the Argives, after their +great defeat, shaved themselves for sorrow, that the Spartans contrariwise +triumphing in their achievements, suffered their hair to grow; neither did the +Spartans come to be ambitious of wearing long hair, because the Bacchiadae, who +fled from Corinth to Lacedaemon, looked mean and unsightly, having their heads +all close cut. But this, also, is indeed one of the ordinances of Lycurgus, +who, as it is reported, was used to say, that long hair made good-looking men +more beautiful, and ill-looking men more terrible. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander’s father is said to have been Aristoclitus, who was not indeed of the +royal family, but yet of the stock of the Heraclidae. He was brought up in +poverty, and showed himself obedient and conformable, as ever anyone did, to +the customs of his country; of a manly spirit, also, and superior to all +pleasures, excepting only that which their good actions bring to those who are +honored and successful; and it is accounted no base thing in Sparta for their +young men to be overcome with this kind of pleasure. For they are desirous, +from the very first, to have their youth susceptible to good and bad repute, to +feel pain at disgrace, and exultation at being commended; and anyone who is +insensible and unaffected in these respects is thought poor spirited and of no +capacity for virtue. Ambition and the passion for distinction were thus +implanted in his character by his Laconian education, nor, if they continued +there, must we blame his natural disposition much for this. But he was +submissive to great men, beyond what seems agreeable to the Spartan temper, and +could easily bear the haughtiness of those who were in power, when it was any +way for his advantage, which some are of opinion is no small part of political +discretion. Aristotle, who says all great characters are more or less +atrabilious, as Socrates and Plato and Hercules were, writes, that Lysander, +not indeed early in life, but when he was old, became thus affected. What is +singular in his character is that he endured poverty very well, and that he was +not at all enslaved or corrupted by wealth, and yet he filled his country with +riches and the love of them, and took away from them the glory of not admiring +money; importing amongst them an abundance of gold and silver after the +Athenian war, though keeping not one drachma for himself. When Dionysius, the +tyrant, sent his daughters some costly gowns of Sicilian manufacture, he would +not receive them, saying he was afraid they would make them look more +unhandsome. But a while after, being sent ambassador from the same city to the +same tyrant, when he had sent him a couple of robes, and bade him choose which +of them he would, and carry to his daughter: “She,” said he, “will be able to +choose best for herself,” and taking both of them, went his way. +</p> + +<p> +The Peloponnesian war having now been carried on a long time, and it being +expected, after the disaster of the Athenians in Sicily, that they would at +once lose the mastery of the sea, and erelong be routed everywhere, Alcibiades, +returning from banishment, and taking the command, produced a great change, and +made the Athenians again a match for their opponents by sea; and the +Lacedaemonians, in great alarm at this, and calling up fresh courage and zeal +for the conflict, feeling the want of an able commander and of a powerful +armament, sent out Lysander to be admiral of the seas. Being at Ephesus, and +finding the city well affected towards him, and favorable to the Lacedaemonian +party, but in ill condition, and in danger to become barbarized by adopting the +manners of the Persians, who were much mingled among them, the country of Lydia +bordering upon them, and the king’s generals being quartered there a long time, +he pitched his camp there, and commanded the merchant ships all about to put in +thither, and proceeded to build ships of war there; and thus restored their +ports by the traffic he created, and their market by the employment he gave, +and filled their private houses and their workshops with wealth, so that from +that time, the city began, first of all, by Lysander’s means, to have some +hopes of growing to that stateliness and grandeur which now it is at. +</p> + +<p> +Understanding that Cyrus, the king’s son, was come to Sardis, he went up to +talk with him, and to accuse Tisaphernes, who, receiving a command to help the +Lacedaemonians, and to drive the Athenians from the sea, was thought, on +account of Alcibiades, to have become remiss and unwilling, and by paying the +seamen slenderly to be ruining the fleet. Now Cyrus was willing that +Tisaphernes might be found in blame, and be ill reported of, as being, indeed, +a dishonest man, and privately at feud with himself. By these means, and by +their daily intercourse together, Lysander, especially by the submissiveness of +his conversation, won the affections of the young prince, and greatly roused +him to carry on the war; and when he would depart, Cyrus gave him a banquet, +and desired him not to refuse his good-will, but to speak and ask whatever he +had a mind to, and that he should not be refused anything whatsoever: “Since +you are so very kind,” replied Lysander, “I earnestly request you to add one +penny to the seamen’s pay, that instead of three pence, they may now receive +four pence.” Cyrus, delighted with his public spirit, gave him ten thousand +darics, out of which he added the penny to the seamen’s pay, and by the renown +of this in a short time emptied the ships of the enemies, as many would come +over to that side which gave the most pay, and those who remained, being +disheartened and mutinous, daily created trouble to the captains. Yet for all +Lysander had so distracted and weakened his enemies, he was afraid to engage by +sea, Alcibiades being an energetic commander, and having the superior number of +ships, and having been hitherto, in all battles, unconquered both by sea and +land. +</p> + +<p> +But afterwards, when Alcibiades sailed from Samos to Phocaea, leaving +Antiochus, the pilot, in command of all his forces, this Antiochus, to insult +Lysander, sailed with two galleys into the port of the Ephesians, and with +mocking and laughter proudly rowed along before the place where the ships lay +drawn up. Lysander, in indignation, launched at first a few ships only and +pursued him, but as soon as he saw the Athenians come to his help, he added +some other ships, and, at last, they fell to a set battle together; and +Lysander won the victory, and taking fifteen of their ships, erected a trophy. +For this, the people in the city being angry, put Alcibiades out of command, +and finding himself despised by the soldiers in Samos, and ill spoken of, he +sailed from the army into the Chersonese. And this battle, although not +important in itself, was made remarkable by its consequences to Alcibiades. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander, meanwhile, inviting to Ephesus such persons in the various cities as +he saw to be bolder and haughtier-spirited than the rest, proceeded to lay the +foundations of that government by bodies of ten, and those revolutions which +afterwards came to pass, stirring up and urging them to unite in clubs, and +apply themselves to public affairs, since as soon as ever the Athenians should +be put down, the popular governments, he said, should be suppressed, and they +should become supreme in their several countries. And he made them believe +these things by present deeds, promoting those who were his friends already to +great employments, honors, and offices, and, to gratify their covetousness, +making himself a partner in injustice and wickedness. So much so, that all +flocked to him, and courted and desired him, hoping, if he remained in power, +that the highest wishes they could form would all be gratified. And therefore, +from the very beginning, they could not look pleasantly upon Callicratidas, +when he came to succeed Lysander as admiral; nor, afterwards, when he had given +them experience that he was a most noble and just person, were they pleased +with the manner of his government, and its straightforward, Dorian, honest +character. They did, indeed, admire his virtue, as they might the beauty of +some hero’s image; but their wishes were for Lysander’s zealous and profitable +support of the interests of his friends and partisans, and they shed tears, and +were much disheartened when he sailed from them. He himself made them yet more +disaffected to Callicratidas; for what remained of the money which had been +given him to pay the navy, he sent back again to Sardis, bidding them, if they +would, apply to Callicratidas himself, and see how he was able to maintain the +soldiers. And, at the last, sailing away, he declared to him that he delivered +up the fleet in possession and command of the sea. But Callicratidas, to expose +the emptiness of these high pretensions, said, “In that case, leave Samos on +the left hand, and, sailing to Miletus, there deliver up the ships to me; for +if we are masters of the sea, we need not fear sailing by our enemies in +Samos.” To which Lysander answering, that not himself, but he, commanded the +ships, sailed to Peloponnesus, leaving Callicratidas in great perplexity. For +neither had he brought any money from home with him, nor could he endure to tax +the towns or force them, being in hardship enough. Therefore, the only course +that was to be taken was to go and beg at the doors of the king’s commanders, +as Lysander had done; for which he was most unfit of any man, being of a +generous and great spirit, and one who thought it more becoming for the Greeks +to suffer any damage from one another, than to flatter and wait at the gates of +barbarians, who, indeed, had gold enough, but nothing else that was +commendable. But being compelled by necessity, he proceeded to Lydia, and went +at once to Cyrus’s house, and sent in word, that Callicratidas, the admiral, +was there to speak with him; one of those who kept the gates replied, “Cyrus, O +stranger, is not now at leisure, for he is drinking.” To which Callicratidas +answered, most innocently, “Very well, I will wait till he has done his +draught.” This time, therefore, they took him for some clownish fellow, and he +withdrew, merely laughed at by the barbarians; but when, afterwards, he came a +second time to the gate, and was not admitted, he took it hardly and set off +for Ephesus, wishing a great many evils to those who first let themselves be +insulted over by these barbarians, and taught them to be insolent because of +their riches; and added vows to those who were present, that as soon as ever he +came back to Sparta, he would do all he could to reconcile the Greeks, that +they might be formidable to barbarians, and that they should cease henceforth +to need their aid against one another. But Callicratidas, who entertained +purposes worthy a Lacedaemonian, and showed himself worthy to compete with the +very best of Greece, for his justice, his greatness of mind and courage, not +long after, having been beaten in a sea-fight at Arginusae, died. +</p> + +<p> +And now affairs going backwards, the associates in the war sent an embassy to +Sparta, requiring Lysander to be their admiral, professing themselves ready to +undertake the business much more zealously, if he was commander; and Cyrus, +also, sent to request the same thing. But because they had a law which would +not suffer any one to be admiral twice, and wished, nevertheless, to gratify +their allies, they gave the title of admiral to one Aracus, and sent Lysander +nominally as vice-admiral, but, indeed, with full powers. So he came out, long +wished for by the greatest part of the chief persons and leaders in the towns, +who hoped to grow to greater power still by his means, when the popular +governments should be everywhere destroyed. +</p> + +<p> +But to those who loved honest and noble behavior in their commanders, Lysander, +compared with Callicratidas, seemed cunning and subtle, managing most things in +the war by deceit, extolling what was just when it was profitable, and when it +was not, using that which was convenient, instead of that which was good; and +not judging truth to be in nature better than falsehood, but setting a value +upon both according to interest. He would laugh at those who thought that +Hercules’s posterity ought not to use deceit in war: “For where the lion’s skin +will not reach, you must patch it out with the fox’s.” Such is the conduct +recorded of him in the business about Miletus; for when his friends and +connections, whom he had promised to assist in suppressing popular government +and expelling their political opponents, had altered their minds, and were +reconciled to their enemies, he pretended openly as if he was pleased with it, +and was desirous to further the reconciliation, but privately he railed at and +abused them, and provoked them to set upon the multitude. And as soon as ever +he perceived a new attempt to be commencing, he at once came up and entered +into the city, and the first of the conspirators he lit upon, he pretended to +rebuke, and spoke roughly, as if he would punish them; but the others, +meantime, he bade be courageous, and to fear nothing now he was with them. And +all this acting and dissembling was with the object that the most considerable +men of the popular party might not fly away, but might stay in the city and be +killed; which so fell out, for all who believed him were put to death. +</p> + +<p> +There is a saying, also, recorded by Androclides, which makes him guilty of +great indifference to the obligations of an oath. His recommendation, according +to this account, was to “cheat boys with dice, and men with oaths,” an +imitation of Polycrates of Samos, not very honorable to a lawful commander, to +take example, namely, from a tyrant; nor in character with Laconian usages, to +treat gods as ill as enemies, or, indeed, even more injuriously; since he who +overreaches by an oath admits that he fears his enemy, while he despises his +God. +</p> + +<p> +Cyrus now sent for Lysander to Sardis, and gave him some money, and promised +him some more, youthfully protesting in favor to him, that if his father gave +him nothing, he would supply him of his own; and if he himself should be +destitute of all, he would cut up, he said, to make money, the very throne upon +which he sat to do justice, it being made of gold and silver; and, at last, on +going up into Media to his father, he ordered that he should receive the +tribute of the towns, and committed his government to him, and so taking his +leave, and desiring him not to fight by sea before he returned, for he would +come back with a great many ships out of Phoenicia and Cilicia, departed to +visit the king. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander’s ships were too few for him to venture to fight, and yet too many to +allow of his remaining idle; he set out, therefore, and reduced some of the +islands, and wasted Aegina and Salamis; and from thence landing in Attica, and +saluting Agis, who came from Decelea to meet him, he made a display to the +land-forces of the strength of the fleet, as though he could sail where he +pleased, and were absolute master by sea. But hearing the Athenians pursued +him, he fled another way through the islands into Asia. And finding the +Hellespont without any defense, he attacked Lampsacus with his ships by sea; +while Thorax, acting in concert with him with the land army, made an assault on +the walls; and so, having taken the city by storm, he gave it up to his +soldiers to plunder. The fleet of the Athenians, a hundred and eighty ships, +had just arrived at Elaeus in the Chersonese; and hearing the news, that +Lampsacus was destroyed, they presently sailed to Sestos; where, taking in +victuals, they advanced to Aegos Potami, over against their enemies, who were +still stationed about Lampsacus. Amongst other Athenian captains who were now +in command was Philocles, he who persuaded the people to pass a decree to cut +off the right thumb of the captives in the war, that they should not be able to +hold the spear, though they might the oar. +</p> + +<p> +Then they all rested themselves, hoping they should have battle the next +morning. But Lysander had other things in his head; he commanded the mariners +and pilots to go on board at dawn, as if there should be a battle as soon as it +was day, and to sit there in order, and without any noise, expecting what +should be commanded, and in like manner that the land army should remain +quietly in their ranks by the sea. But the sun rising, and the Athenians +sailing up with their whole fleet in line, and challenging them to battle, he, +though he had had his ships all drawn up and manned before daybreak, +nevertheless did not stir. He merely sent some small boats to those who lay +foremost, and bade them keep still and stay in their order; not to be +disturbed, and none of them to sail out and offer battle. So about evening, the +Athenians sailing back, he would not let the seamen go out of the ships before +two or three, which he had sent to espy, were returned, after seeing the +enemies disembark. And thus they did the next day, and the third, and so to the +fourth. So that the Athenians grew extremely confident, and disdained their +enemies, as if they had been afraid and daunted. At this time, Alcibiades, who +was in his castle in the Chersonese, came on horseback to the Athenian army, +and found fault with their captains, first of all that they had pitched their +camp neither well nor safely, on an exposed and open beach, a very bad landing +for the ships, and, secondly, that where they were, they had to fetch all they +wanted from Sestos, some considerable way off; whereas if they sailed round a +little way to the town and harbor of Sestos, they would be at a safer distance +from an enemy, who lay watching their movements, at the command of a single +general, terror of whom made every order rapidly executed. This advice, +however, they would not listen to; and Tydeus angered disdainfully, that not +he, but others, were in office now. So Alcibiades, who even suspected there +must be treachery, departed. +</p> + +<p> +But on the fifth day, the Athenians having sailed towards them, and gone back +again as they were used to do, very proudly and full of contempt, Lysander +sending some ships, as usual, to look out, commanded the masters of them that +when they saw the Athenians go to land, they should row back again with all +their speed, and that when they were about half-way across, they should lift up +a brazen shield from the foredeck, as the sign of battle. And he himself +sailing round, encouraged the pilots and masters of the ships, and exhorted +them to keep all their men to their places, seamen and soldiers alike, and as +soon as ever the sign should be given, to row up boldly to their enemies. +Accordingly when the shield had been lifted up from the ships, and the trumpet +from the admiral’s vessel had sounded for battle, the ships rowed up, and the +foot soldiers strove to get along by the shore to the promontory. The distance +there between the two continents is fifteen furlongs, which, by the zeal and +eagerness of the rowers, was quickly traversed. Conon, one of the Athenian +commanders, was the first who saw from the land the fleet advancing, and +shouted out to embark, and in the greatest distress bade some and entreated +others, and some he forced to man the ships. But all his diligence signified +nothing, because the men were scattered about; for as soon as they came out of +the ships, expecting no such matter, some went to market, others walked about +the country, or went to sleep in their tents, or got their dinners ready, +being, through their commanders’ want of skill, as far as possible from any +thought of what was to happen; and the enemy now coming up with shouts and +noise, Conon, with eight ships, sailed out, and making his escape, passed from +thence to Cyprus, to Evagores. The Peloponnesians falling upon the rest, some +they took quite empty, and some they destroyed while they were filling; the +men, meantime, coming unarmed and scattered to help, died at their ships, or, +flying by land, were slain, their enemies disembarking and pursuing them. +Lysander took three thousand prisoners, with the generals, and the whole fleet, +excepting the sacred ship Paralus, and those which fled with Conon. So taking +their ships in tow, and having plundered their tents, with pipe and songs of +victory, he sailed back to Lampsacus, having accomplished a great work with +small pains, and having finished in one hour, a war which had been protracted +in its continuance, and diversified in its incidents and its fortunes to a +degree exceeding belief, compared with all before it. After altering its shape +and character a thousand times, and after having been the destruction of more +commanders than all the previous wars of Greece put together, it was now put an +end to by the good counsel and ready conduct of one man. +</p> + +<p> +Some, therefore, looked upon the result as a divine intervention, and there +were certain who affirmed that the stars of Castor and Pollux were seen on each +side of Lysander’s ship, when he first set sail from the haven toward his +enemies, shining about the helm; and some say the stone which fell down was a +sign of this slaughter. For a stone of a great size did fall, according to the +common belief, from heaven, at Aegos Potami, which is shown to this day, and +had in great esteem by the Chersonites. And it is said that Anaxagoras +foretold, that the occurrence of a slip or shake among the bodies fixed in the +heavens, dislodging any one of them, would be followed by the fall of the whole +of them. For no one of the stars is now in the same place in which it was at +first; for they, being, according to him, like stones and heavy, shine by the +refraction of the upper air round about them, and are carried along forcibly by +the violence of the circular motion by which they were originally withheld from +falling, when cold and heavy bodies were first separated from the general +universe. But there is a more probable opinion than this maintained by some, +who say that falling stars are no effluxes, nor discharges of ethereal fire, +extinguished almost at the instant of its igniting by the lower air; neither +are they the sudden combustion and blazing up of a quantity of the lower air +let loose in great abundance into the upper region; but the heavenly bodies, by +a relaxation of the force of their circular movement, are carried by an +irregular course, not in general into the inhabited part of the earth, but for +the most part into the wide sea; which is the cause of their not being +observed. Daimachus, in his treatise on Religion. supports the view of +Anaxagoras. He says, that before this stone fell, for seventy-five days +continually, there was seen in the heavens a vast fiery body, as if it had been +a flaming cloud, not resting, but carried about with several intricate and +broken movements, so that the flaming pieces, which were broken off by this +commotion and running about, were carried in all directions, shining as falling +stars do. But when it afterwards came down to the ground in this district, and +the people of the place recovering from their fear and astonishment came +together, there was no fire to be seen, neither any sign of it; there was only +a stone lying, big indeed, but which bore no proportion, to speak of, to that +fiery compass. It is manifest that Daimachus needs to have indulgent hearers; +but if what he says be true, he altogether proves those to be wrong who say +that a rock broken off from the top of some mountain, by winds and tempests, +and caught and whirled about like a top, as soon as this impetus began to +slacken and cease, was precipitated and fell to the ground. Unless, indeed, we +choose to say that the phenomenon which was observed for so many days was +really fire, and that the change in the atmosphere ensuing on its extinction +was attended with violent winds and agitations, which might be the cause of +this stone being carried off. The exacter treatment of this subject belongs, +however, to a different kind of writing. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander, after the three thousand Athenians whom he had taken prisoners were +condemned by the commissioners to die, called Philocles the general, and asked +him what punishment he considered himself to deserve, for having advised the +citizens as he had done, against the Greeks; but he, being nothing cast down at +his calamity, bade him not accuse him of matters of which nobody was a judge, +but to do to him, now he was a conqueror, as he would have suffered, had he +been overcome. Then washing himself, and putting on a fine cloak, he led the +citizens the way to the slaughter, as Theophrastus writes in his history. After +this Lysander, sailing about to the various cities, bade all the Athenians he +met go into Athens, declaring that he would spare none, but kill every man whom +he found out of the city, intending thus to cause immediate famine and scarcity +there, that they might not make the siege laborious to him, having provisions +sufficient to endure it. And suppressing the popular governments and all other +constitutions, he left one Lacedaemonian chief officer in every city, with ten +rulers to act with him, selected out of the societies which he had previously +formed in the different towns. And doing thus as well in the cities of his +enemies, as of his associates, he sailed leisurely on, establishing, in a +manner, for himself supremacy over the whole of Greece. Neither did he make +choice of rulers by birth or by wealth, but bestowed the offices on his own +friends and partisans, doing everything to please them, and putting absolute +power of reward and punishment into their hands. And thus, personally appearing +on many occasions of bloodshed and massacre, and aiding his friends to expel +their opponents, he did not give the Greeks a favorable specimen of the +Lacedaemonian government; and the expression of Theopompus, the comic poet, +seemed but poor, when he compared the Lacedaemonians to tavern women, because +when the Greeks had first tasted the sweet wine of liberty, they then poured +vinegar into the cup; for from the very first it had a rough and bitter taste, +all government by the people being suppressed by Lysander, and the boldest and +least scrupulous of the oligarchical party selected to rule the cities. +</p> + +<p> +Having spent some little time about these things, and sent some before to +Lacedaemon to tell them he was arriving with two hundred ships, he united his +forces in Attica with those of the two kings Agis and Pausanias, hoping to take +the city without delay. But when the Athenians defended themselves, he with his +fleet passed again to Asia, and in like manner destroyed the forms of +government in all the other cities, and placed them under the rule of ten chief +persons, many in every one being killed, and many driven into exile; and in +Samos, he expelled the whole people, and gave their cities to the exiles whom +he brought back. And the Athenians still possessing Sestos, he took it from +them, and suffered not the Sestians themselves to dwell in it, but gave the +city and country to be divided out among the pilots and masters of the ships +under him; which was his first act that was disallowed by the Lacedaemonians, +who brought the Sestians back again into their country. All Greece, however, +rejoiced to see the Aeginetans, by Lysander’s aid, now again, after a long +time, receiving back their cities, and the Melians and Scionaeans restored, +while the Athenians were driven out, and delivered up the cities. +</p> + +<p> +But when he now understood they were in a bad case in the city because of the +famine, he sailed to Piraeus, and reduced the city, which was compelled to +surrender on what conditions he demanded. One hears it said by Lacedaemonians +that Lysander wrote to the Ephors thus: “Athens is taken;” and that these +magistrates wrote back to Lysander, “Taken is enough.” But this saying was +invented for its neatness’ sake; for the true decree of the magistrates was on +this manner: “The government of the Lacedaemonians has made these orders; pull +down the Piraeus and the long walls; quit all the towns, and keep to your own +land; if you do these things, you shall have peace, if you wish it, restoring +also your exiles. As concerning the number of the ships, whatsoever there be +judged necessary to appoint, that do.” This scroll of conditions the Athenians +accepted, Theramenes, son of Hagnon, supporting it. At which time, too, they +say that when Cleomenes, one of the young orators, asked him how he durst act +and speak contrary to Themistocles, delivering up the walls to the +Lacedaemonians, which he had built against the will of the Lacedaemonians, he +said, “O young man, I do nothing contrary to Themistocles; for he raised these +walls for the safety of the citizens, and we pull them down for their safety; +and if walls make a city happy, then Sparta must be the most wretched of all, +as it has none.” +</p> + +<p> +Lysander, as soon as he had taken all the ships except twelve, and the walls of +the Athenians, on the sixteenth day of the month Munychion, the same on which +they had overcome the barbarians at Salamis, then proceeded to take measures +for altering the government. But the Athenians taking that very unwillingly, +and resisting, he sent to the people and informed them, that he found that the +city had broken the terms, for the walls were standing when the days were past +within which they should have been pulled down. He should, therefore, consider +their case anew, they having broken their first articles. And some state, in +fact, the proposal was made in the congress of the allies, that the Athenians +should all be sold as slaves; on which occasion, Erianthus, the Theban, gave +his vote to pull down the city, and turn the country into sheep-pasture; yet +afterwards, when there was a meeting of the captains together, a man of Phocis, +singing the first chorus in Euripides’s Electra, which begins, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Electra, Agamemnon’s child, I come<br/> +Unto thy desert home, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +they were all melted with compassion, and it seemed to be a cruel deed to +destroy and pull down a city which had been so famous, and produced such men. +</p> + +<p> +Accordingly Lysander, the Athenians yielding up everything, sent for a number +of flute-women out of the city, and collected together all that were in the +camp, and pulled down the walls, and burnt the ships to the sound of the flute, +the allies being crowned with garlands, and making merry together, as counting +that day the beginning of their liberty. He proceeded also at once to alter the +government, placing thirty rulers in the city, and ten in the Piraeus: he put, +also, a garrison into the Acropolis, and made Callibius, a Spartan, the +governor of it; who afterwards taking up his staff to strike Autolycus, the +athlete, about whom Xenophon wrote his “Banquet,” on his tripping up his heels +and throwing him to the ground, Lysander was not vexed at it, but chid +Callibius, telling him he did not know how to govern freemen. The thirty +rulers, however, to gain Callibius’s favor, a little after killed Autolycus. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander, after this, sails out to Thrace, and what remained of the public +money, and the gifts and crowns which he had himself received, numbers of +people, as might be expected, being anxious to make presents to a man of such +great power, who was, in a manner, the lord of Greece, he sends to Lacedaemon +by Gylippus, who had commanded formerly in Sicily. But he, it is reported, +unsewed the sacks at the bottom, took a considerable amount of silver out of +every one of them, and sewed them up again, not knowing there was a writing in +every one stating how much there was. And coming into Sparta, what he had thus +stolen away he hid under the tiles of his house, and delivered up the sacks to +the magistrates, and showed the seals were upon them. But afterwards, on their +opening the sacks and counting it, the quantity of the silver differed from +what the writing expressed; and the matter causing some perplexity to the +magistrates, Gylippus’s servant tells them in a riddle, that under the tiles +lay many owls; for, as it seems, the greatest part of the money then current, +bore the Athenian stamp of the owl. Gylippus having committed so foul and base +a deed, after such great and distinguished exploits before, removed himself +from Lacedaemon. +</p> + +<p> +But the wisest of the Spartans, very much on account of this occurrence, +dreading the influence of money, as being what had corrupted the greatest +citizens, exclaimed against Lysander’s conduct, and declared to the Ephors, +that all the silver and gold should be sent away, as mere “alien mischiefs.” +These consulted about it; and Theopompus says, it was Sciraphidas, but Ephorus, +that it was Phlogidas, who declared they ought not to receive any gold or +silver into the city; but to use their own country coin which was iron, and was +first of all dipped in vinegar when it was red hot, that it might not be worked +up anew, but because of the dipping might be hard and unpliable. It was also, +of course, very heavy and troublesome to carry, and a great deal of it in +quantity and weight was but a little in value. And perhaps all the old money +was so, coin consisting of iron, or in some countries, copper skewers, whence +it comes that we still find a great number of small pieces of money retain the +name of obolus, and the drachma is six of these, because so much may be grasped +in one’s hand. But Lysander’s friends being against it, and endeavoring to keep +the money in the city, it was resolved to bring in this sort of money to be +used publicly, enacting, at the same time, that if anyone was found in +possession of any privately, he should be put to death, as if Lycurgus had +feared the coin, and not the covetousness resulting from it, which they did not +repress by letting no private man keep any, so much as they encouraged it, by +allowing the state to possess it; attaching thereby a sort of dignity to it, +over and above its ordinary utility. Neither was it possible, that what they +saw was so much esteemed publicly, they should privately despise as +unprofitable; and that everyone should think that thing could be nothing worth +for his own personal use, which was so extremely valued and desired for the use +of the state. And moral habits, induced by public practices, are far quicker in +making their way into men’s private lives, than the failings and faults of +individuals are in infecting the city at large. For it is probable that the +parts will be rather corrupted by the whole if that grows bad; while the vices +which flow from a part into the whole, find many correctives and remedies from +that which remains sound. Terror and the law were now to keep guard over the +citizens’ houses, to prevent any money entering into them; but their minds +could no longer be expected to remain superior to the desire of it, when wealth +in general was thus set up to be striven after, as a high and noble object. On +this point, however, we have given our censure of the Lacedaemonians in one of +our other writings. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander erected out of the spoils brazen statues at Delphi of himself, and of +every one of the masters of the ships, as also figures of the golden stars of +Castor and Pollux, which vanished before the battle at Leuctra. In the treasury +of Brasidas and the Acanthians, there was a trireme made of gold and ivory, of +two cubits, which Cyrus sent Lysander in honor of his victory. But Alexandrides +of Delphi writes in his history, that there was also a deposit of Lysander’s, a +talent of silver, and fifty-two minas, besides eleven staters; a statement not +consistent with the generally received account of his poverty. And at that +time, Lysander, being in fact of greater power than any Greek before, was yet +thought to show a pride, and to affect a superiority greater even than his +power warranted. He was the first, as Duris says in his history, among the +Greeks, to whom the cities reared altars as to a god, and sacrificed; to him +were songs of triumph first sung, the beginning of one of which still remains +recorded: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Great Greece’s general from spacious Sparta we<br/> +Will celebrate with songs of victory. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And the Samians decreed that their solemnities of Juno should be called the +Lysandria; and out of the poets he had Choerilus always with him, to extol his +achievements in verse; and to Antilochus, who had made some verses in his +commendation, being pleased with them, he gave a hat full of silver; and when +Antimachus of Colophon, and one Niceratus of Heraclea, competed with each other +in a poem on the deeds of Lysander, he gave the garland to Niceratus; at which +Antimachus, in vexation, suppressed his poem; but Plato, being then a young +man, and admiring Antimachus for his poetry, consoled him for his defeat by +telling him that it is the ignorant who are the sufferers by ignorance, as +truly as the blind by want of sight. Afterwards, when Aristonus, the musician, +who had been a conqueror six times at the Pythian games, told him as a piece of +flattery, that if he were successful again, he would proclaim himself in the +name of Lysander, “that is,” he answered, “as his slave?” +</p> + +<p> +This ambitious temper was indeed only burdensome to the highest personages and +to his equals, but through having so many people devoted to serve him, an +extreme haughtiness and contemptuousness grew up, together with ambition, in +his character. He observed no sort of moderation, such as befitted a private +man, either in rewarding or in punishing; the recompense of his friends and +guests was absolute power over cities, and irresponsible authority, and the +only satisfaction of his wrath was the destruction of his enemy; banishment +would not suffice. As for example, at a later period, fearing lest the popular +leaders of the Milesians should fly, and desiring also to discover those who +lay hid, he swore he would do them no harm, and on their believing him and +coming forth, he delivered them up to the oligarchical leaders to be slain, +being in all no less than eight hundred. And, indeed, the slaughter in general +of those of the popular party in the towns exceeded all computation; as he did +not kill only for offenses against himself, but granted these favors without +sparing, and joined in the execution of them, to gratify the many hatreds, and +the much cupidity of his friends everywhere round about him. From whence the +saying of Eteocles, the Lacedaemonian, came to be famous, that “Greece could +not have borne two Lysanders.” Theophrastus says, that Archestratus said the +same thing concerning Alcibiades. But in his case what had given most offense +was a certain licentious and wanton self-will; Lysander’s power was feared and +hated because of his unmerciful disposition. The Lacedaemonians did not at all +concern themselves for any other accusers; but afterwards, when Pharnabazus, +having been injured by him, he having pillaged and wasted his country, sent +some to Sparta to inform against him, the Ephors taking it very ill, put one of +his friends and fellow-captains, Thorax, to death, taking him with some silver +privately in his possession; and they sent him a scroll, commanding him to +return home. This scroll is made up thus; when the Ephors send an admiral or +general on his way, they take two round pieces of wood, both exactly of a +length and thickness, and cut even to one another; they keep one themselves, +and the other they give to the person they send forth; and these pieces of wood +they call Scytales. When, therefore, they have occasion to communicate any +secret or important matter, making a scroll of parchment long and narrow like a +leathern thong, they roll it about their own staff of wood, leaving no space +void between, but covering the surface of the staff with the scroll all over. +When they have done this, they write what they please on the scroll, as it is +wrapped about the staff; and when they have written, they take off the scroll, +and send it to the general without the wood. He, when he has received it, can +read nothing of the writing, because the words and letters are not connected, +but all broken up; but taking his own staff, he winds the slip of the scroll +about it, so that this folding, restoring all the parts into the same order +that they were in before, and putting what comes first into connection with +what follows, brings the whole consecutive contents to view round the outside. +And this scroll is called a staff, after the name of the wood, as a thing +measured is by the name of the measure. +</p> + +<p> +But Lysander, when the staff came to him to the Hellespont, was troubled, and +fearing Pharnabazus’s accusations most, made haste to confer with him, hoping +to end the difference by a meeting together. When they met, he desired him to +write another letter to the magistrates, stating that he had not been wronged, +and had no complaint to prefer. But he was ignorant that Pharnabazus, as it is +in the proverb, played Cretan against Cretan; for pretending to do all that was +desired, openly he wrote such a letter as Lysander wanted, but kept by him +another, written privately; and when they came to put on the seals, changed the +tablets, which differed not at all to look upon, and gave him the letter which +had been written privately. Lysander, accordingly, coming to Lacedaemon, and +going, as the custom is, to the magistrates’ office, gave Pharnabazus’s letter +to the Ephors, being persuaded that the greatest accusation against him was now +withdrawn; for Pharnabazus was beloved by the Lacedaemonians, having been the +most zealous on their side in the war of all the king’s captains. But after the +magistrates had read the letter they showed it him, and he understanding now +that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Others beside Ulysses deep can be,<br/> +Not the one wise man of the world is he, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +in extreme confusion, left them at the time. But a few days after, meeting the +Ephors, he said he must go to the temple of Ammon, and offer the god the +sacrifices which he had vowed in war. For some state it as a truth, that when +he was besieging the city of Aphytae in Thrace, Ammon stood by him in his +sleep; whereupon raising the siege, supposing the god had commanded it, he bade +the Aphytaeans sacrifice to Ammon, and resolved to make a journey into Libya to +propitiate the god. But most were of opinion that the god was but the presence, +and that in reality he was afraid of the Ephors, and that impatience of the +yoke at home, and dislike of living under authority, made him long for some +travel and wandering, like a horse just brought in from open feeding and +pasture to the stable, and put again to his ordinary work. For that which +Ephorus states to have been the cause of this traveling about, I shall relate +by and by. +</p> + +<p> +And having hardly and with difficulty obtained leave of the magistrates to +depart, he set sail. But the kings, while he was on his voyage, considering +that keeping, as he did, the cities in possession by his own friends and +partisans, he was in fact their sovereign and the lord of Greece, took measures +for restoring the power to the people, and for throwing his friends out. +Disturbances commencing again about these things, and, first of all, the +Athenians from Phyle setting upon their thirty rulers and overpowering them, +Lysander, coming home in haste, persuaded the Lacedaemonians to support the +oligarchies and to put down the popular governments, and to the thirty in +Athens, first of all, they sent a hundred talents for the war, and Lysander +himself, as general, to assist them. But the kings envying him, and fearing +lest he should take Athens again, resolved that one of themselves should take +the command. Accordingly Pausanias went, and in words, indeed, professed as if +he had been for the tyrants against the people, but in reality exerted himself +for peace, that Lysander might not by the means of his friends become lord of +Athens again. This he brought easily to pass; for, reconciling the Athenians, +and quieting the tumults, he defeated the ambitious hopes of Lysander, though +shortly after, on the Athenians rebelling again, he was censured for having +thus taken, as it were, the bit out of the mouth of the people, which, being +freed from the oligarchy, would now break out again into affronts and +insolence; and Lysander regained the reputation of a person who employed his +command not in gratification of others, nor for applause, but strictly for the +good of Sparta. +</p> + +<p> +His speech, also, was bold and daunting to such as opposed him. The Argives, +for example, contended about the bounds of their land, and thought they brought +juster pleas than the Lacedaemonians; holding out his sword, “He,” said +Lysander, “that is master of this, brings the best argument about the bounds of +territory.” A man of Megara, at some conference, taking freedom with him, “This +language, my friend,” said he, “should come from a city.” To the Boeotians, who +were acting a doubtful part, he put the question, whether he should pass +through their country with spears upright, or leveled. After the revolt of the +Corinthians, when, on coming to their walls, he perceived the Lacedaemonians +hesitating to make the assault, and a hare was seen to leap through the ditch: +“Are you not ashamed,” he said, “to fear an enemy, for whose laziness, the very +hares sleep upon their walls?” +</p> + +<p> +When king Agis died, leaving a brother Agesilaus, and Leotychides, who was +supposed his son, Lysander, being attached to Agesilaus, persuaded him to lay +claim to the kingdom, as being a true descendant of Hercules; Leotychides lying +under the suspicion of being the son of Alcibiades, who lived privately in +familiarity with Timaea, the wife of Agis, at the time he was a fugitive in +Sparta. Agis, they say, computing the time, satisfied himself that she could +not have conceived by him, and had hitherto always neglected and manifestly +disowned Leotychides; but now when he was carried sick to Heraea, being ready +to die, what by the importunities of the young man himself, and of his friends, +in the presence of many he declared Leotychides to be his; and desiring those +who were present to bear witness of this to the Lacedaemonians, died. They +accordingly did so testify in favor of Leotychides. And Agesilaus, being +otherwise highly reputed of, and strong in the support of Lysander, was, on the +other hand, prejudiced by Diopithes, a man famous for his knowledge of oracles, +who adduced this prophecy in reference to Agesilaus’s lameness: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Beware, great Sparta, lest there come of thee,<br/> +Though sound thyself, an halting sovereignty;<br/> +Troubles, both long and unexpected too,<br/> +And storms of deadly warfare shall ensue. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +When many, therefore, yielded to the oracle, and inclined to Leotychides, +Lysander said that Diopithes did not take the prophecy rightly; for it was not +that the god would be offended if any lame person ruled over the +Lacedaemonians, but that the kingdom would be a lame one, if bastards and +false-born should govern with the posterity of Hercules. By this argument, and +by his great influence among them, he prevailed, and Agesilaus was made king. +</p> + +<p> +Immediately, therefore, Lysander spurred him on to make an expedition into +Asia, putting him in hopes that he might destroy the Persians, and attain the +height of greatness. And he wrote to his friends in Asia, bidding them request +to have Agesilaus appointed to command them in the war against the barbarians; +which they were persuaded to, and sent ambassadors to Lacedaemon to entreat it. +And this would seem to be a second favor done Agesilaus by Lysander, not +inferior to his first in obtaining him the kingdom. But with ambitious natures, +otherwise not ill qualified for command, the feeling of jealousy of those near +them in reputation continually stands in the way of the performance of noble +actions; they make those their rivals in virtue, whom they ought to use as +their helpers to it. Agesilaus took Lysander, among the thirty counselors that +accompanied him, with intentions of using him as his especial friend; but when +they were come into Asia, the inhabitants there, to whom he was but little +known, addressed themselves to him but little and seldom; whereas Lysander, +because of their frequent previous intercourse, was visited and attended by +large numbers, by his friends out of observance, and by others out of fear; and +just as in tragedies it not uncommonly is the case with the actors, the person +who represents a messenger or servant is much taken notice of, and plays the +chief part, while he who wears the crown and scepter is hardly heard to speak, +even so was it about the counselor, he had all the real honors of the +government, and to the king was left the empty name of power. This +disproportionate ambition ought very likely to have been in some way softened +down, and Lysander should have been reduced to his proper second place, but +wholly to cast off and to insult and affront for glory’s sake, one who was his +benefactor and friend, was not worthy Agesilaus to allow in himself. For, first +of all, he gave him no opportunity for any action, and never set him in any +place of command; then, for whomsoever he perceived him exerting his interest, +these persons he always sent away with a refusal, and with less attention than +any ordinary suitors, thus silently undoing and weakening his influence. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander, miscarrying in everything, and perceiving that his diligence for his +friends was but a hindrance to them, forbore to help them, entreating them that +they would not address themselves to, nor observe him, but that they would +speak to the king, and to those who could be of more service to friends than at +present he could most, on hearing this, forbore to trouble him about their +concerns; but continued their observances to him, waiting upon him in the walks +and places of exercise; at which Agesilaus was more annoyed than ever, envying +him the honor; and, finally, when he gave many of the officers places of +command and the governments of cities, he appointed Lysander carver at his +table, adding, by way of insult to the Ionians, “Let them go now, and pay their +court to my carver.” Upon this, Lysander thought fit to come and speak with +him; and a brief laconic dialogue passed between them as follows: “Truly, you +know very well, O Agesilaus, how to depress your friends;” “Those friends,” +replied he, “who would be greater than myself; but those who increase my power, +it is just should share in it.” “Possibly, O Agesilaus,” answered Lysander, “in +all this there may be more said on your part than done on mine, but I request +you, for the sake of observers from without, to place me in any command under +you where you may judge I shall be the least offensive, and most useful.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon this he was sent ambassador to the Hellespont; and though angry with +Agesilaus, yet did not neglect to perform his duty, and having induced +Spithridates the Persian, being offended with Pharnabazus, a gallant man, and +in command of some forces, to revolt, he brought him to Agesilaus. He was not, +however, employed in any other service, but having completed his time, returned +to Sparta, without honor, angry with Agesilaus, and hating more than ever the +whole Spartan government, and resolved to delay no longer, but while there was +yet time, to put into execution the plans which he appears some time before to +have concerted for a revolution and change in the constitution. These were as +follows. The Heraclidae who joined with the Dorians, and came into +Peloponnesus, became a numerous and glorious race in Sparta, but not every +family belonging to it had the right of succession in the kingdom, but the +kings were chosen out of two only, called the Eurypontidae and the Agiadae; the +rest had no privilege in the government by their nobility of birth, and the +honors which followed from merit lay open to all who could obtain them. +Lysander, who was born of one of these families, when he had risen into great +renown for his exploits, and had gained great friends and power, was vexed to +see the city which had increased to what it was by him, ruled by others not at +all better descended than himself, and formed a design to remove the government +from the two families, and to give it in common to all the Heraclidae; or as +some say, not to the Heraclidae only, but to all the Spartans; that the reward +might not belong to the posterity of Hercules, but to those who were like +Hercules, judging by that personal merit which raised even him to the honor of +the Godhead; and he hoped that when the kingdom was thus to be competed for, no +Spartan would be chosen before himself. +</p> + +<p> +Accordingly he first attempted and prepared to persuade the citizens privately, +and studied an oration composed to this purpose by Cleon, the Halicarnassian. +Afterwards perceiving so unexpected and great an innovation required bolder +means of support, he proceeded as it might be on the stage, to avail himself of +machinery, and to try the effects of divine agency upon his countrymen. He +collected and arranged for his purpose, answers and oracles from Apollo, not +expecting to get any benefit from Cleon’s rhetoric, unless he should first +alarm and overpower the minds of his fellow-citizens by religious and +superstitious terrors, before bringing them to the consideration of his +arguments. Ephorus relates, after he had endeavored to corrupt the oracle of +Apollo, and had again failed to persuade the priestesses of Dodona by means of +Pherecles, that he went to Ammon, and discoursed with the guardians of the +oracle there, proffering them a great deal of gold, and that they, taking this +ill, sent some to Sparta to accuse Lysander; and on his acquittal the Libyans, +going away, said, “You will find us, O Spartans, better judges, when you come +to dwell with us in Libya,” there being a certain ancient oracle, that the +Lacedaemonians should dwell in Libya. But as the whole intrigue and the course +of the contrivance was no ordinary one, nor lightly- undertaken, but depended +as it went on, like some mathematical proposition, on a variety of important +admissions, and proceeded through a series of intricate and difficult steps to +its conclusion, we will go into it at length, following the account of one who +was at once an historian and a philosopher. +</p> + +<p> +There was a woman in Pontus, who professed to be pregnant by Apollo, which +many, as was natural, disbelieved, and many also gave credit to, and when she +had brought forth a man-child, several, not unimportant persons, took an +interest in its rearing and bringing up. The name given the boy was Silenus, +for some reason or other. Lysander, taking this for the groundwork, frames and +devises the rest himself, making use of not a few, nor these insignificant +champions of his story, who brought the report of the child’s birth into credit +without any suspicion. Another report, also, was procured from Delphi and +circulated in Sparta, that there were some very old oracles which were kept by +the priests in private writings; and they were not to be meddled with neither +was it lawful to read them, till one in after times should come, descended from +Apollo, and, on giving some known token to the keepers, should take the books +in which the oracles were. Things being thus ordered beforehand, Silenus, it +was intended, should come and ask for the oracles, as being the child of Apollo +and those priests who were privy to the design, were to profess to search +narrowly into all particulars, and to question him concerning his birth; and, +finally, were to be convinced, and, as to Apollo’s son, to deliver up to him +the writings. Then he, in the presence of many witnesses, should read amongst +other prophecies, that which was the object of the whole contrivance, relating +to the office of the kings, that it would be better and more desirable to the +Spartans to choose their kings out of the best citizens. And now, Silenus being +grown up to a youth, and being ready for the action, Lysander miscarried in his +drama through the timidity of one of his actors, or assistants, who just as he +came to the point lost heart and drew back. Yet nothing was found out while +Lysander lived, but only after his death. +</p> + +<p> +He died before Agesilaus came back from Asia, being involved, or perhaps more +truly having himself involved Greece, in the Boeotian war. For it is stated +both ways; and the cause of it some make to be himself, others the Thebans, and +some both together; the Thebans, on the one hand, being charged with casting +away the sacrifices at Aulis, and that being bribed with the king’s money +brought by Androclides and Amphitheus, they had with the object of entangling +the Lacedaemonians in a Grecian war, set upon the Phocians, and wasted their +country; it being said, on the other hand, that Lysander was angry that the +Thebans had preferred a claim to the tenth part of the spoils of the war, while +the rest of the confederates submitted without complaint; and because they +expressed indignation about the money which Lysander sent to Sparta, but most +especially, because from them the Athenians had obtained the first opportunity +of freeing themselves from the thirty tyrants, whom Lysander had made, and to +support whom the Lacedaemonians issued a decree that political refugees from +Athens might be arrested in whatever country they were found, and that those +who impeded their arrest should be excluded from the confederacy. In reply to +this the Thebans issued counter decrees of their own, truly in the spirit and +temper of the actions of Hercules and Bacchus, that every house and city in +Boeotia should be opened to the Athenians who required it, and that he who did +not help a fugitive who was seized, should be fined a talent for damages, and +if any one should bear arms through Boeotia to Attica against the tyrants, that +none of the Thebans should either see or hear of it. Nor did they pass these +humane and truly Greek decrees, without at the same time making their acts +conformable to their words. For Thrasybulus and those who with him occupied +Phyle, set out upon that enterprise from Thebes, with arms and money, and +secrecy and a point to start from, provided for them by the Thebans. Such were +the causes of complaint Lysander had against Thebes. And being now grown +violent in his temper through the atrabilious tendency which increased upon him +in his old age, he urged the Ephors and persuaded them to place a garrison in +Thebes, and taking the commander’s place, he marched forth with a body of +troops. Pausanias, also, the king, was sent shortly after with an army. Now +Pausanias, going round by Cithaeron, was to invade Boeotia; Lysander, meantime, +advanced through Phocis to meet him, with a numerous body of soldiers. He took +the city of the Orchomenians, who came over to him of their own accord, and +plundered Lebadea. He dispatched also letters to Pausanias, ordering him to +move from Plataea to meet him at Haliartus, and that himself would be at the +walls of Haliartus by break of day. These letters were brought to the Thebans, +the carrier of them falling into the hands of some Theban scouts. They, having +received aid from Athens, committed their city to the charge of the Athenian +troops, and sallying out about the first sleep, succeeded in reaching Haliartus +a little before Lysander, and part of them entered into the city. He, upon +this, first of all resolved, posting his army upon a hill, to stay for +Pausanias; then as the day advanced, not being able to rest, he bade his men +take up their arms, and encouraging the allies, led them in a column along the +road to the walls. but those Thebans who had remained outside, taking the city +on the left hand, advanced against the rear of their enemies, by the fountain +which is called Cissusa; here they tell the story that the nurses washed the +infant Bacchus after his birth; the water of it is of a bright wine color, +clear, and most pleasant to drink; and not far off the Cretan storax grows all +about, which the Haliartians adduce in token of Rhadamanthus having dwelt +there, and they show his sepulchre, calling it Alea. And the monument also of +Alcmena is hard by; for there, as they say, she was buried, having married +Rhadamanthus after Amphitryon’s death. But the Thebans inside the city forming +in order of battle with the Haliartians stood still for some time, but on +seeing Lysander with a party of those who were foremost approaching, on a +sudden opening the gates and falling on, they killed him with the soothsayer at +his side, and a few others; for the greater part immediately fled back to the +main force. But the Thebans not slackening, but closely pursuing them, the +whole body turned to fly towards the hills. There were one thousand of them +slain; there died, also, of the Thebans three hundred, who were killed with +their enemies, while chasing them into craggy and difficult places. These had +been under suspicion of favoring the Lacedaemonians, and in their eagerness to +clear themselves in the eyes of their fellow-citizens, exposed themselves in +the pursuit, and so met their death. News of the disaster reached Pausanias as +he was on the way from Plataea to Thespiae, and having set his army in order he +came to Haliartus; Thrasybulus, also, came from Thebes, leading the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +Pausanias proposing to request the bodies of the dead under truce, the elders +of the Spartans took it ill, and were angry among themselves, and coming to the +king, declared that Lysander should not be taken away upon any conditions; if +they fought it out by arms about his body, and conquered, then they might bury +him; if they were overcome, it was glorious to die upon the spot with their +commander. When the elders had spoken these things, Pausanias saw it would be a +difficult business to vanquish the Thebans, who had but just been conquerors; +that Lysander’s body also lay near the walls, so that it would be hard for +them, though they overcame, to take it away without a truce; he therefore sent +a herald, obtained a truce, and withdrew his forces, and carrying away the body +of Lysander, they buried it in the first friendly soil they reached on crossing +the Boeotian frontier, in the country of the Panopaeans; where the monument +still stands as you go on the road from Delphi to Chaeronea. Now the army +quartering there, it is said that a person of Phocis, relating the battle to +one who was not in it, said, the enemies fell upon them just after Lysander had +passed over the Hoplites; surprised at which a Spartan, a friend of Lysander, +asked what Hoplites he meant, for he did not know the name. “It was there,” +answered the Phocian, “that the enemy killed the first of us; the rivulet by +the city is called Hoplites.” On hearing which the Spartan shed tears and +observed, how impossible it is for any man to avoid his appointed lot; +Lysander, it appears, having received an oracle, as follows: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Sounding Hoplites see thou bear in mind,<br/> +And the earthborn dragon following behind. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Some, however, say that Hoplites does not run by Haliartus, but is a +watercourse near Coronea, falling into the river Philarus, not far from the +town in former times called Hoplias, and now Isomantus. +</p> + +<p> +The man of Haliartus who killed Lysander, by name Neochorus, bore on his shield +the device of a dragon; and this, it was supposed, the oracle signified. It is +said, also, that at the time of the Peloponnesian war, the Thebans received an +oracle from the sanctuary of Ismenus, referring at once to the battle at +Delium, and to this which thirty years after took place at Haliartus. It ran +thus: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Hunting the wolf, observe the utmost bound,<br/> +And the hill Orchalides where foxes most are found. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +By the words, “the utmost bound,” Delium being intended, where Boeotia touches +Attica, and by Orchalides, the hill now called Alopecus, which lies in the +parts of Haliartus towards Helicon. +</p> + +<p> +But such a death befalling Lysander, the Spartans took it so grievously at the +time, that they put the king to a trial for his life, which he not daring to +await, fled to Tegea, and there lived out his life in the sanctuary of Minerva. +The poverty also of Lysander being discovered by his death, made his merit more +manifest, since from so much wealth and power, from all the homage of the +cities, and of the Persian kingdom, he had not in the least degree, so far as +money goes, sought any private aggrandizement, as Theopompus in his history +relates, whom anyone may rather give credit to when he commends, than when he +finds fault, as it is more agreeable to him to blame than to praise. But +subsequently, Ephorus says, some controversy arising among the allies at +Sparta, which made it necessary to consult the writings which Lysander had kept +by him, Agesilaus came to his house, and finding the book in which the oration +on the Spartan constitution was written at length, to the effect that the +kingdom ought to be taken from the Eurypontidae and Agiadae, and to be offered +in common, and a choice made out of the best citizens, at first he was eager to +make it public, and to show his countrymen the real character of Lysander. But +Lacratidas, a wise man, and at that time chief of the Ephors, hindered +Agesilaus, and said, they ought not to dig up Lysander again, but rather to +bury with him a discourse, composed so plausibly and subtlety. Other honors, +also, were paid him after his death; and amongst these they imposed a fine upon +those who had engaged themselves to marry his daughters, and then when Lysander +was found to be poor, after his decease, refused them; because when they +thought him rich they had been observant of him, but now his poverty had proved +him just and good, they forsook him. For there was, it seems, in Sparta, a +punishment for not marrying, for a late, and for a bad marriage; and to the +last penalty those were most especially liable, who sought alliances with the +rich instead of with the good and with their friends. Such is the account we +have found given of Lysander. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap33"></a>SYLLA</h2> + +<p> +Lucius Cornelius Sylla was descended of a patrician or noble family. Of his +ancestors, Rufinus, it is said, had been consul, and incurred a disgrace more +signal than his distinction. For being found possessed of more than ten pounds +of silver plate, contrary to the law, he was for this reason put out of the +senate. His posterity continued ever after in obscurity, nor had Sylla himself +any opulent parentage. In his younger days he lived in hired lodgings, at a low +rate, which in after-times was adduced against him as proof that he had been +fortunate above his quality. When he was boasting and magnifying himself for +his exploits in Libya, a person of noble station made answer, “And how can you +be an honest man, who, since the death of a father who left you nothing, have +become so rich?” The time in which he lived was no longer an age of pure and +upright manners, but had already declined, and yielded to the appetite for +riches and luxury; yet still, in the general opinion, they who deserted the +hereditary poverty of their family, were as much blamed as those who had run +out a fair patrimonial estate. And afterwards, when he had seized the power +into his hands, and was putting many to death, a freedman suspected of having +concealed one of the proscribed, and for that reason sentenced to be thrown +down the Tarpeian rock, in a reproachful way recounted, how they had lived long +together under the same roof, himself for the upper rooms paying two thousand +sesterces, and Sylla for the lower three thousand; so that the difference +between their fortunes then was no more than one thousand sesterces, equivalent +in Attic coin to two hundred and fifty drachmas. And thus much of his early +fortune. +</p> + +<p> +His general personal appearance may be known by his statues; only his blue +eyes, of themselves extremely keen and glaring, were rendered all the more +forbidding and terrible by the complexion of his face, in which white was mixed +with rough blotches of fiery red. Hence, it is said, he was surnamed Sylla, and +in allusion to it one of the scurrilous jesters at Athens made the verse upon +him, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Sylla is a mulberry sprinkled o’er with meal. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Nor is it out of place to make use of marks of character like these, in the +case of one who was by nature so addicted to raillery, that in his youthful +obscurer years he would converse freely with players and professed jesters, and +join them in all their low pleasures. And when supreme master of all, he was +often wont to muster together the most impudent players and stage-followers of +the town, and to drink and bandy jests with them without regard to his age or +the dignity of his place, and to the prejudice of important affairs that +required his attention. When he was once at table, it was not in Sylla’s nature +to admit of anything that was serious, and whereas at other times he was a man +of business, and austere of countenance, he underwent all of a sudden, at his +first entrance upon wine and good-fellowship, a total revolution, and was +gentle and tractable with common singers and dancers, and ready to oblige +anyone that spoke with him. It seems to have been a sort of diseased result of +this laxity, that he was so prone to amorous pleasures, and yielded without +resistance to any temptations of voluptuousness, from which even ill his old +age he could not refrain. He had a long attachment for Metrobius, a player. In +his first amours it happened, that he made court to a common but rich lady, +Nicopolis by name, and, what by the air of his youth, and what by long +intimacy, won so far on her affections, that she rather than he was the lover, +and at her death she bequeathed him her whole property. He likewise inherited +the estate of a step-mother who loved him as her own son. By these means he had +pretty well advanced his fortunes. +</p> + +<p> +He was chosen quaestor to Marius in his first consulship, and set sail with him +for Libya, to war upon Jugurtha. Here, in general, he gained approbation; and +more especially, by closing in dexterously with an accidental occasion, made a +friend of Bocchus, king of Numidia. He hospitably entertained the king’s +ambassadors, on their escape from some Numidian robbers, and after showing them +much kindness, sent them on their journey with presents, and an escort to +protect them. Bocchus had long hated and dreaded his son-in-law, Jugurtha, who +had now been worsted in the field and had fled to him for shelter; and it so +happened, he was at this time entertaining a design to betray him. He +accordingly invited Sylla to come to him, wishing the seizure and surrender of +Jugurtha to be effected rather through him, than directly by himself. Sylla, +when he had communicated the business to Marius, and received from him a small +detachment, voluntarily put himself into this imminent danger; and confiding in +a barbarian, who had been unfaithful to his own relations, to apprehend another +man’s person, made surrender of his own. Bocchus, having both of them now in +his power, was necessitated to betray one or other, and after long debate with +himself, at last resolved on his first design, and gave up Jugurtha into the +hands of Sylla. +</p> + +<p> +For this Marius triumphed, but the glory of the enterprise, which through +people’s envy of Marius was ascribed to Sylla, secretly grieved him. And the +truth is, Sylla himself was by nature vainglorious, and this being the first +time that from a low and private condition he had risen to esteem amongst the +citizens and tasted of honor, his appetite for distinction carried him to such +a pitch of ostentation, that he had a representation of this action engraved on +a signet ring; which he carried about with him, and made use of ever after. The +impress was, Bocchus delivering, and Sylla receiving, Jugurtha. This touched +Marius to the quick; however, judging Sylla to be beneath his rivalry, he made +use of him as lieutenant, in his second consulship, and in his third, as +tribune; and many considerable services were effected by his means. When acting +as lieutenant he took Copillus, chief of the Tectosages, prisoner, and +compelled the Marsians, a great and populous nation, to become friends and +confederates of the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +Henceforward, however, Sylla perceiving that Marius bore a jealous eye over +him, and would no longer afford him opportunities of action, but rather opposed +his advance, attached himself to Catulus, Marius’s colleague, a worthy man, but +not energetic enough as a general. And under this commander, who entrusted him +with the highest and most important commissions, he rose at once to reputation +and to power. He subdued by arms most part of the Alpine barbarians; and when +there was a scarcity in the armies, he took that care upon himself, and brought +in such a store of provisions, as not only to furnish the soldiers of Catulus +with abundance, but likewise to supply Marius. This, as he writes himself, +wounded Marius to the very heart. So slight and childish were the first +occasions and motives of that enmity between them, which, passing afterwards +through a long course of civil bloodshed and incurable divisions to find its +end in tyranny, and the confusion of the whole State proved Euripides to have +been truly wise and thoroughly acquainted with the causes of disorders in the +body politic, when he forewarned all men to beware of Ambition, as of all the +higher Powers, the most destructive and pernicious to her votaries. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, by this time thinking that the reputation of his arms abroad was +sufficient to entitle him to a part in the civil administration, he took +himself immediately from the camp to the assembly, and offered himself as a +candidate for a praetorship, but failed. The fault of this disappointment he +wholly ascribes to the populace, who, knowing his intimacy with king Bocchus, +and for that reason expecting, that if he was made aedile before his +praetorship, he would then show them magnificent hunting-shows and combats +between Libyan wild beasts, chose other praetors, on purpose to force him into +the aedileship. The vanity of this pretext is sufficiently disproved by +matter-of-fact. For the year following, partly by flatteries to the people, and +partly by money, he got himself elected praetor. Accordingly, once while he was +in office, on his angrily telling Caesar that he should make use of his +authority against him, Caesar answered him with a smile, “You do well to call +it your own, as you bought it.” At the end of his praetorship he was sent over +into Cappadocia, under the presence of reestablishing Ariobarzanes in his +kingdom, but in reality to keep in check the restless movements of Mithridates, +who was gradually procuring himself as vast a new acquired power and dominion, +as was that of his ancient inheritance. He carried over with him no great +forces of his own, but making use of the cheerful aid of the confederates, +succeeded, with considerable slaughter of the Cappadocians, and yet greater of +the Armenian succors, in expelling Gordius and establishing Ariobarzanes as +king. +</p> + +<p> +During his stay on the banks of the Euphrates, there came to him Orobazus, a +Parthian, ambassador from king Arsaces, as yet there having been no +correspondence between the two nations. And this also we may lay to the account +of Sylla’s felicity, that he should be the first Roman, to whom the Parthians +made address for alliance and friendship. At the time of which reception, the +story is, that having ordered three chairs of state to be set, one for +Ariobarzanes, one for Orobazus, and a third for himself, he placed himself in +the middle, and so gave audience. For this the king of Parthia afterwards put +Orobazus to death. Some people commended Sylla for his lofty carriage towards +the barbarians; others again accused him of arrogance and unseasonable display. +It is reported, that a certain Chaldaean, of Orobazus’s retinue, looking Sylla +wistfully in the face, and observing carefully the motions of his mind and +body, and forming a judgment of his nature, according to the rules of his art, +said that it was impossible for him not to become the greatest of men; it was +rather a wonder how he could even then abstain from being head of all. +</p> + +<p> +At his return, Censorinus impeached him of extortion, for having exacted a vast +sum of money from a well-affected and associate kingdom. However, Censorinus +did not appear at the trial, but dropped his accusation. His quarrel, meantime, +with Marius began to break out afresh, receiving new material from the ambition +of Bocchus, who, to please the people of Rome, and gratify Sylla, set up in the +temple of Jupiter Capitolinus images bearing trophies, and a representation in +gold of the surrender of Jugurtha to Sylla. When Marius, in great anger, +attempted to pull them down, and others aided Sylla, the whole city would have +been in tumult and commotion with this dispute, had not the Social War, which +had long lain smoldering blazed forth at last, and for the present put an end +to the quarrel. +</p> + +<p> +In the course of this war, which had many great changes of fortune, and which, +more than any, afflicted the Romans, and, indeed, endangered the very being of +the Commonwealth, Marius was not able to signalize his valor in any action, but +left behind him a clear proof, that warlike excellence requires a strong and +still vigorous body. Sylla, on the other hand, by his many achievements, gained +himself, with his fellow-citizens, the name of a great commander, while his +friends thought him the greatest of all commanders, and his enemies called him +the most fortunate. Nor did this make the same sort of impression on him, as it +made on Timotheus the son of Conon, the Athenian; who, when his adversaries +ascribed his successes to his good luck, and had a painting made, representing +him asleep, and Fortune by his side, casting her nets over the cities, was +rough and violent in his indignation at those who did it, as if by attributing +all to Fortune, they had robbed him of his just honors; and said to the people +on one occasion at his return from war, “In this, ye men of Athens, Fortune had +no part.” A piece of boyish petulance, which the deity, we are told, played +back upon Timotheus; who from that time was never able to achieve anything that +was great, but proving altogether unfortunate in his attempts, and falling into +discredit with the people, was at last banished the city. Sylla, on the +contrary, not only accepted with pleasure the credit of such divine felicities +and favors, but joining himself in extolling and glorifying what was done, gave +the honor of all to Fortune, whether it were out of boastfulness, or a real +feeling of divine agency. He remarks, in his Memoirs, that of all his well +advised actions, none proved so lucky in the execution, as what he had boldly +enterprised, not by calculation, but upon the moment. And in the character +which he gives of himself, that he was born for fortune rather than war, he +seems to give Fortune a higher place than merit, and in short, makes himself +entirely the creature of a superior power, accounting even his concord with +Metellus, his equal in office, and his connection by marriage, a piece of +preternatural felicity. For expecting to have met in him a most troublesome, he +found him a most accommodating colleague. Moreover, in the Memoirs which he +dedicated to Lucullus, he admonishes him to esteem nothing more trustworthy, +than what the divine powers advise him by night. And when he was leaving the +city with an army, to fight in the Social War, he relates, that the earth near +the Laverna opened, and a quantity of fire came rushing out of it, shooting up +with a bright flame into the heavens. The soothsayers upon this foretold, that +a person of great qualities, and of a rare and singular aspect, should take the +government in hand, and quiet the present troubles of the city. Sylla affirms +he was the man, for his golden head of hair made him an extraordinary-looking +man, nor had he any shame, after the great actions he had done, in testifying +to his own great qualities. And thus much of his opinion as to divine agency. +</p> + +<p> +In general he would seem to have been of a very irregular character, full of +inconsistencies with himself; much given to rapine, to prodigality yet more; in +promoting or disgracing whom he pleased, alike unaccountable; cringing to those +he stood in need of, and domineering over others who stood in need of him, so +that it was hard to tell, whether his nature had more in it of pride or of +servility. As to his unequal distribution of punishments, as, for example, that +upon slight grounds he would put to the torture, and again would bear patiently +with the greatest wrongs; would readily forgive and be reconciled after the +most heinous acts of enmity, and yet would visit small and inconsiderable +offenses with death, and confiscation of goods; one might judge, that in +himself he was really of a violent and revengeful nature, which however he +could qualify, upon reflection, for his interest. In this very Social War, when +the soldiers with stones and clubs had killed an officer of praetorian rank, +his own lieutenant, Albinus by name, he passed by this flagrant crime without +any inquiry, giving it out moreover in a boast, that the soldiers would behave +all the better now, to make amends, by some special bravery, for their breach +of discipline. He took no notice of the clamors of those that cried for +justice, but designing already to supplant Marius, now that he saw the Social +War near its end, he made much of his army, in hopes to get himself declared +general of the forces against Mithridates. +</p> + +<p> +At his return to Rome, he was chosen Consul with Quintus Pompeius, in the +fiftieth year of his age, and made a most distinguished marriage with Caecilia, +daughter of Metellus, the chief priest. The common people made a variety of +verses in ridicule of the marriage, and many of the nobility also were +disgusted at it, esteeming him, as Livy writes, unworthy of this connection, +whom before they thought worthy of a consulship. This was not his only wife, +for first, in his younger days, he was married to Ilia, by whom he had a +daughter; after her to Aelia; and thirdly to Cloelia, whom he dismissed as +barren, but honorably, and with professions of respect, adding, moreover, +presents. But the match between him and Metella, falling out a few days after, +occasioned suspicions that he had complained of Cloelia without due cause. To +Metella he always showed great deference, so much so that the people, when +anxious for the recall of the exiles of Marius’s party, upon his refusal, +entreated the intercession of Metella. And the Athenians, it is thought, had +harder measure, at the capture of their town, because they used insulting +language to Metella in their jests from the walls during the siege. But of this +hereafter. +</p> + +<p> +At present esteeming the consulship but a small matter in comparison of things +to come, he was impatiently carried away in thought to the Mithridatic War. +Here he was withstood by Marius; who out of mad affectation of glory and thirst +for distinction, those never dying passions, though he were now unwieldy in +body, and had given up service, on account of his age, during the late +campaigns, still coveted after command in a distant war beyond the seas. And +whilst Sylla was departed for the camp, to order the rest of his affairs there, +he sat brooding at home, and at last hatched that execrable sedition, which +wrought Rome more mischief than all her enemies together had done, as was +indeed foreshown by the gods. For a flame broke forth of its own accord, from +under the staves of the ensigns, and was with difficulty extinguished. Three +ravens brought their young into the open road, and ate them, carrying the +relics into the nest again. Mice having gnawed the consecrated gold in one of +the temples, the keepers caught one of them, a female, in a trap; and she +bringing forth five young ones in the very trap, devoured three of them. But +what was greatest of all, in a calm and clear sky there was heard the sound of +a trumpet, with such a loud and dismal blast, as struck terror and amazement +into the hearts of the people. The Etruscan sages affirmed, that this prodigy +betokened the mutation of the age, and a general revolution in the world. For +according to them there are in all eight ages, differing one from another in +the lives and the characters of men, and to each of these God has allotted a +certain measure of time, determined by the circuit of the great year. And when +one age is run out, at the approach of another, there appears some wonderful +sign from earth or heaven, such as makes it manifest at once to those who have +made it their business to study such things, that there has succeeded in the +world a new race of men, differing in customs and institutes of life, and more +or less regarded by the gods, than the preceding. Amongst other great changes +that happen, as they say, at the turn of ages, the art of divination, also, at +one time rises in esteem, and is more successful in its predictions, clearer +and surer tokens being sent from God, and then again, in another generation +declines as low, becoming mere guesswork for the most part, and discerning +future events by dim and uncertain intimations. This was the mythology of the +wisest of the Tuscan sages, who were thought to possess a knowledge beyond +other men. Whilst the Senate sat in consultation with the soothsayers, +concerning these prodigies, in the temple of Bellona, a sparrow came flying in, +before them all, with a grasshopper in its mouth, and letting fall one part of +it, flew away with the remainder. The diviners foreboded commotions and +dissension between the great landed proprietors and the common city populace; +the latter, like the grasshopper, being loud and talkative; while the sparrow +might represent the “dwellers in the field.” +</p> + +<p> +Marius had taken into alliance Sulpicius, the tribune, a man second to none in +any villanies, so that it was less the question what others he surpassed, but +rather in what respects he most surpassed himself in wickedness. He was cruel, +bold, rapacious, and in all these points utterly shameless and unscrupulous; +not hesitating to offer Roman citizenship by public sale to freed slaves and +aliens, and to count out the price on public money-tables in the forum. He +maintained three thousand swordsmen, and had always about him a company of +young men of the equestrian class ready for all occasions, whom he styled his +Anti-Senate. Having had a law enacted, that no senator should contract a debt +of above two thousand drachmas, he himself, after death, was found indebted +three millions. This was the man whom Marius let in upon the Commonwealth, and +who, confounding all things by force and the sword, made several ordinances of +dangerous consequence, and amongst the rest, one giving Marius the conduct of +the Mithridatic war. Upon this the consuls proclaimed a public cessation of +business, but as they were holding an assembly near the temple of Castor and +Pollux, he let loose the rabble upon them, and amongst many others slew the +consul Pompeius’s young son in the forum, Pompeius himself hardly escaping in +the crowd. Sylla being closely pursued into the house of Marius, was forced to +come forth and dissolve the cessation; and for his doing this, Sulpicius, +having deposed Pompeius, allowed Sylla to continue his consulship, only +transferring the Mithridatic expedition to Marius. +</p> + +<p> +There were immediately dispatched to Nola tribunes, to receive the army, and +bring it to Marius; but Sylla having got first to the camp, and the soldiers, +upon hearing of the news, having stoned the tribunes, Marius, in requital, +proceeded to put the friends of Sylla in the city to the sword, and rifled +their goods. Every kind of removal and flight went on, some hastening from the +camp to the city, others from the city to the camp. The senate, no more in its +own power, but wholly governed by the dictates of Marius and Sulpicius, alarmed +at the report of Sylla’s advancing with his troops towards the city, sent forth +two of the praetors, Brutus and Servilius, to forbid his nearer approach. The +soldiers would have slain these praetors in a fury, for their bold language to +Sylla; contenting themselves, however, with breaking their rods, and tearing +off their purple-edged robes, after much contumelious usage they sent them +back, to the sad dejection of the citizens, who beheld their magistrates +despoiled of their badges of office, and announcing to them, that things were +now manifestly come to a rupture past all cure. Marius put himself in +readiness, and Sylla with his colleague moved from Nola, at the head of six +complete legions, all of them willing to march up directly against the city, +though he himself as yet was doubtful in thought, and apprehensive of the +danger. As he was sacrificing, Postumius the soothsayer, having inspected the +entrails, stretching forth both hands to Sylla, required to be bound and kept +in custody till the battle was over, as willing, if they had not speedy and +complete success, to suffer the utmost punishment. It is said, also, that there +appeared to Sylla himself in a dream, a certain goddess, whom the Romans learnt +to worship from the Cappadocians, whether it be the Moon, or Pallas, or +Bellona. This same goddess, to his thinking, stood by him, and put into his +hand thunder and lightning, then naming his enemies one by one, bade him strike +them, who, all of them, fell on the discharge and disappeared. Encouraged by +this vision, and relating it to his colleague, next day he led on towards Rome. +About Picinae being met by a deputation, beseeching him not to attack at once, +in the heat of a march, for that the senate had decreed to do him all the right +imaginable, he consented to halt on the spot, and sent his officers to measure +out the ground, as is usual, for a camp; so that the deputation, believing it, +returned. They were no sooner gone, but he sent a party on under the command of +Lucius Basillus and Caius Mummius, to secure the city gate, and the walls on +the side of the Esquiline hill, and then close at their heels followed himself +with all speed. Basillus made his way successfully into the city, but the +unarmed multitude, pelting him with stones and tiles from off the houses, +stopped his further progress, and beat him back to the wall. Sylla by this time +was come up, and seeing what was going on, called aloud to his men to set fire +to the houses, and taking a flaming torch, he himself led the way, and +commanded the archers to make use of their fire-darts, letting fly at the tops +of houses; all which he did, not upon any plan, but simply in his fury, +yielding the conduct of that day’s work to passion, and as if all he saw were +enemies, without respect or pity either to friend, relations, or acquaintance, +made his entry by fire, which knows no distinction betwixt friend or foe. +</p> + +<p> +In this conflict, Marius being driven into the temple of Mother-Earth, thence +invited the slaves by proclamation of freedom, but the enemy coming on he was +overpowered and fled the city. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla having called a senate, had sentence of death passed on Marius, and some +few others, amongst whom was Sulpicius, tribune of the people. Sulpicius was +killed, being betrayed by his servant, whom Sylla first made free, and then +threw him headlong down the Tarpeian rock. As for Marius, he set a price on his +life, by proclamation, neither gratefully nor politicly, if we consider into +whose house, not long before he put himself at mercy, and was safely dismissed. +Had Marius at that time not let Sylla go, but suffered him to be slain by the +hands of Sulpicius, he might have been lord of all; nevertheless he spared his +life, and a few days after, when in a similar position himself, received a +different measure. +</p> + +<p> +By these proceedings, Sylla excited the secret distaste of the senate; but the +displeasure and free indignation of the commonalty showed itself plainly by +their actions. For they ignominiously rejected Nonius, his nephew, and Servius, +who stood for offices of state by his interest, and elected others as +magistrates, by honoring whom they thought they should most annoy him. He made +semblance of extreme satisfaction at all this, as if the people by his means +had again enjoyed the liberty of doing what seemed best to them. And to pacify +the public hostility, he created Lucius Cinna consul, one of the adverse party, +having first bound him under oaths and imprecations to be favorable to his +interest. For Cinna, ascending the capitol with a stone in his hand, swore +solemnly, and prayed with direful curses, that he himself, if he were not true +to his friendship with Sylla, might be cast out of the city, as that stone out +of his hand; and thereupon cast the stone to the ground, in the presence of +many people. Nevertheless Cinna had no sooner entered on his charge, but he +took measures to disturb the present settlement, and having prepared an +impeachment against Sylla, got Virginius, one of the tribunes of the people, to +be his accuser; but Sylla, leaving him and the court of judicature to +themselves, set forth against Mithridates. +</p> + +<p> +About the time that Sylla was making ready to put oft with his forces from +Italy, besides many other omens which befell Mithridates, then staying at +Pergamus, there goes a story that a figure of Victory, with a crown in her +hand, which the Pergamenians by machinery from above let down on him, when it +had almost reached his head, fell to pieces, and the crown tumbling down into +the midst of the theater, there broke against the ground, occasioning a general +alarm among the populace, and considerably disquieting Mithridates himself, +although his affairs at that time were succeeding beyond expectation. For +having wrested Asia from the Romans, and Bithynia and Cappadocia from their +kings, he made Pergamus his royal seat, distributing among his friends riches, +principalities, and kingdoms. Of his sons, one residing in Pontus and Bosporus +held his ancient realm as far as the deserts beyond the lake Maeotis, without +molestation; while Ariarathes, another, was reducing Thrace and Macedon, with a +great army, to obedience. His generals, with forces under them, were +establishing his supremacy in other quarters. Archelaus, in particular, with +his fleet, held absolute mastery of the sea, and was bringing into subjection +the Cyclades, and all the other islands as far as Malea, and had taken Euboea +itself. Making Athens his head-quarters, from thence as far as Thessaly he was +withdrawing the States of Greece from the Roman allegiance, without the least +ill success, except at Chaeronea. For here Bruttius Sura, lieutenant to +Sentius, governor of Macedon, a man of singular valor and prudence, met him, +and, though he came like a torrent pouring over Boeotia, made stout resistance, +and thrice giving him battle near Chaeronea, repulsed and forced him back to +the sea. But being commanded by Lucius Lucullus to give place to his successor, +Sylla, and resign the war to whom it was decreed, he presently left Boeotia, +and retired back to Sentius, although his success had outgone all hopes, and +Greece was well disposed to a new revolution, upon account of his gallant +behavior. These were the glorious actions of Bruttius. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, on his arrival, received by their deputations the compliments of all the +cities of Greece, except Athens, against which, as it was compelled by the +tyrant Aristion to hold for the king, he advanced with all his forces, and +investing the Piraeus, laid formal siege to it, employing every variety of +engines, and trying every manner of assault; whereas, had he forbore but a +little while, he might without hazard have taken the Upper City by famine, it +being already reduced to the last extremity, through want of necessaries. But +eager to return to Rome, and fearing innovation there, at great risk, with +continual fighting and vast expense, he pushed on the war. Besides other +equipage, the very work about the engines of battery was supplied with no less +than ten thousand yoke of mules, employed daily in that service. And when +timber grew scarce, for many of the works failed, some crushed to pieces by +their own weight, others taking fire by the continual play of the enemy, he had +recourse to the sacred groves, and cut down the trees of the Academy, the +shadiest of all the suburbs, and the Lyceum. And a vast sum of money being +wanted to carry on the war, he broke into the sanctuaries of Greece, that of +Epidaurus and that of Olympia, sending for the most beautiful and precious +offerings deposited there. He wrote, likewise, to the Amphictyons, at Delphi, +that it were better to remit the wealth of the god to him, for that he would +keep it more securely, or in case he made use of it, restore as much. He sent +Caphis, the Phocian, one of his friends, with this message, commanding him to +receive each item by weight. Caphis came to Delphi, but was loath to touch the +holy things, and with many tears, in the presence of the Amphyctyons, bewailed +the necessity. And on some of them declaring they heard the sound of a harp +from the inner shrine, he, whether he himself believed it, or was willing to +try the effect of religious fear upon Sylla, sent back an express. To which +Sylla replied in a scoffing way, that it was surprising to him that Caphis did +not know that music was a sign of joy, not anger; he should, therefore, go on +boldly, and accept what a gracious and bountiful god offered. +</p> + +<p> +Other things were sent away without much notice on the part of the Greeks in +general, but in the case of the silver tun, that only relic of the regal +donations, which its weight and bulk made it impossible for any carriage to +receive, the Amphictyons were forced to cut it into pieces, and called to mind +in so doing, how Titus Flamininus, and Manius Acilius, and again Paulus +Aemilius, one of whom drove Antiochus out of Greece, and the others subdued the +Macedonian kings, had not only abstained from violating the Greek temples, but +had even given them new gifts and honors, and increased the general veneration +for them. They, indeed, the lawful commanders of temperate and obedient +soldiers, and themselves great in soul, and simple in expenses, lived within +the bounds of the ordinary established charges, accounting it a greater +disgrace to seek popularity with their men, than to feel fear of their enemy. +Whereas the commanders of these times, attaining to superiority by force, not +worth, and having need of arms one against another, rather than against the +public enemy, were constrained to temporize in authority, and in order to pay +for the gratifications with which they purchased the labor of their soldiers, +were driven, before they knew it, to sell the commonwealth itself, and, to gain +the mastery over men better than themselves, were content to become slaves to +the vilest of wretches. These practices drove Marius into exile, and again +brought him in against Sylla. These made Cinna the assassin of Octavius, and +Fimbria of Flaccus. To which courses Sylla contributed not the least; for to +corrupt and win over those who were under the command of others, he would be +munificent and profuse towards those who were under his own; and so, while +tempting the soldiers of other generals to treachery, and his own to dissolute +living, he was naturally in want of a large treasury, and especially during +that siege. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla had a vehement and an implacable desire to conquer Athens, whether out of +emulation, fighting as it were against the shadow of the once famous city, or +out of anger, at the foul words and scurrilous jests with which the tyrant +Aristion, showing himself daily, with unseemly gesticulations, upon the walls, +had provoked him and Metella. +</p> + +<p> +The tyrant Aristion had his very being compounded of wantonness and cruelty, +having gathered into himself all the worst of Mithridates’s diseased and +vicious qualities, like some fatal malady which the city, after its deliverance +from innumerable wars, many tyrannies and seditions, was in its last days +destined to endure. At the time when a medimnus of wheat was sold in the city +for one thousand drachmas, and men were forced to live on the feverfew growing +round the citadel, and to boil down shoes and oil-bags for their food, he, +carousing and feasting in the open face of day, then dancing in armor, and +making jokes at the enemy, suffered the holy lamp of the goddess to expire for +want of oil, and to the chief priestess, who demanded of him the twelfth part +of a medimnus of wheat, he sent the like quantity of pepper. The senators and +priests, who came as suppliants to beg of him to take compassion on the city, +and treat for peace with Sylla, he drove away and dispersed with a flight of +arrows. At last, with much ado, he sent forth two or three of his reveling +companions to parley, to whom Sylla, perceiving that they made no serious +overtures towards an accommodation, but went on haranguing in praise of +Theseus, Eumolpus, and the Median trophies, replied, “My good friends, you may +put up your speeches and be gone. I was sent by the Romans to Athens, not to +take lessons, but to reduce rebels to obedience.” +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime news came to Sylla that some old men, talking in the Ceramicus, +had been overheard to blame the tyrant for not securing the passages and +approaches near the Heptachalcum, the one point where the enemy might easily +get over. Sylla neglected not the report, but going in the night, and +discovering the place to be assailable, set instantly to work. Sylla himself +makes mention in his Memoirs, that Marcus Teius, the first man who scaled the +wall, meeting with an adversary, and striking him on the headpiece a home +stroke, broke his own sword, but, notwithstanding, did not give ground, but +stood and held him fast. The city was certainly taken from that quarter, +according to the tradition of the oldest of the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +When they had thrown down the wall, and made all level betwixt the Piraic and +Sacred Gate, about midnight Sylla entered the breach, with all the terrors of +trumpets and cornets sounding, with the triumphant shout and cry of an army let +loose to spoil and slaughter, and scouring through the streets with swords +drawn. There was no numbering the slain; the amount is to this day conjectured +only from the space of ground overflowed with blood. For without mentioning the +execution done in other quarters of the city, the blood that was shed about the +marketplace spread over the whole Ceramicus within the Double-gate, and, +according to most writers, passed through the gate and overflowed the suburb. +Nor did the multitudes which fell thus exceed the number of those, who, out of +pity and love for their country, which they believed was now finally to perish, +slew themselves; the best of them, through despair of their country’s +surviving, dreading themselves to survive, expecting neither humanity nor +moderation in Sylla. At length, partly at the instance of Midias and Calliphon, +two exiled men, beseeching and casting themselves at his feet, partly by the +intercession of those senators who followed the camp, having had his fill of +revenge, and making some honorable mention of the ancient Athenians, “I +forgive,” said he, “the many for the sake of the few, the living for the dead.” +He took Athens, according to his own Memoirs, on the calends of March, +coinciding pretty nearly with the new moon of Anthesterion, on which day it is +the Athenian usage to perform various acts in commemoration of the ruins and +devastations occasioned by the deluge, that being supposed to be the time of +its occurrence. +</p> + +<p> +At the taking of the town, the tyrant fled into the citadel, and was there +besieged by Curio, who had that charge given him. He held out a considerable +time, but at last yielded himself up for want of water, and divine power +immediately intimated its agency in the matter. For on the same day and hour +that Curio conducted him down, the clouds gathered in a clear sky, and there +came down a great quantity of rain and filled the citadel with water. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after, Sylla won the Piraeus, and burnt most of it; amongst the rest, +Philo’s arsenal, a work very greatly admired. +</p> + +<p> +In the mean time Taxiles, Mithridates’s general, coming down from Thrace and +Macedon, with an army of one hundred thousand foot, ten thousand horse, and +ninety chariots, armed with scythes at the wheels, would have joined Archelaus, +who lay with a navy on the coast near Munychia, reluctant to quit the sea, and +yet unwilling to engage the Romans in battle, but desiring to protract the war +and cut off the enemy’s supplies. Which Sylla perceiving much better than +himself, passed with his forces into Boeotia, quitting a barren district which +was inadequate to maintain an army even in time of peace. He was thought by +some to have taken false measures in thus leaving Attica, a rugged country, and +ill suited for cavalry to move in, and entering the plain and open fields of +Boeotia, knowing as he did the barbarian strength to consist most in horses and +chariots. But as was said before, to avoid famine and scarcity, he was forced +to run the risk of a battle. Moreover he was in anxiety for Hortensius, a bold +and active officer, whom on his way to Sylla with forces from Thessaly, the +barbarians awaited in the straits. For these reasons Sylla drew off into +Boeotia. Hortensius, meantime, was conducted by Caphis, our countryman, another +way unknown to the barbarians, by Parnassus, just under Tithora, which was then +not so large a town as it is now, but a mere fort, surrounded by steep +precipices, whither the Phocians also, in old time, when flying from the +invasion of Xerxes, carried themselves and their goods and were saved. +Hortensius, encamping here, kept off the enemy by day, and at night descending +by difficult passages to Patronis, joined the forces of Sylla, who came to meet +him. Thus united they posted themselves on a fertile hill in the middle of the +plain of Elatea, shaded with trees and watered at the foot. It is called +Philoboeotus, and its situation and natural advantages are spoken of with great +admiration by Sylla. +</p> + +<p> +As they lay thus encamped, they seemed to the enemy a contemptible number, for +they were not above fifteen hundred horse, and less than fifteen thousand foot. +Therefore the rest of the commanders, overpersuading Archelaus, and drawing up +the army, covered the plain with horses, chariots, bucklers, targets. The +clamor and cries of so many nations forming for battle rent the air, nor was +the pomp and ostentation of their costly array altogether idle and +unserviceable for terror; for the brightness of their armor, embellished +magnificently with gold and silver, and the rich colors of their Median and +Scythian coats, intermixed with brass and shining steel, presented a flaming +and terrible sight as they swayed about and moved in their ranks, so much so +that the Romans shrunk within their trenches, and Sylla, unable by any +arguments to remove their fear, and unwilling to force them to fight against +their wills, was fain to sit down in quiet, ill-brooking to become the subject +of barbarian insolence and laughter. This, however, above all advantaged him, +for the enemy, from contemning of him, fell into disorder amongst themselves, +being already less thoroughly under command, on account of the number of their +leaders. Some few of them remained within the encampment, but others, the major +part, lured out with hopes of prey and rapine, strayed about the country many +days journey from the camp, and are related to have destroyed the city of +Panope, to have plundered Lebadea, and robbed the oracle without any orders +from their commanders. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, all this while, chafing and fretting to see the cities all around +destroyed, suffered not the soldiery to remain idle, but leading them out, +compelled them to divert the Cephisus from its ancient channel by casting up +ditches, and giving respite to none, showed himself rigorous in punishing the +remiss, that growing weary of labor, they might be induced by hardship to +embrace danger. Which fell out accordingly, for on the third day, being hard at +work as Sylla passed by, they begged and clamored to be led against the enemy. +Sylla replied, that this demand of war proceeded rather from a backwardness to +labor than any forwardness to fight, but if they were in good earnest martially +inclined, he bade them take their arms and get up thither, pointing to the +ancient citadel of the Parapotamians, of which at present, the city being laid +waste, there remained only the rocky hill itself, steep and craggy on all +sides, and severed from Mount Hedylium by the breadth of the river Assus, which +running between, and at the bottom of the same hill falling into the Cephisus +with an impetuous confluence, makes this eminence a strong position for +soldiers to occupy. Observing that the enemy’s division, called the Brazen +Shields, were making their way up thither, Sylla was willing to take first +possession, and by the vigorous efforts of the soldiers, succeeded. Archelaus, +driven from hence, bent his forces upon Chaeronea. The Chaeroneans who bore +arms in the Roman camp beseeching Sylla not to abandon the city, he dispatched +Gabinius, a tribune, with one legion, and sent out also the Chaeroneans, who +endeavored, but were not able to get in before Gabinius; so active was he, and +more zealous to bring relief than those who had entreated it. Juba writes that +Ericius was the man sent, not Gabinius. Thus narrowly did our native city +escape. +</p> + +<p> +From Lebadea and the cave of Trophonius there came favorable rumors and +prophecies of victory to the Romans, of which the inhabitants of those places +give a fuller account, but as Sylla himself affirms in the tenth book of his +Memoirs, Quintus Titius, a man of some repute among the Romans who were engaged +in mercantile business in Greece, came to him after the battle won at +Chaeronea, and declared that Trophonius had foretold another fight and victory +on the same place, within a short time. After him a soldier, by name Salvenius, +brought an account from the god of the future issue of affairs in Italy. As to +the vision, they both agreed in this, that they had seen one who in stature and +in majesty was similar to Jupiter Olympius. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, when he had passed over the Assus, marching under the Mount Hedylium, +encamped close to Archelaus, who had entrenched himself strongly between the +mountains Acontium and Hedylium, close to what are called the Assia. The place +of his entrenchment is to this day named from him, Archelaus. Sylla, after one +day’s respite, having left Murena behind him with one legion and two cohorts to +amuse the enemy with continual alarms, himself went and sacrificed on the banks +of Cephisus, and the holy rites ended, held on towards Chaeronea to receive the +forces there and view Mount Thurium, where a party of the enemy had posted +themselves. This is a craggy height running up in a conical form to a point, +called by us Orthopagus; at the foot of it is the river Morius and the temple +of Apollo Thurius. The god had his surname from Thuro, mother of Chaeron, whom +ancient record makes founder of Chaeronea. Others assert that the cow which +Apollo gave to Cadmus for a guide appeared there, and that the place took its +name from the beast, Thor being the Phoenician word for a cow. +</p> + +<p> +At Sylla’s approach to Chaeronea, the tribune who had been appointed to guard +the city led out his men in arms, and met him with a garland of laurel in his +hand; which Sylla accepting, and at the same time saluting the soldiers and +animating them to the encounter, two men of Chaeronea, Homoloichus and +Anaxidamus, presented themselves before him, and offered, with a small party, +to dislodge those who were posted on Thurium. For there lay a path out of sight +of the barbarians, from what is called Petrochus along by the Museum, leading +right down from above upon Thurium. By this way it was easy to fall upon them +and either stone them from above, or force them down into the plain. Sylla, +assured of their faith and courage by Gabinius, bade them proceed with the +enterprise, and meantime drew up the army, and disposing the cavalry on both +wings, himself took command of the right; the left being committed to the +direction of Murena. In the rear of all, Galba and Hortensius, his lieutenants, +planted themselves on the upper grounds with the cohorts of reserve, to watch +the motions of the enemy, who with numbers of horse and swift-footed, +light-armed infantry, were noticed to have so formed their wing as to allow it +readily to change about and alter its position, and thus gave reason for +suspecting that they intended to carry it far out and so to enclose the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +In the meanwhile, the Chaeroneans, who had Ericius for commander by appointment +of Sylla, covertly making their way around Thurium, and then discovering +themselves, occasioned a great confusion and rout amongst the barbarians, and +slaughter, for the most part, by their own hands. For they kept not their +place, but making down the steep descent, ran themselves on their own spears, +and violently sent each other over the cliffs, the enemy from above pressing on +and wounding them where they exposed their bodies; insomuch that there fell +three thousand about Thurium. Some of those who escaped, being met by Murena as +he stood in array, were cut off and destroyed. Others breaking through to their +friends and falling pell-mell into the ranks, filled most part of the army with +fear and tumult, and caused a hesitation and delay among the generals, which +was no small disadvantage. For immediately upon the discomposure, Sylla coming +full speed to the charge, and quickly crossing the interval between the armies, +lost them the service of their armed chariots, which require a consider able +space of ground to gather strength and impetuosity in their career, a short +course being weak and ineffectual, like that of missiles without a full swing. +Thus it fared with the barbarians at present, whose first chariots came feebly +on and made but a faint impression; the Romans repulsing them with shouts and +laughter, called out as they do at the races in the circus, for more to come. +By this time the mass of both armies met; the barbarians on one side fixed +their long pikes, and with their shields locked close together, strove so far +as in them lay to preserve their line of battle entire. The Romans, on the +other side, having discharged their javelins, rushed on with their drawn +swords, and struggled to put by the pikes to get at them the sooner, in the +fury that possessed them at seeing in the front of the enemy fifteen thousand +slaves, whom the royal commanders had set free by proclamation, and ranged +amongst the men of arms. And a Roman centurion is reported to have said at this +sight, that he never knew servants allowed to play the masters, unless at the +Saturnalia. These men by their deep and solid array, as well as by their daring +courage, yielded but slowly to the legions, till at last by slinging engines, +and darts, which the Romans poured in upon them behind, they were forced to +give way and scatter. +</p> + +<p> +As Archelaus was extending the right wing to encompass the enemy, Hortensius +with his cohorts came down in force, with intention to charge him in the flank. +But Archelaus wheeling about suddenly with two thousand horse, Hortensius, +outnumbered and hard pressed, fell back towards the higher grounds, and found +himself gradually getting separated from the main body and likely to be +surrounded by the enemy. When Sylla heard this, he came rapidly up to his +succor from the right wing, which as yet had not engaged. But Archelaus, +guessing the matter by the dust of his troops, turned to the right wing, from +whence Sylla came, in hopes to surprise it without a commander. At the same +instant, likewise, Taxiles, with his Brazen Shields, assailed Murena, so that a +cry coming from both places, and the hills repeating it around, Sylla stood in +suspense which way to move. Deciding to resume his own station, he sent in aid +to Murena four cohorts under Hortensius, and commanding the fifth to follow +him, returned hastily to the right wing, which of itself held its ground on +equal terms against Archelaus; and, at his appearance, with one bold effort +forced them back, and, obtaining the mastery, followed them, flying in disorder +to the river and Mount Acontium. Sylla, however, did not forget the danger +Murena was in; but hasting thither and finding him victorious also, then joined +in the pursuit. Many barbarians were slain in the field, many more were cut in +pieces as they were making into the camp. Of all the vast multitude, ten +thousand only got safe into Chalcis. Sylla writes that there were but fourteen +of his soldiers missing, and that two of these returned towards evening; he, +therefore, inscribed on the trophies the names of Mars, Victory, and Venus, as +having won the day no less by good fortune than by management and force of +arms. This trophy of the battle in the plain stands on the place where +Archelaus first gave way, near the stream of the Molus; another is erected high +on the top of Thurium, where the barbarians were environed, with an inscription +in Greek, recording that the glory of the day belonged to Homoloichus and +Anaxidamus. Sylla celebrated his victory at Thebes with spectacles, for which +he erected a stage, near Oedipus’s well. The judges of the performances were +Greeks chosen out of other cities; his hostility to the Thebans being +implacable, half of whose territory he took away and consecrated to Apollo and +Jupiter, ordering that out of the revenue compensation should be made to the +gods for the riches himself had taken from them. +</p> + +<p> +After this, hearing that Flaccus, a man of the contrary faction, had been +chosen consul, and was crossing the Ionian Sea with an army, professedly to act +against Mithridates, but in reality against himself, he hastened towards +Thessaly, designing to meet him, but in his march, when near Melitea, received +advices from all parts that the countries behind him were overrun and ravaged +by no less a royal army than the former. For Dorylaus, arriving at Chalcis with +a large fleet, on board of which he brought over with him eighty thousand of +the best appointed and best disciplined soldiers of Mithridates’s army, at once +invaded Boeotia, and occupied the country in hopes to bring Sylla to a battle, +making no account of the dissuasions of Archelaus, but giving it out as to the +last fight, that without treachery so many thousand men could never have +perished. Sylla, however, facing about expeditiously, made it clear to him that +Archelaus was a wise man, and had good skill in the Roman valor; insomuch that +he himself, after some small skirmishes with Sylla near Tilphossium, was the +first of those who thought it not advisable to put things to the decision of +the sword, but rather to wear out the war by expense of time and treasure. The +ground, however, near Orchomenus, where they then lay encamped, gave some +encouragement to Archelaus, being a battle field admirably suited for an army +superior in cavalry. Of all the plains in Boeotia that are renowned for their +beauty and extent, this alone, which commences from the city of Orchomenus, +spreads out unbroken and clear of trees to the edge of the fens in which the +Melas, rising close under Orchomenus, loses itself, the only Greek river which +is a deep and navigable water from the very head, increasing also about the +summer solstice like the Nile, and producing plants similar to those that grow +there, only small and without fruit. It does not run far before the main stream +disappears among the blind and woody marsh-grounds; a small branch. however, +joins the Cephisus, about the place where the lake is thought to produce the +best flute-reeds. +</p> + +<p> +Now that both armies were posted near each other, Archelaus lay still, but +Sylla employed himself in cutting ditches from either side; that if possible, +by driving the enemies from the firm and open champain, he might force them +into the fens. They, on the other hand, not enduring this, as soon as their +leaders allowed them the word of command, issued out furiously in large bodies; +when not only the men at work were dispersed, but most part of those who stood +in arms to protect the work fled in disorder. Upon this, Sylla leaped from his +horse, and snatching hold of an ensign, rushed through the midst of the rout +upon the enemy, crying out aloud, “To me, O Romans, it will be glorious to fall +here. As for you, when they ask you where you betrayed your general, remember +and say, at Orchomenus.” His men rallying again at these words, and two cohorts +coming to his succor from the right wing, he led them to the charge and turned +the day. Then retiring some short distance and refreshing his men, he proceeded +again with his works to block up the enemy’s camp. They again sallied out in +better order than before. Here Diogenes, step-son to Archelaus, fighting on the +right wing with much gallantry, made an honorable end. And the archers, being +hard pressed by the Romans, and wanting space for a retreat, took their arrows +by handfuls, and striking with these as with swords, beat them back. In the +end, however, they were all driven into the entrenchment and had a sorrowful +night of it with their slain and wounded. The next day again, Sylla, leading +forth his men up to their quarters, went on finishing the lines of +entrenchment, and when they issued out again with larger numbers to give him +battle, fell on them and put them to the rout, and in the consternation +ensuing, none daring to abide, he took the camp by storm. The marshes were +filled with blood, and the lake with dead bodies, insomuch that to this day +many bows, helmets, fragments of iron, breastplates, and swords of barbarian +make, continue to be found buried deep in mud, two hundred years after the +fight. Thus much of the actions of Chaeronea and Orchomenus. +</p> + +<p> +At Rome, Cinna and Carbo were now using injustice and violence towards persons +of the greatest eminence, and many of them to avoid this tyranny repaired, as +to a safe harbor, to Sylla’s camp, where, in a short space, he had about him +the aspect of a senate. Metella, likewise, having with difficulty conveyed +herself and children away by stealth, brought him word that his houses, both in +town and country, had been burnt by his enemies, and entreated his help at +home. Whilst he was in doubt what to do, being impatient to hear of his country +being thus outraged, and yet not knowing how to leave so great a work as the +Mithridatic war unfinished, there comes to him Archelaus, a merchant of Delos, +with hopes of an accommodation, and private instructions from Archelaus, the +king’s general. Sylla liked the business so well as to desire a speedy +conference with Archelaus in person, and a meeting took place on the sea-coast +near Delium, where the temple of Apollo stands. When Archelaus opened the +conversation, and began to urge Sylla to abandon his pretensions to Asia and +Pontus, and to set sail for the war in Rome, receiving money and shipping, and +such forces as he should think fitting from the king, Sylla, interposing, bade +Archelaus take no further care for Mithridates, but assume the crown to +himself, and become a confederate of Rome, delivering up the navy. Archelaus +professing his abhorrence of such treason, Sylla proceeded: “So you, Archelaus, +a Cappadocian, and slave, or if it so please you, friend, to a barbarian king, +would not, upon such vast considerations, be guilty of what is dishonorable, +and yet dare to talk to me, Roman general and Sylla, of treason? as if you were +not the selfsame Archelaus who ran away at Chaeronea, with few remaining out of +one hundred and twenty thousand men; who lay for two days in the fens of +Orchomenus, and left Boeotia impassable for heaps of dead carcasses.” +Archelaus, changing his tone at this, humbly besought him to lay aside the +thoughts of war, and make peace with Mithridates. Sylla consenting to this +request, articles of agreement were concluded on. That Mithridates should quit +Asia and Paphlagonia, restore Bithynia to Nicomedes, Cappadocia to +Ariobarzanes, and pay the Romans two thousand talents, and give him seventy +ships of war with all their furniture. On the other hand, that Sylla should +confirm to him his other dominions, and declare him a Roman confederate. On +these terms he proceeded by the way of Thessaly and Macedon towards the +Hellespont, having Archelaus with him, and treating him with great attention. +For Archelaus being taken dangerously ill at Larissa, he stopped the march of +the army, and took care of him, as if he had been one of his own captains, or +his colleague in command. This gave suspicion of foul play in the battle of +Chaeronea; as it was also observed that Sylla had released all the friends of +Mithridates taken prisoners in war, except only Aristion the tyrant, who was at +enmity with Archelaus, and was put to death by poison; and, above all, ten +thousand acres of land in Euboea had been given to the Cappadocian, and he had +received from Sylla the style of friend and ally of the Romans. On all which +points Sylla defends himself in his Memoirs. +</p> + +<p> +The ambassadors of Mithridates arriving and declaring that they accepted of the +conditions, only Paphlagonia they could not part with; and as for the ships, +professing not to know of any such capitulation, Sylla in a rage exclaimed, +“What say you? Does Mithridates then withhold Paphlagonia? and as to the ships, +deny that article? I thought to have seen him prostrate at my feet to thank me +for leaving him so much as that right hand of his, which has cut off so many +Romans. He will shortly, at my coming over into Asia, speak another language; +in the mean time, let him at his ease in Pergamus sit managing a war which he +never saw.” The ambassadors in terror stood silent by, but Archelaus endeavored +with humble supplications to assuage his wrath, laying hold on his right hand +and weeping. In conclusion he obtained permission to go himself in person to +Mithridates; for that he would either mediate a peace to the satisfaction of +Sylla, or if not, slay himself. Sylla having thus dispatched him away, made an +inroad into Maedica, and after wide depopulations returned back again into +Macedon, where he received Archelaus about Philippi, bringing word that all was +well, and that Mithridates earnestly requested an interview. The chief cause of +this meeting was Fimbria; for he having assassinated Flaccus, the consul of the +contrary faction, and worsted the Mithridatic commanders, was advancing against +Mithridates himself, who, fearing this, chose rather to seek the friendship of +Sylla. +</p> + +<p> +And so met at Dardanus in the Troad, on one side Mithridates, attended with two +hundred ships, and land forces consisting of twenty thousand men at arms, six +thousand horse, and a large train of scythed chariots; on the other, Sylla with +only four cohorts, and two hundred horse. As Mithridates drew near and put out +his hand, Sylla demanded whether he was willing or no to end the war on the +terms Archelaus had agreed to, but seeing the king made no answer, “How is +this?” he continued, “ought not the petitioner to speak first, and the +conqueror to listen in silence?” And when Mithridates, entering upon his plea, +began to shift off the war, partly on the gods, and partly to blame the Romans +themselves, he took him up, saying that he had heard, indeed, long since from +others, and now he knew it himself for truth, that Mithridates was a powerful +speaker, who in defense of the most foul and unjust proceedings, had not wanted +for specious presences. Then charging him with and inveighing bitterly against +the outrages he had committed, he asked again whether he was willing or no to +ratify the treaty of Archelaus? Mithridates answering in the affirmative, Sylla +came forward, embraced and kissed him. Not long after he introduced +Ariobarzanes and Nicomedes, the two kings, and made them friends Mithridates, +when he had handed over to Sylla seventy ships and five hundred archers, set +sail for Pontus. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, perceiving the soldiers to be dissatisfied with the peace, (as it seemed +indeed a monstrous thing that they should see the king who was then bitterest +enemy, and who had caused one hundred and fifty thousand Romans to be massacred +in one day in Asia, now sailing off with the riches and spoils of Asia, which +he had pillaged, and put under contribution for the space of four years,) in +his defense to them alleged, that he could not have made head against Fimbria +and Mithridates, had they both withstood him in conjunction. Thence he set out +and went in search of Fimbria, who lay with the army about Thyatira, and +pitching his camp not far off, proceeded to fortify it with a trench. The +soldiers of Fimbria came out in their single coats, and, saluting his men, lent +ready assistance to the work; which change Fimbria beholding, and apprehending +Sylla as irreconcilable, laid violent hands on himself in the camp. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla imposed on Asia in general a tax of twenty thousand talents, and +despoiled individually each family by the licentious behavior and long +residence of the soldiery in private quarters. For he ordained that every host +should allow his guest four tetradrachms each day, and moreover entertain him, +and as many friends as he should invite, with a supper; that a centurion should +receive fifty drachmas a day, together with one suit of clothes to wear within +doors, and another when he went abroad. +</p> + +<p> +Having set out from Ephesus with the whole navy, he came the third day to +anchor in the Piraeus. Here he was initiated in the mysteries, and seized for +his use the library of Apellicon the Teian, in which were most of the works of +Theophrastus and Aristotle, then not in general circulation. When the whole was +afterwards conveyed to Rome, there, it is said, the greater part of the +collection passed through the hands of Tyrannion the grammarian, and that +Andronicus the Rhodian, having through his means the command of numerous +copies, made the treatises public, and drew up the catalogues that are now +current. The elder Peripatetics appear themselves, indeed, to have been +accomplished and learned men, but of the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus +they had no large or exact knowledge, because Theophrastus bequeathing his +books to the heir of Neleus of Scepsis, they came into careless and illiterate +hands. +</p> + +<p> +During Sylla’s stay about Athens, his feet were attacked by a heavy benumbing +pain, which Strabo calls the first inarticulate sounds of the gout. Taking, +therefore, a voyage to Aedepsus, he made use of the hot waters there, allowing +himself at the same time to forget all anxieties, and passing away his time +with actors. As he was walking along the sea-shore, certain fishermen brought +him some magnificent fish. Being much delighted with the gift, and +understanding, on inquiry, that they were men of Halaeae, “What,” said he, “are +there any men of Halaeae surviving?” For after his victory at Orchomenus, in +the heat of a pursuit, he had destroyed three cities of Boeotia, Anthedon, +Larymna, and Halaeae. The men not knowing what to say for fear, Sylla with a +smile bade them cheer up and return in peace, as they had brought with them no +insignificant intercessors. The Halaeans say that this first gave them courage +to reunite and return to their city. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, having marched through Thessaly and Macedon to the sea-coast, prepared, +with twelve hundred vessels, to cross over from Dyrrhachium to Brundisium. Not +far from hence is Apollonia, and near it the Nymphaeum, a spot of ground where, +from among green trees and meadows, there are found at various points springs +of fire continually streaming out. Here, they say, a satyr, such as statuaries +and painters represent, was caught asleep, and brought before Sylla, where he +was asked by several interpreters who he was, and, after much trouble, at last +uttered nothing intelligible, but a harsh noise, something between the neighing +of a horse and crying of a goat. Sylla, in dismay, and deprecating such an +omen, bade it be removed. +</p> + +<p> +At the point of transportation, Sylla being in alarm, lest at their first +setting foot upon Italy, the soldiers should disband and disperse one by one +among the cities, they of their own accord first took an oath to stand firm by +him, and not of their good-will to injure Italy; then seeing him in distress +for money, they made, so to say, a freewill offering, and contributed each man +according to his ability. However Sylla would not accept of their offering, but +praising their good-will, and arousing up their courage, put over (as he +himself writes) against fifteen hostile generals in command of four hundred and +fifty cohorts; but not without the most unmistakable divine intimations of his +approaching happy successes. For when he was sacrificing at his first landing +near Tarentum, the victim’s liver showed the figure of a crown of laurel with +two fillets hanging from it. And a little while before his arrival in Campania, +near the mountain Hephaeus, two stately goats were seen in the daytime, +fighting together, and performing all the motions of men in battle. It proved +to be an apparition, and rising up gradually from the ground, dispersed in the +air, like fancied representations in the clouds, and so vanished out of sight. +Not long after, in the selfsame place, when Marius the younger, and Norbanus +the consul, attacked him with two great armies, without prescribing the order +of battle, or arranging his men according to their divisions, by the sway only +of one common alacrity and transport of courage, he overthrew the enemy, and +shut up Norbanus into the city of Capua, with the loss of seven thousand of his +men. And this was the reason, he says, that the soldiers did not leave him and +disperse into the different towns, but held fast to him, and despised the +enemy, though infinitely more in number. +</p> + +<p> +At Silvium, (as he himself relates it,) there met him a servant of Pontius, in +a state of divine possession, saying that he brought him the power of the sword +and victory from Bellona, the goddess of war, and if he did not make haste, +that the capitol would be burnt, which fell out on the same day the man +foretold it, namely, on the sixth day of the month Quintilis, which we now call +July. +</p> + +<p> +At Fidentia, also, Marcus Lucullus, one of Sylla’s commanders, reposed such +confidence in the forwardness of the soldiers, as to dare to face fifty cohorts +of the enemy, with only sixteen of his own; but because many of them were +unarmed, delayed the onset. As he stood thus waiting, and considering with +himself, a gentle gale of wind, bearing along with it from the neighboring +meadows a quantity of flowers, scattered them down upon the army, on whose +shields and helmets they settled, and arranged themselves spontaneously, so as +to give the soldiers, in the eyes of the enemy, the appearance of being crowned +with chaplets. Upon this, being yet further animated, they joined battle, and +victoriously slaying eight thousand men, took the camp. This Lucullus was +brother to that Lucullus who in after-times conquered Mithridates and Tigranes. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, seeing himself still surrounded by so many armies, and such mighty +hostile powers, had recourse to art, inviting Scipio, the other consul, to a +treaty of peace. The motion was willingly embraced, and several meetings and +consultations ensued, in all which Sylla, still interposing matter of delay and +new pretences, in the meanwhile debauched Scipio’s men by means of his own, who +were as well practiced as the general himself, in all the artifices of +inveigling. For entering into the enemy’s quarters and joining in conversation, +they gained some by present money, some by promises, others by fair words and +persuasions; so that in the end, when Sylla with twenty cohorts drew near, on +his men saluting Scipio’s soldiers, they returned the greeting and came over, +leaving Scipio behind them in his tent, where he was found all alone and +dismissed. And having used his twenty cohorts as decoys to ensnare the forty of +the enemy, he led them all back into the camp. On this occasion, Carbo was +heard to say, that he had both a fox and a lion in the breast of Sylla to deal +with, and was most troubled with the fox. +</p> + +<p> +Some time after, at Signia, Marius the younger, with eighty-five cohorts, +offered battle to Sylla, who was extremely desirous to have it decided on that +very day; for the night before he had seen a vision in his sleep, of Marius the +elder, who had been some time dead, advising his son to beware of the following +day, as of fatal consequence to him. For this reason, Sylla, longing to come to +a battle, sent off for Dolabella, who lay encamped at some distance. But +because the enemy had beset and blocked up the passes, his soldiers got tired +with skirmishing and marching at once. To these difficulties was added, +moreover, tempestuous rainy weather, which distressed them most of all. The +principal officers therefore came to Sylla, and besought him to defer the +battle that day, showing him how the soldiers lay stretched on the ground, +where they had thrown themselves down in their weariness, resting their heads +upon their shields to gain some repose. When, with much reluctance, he had +yielded, and given order for pitching the camp, they had no sooner begun to +cast up the rampart and draw the ditch, but Marius came riding up furiously at +the head of his troops, in hopes to scatter them in that disorder and +confusion. Here the gods fulfilled Sylla’s dream. For the soldiers, stirred up +with anger, left off their work, and sticking their javelins into the bank, +with drawn swords and a courageous shout, came to blows with the enemy, who +made but small resistance, and lost great numbers in the flight. Marius fled to +Praeneste, but finding the gates shut, tied himself round by a rope that was +thrown down to him, and was taken up on the walls. Some there are (as +Fenestella for one) who affirm that Marius knew nothing of the fight, but, +overwatched and spent with hard duty, had reposed himself, when the signal was +given, beneath some shade, and was hardly to be awakened at the flight of his +men. Sylla, according to his own account, lost only twenty-three men in this +fight, having killed of the enemy twenty thousand, and taken alive eight +thousand. +</p> + +<p> +The like success attended his lieutenants, Pompey, Crassus, Metellus, +Servilius, who with little or no loss cut off vast numbers of the enemy, +insomuch that Carbo, the prime supporter of the cause, fled by night from his +charge of the army, and sailed over into Libya. +</p> + +<p> +In the last struggle, however, the Samnite Telesinus, like some champion, whose +lot it is to enter last of all into the lists and take up the wearied +conqueror, came nigh to have foiled and overthrown Sylla before the gates of +Rome. For Telesinus with his second, Lamponius the Lucanian, having collected a +large force, had been hastening towards Praeneste, to relieve Marius from the +siege; but perceiving Sylla ahead of him, and Pompey behind, both hurrying up +against him, straightened thus before and behind, as a valiant and experienced +soldier, he arose by night, and marching directly with his whole army, was +within a little of making his way unexpectedly into Rome itself. He lay that +night before the city, at ten furlongs distance from the Colline gate, elated +and full of hope, at having thus out-generalled so many eminent commanders. At +break of day, being charged by the noble youth of the city, among many others +he overthrew Appius Claudius, renowned for high birth and character. The city, +as is easy to imagine, was all in an uproar, the women shrieking and running +about, as if it had already been entered forcibly by assault, till at last +Balbus, sent forward by Sylla, was seen riding up with seven hundred horse at +full speed. Halting only long enough to wipe the sweat from the horses, and +then hastily bridling again, he at once attacked the enemy. Presently Sylla +himself appeared, and commanding those who were foremost to take immediate +refreshment, proceeded to form in order for battle. Dolabella and Torquatus +were extremely earnest with him to desist awhile, and not with spent forces to +hazard the last hope, having before them in the field, not Carbo or Marius, but +two warlike nations bearing immortal hatred to Rome, the Samnites and +Lucanians, to grapple with. But he put them by, and commanded the trumpets to +sound a charge, when it was now about four o’clock in the afternoon. In the +conflict which followed, as sharp a one as ever was, the right wing where +Crassus was posted had clearly the advantage; the left suffered and was in +distress, when Sylla came to its succor, mounted on a white courser, full of +mettle and exceedingly swift, which two of the enemy knowing him by, had their +lances ready to throw at him; he himself observed nothing, but his attendant +behind him giving the horse a touch, he was, unknown to himself, just so far +carried forward, that the points, falling beside the horse’s tail, stuck in the +ground. There is a story that he had a small golden image of Apollo from +Delphi, which he was always wont in battle to carry about him in his bosom, and +that he then kissed it with these words, “O Apollo Pythius, who in so many +battles hast raised to honor and greatness the Fortunate Cornelius Sylla, wilt +thou now cast him down, bringing him before the gate of his country, to perish +shamefully with his fellow-citizens?” Thus, they say, addressing himself to the +god, he entreated some of his men, threatened some, and seized others with his +hand, till at length the left wing being wholly shattered, he was forced, in +the general rout, to betake himself to the camp, having lost many of his +friends and acquaintance. Many, likewise, of the city spectators who had come +out, were killed or trodden underfoot. So that it was generally believed in the +city that all was lost, and the siege of Praeneste was all but raised; many +fugitives from the battle making their way thither, and urging Lucretius +Ofella, who was appointed to keep on the siege, to rise in all haste, for that +Sylla had perished, and Rome fallen into the hands of the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +About midnight there came into Sylla’s camp messengers from Crassus, to fetch +provision for him and his soldiers; for having vanquished the enemy, they had +pursued him to the walls of Antemna, and had sat down there. Sylla, hearing +this, and that most of the enemy were destroyed, came to Antemna by break of +day, where three thousand of the besieged having sent forth a herald, he +promised to receive them to mercy, on condition they did the enemy some +mischief in their coming over. Trusting to his word, they fell foul on the rest +of their companions, and made a great slaughter one of another. Nevertheless, +Sylla gathered together in the circus, as well these as other survivors of the +party, to the number of six thousand, and just as he commenced speaking to the +senate, in the temple of Bellona, proceeded to cut them down, by men appointed +for that service. The cry of so vast a multitude put to the sword, in so narrow +a space, was naturally heard some distance, and startled the senators. He, +however, continuing his speech with a calm and unconcerned countenance, bade +them listen to what he had to say, and not busy themselves with what was doing +out of doors; he had given directions for the chastisement of some offenders. +This gave the most stupid of the Romans to understand, that they had merely +exchanged, not escaped, tyranny. And Marius, being of a naturally harsh temper, +had not altered, but merely continued what he had been, in authority; whereas +Sylla, using his fortune moderately and unambitiously at first, and giving good +hopes of a true patriot, firm to the interests both of the nobility and +commonalty, being, moreover, of a gay and cheerful temper from his youth, and +so easily moved to pity as to shed tears readily, has, perhaps deservedly, cast +a blemish upon offices of great authority, as if they deranged men’s former +habits and character, and gave rise to violence, pride, and inhumanity. Whether +this be a real change and revolution in the mind, caused by fortune, or rather +a lurking viciousness of nature, discovering itself in authority, it were +matter of another sort of disquisition to decide. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla being thus wholly bent upon slaughter, and filling the city with +executions without number or limit, many wholly uninterested persons falling a +sacrifice to private enmity, through his permission and indulgence to his +friends, Caius Metellus, one of the younger men, made bold in the senate to ask +him what end there was of these evils, and at what point he might be expected +to stop? “We do not ask you,” said he, “to pardon any whom you have resolved to +destroy, but to free from doubt those whom you are pleased to save.” Sylla +answering, that he knew not as yet whom to spare. “Why then,” said he, “tell us +whom you will punish.” This Sylla said he would do. These last words, some +authors say, were spoken not by Metellus, but by Afidius, one of Sylla’s +fawning companions. Immediately upon this, without communicating with any of +the magistrates, Sylla proscribed eighty persons, and notwithstanding the +general indignation, after one day’s respite, he posted two hundred and twenty +more, and on the third again, as many. In an address to the people on this +occasion, he told them he had put up as many names as he could think of; those +which had escaped his memory, he would publish at a future time. He issued an +edict likewise, making death the punishment of humanity, proscribing any who +should dare to receive and cherish a proscribed person, without exception to +brother, son, or parents. And to him who should slay any one proscribed person, +he ordained two talents reward, even were it a slave who had killed his master, +or a son his father. And what was thought most unjust of all, he caused the +attainder to pass upon their sons, and son’s sons, and made open sale of all +their property. Nor did the proscription prevail only at Rome, but throughout +all the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was such, that neither sanctuary +of the gods, nor hearth of hospitality, nor ancestral home escaped. Men were +butchered in the embraces of their wives, children in the arms of their +mothers. Those who perished through public animosity, or private enmity, were +nothing in comparison of the numbers of those who suffered for their riches. +Even the murderers began to say, that “his fine house killed this man, a garden +that, a third, his hot baths.” Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, peaceable man, and +one who thought all his part in the common calamity consisted in condoling with +the misfortunes of others, coming into the forum to read the list, and finding +himself among the proscribed, cried out, “Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed +against me.” He had not gone far, before he was dispatched by a ruffian, sent +on that errand. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, Marius, on the point of being taken, killed himself; and +Sylla, coming to Praeneste, at first proceeded judicially against each +particular person, till at last, finding it a work of too much time, he cooped +them up together in one place, to the number of twelve thousand men, and gave +order for the execution of them all, his own host alone excepted. But he, brave +man, telling him he could not accept the obligation of life from the hands of +one who had been the ruin of his country, went in among the rest, and submitted +willingly to the stroke. What Lucius Catilina did was thought to exceed all +other acts. For having, before matters came to an issue, made away with his +brother, he besought Sylla to place him in the list of proscription, as though +he had been alive, which was done; and Catiline, to return the kind office, +assassinated a certain Marcus Marius, one of the adverse party, and brought the +head to Sylla, as he was sitting in the forum, and then going to the holy water +of Apollo, which was nigh, washed his hands. +</p> + +<p> +There were other things, besides this bloodshed, which gave offense. For Sylla +had declared himself dictator, an office which had then been laid aside for the +space of one hundred and twenty years. There was, likewise, an act of grace +passed on his behalf, granting indemnity for what was passed, and for the +future entrusting him with the power of life and death, confiscation, division +of lands, erecting and demolishing of cities, taking away of kingdoms, and +bestowing them at pleasure. He conducted the sale of confiscated property after +such an arbitrary, imperious way, from the tribunal, that his gifts excited +greater odium even than his usurpations; women, mimes, and musicians, and the +lowest of the freed slaves had presents made them of the territories of +nations, and the revenues of cities; and women of rank were married against +their will to some of them. Wishing to insure the fidelity of Pompey the Great, +by a nearer tie of blood, he bade him divorce his present wife, and forcing +Aemilia, the daughter of Scaurus and Metella, his own wife, to leave her +husband, Manius Glabrio, he bestowed her, though then with child, on Pompey, +and she died in childbirth at his house. +</p> + +<p> +When Lucretius Ofella, the same who reduced Marius by siege, offered himself +for the consulship, he first forbade him; then, seeing he could not restrain +him, on his coming down into the forum with a numerous train of followers, he +sent one of the centurions who were immediately about him, and slew him, +himself sitting on the tribunal in the temple of Castor, and beholding the +murder from above. The citizens apprehending the centurion, and dragging him to +the tribunal, he bade them cease their clamoring and let the centurion go, for +he had commanded it. +</p> + +<p> +His triumph was, in itself, exceedingly splendid, and distinguished by the +rarity and magnificence of the royal spoils; but its yet greatest glory was the +noble spectacle of the exiles. For in the rear followed the most eminent and +most potent of the citizens, crowned with garlands, and calling Sylla savior +and father, by whose means they were restored to their own country, and again +enjoyed their wives and children. When the solemnity was over, and the time +come to render an account of his actions, addressing the public assembly, he +was as profuse in enumerating the lucky chances of war, as any of his own +military merits. And, finally, from this felicity, he requested to receive the +surname of Felix. In writing and transacting business with the Greeks, he +styled himself Epaphroditus, and on his trophies which are still extant with +us, the name is given Lucius Cornelius Sylla Epaphroditus. Moreover, when his +wife had brought him forth twins, he named the male Faustus, and the female +Fausta, the Roman words for what is auspicious and of happy omen. The +confidence which he reposed in his good genius, rather than in any abilities of +his own, emboldened him, though deeply involved in bloodshed, and though he had +been the author of such great changes and revolutions of State, to lay down his +authority, and place the right of consular elections once more in the hands of +the people. And when they were held, he not only declined to seek that office, +but in the forum exposed his person publicly to the people, walking up and down +as a private man. And contrary to his will, certain bold man and his enemy, +Marcus Lepidus, was expected to become consul, not so much by his own interest, +as by the power and solicitation of Pompey, whom the people were willing to +oblige. When the business was over, seeing Pompey going home overjoyed with the +success, he called him to him and said, “What a politic act, young man, to pass +by Catulus, the best of men, and choose Lepidus, the worst! It will be well for +you to be vigilant, now that you have strengthened your opponent against +yourself.” Sylla spoke this, it may seem, by a prophetic instinct, for, not +long after, Lepidus grew insolent, and broke into open hostility to Pompey and +his friends. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, consecrating the tenth of his whole substance to Hercules, entertained +the people with sumptuous feastings. The provision was so much above what was +necessary, that they were forced daily to throw great quantities of meat into +the river, and they drank wine forty years old and upwards. In the midst of the +banqueting, which lasted many days, Metella died of disease. And because that +the priest forbade him to visit the sick, or suffer his house to be polluted +with mourning, he drew up an act of divorce, and caused her to be removed into +another house whilst alive. Thus far, out of religious apprehension, he +observed the strict rule to the very letter, but in the funeral expenses he +transgressed the law he himself had made, limiting the amount, and spared no +cost. He transgressed, likewise, his own sumptuary laws respecting expenditure +in banquets, thinking to allay his grief by luxurious drinking parties and +revelings with common buffoons. +</p> + +<p> +Some few months after, at a show of gladiators, when men and women sat +promiscuously in the theater, no distinct places being as yet appointed, there +sat down by Sylla a beautiful woman of high birth, by name Valeria, daughter of +Messala, and sister to Hortensius the orator. Now it happened that she had been +lately divorced from her husband. Passing along behind Sylla, she leaned on him +with her hand, and plucking a bit of wool from his garment, so proceeded to her +seat. And on Sylla looking up and wondering what it meant, “What harm, mighty +Sir,” said she, “if I also was desirous to partake a little in your felicity?” +It appeared at once that Sylla was not displeased, but even tickled in his +fancy, for he sent out to inquire her name, her birth, and past life. From this +time there passed between them many side glances, each continually turning +round to look at the other, and frequently interchanging smiles. In the end, +overtures were made, and a marriage concluded on. All which was innocent, +perhaps, on the lady’s side, but, though she had been never so modest and +virtuous, it was scarcely a temperate and worthy occasion of marriage on the +part of Sylla, to take fire, as a boy might, at a face and a bold look, +incentives not seldom to the most disorderly and shameless passions. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding this marriage, he kept company with actresses, musicians, and +dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day. His chief favorites were +Roscius the comedian, Sorex the arch mime, and Metrobius the player, for whom, +though past his prime, he still professed a passionate fondness. By these +courses he encouraged a disease which had begun from some unimportant cause; +and for a long time he failed to observe that his bowels were ulcerated, till +at length the corrupted flesh broke out into lice. Many, were employed day and +night in destroying them, but the work so multiplied under their hands, that +not only his clothes, baths, basins, but his very meat was polluted with that +flux and contagion, they came swarming out in such numbers. He went frequently +by day into the bath to scour and cleanse his body, but all in vain; the evil +generated too rapidly and too abundantly for any ablutions to overcome it. +There died of this disease, amongst those of the most ancient times, Acastus, +the son of Pelias; of later date, Alcman the poet, Pherecydes the theologian, +Callisthenes the Olynthian, in the time of his imprisonment, as also Mucius the +lawyer; and if we may mention ignoble, but notorious names, Eunus the fugitive, +who stirred up the slaves of Sicily to rebel against their masters, after he +was brought captive to Rome, died of this creeping sickness. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla not only foresaw his end, but may be also said to have written of it. For +in the two and twentieth book of his Memoirs, which he finished two days before +his death, he writes that the Chaldeans foretold him, that after he had led a +life of honor, he should conclude it in fullness of prosperity. He declares, +moreover, that in vision he had seen his son, who had died not long before +Metella, stand by in mourning attire, and beseech his father to cast off +further care, and come along with him to his mother Metella, there to live at +ease and quietness with her. However, he could not refrain from intermeddling +in public affairs. For, ten days before his decease, he composed the +differences of the people of Dicaearchia, and prescribed laws for their better +government. And the very day before his end, it being told him that the +magistrate Granius deferred the payment of a public debt, in expectation of his +death, he sent for him to his house, and placing his attendants about him, +caused him to be strangled; but through the straining of his voice and body, +the imposthume breaking, he lost a great quantity of blood. Upon this, his +strength failing him, after spending a troublesome night, he died, leaving +behind him two young children by Metella. Valeria was afterwards delivered of a +daughter, named Posthuma; for so the Romans call those who are born after the +father’s death. +</p> + +<p> +Many ran tumultuously together, and joined with Lepidus, to deprive the corpse +of the accustomed solemnities; but Pompey, though offended at Sylla, (for he +alone of all his friends, was not mentioned in his will,) having kept off some +by his interest and entreaty, others by menaces, conveyed the body to Rome, and +gave it a secure and honorable burial. It is said that the Roman ladies +contributed such vast heaps of spices, that besides what was carried on two +hundred and ten litters, there was sufficient to form a large figure of Sylla +himself, and another, representing a lictor, out of the costly frankincense and +cinnamon. The day being cloudy in the morning, they deferred carrying forth the +corpse till about three in the afternoon, expecting it would rain. But a strong +wind blowing full upon the funeral pile, and setting it all in a bright flame, +the body was consumed so exactly in good time, that the pyre had begun to +smolder, and the fire was upon the point of expiring, when a violent rain came +down, which continued till night. So that his good fortune was firm even to the +last, and did as it were officiate at his funeral. His monument stands in the +Campus Martius, with an epitaph of his own writing; the substance of it being, +that he had not been outdone by any of his friends in doing good turns, nor by +any of his foes in doing bad. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap34"></a>COMPARISON OF LYSANDER WITH SYLLA</h2> + +<p> +Having completed this Life also, come we now to the comparison. That which was +common to them both, was that they were founders of their own greatness, with +this difference, that Lysander had the consent of his fellow-citizens, in times +of sober judgment, for the honors he received; nor did he force anything from +them against their good-will, nor hold any power contrary to the laws. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In civil strife e’en villains rise to fame. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And so then at Rome, when the people were distempered, and the government out +of order, one or other was still raised to despotic power; no wonder, then, if +Sylla reigned, when the Glauciae and Saturnini drove out the Metelli, when sons +of consuls were slain in the assemblies, when silver and gold purchased men and +arms, and fire and sword enacted new laws, and put down lawful opposition. Nor +do I blame anyone, in such circumstances, for working himself into supreme +power, only I would not have it thought a sign of great goodness, to be head of +a State so wretchedly discomposed. Lysander, being employed in the greatest +commands and affairs of State, by a sober and well-governed city, may be said +to have had repute as the best and most virtuous man, in the best and most +virtuous commonwealth. And thus, often returning the government into the hands +of the citizens, he received it again as often, the superiority of his merit +still awarding him the first place. Sylla, on the other hand, when he had once +made himself general of an army, kept his command for ten years together, +creating himself sometimes consul, sometimes proconsul, and sometimes dictator, +but always remaining a tyrant. +</p> + +<p> +It is true Lysander, as was said, designed to introduce a new form of +government; by milder methods, however, and more agreeably to law than Sylla, +not by force of arms, but persuasion, nor by subverting the whole State at +once, but simply by amending the succession of the kings; in a way, moreover, +which seemed the naturally just one, that the most deserving should rule, +especially in a city which itself exercised command in Greece, upon account of +virtue, not nobility. For as the hunter considers the whelp itself, not the +bitch, and the horse-dealer the foal, not the mare, (for what if the foal +should prove a mule?) so likewise were that politician extremely out, who, in +the choice of a chief magistrate, should inquire, not what the man is, but how +descended. The very Spartans themselves have deposed several of their kings for +want of kingly virtues, as degenerated and good for nothing. As a vicious +nature, though of an ancient stock, is dishonorable, it must be virtue itself, +and not birth, that makes virtue honorable. Furthermore, the one committed his +acts of injustice for the sake of his friends; the other extended his to his +friends themselves. It is confessed on all hands, that Lysander offended most +commonly for the sake of his companions, committing several slaughters to +uphold their power and dominion; but as for Sylla, he, out of envy, reduced +Pompey’s command by land, and Dolabella’s by sea, although he himself had given +them those places; and ordered Lucretius Ofella, who sued for the consulship as +the reward of many great services, to be slain before his eyes, exciting horror +and alarm in the minds of all men, by his cruelty to his dearest friends. +</p> + +<p> +As regards the pursuit of riches and pleasures, we yet further discover in one +a princely, in the other a tyrannical disposition. Lysander did nothing that +was intemperate or licentious, in that full command of means and opportunity, +but kept clear, as much as ever man did, of that trite saying, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Lions at home, but foxes out of doors; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and ever maintained a sober, truly Spartan, and well disciplined course of +conduct. Whereas Sylla could never moderate his unruly affections, either by +poverty when young, or by years when grown old, but would be still prescribing +laws to the citizens concerning chastity and sobriety, himself living all that +time, as Sallust affirms, in lewdness and adultery. By these ways he so +impoverished and drained the city of her treasures, as to be forced to sell +privileges and immunities to allied and friendly cities for money, although he +daily gave up the wealthiest and greatest families to public sale and +confiscation. There was no end of his favors vainly spent and thrown away on +flatterers; for what hope could there be, or what likelihood of forethought or +economy, in his more private moments over wine, when, in the open face of the +people, upon the auction of a large estate, which he would have passed over to +one of his friends at a small price, because another bid higher, and the +officer announced the advance, he broke out into a passion, saying, “What a +strange and unjust thing is this, O citizens, that I cannot dispose of my own +booty as I please!” But Lysander, on the contrary, with the rest of the spoil, +sent home for public use even the presents which were made him. Nor do I +commend him for it, for he perhaps, by excessive liberality, did Sparta more +harm, than ever the other did Rome by rapine; I only use it as an argument of +his indifference to riches. They exercised a strange influence on their +respective cities. Sylla, a profuse debauchee, endeavored to restore sober +living amongst the citizens; Lysander, temperate himself, filled Sparta with +the luxury he disregarded. So that both were blameworthy, the one for raising +himself above his own laws, the other for causing his fellow citizens to fall +beneath his own example. He taught Sparta to want the very things which he +himself had learned to do without. And thus much of their civil administration. +</p> + +<p> +As for feats of arms, wise conduct in war, innumerable victories, perilous +adventures, Sylla was beyond compare. Lysander, indeed, came off twice +victorious in two battles by sea; I shall add to that the siege of Athens, a +work of greater fame, than difficulty. What occurred in Boeotia, and at +Haliartus, was the result, perhaps, of ill fortune; yet it certainly looks like +ill counsel, not to wait for the king’s forces, which had all but arrived from +Plataea, but out of ambition and eagerness to fight, to approach the walls at +disadvantage, and so to be cut off by a sally of inconsiderable men. He +received his death-wound, not as Cleombrotus at Leuctra, resisting manfully the +assault of an enemy in the field; not as Cyrus or Epaminondas, sustaining the +declining battle, or making sure the victory; all these died the death of kings +and generals; but he, as it had been some common skirmisher or scout, cast away +his life ingloriously, giving testimony to the wisdom of the ancient Spartan +maxim, to avoid attacks on walled cities, in which the stoutest warrior may +chance to fall by the hand, not only of a man utterly his inferior, but by that +of a boy or woman, as Achilles, they say, was slain by Paris in the gates. As +for Sylla, it were hard to reckon up how many set battles he won, or how many +thousands he slew; he took Rome itself twice, as also the Athenian Piraeus, not +by famine, as Lysander did, but by a series of great battles, driving Archelaus +into the sea. And what is most important, there was a vast difference between +the commanders they had to deal with. For I look upon it as an easy task, or +rather sport, to beat Antiochus, Alcibiades’s pilot, or to circumvent +Philocles, the Athenian demagogue, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Sharp only at the inglorious point of tongue, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +whom Mithridates would have scorned to compare with his groom, or Marius with +his lictor. But of the potentates, consuls, commanders, and demagogues, to pass +by all the rest who opposed themselves to Sylla, who amongst the Romans so +formidable as Marius? what king more powerful than Mithridates? who of the +Italians more warlike than Lamponius and Telesinus? yet of these, one he drove +into banishment, one he quelled, and the others he slew. +</p> + +<p> +And what is more important, in my judgment, than anything yet adduced, is that +Lysander had the assistance of the State in all his achievements; whereas +Sylla, besides that he was a banished person, and overpowered by a faction, at +a time when his wife was driven from home, his houses demolished, and adherents +slain, himself then in Boeotia, stood embattled against countless numbers of +the public enemy, and endangering himself for the sake of his country, raised a +trophy of victory; and not even when Mithridates came with proposals of +alliance and aid against his enemies, would he show any sort of compliance, or +even clemency; did not so much as address him, or vouchsafe him his hand, until +he had it from the king’s own mouth, that he was willing to quit Asia, +surrender the navy, and restore Bithynia and Cappadocia to the two kings. Than +which action, Sylla never performed a braver, or with a nobler spirit, when, +preferring the public good to the private, and like good hounds, where he had +once fixed, never letting go his hold, till the enemy yielded, then, and not +until then, he set himself to revenge his own private quarrels. We may perhaps +let ourselves be influenced, moreover, in our comparison of their characters, +by considering their treatment of Athens. Sylla, when he had made himself +master of the city, which then upheld the dominion and power of Mithridates in +opposition to him, restored her to liberty and the free exercise of her own +laws; Lysander, on the contrary, when she had fallen from a vast height of +dignity and rule, showed her no compassion, but abolishing her democratic +government, imposed on her the most cruel and lawless tyrants. We are now +qualified to consider, whether we should go far from the truth or no, in +pronouncing that Sylla performed the more glorious deeds, but Lysander +committed the fewer faults, as, likewise, by giving to one the preeminence for +moderation and self-control, to the other, for conduct and valor. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap35"></a>CIMON</h2> + +<p> +Peripoltas, the prophet, having brought the king Opheltas, and those under his +command, from Thessaly into Boeotia, left there a family, which flourished a +long time after; the greatest part of them inhabiting Chaeronea, the first city +out of which they expelled the barbarians. The descendants of this race, being +men of bold attempts and warlike habits, exposed themselves to so many dangers, +in the invasions of the Mede, and in battles against the Gauls, that at last +they were almost wholly consumed. +</p> + +<p> +There was left one orphan of this house, called Damon, surnamed Peripoltas, in +beauty and greatness of spirit surpassing all of his age, but rude and +undisciplined in temper. A Roman captain of a company that wintered in +Chaeronea became passionately fond of this youth, who was now pretty nearly +grown a man. And finding all his approaches, his gifts, and his entreaties +alike repulsed, he showed violent inclinations to assault Damon. Our native +Chaeronea was then in a distressed condition, too small and too poor to meet +with anything but neglect. Damon, being sensible of this, and looking upon +himself as injured already, resolved to inflict punishment. Accordingly, he and +sixteen of his companions conspired against the captain; but that the design +might be managed without any danger of being discovered, they all daubed their +faces at night with soot. Thus disguised and inflamed with wine, they set upon +him by break of day, as he was sacrificing in the marketplace; and having +killed him, and several others that were with him, they fled out of the city, +which was extremely alarmed and troubled at the murder. The council assembled +immediately, and pronounced sentence of death against Damon and his +accomplices. This they did to justify the city to the Romans. But that evening, +as the magistrates were at supper together, according to the custom, Damon and +his confederates breaking into the hall, killed them, and then again fled out +of the town. About this time, Lucius Lucullus chanced to be passing that way +with a body of troops, upon some expedition, and this disaster having but +recently happened, he stayed to examine the matter. Upon inquiry, he found the +city was in nowise faulty, but rather that they themselves had suffered; +therefore he drew out the soldiers, and carried them away with him. Yet Damon +continuing to ravage the country all about, the citizens, by messages and +decrees, in appearance favorable, enticed him into the city, and upon his +return, made him Gymnasiarch; but afterwards as he was anointing himself in the +vapor baths, they set upon him and killed him. For a long while after +apparitions continuing to be seen, and groans to be heard in that place, so our +fathers have told us, they ordered the gates of the baths to be built up; and +even to this day those who live in the neighborhood believe that they sometimes +see specters, and hear alarming sounds. The posterity of Damon, of whom some +still remain, mostly in Phocis, near the town of Stiris, are called Asbolomeni, +that is, in the Aeolian idiom, men daubed with soot; because Damon was thus +besmeared when he committed this murder. +</p> + +<p> +But there being a quarrel between the people of Chaeronea and the Orchomenians, +their neighbors, these latter hired an informer, a Roman, to accuse the +community of Chaeronea, as if it had been a single person, of the murder of the +Romans, of which only Damon and his companions were guilty; accordingly, the +process wee commenced, and the cause pleaded before the Praetor of Macedon, +since the Romans as yet had not sent governors into Greece. The advocates who +defended the inhabitants appealed to the testimony of Lucullus, who, in answer +to a letter the Praetor wrote to him, returned a true account of the +matter-of-fact. By this means the town obtained its acquittal, and escaped a +most serious danger. The citizens thus preserved erected a statue to Lucullus +in the market-place, near that of the god Bacchus. +</p> + +<p> +We also have the same impressions of gratitude; and though removed from the +events by the distance of several generations, we yet feel the obligation to +extend to ourselves; and as we think an image of the character and habits, to +be a greater honor than one merely representing the face and the person, we +will put Lucullus’s life amongst our parallels of illustrious men, and without +swerving from the truth, will record his actions. The commemoration will be +itself a sufficient proof of our grateful feeling, and he himself would not +thank us, if in recompense for a service, which consisted in speaking the +truth, we should abuse his memory with a false and counterfeit narration. For +as we would wish that a painter who is to draw a beautiful face in which there +is yet some imperfection, should neither wholly leave out, nor yet too +pointedly express what is defective, because this would deform it, and that +spoil the resemblance; so, since it is hard, or indeed perhaps impossible, to +show the life of a man wholly free from blemish, in all that is excellent we +must follow truth exactly, and give it fully; any lapses or faults that occur, +through human passions or political necessities, we may regard rather as the +shortcomings of some particular virtue, than as the natural effects of vice; +and may be content without introducing them, curiously and officiously, into +our narrative, if it be but out of tenderness to the weakness of nature, which +has never succeeded in producing any human character so perfect in virtue, as +to be pure from all admixture, and open to no criticism. On considering; with +myself to whom I should compare Lucullus, I find none so exactly his parallel +as Cimon. +</p> + +<p> +They were both valiant in war, and successful against the barbarians; both +gentle in political life, and more than any others gave their countrymen a +respite from civil troubles at home, while abroad, each of them raised trophies +and gained famous victories. No Greek before Cimon, nor Roman before Lucullus, +ever carried the scene of war so far from their own country; putting out of the +question the acts of Bacchus and Hercules, and any exploit of Perseus against +the Ethiopians, Medes, and Armenians, or again of Jason, of which any record +that deserves credit can be said to have come down to our days. Moreover in +this they were alike, that they did not finish the enterprises they undertook. +They brought their enemies near their ruin, but never entirely conquered them. +There was yet a greater conformity in the free good-will and lavish abundance +of their entertainments and general hospitalities, and in the youthful laxity +of their habits. Other points of resemblance, which we have failed to notice, +may be easily collected from our narrative itself. +</p> + +<p> +Cimon was the son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, who was by birth a Thracian, and +daughter to the king Olorus, as appears from the poems of Melanthius and +Archelaus, written in praise of Cimon. By this means the historian Thucydides +was his kinsman by the mother’s side; for his father’s name also, in +remembrance of this common ancestor, was Olorus, and he was the owner of the +gold mines in Thrace, and met his death, it is said, by violence, in Scapte +Hyle, a district of Thrace; and his remains having afterwards been brought into +Attica, a monument is shown as his among those of the family of Cimon, near the +tomb of Elpinice, Cimon’s sister. But Thucydides was of the township of +Halimus, and Miltiades and his family were Laciadae. Miltiades, being condemned +in a fine of fifty talents to the State, and unable to pay it, was cast into +prison, and there died. Thus Cimon was left an orphan very young, with his +sister Elpinice, who was also young and unmarried. And at first he had but an +indifferent reputation, being looked upon as disorderly in his habits, fond of +drinking, and resembling his grandfather, also called Cimon, in character, +whose simplicity got him the surname of Coalemus. Stesimbrotus of Thasos, who +lived near about the same time with Cimon, reports of him that he had little +acquaintance either with music, or any of the other liberal studies and +accomplishments, then common among the Greeks; that he had nothing whatever of +the quickness and the ready speech of his countrymen in Attica; that he had +great nobleness and candor in his disposition, and in his character in general, +resembled rather a native of Peloponnesus, than of Athens; as Euripides +describes Hercules, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— Rude<br/> +And unrefined, for great things well-endued; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +for this may fairly be added to the character which Stesimbrotus has given of +him. +</p> + +<p> +They accused him, in his younger years, of cohabiting with his own sister +Elpinice, who, indeed, otherwise had no very clear reputation, but was reported +to have been over intimate with Polygnotus, the painter; and hence, when he +painted the Trojan women in the porch, then called the Plesianactium, and now +the Poecile, he made Laodice a portrait of her. Polygnotus was not an ordinary +mechanic, nor was he paid for this work, but out of a desire to please the +Athenians, painted the portico for nothing. So it is stated by the historians, +and in the following verses by the poet Melanthius: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Wrought by his hand the deeds of heroes grace<br/> +At his own charge our temples and our Place. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Some affirm that Elpinice lived with her brother, not secretly, but as his +married wife, her poverty excluding her from any suitable match. But afterward, +when Callias, one of the richest men of Athens, fell in love with her, and +proffered to pay the fine the father was condemned in, if he could obtain the +daughter in marriage, with Elpinice’s own consent, Cimon betrothed her to +Callias. There is no doubt but that Cimon was, in general, of an amorous +temper. For Melanthius, in his elegies, rallies him on his attachment for +Asteria of Salamis, and again for a certain Mnestra. And there can be no doubt +of his unusually passionate affection for his lawful wife Isodice, the daughter +of Euryptolemus, the son of Megacles; nor of his regret, even to impatience, at +her death, if any conclusion may be drawn from those elegies of condolence, +addressed to him upon his loss of her. The philosopher Panaetius is of opinion, +that Archelaus, the writer on physics, was the author of them, and indeed the +time seems to favor that conjecture. All the other points of Cimon’s character +were noble and good. He was as daring as Miltiades, and not inferior to +Themistocles in judgment, and was incomparably more just and honest than either +of them. Fully their equal in all military virtues, in the ordinary duties of a +citizen at home he was immeasurably their superior. And this, too, when he was +very young, his years not yet strengthened by any experience. For when +Themistocles, upon the Median invasion, advised the Athenians to forsake their +city and their country, and to carry all their arms on shipboard, and fight the +enemy by sea, in the straits of Salamis; when all the people stood amazed at +the confidence and rashness of this advice, Cimon was seen, the first of all +men, passing with a cheerful countenance through the Ceramicus, on his way with +his companions to the citadel, carrying a bridle in his hand to offer to the +goddess, intimating that there was no more need of horsemen now, but of +mariners. There, after he had paid his devotions to the goddess, and offered up +the bridle, he took down one of the bucklers that hung upon the walls of the +temple, and went down to the port; by this example giving confidence to many of +the citizens. He was also of a fairly handsome person, according to the poet +Ion, tall and large, and let his thick and curly hair grow long. After he had +acquitted himself gallantly in this battle of Salamis, he obtained great repute +among the Athenians, and was regarded with affection, as well as admiration. He +had many who followed after him and bade him aspire to actions not less famous +than his father’s battle of Marathon. And when he came forward in political +life, the people welcomed him gladly, being now weary of Themistocles; in +opposition to whom, and because of the frankness and easiness of his temper, +which was agreeable to everyone, they advanced Cimon to the highest employments +in the government. The man that contributed most to his promotion was +Aristides, who early discerned in his character his natural capacity, and +purposely raised him, that he might be a counterpoise to the craft and boldness +of Themistocles. +</p> + +<p> +After the Medes had been driven out of Greece, Cimon was sent out as admiral, +when the Athenians had not yet attained their dominion by sea, but still +followed Pausanias and the Lacedaemonians; and his fellow-citizens under his +command were highly distinguished, both for the excellence of their discipline, +and for their extraordinary zeal and readiness. And further, perceiving that +Pausanias was carrying on secret communications with the barbarians, and +writing letters to the king of Persia to betray Greece, and, puffed up with +authority and success, was treating the allies haughtily, and committing many +wanton injustices, Cimon, taking this advantage, by acts of kindness to those +who were suffering wrong, and by his general humane bearing, robbed him of the +command of the Greeks, before he was aware, not by arms, but by his mere +language and character. The greatest part of the allies, no longer able to +endure the harshness and pride of Pausanias, revolted from him to Cimon and +Aristides, who accepted the duty, and wrote to the Ephors of Sparta, desiring +them to recall a man who was causing dishonor to Sparta, and trouble to Greece. +They tell of Pausanias, that when he was in Byzantium, he solicited a young +lady of a noble family in the city, whose name was Cleonice, to debauch her. +Her parents, dreading his cruelty, were forced to consent, and so abandoned +their daughter to his wishes. The daughter asked the servants outside the +chamber to put out all the lights; so that approaching silently and in the dark +toward his bed, she stumbled upon the lamp, which she overturned. Pausanias, +who was fallen asleep, awakened and startled with the noise, thought an +assassin had taken that dead time of night to murder him, so that hastily +snatching up his poniard that lay by him, he struck the girl, who fell with the +blow, and died. After this, he never had rest, but was continually haunted by +her, and saw an apparition visiting him in his sleep, and addressing him with +these angry words: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Go on thy way, unto the evil end,<br/> +That doth on lust and violence attend. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +This was one of the chief occasions of indignation against him among the +confederates, who now joining their resentments and forces with Cimon’s, +besieged him in Byzantium. He escaped out of their hands, and, continuing, as +it is said, to be disturbed by the apparition, fled to the oracle of the dead +at Heraclea, raised the ghost of Cleonice, and entreated her to be reconciled. +Accordingly she appeared to him, and answered, that as soon as he came to +Sparta, he should speedily be freed from all evils; obscurely foretelling, it +would seem, his imminent death. This story is related by many authors. +</p> + +<p> +Cimon, strengthened with the accession of the allies, went as general into +Thrace. For he was told that some great men among the Persians, of the king’s +kindred, being in possession of Eion, a city situated upon the river Strymon, +infested the neighboring Greeks. First he defeated these Persians in battle, +and shut them up within the walls of their town. Then he fell upon the +Thracians of the country beyond the Strymon, because they supplied Eion with +victuals, and driving them entirely out of the country, took possession of it +as conqueror, by which means he reduced the besieged to such straits, that +Butes, who commanded there for the king, in desperation set fire to the town, +and burned himself, his goods, and all his relations, in one common flame. By +this means, Cimon got the town, but no great booty; as the barbarians had not +only consumed themselves in the fire, but the richest of their effects. +However, he put the country about into the hands of the Athenians, a most +advantageous and desirable situation for a settlement. For this action, the +people permitted him to erect the stone Mercuries, upon the first of which was +this inscription: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Of bold and patient spirit, too, were those,<br/> +Who, where the Strymon under Eion flows,<br/> +With famine and the sword, to utmost need<br/> +Reduced at last the children of the Mede. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Upon the second stood this: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The Athenians to their leaders this reward<br/> +For great and useful service did accord;<br/> +Others hereafter, shall, from their applause,<br/> +Learn to be valiant in their country’s cause +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and upon the third, the following: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +With Atreus’ sons, this city sent of yore<br/> +Divine Menestheus to the Trojan shore;<br/> +Of all the Greeks, so Homer’s verses say,<br/> +The ablest man an army to array:<br/> +So old the title of her sons the name<br/> +Of chiefs and champions in the field to claim. +</p> + +<p> +Though the name of Cimon is not mentioned in these inscriptions, yet his +contemporaries considered them to be the very highest honors to him; as neither +Miltiades nor Themistocles ever received the like. When Miltiades claimed a +garland, Sochares of Decelea stood up in the midst of the assembly and opposed +it, using words which, though ungracious, were received with applause by the +people. “When you have gained a victory by yourself, Miltiades, then you may +ask to triumph so too.” What then induced them so particularly to honor Cimon? +Was it that under other commanders they stood upon the defensive? but by his +conduct, they not only attacked their enemies, but invaded them in their own +country, and acquired new territory, becoming masters of Eion and Amphipolis, +where they planted colonies, as also they did in the isle of Scyros, which +Cimon had taken on the following occasion. The Dolopians were the inhabitants +of this isle, a people who neglected all husbandry, and had, for many +generations, been devoted to piracy; this they practiced to that degree, that +at last they began to plunder foreigners that brought merchandise into their +ports. Some merchants of Thessaly, who had come to shore near Ctesium, were not +only spoiled of their goods, but themselves put into confinement. These men +afterwards escaping from their prison, went and obtained sentence against the +Scyrians in a court of Amphictyons, and when the Scyrian people declined to +make public restitution, and called upon the individuals who had got the +plunder to give it up, these persons, in alarm, wrote to Cimon to succor them +with his fleet, and declared themselves ready to deliver the town into his +hands. Cimon, by these means, got the town, expelled the Dolopian pirates, and +so opened the traffic of the Aegean sea. And, understanding that the ancient +Theseus, the son of Aegeus, when he fled from Athens and took refuge in this +isle, was here treacherously slain by king Lycomedes, who feared him, Cimon +endeavored to find out where he was buried. For an oracle had commanded the +Athenians to bring home his ashes, and pay him all due honors as a hero; but +hitherto they had not been able to learn where he was interred, as the people +of Scyros dissembled the knowledge of it, and were not willing to allow a +search. But now, great inquiry being made, with some difficulty he found out +the tomb, and carried the relics into his own galley, and with great pomp and +show brought them to Athens, four hundred years, or thereabouts, after his +expulsion. This act got Cimon great favor with the people, one mark of which +was the judgment, afterwards so famous, upon the tragic poets. Sophocles, still +a young man, had just brought forward his first plays; opinions were much +divided, and the spectators had taken sides with some heat. So, to determine +the case, Apsephion, who was at that time archon, would not cast lots who +should be judges; but when Cimon, and his brother commanders with him, came +into the theater, after they had performed the usual rites to the god of the +festival, he would not allow them to retire, but came forward and made them +swear, (being ten in all, one from each tribe,) the usual oath; and so being +sworn judges, he made them sit down to give sentence. The eagerness for victory +grew all the warmer, from the ambition to get the suffrages of such honorable +judges. And the victory was at last adjudged to Sophocles, which Aeschylus is +said to have taken so ill, that he left Athens shortly after, and went in anger +to Sicily, where he died, and was buried near the city of Gela. +</p> + +<p> +Ion relates that when he was a young man, and recently come from Chios to +Athens, he chanced to sup with Cimon, at Laomedon’s house. After supper, when +they had, according to custom, poured out wine to the honor of the gods, Cimon +was desired by the company to give them a song, which he did with sufficient +success, and received the commendations of the company, who remarked on his +superiority to Themistocles, who, on a like occasion, had declared he had never +learnt to sing, nor to play, and only knew how to make a city rich and +powerful. After talking of things incident to such entertainments, they entered +upon the particulars of the several actions for which Cimon had been famous. +And when they were mentioning the most signal, he told them they had omitted +one, upon which he valued himself most for address and good contrivance. He +gave this account of it. When the allies had taken a great number of the +barbarians prisoners in Sestos and Byzantium, they gave him the preference to +divide the booty; he accordingly put the prisoners in one lot, and the spoils +of their rich attire and jewels in the other. This the allies complained of as +an unequal division, but he gave them their choice to take which lot they +would, for that the Athenians should be content with that which they refused. +Herophytus of Samos advised them to take the ornaments for their share, and +leave the slaves to the Athenians; and Cimon went away, and was much laughed at +for his ridiculous division. For the allies carried away the golden bracelets, +and armlets, and collars, and purple robes, and the Athenians had only the +naked bodies of the captives, which they could make no advantage of, being +unused to labor. But a little while after, the friends and kinsmen of the +prisoners coming from Lydia and Phrygia, redeemed every one his relations at a +high ransom; so that by this means Cimon got so much treasure that he +maintained his whole fleet of galleys with the money for four months; and yet +there was some left to lay up in the treasury at Athens. +</p> + +<p> +Cimon now grew rich, and what he gained from the barbarians with honor, he +spent yet more honorably upon the citizens. For he pulled down all the +enclosures of his gardens and grounds, that strangers, and the needy of his +fellow-citizens, might gather of his fruits freely. At home, he kept a table, +plain, but sufficient for a considerable number; to which any poor townsman had +free access, and so might support himself without labor, with his whole time +left free for public duties. Aristotle states, however, that this reception did +not extend to all the Athenians, but only to his own fellow townsmen, the +Laciadae. Besides this, he always went attended by two or three young +companions, very well clad; and if he met with an elderly citizen in a poor +habit, one of these would change clothes with the decayed citizen, which was +looked upon as very nobly done. He enjoined them, likewise, to carry a +considerable quantity of coin about them, which they were to convey silently +into the hands of the better class of poor men, as they stood by them in the +marketplace. This, Cratinus the poet speaks of in one of his comedies, the +Archilochi: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For I, Metrobius too, the scrivener poor,<br/> +Of ease and comfort in my age secure,<br/> +By Greece’s noblest son in life’s decline,<br/> +Cimon, the generous-hearted, the divine,<br/> +Well-fed and feasted hoped till death to be,<br/> +Death which, alas! has taken him ere me. +</p> + +<p> +Gorgias the Leontine gives him this character, that he got riches that he might +use them, and used them that he might get honor by them. And Critias, one of +the thirty tyrants, makes it, in his elegies, his wish to have +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The Scopads’ wealth, and Cimon’s nobleness,<br/> +And king Agesilaus’s success. +</p> + +<p> +Lichas, we know, became famous in Greece, only because on the days of the +sports, when the young boys run naked, he used to entertain the strangers that +came to see these diversions. But Cimon’s generosity outdid all the old +Athenian hospitality and good-nature. For though it is the city’s just boast +that their forefathers taught the rest of Greece to sow corn, and how to use +springs of water, and to kindle fire, yet Cimon, by keeping open house for his +fellow-citizens, and giving travelers liberty to eat the fruits which the +several seasons produced in his land, seemed to restore to the world that +community of goods, which mythology says existed in the reign of Saturn. Those +who object to him that he did this to be popular, and gain the applause of the +vulgar, are confuted by the constant tenor of the rest of his actions, which +all tended to uphold the interests of the nobility and the Spartan policy, of +which he gave instances, when together with Aristides, he opposed Themistocles, +who was advancing the authority of the people beyond its just limits, and +resisted Ephialtes, who to please the multitude, was for abolishing the +jurisdiction of the court of Areopagus. And when all of his time, except +Aristides and Ephialtes, enriched themselves out of the public money, he still +kept his hands clean and untainted, and to his last day never acted or spoke +for his own private gain or emolument. They tell us that Rhoesaces, a Persian, +who had traitorously revolted from the king his master, fled to Athens, and +there, being harassed by sycophants, who were still accusing him to the people, +he applied himself to Cimon for redress, and to gain his favor, laid down in +his doorway two cups, the one full of gold, and the other of silver Darics. +Cimon smiled and asked him whether he wished to have Cimon’s hired service or +his friendship. He replied, his friendship. “If so,” said he, “take away these +pieces, for being your friend, when I shall have occasion for them, I will send +and ask for them.” +</p> + +<p> +The allies of the Athenians began now to be weary of war and military service, +willing to have repose, and to look after their husbandry and traffic. For they +saw and did not fear any new vexations from them. They still paid the tax they +were assessed at, but did not send men and galleys, as they had done before. +This the other Athenian generals wished to constrain them to, and by judicial +proceedings against defaulters, and penalties which they inflicted on them, +made the government uneasy, and even odious. But Cimon practiced a contrary +method; he forced no man to go that was not willing, but of those that desired +to be excused from service he took money and vessels unmanned, and let them +yield to the temptation of staying at home, to attend to their private +business. Thus they lost their military habits, and luxury and their own folly +quickly changed them into unwarlike husbandmen and traders, while Cimon, +continually embarking large numbers of Athenians on board his galleys, +thoroughly disciplined them in his expeditions, their enemies driven out of the +country, and ere long made them the lords of their own paymasters. The allies, +whose indolence maintained them, while they thus went sailing about everywhere, +and incessantly bearing arms and acquiring skill, began to fear and flatter +then, and found themselves after a while allies no longer, but unwittingly +become tributaries and slaves. +</p> + +<p> +Nor did any man ever do more than Cimon did to humble the pride of the Persian +king. He was not content with getting rid of him out of Greece; but following +close at his heels, before the barbarians could take breath and recover +themselves, he was already at work, and what with his devastations, and his +forcible reduction of some places, and the revolts and voluntary accession of +others, in the end, from Ionia to Pamphylia, all Asia was clear of Persian +soldiers. Word being brought him that the royal commanders were lying in wait +upon the coast of Pamphylia, with a numerous land army, and a large fleet, he +determined to make the whole sea on this side the Chelidonian islands so +formidable to them that they should never dare to show themselves in it; and +setting off from Cnidos and the Triopian headland, with two hundred galleys, +which had been originally built with particular care by Themistocles, for speed +and rapid evolutions, and to which he now gave greater width and roomier decks +along the sides to move to and fro upon, so as to allow a great number of +full-armed soldiers to take part in the engagements and fight from them, he +shaped his course first of all against the town of Phaselis, which, though +inhabited by Greeks, yet would not quit the interests of Persia, but denied his +galleys entrance into their port. Upon this he wasted the country, and drew up +his army to their very walls; but the soldiers of Chios, who were then serving +under him, being ancient friends to the Phaselites, endeavoring to propitiate +the general in their behalf, at the same time shot arrows into the town, to +which were fastened letters conveying intelligence. At length he concluded +peace with them, upon the conditions that they should pay down ten talents, and +follow him against the barbarians. Ephorus says the admiral of the Persian +fleet was Tithraustes, and the general of the land army Pherendates; but +Callisthenes is positive that Ariomandes, the son of Gobryas, had the supreme +command of all the forces. He lay waiting with the whole fleet at the mouth of +the river Eurymedon, with no design to fight, but expecting a reinforcement of +eighty Phoenician ships on their way from Cyprus. Cimon, aware of this, put out +to sea, resolved, if they would not fight a battle willingly, to force them to +it. The barbarians, seeing this, retired within the mouth of the river to avoid +being attacked; but when they saw the Athenians come upon them, notwithstanding +their retreat, they met them with six hundred ships, as Phanodemus relates but +according to Ephorus, only with three hundred and fifty. However, they did +nothing worthy such mighty forces, but immediately turned the prows of their +galleys toward the shore, where those that came first threw themselves upon the +land, and fled to their army drawn up thereabout, while the rest perished with +their vessels, or were taken. By this, one may guess at their number, for +though a great many escaped out of the fight, and a great many others were +sunk, yet two hundred galleys were taken by the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +When their land army drew toward the seaside, Cimon was in suspense whether he +should venture to try and force his way on shore; as he should thus expose his +Greeks, wearied with slaughter in the first engagement, to the swords of the +barbarians, who were all fresh men, and many times their number. But seeing his +men resolute, and flushed with victory, he bade them land, though they were not +yet cool from their first battle. As soon as they touched ground, they set up a +shout and ran upon the enemy, who stood firm and sustained the first shock with +great courage, so that the fight was a hard one, and some principal men of the +Athenians in rank and courage were slain. At length, though with much ado, they +routed the barbarians, and killing some, took others prisoners, and plundered +all their tents and pavilions which were full of rich spoil. Cimon, like a +skilled athlete at the games, having in one day carried off two victories, +wherein he surpassed that of Salamis by sea, and that of Plataea by land, was +encouraged to try for yet another success. News being brought that the +Phoenician succors, in number eighty sail, had come in sight at Hydrum, he set +off with all speed to find them, while they as yet had not received any certain +account of the larger fleet, and were in doubt what to think; so that thus +surprised, they lost all their vessels, and most of their men with them. This +success of Cimon so daunted the king of Persia, that he presently made that +celebrated peace, by which he engaged that his armies should come no nearer the +Grecian sea than the length of a horse’s course; and that none of his galleys +or vessels of war should appear between the Cyanean and Chelidonian isles. +Callisthenes, however, says that he did not agree to any such articles, but +that upon the fear this victory gave him, he did in reality thus act, and kept +off so far from Greece, that when Pericles with fifty, and Ephialtes with +thirty galleys, cruised beyond the Chelidonian isles, they did not discover one +Persian vessel. But in the collection which Craterus made of the public acts of +the people, there is a draft of this treaty given. And it is told, also, that +at Athens they erected the altar of Peace upon this occasion, and decreed +particular honors to Callias, who was employed as ambassador to procure the +treaty. +</p> + +<p> +The people of Athens raised so much money from the spoils of this war, which +were publicly sold, that, besides other expenses, and raising the south wall of +the citadel, they laid the foundation of the long walls, not, indeed, finished +till at a later time, which were called the Legs. And the place where they +built them being soft and marshy ground, they were forced to sink great weights +of stone and rubble to secure the foundation, and did all this out of the money +Cimon supplied them with. It was he, likewise, who first embellished the upper +city with those fine and ornamental places of exercise and resort, which they +afterward so much frequented and delighted in. He set the market-place with +plane trees; and the Academy, which was before a bare, dry, and dirty spot, he +converted into a well-watered grove, with shady alleys to walk in, and open +courses for races. +</p> + +<p> +When the Persians who had made themselves masters of the Chersonese, so far +from quitting it, called in the people of the interior of Thrace to help them +against Cimon, whom they despised for the smallness of his forces, he set upon +them with only four galleys, and took thirteen of theirs; and having driven out +the Persians, and subdued the Thracians, he made the whole Chersonese the +property of Athens. Next, he attacked the people of Thasos, who had revolted +from the Athenians; and, having defeated them in a fight at sea, where he took +thirty-three of their vessels, he took their town by siege, and acquired for +the Athenians all the mines of gold on the opposite coast, and the territory +dependent on Thasos. This opened him a fair passage into Macedon, so that he +might, it was thought, have acquired a good portion of that country; and +because he neglected the opportunity, he was suspected of corruption, and of +having been bribed off by king Alexander. So, by the combination of his +adversaries, he was accused of being false to his country. In his defense he +told the judges, that he had always shown himself in his public life the +friend, not, like other men, of rich Ionians and Thessalians, to be courted, +and to receive presents, but of the Lacedaemonians; for as he admired, so he +wished to imitate the plainness of their habits, their temperance, and +simplicity of living, which he preferred to any sort of riches; but that he +always had been, and still was proud to enrich his country with the spoils of +her enemies. Stesimbrotus, making mention of this trial, states that Elpinice, +in behalf of her brother, addressed herself to Pericles, the most vehement of +his accusers, to whom Pericles answered, with a smile, “You are old, Elpinice, +to meddle with affairs of this nature.” However, he proved the mildest of his +prosecutors, and rose up but once all the while, almost as a matter of form, to +plead against him. Cimon was acquitted. +</p> + +<p> +In his public life after this, he continued, whilst at home, to control and +restrain the common people, who would have trampled upon the nobility, and +drawn all the power and sovereignty to themselves. But when he afterwards was +sent out to war, the multitude broke loose, as it were, and overthrew all the +ancient laws and customs they had hitherto observed, and, chiefly at the +instigation of Ephialtes, withdrew the cognizance of almost all causes from the +Areopagus; so that all jurisdiction now being transferred to them, the +government was reduced to a perfect democracy, and this by the help of +Pericles, who was already powerful, and had pronounced in favor of the common +people. Cimon, when he returned, seeing the authority of this great council so +upset, was exceedingly troubled, and endeavored to remedy these disorders by +bringing the courts of law to their former state, and restoring the old +aristocracy of the time of Clisthenes. This the others declaimed against with +all the vehemence possible, and began to revive those stories concerning him +and his sister, and cried out against him as the partisan of the +Lacedaemonians. To these calumnies the famous verses of Eupolis, the poet upon +Cimon refer: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He was as good as others that one sees,<br/> +But he was fond of drinking and of ease;<br/> +And would at nights to Sparta often roam,<br/> +Leaving his sister desolate at home. +</p> + +<p> +But if, though slothful and a drunkard, he could capture so many towns, and +gain so many victories, certainly if he had been sober and minded his business, +there had been no Grecian commander, either before or after him, that could +have surpassed him for exploits of war. +</p> + +<p> +He was, indeed, a favorer of the Lacedaemonians even from his youth, and he +gave the names of Lacedaemonius and Eleus to two sons, twins, whom he had, as +Stesimbrotus says, by a woman of Clitorium, whence Pericles often upbraided +them with their mother’s blood. But Diodorus, the geographer, asserts that both +these, and another son of Cimon’s, whose name was Thessalus, were born of +Isodice, the daughter of Euryptolemus, the son of Megacles. +</p> + +<p> +However, this is certain, that Cimon was countenanced by the Lacedaemonians in +opposition to Themistocles, whom they disliked; and while he was yet very +young, they endeavored to raise and increase his credit in Athens. This the +Athenians perceived at first with pleasure, and the favor the Lacedaemonians +showed him was in various ways advantageous to them and their affairs; as at +that time they were just rising to power, and were occupied in winning the +allies to their side. So they seemed not at all offended with the honor and +kindness showed to Cimon, who then had the chief management of all the affairs +of Greece, and was acceptable to the Lacedaemonians, and courteous to the +allies. But afterwards the Athenians, grown more powerful, when they saw Cimon +so entirely devoted to the Lacedaemonians, began to be angry, for he would +always in his speeches prefer them to the Athenians, and upon every occasion, +when he would reprimand them for a fault, or incite them to emulation, he would +exclaim, “The Lacedaemonians would not do thus.” This raised the discontent, +and got him in some degree the hatred of the citizens; but that which +ministered chiefly to the accusation against him fell out upon the following +occasion. +</p> + +<p> +In the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, the son of Zeuxidamus, king of +Sparta, there happened in the country of Lacedaemon, the greatest earthquake +that was known in the memory of man; the earth opened into chasms, and the +mountain Taygetus was so shaken, that some of the rocky points of it fell down, +and except five houses, all the town of Sparta was shattered to pieces. They +say, that a little before any motion was perceived, as the young men and the +boys just grown up were exercising themselves together in the middle of the +portico, a hare, of a sudden, started out just by them, which the young men, +though all naked and daubed with oil, ran after for sport. No sooner were they +gone from the place, than the gymnasium fell down upon the boys who had stayed +behind, and killed them all. Their tomb is to this day called Sismatias. +Archidamus, by the present danger made apprehensive of what might follow, and +seeing the citizens intent upon removing the most valuable of their goods out +of their houses, commanded an alarm to be sounded, as if an enemy were coming +upon them, in order that they should collect about him in a body, with arms. It +was this alone that saved Sparta at that time, for the Helots were got together +from the country about, with design to surprise the Spartans, and overpower +those whom the earthquake had spared. But finding them armed and well prepared, +they retired into the towns and openly made war with them, gaining over a +number of the Laconians of the country districts; while at the same time the +Messenians, also, made an attack upon the Spartans, who therefore dispatched +Periclidas to Athens to solicit succors, of whom Aristophanes says in mockery +that he came and +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In a red jacket, at the altars seated,<br/> +With a white face, for men and arms entreated. +</p> + +<p> +This Ephialtes opposed, protesting that they ought not to raise up or assist a +city that was a rival to Athens; but that being down, it were best to keep her +so, and let the pride and arrogance of Sparta be trodden under. But Cimon, as +Critias says, preferring the safety of Lacedaemon to the aggrandizement of his +own country, so persuaded the people, that he soon marched out with a large +army to their relief. Ion records, also, the most successful expression which +he used to move the Athenians. “They ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, +nor their own city to be deprived of her yoke-fellow.” +</p> + +<p> +In his return from aiding the Lacedaemonians, he passed with his army through +the territory of Corinth; where upon Lachartus reproached him for bringing his +army into the country, without first asking leave of the people. For he that +knocks at another man’s door ought not to enter the house till the master gives +him leave. “But you, Corinthians, O Lachartus,” said Cimon, “did not knock at +the gates of the Cleonaeans and Megarians, but broke them down, and entered by +force, thinking that all places should be open to the stronger.” And having +thus rallied the Corinthian, he passed on with his army. Some time after this, +the Lacedaemonians sent a second time to desire succors of the Athenians +against the Messenians and Helots, who had seized upon Ithome. But when they +came, fearing their boldness and gallantry, of all that came to their +assistance, they sent them only back, alleging they were designing innovations. +The Athenians returned home, enraged at this usage, and vented their anger upon +all those who were favorers of the Lacedaemonians; and seizing some slight +occasion, they banished Cimon for ten years, which is the time prescribed to +those that are banished by the ostracism. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians, +on their return after freeing Delphi from the Phocians, encamped their army at +Tanagra, whither the Athenians presently marched with design to fight them. +</p> + +<p> +Cimon, also, came thither armed, and ranged himself among those of his own +tribe, which was the Oeneis, desirous of fighting with the rest against the +Spartans; but the council of five hundred being informed of this, and frighted +at it, his adversaries crying out he would disorder the army, and bring the +Lacedaemonians to Athens, commanded the officers not to receive him. Wherefore +Cimon left the army, conjuring Euthippus, the Anaphlystian, and the rest of his +companions, who were most suspected as favoring the Lacedaemonians, to behave +themselves bravely against their enemies, and by their actions make their +innocence evident to their countrymen. These, being in all a hundred, took the +arms of Cimon and followed his advice; and making a body by themselves, fought +so desperately with the enemy, that they were all cut off, leaving the +Athenians deep regret for the loss of such brave men, and repentance for having +so unjustly suspected them. Accordingly, they did not long retain their +severity toward Cimon, partly upon remembrance of his former services, and +partly, perhaps, induced by the juncture of the times. For being defeated at +Tanagra in a great battle, and fearing the Peloponnesians would come upon them +at the opening of the spring, they recalled Cimon by a decree, of which +Pericles himself was author. So reasonable were men’s resentments in those +times, and so moderate their anger, that it always gave way to the public good. +Even ambition, the least governable of all human passions, could then yield to +the necessities of the State. +</p> + +<p> +Cimon, as soon as he returned, put an end to the war, and reconciled the two +cities. Peace thus established, seeing the Athenians impatient of being idle, +and eager after the honor and aggrandizement of war, lest they should set upon +the Greeks themselves, or with so many ships cruising about the isles and +Peloponnesus, they should give occasions to intestine wars, or complaints of +their allies against them, he equipped two hundred galleys, with design to make +an attempt upon Egypt and Cyprus; purposing, by this means, to accustom the +Athenians to fight against the barbarians, and enrich themselves honestly by +spoiling those who were the natural enemies to Greece. But when all things were +prepared, and the army ready to embark, Cimon had this dream. It seemed to him +that there was a furious bitch barking at him, and, mixed with the barking, a +kind of human voice uttered these words: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Come on, for thou shalt shortly be,<br/> +A pleasure to my whelps and me. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +This dream was hard to interpret, yet Astyphilus of Posidonia, a man skilled in +divinations, and intimate with Cimon, told him that his death was presaged by +this vision, which he thus explained. A dog is enemy to him be barks at; and +one is always most a pleasure to one’s enemies, when one is dead; the mixture +of human voice with barking signifies the Medes, for the army of the Medes is +mixed up of Greeks and barbarians. After this dream, as he was sacrificing to +Bacchus, and the priest cutting up the victim, a number of ants, taking up the +congealed particles of the blood, laid them about Cimon’s great toe. This was +not observed for a good while, but at the very time when Cimon spied it, the +priest came and showed him the liver of the sacrifice imperfect, wanting that +part of it called the head. But he could not then recede from the enterprise, +so he set sail. Sixty of his ships he sent toward Egypt; with the rest he went +and fought the king of Persia’s fleet, composed of Phoenician and Cilician +galleys, recovered all the cities thereabout, and threatened Egypt; designing +no less than the entire ruin of the Persian empire. And the rather, for that he +was informed Themistocles was in great repute among the barbarians, having +promised the king to lead his army, whenever he should make war upon Greece. +But Themistocles, it is said, abandoning all hopes of compassing his designs, +very much out of the despair of overcoming the valor and good-fortune of Cimon, +died a voluntary death. Cimon, intent on great designs, which he was now to +enter upon, keeping his navy about the isle of Cyprus, sent messengers to +consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon upon some secret matter. For it is not +known about what they were sent, and the god would give them no answer, but +commanded them to return again, for that Cimon was already with him. Hearing +this, they returned to sea, and as soon as they came to the Grecian army, which +was then about Egypt, they understood that Cimon was dead; and computing the +time of the oracle, they found that his death had been signified, he being then +already with the gods. +</p> + +<p> +He died, some say, of sickness, while besieging Citium, in Cyprus; according to +others, of a wound he received in a skirmish with the barbarians. When he +perceived he should die, he commanded those under his charge to return, and by +no means to let the news of his death be known by the way; this they did with +such secrecy that they all came home safe, and neither their enemies nor the +allies knew what had happened. Thus, as Phanodemus relates, the Grecian army +was, as it were, conducted by Cimon, thirty days after he was dead. But after +his death there was not one commander among the Greeks that did anything +considerable against the barbarians, and instead of uniting against their +common enemies, the popular leaders and partisans of war animated them against +one another to that degree, that none could interpose their good offices to +reconcile them. And while, by their mutual discord, they ruined the power of +Greece, they gave the Persians time to recover breath, and repair all their +losses. It is true, indeed, Agesilaus carried the arms of Greece into Asia, but +it was a long time after; there were, indeed, some brief appearances of a war +against the king’s lieutenants in the maritime provinces, but they all quickly +vanished; before he could perform anything of moment, he was recalled by fresh +civil dissensions and disturbances at home. So that he was forced to leave the +Persian king’s officers to impose what tribute they pleased on the Greek cities +in Asia, the confederates and allies of the Lacedaemonians. Whereas, in the +time of Cimon, not so much as a letter-carrier, or a single horseman, was ever +seen to come within four hundred furlongs of the sea. +</p> + +<p> +The monuments, called Cimonian to this day, in Athens, show that his remains +were conveyed home, yet the inhabitants of the city Citium pay particular honor +to a certain tomb which they call the tomb of Cimon, according to Nausicrates +the rhetorician, who states that in a time of famine, when the crops of their +land all failed, they sent to the oracle, which commanded them not to forget +Cimon, but give him the honors of a superior being. Such was the Greek +commander. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap36"></a>LUCULLUS</h2> + +<p> +Lucullus’s grandfather had been consul; his uncle by the mother’s sister was +Metellus, surnamed Numidicus. As for his parents, his father was convicted of +extortion, and his mother Caecilia’s reputation was bad. The first thing that +Lucullus did before ever he stood for any office, or meddled with the affairs +of state, being then but a youth, was, to accuse the accuser of his father, +Servilius the augur, having caught him in an offense against the state. This +thing was much taken notice of among the Romans, who commended it as an act of +high merit. Even without the provocation, the accusation was esteemed no +unbecoming action, for they delighted to see young men as eagerly attacking +injustice, as good dogs do wild beasts. But when great animosities ensued, +insomuch that some were wounded and killed in the fray, Servilius escaped. +Lucullus followed his studies, and became a competent speaker, in both Greek +and Latin, insomuch that Sylla, when composing the commentaries of his own life +and actions, dedicated them to him, as one who could have performed the task +better himself. His speech was not only elegant and ready for purposes of mere +business, like the ordinary oratory which will in the public market-place, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Lash as a wounded tunny does the sea, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +but on every other occasion shows itself +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Dried up and perished with the want of wit; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +but even in his younger days he addicted himself to the study, simply for its +own sake, of the liberal arts; and when advanced in years, after a life of +conflicts, he gave his mind, as it were, its liberty, to enjoy in full leisure +the refreshment of philosophy; and summoning up his contemplative faculties, +administered a timely check, after his difference with Pompey, to his feelings +of emulation and ambition. Besides what has been said of his love of learning +already, one instance more was, that in his youth, upon a suggestion of writing +the Marsian war in Greek and Latin verse and prose, arising out of some +pleasantry that passed into a serious proposal, he agreed with Hortensius the +lawyer, and Sisenna the historian, that he would take his lot; and it seems +that the lot directed him to the Greek tongue, for a Greek history of that war +is still extant. +</p> + +<p> +Among the many signs of the great love which he bore to his brother Marcus, one +in particular is commemorated by the Romans. Though he was elder brother, he +would not step into authority without him, but deferred his own advance until +his brother was qualified to bear a share with him, and so won upon the people, +as when absent to be chosen Aedile with him. +</p> + +<p> +He gave many and early proofs of his valor and conduct, in the Marsian war, and +was admired by Sylla for his constancy and mildness, and always employed in +affairs of importance, especially in the mint; most of the money for carrying +on the Mithridatic war being coined by him in Peloponnesus, which, by the +soldiers’ wants, was brought into rapid circulation, and long continued current +under the name of Lucullean coin. After this, when Sylla conquered Athens, and +was victorious by land, but found the supplies for his army cut off, the enemy +being master at sea, Lucullus was the man whom he sent into Libya and Egypt, to +procure him shipping. It was the depth of winter when he ventured with but +three small Greek vessels, and as many Rhodian galleys, not only into the main +sea, but also among multitudes of vessels belonging to the enemies, who were +cruising about as absolute masters. Arriving at Crete, he gained it; and +finding the Cyrenians harassed by long tyrannies and wars, he composed their +troubles, and settled their government; putting the city in mind of that saying +which Plato once had oracularly uttered of them, who, being requested to +prescribe laws to them, and mold them into some sound form of government, made +answer, that it was a hard thing to give laws to the Cyrenians, abounding, as +they did, in wealth and plenty. For nothing is more intractable than man when +in felicity, nor anything more docile, when he has been reduced and humbled by +fortune. This made the Cyrenians so willingly submit to the laws which Lucullus +imposed upon them. From thence sailing into Egypt, and, pressed by pirates, he +lost most of his vessels; but he himself narrowly escaping, made a magnificent +entry into Alexandria. The whole fleet, a compliment due only to royalty, met +him in full array, and the young Ptolemy showed wonderful kindness to him, +appointing him lodging and diet in the palace, where no foreign commander +before him had been received. Besides, he gave him gratuities and presents, not +such as were usually given to men of his condition, but four times as much; of +which, however, he took nothing more than served his necessity, and accepted of +no gift, though what was worth eighty talents was offered him. It is reported +he neither went to see Memphis, nor any of the celebrated wonders of Egypt. It +was for a man of no business and much curiosity to see such things, not for him +who had left his commander in the field, lodging under the ramparts of his +enemies. +</p> + +<p> +Ptolemy, fearing the issue of that war, deserted the confederacy, but +nevertheless sent a convoy with him as far as Cyprus, and at parting, with much +ceremony, wishing him a good voyage, gave him a very precious emerald set in +gold. Lucullus at first refused it, but when the king showed him his own +likeness cut upon it, he thought he could not persist in a denial, for had he +parted with such open offense, it might have endangered his passage. Drawing a +considerable squadron together, which he summoned, as he sailed by, out of all +the maritime towns, except those suspected of piracy, he sailed for Cyprus; and +there understanding that the enemy lay in wait under the promontories for him, +he laid up his fleet, and sent to the cities to send in provisions for his +wintering among them. But when time served, he launched his ships suddenly, and +went off, and hoisting all his sails in the night, while he kept them down in +the day, thus came safe to Rhodes. Being furnished with ships at Rhodes, he +also prevailed upon the inhabitants of Cos and Cnidus, to leave the king’s +side, and join in an expedition against the Samians. Out of Chios he himself +drove the king’s party, and set the Colophonians at liberty, having seized +Epigonus the tyrant, who oppressed them. +</p> + +<p> +About this time Mithridates left Pergamus, and retired to Pitane, where being +closely besieged by Fimbria on the land, and not daring to engage with so bold +and victorious a commander, he was concerting means for escape by sea, and sent +for all his fleets from every quarter to attend him. Which when Fimbria +perceived, having no ships of his own, he sent to Lucullus, entreating him to +assist him with his, in subduing the most odious and warlike of kings, lest the +opportunity of humbling Mithridates, the prize which the Romans had pursued +with so much blood and trouble, should now at last be lost, when he was within +the net, and easily to be taken. And were he caught, no one would be more +highly commended than Lucullus, who stopped his passage and seized him in his +flight. Being driven from the land by the one, and met in the sea by the other, +he would give matter of renown and glory to them both, and the much applauded +actions of Sylla at Orchomenus and about Chaeronea, would no longer be thought +of by the Romans. The proposal was no unreasonable thing; it being obvious to +all men, that if Lucullus had hearkened to Fimbria, and with his navy, which +was then near at hand, had blocked up the haven, the war soon had been brought +to an end, and infinite numbers of mischiefs prevented thereby. But he, whether +from the sacredness of friendship between himself and Sylla, reckoning all +other considerations of public or of private advantage inferior to it, or out +of detestation of the wickedness of Fimbria, whom he abhorred for advancing +himself by the late death of his friend and the general of the army, or by a +divine fortune sparing Mithridates then, that he might have him an adversary +for a time to come, for whatever reason, refused to comply, and suffered +Mithridates to escape and laugh at the attempts of Fimbria. He himself alone +first, near Lectum in Troas, in a sea-fight, overcame the king’s ships; and +afterwards, discovering Neoptolemus lying in wait for him near Tenedos, with a +greater fleet, he went aboard a Rhodian quinquereme galley, commended by +Damagoras, a man of great experience at sea, and friendly to the Romans, and +sailed before the rest. Neoptolemus made up furiously at him, and commanded the +master, with all imaginable might, to charge; but Damagoras, fearing the bulk +and massy stem of the admiral, thought it dangerous to meet him prow to prow, +and, rapidly wheeling round, bid his men back water, and so received him +astern; in which place, though violently borne upon, he received no manner of +harm, the blow being defeated by falling on those parts of the ship which lay +under water. By which time, the rest of the fleet coming up to him, Lucullus +gave order to turn again, and vigorously falling, upon the enemy, put them to +flight, and pursued Neoptolemus. After this he came to Sylla, in Chersonesus, +as he was preparing to pass the strait, and brought timely assistance for the +safe transportation of the army. +</p> + +<p> +Peace being presently made, Mithridates sailed off to the Euxine sea, but Sylla +taxed the inhabitants of Asia twenty thousand talents, and ordered Lucullus to +gather and coin the money. And it was no small comfort to the cities under +Sylla’s severity, that a man of not only incorrupt and just behavior, but also +of moderation, should be employed in so heavy and odious an office. The +Mitylenaeans, who absolutely revolted, he was willing should return to their +duty, and submit to a moderate penalty for the offense they had given in the +case of Marius. But, finding them bent upon their own destruction, he came up +to them, defeated them at sea, blocked them up in their city and besieged them; +then sailing off from them openly in the day to Elaea, he returned privately, +and posting an ambush near the city, lay quiet himself: And on the Mitylenaeans +coming out eagerly and in disorder to plunder the deserted camp, he fell upon +them, took many of them, and slew five hundred, who stood upon their defense. +He gained six thousand slaves, and a very rich booty. +</p> + +<p> +He was no way engaged in the great and general troubles of Italy which Sylla +and Marius created, a happy providence at that time detaining him in Asia upon +business. He was as much in Sylla’s favor, however, as any of his other +friends; Sylla, as was said before, dedicated his Memoirs to him as a token of +kindness, and at his death, passing by Pompey, made him guardian to his son; +which seems, indeed, to have been the rise of the quarrel and jealousy between +them two being both young men, and passionate for honor. +</p> + +<p> +A little after Sylla’s death, he was made consul with Marcus Cotta, about the +one hundred and seventy-sixth Olympiad. The Mithridatic war being then under +debate, Marcus declared that it was not finished, but only respited for a time, +and therefore, upon choice of provinces, the lot falling to Lucullus to have +Gaul within the Alps, a province where no great action was to be done, he was +ill-pleased. But chiefly, the success of Pompey in Spain fretted him, as, with +the renown he got there, if the Spanish war were finished in time, he was +likely to be chosen general before anyone else against Mithridates. So that +when Pompey sent for money, and signified by letter that, unless it were sent +him, he would leave the country and Sertorius, and bring his forces home to +Italy, Lucullus most zealously supported his request, to prevent any pretence +of his returning home during his own consulship; for all things would have been +at his disposal, at the head of so great an army. For Cethegus, the most +influential popular leader at that time, owing to his always both acting and +speaking to please the people, had, as it happened, a hatred to Lucullus, who +had not concealed his disgust at his debauched, insolent, and lawless life. +Lucullus, therefore, was at open warfare with him. And Lucius Quintius, also, +another demagogue, who was taking steps against Sylla’s constitution, and +endeavoring to put things out of order, by private exhortations and public +admonitions he checked in his designs, and repressed his ambition, wisely and +safely remedying a great evil at the very outset. +</p> + +<p> +At this time news came that Octavius, the governor of Cilicia, was dead, and +many were eager for the place, courting Cethegus, as the man best able to serve +them. Lucullus set little value upon Cilicia itself, no otherwise than as he +thought, by his acceptance of it, no other man besides himself might be +employed in the war against Mithridates, by reason of its nearness to +Cappadocia. This made him strain every effort that that province might be +allotted to himself, and to none other; which led him at last into an expedient +not so honest or commendable, as it was serviceable for compassing his design, +submitting to necessity against his own inclination. There was one Praecia, a +celebrated wit and beauty, but in other respects nothing better than an +ordinary harlot; who, however, to the charms of her person adding the +reputation of one that loved and served her friends, by making use of those who +visited her to assist their designs and promote their interests, had thus +gained great power. She had seduced Cethegus, the first man at that time in +reputation and authority of all the city, and enticed him to her love, and so +had made all authority follow her. For nothing of moment was done in which +Cethegus was not concerned, and nothing by Cethegus without Praecia. This woman +Lucullus gained to his side by gifts and flattery, (and a great price it was in +itself to so stately and magnificent a dame, to be seen engaged in the same +cause with Lucullus,) and thus he presently found Cethegus his friend, using +his utmost interest to procure Cilicia for him; which when once obtained, there +was no more need of applying himself either to Praecia, or Cethegus; for all +unanimously voted him to the Mithridatic war, by no hands likely to be so +successfully managed as his. Pompey was still contending with Sertorius, and +Metellus by age unfit for service; which two alone were the competitors who +could prefer any claim with Lucullus for that command. Cotta, his colleague, +after much ado in the senate, was sent away with a fleet to guard the +Propontis, and defend Bithynia. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus carried with him a legion under his own orders, and crossed over into +Asia and took the command of the forces there, composed of men who were all +thoroughly disabled by dissoluteness and rapine, and the Fimbrians, as they +were called, utterly unmanageable by long want of any sort of discipline. For +these were they who under Fimbria had slain Flaccus, the consul and general, +and afterwards betrayed Fimbria to Sylla; a willful and lawless set of men, but +warlike, expert, and hardy in the field. Lucullus in a short time took down the +courage of these, and disciplined the others, who then first, in all +probability, knew what a true commander and governor was; whereas in former +times they had been courted to service, and took up arms at nobody’s command, +but their own wills. +</p> + +<p> +The enemy’s provisions for war stood thus; Mithridates, like the Sophists, +boastful and haughty at first, set upon the Romans, with a very inefficient +army, such, indeed, as made a good show, but was nothing for use. But being +shamefully routed, and taught a lesson for a second engagement, he reduced his +forces to a proper, serviceable shape. Dispensing with the mixed multitudes, +and the noisy menaces of barbarous tribes of various languages, and with the +ornaments of gold and precious stones, a greater temptation to the victors than +security to the bearers, he gave his men broad swords like the Romans’, and +massy shields; chose horses better for service than show, drew up an hundred +and twenty thousand foot in the figure of the Roman phalanx, and had sixteen +thousand horse, besides chariots armed with scythes, no less than a hundred. +Besides which, he set out a fleet not at all cumbered with gilded cabins, +luxurious baths and women’s furniture, but stored with weapons and darts, and +other necessaries, and thus made a descent upon Bithynia. Not only did these +parts willingly receive him again, but almost all Asia regarded him as their +salvation from the intolerable miseries which they were suffering from the +Roman money-lenders, and revenue farmers. These, afterwards, who like harpies +stole away their very nourishment, Lucullus drove away, and at this time by +reproving them, did what he could to make them more moderate, and to prevent a +general secession, then breaking out in all parts. While Lucullus was detained +in rectifying these matters, Cotta, finding affairs ripe for action, prepared +for battle with Mithridates; and news coming from all hands that Lucullus had +already entered Phrygia, on his march against the enemy, he, thinking he had a +triumph all but actually in his hands, lest his colleague should share in the +glory of it, hasted to battle without him. But being routed, both by sea and +land, he lost sixty ships with their men, and four thousand foot, and himself +was forced into and besieged in Chalcedon, there waiting for relief from +Lucullus. There were those about Lucullus who would have had him leave Cotta +and go forward, in hope of surprising the defenseless kingdom of Mithridates. +And this was the feeling of the soldiers in general, who wore indignant that +Cotta should by his ill-counsel not only lose his own army, but hinder them +also from conquest, which at that time, without the hazard of a battle, they +might have obtained. But Lucullus, in a public address, declared to them that +he would rather save one citizen from the enemy, than be master of all that +they had. +</p> + +<p> +Archelaus, the former commander in Boeotia under Mithridates, who afterwards +deserted him and accompanied the Romans, protested to Lucullus that, upon his +mere coming, he would possess himself of all Pontus. But he answered, that it +did not become him to be more cowardly than huntsmen, to leave the wild beasts +abroad, and seek after sport in their deserted dens. Having so said, he made +towards Mithridates with thirty thousand foot, and two thousand five hundred +horse. But on being come in sight of his enemies, he was astonished at their +numbers, and thought to forbear fighting, and wear out time. But Marius, whom +Sertorius had sent out of Spain to Mithridates with forces under him, stepping +out and challenging him, he prepared for battle. In the very instant before +joining battle, without any perceptible alteration preceding, on a sudden the +sky opened, and a large luminous body fell down in the midst between the +armies, in shape like a hogshead, but in color like melted silver, insomuch +that both armies in alarm withdrew. This wonderful prodigy happened in Phrygia, +near Otryae. Lucullus after this began to think with himself that no human +power and wealth could suffice to sustain such great numbers as Mithridates +had, for any long time in the face of an enemy, and commanded one of the +captives to be brought before him, and first of all asked him, how many +companions had been quartered with him, and how much provision he had left +behind him, and when he had answered him, commanded him to stand aside; then +asked a second and a third the same question; after which, comparing the +quantity of provision with the men, he found that in three or four days’ time, +his enemies would be brought to want. This all the more determined him to trust +to time, and he took measures to store his camp with all sorts of provision, +and thus living in plenty, trusted to watch the necessities of his hungry +enemy. +</p> + +<p> +This made Mithridates set out against the Cyzicenians, miserably shattered in +the fight at Chalcedon, where they lost no less than three thousand citizens +and ten ships. And that he might the safer steal away unobserved by Lucullus, +immediately after supper, by the help of a dark and wet night, he went off and +by the morning gained the neighborhood of the city, and sat down with his +forces upon the Adrastean mount. Lucullus, on finding him gone, pursued, but +was well pleased not to overtake him with his own forces in disorder; and he +sat down near what is called the Thracian village, an admirable position for +commanding all the roads and the places whence, and through which the +provisions for Mithridates’s camp must of necessity come. And judging now of +the event, he no longer kept his mind from his soldiers, but when the camp was +fortified and their work finished, called them together, and with great +assurance told them that in a few days, without the expense of blood, he would +give them victory. +</p> + +<p> +Mithridates besieged the Cyzicenians with ten camps by land, and with his ships +occupied the strait that was betwixt their city and the main land, and so +blocked them up on all sides; they, however, were fully prepared stoutly to +receive him, and resolved to endure the utmost extremity, rather than forsake +the Romans. That which troubled them most was, that they knew not where +Lucullus was, and heard nothing of him, though at that time his army was +visible before them. But they were imposed upon by the Mithridatians, who, +showing them the Romans encamped on the hills, said, “Do ye see those? those +are the auxiliary Armenians and Medes, whom Tigranes has sent to Mithridates.” +They were thus overwhelmed with thinking of the vast numbers round them, and +could not believe any way of relief was left them, even if Lucullus should come +up to their assistance. Demonax, a messenger sent in by Archelaus, was the +first who told them of Lucullus’s arrival; but they disbelieved his report, and +thought he came with a story invented merely to encourage them. At which time +it happened that a boy, a prisoner who had run away from the enemy, was brought +before them; who, being asked where Lucullus was, laughed at their jesting, as +he thought, but, finding them in earnest, with his finger pointed to the Roman +camp; upon which they took courage. The lake Dascylitis was navigated with +vessels of some little size; one, the biggest of them, Lucullus drew ashore, +and carrying her across in a wagon to the sea, filled her with soldiers, who, +sailing along unseen in the dead of the night, came safe into the city. +</p> + +<p> +The gods themselves, too, in admiration of the constancy of the Cyzicenians, +seem to have animated them with manifest signs, more especially now in the +festival of Proserpine, where a black heifer being wanting for sacrifice, they +supplied it by a figure made of dough, which they set before the altar. But the +holy heifer set apart for the goddess, and at that time grazing with the other +herds of the Cyzicenians on the other side of the strait, left the herd and +swam over to the city alone, and offered herself for sacrifice. By night, also, +the goddess appearing to Aristagoras, the town clerk, “I am come,” said she, +“and have brought the Libyan piper against the Pontic trumpeter; bid the +citizens, therefore, be of good courage.” While the Cyzicenians were wondering +what the words could mean, a sudden wind sprung up and caused a considerable +motion on the sea. The king’s battering engines, the wonderful contrivance of +Niconides of Thessaly, then under the walls, by their cracking and rattling, +soon demonstrated what would follow; after which an extraordinarily tempestuous +south wind succeeding shattered in a short space of time all the rest of the +works, and by a violent concussion, threw down the wooden tower a hundred +cubits high. It is said that in Ilium Minerva appeared to many that night in +their sleep, with the sweat running down her person, and showed them her robe +torn in one place, telling them that she had just arrived from relieving the +Cyzicenians; and the inhabitants to this day show a monument with an +inscription, including a public decree, referring to the fact. +</p> + +<p> +Mithridates, through the knavery of his officers, not knowing for some time the +want of provision in his camp, was troubled in mind that the Cyzicenians should +hold out against him. But his ambition and anger fell, when he saw his soldiers +in the extremity of want, and feeding on man’s flesh; as, in truth, Lucullus +was not carrying on the war as mere matter of show and stage-play, but +according to the proverb, made the seat of war in the belly, and did everything +to cut off their supplies of food. Mithridates, therefore, took advantage of +the time, while Lucullus was storming a fort, and sent away almost all his +horse to Bithynia, with the sumpter cattle, and as many of the foot as were +unfit for service. On intelligence of which, Lucullus, while it was yet night, +came to his camp, and in the morning, though it was stormy weather, took with +him ten cohorts of foot, and the horse, and pursued them under falling snow and +in cold so severe that many of his soldiers were unable to proceed; and with +the rest coming upon the enemy, near the river Rhyndacus, he overthrew them +with so great a slaughter, that the very women of Apollonia came out to seize +on the booty and strip the slain. Great numbers, as we may suppose, were slain; +six thousand horses were taken, with an infinite number of beasts of burden, +and no less than fifteen thousand men. All which he led along by the enemy’s +camp. I cannot but wonder on this occasion at Sallust, who says that this was +the first time camels were seen by the Romans, as if he thought those who, long +before, under Scipio, defeated Antiochus, or those who lately had fought +against Archelaus near Orchomenus and Chaeronea, had not known what a camel +was. Mithridates, himself fully determined upon flight, as mere delays and +diversions for Lucullus, sent his admiral Aristonicus to the Greek sea; who, +however, was betrayed in the very instant of going off, and Lucullus became +master of him, and ten thousand pieces of gold which he was carrying with him +to corrupt some of the Roman army. After which, Mithridates himself made for +the sea, leaving the foot officers to conduct the army, upon whom Lucullus +fell, near the river Granicus, where he took a vast number alive, and slew +twenty thousand. It is reported that the total number killed, of fighting men +and of others who followed the camp, amounted to something not far short of +three hundred thousand. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus first went to Cyzicus, where he was received with all the joy and +gratitude suiting the occasion, and then collected a navy, visiting the shores +of the Hellespont. And arriving at Troas, he lodged in the temple of Venus, +where, in the night, he thought he saw the goddess coming to him, and saying, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Sleep’st thou, great lion, when the fawns are nigh? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Rising up hereupon, he called his friends to him, it being yet night, and told +them his vision; at which instant some Ilians came up and acquainted him that +thirteen of the king’s quinqueremes were seen off the Achaean harbor, sailing +for Lemnos. He at once put to sea, took these, and slew their admiral Isidorus. +And then he made after another squadron, who were just come into port, and were +hauling their vessels ashore, but fought from the decks, and sorely galled +Lucullus’s men; there being neither room to sail round them, nor to bear upon +them for any damage, his ships being afloat, while theirs stood secure and +fixed on the sand. After much ado, at the only landing-place of the island, he +disembarked the choicest of his men, who, falling upon the enemy behind, killed +some, and forced others to cut their cables, and thus making from the shore, +they fell foul upon one another, or came within the reach of Lucullus’s fleet. +Many were killed in the action. Among the captives was Marius, the commander +sent by Sertorius, who had but one eye. And it was Lucullus’s strict command to +his men before the engagement, that they should kill no man who had but one +eye, that he might rather die under disgrace and reproach. +</p> + +<p> +This being over, he hastened his pursuit after Mithridates, whom he hoped to +find still in Bithynia, intercepted by Voconius, whom he sent out before to +Nicomedia with part of the fleet, to stop his flight. But Voconius, loitering +in Samothrace to get initiated and celebrate a feast, let slip his opportunity, +Mithridates being passed by with all his fleet. He, hastening into Pontus +before Lucullus should come up to him, was caught in a storm, which dispersed +his fleet and sunk several ships. The wreck floated on all the neighboring +shore for many days after. The merchant ship, in which he himself was, could +not well in that heavy swell be brought ashore by the masters for its bigness, +and it being heavy with water and ready to sink, he left it and went aboard a +pirate vessel, delivering himself into the hands of pirates, and thus +unexpectedly and wonderfully came safe to Heraclea, in Pontus. +</p> + +<p> +Thus the proud language Lucullus had used to the senate, ended without any +mischance. For they having decreed him three thousand talents to furnish out a +navy, he himself was against it, and sent them word that without any such great +and costly supplies, by the confederate shipping alone, he did not in the least +doubt but to rout Mithridates from the sea. And so he did, by divine +assistance, for it is said that the wrath of Diana of Priapus brought the great +tempest upon the men of Pontus, because they had robbed her temple, and removed +her image. +</p> + +<p> +Many were persuading Lucullus to defer the war, but he rejected their counsel, +and marched through Bithynia and Galatia into the king’s country, in such great +scarcity of provision at first, that thirty thousand Galatians followed, every +man carrying a bushel of wheat at his back. But subduing all in his progress +before him, he at last found himself in such great plenty, that an ox was sold +in the camp for a single drachma, and a slave for four. The other booty they +made no account of, but left it behind or destroyed it; there being no +disposing of it, where all had such abundance. But when they had made frequent +incursions with their cavalry, and had advanced as far Themiscyra, and the +plains of the Thermodon, merely laying waste the country before them, they +began to find fault with Lucullus, asking “why he took so many towns by +surrender, and never one by storm, which might enrich them with the plunder? +and now, forsooth, leaving Amisus behind, a rich and wealthy city, of easy +conquest, if closely besieged, he will carry us into the Tibarenian and +Chaldean wilderness, to fight with Mithridates.” Lucullus, little thinking this +would be of such dangerous consequence as it afterwards proved, took no notice +and slighted it; and was rather anxious to excuse himself to those who blamed +his tardiness, in losing time about small pitiful places not worth the while, +and allowing Mithridates opportunity to recruit. “That is what I design,” said +he, “and sit here contriving by my delay, that he may grow great again, and +gather a considerable army, which may induce him to stand, and not fly away +before us. For do you not see the wide and unknown wilderness behind? Caucasus +is not far off, and a multitude of vast mountains, enough to conceal ten +thousand kings that wished to avoid a battle. Besides this, a journey but of +few days leads from Cabira to Armenia, where Tigranes reigns, king of kings, +and holds in his hands a power that has enabled him to keep the Parthians in +narrow bounds, to remove Greek cities bodily into Media, to conquer Syria and +Palestine, to put to death the kings of the royal line of Seleucus, and carry +away their wives and daughters by violence. This same is relation and +son-in-law to Mithridates, and cannot but receive him upon entreaty, and enter +into war with us to defend him; so that, while we endeavor to depose +Mithridates, we shall endanger the bringing in of Tigranes against us, who +already has sought occasion to fall out with us, but can never find one so +justifiable as the succor of a friend and prince in his necessity. Why, +therefore, should we put Mithridates upon this resource, who as yet does not +see now he may best fight with us, and disdains to stoop to Tigranes; and not +rather allow him time to gather a new army and grow confident again, that we +may thus fight with Colchians, and Tibarenians, whom we have often defeated +already, and not with Medes and Armenians.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon these motives, Lucullus sat down before Amisus, and slowly carried on the +siege. But the winter being well spent, he left Murena in charge of it, and +went himself against Mithridates, then rendezvousing at Cabira, and resolving +to await the Romans, with forty thousand foot about him, and fourteen thousand +horse, on whom he chiefly confided. Passing the river Lycus, he challenged the +Romans into the plains, where the cavalry engaged, and the Romans were beaten. +Pomponius, a man of some note, was taken wounded; and sore, and in pain as he +was, was carried before Mithridates, and asked by the king, if he would become +his friend, if he saved his life. He answered, “yes, if you become reconciled +to the Romans; if not, your enemy.” Mithridates wondered at him, and did him no +hurt. The enemy being with their cavalry master of the plains, Lucullus was +something afraid, and hesitated to enter the mountains, being very large, +woody, and almost inaccessible, when, by good luck, some Greeks who had fled +into a cave were taken, the eldest of whom, Artemidorus by name, promised to +bring Lucullus, and seat him in a place of safety for his army, where there was +a fort that overlooked Cabira. Lucullus, believing him, lighted his fires, and +marched in the night; and safely passing the defile, gained the place, and in +the morning was seen above the enemy, pitching his camp in a place advantageous +to descend upon them if he desired to fight, and secure from being forced, if +he preferred to lie still. Neither side was willing to engage at present. But +it is related that some of the king’s party were hunting a stag, and some +Romans wanting to cut them off, came out and met them. Whereupon they +skirmished, more still drawing together to each side, and at last the king’s +party prevailed, on which the Romans, from their camp seeing their companions +fly, were enraged, and ran to Lucullus with entreaties to lead them out, +demanding that the sign might be given for battle. But he, that they might know +of what consequence the presence and appearance of a wise commander is in time +of conflict and danger, ordered them to stand still. But he went down himself +into the plains, and meeting with the foremost that fled, commanded them to +stand and turn back with him. These obeying, the rest also turned and formed +again in a body, and thus, with no great difficulty, drove back the enemies, +and pursued them to their camp. After his return, Lucullus inflicted the +customary punishment upon the fugitives, and made them dig a trench of twelve +foot, working in their frocks unfastened, while the rest stood by and looked +on. +</p> + +<p> +There was in Mithridates’s camp, one Olthacus a chief of the Dandarians, a +barbarous people living near the lake Maeotis, a man remarkable for strength +and courage in fight, wise in council, and pleasant and ingratiating in +conversation. He, out of emulation, and a constant eagerness which possessed +him to outdo one of the other chiefs of his country, promised a great piece of +service to Mithridates, no less than the death of Lucullus. The king commended +his resolution, and, according to agreement, counterfeited anger, and put some +disgrace upon him; whereupon he took horse, and fled to Lucullus, who kindly +received him, being a man of great name in the army. After some short trial of +his sagacity and perseverance, he found way to Lucullus’s board and council. +The Dandarian, thinking he had a fair opportunity, commanded his servants to +lead his horse out of the camp, while he himself, as the soldiers were +refreshing and resting themselves, it being then high noon, went to the +general’s tent, not at all expecting that entrance would be denied to one who +was so familiar with him, and came under pretence of extraordinary business +with him. He had certainly been admitted, had not sleep, which has destroyed +many captains, saved Lucullus. For so it was, and Menedemus, one of the +bedchamber, was standing at the door, who told Olthacus that it was altogether +unseasonable to see the general, since, after long watching and hard labor, he +was but just before laid down to repose himself. Olthacus would not go away +upon this denial, but still persisted, saying that he must go in to speak of +some necessary affairs, whereupon Menedemus grew angry, and replied that +nothing was more necessary than the safety of Lucullus, and forced him away +with both hands. Upon which, out of fear, he straightaway left the camp, took +horse, and without effect returned to Mithridates. Thus in action as in physic, +it is the critical moment that gives both the fortunate and the fatal effect. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Sornatius being sent out with ten companies for forage, and pursued +by Menander, one of Mithridates’s captains, stood his ground, and after a sharp +engagement, routed and slew a considerable number of the enemy. Adrianus being +sent afterward, with some forces, to procure food enough and to spare for the +camp, Mithridates did not let the opportunity slip, but dispatched Menemachus +and Myro, with a great force, both horse and foot, against him, all which +except two men, it is stated, were cut off by the Romans. Mithridates concealed +the loss, giving it out that it was a small defeat, nothing near so great as +reported, and occasioned by the unskillfulness of the leaders. But Adrianus in +great pomp passed by his camp, having many wagons full of corn and other booty, +filling Mithridates with distress, and the army with confusion and +consternation. It was resolved, therefore, to stay no longer. But when the +king’s servants sent away their own goods quietly, and hindered others from +doing so too, the soldiers in great fury thronged and crowded to the gates, +seized on the king’s servants and killed them, and plundered the baggage. +Dorylaus, the general, in this confusion, having nothing else besides his +purple cloak, lost his life for that, and Hermaeus, the priest, was trod +underfoot in the gate. +</p> + +<p> +Mithridates, having not one of his guards, nor even a groom remaining with him, +got out of the camp in the throng, but had none of his horses with him; until +Ptolemy, the eunuch, some little time after, seeing him in the press making his +way among the others, dismounted and gave his horse to the king. The Romans +were already close upon him in their pursuit, nor was it through want of speed +that they failed to catch him, but they were as near as possible doing so. But +greediness and a petty military avarice hindered them from acquiring that +booty, which in so many fights and hazards they had sought after, and lost +Lucullus the prize of his victory. For the horse which carried the king was +within reach, but one of the mules that carried the treasure either by accident +stepping in, or by order of the king so appointed to go between him and the +pursuers, they seized and pilfered the gold, and falling out among themselves +about the prey, let slip the great prize. Neither was their greediness +prejudicial to Lucullus in this only, but also they slew Callistratus, the +king’s confidential attendant, under suspicion of having five hundred pieces of +gold in his girdle; whereas Lucullus had specially ordered that he should be +conveyed safe into the camp. Notwithstanding all which, he gave them leave to +plunder the camp. +</p> + +<p> +After this, in Cabira, and other strong-holds which he took, he found great +treasures, and private prisons, in which many Greeks and many of the king’s +relations had been confined, who, having long since counted themselves no other +than dead men, by the favor of Lucullus, met not with relief so truly as with a +new life and second birth. Nyssa, also, sister of Mithridates, enjoyed the like +fortunate captivity; while those who seemed to be most out of danger, his wives +and sisters at Phernacia, placed in safety, as they thought, miserably +perished, Mithridates in his flight sending Bacchides the eunuch to them. Among +others there were two sisters of the king, Roxana and Statira, unmarried women +forty years old, and two Ionian wives, Berenice of Chios, and Monime of +Miletus. This latter was the most celebrated among the Greeks, because she so +long withstood the king in his courtship to her, though he presented her with +fifteen thousand pieces of gold, until a covenant of marriage was made, and a +crown was sent her, and she was saluted queen. She had been a sorrowful woman +before, and often bewailed her beauty, that had procured her a keeper, instead +of a husband, and a watch of barbarians, instead of the home and attendance of +a wife; and, removed far from Greece, she enjoyed the pleasure which she +proposed to herself, only in a dream, being in the meantime robbed of that +which is real. And when Bacchides came and bade them prepare for death, as +everyone thought most easy and painless, she took the diadem from her head, and +fastening the string to her neck, suspended herself with it; which soon +breaking, “O wretched headband!” said she, “not able to help me even in this +small thing!” And throwing it away she spat on it, and offered her throat to +Bacchides. Berenice had prepared a potion for herself, but at her mother’s +entreaty, who stood by, she gave her part of it. Both drank of the potion, +which prevailed over the weaker body. But Berenice, having drunk too little, +was not released by it, but lingering on unable to die, was strangled by +Bacchides for haste. It is said that one of the unmarried sisters drank the +poison, with bitter execrations and curses; but Statira uttered nothing +ungentle or reproachful, but, on the contrary, commended her brother, who in +his own danger neglected not theirs, but carefully provided that they might go +out of the world without shame or disgrace. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus, being a good and humane man, was concerned at these things. However, +going on he came to Talaura, from whence four days before his arrival +Mithridates had fled, and was got to Tigranes in Armenia. He turned off, +therefore, and subdued the Chaldeans and Tibarenians, with the lesser Armenia, +and having reduced all their forts and cities, he sent Appius to Tigranes to +demand Mithridates. He himself went to Amisus, which still held out under the +command of Callimachus, who, by his great engineering skill, and his dexterity +at all the shifts and subtleties of a siege, had greatly incommoded the Romans. +For which afterward he paid dear enough, and was now out-maneuvered by +Lucullus, who, unexpectedly coming upon him at the time of the day when the +soldiers used to withdraw and rest themselves, gained part of the wall, and +forced him to leave the city, in doing which he fired it; either envying the +Romans the booty, or to secure his own escape the better. No man looked after +those who went off in the ships, but as soon as the fire had seized on most +part of the wall, the soldiers prepared themselves for plunder; while Lucullus, +pitying the ruin of the city, brought assistance from without, and encouraged +his men to extinguish the flames. But all, being intent upon the prey, and +giving no heed to him, with loud outcries beat and clashed their arms together, +until he was compelled to let them plunder, that by that means he might at +least save the city from fire. But they did quite the contrary, for in +searching the houses with lights and torches everywhere, they were themselves +the cause of the destruction of most of the buildings, insomuch that when +Lucullus the next day went in, he shed tears, and said to his friends, that he +had often before blessed the fortune of Sylla but never so much admired it as +then, because when he was willing, he was also able to save Athens, “but my +infelicity is such, that while I endeavor to imitate him, I become like +Mummius.” Nevertheless, he endeavored to save as much of the city as he could, +and at the same time, also, by a happy providence, a fall of rain concurred to +extinguish the fire. He himself while present repaired the ruins as much as he +could, receiving back the inhabitants who had fled, and settling as many other +Greeks as were willing to live there, adding a hundred and twenty furlongs of +ground to the place. +</p> + +<p> +This city was a colony of Athens, built at that time when she flourished and +was powerful at sea, upon which account many who fled from Aristion’s tyranny +settled here, and were admitted as citizens, but had the ill-luck to fly from +evils at home, into greater abroad. As many of these as survived, Lucullus +furnished every one with clothes, and two hundred drachmas, and sent them away +into their own country. On this occasion, Tyrannion the grammarian was taken. +Murena begged him of Lucullus, and took him and made him a freedman; but in +this he abused Lucullus’s favor, who by no means liked that a man of high +repute for learning should be first made a slave, and then freed; for freedom +thus speciously granted again, was a real deprivation of what he had before. +But not in this case alone Murena showed himself far inferior in generosity to +the general. Lucullus was now busy in looking after the cities of Asia, and +having no war to divert his time, spent it in the administration of law and +justice, the want of which had for a long time left the province a prey to +unspeakable and incredible miseries; so plundered and enslaved by tax-farmers +and usurers, that private people were compelled to sell their sons in the +flower of their youth, and their daughters in their virginity, and the States +publicly to sell their consecrated gifts, pictures, and statues. In the end +their lot was to yield themselves up slaves to their creditors, but before +this, worse troubles befell them, tortures, inflicted with ropes and by horses, +standing abroad to be scorched when the sun was hot, and being driven into ice +and clay in the cold; insomuch that slavery was no less than a redemption and +joy to them. Lucullus in a short time freed the cities from all these evils and +oppressions; for, first of all, he ordered there should be no more taken than +one percent. Secondly, where the interest exceeded the principal, he struck it +off. The third, and most considerable order was, that the creditor should +receive the fourth part of the debtor’s income; but if any lender had added the +interest to the principal, it was utterly disallowed. Insomuch, that in the +space of four years all debts were paid, and lands returned to their right +owners. The public debt was contracted when Asia was fined twenty thousand +talents by Sylla, but twice as much was paid to the collectors, who by their +usury had by this time advanced it to a hundred and twenty thousand talents. +And accordingly they inveighed against Lucullus at Rome, as grossly injured by +him, and by their money’s help, (as, indeed, they were very powerful, and had +many of the statesmen in their debt,) they stirred up several leading men +against him. But Lucullus was not only beloved by the cities which he obliged, +but was also wished for by other provinces, who blessed the good-luck of those +who had such a governor over them. +</p> + +<p> +Appius Clodius, who was sent to Tigranes, (the same Clodius was brother to +Lucullus’s wife,) being led by the king’s guides, a roundabout way, +unnecessarily long and tedious, through the upper country, being informed by +his freedman, a Syrian by nation, of the direct road, left that lengthy and +fallacious one; and bidding the barbarians, his guides, adieu, in a few days +passed over Euphrates, and came to Antioch upon Daphne. There being commanded +to wait for Tigranes, who at that time was reducing some towns in Phoenicia, he +won over many chiefs to his side, who unwillingly submitted to the king of +Armenia, among whom was Zarbienus, king of the Gordyenians; also many of the +conquered cities corresponded privately with him, whom he assured of relief +from Lucullus, but ordered them to lie still at present. The Armenian +government was an oppressive one, and intolerable to the Greeks, especially +that of the present king, who, growing insolent and overbearing with his +success, imagined all things valuable and esteemed among men not only were his +in fact, but had been purposely created for him alone. From a small and +inconsiderable beginning, he had gone on to be the conqueror of many nations, +had humbled the Parthian power more than any before him, and filled Mesopotamia +with Greeks, whom he carried in numbers out of Cilicia and Cappadocia. He +transplanted also the Arabs, who lived in tents, from their country and home, +and settled them near him, that by their means he might carry on the trade. +</p> + +<p> +He had many kings waiting on him, but four he always carried with him as +servants and guards, who, when he rode, ran by his horse’s side in ordinary +under-frocks, and attended him, when sitting on his throne, and publishing his +decrees to the people, with their hands folded together; which posture of all +others was that which most expressed slavery, it being that of men who had +bidden adieu to liberty, and had prepared their bodies more for chastisement, +than the service of their masters. Appius, nothing dismayed or surprised at +this theatrical display, as soon as audience was granted him, said he came to +demand Mithridates for Lucullus’s triumph, otherwise to denounce war against +Tigranes, insomuch that though Tigranes endeavored to receive him with a smooth +countenance and a forced smile, he could not dissemble his discomposure to +those who stood about him, at the bold language of the young man; for it was +the first time, perhaps, in twenty-five years, the length of his reign, or, +more truly, of his tyranny, that any free speech had been uttered to him. +However, he made answer to Appius, that he would not desert Mithridates, and +would defend himself, if the Romans attacked him. He was angry, also, with +Lucullus for calling him only king in his letter, and not king of kings, and, +in his answer, would not give him his title of imperator. Great gifts were sent +to Appius, which he refused; but on their being sent again and augmented, that +he might not seem to refuse in anger, he took one goblet and sent the rest +back, and without delay went off to the general. +</p> + +<p> +Tigranes before this neither vouchsafed to see nor speak with Mithridates, +though a near kinsman, and forced out of so considerable a kingdom, but proudly +and scornfully kept him at a distance, as a sort of prisoner, in a marshy and +unhealthy district; but now, with much profession of respect and kindness, he +sent for him, and at a private conference between them in the palace, they +healed up all private jealousies between them, punishing their favorites, who +bore all the blame; among whom Metrodorus of Scepsis was one, an eloquent and +learned man, and so close an intimate as commonly to be called the king’s +father. This man, as it happened, being employed in an embassy by Mithridates +to solicit help against the Romans, Tigranes asked him, “what would you, +Metrodorus, advise me to in this affair?” In return to which, either out of +good-will to Tigranes, or a want of solicitude for Mithridates, he made answer, +that as ambassador he counseled him to it, but as a friend dissuaded him from +it. This Tigranes reported, and affirmed to Mithridates, thinking that no +irreparable harm would come of it to Metrodorus. But upon this he was presently +taken off, and Tigranes was sorry for what he had done, though he had not, +indeed, been absolutely the cause of his death; yet he had given the fatal turn +to the anger of Mithridates, who had privately hated him before, as appeared +from his cabinet papers when taken, among which there was an order that +Metrodorus should die. Tigranes buried him splendidly, sparing no cost to his +dead body, whom he betrayed when alive. In Tigranes’s court died, also, +Amphicrates the orator, (if, for the sake of Athens, we may also mention him,) +of whom it is told that he left his country and fled to Seleucia, upon the +river Tigris, and, being desired to teach logic among them, arrogantly replied, +that the dish was too little to hold a dolphin. He, therefore, came to +Cleopatra, daughter of Mithridates, and queen to Tigranes, but being accused of +misdemeanors, and prohibited all commerce with his countrymen, ended his days +by starving himself. He, in like manner, received from Cleopatra an honorable +burial, near Sapha, a place so called in that country. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus, when he had reestablished law and a lasting peace in Asia, did not +altogether forget pleasure and mirth, but, during his residence at Ephesus, +gratified the cities with sports, festival triumphs, wrestling games and single +combats of gladiators. And they, in requital, instituted others, called +Lucullean games, in honor to him, thus manifesting their love to him, which was +of more value to him than all the honor. But when Appius came to him, and told +him he must prepare for war with Tigranes, he went again into Pontus, and, +gathering together his army, besieged Sinope, or rather the Cilicians of the +king’s side who held it; who thereupon killed a number of the Sinopians, and +set the city on fire, and by night endeavored to escape. Which when Lucullus +perceived, he entered the city, and killed eight thousand of them who were +still left behind; but restored to the inhabitants what was their own, and took +special care for the welfare of the city. To which he was chiefly prompted by +this vision. One seemed to come to him in his sleep, and say, “Go on a little +further, Lucullus, for Autolycus is coming to see thee.” When he arose, he +could not imagine what the vision meant. The same day he took the city, and as +he was pursuing the Cilicians, who were flying by sea, he saw a statue lying on +the shore, which the Cilicians carried so far, but had not time to carry +aboard. It was one of the masterpieces of Sthenis. And one told him, that it +was the statue of Autolycus, the founder of the city. This Autolycus is +reported to have been son to Deimachus, and one of those who, under Hercules, +went on the expedition out of Thessaly against the Amazons; from whence in his +return with Demoleon and Phlogius, he lost his vessel on a point of the +Chersonesus, called Pedalium. He himself, with his companions and their +weapons, being saved, came to Sinope, and dispossessed the Syrians there. The +Syrians held it, descended from Syrus, as is the story, the son of Apollo, and +Sinope the daughter of Asopus. Which as soon as Lucullus heard, he remembered +the admonition of Sylla, whose advice it is in his Memoirs, to treat nothing as +so certain and so worthy of reliance as an intimation given in dreams. +</p> + +<p> +When it was now told him that Mithridates and Tigranes were just ready to +transport their forces into Lycaonia and Cilicia, with the object of entering +Asia before him, he wondered much why the Armenian, supposing him to entertain +any real intention to fight with the Romans, did not assist Mithridates in his +flourishing condition, and join forces when he was fit for service, instead of +suffering him to be vanquished and broken in pieces, and now at last beginning +the war, when his hopes were grown cold, and throwing himself down headlong +with them, who were irrecoverably fallen already. But when Machares, the son of +Mithridates, and governor of Bosporus, sent him a crown valued at a thousand +pieces of gold, and desired to be enrolled as a friend and confederate of the +Romans, he fairly reputed that war at an end, and left Sornatius, his deputy, +with six thousand soldiers, to take care of Pontus. He himself with twelve +thousand foot, and a little less than three thousand horse, went forth to the +second war, advancing, it seemed very plain, with too great and ill-advised +speed, into the midst of warlike nations, and many thousands upon thousands of +horse, into an unknown extent of country, every way enclosed with deep rivers +and mountains, never free from snow; which made the soldiers, already far from +orderly, follow him with great unwillingness and opposition. For the same +reason, also, the popular leaders at home publicly inveighed and declaimed +against him, as one that raised up war after war, not so much for the interest +of the republic, as that he himself, being still in commission, might not lay +down arms, but go on enriching himself by the public dangers. These men, in the +end, effected their purpose. But Lucullus by long journeys came to the +Euphrates, where, finding the waters high and rough from the winter, he was +much troubled for fear of delay and difficulty while he should procure boats +and make a bridge of them. But in the evening the flood beginning to retire, +and decreasing all through the night, the next day they saw the river far down +within his banks, so much so that the inhabitants, discovering the little +islands in the river, and the water stagnating among them, a thing which had +rarely happened before, made obeisance to Lucullus, before whom the very river +was humble and submissive, and yielded an easy and swift passage. Making use of +the opportunity, he carried over his army, and met with a lucky sign at +landing. Holy heifers are pastured on purpose for Diana Persia, whom, of all +the gods, the barbarians beyond Euphrates chiefly adore. They use these heifers +only for her sacrifices. At other times they wander up and down undisturbed, +with the mark of the goddess, a torch, branded on them; and it is no such light +or easy thing, when occasion requires, to seize one of them. But one of these, +when the army had passed the Euphrates, coming to a rock consecrated to the +goddess, stood upon it, and then laying down her neck, like others that are +forced down with a rope, offered herself to Lucullus for sacrifice. Besides +which, he offered also a bull to Euphrates, for his safe passage. That day he +tarried there, but on the next, and those that followed, he traveled through +Sophene, using no manner of violence to the people who came to him and +willingly received his army. And when the soldiers were desirous to plunder a +castle that seemed to be well stored within, “That is the castle,” said he, +“that we must storm,” showing them Taurus, at a distance; “the rest is reserved +for those who conquer there.” Wherefore hastening his march, and passing the +Tigris, he came over into Armenia +</p> + +<p> +The first messenger that gave notice of Lucullus’s coming was so far from +pleasing Tigranes, that he had his head cut off for his pains; and no man +daring to bring further information, without any intelligence at all, Tigranes +sat while war was already blazing around him, giving ear only to those who +flattered him, by saying that Lucullus would show himself a great commander, if +he ventured to wait for Tigranes at Ephesus, and did not at once fly out of +Asia, at the mere sight of the many thousands that were come against him. He is +a man of a strong body that can carry off a great quantity of wine, and of a +powerful constitution of mind that can sustain felicity. Mithrobarzanes, one of +his chief favorites, first dared to tell him the truth, but had no more thanks +for his freedom of speech, than to be immediately sent out against Lucullus +with three thousand horse, and a great number of foot, with peremptory commands +to bring him alive, and trample down his army. Some of Lucullus’s men were then +pitching their camp, and the rest were coming up to them, when the scouts gave +notice that the enemy was approaching, whereupon he was in fear lest they +should fall upon him, while his men were divided and unarranged; which made him +stay to pitch the camp himself, and send out Sextilius, the legate, with +sixteen hundred horse, and about as many heavy and light arms, with orders to +advance towards the enemy, and wait until intelligence came to him that the +camp was finished. Sextilius designed to have kept this order; but +Mithrobarzanes coming furiously upon him, he was forced to fight. In the +engagement, Mithrobarzanes himself was slain, fighting, and all his men, except +a few who ran away, were destroyed. After this Tigranes left Tigranocerta, a +great city built by himself, and retired to Taurus, and called all his forces +about him. +</p> + +<p> +But Lucullus, giving him no time to rendezvous, sent out Murena to harass and +cut off those who marched to Tigranes, and Sextilius, also, to disperse a great +company of Arabians then on the way to the king. Sextilius fell upon the +Arabians in their camp, and destroyed most of them, and also Murena, in his +pursuit after Tigranes through a craggy and narrow pass, opportunely fell upon +him. Upon which Tigranes, abandoning all his baggage, fled; many of the +Armenians were killed, and more taken. After this success, Lucullus went to +Tigranocerta, and sitting down before the city, besieged it. In it were many +Greeks carried away out of Cilicia, and many barbarians in like circumstances +with the Greeks, Adiabenians, Assyrians, Gordyenians, and Cappadocians, whose +native cities he had destroyed, and forced away the inhabitants to settle here. +It was a rich and beautiful city; every common man, and every man of rank, in +imitation of the king, studied to enlarge and adorn it. This made Lucullus more +vigorously press the siege, in the belief that Tigranes would not patiently +endure it, but even against his own judgment would come down in anger to force +him away; in which he was not mistaken. Mithridates earnestly dissuaded him +from it, sending messengers and letters to him not to engage, but rather with +his horse to try and cut off the supplies. Taxiles, also, who came from +Mithridates, and who stayed with his army, very much entreated the king to +forbear, and to avoid the Roman arms, things it was not safe to meddle with. To +this he hearkened at first, but when the Armenians and Gordyenians in a full +body, and the whole forces of Medes and Adiabenians, under their respective +kings, joined him; when many Arabians came up from the sea beyond Babylon; and +from the Caspian sea, the Albanians and the Iberians their neighbors, and not a +few of the free people, without kings, living about the Araxes, by entreaty and +hire also came together to him; and all the king’s feasts and councils rang of +nothing but expectations, boastings, and barbaric threatenings, Taxiles went in +danger of his life, for giving counsel against fighting, and it was imputed to +envy in Mithridates thus to discourage him from so glorious an enterprise. +Therefore Tigranes would by no means tarry for him, for fear he should share in +the glory, but marched on with all his army, lamenting to his friends, as it is +said, that he should fight with Lucullus alone, and not with all the Roman +generals together. Neither was his boldness to be accounted wholly frantic or +unreasonable, when he had so many nations and kings attending him, and so many +tens of thousands of well-armed foot and horse about him. He had twenty +thousand archers and slingers, fifty-five thousand horse, of which seventeen +thousand were in complete armor, as Lucullus wrote to the senate, a hundred and +fifty thousand heavy-armed men, drawn up partly into cohorts, partly into +phalanxes, besides various divisions of men appointed to make roads and lay +bridges, to drain off waters and cut wood, and to perform other necessary +services, to the number of thirty-five thousand, who, being quartered behind +the army, added to its strength, and made it the more formidable to behold. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he had passed Taurus, and appeared with his forces, and saw the +Romans beleaguering Tigranocerta, the barbarous people within with shoutings +and acclamations received the sight, and threatening the Romans from the wall, +pointed to the Armenians. In a council of war, some advised Lucullus to leave +the siege, and march up to Tigranes, others that it would not be safe to leave +the siege, and so many enemies behind. He answered that neither side by itself +was right, but together both gave sound advice; and accordingly he divided his +army, and left Murena with six thousand foot in charge of the siege, and +himself went out with twenty-four cohorts, in which were no more than ten +thousand men at arms, and with all the horse, and about a thousand slingers and +archers; and sitting down by the river in a large plain, he appeared, indeed, +very inconsiderable to Tigranes, and a fit subject for the flattering wits +about him. Some of whom jeered, others cast lots for the spoil, and every one +of the kings and commanders came and desired to undertake the engagement alone, +and that he would be pleased to sit still and behold. Tigranes himself, wishing +to be witty and pleasant upon the occasion, made use of the well-known saying, +that they were too many for ambassadors, and too few for soldiers. Thus they +continued sneering and scoffing. As soon as day came, Lucullus brought out his +forces under arms. The barbarian army stood on the eastern side of the river, +and there being a bend of the river westward in that part of it, where it was +easiest forded, Lucullus, while he led his army on in haste, seemed to Tigranes +to be flying; who thereupon called Taxiles, and in derision said, “Do you not +see these invincible Romans flying?” But Taxiles replied, “Would, indeed, O +king, that some such unlikely piece of fortune might be destined you; but the +Romans do not, when going on a march, put on their best clothes, nor use bright +shields, and naked headpieces, as now you see them, with the leathern coverings +all taken off, but this is a preparation for war of men just ready to engage +with their enemies.” While Taxiles was thus speaking, as Lucullus wheeled +about, the first eagle appeared, and the cohorts, according to their divisions +and companies, formed in order to pass over, when with much ado, and like a man +that is just recovering from a drunken fit, Tigranes cried out twice or thrice, +“What, are they upon us?” In great confusion, therefore, the army got in array, +the king keeping the main body to himself, while the left wing was given in +charge to the Adiabenian, and the right to the Mede, in the front of which +latter were posted most of the heavy-armed cavalry. Some officers advised +Lucullus, just as he was going to cross the river, to lie still, that day being +one of the unfortunate ones which they call black days, for on it the army +under Caepio, engaging with the Cimbrians, was destroyed. But he returned the +famous answer, “I will make it a happy day to the Romans.” It was the day +before the nones of October. +</p> + +<p> +Having so said, he bade them take courage, passed over the river, and himself +first of all led them against the enemy, clad in a coat of mail, with shining +steel scales and a fringed mantle; and his sword might already be seen out of +the scabbard, as if to signify that they must without delay come to a +hand-to-hand combat with an enemy whose skill was in distant fighting, and by +the speed of their advance curtail the space that exposed them to the archery. +But when he saw the heavy-armed horse, the flower of the army, drawn up under a +hill, on the top of which was a broad and open plain about four furlongs +distant, and of no very difficult or troublesome access, he commanded his +Thracian and Galatian horse to fall upon their flank, and beat down their +lances with their swords. The only defense of these horsemen-at-arms are their +lances; they have nothing else that they can use to protect themselves, or +annoy their enemy, on account of the weight and stiffness of their armor, with +which they are, as it were, built up. He himself, with two cohorts, made to the +mountain, the soldiers briskly following, when they saw him in arms afoot first +toiling and climbing up. Being on the top and standing in an open place, with a +loud voice he cried out, “We have overcome, we have overcome, fellow-soldiers!” +And having so said, he marched against the armed horsemen, commanding his men +not to throw their javelins, but coming up hand to hand with the enemy, to hack +their shins and thighs, which parts alone were unguarded in these heavy-armed +horsemen. But there was no need of this way of fighting, for they stood not to +receive the Romans, but with great clamor and worse flight they and their heavy +horses threw themselves upon the ranks of the foot, before ever these could so +much as begin the fight, insomuch that without a wound or bloodshed, so many +thousands were overthrown. The greatest slaughter was made in the flight, or +rather in the endeavoring to fly away, which they could not well do by reason +of the depth and closeness of their own ranks, which hindered them. Tigranes at +first fled with a few, but seeing his son in the same misfortune, he took the +diadem from his head, and with tears gave it him, bidding him save himself by +some other road if he could. But the young man, not daring to put it on, gave +it to one of his trustiest servants to keep for him. This man, as it happened, +being taken, was brought to Lucullus, and so, among the captives, the crown, +also, of Tigranes was taken. It is stated that above a hundred thousand foot +were lost, and that of the horse but very few escaped at all. Of the Romans, a +hundred were wounded, and five killed. Antiochus the philosopher, making +mention of this fight in his book about the gods, says that the sun never saw +the like. Strabo, a second philosopher, in his historical collection says, that +the Romans could not but blush and deride themselves, for putting on armor +against such pitiful slaves. Livy also says, that the Romans never fought an +enemy with such unequal forces, for the conquerors were not so much as one +twentieth part of the number of the conquered. The most sagacious and +experienced Roman commanders made it a chief commendation of Lucullus, that he +had conquered two great and potent kings by two most opposite ways, haste and +delay. For he wore out the flourishing power of Mithridates by delay and time, +and crushed that of Tigranes by haste; being one of the rare examples of +generals who made use of delay for active achievement, and speed for security. +</p> + +<p> +On this account it was that Mithridates had made no haste to come up to fight, +imagining Lucullus would, as he had done before, use caution and delay, which +made him march at his leisure to join Tigranes. And first, as he began to meet +some straggling Armenians in the way, making off in great fear and +consternation, he suspected the worst, and when greater numbers of stripped and +wounded men met him and assured him of the defeat, he set out to seek for +Tigranes. And finding him destitute and humiliated, he by no means requited him +with insolence, but alighting from his horse, and condoling with him on their +common loss, he gave him his own royal guard to attend him, and animated him +for the future. And they together gathered fresh forces about them. In the city +Tigranocerta, the Greeks meantime, dividing from the barbarians, sought to +deliver it up to Lucullus, and he attacked and took it. He seized on the +treasure himself, but gave the city to be plundered by the soldiers, in which +were found, amongst other property, eight thousand talents of coined money. +Besides this, also, he distributed eight hundred drachmas to each man, out of +the spoils. When he understood that many players were taken in the city, whom +Tigranes had invited from all parts for opening the theater which he had built, +he made use of them for celebrating his triumphal games and spectacles. The +Greeks he sent home, allowing them money for their journey, and the barbarians +also, as many as had been forced away from their own dwellings. So that by this +one city being dissolved, many, by the restitution of their former inhabitants, +were restored. By all of which Lucullus was beloved as a benefactor and +founder. Other successes, also, attended him, such as he well deserved, +desirous as he was far more of praise for acts of justice and clemency, than +for feats in war, these being due partly to the soldiers, and very greatly to +fortune, while those are the sure proofs of a gentle and liberal soul; and by +such aids Lucullus, at that time, even without the help of arms, succeeded in +reducing the barbarians. For the kings of the Arabians came to him, tendering +what they had, and with them the Sophenians also submitted. And he so dealt +with the Gordyenians, that they were willing to leave their own habitations, +and to follow him with their wives and children. Which was for this cause. +Zarbienus, king of the Gordyenians, as has been told, being impatient under the +tyranny of Tigranes, had by Appius secretly made overtures of confederacy with +Lucullus, but, being discovered, was executed, and his wife and children with +him, before the Romans entered Armenia. Lucullus forgot not this, but coming to +the Gordyenians made a solemn interment in honor of Zarbienus, and adorning the +funeral pile with royal robes, and gold, and the spoils of Tigranes, he himself +in person kindled the fire, and poured in perfumes with the friends and +relations of the deceased, calling him his companion and the confederate of the +Romans. He ordered, also, a costly monument to be built for him. There was a +large treasure of gold and silver found in Zarbienus’s palace, and no less than +three million measures of corn, so that the soldiers were provided for, and +Lucullus had the high commendation of maintaining the war at its own charge, +without receiving one drachma from the public treasury. +</p> + +<p> +After this came an embassy from the king of Parthia to him, desiring amity and +confederacy; which being readily embraced by Lucullus, another was sent by him +in return to the Parthian, the members of which discovered him to be a +double-minded man, and to be dealing privately at the same time with Tigranes, +offering to take part with him, upon condition Mesopotamia were delivered up to +him. Which as soon as Lucullus understood, he resolved to pass by Tigranes and +Mithridates as antagonists already overcome, and to try the power of Parthia, +by leading his army against them, thinking it would be a glorious result, thus +in one current of war, like an athlete in the games, to throw down three kings +one after another, and successively to deal as a conqueror with three of the +greatest powers under heaven. He sent, therefore, into Pontus to Sornatius and +his colleagues, bidding them bring the army thence, and join with him in his +expedition out of Gordyene. The soldiers there, however, who had been restive +and unruly before, now openly displayed their mutinous temper. No manner of +entreaty or force availed with them, but they protested and cried out that they +would stay no longer even there, but would go away and desert Pontus. The news +of which, when reported to Lucullus, did no small harm to the soldiers about +him, who were already corrupted with wealth and plenty, and desirous of ease. +And on hearing the boldness of the others, they called them men, and declared +they themselves ought to follow their example, for the actions which they had +done did now well deserve release from service, and repose. +</p> + +<p> +Upon these and worse words, Lucullus gave up the thoughts of invading Parthia, +and in the height of summertime, went against Tigranes. Passing over Taurus, he +was filled with apprehension at the greenness of the fields before him, so long +is the season deferred in this region by the coldness of the air. But, +nevertheless, he went down, and twice or thrice putting to flight the Armenians +who dared to come out against him, he plundered and burnt their villages, and +seizing on the provision designed for Tigranes, reduced his enemies to the +necessity which he had feared for himself. But when, after doing all he could +to provoke the enemy to fight, by drawing entrenchments round their camp and by +burning the country before them, he could by no means bring them to venture +out, after their frequent defeats before, he rose up and marched to Artaxata, +the royal city of Tigranes, where his wives and young children were kept, +judging that Tigranes would never suffer that to go without the hazard of a +battle. It is related that Hannibal, the Carthaginian, after the defeat of +Antiochus by the Romans, coming to Artaxas, king of Armenia, pointed out to him +many other matters to his advantage, and observing the great natural capacities +and the pleasantness of the site, then lying unoccupied and neglected, drew a +model of a city for it, and bringing Artaxas thither, showed it to him and +encouraged him to build. At which the king being pleased, and desiring him to +oversee the work, erected a large and stately city, which was called after his +own name, and made metropolis of Armenia. +</p> + +<p> +And in fact, when Lucullus proceeded against it, Tigranes no longer suffered +it, but came with his army, and on the fourth day sat down by the Romans, the +river Arsanias lying between them, which of necessity Lucullus must pass in his +march to Artaxata. Lucullus, after sacrifice to the gods, as if victory were +already obtained, carried over his army, having twelve cohorts in the first +division in front, the rest being disposed in the rear to prevent the enemy’s +enclosing them. For there were many choice horse drawn up against him; in the +front stood the Mardian horse-archers, and Iberians with long spears, in whom, +being the most warlike, Tigranes more confided than in any other of his foreign +troops. But nothing of moment was done by them, for though they skirmished with +the Roman horse at a distance, they were not able to stand when the foot came +up to them; but being broken, and flying on both sides, drew the horse in +pursuit after them. Though these were routed, yet Lucullus was not without +alarm when he saw the cavalry about Tigranes with great bravery and in large +numbers coming upon him; he recalled his horse from pursuing, and he himself, +first of all, with the best of his men, engaged the Satrapenians who were +opposite him, and before ever they came to close fight, routed them with the +mere terror. Of three kings in battle against him, Mithridates of Pontus fled +away the most shamefully, being not so much as able to endure the shout of the +Romans. The pursuit reached a long way, and all through the night the Romans +slew and took prisoners, and carried off spoils and treasure, till they were +weary. Livy says there were more taken and destroyed in the first battle, but +in the second, men of greater distinction. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus, flushed and animated by this victory, determined to march on into the +interior and there complete his conquests over the barbarians; but winter +weather came on, contrary to expectation, as early as the autumnal equinox, +with storms and frequent snows and, even in the most clear days, hoar frost and +ice, which made the waters scarcely drinkable for the horses by their exceeding +coldness, and scarcely passable through the ice breaking and cutting the +horses’ sinews. The country for the most part being quite uncleared, with +difficult passes, and much wood, kept them continually wet, the snow falling +thickly on them as they marched in the day, and the ground that they lay upon +at night being damp and watery. After the battle they followed Lucullus not +many days before they began to be refractory, first of all entreating and +sending the tribunes to him, but presently they tumultuously gathered together, +and made a shouting all night long in their tents, a plain sign of a mutinous +army. But Lucullus as earnestly entreated them, desiring them to have patience +but till they took the Armenian Carthage, and overturned the work of their +great enemy, meaning Hannibal. But when he could not prevail, he led them back, +and crossing Taurus by another road, came into the fruitful and sunny country +of Mygdonia, where was a great and populous city, by the barbarians called +Nisibis, by the Greeks Antioch of Mygdonia. This was defended by Guras, brother +of Tigranes, with the dignity of governor, and by the engineering skill and +dexterity of Callimachus, the same who so much annoyed the Romans at Amisus. +Lucullus, however, brought his army up to it, and laying close siege in a short +time took it by storm. He used Guras, who surrendered himself, kindly, but gave +no attention to Callimachus, though he offered to make discovery of hidden +treasures, commanding him to be kept in chains, to be punished for firing the +city of Amisus, which had disappointed his ambition of showing favor and +kindness to the Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +Hitherto, one would imagine fortune had attended and fought with Lucullus, but +afterward, as if the wind had failed of a sudden, he did all things by force, +and, as it were, against the grain; and showed certainly the conduct and +patience of a wise captain, but in the result met with no fresh honor or +reputation; and, indeed, by bad success and vain embarrassments with his +soldiers, he came within a little of losing even what he had before. He himself +was not the least cause of all this, being far from inclined to seek popularity +with the mass of the soldiers, and more ready to think any indulgence shown to +them an invasion of his own authority. But what was worst of all, he was +naturally unsociable to his great officers in commission with him, despising +others and thinking them worthy of nothing in comparison with himself. These +faults, we are told, he had with all his many excellences; he was of a large +and noble person, an eloquent speaker and a wise counselor, both in the forum +and the camp. Sallust says, the soldiers were ill affected to him from the +beginning of the war, because they were forced to keep the field two winters at +Cyzicus, and afterwards at Amisus. Their other winters, also, vexed them, for +they either spent them in an enemy’s country, or else were confined to their +tents in the open field among their confederates; for Lucullus not so much as +once went into a Greek confederate town with his army. To this ill affection +abroad, the tribunes yet more contributed at home, invidiously accusing +Lucullus, as one who for empire and riches prolonged the war, holding, it might +almost be said, under his sole power Cilicia, Asia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, +Pontus, Armenia, all as far as the river Phasis; and now of late had plundered +the royal city of Tigranes, as if he had been commissioned not so much to +subdue, as to strip kings. This is what we are told was said by Lucius +Quintius, one of the praetors, at whose instance, in particular, the people +determined to send one who should succeed Lucullus in his province, and voted, +also, to relieve many of the soldiers under him from further service. +</p> + +<p> +Besides these evils, that which most of all prejudiced Lucullus, was Publius +Clodius, an insolent man, very vicious and bold, brother to Lucullus’s wife, a +woman of bad conduct, with whom Clodius was himself suspected of criminal +intercourse. Being then in the army under Lucullus, but not in as great +authority as he expected, (for he would fain have been the chief of all, but on +account of his character was postponed to many,) he ingratiated himself +secretly with the Fimbrian troops, and stirred them up against Lucullus, using +fair speeches to them, who of old had been used to be flattered in such manner. +These were those whom Fimbria before had persuaded to kill the consul Flaccus, +and choose him their leader. And so they listened not unwillingly to Clodius, +and called him the soldiers’ friend, for the concern he professed for them, and +the indignation he expressed at the prospect that “there must be no end of war +and toils, but in fighting with all nations, and wandering throughout all the +world they must wear out their lives, receiving no other reward for their +service than to guard the carriages and camels of Lucullus, laden with gold and +precious goblets; while as for Pompey’s soldiers, they were all citizens, +living safe at home with their wives and children, on fertile lands, or in +towns, and that, not after driving Mithridates and Tigranes into wild deserts, +and overturning the royal cities of Asia, but after having merely reduced +exiles in Spain, or fugitive slaves in Italy. Nay, if indeed we must never have +an end of fighting, should we not rather reserve the remainder of our bodies +and souls for a general who will reckon his chiefest glory to be the wealth of +his soldiers.” +</p> + +<p> +By such practices the army of Lucullus being corrupted, neither followed him +against Tigranes, nor against Mithridates, when he now at once returned into +Pontus out of Armenia, and was recovering his kingdom, but under presence of +the winter, sat idle in Gordyene, every minute expecting either Pompey, or some +other general, to succeed Lucullus. But when news came that Mithridates had +defeated Fabius, and was marching against Sornatius and Triarius, out of shame +they followed Lucullus. Triarius, ambitiously aiming at victory, before ever +Lucullus came to him, though he was then very near, was defeated in a great +battle, in which it is said that above seven thousand Romans fell, among whom +were a hundred and fifty centurions, and four and twenty tribunes, and that the +camp itself was taken. Lucullus, coming up a few days after, concealed Triarius +from the search of the angry soldiers. But when Mithridates declined battle, +and waited for the coming of Tigranes, who was then on his march with great +forces, he resolved before they joined their forces to turn once more and +engage with Tigranes. But in the way the mutinous Fimbrians deserted their +ranks, professing themselves released from service by a decree, and that +Lucullus, the provinces being allotted to others, had no longer any right to +command them. There was nothing beneath the dignity of Lucullus which he did +not now submit to bear, entreating them one by one, from tent to tent, going up +and down humbly and in tears, and even taking some like a suppliant, by the +hand. But they turned away from his salutes, and threw down their empty purses, +bidding him engage alone with the enemy, as he alone made advantage of it. At +length, by the entreaty of the other soldiers, the Fimbrians, being prevailed +upon, consented to tarry that summer under him, but if during that time no +enemy came to fight them, to be free. Lucullus of necessity was forced to +comply with this, or else to abandon the country to the barbarians. He kept +them, indeed, with him, but without urging his authority upon them; nor did he +lead them out to battle, being contented if they would but stay with him, +though he then saw Cappadocia wasted by Tigranes, and Mithridates again +triumphing, whom not long before he reported to the senate to be wholly +subdued; and commissioners were now arrived to settle the affairs of Pontus, as +if all had been quietly in his possession. But when they came, they found him +not so much as master of himself, but contemned and derided by the common +soldiers, who arrived at that height of insolence against their general, that +at the end of summer they put on their armor and drew their swords, and defied +their enemies then absent and gone off a long while before, and with great +outcries and waving their swords in the air, they quitted the camp, proclaiming +that the time was expired which they promised to stay with Lucullus. The rest +were summoned by letters from Pompey to come and join him; he, by the favor of +the people and by flattery of their leaders, having been chosen general of the +army against Mithridates and Tigranes, though the senate and the nobility all +thought that Lucullus was injured, having those put over his head who succeeded +rather to his triumph, than to his commission, and that he was not so truly +deprived of his command, as of the glory he had deserved in his command, which +he was forced to yield to another. +</p> + +<p> +It was yet more of just matter of pity and indignation to those who were +present; for Lucullus remained no longer master of rewards or punishments for +any actions done in the war; neither would Pompey suffer any man to go to him, +or pay any respect to the orders and arrangements he made with advice of his +ten commissioners, but expressly issued edicts to the contrary, and could not +but be obeyed by reason of his greater power. Friends, however, on both sides, +thought it desirable to bring them together, and they met in a village of +Galatia and saluted each other in a friendly manner, with congratulations on +each other’s successes. Lucullus was the elder, but Pompey the more +distinguished by his more numerous commands and his two triumphs. Both had rods +dressed with laurel carried before them for their victories. And as Pompey’s +laurels were withered with passing through hot and droughty countries, +Lucullus’s lictors courteously gave Pompey’s some of the fresh and green ones +which they had, which Pompey’s friends counted a good omen, as indeed of a +truth, Lucullus’s actions furnished the honors of Pompey’s command. The +interview, however, did not bring them to any amicable agreement; they parted +even less friends than they met. Pompey repealed all the acts of Lucullus, drew +off his soldiers, and left him no more than sixteen hundred for his triumph, +and even those unwilling to go with him. So wanting was Lucullus, either +through natural constitution or adverse circumstances, in that one first and +most important requisite of a general, which had he but added to his other many +and remarkable virtues, his fortitude, vigilance, wisdom, justice, the Roman +empire had not had Euphrates for its boundary, but the utmost ends of Asia and +the Hyrcanian sea; as other nations were then disabled by the late conquests of +Tigranes, and the power of Parthia had not in Lucullus’s time shown itself so +formidable as Crassus afterwards found it, nor had as yet gained that +consistency, being crippled by wars at home, and on its frontiers, and unable +even to make head against the encroachments of the Armenians. And Lucullus, as +it was, seems to me through others’ agency to have done Rome greater harm, than +he did her advantage by his own. For the trophies in Armenia, near the Parthian +frontier, and Tigranocerta, and Nisibis, and the great wealth brought from +thence to Rome, with the captive crown of Tigranes carried in triumph, all +helped to puff up Crassus, as if the barbarians had been nothing else but spoil +and booty, and he, falling among the Parthian archers, soon demonstrated that +Lucullus’s triumphs were not beholden to the inadvertency and effeminacy of his +enemies, but to his own courage and conduct. But of this afterwards. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus, upon his return to Rome, found his brother Marcus accused by Caius +Memmius, for his acts as quaestor, done by Sylla’s orders; and on his +acquittal, Memmius changed the scene, and animated the people against Lucullus +himself, urging them to deny him a triumph for appropriating the spoils and +prolonging the war. In this great struggle, the nobility and chief men went +down and mingling in person among the tribes, with much entreaty and labor, +scarce at length prevailed upon them to consent to his triumph. The pomp of +which proved not so wonderful or so wearisome with the length of the procession +and the number of things carried in it, but consisted chiefly in vast +quantities of arms and machines of the king’s, with which he adorned the +Flaminian circus, a spectacle by no means despicable. In his progress there +passed by a few horsemen in heavy armor, ten chariots armed with scythes, sixty +friends and officers of the king’s, and a hundred and ten brazen-beaked ships +of war, which were conveyed along with them, a golden image of Mithridates six +feet high, a shield set with precious stones, twenty loads of silver vessels, +and thirty-two of golden cups, armor, and money, all carried by men. Besides +which, eight mules were laden with golden couches, fifty-six with bullion, and +a hundred and seven with coined silver, little less than two millions seven +hundred thousand pieces. There were tablets, also, with inscriptions, stating +what moneys he gave Pompey for prosecuting the piratic war, what he delivered +into the treasury, and what he gave to every soldier, which was nine hundred +and fifty drachmas each. After all which he nobly feasted the city and +adjoining villages, or vici. +</p> + +<p> +Being divorced from Clodia, a dissolute and wicked woman, he married Servilia, +sister to Cato. This also proved an unfortunate match, for she only wanted one +of all Clodia’s vices, the criminality she was accused of with her brothers. +Out of reverence to Cato, he for a while connived at her impurity and +immodesty, but at length dismissed her. When the senate expected great things +from him, hoping to find in him a check to the usurpations of Pompey, and that +with the greatness of his station and credit he would come forward as the +champion of the nobility, he retired from business and abandoned public life; +either because he saw the State to be in a difficult and diseased condition, +or, as others say, because he was as great as he could well be, and inclined to +a quiet and easy life, after those many labors and toils which had ended with +him so far from fortunately. There are those who highly commend his change of +life, saying that he thus avoided that rock on which Marius split. For he, +after the great and glorious deeds of his Cimbrian victories, was not contented +to retire upon his honors, but out of an insatiable desire of glory and power, +even in his old age, headed a political party against young men, and let +himself fall into miserable actions, and yet more miserable sufferings. Better, +in like manner, they say, had it been for Cicero, after Catiline’s conspiracy, +to have retired and grown old, and for Scipio, after his Numantine and +Carthaginian conquests, to have sat down contented. For the administration of +public affairs has, like other things, its proper term, and statesmen as well +as wrestlers will break down, when strength and youth fail. But Crassus and +Pompey, on the other hand, laughed to see Lucullus abandoning himself to +pleasure and expense, as if luxurious living were not a thing that as little +became his years, as government of affairs at home, or of an army abroad. +</p> + +<p> +And, indeed, Lucullus’s life, like the Old Comedy, presents us at the +commencement with acts of policy and of war, at the end offering nothing but +good eating and drinking, feastings and revellings, and mere play. For I give +no higher name to his sumptuous buildings, porticoes and baths, still less to +his paintings and sculptures, and all his industry about these curiosities, +which he collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing all the wealth and +treasure which he got in the war upon them, insomuch that even now, with all +the advance of luxury, the Lucullean gardens are counted the noblest the +emperor has. Tubero the stoic, when he saw his buildings at Naples, where he +suspended the hills upon vast tunnels, brought in the sea for moats and +fish-ponds round his house, and built pleasure-houses in the waters, called him +Xerxes in a gown. He had also fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes, and large +open balconies for men’s apartments, and porticoes to walk in, where Pompey +coming to see him, blamed him for making a house which would be pleasant in +summer but uninhabitable in winter; whom he answered with a smile, “You think +me, then, less provident than cranes and storks, not to change my home with the +season.” When a praetor, with great expense and pains, was preparing a +spectacle for the people, and asked him to lend him some purple robes for the +performers in a chorus, he told him he would go home and see, and if he had got +any, would let him have them; and the next day asking how many he wanted, and +being told that a hundred would suffice, bade him to take twice as many: on +which the poet Horace observes, that a house is but a poor one, where the +valuables unseen and unthought of do not exceed all those that meet the eye. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus’s daily entertainments were ostentatiously extravagant, not only with +purple coverlets, and plate adorned with precious stones, and dancings, and +interludes, but with the greatest diversity of dishes and the most elaborate +cookery, for the vulgar to admire and envy. It was a happy thought of Pompey in +his sickness, when his physician prescribed a thrush for his dinner, and his +servants told him that in summer time thrushes were not to be found anywhere +but in Lucullus’s fattening coops, that he would not suffer them to fetch one +thence, but observing to his physician, “So if Lucullus had not been an +epicure, Pompey had not lived,” ordered something else that could easily be got +to be prepared for him. Cato was his friend and connection, but, nevertheless, +so hated his life and habits, that when a young man in the senate made a long +and tedious speech in praise of frugality and temperance, Cato got up and said, +“How long do you mean to go on making money like Crassus, living like Lucullus, +and talking like Cato?” There are some, however, who say the words were said, +but not by Cato. +</p> + +<p> +It is plain from the anecdotes on record of him, that Lucullus was not only +pleased with, but even gloried in his way of living. For he is said to have +feasted several Greeks upon their coming to Rome day after day, who, out of a +true Grecian principle, being ashamed, and declining the invitation, where so +great an expense was every day incurred for them, he with a smile told them, +“Some of this, indeed, my Grecian friends, is for your sakes, but more for that +of Lucullus.” Once when he supped alone, there being only one course, and that +but moderately furnished, he called his steward and reproved him, who, +professing to have supposed that there would be no need of any great +entertainment, when nobody was invited, was answered, “What, did not you know, +then, that to-day Lucullus dines with Lucullus?” Which being much spoken of +about the city, Cicero and Pompey one day met him loitering in the forum, the +former his intimate friend and familiar, and, though there had been some +ill-will between Pompey and him about the command in the war, still they used +to see each other and converse on easy terms together. Cicero accordingly +saluted him, and asked him whether to-day were a good time for asking a favor +of him, and on his answering, “Very much so,” and begging to hear what it was, +“Then,” said Cicero, “we should like to dine with you today, just on the dinner +that is prepared for yourself.” Lucullus being surprised, and requesting a +day’s time, they refused to grant it, neither suffered him to talk with his +servants, for fear he should give order for more than was appointed before. But +thus much they consented to, that before their faces he might tell his servant, +that to-day he would sup in the Apollo, (for so one of his best dining-rooms +was called,) and by this evasion he outwitted his guests. For every room, as it +seems, had its own assessment of expenditure, dinner at such a price, and all +else in accordance; so that the servants, on knowing where he would dine, knew +also how much was to be expended, and in what style and form dinner was to be +served. The expense for the Apollo was fifty thousand drachmas, and thus much +being that day laid out, the greatness of the cost did not so much amaze Pompey +and Cicero, as the rapidity of the outlay. One might believe Lucullus thought +his money really captive and barbarian, so wantonly and contumeliously did he +treat it. +</p> + +<p> +His furnishing a library, however, deserves praise and record, for he collected +very many and choice manuscripts; and the use they were put to was even more +magnificent than the purchase, the library being always open, and the walks and +reading-rooms about it free to all Greeks, whose delight it was to leave their +other occupations and hasten thither as to the habitation of the Muses, there +walking about, and diverting one another. He himself often passed his hours +there, disputing with the learned in the walks, and giving his advice to +statesmen who required it, insomuch that his house was altogether a home, and +in a manner a Greek prytaneum for those that visited Rome. He was fond of all +sorts of philosophy, and was well-read and expert in them all. But he always +from the first specially favored and valued the Academy; not the New one which +at that time under Philo flourished with the precepts of Carneades, but the Old +one, then sustained and represented by Antiochus of Ascalon, a learned and +eloquent man. Lucullus with great labor made him his friend and companion, and +set him up against Philo’s auditors, among whom Cicero was one, who wrote an +admirable treatise in defense of his sect, in which he puts the argument in +favor of comprehension in the mouth of Lucullus, and the opposite argument in +his own. The book is called Lucullus. For as has been said, they were great +friends, and took the same side in politics. For Lucullus did not wholly retire +from the republic, but only from ambition, and from the dangerous and often +lawless struggle for political preeminence, which he left to Crassus and Cato, +whom the senators, jealous of Pompey’s greatness, put forward as their +champions, when Lucullus refused to head them. For his friends’ sake he came +into the forum and into the senate, when occasion offered to humble the +ambition and pride of Pompey, whose settlement, after his conquests over the +kings, he got canceled, and by the assistance of Cato, hindered a division of +lands to his soldiers, which he proposed. So Pompey went over to Crassus and +Caesar’s alliance, or rather conspiracy, and filling the city with armed men, +procured the ratification of his decrees by force, and drove Cato and Lucullus +out of the forum. Which being resented by the nobility, Pompey’s party produced +one Vettius, pretending they apprehended him in a design against Pompey’s life. +Who in the senate-house accused others, but before the people named Lucullus, +as if he had been suborned by him to kill Pompey. Nobody gave heed to what he +said, and it soon appeared that they had put him forward to make false charges +and accusations. And after a few days the whole intrigue became yet more +obvious, when the dead body of Vettius was thrown out of the prison, he being +reported, indeed, to have died a natural death, but carrying marks of a halter +and blows about him, and seeming rather to have been taken off by those who +suborned him. These things kept Lucullus at a greater distance from the +republic. +</p> + +<p> +But when Cicero was banished the city, and Cato sent to Cyprus, he quitted +public affairs altogether. It is said, too, that before his death, his +intellects failed him by degrees. But Cornelius Nepos denies that either age or +sickness impaired his mind, which was rather affected by a potion, given him by +Callisthenes his freedman. The potion was meant by Callisthenes to strengthen +his affection for him, and was supposed to have that tendency but it acted +quite otherwise, and so disabled and unsettled his mind, that while he was yet +alive, his brother took charge of his affairs. At his death, as though it had +been the death of one taken off in the very height of military and civil glory, +the people were much concerned, and flocked together, and would have forcibly +taken his corpse, as it was carried into the market-place by young men of the +highest rank, and have buried it in the field of Mars, where they buried Sylla. +Which being altogether unexpected, and necessaries not easily to be procured on +a sudden, his brother, after much entreaty and solicitation, prevailed upon +them to suffer him to be buried on his Tusculan estate as had been appointed. +He himself survived him but a short time, coming not far behind in death, as he +did in age and renown, in all respects, a most loving brother. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap37"></a>COMPARISON OF LUCULLUS WITH CIMON</h2> + +<p> +One might bless the end of Lucullus, which was so timed as to let him die +before the great revolution, which fate by intestine wars, was already +effecting against the established government, and to close his life in a free +though troubled commonwealth. And in this, above all other things, Cimon and he +are alike. For he died also when Greece was as yet undisordered, in its highest +felicity; though in the field at the head of his army, not recalled, nor out of +his mind, nor sullying the glory of his wars, engagements, and conquests, by +making feastings and debauches seem the apparent end and aim of them all; as +Plato says scornfully of Orpheus, that he makes an eternal debauch hereafter, +the reward of those who lived well here. Indeed, ease and quiet, and the study +of pleasant and speculative learning, to an old man retiring from command and +office, is a most suitable and becoming solace; but to misguide virtuous +actions to pleasure as their utmost end, and, as the conclusion of campaigns +and commands, to keep the feast of Venus, did not become the noble Academy, and +the follower of Xenocrates, but rather one that inclined to Epicurus. And this +its one surprising point of contrast between them; Cimon’s youth was ill- +reputed and intemperate Lucullus’s well disciplined and sober. Undoubtedly we +must give the preference to the change for good, for it argues the better +nature, where vice declines and virtue grows. Both had great wealth, but +employed it in different ways; and there is no comparison between the south +wall of the acropolis built by Cimon, and the chambers and galleries, with +their sea- views, built at Naples by Lucullus, out of the spoils of the +barbarians. Neither can we compare Cimon’s popular and liberal table with the +sumptuous oriental one of Lucullus, the former receiving a great many guests +every day at small cost, the latter expensively spread for a few men of +pleasure, unless you will say that different times made the alteration. For who +can tell but that Cimon, if he had retired in his old age from business and war +to quiet and solitude, might have lived a more luxurious and self- indulgent +life, as he was fond of wine and company, and accused, as has been said, of +laxity with women? The better pleasures gained in successful action and effort +leave the baser appetites no time or place, and make active and heroic men +forget them. Had but Lucullus ended his days in the field, and in command, envy +and detraction itself could never have accused him. So much for their manner of +life. +</p> + +<p> +In war, it is plain they were both soldiers of excellent conduct, both at land +and sea. But as in the games they honor those champions who on the same day +gain the garland, both in wrestling and in the pancratium, with the name of +“Victors and more,” so Cimon, honoring Greece with a sea and land victory on +the same day, may claim a certain preeminence among commanders. Lucullus +received command from his country, whereas Cimon brought it to his. He annexed +the territories of enemies to her, who ruled over confederates before, but +Cimon made his country, which when he began was a mere follower of others, both +rule over confederates, and conquer enemies too, forcing the Persians to +relinquish the sea, and inducing the Lacedaemonians to surrender their command. +If it be the chiefest thing in a general to obtain the obedience of his +soldiers by good-will, Lucullus was despised by his own army, but Cimon highly +prized even by others. His soldiers deserted the one, the confederates came +over to the other. Lucullus came home without the forces which he led out; +Cimon, sent out at first to serve as one confederate among others, returned +home with authority even over these also, having successfully effected for his +city three most difficult services, establishing peace with the enemy, dominion +over confederates, and concord with Lacedaemon. Both aiming to destroy great +kingdoms, and subdue all Asia, failed in their enterprise, Cimon by a simple +piece of ill- fortune, for he died when general, in the height of success; but +Lucullus no man can wholly acquit of being in fault with his soldiers, whether +it were he did not know, or would not comply with the distastes and complaints +of his army, which brought him at last into such extreme unpopularity among +them. But did not Cimon also suffer like him in this? For the citizens +arraigned him, and did not leave off till they had banished him, that, as Plato +says, they might not hear him for the space of ten years. For high and noble +minds seldom please the vulgar, or are acceptable to them; for the force they +use to straighten their distorted actions gives the same pain as surgeons’ +bandages do in bringing dislocated bones to their natural position. Both of +them, perhaps, come off pretty much with an equal acquittal on this count. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus very much outwent him in war being the first Roman who carried an army +over Taurus, passed the Tigris, took and burnt the royal palaces of Asia in the +sight of the kings, Tigranocerta, Cabira, Sinope, and Nisibis, seizing and +overwhelming the northern parts as far as the Phasis, the east as far as Media, +and making the South and Red Sea his own through the kings of the Arabians. He +shattered the power of the kings, and narrowly missed their persons, while like +wild beasts they fled away into deserts and thick and impassable woods. In +demonstration of this superiority, we see that the Persians, as if no great +harm had befallen them under Cimon, soon after appeared in arms against the +Greeks, and overcame and destroyed their numerous forces in Egypt. But after +Lucullus, Tigranes and Mithridates were able to do nothing; the latter, being +disabled and broken in the former wars, never dared to show his army to Pompey +outside the camp, but fled away to Bosporus, and there died. Tigranes threw +himself, naked and unarmed, down before Pompey, and taking his crown from his +head, laid it at his feet, complimenting Pompey with what was not his own, but, +in real truth, the conquest already effected by Lucullus. And when he received +the ensigns of majesty again, he was well pleased, evidently because he had +forfeited them before. And the commander, as the wrestler, is to be accounted +to have done most who leaves an adversary almost conquered for his successor. +Cimon, moreover, when he took the command, found the power of the king broken, +and the spirits of the Persians humbled by their great defeats and incessant +routs under Themistocles, Pausanias, and Leotychides, and thus easily overcame +the bodies of men whose souls were quelled and defeated beforehand. But +Tigranes had never yet in many combats been beaten, and was flushed with +success when he engaged with Lucullus. There is no comparison between the +numbers, which came against Lucullus, and those subdued by Cimon. All which +things being rightly considered, it is a hard matter to give judgment. For +supernatural favor also appears to have attended both of them, directing the +one what to do, the other what to avoid, and thus they have, both of them, so +to say, the vote of the gods, to declare them noble and divine characters. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap38"></a>NICIAS</h2> + +<p> +Crassus, in my opinion, may most properly be set against Nicias, and the +Parthian disaster compared with that in Sicily. But here it will be well for me +to entreat the reader, in all courtesy, not to think that I contend with +Thucydides in matters so pathetically, vividly, and eloquently, beyond all +imitation, and even beyond himself, expressed by him; nor to believe me guilty +of the like folly with Timaeus, who, hoping in his history to surpass +Thucydides in art, and to make Philistus appear a trifler and a novice, pushes +on in his descriptions, through all the battles, sea-fights, and public +speeches, in recording which they have been most successful, without meriting +so much as to be compared in Pindar’s phrase, to +</p> + +<p> +One that on his feet Would with the Lydian cars compete. +</p> + +<p> +He simply shows himself all along a half-lettered, childish writer; in the +words of Diphilus, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— of wit obese,<br/> +O’erlarded with Sicilian grease. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Often he sinks to the very level of Xenarchus, telling us that he thinks it +ominous to the Athenians that their general, who had victory in his name, was +unwilling to take command in the expedition; and that the defacing of the +Hermae was a divine intimation that they should suffer much in the war by +Hermocrates, the son of Hermon; and, moreover, how it was likely that Hercules +should aid the Syracusans for the sake of Proserpine, by whose means he took +Cerberus, and should be angry with the Athenians for protecting the Egesteans, +descended from Trojan ancestors, whose city he, for an injury of their king +Laomedon, had overthrown. However, all these may be merely other instances of +the same happy taste that makes him correct the diction of Philistus, and abuse +Plato and Aristotle. This sort of contention and rivalry with others in matter +of style, to my mind, in any case, seems petty and pedantic, but when its +objects are works of inimitable excellence, it is absolutely senseless. Such +actions in Nicias’s life as Thucydides and Philistus have related, since they +cannot be passed by, illustrating as they do most especially his character and +temper, under his many and great troubles, that I may not seem altogether +negligent, I shall briefly run over. And such things as are not commonly known, +and lie scattered here and there in other men’s writings, or are found amongst +the old monuments and archives, I shall endeavor to bring together; not +collecting mere useless pieces of learning, but adducing what may make his +disposition and habit of mind understood. +</p> + +<p> +First of all, I would mention what Aristotle has said of Nicias, that there had +been three good citizens, eminent above the rest for their hereditary affection +and love to the people, Nicias the son of Niceratus, Thucydides the son of +Melesias, and Theramenes the son of Hagnon, but the last less than the others; +for he had his dubious extraction cast in his teeth, as a foreigner from Ceos, +and his inconstancy, which made him side sometimes with one party, sometimes +with another in public life, and which obtained him the nickname of the Buskin. +</p> + +<p> +Thucydides came earlier, and, on the behalf of the nobility, was a great +opponent of the measures by which Pericles courted the favor of the people. +</p> + +<p> +Nicias was a younger man, yet was in some reputation even whilst Pericles +lived; so much so as to have been his colleague in the office of general, and +to have held command by himself more than once. But on the death of Pericles, +he presently rose to the highest place, chiefly by the favor of the rich and +eminent citizens, who set him up for their bulwark against the presumption and +insolence of Cleon; nevertheless, he did not forfeit the good-will of the +commonalty, who, likewise, contributed to his advancement. For though Cleon got +great influence by his exertions +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— to please<br/> +The old men, who trusted him to find them fees. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Yet even those, for whose interest, and to gain whose favor he acted, +nevertheless observing the avarice, the arrogance, and the presumption of the +man, many of them supported Nicias. For his was not that sort of gravity which +is harsh and offensive, but he tempered it with a certain caution and +deference, winning upon the people, by seeming afraid of them. And being +naturally diffident and unhopeful in war, his good fortune supplied his want of +courage, and kept it from being detected, as in all his commands he was +constantly successful. And his timorousness in civil life, and his extreme +dread of accusers, was thought very suitable in a citizen of a free State; and +from the people’s good-will towards him, got him no small power over them, they +being fearful of all that despised them, but willing to promote one who seemed +to be afraid of them; the greatest compliment their betters could pay them +being not to contemn them. +</p> + +<p> +Pericles, who by solid virtue and the pure force of argument ruled the +commonwealth, had stood in need of no disguises nor persuasions with the +people. Nicias, inferior in these respects, used his riches, of which he had +abundance, to gain popularity. Neither had he the nimble wit of Cleon, to win +the Athenians to his purposes by amusing them with bold jests; unprovided with +such qualities, he courted them with dramatic exhibitions, gymnastic games, and +other public shows, more sumptuous and more splendid than had been ever known +in his, or in former ages. Amongst his religious offerings, there was extant, +even in our days, the small figure of Minerva in the citadel, having lost the +gold that covered it; and a shrine in the temple of Bacchus, under the tripods, +that were presented by those who won the prize in the shows of plays. For at +these he had often carried off the prize, and never once failed. We are told +that on one of these occasions, a slave of his appeared in the character of +Bacchus, of a beautiful person and noble stature, and with as yet no beard upon +his chin; and on the Athenians being pleased with the sight, and applauding a +long time, Nicias stood up, and said he could not in piety keep as a slave, one +whose person had been consecrated to represent a god. And forthwith he set the +young man free. His performances at Delos are, also, on record, as noble and +magnificent works of devotion. For whereas the choruses which the cities sent +to sing hymns to the god were wont to arrive in no order, as it might happen, +and, being there met by a crowd of people crying out to them to sing, in their +hurry to begin, used to disembark confusedly, putting on their garlands, and +changing their dresses as they left the ships, he, when he had to convoy the +sacred company, disembarked the chorus at Rhenea, together with the sacrifice, +and other holy appurtenances. And having brought along with him from Athens a +bridge fitted by measurement for the purpose, and magnificently adorned with +gilding and coloring, and with garlands and tapestries; this he laid in the +night over the channel betwixt Rhenea and Delos, being no great distance. And +at break of day he marched forth with all the procession to the god, and led +the chorus, sumptuously ornamented, and singing their hymns, along over the +bridge. The sacrifices, the games, and the feast being over, he set up a +palm-tree of brass for a present to the god, and bought a parcel of land with +ten thousand drachmas which he consecrated; with the revenue the inhabitants of +Delos were to sacrifice and to feast, and to pray the gods for many good things +to Nicias. This he engraved on a pillar, which he left in Delos to be a record +of his bequest. This same palm-tree, afterwards broken down by the wind, fell +on the great statue which the men of Naxos presented, and struck it to the +ground. +</p> + +<p> +It is plain that much of this might be vainglory, and the mere desire of +popularity and applause; yet from other qualities and carriage of the man, one +might believe all this cost and public display to be the effect of devotion. +For he was one of those who dreaded the divine powers extremely, and, as +Thucydides tells us, was much given to arts of divination. In one of Pasiphon’s +dialogues, it is stated that he daily sacrificed to the gods, and keeping a +diviner at his house, professed to be consulting always about the commonwealth, +but for the most part, inquired about his own private affairs, more especially +concerning his silver mines; for he owned many works at Laurium, of great +value, but somewhat hazardous to carry on. He maintained there a multitude of +slaves, and his wealth consisted chiefly in silver. Hence he had many +hangers-on about him, begging and obtaining. For he gave to those who could do +him mischief, no less than to those who deserved well. In short, his timidity +was a revenue to rogues, and his humanity to honest men. We find testimony in +the comic writers, as when Teleclides, speaking of one of the professed +informers, says: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Charicles gave the man a pound, the matter not to name,<br/> +That from inside a money-bag into the world he came;<br/> +And Nicias, also, paid him four; I know the reason well,<br/> +But Nicias is a worthy man, and so I will not tell. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +So, also, the informer whom Eupolis introduces in his Maricas, attacking a +good, simple, poor man: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +How long ago did you and Nicias meet?<br/> +I did but see him just now in the street.<br/> +<br/> +The man has seen him and denies it not,<br/> +’Tis evident that they are in a plot.<br/> +<br/> +See you, O citizens! ’tis fact, Nicias is taken in the act.<br/> +<br/> +Taken, Fools! take so good a man<br/> +In aught that’s wrong none will or can. +</p> + +<p> +Cleon, in Aristophanes, makes it one of his threats: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +I’ll outscream all the speakers, and make Nicias stand aghast! +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Phrynichus also implies his want of spirit, and his easiness to be intimidated +in the verses, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +A noble man he was, I well can say,<br/> +Nor walked like Nicias, cowering on his way. +</p> + +<p> +So cautious was he of informers, and so reserved, that he never would dine out +with any citizen, nor allowed himself to indulge in talk and conversation with +his friends, nor gave himself any leisure for such amusements; but when he was +general he used to stay at the office till night, and was the first that came +to the council-house, and the last that left it. And if no public business +engaged him, it was very hard to have access, or to speak with him, he being +retired at home and locked up. And when any came to the door, some friend of +his gave them good words, and begged them to excuse him, Nicias was very busy; +as if affairs of State and public duties still kept him occupied. He who +principally acted this part for him, and contributed most to this state and +show, was Hiero, a man educated in Nicias’s family, and instructed by him in +letters and music. He professed to be the son of Dionysius, surnamed Chalcus, +whose poems are yet extant, and had led out the colony to Italy, and founded +Thurii. This Hiero transacted all his secrets for Nicias with the dinners; and +gave out to the people, what a toilsome and miserable life he led, for the sake +of the commonwealth. “He,” said Hiero, “can never be either at the bath, or at +his meat, but some public business interferes. Careless of his own, and zealous +for the public good, he scarcely ever goes to bed till after others have had +their first sleep. So that his health is impaired, and his body out of order, +nor is he cheerful or affable with his friends, but loses them as well as his +money in the service of the State, while other men gain friends by public +speaking, enrich themselves, fare delicately, and make government their +amusement.” And in fact this was Nicias’s manner of life, so that he well might +apply to himself the words of Agamemnon: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Vain pomp’s the ruler of the life we live,<br/> +And a slave’s service to the crowd we give. +</p> + +<p> +He observed that the people, in the case of men of eloquence, or of eminent +parts, made use of their talents upon occasion, but were always jealous of +their abilities, and held a watchful eye upon them, taking all opportunities to +humble their pride and abate their reputation; as was manifest in their +condemnation of Pericles, their banishment of Damon, their distrust of Antiphon +the Rhamnusian, but especially in the case of Paches who took Lesbos, who, +having to give an account of his conduct, in the very court of justice +unsheathed his sword and slew himself. Upon such considerations, Nicias +declined all difficult and lengthy enterprises; if he took a command, he was +for doing what was safe; and if, as thus was likely, he had for the most part +success, he did not attribute it to any wisdom, conduct, or courage of his own, +but, to avoid envy, he thanked fortune for all, and gave the glory to the +divine powers. And the actions themselves bore testimony in his favor; the city +met at that time with several considerable reverses, but he had not a hand in +any of them. The Athenians were routed in Thrace by the Chalcidians, Calliades +and Xenophon commanding in chief. Demosthenes was the general when they were +unfortunate in Aetolia. At Delium, they lost a thousand citizens under the +conduct of Hippocrates; the plague was principally laid to the charge of +Pericles, he, to carry on the war, having shut up close together in the town +the crowd of people from the country, who, by the change of place, and of their +usual course of living, bred the pestilence. Nicias stood clear of all this; +under his conduct was taken Cythera, an island most commodious against Laconia, +and occupied by the Lacedaemonian settlers; many places, likewise, in Thrace, +which had revolted, were taken or won over by him; he, shutting up the +Megarians within their town, seized upon the isle of Minoa; and soon after, +advancing from thence to Nisaea, made himself master there, and then making a +descent upon the Corinthian territory, fought a successful battle, and slew a +great number of the Corinthians with their captain Lycophron. There it happened +that two of his men were left by an oversight, when they carried off the dead, +which when he understood, he stopped the fleet, and sent a herald to the enemy +for leave to carry off the dead; though by law and custom, he that by a truce +craved leave to carry off the dead, was hereby supposed to give up all claim to +the victory. Nor was it lawful for him that did this to erect a trophy, for his +is the victory who is master of the field, and he is not master who asks leave, +as wanting power to take. But he chose rather to renounce his victory and his +glory, than to let two citizens lie unburied. He scoured the coast of Laconia +all along, and beat the Lacedaemonians that made head against him. He took +Thyrea, occupied by the Aeginetans, and carried the prisoners to Athens. +</p> + +<p> +When Demosthenes had fortified Pylos, and the Peloponnesians brought together +both their sea and land forces before it, after the fight, about the number of +four hundred native Spartans were left ashore in the isle Sphacteria. The +Athenians thought it a great prize, as indeed it was, to take these men +prisoners. But the siege, in places that wanted water, being very difficult and +untoward, and to convey necessaries about by sea in summer tedious and +expensive, in winter doubtful, or plainly impossible, they began to be annoyed, +and to repent their having rejected the embassy of the Lacedaemonians that had +been sent to propose a treaty of peace, which had been done at the importunity +of Cleon, who opposed it chiefly out of a pique to Nicias; for, being his +enemy, and observing him to be extremely solicitous to support the offers of +the Lacedaemonians, he persuaded the people to refuse them. +</p> + +<p> +Now, therefore, that the siege was protracted, and they heard of the +difficulties that pressed their army, they grew enraged against Cleon. But he +turned all the blame upon Nicias, charging it on his softness and cowardice, +that the besieged were not yet taken. “Were I general,” said he, “they should +not hold out so long.” The Athenians not unnaturally asked the question, “Why +then, as it is, do not you go with a squadron against them?” And Nicias +standing up resigned his command at Pylos to him, and bade him take what forces +he pleased along with him, and not be bold in words, out of harm’s way, but go +forth and perform some real service for the commonwealth. Cleon, at the first, +tried to draw back, disconcerted at the proposal, which he had never expected; +but the Athenians insisting, and Nicias loudly upbraiding him, he thus +provoked, and fired with ambition, took upon him the charge, and said further, +that within twenty days after he embarked, he would either kill the enemy upon +the place, or bring them alive to Athens. This the Athenians were readier to +laugh at than to believe, as on other occasions, also, his bold assertions and +extravagances used to make them sport, and were pleasant enough. As, for +instance, it is reported that once when the people were assembled, and had +waited his coming a long time, at last he appeared with a garland on his head, +and prayed them to adjourn to the next day. “For,” said he, “I am not at +leisure to-day; I have sacrificed to the gods, and am to entertain some +strangers.” Whereupon the Athenians laughing rose up, and dissolved the +assembly. However, at this time he had good fortune, and in conjunction with +Demosthenes, conducted the enterprise so well, that within the time he had +limited, he carried captive to Athens all the Spartans that had not fallen in +battle. +</p> + +<p> +This brought great disgrace on Nicias; for this was not to throw away his +shield, but something yet more shameful and ignominious, to quit his charge +voluntarily out of cowardice, and voting himself, as it were, out of his +command of his own accord, to put into his enemy’s hand the opportunity of +achieving so brave an action. Aristophanes has a jest against him on this +occasion in the Birds: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Indeed, not now the word that must be said<br/> +Is, do like Nicias, or retire to bed. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And, again, in his Husbandmen: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +I wish to stay at home and farm.<br/> +What then?<br/> +Who should prevent you?<br/> +You, my countrymen;<br/> +Whom I would pay a thousand drachmas down,<br/> +To let me give up office and leave town.<br/> +Enough; content; the sum two thousand is,<br/> +With those that Nicias paid to give up his. +</p> + +<p> +Besides all this, he did great mischief to the city by suffering the accession +of so much reputation and power to Cleon, who now assumed such lofty airs, and +allowed himself in such intolerable audacity, as led to many unfortunate +results, a sufficient part of which fell to his own share. Amongst other +things, he destroyed all the decorum of public speaking; he was the first who +ever broke out into exclamations, flung open his dress, smote his thigh, and +ran up and down whilst he was speaking, things which soon after introduced +amongst those who managed the affairs of State, such license and contempt of +decency, as brought all into confusion. +</p> + +<p> +Already, too, Alcibiades was beginning to show his strength at Athens, a +popular leader, not, indeed, as utterly violent as Cleon, but as the land of +Egypt, through the richness of its soil, is said, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— great plenty to produce,<br/> +Both wholesome herbs, and drugs of deadly juice, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +so the nature of Alcibiades was strong and luxuriant in both kinds, and made +way for many serious innovations. Thus it fell out that after Nicias had got +his hands clear of Cleon, he had not opportunity to settle the city perfectly +into quietness. For having brought matters to a pretty hopeful condition, he +found everything carried away and plunged again into confusion by Alcibiades, +through the wildness and vehemence of his ambition, and all embroiled again in +war worse than ever. Which fell out thus. The persons who had principally +hindered the peace were Cleon and Brasidas. War setting off the virtue of the +one, and hiding the villainy of the other, gave to the one occasions of +achieving brave actions, to the other opportunity of committing equal +dishonesties. Now when these two were in one battle both slain near Amphipolis, +Nicias was aware that the Spartans had long been desirous of a peace, and that +the Athenians had no longer the same confidence in the war. Both being alike +tired, and, as it were by consent, letting fall their hands, he, therefore, in +this nick of time, employed his efforts to make a friendship betwixt the two +cities, and to deliver the other States of Greece from the evils and calamities +they labored under, and so establish his own good name for success as a +statesman for all future time. He found the men of substance, the elder men, +and the land-owners and farmers pretty generally, all inclined to peace. And +when, in addition to these, by conversing and reasoning, he had cooled the +wishes of a good many others for war, he now encouraged the hopes of the +Lacedaemonians, and counseled them to seek peace. They confided in him, as on +account of his general character for moderation and equity, so, also, because +of the kindness and care he had shown to the prisoners taken at Pylos and kept +in confinement, making their misfortune the more easy to them. +</p> + +<p> +The Athenians and the Spartans had before this concluded a truce for a year, +and during this, by associating with one another, they had tasted again the +sweets of peace and security, and unimpeded intercourse with friends and +connections, and thus longed for an end of that fighting and bloodshed, and +heard with delight the chorus sing such verses as +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +— my lance I’ll leave<br/> +Laid by, for spiders to o’erweave, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and remembered with joy the saying, In peace, they who sleep are awaked by the +cock-crow, not by the trumpet. So shutting their ears, with loud reproaches, to +the forebodings of those who said that the Fates decreed this to be a war of +thrice nine years, the whole question having been debated, they made a peace. +And most people thought, now, indeed, they had got an end of all their evils. +And Nicias was in every man’s mouth, as one especially beloved of the gods, +who, for his piety and devotion, had been appointed to give a name to the +fairest and greatest of all blessings. For in fact they considered the peace +Nicias’s work, as the war the work of Pericles; because he, on light occasions, +seemed to have plunged the Greeks into great calamities, while Nicias had +induced them to forget all the evils they had done each other and to be friends +again; and so to this day it is called the Peace of Nicias. +</p> + +<p> +The articles being, that the garrisons and towns taken on either side, and the +prisoners should be restored, and they to restore the first to whom it should +fall by lot, Nicias, as Theophrastus tells us, by a sum of money procured that +the lot should fall for the Lacedaemonians to deliver the first. Afterwards, +when the Corinthians and the Boeotians showed their dislike of what was done, +and by their complaints and accusations were wellnigh bringing the war back +again, Nicias persuaded the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians, besides the +peace, to make a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, as a tie and +confirmation of the peace, which would make them more terrible to those that +held out, and the firmer to each other. Whilst these matters were on foot, +Alcibiades, who was no lover of tranquillity, and who was offended with the +Lacedaemonians because of their applications and attentions to Nicias, while +they overlooked and despised himself, from first to last, indeed, had opposed +the peace, though all in vain, but now finding that the Lacedaemonians did not +altogether continue to please the Athenians, but were thought to have acted +unfairly in having made a league with the Boeotians, and had not given up +Panactum, as they should have done, with its fortifications unrazed, nor yet +Amphipolis, he laid hold on these occasions for his purpose, and availed +himself of every one of them to irritate the people. And, at length, sending +for ambassadors from the Argives, he exerted himself to effect a confederacy +between the Athenians and them. And now, when Lacedaemonian ambassadors were +come with full powers, and at their preliminary audience by the council seemed +to come in all points with just proposals, he, fearing that the general +assembly, also, would be won over to their offers, overreached them with false +professions and oaths of assistance, on the condition that they would not avow +that they came with full powers, this, he said, being the only way for them to +attain their desires. They being overpersuaded and decoyed from Nicias to +follow him, he introduced them to the assembly, and asked them presently +whether or no they came in all points with full powers, which when they denied, +he, contrary to their expectation, changing his countenance, called the council +to witness their words, and now bade the people beware how they trust, or +transact anything with such manifest liars, who say at one time one thing, and +at another the very opposite upon the same subject. These plenipotentiaries +were, as well they might be, confounded at this, and Nicias, also, being at a +loss what to say, and struck with amazement and wonder, the assembly resolved +to send immediately for the Argives, to enter into a league with them. An +earthquake, which interrupted the assembly, made for Nicias’s advantage; and +the next day the people being again assembled, after much speaking and +soliciting, with great ado he brought it about, that the treaty with the +Argives should be deferred, and he be sent to the Lacedaemonians, in full +expectation that so all would go well. +</p> + +<p> +When he arrived at Sparta, they received him there as a good man, and one well +inclined towards them; yet he effected nothing, but, baffled by the party that +favored the Boeotians, he returned home, not only dishonored and hardly spoken +of, but likewise in fear of the Athenians, who were vexed and enraged that +through his persuasions they had released so many and such considerable +persons, their prisoners, for the men who had been brought from Pylos were of +the chiefest families of Sparta, and had those who were highest there in place +and power for their friends and kindred. Yet did they not in their heat proceed +against him, otherwise than that they chose Alcibiades general, and took the +Mantineans and Eleans, who had thrown up their alliance with the +Lacedaemonians, into the league, together with the Argives, and sent to Pylos +freebooters to infest Laconia, whereby the war began to break out afresh. +</p> + +<p> +But the enmity betwixt Nicias and Alcibiades running higher and higher, and the +time being at hand for decreeing the ostracism or banishment, for ten years, +which the people, putting the name on a sherd, were wont to inflict at certain +times on some person suspected or regarded with jealousy for his popularity or +wealth, both were now in alarm and apprehension, one of them, in all +likelihood, being to undergo this ostracism; as the people abominated the life +of Alcibiades, and stood in fear of his boldness and resolution, as is shown +particularly in the history of him; while as for Nicias, his riches made him +envied, and his habits of living, in particular, his unsociable and exclusive +ways, not like those of a fellow-citizen, or even a fellow-man, went against +him, and having many times opposed their inclinations, forcing them against +their feelings to do what was their interest, he had got himself disliked. +</p> + +<p> +To speak plainly, it was a contest of the young men who were eager for war, +against the men of years and lovers of peace, they turning the ostracism upon +the one, these upon the other. But +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In civil strife e’en villains rise to fame. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And so now it happened that the city, distracted into two factions, allowed +free course to the most impudent and profligate persons, among whom was +Hyperbolus of the Perithoedae, one who could not, indeed, be said to be +presuming upon any power, but rather by his presumption rose into power, and by +the honor he found in the city, became the scandal of it. He, at this time, +thought himself far enough from the ostracism, as more properly deserving the +slave’s gallows, and made account, that one of these men being dispatched out +of the way, he might be able to play a part against the other that should be +left, and openly showed his pleasure at the dissension, and his desire to +inflame the people against both of them. Nicias and Alcibiades, perceiving his +malice, secretly combined together, and setting both their interests jointly at +work, succeeded in fixing the ostracism not on either of them, but even on +Hyperbolus. This, indeed, at the first, made sport, and raised laughter among +the people; but afterwards it was felt as an affront, that the thing should be +dishonored by being employed upon so unworthy a subject; punishment, also, +having its proper dignity, and ostracism being one that was appropriate rather +for Thucydides, Aristides, and such like persons; whereas for Hyperbolus it was +a glory, and a fair ground for boasting on his part, when for his villainy he +suffered the same with the best men. As Plato, the comic poet said of him, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The man deserved the fate, deny who can;<br/> +Yes, but the fate did not deserve the man;<br/> +Not for the like of him and his slave-brands,<br/> +Did Athens put the sherd into our hands. +</p> + +<p> +And, in fact, none ever afterwards suffered this sort of punishment, but +Hyperbolus was the last, as Hipparchus the Cholargian, who was kin to the +tyrant, was the first. +</p> + +<p> +There is no judgment to be made of fortune; nor can any reasoning bring us to a +certainty about it. If Nicias had run the risk with Alcibiades, whether of the +two should undergo the ostracism, he had either prevailed, and, his rival being +expelled the city, he had remained secure; or, being overcome, he had avoided +the utmost disasters, and preserved the reputation of a most excellent +commander. Meantime I am not ignorant that Theophrastus says, that when +Hyperbolus was banished Phaeax, not Nicias, contested it with Alcibiades; but +most authors differ from him. +</p> + +<p> +It was Alcibiades, at any rate, whom when the Aegestean and Leontine +ambassadors arrived and urged the Athenians to make an expedition against +Sicily, Nicias opposed, and by whose persuasions and ambition he found himself +overborne, who even before the people could be assembled, had preoccupied and +corrupted their judgment with hopes and with speeches; insomuch that the young +men at their sports, and the old men in their workshops, and sitting together +on the benches, would be drawing maps of Sicily, and making charts showing the +seas, the harbors, and general character of the coast of the island opposite +Africa. For they made not Sicily the end of the war, but rather its starting +point and head-quarters from whence they might carry it to the Carthaginians, +and possess themselves of Africa, and of the seas as far as the pillars of +Hercules. The bulk of the people, therefore, pressing this way, Nicias, who +opposed them, found but few supporters, nor those of much influence; for the +men of substance, fearing lest they should seem to shun the public charges and +ship-money, were quiet against their inclination; nevertheless he did not tire +nor give it up, but even after the Athenians decreed a war and chose him in the +first place general, together with Alcibiades and Lamachus, when they were +again assembled, he stood up, dissuaded them, and protested against the +decision, and laid the blame on Alcibiades, charging him with going about to +involve the city in foreign dangers and difficulties, merely with a view to his +own private lucre and ambition. Yet it came to nothing. Nicias, because of his +experience, was looked upon as the fitter for the employment, and his wariness +with the bravery of Alcibiades, and the easy temper of Lamachus, all compounded +together, promised such security, that he did but confirm the resolution. +Demostratus, who, of the popular leaders, was the one who chiefly pressed the +Athenians to the expedition, stood up and said he would stop the mouth of +Nicias from urging any more excuses, and moved that the generals should have +absolute power both at home and abroad, to order and to act as they thought +best; and this vote the people passed. +</p> + +<p> +The priests, however, are said to have very earnestly opposed the enterprise. +But Alcibiades had his diviners of another sort, who from some old prophesies +announced that “there shall be great fame of the Athenians in Sicily,” and +messengers came back to him from Jupiter Ammon, with oracles importing that +“the Athenians shall take all the Syracusans.” Those, meanwhile, who knew +anything that boded ill, concealed it, lest they might seem to forespeak +ill-luck. For even prodigies that were obvious and plain would not deter them; +not the defacing of the Hermue, all maimed in one night except one, called the +Hermes of Andocides, erected by the tribe of Aegeus, placed directly before the +house then occupied by Andocides; nor what was perpetrated on the altar of the +twelve gods, upon which a certain man leaped suddenly up, and then turning +round, mutilated himself with a stone. Likewise at Delphi, there stood a golden +image of Minerva, set on a palm-tree of brass, erected by the city of Athens +from the spoils they won from the Medes; this was pecked at several days +together by crows flying upon it, who, also, plucked off and knocked down the +fruit, made of gold, upon the palm-tree. But the Athenians said these were all +but inventions of the Delphians, corrupted by the men of Syracuse. A certain +oracle bade them bring from Clazomenae the priestess of Minerva there; they +sent for the woman and found her named Hesychia, Quietness, this being, it +would seem, what the divine powers advised the city at this time, to be quiet. +Whether, therefore, the astrologer Meton feared these presages, or that from +human reason he doubted its success, (for he was appointed to a command in it,) +feigning himself mad, he set his house on fire. Others say he did not +counterfeit madness, but set his house on fire in the night, and he next +morning came before the assembly in great distress, and besought the people, in +consideration of the sad disaster, to release his son from the service, who was +about to go captain of a galley for Sicily. The genius, also, of the +philosopher Socrates, on this occasion, too, gave him intimation by the usual +tokens, that the expedition would prove the ruin of the commonwealth; this he +imparted to his friends and familiars, and by them it was mentioned to a number +of people. Not a few were troubled because the days on which the fleet set sail +happened to be the time when the women celebrated the death of Adonis; there +being everywhere then exposed to view images of dead men, carried about with +mourning and lamentation, and women beating their breasts. So that such as laid +any stress on these matters were extremely troubled, and feared lest that all +this warlike preparation, so splendid and so glorious, should suddenly, in a +little time, be blasted in its very prime of magnificence, and come to nothing. +</p> + +<p> +Nicias, in opposing the voting of this expedition, and neither being puffed up +with hopes, nor transported with the honor of his high command so as to modify +his judgment, showed himself a man of virtue and constancy. But when his +endeavors could not divert the people from the war, nor get leave for himself +to be discharged of the command, but the people, as it were, violently took him +up and carried him, and against his will put him in the office of general, this +was no longer now a time for his excessive caution and his delays, nor was it +for him, like a child, to look back from the ship, often repeating and +reconsidering over and over again how that his advice had not been overruled by +fair arguments, thus blunting the courage of his fellow commanders and spoiling +the season of action. Whereas, he ought speedily to have closed with the enemy +and brought the matter to an issue, and put fortune immediately to the test in +battle. But, on the contrary, when Lamachus counseled to sail directly to +Syracuse, and fight the enemy under their city walls, and Alcibiades advised to +secure the friendship of the other towns, and then to march against them, +Nicias dissented from them both, and insisted that they should cruise quietly +around the island and display their armament, and, having landed a small supply +of men for the Egesteans, return to Athens, weakening at once the resolution +and casting down the spirits of the men. And when, a little while after, the +Athenians called home Alcibiades in order to his trial, he being, though joined +nominally with another in commission, in effect the only general, made now no +end of loitering, of cruising, and considering, till their hopes were grown +stale, and all the disorder and consternation which the first approach and view +of their forces had cast amongst the enemy was worn off, and had left them. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst yet Alcibiades was with the fleet, they went before Syracuse with a +squadron of sixty galleys, fifty of them lying in array without the harbor, +while the other ten rowed in to reconnoiter, and by a herald called upon the +citizens of Leontini to return to their own country. These scouts took a galley +of the enemy’s, in which they found certain tablets, on which was set down a +list of all the Syracusans, according to their tribes. These were wont to be +laid up at a distance from the city, in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, but +were now brought forth for examination to furnish a muster-roll of young men +for the war. These being so taken by the Athenians, and carried to the +officers, and the multitude of names appearing, the diviners thought it +unpropitious, and were in apprehension lest this should be the only destined +fullfilment of the prophecy, that “the Athenians shall take all the +Syracusans.” Yet, indeed, this was said to be accomplished by the Athenians at +another time, when Callippus the Athenian, having slain Dion, became master of +Syracuse. But when Alcibiades shortly after sailed away from Sicily, the +command fell wholly to Nicias. Lamachus was, indeed, a brave and honest man, +and ready to fight fearlessly with his own hand in battle, but so poor and ill +off, that whenever he was appointed general, he used always, in accounting for +his outlay of public money, to bring some little reckoning or other of money +for his very clothes and shoes. On the contrary, Nicias, as on other accounts, +so, also, because of his wealth and station, was very much thought of. The +story is told that once upon a time the commission of generals being in +consultation together in their public office, he bade Sophocles the poet give +his opinion first, as the senior of the board. “I,” replied Sophocles, “am the +older, but you are the senior.” And so now, also, Lamachus, who better +understood military affairs, being quite his subordinate, he himself, evermore +delaying and avoiding risk, and faintly employing his forces, first by his +sailing about Sicily at the greatest distance aloof from the enemy, gave them +confidence, then by afterwards attacking Hybla, a petty fortress, and drawing +off before he could take it, made himself utterly despised. At the last he +retreated to Catana without having achieved anything, save that he demolished +Hyocara, a humble town of the barbarians, out of which the story goes that Lais +the courtesan, yet a mere girl, was sold amongst the other prisoners, and +carried thence away to Peloponnesus. +</p> + +<p> +But when the summer was spent, after reports began to reach him that the +Syracusans were grown so confident that they would come first to attack him, +and troopers skirmishing to the very camp twitted his soldiers, asking whether +they came to settle with the Catanians, or to put the Leontines in possession +of their city, at last, with much ado, Nicias resolved to sail against +Syracuse. And wishing to form his camp safely and without molestation, he +procured a man to carry from Catana intelligence to the Syracusans that they +might seize the camp of the Athenians unprotected, and all their arms, if on +such a day they should march with all their forces to Catana; and that, the +Athenians living mostly in the town, the friends of the Syracusans had +concerted, as soon as they should perceive them coming, to possess themselves +of one of the gates, and to fire the arsenal; that many now were in the +conspiracy and awaited their arrival. This was the ablest thing Nicias did in +the whole of his conduct of the expedition. For having drawn out all the +strength of the enemy, and made the city destitute of men, he set out from +Catana, entered the harbor, and chose a fit place for his camp, where the enemy +could least incommode him with the means in which they were superior to him, +while with the means in which he was superior to them, he might expect to carry +on the war without impediment. +</p> + +<p> +When the Syracusans returned from Catana, and stood in battle array before the +city gates, he rapidly led up the Athenians and fell on them and defeated them, +but did not kill many, their horse hindering the pursuit. And his cutting and +breaking down the bridges that lay over the river gave Hermocrates, when +cheering up the Syracusans, occasion to say, that Nicias was ridiculous, whose +great aim seemed to be to avoid fighting, as if fighting were not the thing he +came for. However, he put the Syracusans into a very great alarm and +consternation, so that instead of fifteen generals then in service, they chose +three others, to whom the people engaged by oath to allow absolute authority. +</p> + +<p> +There stood near them the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which the Athenians +(there being in it many consecrated things of gold and silver) were eager to +take, but were purposely withheld from it by Nicias, who let the opportunity +slip, and allowed a garrison of the Syracusans to enter it, judging that if the +soldiers should make booty of that wealth, it would be no advantage to the +public, and he should bear the guilt of the impiety. Not improving in the least +this success, which was everywhere famous, after a few days’ stay, away he goes +to Naxos, and there winters, spending largely for the maintenance of so great +an army, and not doing anything except some matters of little consequence with +some native Sicilians that revolted to him. Insomuch that the Syracusans took +heart again, made excursions to Catana, wasted the country, and fired the camp +of the Athenians. For which everybody blamed Nicias, who, with his long +reflection, his deliberateness, and his caution, had let slip the time for +action. None ever found fault with the man when once at work, for in the brunt +he showed vigor and activity enough, but was slow and wanted assurance to +engage. +</p> + +<p> +When, therefore, he brought again the army to Syracuse, such was his conduct, +and with such celerity, and at the same time security, he came upon them, that +nobody knew of his approach, when already he had come to shore with his galleys +at Thapsus, and had landed his men; and before any could help it he had +surprised Epipolae, had defeated the body of picked men that came to its +succor, took three hundred prisoners, and routed the cavalry of the enemy, +which had been thought invincible. But what chiefly astonished the Syracusans, +and seemed incredible to the Greeks, was, in so short a space of time the +walling about of Syracuse, a town not less than Athens, and far more difficult, +by the unevenness of the ground, and the nearness of the sea and the marshes +adjacent, to have such a wall drawn in a circle round it; yet this, all within +a very little, finished by a man that had not even his health for such weighty +cares, but lay ill of the stone, which may justly bear the blame for what was +left undone. I admire the industry of the general, and the bravery of the +soldiers for what they succeeded in. Euripides, after their ruin and disaster, +writing their funeral elegy, said that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Eight victories over Syracuse they gained,<br/> +While equal yet to both the gods remained. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And in truth one shall not find eight, but many more victories, won by these +men against the Syracusans, till the gods, in real truth, or fortune intervened +to check the Athenians in this advance to the height of power and greatness. +</p> + +<p> +Nicias, therefore, doing violence to his body, was present in most actions. But +once, when his disease was the sharpest upon him, he lay in the camp with some +few servants to attend him. And Lamachus having the command fought the +Syracusans, who were bringing a cross-wall from the city along to that of the +Athenians, to hinder them from carrying it round; and in the victory, the +Athenians hurrying in some disorder to the pursuit, Lamachus getting separated +from his men, had to resist the Syracusan horse that came upon him. Before the +rest advanced Callicrates, a man of good courage and skill in war. Lamachus, +upon a challenge, engaged with him in single combat, and receiving the first +wound, returned it so home to Callicrates, that they both fell and died +together. The Syracusans took away his body and arms, and at full speed +advanced to the wall of the Athenians, where Nicias lay without any troops to +oppose to them, yet roused by this necessity, and seeing the danger, he bade +those about him go and set on fire all the wood and materials that lay provided +before the wall for the engines, and the engines themselves; this put a stop to +the Syracusans, saved Nicias, saved the walls, and all the money of the +Athenians. For when the Syracusans raw such a fire blazing up between them and +the wall, they retired. +</p> + +<p> +Nicias now remained sole general, and with great prospects; for cities began to +come over to alliance with him, and ships laden with corn from every coast came +to the camp, everyone favoring when matters went well. And some proposals from +among the Syracusans despairing to defend the city, about a capitulation, were +already conveyed to him. And in fact Gylippus, who was on his way with a +squadron to their aid from Lacedaemon, hearing, on his voyage, of the wall +surrounding them, and of their distress, only continued his enterprise +thenceforth, that, giving Sicily up for lost, he might, if even that should be +possible, secure the Italians their cities. For a strong report was everywhere +spread about that the Athenians carried all before them, and had a general +alike for conduct and for fortune invincible. +</p> + +<p> +And Nicias himself, too, now against his nature grown bold in his present +strength and success, especially from the intelligence he received under hand +of the Syracusans, believing they would almost immediately surrender the town +upon terms, paid no manner of regard to Gylippus coming to their assistance, +nor kept any watch of his approach so that, neglected altogether and despised, +Gylippus went in a longboat ashore without the knowledge of Nicias, and, having +landed in the remotest parts from Syracuse, mustered up a considerable force, +the Syracusans not so much as knowing of his arrival nor expecting him; so that +an assembly was summoned to consider the terms to be arranged with Nicias, and +some were actually on the way, thinking it essential to have all dispatched +before the town should be quite walled round, for now there remained very +little to be done, and the materials for the building lay all ready along the +line. +</p> + +<p> +In this very nick of time and danger arrived Gongylus in one galley from +Corinth, and everyone, as may be imagined, flocking about him, he told them +that Gylippus would be with them speedily, and that other ships were coming to +relieve them. And, ere yet they could perfectly believe Gongylus, an express +was brought from Gylippus, to bid them go forth to meet him. So now taking good +heart, they armed themselves; and Gylippus at once led on his men from their +march in battle array against the Athenians, as Nicias also embattled these. +And Gylippus, piling his arms in view of the Athenians, sent a herald to tell +them he would give them leave to depart from Sicily without molestation. To +this Nicias would not vouchsafe any answer, but some of his soldiers laughing +asked if with the sight of one coarse coat and Laconian staff the Syracusan +prospects had become so brilliant that they could despise the Athenians, who +had released to the Lacedaemonians three hundred, whom they held in chains, +bigger men than Gylippus, and longer-haired? Timaeus, also, writes that even +the Syracusans made no account of Gylippus, at the first sight mocking at his +staff and long hair, as afterwards they found reason to blame his covetousness +and meanness. The same author, however, adds that on Gylippus’s first +appearance, as it might have been at the sight of an owl abroad in the air, +there was a general flocking together of men to serve in the war. And this is +the truer saying of the two; for in the staff and the cloak they saw the badge +and authority of Sparta, and crowded to him accordingly. And not only +Thucydides affirms that the whole thing was done by him alone, but so, also, +does Philistus, who was a Syracusan and an actual witness of what happened. +</p> + +<p> +However, the Athenians had the better in the first encounter, and slew some few +of the Syracusans, and amongst them Gongylus of Corinth. But on the next day +Gylippus showed what it is to be a man of experience; for with the same arms, +the same horses, and on the same spot of ground, only employing them otherwise, +he overcame the Athenians; and they fleeing to their camp, he set the +Syracusans to work, and with the stone and materials that had been brought +together for finishing the wall of the Athenians, he built a cross wall to +intercept theirs and break it off, so that even if they were successful in the +field, they would not be able to do anything. And after this the Syracusans +taking courage manned their galleys, and with their horse and followers ranging +about took a good many prisoners; and Gylippus going himself to the cities, +called upon them to join with him, and was listened to and supported vigorously +by them. So that Nicias fell back again to his old views, and, seeing the face +of affairs change, desponded, and wrote to Athens, bidding them either send +another army, or recall this out of Sicily, and that he might, in any case, be +wholly relieved of the command, because of his disease. +</p> + +<p> +Before this, the Athenians had been intending to send another army to Sicily, +but envy of Nicias’s early achievements and high fortune had occasioned, up to +this time, many delays; but now they were all eager to send off succors. +Eurymedon went before, in midwinter, with money, and to announce that +Euthydemus and Menander were chosen out of those that served there under Nicias +to be joint commanders with him. Demosthenes was to go after in the spring with +a great armament. In the meantime Nicias was briskly attacked, both by sea and +land; in the beginning he had the disadvantage on the water, but in the end +repulsed and sunk many galleys of the enemy. But by land he could not provide +succor in time, so Gylippus surprised and captured Plemmyrium, in which the +stores for the navy, and a great sum of money being there kept, all fell into +his hands, and many were slain, and many taken prisoners. And what was of +greatest importance, he now cut off Nicias’s supplies, which had been safely +and readily conveyed to him under Plemmyrium, while the Athenians still held +it, but now that they were beaten out, he could only procure them with great +difficulty, and with opposition from the enemy, who lay in wait with their +ships under that fort. Moreover, it seemed manifest to the Syracusans that +their navy had not been beaten by strength, but by their disorder in the +pursuit. Now, therefore, all hands went to work to prepare for a new attempt, +that should succeed better than the former. Nicias had no wish for a sea-fight, +but said it was mere folly for them, when Demosthenes was coming in all haste +with so great a fleet and fresh forces to their succor, to engage the enemy +with a less number of ships and ill provided. But, on the other hand, Menander +and Euthydemus, who were just commencing their new command, prompted by a +feeling of rivalry and emulation of both the generals, were eager to gain some +great success before Demosthenes came, and to prove themselves superior to +Nicias. They urged the honor of the city, which, said they, would be blemished +and utterly lost, if they should decline a challenge from the Syracusans. Thus +they forced Nicias to a sea-fight; and by the stratagem of Ariston, the +Corinthian pilot, (his trick, described by Thucydides, about the men’s +dinners,) they were worsted, and lost many of their men, causing the greatest +dejection to Nicias, who had suffered so much from having the sole command, and +now again miscarried through his colleagues. +</p> + +<p> +But now, by this time, Demosthenes with his splendid fleet came in sight +outside the harbor, a terror to the enemy. He brought along, in seventy-three +galleys, five thousand men at arms; of darters, archers, and slingers, not less +than three thousand; with the glittering of their armor, the flags waving from +the galleys, the multitude of coxswains and flute-players giving time to the +rowers, setting off the whole with all possible warlike pomp and ostentation to +dismay the enemy. Now, one may believe the Syracusans were again in extreme +alarm, seeing no end or prospect of release before them, toiling, as it seemed, +in vain, and perishing to no purpose. Nicias, however, was not long overjoyed +with the reinforcement, for the first time he conferred with Demosthenes, who +advised forthwith to attack the Syracusans, and to put all to the speediest +hazard, to win Syracuse, or else return home, afraid, and wondering at his +promptness and audacity, he besought him to do nothing rashly and desperately, +since delay would be the ruin of the enemy, whose money would not hold out, nor +their confederates be long kept together; that when once they came to be +pinched with want, they would presently come again to him for terms, as +formerly. For, indeed, many in Syracuse held secret correspondence with him, +and urged him to stay, declaring that even now the people were quite worn out +with the war, and weary of Gylippus. And if their necessities should the least +sharpen upon them they would give up all. +</p> + +<p> +Nicias glancing darkly at these matters, and unwilling to speak out plainly, +made his colleagues imagine that it was cowardice which made him talk in this +manner. And saying that this was the old story over again, the well known +procrastinations and delays and refinements with which at first he let slip the +opportunity in not immediately falling on the enemy, but suffering the armament +to become a thing of yesterday, that nobody was alarmed with, they took the +side of Demosthenes, and with much ado forced Nicias to comply. And so +Demosthenes, taking the land-forces, by night made an assault upon Epipolae; +part of the enemy he slew ere they took the alarm, the rest defending +themselves he put to flight. Nor was he content with this victory there, but +pushed on further, till he met the Boeotians. For these were the first that +made head against the Athenians, and charged them with a shout, spear against +spear, and killed many on the place. And now at once there ensued a panic and +confusion throughout the whole army; the victorious portion got infected with +the fears of the flying part, and those who were still disembarking and coming +forward, falling foul of the retreaters, came into conflict with their own +party, taking the fugitives for pursuers, and treating their friends as if they +were the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +Thus huddled together in disorder, distracted with fear and uncertainties, and +unable to be sure of seeing anything, the night not being absolutely dark, nor +yielding any steady light, the moon then towards setting, shadowed with the +many weapons and bodies that moved to and fro, and glimmering so as not to show +an object plain, but to make friends through fear suspected for foes, the +Athenians fell into utter perplexity and desperation. For, moreover, they had +the moon at their backs, and consequently their own shadows fell upon them, and +both hid the number and the glittering of their arms; while the reflection of +the moon from the shields of the enemy made them show more numerous and better +appointed than, indeed, they were. At last, being pressed on every side, when +once they had given way, they took to rout, and in their flight were destroyed, +some by the enemy, some by the hand of their friends, and some tumbling down +the rocks, while those that were dispersed and straggled about were picked off +in the morning by the horsemen and put to the sword. The slain were two +thousand; and of the rest few came off safe with their arms. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this disaster, which to him was not wholly an unexpected one, Nicias +accused the rashness of Demosthenes; but he, making his excuses for the past, +now advised to be gone in all haste, for neither were other forces to come, nor +could the enemy be beaten with the present. And, indeed, even supposing they +were yet too hard for the enemy in any case, they ought to remove and quit a +situation which they understood to be always accounted a sickly one, and +dangerous for an army, and was more particularly unwholesome now, as they could +see themselves, because of the time of year. It was the beginning of autumn, +and many now lay sick, and all were out of heart. +</p> + +<p> +It grieved Nicias to hear of flight and departing home, not that he did not +fear the Syracusans, but he was worse afraid of the Athenians, their +impeachments and sentences; he professed that he apprehended no further harm +there, or if it must be, he would rather die by the hand of an enemy, than by +his fellow-citizens. He was not of the opinion which Leo of Byzantium declared +to his fellow-citizens: “I had rather,” said he, “perish by you, than with +you.” As to the matter of place and quarter whither to remove their camp, that, +he said, might be debated at leisure. And Demosthenes, his former counsel +having succeeded so ill, ceased to press him further; others thought Nicias had +reasons for expectation, and relied on some assurance from people within the +city, and that this made him so strongly oppose their retreat, so they +acquiesced. But fresh forces now coming to the Syracusans, and the sickness +growing worse in his camp, he, also, now approved of their retreat, and +commanded the soldiers to make ready to go aboard. +</p> + +<p> +And when all were in readiness, and none of the enemy had observed them, not +expecting such a thing, the moon was eclipsed in the night, to the great fright +of Nicias and others, who, for want of experience, or out of superstition, felt +alarm at such appearances. That the sun might be darkened about the close of +the month, this even ordinary people now understood pretty well to be the +effect of the moon; but the moon itself to be darkened, how that could come +about, and how, on the sudden, a broad full moon should lose her light, and +show such various colors, was not easy to be comprehended; they concluded it to +be ominous, and a divine intimation of some heavy calamities. For he who the +first, and the most plainly of any, and with the greatest assurance committed +to writing how the moon is enlightened and overshadowed, was Anaxagoras; and he +was as yet but recent, nor was his argument much known, but was rather kept +secret, passing only amongst a few, under some kind of caution and confidence. +People would not then tolerate natural philosophers, and theorists, as they +then called them, about things above; as lessening the divine power, by +explaining away its agency into the operation of irrational causes and +senseless forces acting by necessity, without anything of Providence, or a free +agent. Hence it was that Protagoras was banished, and Anaxagoras cast in +prison, so that Pericles had much difficulty to procure his liberty; and +Socrates, though he had no concern whatever with this sort of learning, yet was +put to death for philosophy. It was only afterwards that the reputation of +Plato, shining forth by his life, and because he subjected natural necessity to +divine and more excellent principles, took away the obloquy and scandal that +had attached to such contemplations, and obtained these studies currency among +all people. So his friend Dion, when the moon, at the time he was to embark +from Zacynthus to go against Dionysius, was eclipsed, was not in the least +disturbed, but went on, and, arriving at Syracuse, expelled the tyrant. But it +so fell out with Nicias, that he had not at this time a skillful diviner with +him; his former habitual adviser who used to moderate much of his superstition, +Stilbides, had died a little before. For in fact, this prodigy, as Philochorus +observes, was not unlucky for men wishing to fly, but on the contrary very +favorable; for things done in fear require to be hidden, and the light is their +foe. Nor was it usual to observe signs in the sun or moon more than three days, +as Autoclides states in his Commentaries. But Nicias persuaded them to wait +another full course of the moon, as if he had not seen it clear again as soon +as ever it had passed the region of shadow where the light was obstructed by +the earth. +</p> + +<p> +In a manner abandoning all other cares, he betook himself wholly to his +sacrifices, till the enemy came upon them with their infantry, besieging the +forts and camp, and placing their ships in a circle about the harbor. Nor did +the men in the galleys only, but the little boys everywhere got into the +fishing-boats and rowed up and challenged the Athenians, and insulted over +them. Amongst these a youth of noble parentage, Heraclides by name, having +ventured out beyond the rest, an Athenian ship pursued and wellnigh took him. +His uncle Pollichus, in fear for him, put out with ten galleys which he +commanded, and the rest, to relieve Pollichus, in like manner drew forth; the +result of it being a very sharp engagement, in which the Syracusans had the +victory, and slew Eurymedon, with many others. lifter this the Athenian +soldiers had no patience to stay longer, but raised an outcry against their +officers, requiring them to depart by land; for the Syracusans, upon their +victory, immediately shut and blocked up the entrance of the harbor; but Nicias +would not consent to this, as it was a shameful thing to leave behind so many +ships of burden, and galleys little less than two hundred. Putting, therefore, +on board the best of the foot, and the most serviceable darters, they filled +one hundred and ten galleys; the rest wanted oars. The remainder of his army +Nicias posted along by the sea-side, abandoning the great camp and the +fortifications adjoining the temple of Hercules; so the Syracusans, not having +for a long time performed their usual sacrifice to Hercules, went up now, both +priests and captains, to sacrifice. +</p> + +<p> +And their galleys being manned, the diviners predicted from their sacrifices +victory and glory to the Syracusans, provided they would not be the aggressors, +but fight upon the defensive; for so Hercules overcame all, by only de. fending +himself when set upon. In this confidence they set out; and this proved the +hottest and fiercest of all their sea-fights, raising no less concern and +passion in the beholders than in the actors; as they could oversee the whole +action with all the various and unexpected turns of fortune which, in a short +space, occurred in it; the Athenians suffering no less from their own +preparations, than from the enemy; for they fought against light and nimble +ships, that could attack from any quarter, with theirs laden and heavy. And +they were thrown at with stones that fly indifferently any way, for which they +could only return darts and arrows, the direct aim of which the motion of the +water disturbed, preventing their coming true, point foremost to their mark. +This the Syracusans had learned from Ariston the Corinthian pilot, who, +fighting stoutly, fell himself in this very engagement, when the victory had +already declared for the Syracusans. +</p> + +<p> +The Athenians, their loss and slaughter being very great, their flight by sea +cut off, their safety by land so difficult, did not attempt to hinder the enemy +towing away their ships, under their eves, nor demanded their dead, as, indeed, +their want of burial seemed a less calamity than the leaving behind the sick +and wounded which they now had before them. Yet more miserable still than those +did they reckon themselves, who were to work on yet, through more such +sufferings, after all to reach the same end. +</p> + +<p> +They prepared to dislodge that night. And Gylippus and his friends seeing the +Syracusans engaged in their sacrifices and at their cups, for their victories, +and it being also a holiday, did not expect either by persuasion or by force to +rouse them up and carry them against the Athenians as they decamped. But +Hermocrates, of his own head, put a trick upon Nicias, and sent some of his +companions to him, who pretended they came from those that were wont to hold +secret intelligence with him, and advised him not to stir that night, the +Syracusans having laid ambushes and beset the ways. Nicias, caught with this +stratagem, remained, to encounter presently in reality, what he had feared when +there was no occasion. For they, the next morning, marching before, seized the +defiles, fortified the passes where the rivers were fordable, cut down the +bridges, and ordered their horsemen to range the plains and ground that lay +open, so as to leave no part of the country where the Athenians could move +without fighting. They stayed both that day and another night, and then went +along as if they were leaving their own, not an enemy’s country, lamenting and +bewailing for want of necessaries, and for their parting from friends and +companions that were not, able to help themselves; and, nevertheless, judging +the present evils lighter than those they expected to come. But among the many +miserable spectacles that appeared up and down in the camp, the saddest sight +of all was Nicias himself, laboring under his malady, and unworthily reduced to +the scantiest supply of all the accommodations necessary for human wants, of +which he in his condition required more than ordinary, because of his sickness; +yet bearing; up under all this illness, and doing and undergoing more than many +in perfect health. And it was plainly evident, that all this toil was not for +himself, or from any regard to his own life, but that purely for the sake of +those under his command he would not abandon hope. And, indeed, the rest were +given over to weeping and lamentation through fear or sorrow, but he, whenever +he yielded to anything of the kind, did so, it was evident, from reflection +upon the shame and dishonor of the enterprise, contrasted with the greatness +and glory of the success he had anticipated, and not only the sight of his +person, but, also, the recollection of the arguments and the dissuasions he +used to prevent this expedition, enhanced their sense of the undeservedness of +his sufferings, nor had they any heart to put their trust in the gods, +considering that a man so religious, who had performed to the divine powers so +many and so great acts of devotion, should have no more favorable treatment +than the wickedest and meanest of the army. +</p> + +<p> +Nicias, however, endeavored all the while by his voice, his countenance, and +his carriage, to show himself undefeated by these misfortunes. And all along +the way shot at, and receiving wounds eight days continually from the enemy, he +yet preserved the forces with him in a body entire, till that Demosthenes was +taken prisoner with the party that he led, whilst they fought and made a +resistance, and so got behind and were surrounded near the country house of +Polyzelus. Demosthenes thereupon drew his sword, and wounded but did not kill +himself, the enemy speedily running in and seizing upon him. So soon as the +Syracusans had gone and informed Nicias of this, and he had sent some horsemen, +and by them knew the certainty of the defeat of that division, he then +vouchsafed to sue to Gylippus for a truce for the Athenians to depart out of +Sicily, leaving hostages for payment of the money that the Syracusans had +expended in the war. +</p> + +<p> +But now they would not hear of these proposals, but threatening and reviling +them, angrily and insultingly continued to ply their missiles at them, now +destitute of every necessary. Yet Nicias still made good his retreat all that +night, and the next day, through all their darts, made his way to the river +Asinarus. There, however, the enemy encountering them, drove some into the +stream, while others ready to die for thirst plunged in headlong, while they +drank at the same time, and were cut down by their enemies. And here was the +cruelest and the most immoderate slaughter. Till at last Nicias falling down to +Gylippus, “Let pity, O Gylippus,” said he, “move you in your victory; not for +me, who was destined, it seems, to bring the glory I once had to this end, but +for the other Athenians; as you well know that the chances of war are common to +all, and the Athenians used them moderately and mildly towards you in their +prosperity.” +</p> + +<p> +At these words, and at the sight of Nicias, Gylippus was somewhat troubled, for +he was sensible that the Lacedaemonians had received good offices from Nicias +in the late treaty; and he thought it would be a great and glorious thing for +him to carry off the chief commanders of the Athenians alive. He, therefore, +raised Nicias with respect, and bade him be of good cheer, and commanded his +men to spare the lives of the rest. But the word of command being communicated +slowly, the slain were a far greater number than the prisoners. Many, however, +were privily conveyed away by particular soldiers. Those taken openly were +hurried together in a mass; their arms and spoils hung up on the finest and +largest trees along the river. The conquerors, with garlands on their heads, +with their own horses splendidly adorned, and cropping short the manes and +tails of those of their enemies, entered the city, having, in the most signal +conflict ever waged by Greeks against Greeks, and with the greatest strength +and the utmost effort of valor and manhood, won a most entire victory. +</p> + +<p> +And a general assembly of the people of Syracuse and their confederates +sitting, Eurycles, the popular leader, moved, first, that the day on which they +took Nicias should from thenceforward be kept holiday by sacrificing and +forbearing all manner of work, and from the river be called the Asinarian +Feast. This was the twenty-sixth day of the month Carneus, the Athenian +Metagitnion. And that the servants of the Athenians with the other confederates +be sold for slaves, and they themselves and the Sicilian auxiliaries be kept +and employed in the quarries, except the generals, who should be put to death. +The Syracusans favored the proposal, and when Hermocrates said, that to use +well a victory was better than to gain a victory, he was met with great clamor +and outcry. When Gylippus, also, demanded the Athenian generals to be delivered +to him, that he might carry them to the Lacedaemonians, the Syracusans, now +insolent with their good fortune, gave him ill words. Indeed, before this, even +in the war, they had been impatient at his rough behavior and Lacedaemonian +haughtiness, and had, as Timaeus tells us, discovered sordidness and avarice in +his character, vices which may have descended to him from his father +Cleandrides, who was convicted of bribery and banished. And the very man +himself, of the one thousand talents which Lysander sent to Sparta, embezzled +thirty, and hid them under the tiles of his house, and was detected and +shamefully fled his country. But this is related more at large in the life of +Lysander. Timaeus says that Demosthenes and Nicias did not die, as Thucydides +and Philistus have written, by the order of the Syracusans, but that upon a +message sent them from Hermocrates, whilst yet the assembly were sitting, by +the connivance of some of their guards, they were enabled to put an end to +themselves. Their bodies, however, were thrown out before the gates and offered +for a public spectacle. And I have heard that to this day in a temple at +Syracuse is shown a shield, said to have been Nicias’s, curiously wrought and +embroidered with gold and purple intermixed. Most of the Athenians perished in +the quarries by diseases and ill diet, being allowed only one pint of barley +every day, and one half pint of water. Many of them, however, were carried off +by stealth, or, from the first, were supposed to be servants, and were sold as +slaves. These latter were branded on their foreheads with the figure of a +horse. There were, however, Athenians, who, in addition to slavery, had to +endure even this. But their discreet and orderly conduct was an advantage to +them; they were either soon set free, or won the respect of their masters with +whom they continued to live. Several were saved for the sake of Euripides, +whose poetry, it appears, was in request among the Sicilians more than among +any of the settlers out of Greece. And when any travelers arrived that could +tell them some passage, or give them any specimen of his verses, they were +delighted to be able to communicate them to one another. Many of the captives +who got safe back to Athens are said, after they reached home, to have gone and +made their acknowledgments to Euripides, relating how that some of them had +been released from their slavery by teaching what they could remember of his +poems, and others, when straggling after the fight, been relieved with meat and +drink for repeating some of his lyrics. Nor need this be any wonder, for it is +told that a ship of Caunus fleeing into one of their harbors for protection, +pursued by pirates, was not received, but forced back, till one asked if they +knew any of Euripides’s verses, and on their saying they did, they were +admitted, and their ship brought into harbor. +</p> + +<p> +It is said that the Athenians would not believe their loss, in a great degree +because of the person who first brought them news of it. For a certain +stranger, it seems, coming to Piraeus, and there sitting in a barber’s shop, +began to talk of what had happened, as if the Athenians already knew all that +had passed; which the barber hearing, before he acquainted anybody else, ran as +fast as he could up into the city, addressed himself to the Archons, and +presently spread it about in the public Place. On which, there being +everywhere, as may be imagined, terror and consternation, the Archons summoned +a general assembly, and there brought in the man and questioned him how he came +to know. And he, giving no satisfactory account, was taken for a spreader of +false intelligence and a disturber of the city, and was, therefore, fastened to +the wheel and racked a long time, till other messengers arrived that related +the whole disaster particularly. So hardly was Nicias believed to have suffered +the calamity which he had often predicted. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap39"></a>CRASSUS</h2> + +<p> +Marcus Crassus, whose father had borne the office of a censor, and received the +honor of a triumph, was educated in a little house together with his two +brothers, who both married in their parents’ lifetime; they kept but one table +amongst them; all which, perhaps, was not the least reason of his own +temperance and moderation in diet. One of his brothers dying, he married his +widow, by whom he had his children; neither was there in these respects any of +the Romans who lived a more orderly life than he did, though later in life he +was suspected to have been too familiar with one of the vestal virgins, named +Licinia, who was, nevertheless, acquitted, upon an impeachment brought against +her by one Plotinus. Licinia stood possessed of a beautiful property in the +suburbs, which Crassus desiring to purchase at a low price, for this reason was +frequent in his attentions to her, which gave occasion to the scandal, and his +avarice, so to say, serving to clear him of the crime, he was acquitted. Nor +did he leave the lady till he had got the estate. +</p> + +<p> +People were wont to say that the many virtues of Crassus were darkened by the +one vice of avarice, and indeed he seemed to have no other but that; for it +being the most predominant, obscured others to which he was inclined. The +arguments in proof of his avarice were the vastness of his estate, and the +manner of raising it; for whereas at first he was not worth above three hundred +talents, yet, though in the course of his political life he dedicated the tenth +of all he had to Hercules, and feasted the people, and gave to every citizen +corn enough to serve him three months, upon casting up his accounts, before he +went upon his Parthian expedition, he found his possessions to amount to seven +thousand one hundred talents; most of which, if we may scandal him with a +truth, he got by fire and rapine, making his advantages of the public +calamities. For when Sylla seized the city, and exposed to sale the goods of +those that he had caused to be slain, accounting them booty and spoils, and, +indeed, calling them so too, and was desirous of making as many, and as eminent +men as he could, partakers in the crime, Crassus never was the man that refused +to accept, or give money for them. Moreover observing how extremely subject the +city was to fire, and falling down of houses, by reason of their height and +their standing so near together, he bought slaves that were builders and +architects, and when he had collected these to the number of more than five +hundred, he made it his practice to buy houses that were on fire, and those in +the neighborhood, which, in the immediate danger and uncertainty, the +proprietors were willing to part with for little, or nothing; so that the +greatest part of Rome, at one time or other, came into his hands. Yet for all +he had so many workmen, he never built anything but his own house, and used to +say that those that were addicted to building would undo themselves soon enough +without the help of other enemies. And though he had many silver mines, and +much valuable land, and laborers to work in it, yet all this was nothing in +comparison of his slaves, such a number and variety did he possess of excellent +readers, amanuenses, silversmiths, stewards, and table-waiters, whose +instruction he always attended to himself, superintending in person while they +learned, and teaching them himself, accounting it the main duty of a master to +look over the servants, that are, indeed, the living tools of housekeeping; and +in this, indeed, he was in the right, in thinking, that is, as he used to say, +that servants ought to look after all other things, and the master after them. +For economy, which in things inanimate is but money-making when exercised over +men becomes policy. But it was surely a mistaken judgment, when he said no man +was to be accounted rich that could not maintain an army at his own cost and +charges, for war, as Archidamus well observed, is not fed at a fixed allowance, +so that there is no saying what wealth suffices for it, and certainly it was +one very far removed from that of Marius; for when he had distributed fourteen +acres of land a man, and understood that some desired more, “God forbid,” said +he, “that any Roman should think that too little which is enough to keep him +alive and well.” +</p> + +<p> +Crassus, however, was very eager to be hospitable to strangers; he kept open +house, and to his friends he would lend money without interest, but called it +in precisely at the time; so that his kindness was often thought worse than the +paying the interest would have been. His entertainments were, for the most +part, plain and citizenlike, the company general and popular; good taste and +kindness made them pleasanter than sumptuosity would have done. As for +learning, he chiefly cared for rhetoric, and what would be serviceable with +large numbers; he became one of the best speakers at Rome, and by his pains and +industry outdid the best natural orators. For there was no trial how mean and +contemptible soever that he came to unprepared; nay, several times he undertook +and concluded a cause, when Pompey and Caesar and Cicero refused to stand up, +upon which account particularly he got the love of the people, who looked upon +him as a diligent and careful man, ready to help and succor his +fellow-citizens. Besides, the people were pleased with his courteous and +unpretending salutations and greetings; for he never met any citizen however +humble and low, but he returned him his salute by name. He was looked upon as a +man well-read in history, and pretty well versed in Aristotle’s philosophy, in +which one Alexander instructed him, a man whose intercourse with Crassus gave a +sufficient proof of his good-nature, and gentle disposition; for it is hard to +say whether he was poorer when he entered into his service, or while he +continued in it; for being his only friend that used to accompany him when +traveling, he used to receive from him a cloak for the journey, and when he +came home had it demanded from him again; poor patient sufferer, when even the +philosophy he professed did not look upon poverty as a thing indifferent. But +of this hereafter. +</p> + +<p> +When Cinna and Marius got the power in their hands, it was soon perceived that +they had not come back for any good they intended to their country, but to +effect the ruin and utter destruction of the nobility. And as many as they +could lay their hands on they slew, amongst whom were Crassus’s father and +brother; he himself, being very young, for the moment escaped the danger; but +understanding that he was every way beset and hunted after by the tyrants, +taking with him three friends and ten servants, with all possible speed he fled +into Spain, having formerly been there and secured a great number of friends, +while his father was Praetor of that country. But finding all people in a +consternation, and trembling at the cruelty of Marius, as if he was already +standing over them in person, he durst not discover himself to anybody, but hid +himself in a large cave, which was by the sea-shore, and belonged to Vibius +Pacianus, to whom he sent one of his servants to sound him, his provisions, +also, beginning to fail. Vibius was well pleased at his escape, and inquiring +the place of his abode and the number of his companions, he went not to him +himself, but commanded his steward to provide every day a good meal’s meat, and +carry it and leave it near such a rock, and so return without taking any +further notice or being inquisitive, promising him his liberty if he did as he +commanded, and that he would kill him if he intermeddled. The cave is not far +from the sea; a small and insignificant looking opening in the cliffs conducts +you in; when you are entered, a wonderfully high roof spreads above you, and +large chambers open out one beyond another, nor does it lack either water or +light, for a very pleasant and wholesome spring runs at the foot of the cliffs, +and natural chinks, in the most advantageous place, let in the light all day +long; and the thickness of the rock makes the air within pure and clear, all +the wet and moisture being carried off into the spring. +</p> + +<p> +While Crassus remained here, the steward brought them what was necessary, but +never saw them, nor knew anything of the matter, though they within saw, and +expected him at the customary times. Neither was their entertainment such as +just to keep them alive, but given them in abundance and for their enjoyment; +for Pacianus resolved to treat him with all imaginable kindness, and +considering he was a young man, thought it well to gratify a little his +youthful inclinations; for to give just what is needful, seems rather to come +from necessity than from a hearty friendship. Once taking with him two female +servants, he showed them the place and bade them go in boldly, whom when +Crassus and his friends saw, they were afraid of being betrayed, and demanded +what they were, and what they would have. They, according as they were +instructed, answered, they came to wait upon their master who was hid in that +cave. And so Crassus perceiving it was a piece of pleasantry and of goodwill on +the part of Vibius, took them in and kept them there with him as long as he +stayed, and employed them to give information to Vibius of what they wanted, +and how they were. Fenestella says he saw one of them, then very old, and often +heard her speak of the time and repeat the story with pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +After Crassus had lain concealed there eight months, on hearing that Cinna was +dead, he appeared abroad, and a great number of people flocking to him, out of +whom he selected a body of two thousand five hundred, he visited many cities, +and, as some write, sacked Malaca, which he himself, however, always denied, +and contradicted all who said so. Afterwards, getting together some ships, he +passed into Africa, and joined with Metellus Pius, an eminent person that had +raised a very considerable force; but upon some difference between him and +Metellus, he stayed not long there, but went over to Sylla, by whom he was very +much esteemed. When Sylla passed over into Italy, he was anxious to put all the +young men that were with him in employment; and as he dispatched some one way, +and some another, Crassus, on its falling to his share to raise men among the +Marsians, demanded a guard, being to pass through the enemy’s country, upon +which Sylla replied sharply, “I give you for guard your father, your brother, +your friends and kindred, whose unjust and cruel murder I am now going to +revenge;” and Crassus, being nettled, went his way, broke boldly through the +enemy, collected a considerable force, and in all Sylla’s wars acted with great +zeal and courage. And in these times and occasions, they say, began the +emulation and rivalry for glory between him and Pompey; for though Pompey was +the younger man, and had the disadvantage to be descended of a father that was +disesteemed by the citizens, and hated as much as ever man was, yet in these +actions he shone out, and was proved so great, that Sylla always used, when he +came in, to stand up and uncover his head, an honor which he seldom showed to +older men and his own equals, and always saluted him Imperator. This fired and +stung Crassus, though, indeed, he could not with any fairness claim to be +preferred; for he both wanted experience, and his two innate vices, sordidness +and avarice, tarnished all the lustre of his actions. For when he had taken +Tudertia, a town of the Umbrians, he converted, it was said, all the spoil to +his own use, for which he was complained of to Sylla. But in the last and +greatest battle before Rome itself, where Sylla was worsted, some of his +battalions giving ground, and others being quite broken, Crassus got the +victory on the right wing, which he commanded, and pursued the enemy till +night, and then sent to Sylla to acquaint him with his success, and demand +provision for his soldiers. In the time, however, of the proscriptions and +sequestrations, he lost his repute again, by making great purchases for little +or nothing, and asking for grants. Nay, they say he proscribed one of the +Bruttians without Sylla’s order, only for his own profit, and that, on +discovering this, Sylla never after trusted him in any public affairs. As no +man was more cunning than Crassus to ensnare others by flattery, so no man lay +more open to it, or swallowed it more greedily than himself. And this +particularly was observed of him, that though he was the most covetous man in +the world, yet he habitually disliked and cried out against others who were so. +</p> + +<p> +It troubled him to see Pompey so successful in all his undertakings; that he +had had a triumph before he was capable to sit in the senate, and that the +people had surnamed him Magnus, or the Great. When somebody was saying Pompey +the Great was coming, he smiled, and asked him, “How big is he?” Despairing to +equal him by feats of arms, he betook himself to civil life, where by doing +kindnesses, pleading, lending money, by speaking and canvassing among the +people for those who had objects to obtain from them, he gradually gained as +great honor and power as Pompey had from his many famous expeditions. And it +was a curious thing in their rivalry, that Pompey’s name and interest in the +city was greatest when he was absent, for his renown in war, but when present +he was often less successful than Crassus, by reason of his superciliousness +and haughty way of living, shunning crowds of people, and appearing rarely in +the forum, and assisting only some few, and that not readily, that his interest +might be the stronger when he came to use it for himself. Whereas Crassus, +being a friend always at hand, ready to be had and easy of access, and always +with his hands full of other people’s business, with his freedom and courtesy, +got the better of Pompey’s formality. In point of dignity of person, eloquence +of language, and attractiveness of countenance, they were pretty equally +excellent. But, however, this emulation never transported Crassus so far as to +make him bear enmity, or any ill-will; for though he was vexed to see Pompey +and Caesar preferred to him, yet he never minded any hostility or malice with +his jealousy; though Caesar when he was taken captive by the corsairs in Asia, +cried out, “O Crassus, how glad you will be at the news of my captivity!” +Afterwards they lived together on friendly terms, for when Caesar was going +praetor into Spain, and his creditors, he being then in want of money, came +upon him and seized his equipage, Crassus then stood by him and relieved him, +and was his security for eight hundred and thirty talents. And, in general, +Rome being divided into three great interests, those of Pompey, Caesar, and +Crassus, (for as for Cato, his fame was greater than his power, and he was +rather admired than followed,) the sober and quiet part were for Pompey, the +restless and hotheaded followed Caesar’s ambition, but Crassus trimmed between +them, making advantages of both, and changed sides continually, being neither a +trusty friend nor an implacable enemy, and easily abandoned both his +attachments and his animosities, as he found it for his advantage, so that in +short spaces of time, the same men and the same measures had him both as their +supporter and as their opponent. He was much liked, but was feared as much or +even more. At any rate, when Sicinius, who was the greatest troubler of the +magistrates and ministers of his time, was asked how it was he let Crassus +alone, “Oh,” said he, “he carries hay on his horns,” alluding to the custom of +tying hay to the horns of a bull that used to butt, that people might keep out +of his way. +</p> + +<p> +The insurrection of the gladiators and the devastation of Italy, commonly +called the war of Spartacus, began upon this occasion. One Lentulus Batiates +trained up a great many gladiators in Capua, most of them Gauls and Thracians, +who, not for any fault by them committed, but simply through the cruelty of +their master, were kept in confinement for this object of fighting one with +another. Two hundred of these formed a plan to escape, but their plot being +discovered, those of them who became aware of it in time to anticipate their +master, being seventy-eight, got out of a cook’s shop chopping-knives and +spits, and made their way through the city, and lighting by the way on several +wagons that were carrying gladiator’s arms to another city, they seized upon +them and armed themselves. And seizing upon a defensible place, they chose +three captains, of whom Spartacus was chief, a Thracian of one of the nomad +tribes, and a man not only of high spirit and valiant, but in understanding, +also, and in gentleness, superior to his condition, and more of a Grecian than +the people of his country usually are. When he first came to be sold at Rome, +they say a snake coiled itself upon his face as he lay asleep, and his wife, +who at this latter time also accompanied him in his flight, his country-woman, +a kind of prophetess, and one of those possessed with the bacchanal frenzy, +declared that it was a sign portending great and formidable power to him with +no happy event. +</p> + +<p> +First, then, routing those that came out of Capua against them, and thus +procuring a quantity of proper soldiers’ arms, they gladly threw away their own +as barbarous and dishonorable. Afterwards Clodius, the praetor, took the +command against them with a body of three thousand men from Rome, and besieged +them within a mountain, accessible only by one narrow and difficult passage, +which Clodius kept guarded, encompassed on all other sides with steep and +slippery precipices. Upon the top, however, grew a great many wild vines, and +cutting down as many of their boughs as they had need of, they twisted them +into strong ladders long enough to reach from thence to the bottom, by which, +without any danger, they got down all but one, who stayed there to throw them +down their arms, and after this succeeded in saving himself. The Romans were +ignorant of all this, and, therefore, coming upon them in the rear, they +assaulted them unawares and took their camp. Several, also, of the shepherds +and herdsman that were there, stout and nimble fellows, revolted over to them, +to some of whom they gave complete arms, and made use of others as scouts and +light-armed soldiers. Publius Varinus, the praetor, was now sent against them, +whose lieutenant, Furius, with two thousand men, they fought and routed. Then +Cossinius was sent, with considerable forces, to give his assistance and +advice, and him Spartacus missed but very little of capturing in person, as he +was bathing at Salinae; for he with great difficulty made his escape, while +Spartacus possessed himself of his baggage, and following the chase with a +great slaughter, stormed his camp and took it, where Cossinius himself was +slain. After many successful skirmishes with the praetor himself, in one of +which he took his lictors and his own horse, he began to be great and terrible; +but wisely considering that he was not to expect to match the force of the +empire, he marched his army towards the Alps, intending, when he had passed +them, that every man should go to his own home, some to Thrace, some to Gaul. +But they, grown confident in their numbers, and puffed up with their success, +would give no obedience to him, but went about and ravaged Italy; so that now +the senate was not only moved at the indignity and baseness, both of the enemy +and of the insurrection, but, looking upon it as a matter of alarm and of +dangerous consequence, sent out both the consuls to it, as to a great and +difficult enterprise. The consul Gellius, falling suddenly upon a party of +Germans, who through contempt and confidence had straggled from Spartacus, cut +them all to pieces. But when Lentulus with a large army besieged Spartacus, he +sallied out upon him, and, joining battle, defeated his chief officers, and +captured all his baggage. As he made toward the Alps, Cassius, who was praetor +of that part of Gaul that lies about the Po, met him with ten thousand men, but +being overcome in battle, he had much ado to escape himself, with the loss of a +great many of his men. +</p> + +<p> +When the senate understood this, they were displeased at the consuls, and +ordering them to meddle no further, they appointed Crassus general of the war, +and a great many of the nobility went volunteers with him, partly out of +friendship, and partly to get honor. He stayed himself on the borders of +Picenum, expecting Spartacus would come that way, and sent his lieutenant, +Mummius, with two legions, to wheel about and observe the enemy’s motions, but +upon no account to engage or skirmish. But he, upon the first opportunity, +joined battle, and was routed, having a great many of his men slain, and a +great many only saving their lives, with the loss of their arms. Crassus +rebuked Mummius severely, and arming the soldiers again, he made them find +sureties for their arms, that they would part with them no more, and five +hundred that were the beginners of the flight, he divided into fifty tens, and +one of each was to die by lot, thus reviving the ancient Roman punishment of +decimation, where ignominy is added to the penalty of death, with a variety of +appalling and terrible circumstances, presented before the eyes of the whole +army, assembled as spectators. When he had thus reclaimed his men, he led them +against the enemy; but Spartacus retreated through Lucania toward the sea, and +in the straits meeting with some Cilician pirate ships, he had thoughts of +attempting Sicily, where, by landing two thousand men, he hoped to new kindle +the war of the slaves, which was but lately extinguished, and seemed to need +but a little fuel to set it burning again. But after the pirates had struck a +bargain with him, and received his earnest, they deceived him and sailed away. +He thereupon retired again from the sea, and established his army in the +peninsula of Rhegium; there Crassus came upon him, and considering the nature +of the place, which of itself suggested the undertaking, he set to work to +build a wall across the isthmus; thus keeping his soldiers at once from +idleness, and his foes from forage. This great and difficult work he perfected +in a space of time short beyond all expectation, making a ditch from one sea to +the other, over the neck of land, three hundred furlongs long, fifteen feet +broad, and as much in depth, and above it built a wonderfully high and strong +wall. All which Spartacus at first slighted and despised, but when provisions +began to fail, and on his proposing to pass further, he found he was walled in, +and no more was to be had in the peninsula, taking the opportunity of a snowy, +stormy night, he filled up part of the ditch with earth and boughs of trees, +and so passed the third part of his army over. +</p> + +<p> +Crassus was afraid lest he should march directly to Rome, but was soon eased of +that fear when he saw many of his men break out in a mutiny and quit him, and +encamp by themselves upon the Lucanian lake. This lake they say changes at +intervals of time, and is sometimes sweet, and sometimes so salt that it cannot +be drunk. Crassus falling upon these beat them from the lake, but he could not +pursue the slaughter, because of Spartacus suddenly coming up, and checking the +flight. Now he began to repent that he had previously written to the senate to +call Lucullus out of Thrace, and Pompey out of Spain; so that he did all he +could to finish the war before they came, knowing that the honor of the action +would redound to him that came to his assistance. Resolving, therefore, first +to set upon those that had mutinied and encamped apart, whom Caius Cannicius +and Castus commanded, he sent six thousand men before to secure a little +eminence, and to do it as privately as possible, which that they might do, they +covered their helmets, but being discovered by two women that were sacrificing +for the enemy, they had been in great hazard, had not Crassus immediately +appeared, and engaged in a battle which proved a most bloody one. Of twelve +thousand three hundred whom he killed, two only were found wounded in their +backs, the rest all having died standing in their ranks, and fighting bravely. +Spartacus, after this discomfiture, retired to the mountains of Petelia, but +Quintius, one of Crassus’s officers, and Scrofa, the quaestor, pursued and +overtook him. But when Spartacus rallied and faced them, they were utterly +routed and fled, and had much ado to carry off their quaestor, who was wounded. +This success, however, ruined Spartacus, because it encouraged the slaves, who +now disdained any longer to avoid fighting, or to obey their officers, but as +they were upon their march, they came to them with their swords in their hand, +and compelled them to lead them back again through Lucania, against the Romans, +the very thing which Crassus was eager for. For news was already brought that +Pompey was at hand; and people began to talk openly, that the honor of this war +was reserved for him, who would come and at once oblige the enemy to fight and +put an end to the war. Crassus, therefore, eager to fight a decisive battle, +encamped very near the enemy, and began to make lines of circumvallation; but +the slaves made a sally, and attacked the pioneers. As fresh supplies came in +on either side, Spartacus, seeing there was no avoiding it, set all his army in +array, and when his horse was brought him, he drew out his sword and killed +him, saying, if he got the day, he should have a great many better horses of +the enemies, and if he lost it, he should have no need of this. And so making +directly towards Crassus himself, through the midst of arms and wounds, he +missed him, hut slew two centurions that fell upon him together. At last being +deserted by those that were about him, he himself stood his ground, and, +surrounded by the enemy, bravely defending himself, was cut in pieces. But +though Crassus had good fortune, and not only did the part of a good general, +but gallantly exposed his person, yet Pompey had much of the credit of the +action. For he met with many of the fugitives, and slew them, and wrote to the +senate that Crassus indeed had vanquished the slaves in a pitched battle, but +that he had put an end to the war. Pompey was honored with a magnificent +triumph for his conquest over Sertorius and Spain, while Crassus could not +himself so much as desire a triumph in its full form, and indeed it was thought +to look but meanly in him to accept of the lesser honor, called the ovation, +for a servile war, and perform a procession on foot. The difference between +this and the other, and the origin of the name, are explained in the life of +Marcellus. +</p> + +<p> +And Pompey being immediately invited to the consulship, Crassus, who had hoped +to be joined with him, did not scruple to request his assistance. Pompey most +readily seized the opportunity, as he desired by all means to lay some +obligation upon Crassus, and zealously promoted his interest; and at last he +declared in one of his speeches to the people, that he should be not less +beholden to them for his colleague, than for the honor of his own appointment. +But once entered upon the employment, this amity continued not long; but +differing almost in everything, disagreeing, quarreling, and contending, they +spent the time of their consulship, without effecting any measure of +consequence, except that Crassus made a great sacrifice to Hercules, and +feasted the people at ten thousand tables, and measured them out corn for three +months. When their command was now ready to expire, and they were, as it +happened addressing the people, a Roman knight, one Onatius Aurelius, an +ordinary private person, living in the country, mounted the hustings, and +declared a vision he had in his sleep: “Jupiter,” said he, “appeared to me, and +commanded me to tell you, that you should not suffer your consuls to lay down +their charge before they are made friends.” When he had spoken, the people +cried out that they should be reconciled. Pompey stood still and said nothing, +but Crassus, first offering him his hand, said, “I cannot think, my countrymen, +that I do any thing humiliating or unworthy of myself, if I make the first +offers of accommodation and friendship with Pompey, whom you yourselves styled +the Great, before he was of man’s estate, and decreed him a triumph before he +was capable of sitting in the senate.” +</p> + +<p> +This is what was memorable in Crassus’s consulship, but as for his censorship, +that was altogether idle and inactive, for he neither made a scrutiny of the +senate, nor took a review of the horsemen, nor a census of the people, though +he had as mild a man as could be desired for his colleague, Lutatius Catulus. +It is said, indeed, that when Crassus intended a violent and unjust measure, +which was the reducing Egypt to be tributary to Rome, Catulus strongly opposed +it, and falling out about it, they laid down their office by consent. In the +great conspiracy of Catiline, which was very near subverting the government, +Crassus was not without some suspicion of being concerned, and one man came +forward and declared him to be in the plot; but nobody credited him. Yet +Cicero, in one of his orations, clearly charges both Crassus and Caesar with +the guilt of it, though that speech was not published till they were both dead. +But in his speech upon his consulship, he declares that Crassus came to him by +night, and brought a letter concerning Catiline, stating the details of the +conspiracy. Crassus hated him ever after, but was hindered by his son from +doing him any open injury; for Publius was a great lover of learning and +eloquence, and a constant follower of Cicero, insomuch that he put himself into +mourning when he was accused, and induced the other young men to do the same. +And at last he reconciled him to his father. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar now returning from his command, and designing to get the consulship, and +seeing that Crassus and Pompey were again at variance, was unwilling to +disoblige one by making application to the other, and despaired of success +without the help of one of them; he therefore made it his business to reconcile +them, making it appear that by weakening each other’s influence they were +promoting the interest of the Ciceros, the Catuli, and the Catos, who would +really be of no account if they would join their interests and their factions, +and act together in public with one policy and one united power. And so +reconciling them by his persuasions, out of the three parties he set up one +irresistible power, which utterly subverted the government both of senate and +people. Not that he made either Pompey or Crassus greater than they were +before, but by their means made himself greatest of all; for by the help of the +adherents of both, he was at once gloriously declared consul, which office when +he administered with credit, they decreed him the command of an army, and +allotted him Gaul for his province, and so placed him as it were in the +citadel, not doubting but they should divide the rest at their pleasure between +themselves, when they had confirmed him in his allotted command. Pompey was +actuated in all this by an immoderate desire of ruling, but Crassus, adding to +his old disease of covetousness, a new passion after trophies and triumphs, +emulous of Caesar’s exploits, not content to be beneath him in these points, +though above him in all others, could not be at rest, till it ended in an +ignominious overthrow, and a public calamity. When Caesar came out of Gaul to +Lucca, a great many went thither from Rome to meet him. Pompey and Crassus had +various conferences with him in secret, in which they came to the resolution to +proceed to still more decisive steps, and to get the whole management of +affairs into their hands, Caesar to keep his army, and Pompey and Crassus to +obtain new ones and new provinces. To effect all which there was but one way, +the getting the consulate a second time, which they were to stand for, and +Caesar to assist them by writing to his friends, and sending many of his +soldiers to vote. +</p> + +<p> +But when they returned to Rome, their design was presently suspected, and a +report was soon spread that this interview had been for no good. When +Marcellinus and Domitius asked Pompey in the senate if he intended to stand for +the consulship, he answered, perhaps he would, perhaps not; and being urged +again, replied, he would ask it of the honest citizens, but not of the +dishonest. Which answer appearing too haughty and arrogant, Crassus said, more +modestly, that he would desire it if it might be for the advantage of the +public, otherwise he would decline it. Upon this some others took confidence +and came forward as candidates, among them Domitius. But when Pompey and +Crassus now openly appeared for it, the rest were afraid and drew back; only +Cato encouraged Domitius, who was his friend and relation, to proceed, exciting +him to persist, as though he was now defending the public liberty, as these +men, he said, did not so much aim at the consulate, as at arbitrary government, +and it was not a petition for office, but a seizure of provinces and armies. +Thus spoke and thought Cato, and almost forcibly compelled Domitius to appear +in the forum, where many sided with them. For there was, indeed, much wonder +and question among the people, “Why should Pompey and Crassus want another +consulship? and why they two together, and not with some third person? We have +a great many men not unworthy to be fellow-consuls with either the one or the +other.” Pompey’s party, being apprehensive of this, committed all manner of +indecencies and violences, and amongst other things lay in wait for Domitius, +as he was coming thither before daybreak with his friends; his torchbearer they +killed, and wounded several others, of whom Cato was one. And these being +beaten back and driven into a house, Pompey and Crassus were proclaimed +consuls. Not long after, they surrounded the house with armed men, thrust Cato +out of the forum, killed some that made resistance, and decreed Caesar his +command for five years longer, and provinces for themselves, Syria, and both +the Spains, which being divided by lots, Syria fell to Crassus, and the Spains +to Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +All were well pleased with the chance, for the people were desirous that Pompey +should not go far from the city, and he, being extremely fond of his wife, was +very glad to continue there; but Crassus was so transported with his fortune, +that it was manifest he thought he had never had such good luck befall him as +now, so that he had much to do to contain himself before company and strangers; +but amongst his private friends he let fall many vain and childish words, which +were unworthy of his age, and contrary to his usual character, for he had been +very little given to boasting hitherto. But then being strangely puffed up, and +his head heated, he would not limit his fortune with Parthia and Syria; but +looking on the actions of Lucullus against Tigranes and the exploits of Pompey +against Mithridates as but child’s play, he proposed to himself in his hopes to +pass as far as Bactria and India, and the utmost ocean. Not that he was called +upon by the decree which appointed him to his office to undertake any +expedition against the Parthians, but it was well known that he was eager for +it, and Caesar wrote to him out of Gaul, commending his resolution, and +inciting him to the war. And when Ateius, the tribune of the people, designed +to stop his journey, and many others murmured that one man should undertake a +war against a people that had done them no injury, and were at amity with them, +he desired Pompey to stand by him and accompany him out of the town, as he had +a great name amongst the common people. And when several were ready prepared to +interfere and raise an outcry, Pompey appeared with a pleasing countenance, and +so mollified the people, that they let Crassus pass quietly. Ateius, however, +met him, and first by word of mouth warned and conjured him not to proceed, and +then commanded his attendant officer to seize him and detain him; but the other +tribunes not permitting it, the officer released Crassus. Ateius, therefore, +running to the gate, when Crassus was come thither, set down a chafing-dish +with lighted fire in it, and burning incense and pouring libations on it, +cursed him with dreadful imprecations, calling upon and naming several strange +and horrible deities. In the Roman belief there is so much virtue in these +sacred and ancient rites, that no man can escape the effects of them, and that +the utterer himself seldom prospers; so that they are not often made use of, +and but upon a great occasion. And Ateius was blamed at the time for resorting +to them, as the city itself, in whose cause he used them, would be the first to +feel the ill effects of these curses and supernatural terrors. +</p> + +<p> +Crassus arrived at Brundusium, and though the sea was very rough, he had not +patience to wait, but went on board, and lost many of his ships. With the +remnant of his army he marched rapidly through Galatia, where meeting with king +Deiotarus, who, though he was very old, was about building a new city, Crassus +scoffingly told him, “Your majesty begins to build at the twelfth hour.” +“Neither do you,” said he, “O general, undertake your Parthian expedition very +early.” For Crassus was then sixty years old, and he seemed older than he was. +At his first coming, things went as he would have them, for he made a bridge +over Euphrates without much difficulty, and passed over his army in safety, and +occupied many cities of Mesopotamia, which yielded voluntarily. But a hundred +of his men were killed in one, in which Apollonius was tyrant; therefore, +bringing his forces against it, he took it by storm, plundered the goods, and +sold the inhabitants. The Greeks call this city Zenodotia, upon the taking of +which, he permitted the army to salute him Imperator, but this was very ill +thought of, and it looked as if he despaired a nobler achievement, that he made +so much of this little success. Putting garrisons of seven thousand foot and +one thousand horse in the new conquests, he returned to take up his winter +quarters in Syria, where his son was to meet him coming from Caesar out of +Gaul, decorated with rewards for his valor, and bringing with him one thousand +select horse. Here Crassus seemed to commit his first error, and except, +indeed, the whole expedition, his greatest; for, whereas he ought to have gone +forward and seized Babylon and Seleucia, cities that were ever at enmity with +the Parthians, he gave the enemy time to provide against him. Besides, he spent +his time in Syria more like an usurer than a general, not in taking an account +of the arms, and in improving the skill and discipline of his soldiers, but in +computing the revenue of the cities, wasting many days in weighing by scale and +balance the treasure that was in the temple of Hierapolis, issuing requisitions +for levies of soldiers upon particular towns and kingdoms, and then again +withdrawing them on payment of sums of money, by which he lost his credit and +became despised. Here, too, he met with the first ill-omen from that goddess, +whom some call Venus, others Juno, others Nature, or the Cause that produces +out of moisture the first principles and seeds of all things, and gives mankind +their earliest knowledge of all that is good for them. For as they were going +out of the temple, young Crassus stumbled, and his father fell upon him. +</p> + +<p> +When he drew his army out of winter quarters, ambassadors came to him from +Arsaces, with this short speech: If the army was sent by the people of Rome, he +denounced mortal war, but if, as he understood was the case, against the +consent of his country, Crassus for his own private profit had invaded his +territory, then their king would be more merciful, and taking pity upon +Crassus’s dotage, would send those soldiers back, who had been left not so +truly to keep guard on him as to be his prisoners. Crassus boastfully told them +he would return his answer at Seleucia, upon which Vagises, the eldest of them, +laughed and showed the palm of his hand, saying, “Hail will grow here before +you will see Seleucia;” so they returned to their king, Hyrodes, telling him it +was war. Several of the Romans that were in garrison in Mesopotamia with great +hazard made their escape, and brought word that the danger was worth +consideration, urging their own eye-witness of the numbers of the enemy, and +the manner of their fighting, when they assaulted their towns; and, as men’s +manner is, made all seem greater than really it was. By flight it was +impossible to escape them, and as impossible to overtake them when they fled, +and they had a new and strange sort of darts, as swift as sight, for they +pierced whatever they met with, before you could see who threw; their +men-at-arms were so provided that their weapons would cut through anything, and +their armor give way to nothing. All which when the soldiers heard, their +hearts failed them; for till now they thought there was no difference between +the Parthians and the Armenians or Cappadocians, whom Lucullus grew weary with +plundering, and had been persuaded that the main difficulty of the war +consisted only in the tediousness of the march, and the trouble of chasing men +that durst not come to blows, so that the danger of a battle was beyond their +expectation; accordingly, some of the officers advised Crassus to proceed no +further at present, but reconsider the whole enterprise, amongst whom in +particular was Cassius, the quaestor. The soothsayers, also, told him privately +the signs found in the sacrifices were continually adverse and unfavorable. But +he paid no heed to them, or to anybody who gave any other advice than to +proceed. Nor did Artabazes, king of Armenia, confirm him a little, who came to +his aid with six thousand horse; who, however, were said to be only the king’s +life-guard and suite, for he promised ten thousand cuirassiers more, and thirty +thousand foot, at his own charge. He urged Crassus to invade Parthia by the way +of Armenia, for not only would he be able there to supply his army with +abundant provision, which he would give him, but his passage would be more +secure in the mountains and hills, with which the whole country was covered, +making it almost impassable to horse, in which the main strength of the +Parthians consisted. Crassus returned him but cold thanks for his readiness to +serve him, and for the splendor of his assistance, and told him he was resolved +to pass through Mesopotamia, where he had left a great many brave Roman +soldiers; whereupon the Armenian went his way. As Crassus was taking the army +over the river at Zeugma, he encountered preternaturally violent thunder, and +the lightning flashed in the faces of the troops, and during the storm a +hurricane broke upon the bridge, and carried part of it away; two thunderbolts +fell upon the very place where the army was going to encamp; and one of the +general’s horses, magnificently caparisoned, dragged away the groom into the +river and was drowned. It is said, too, that when they went to take up the +first standard, the eagle of itself turned its head backward; and after he had +passed over his army, as they were distributing provisions, the first thing +they gave was lentils and salt, which with the Romans are the food proper to +funerals, and are offered to the dead. And as Crassus was haranguing his +soldiers, he let fall a word which was thought very ominous in the army; for “I +am going,” he said, “to break down the bridge, that none of you may return;” +and whereas he ought, when he had perceived his blunder, to have corrected +himself, and explained his meaning, seeing the men alarmed at the expression, +he would not do it out of mere stubbornness. And when at the last general +sacrifice the priest gave him the entrails, they slipped out of his hand, and +when he saw the standers-by concerned at it, he laughed and said, “See what it +is to be an old man; but I shall hold my sword fast enough.” +</p> + +<p> +So he marched his army along the river with seven legions, little less than +four thousand horse, and as many light-armed soldiers, and the scouts returning +declared that not one man appeared, but that they saw the footing of a great +many horses which seemed to be retiring in flight, whereupon Crassus conceived +great hopes, and the Romans began to despise the Parthians, as men that would +not come to combat, hand to hand. But Cassius spoke with him again, and advised +him to refresh his army in some of the garrison towns, and remain there till +they could get some certain intelligence of the enemy, or at least to make +toward Seleucia, and keep by the river, that so they might have the convenience +of having provision constantly supplied by the boats, which might always +accompany the army, and the river would secure them from being environed, and, +if they should fight, it might be upon equal terms. +</p> + +<p> +While Crassus was still considering, and as yet undetermined, there came to the +camp an Arab chief named Ariamnes, a cunning and wily fellow, who, of all the +evil chances which combined to lead them on to destruction, was the chief and +the most fatal. Some of Pompey’s old soldiers knew him, and remembered him to +have received some kindnesses of Pompey, and to have been looked upon as a +friend to the Romans, but he was now suborned by the king’s generals, and sent +to Crassus to entice him if possible from the river and hills into the wide +open plain, where he might be surrounded. For the Parthians desired anything, +rather than to be obliged to meet the Romans face to face. He, therefore, +coming to Crassus, (and he had a persuasive tongue,) highly commended Pompey as +his benefactor, and admired the forces that Crassus had with him, but seemed to +wonder why he delayed and made preparations, as if he should not use his feet +more than any arms, against men that, taking with them their best goods and +chattels, had designed long ago to fly for refuge to the Scythians or +Hyrcanians. “If you meant to fight, you should have made all possible haste, +before the king should recover courage, and collect his forces together; at +present you see Surena and Sillaces opposed to you, to draw you off in pursuit +of them, while the king himself keeps out of the way.” But this was all a lie, +for Hyrodes had divided his army in two parts, with one he in person wasted +Armenia, revenging himself upon Artavasdes, and sent Surena against the Romans, +not out of contempt, as some pretend, for there is no likelihood that he should +despise Crassus, one of the chiefest men of Rome, to go and fight with +Artavasdes, and invade Armenia; but much more probably he really apprehended +the danger, and therefore waited to see the event, intending that Surena should +first run the hazard of a battle, and draw the enemy on. Nor was this Surena an +ordinary person, but in wealth, family, and reputation, the second man in the +kingdom, and in courage and prowess the first, and for bodily stature and +beauty no man like him. Whenever he traveled privately, he had one thousand +camels to carry his baggage, two hundred chariots for his concubines, one +thousand completely armed men for his life-guards, and a great many more +light-armed; and he had at least ten thousand horsemen altogether, of his +servants and retinue. The honor had long belonged to his family, that at the +king’s coronation he put the crown upon his head, and when this very king +Hyrodes had been exiled, he brought him in; it was he, also, that took the +great city of Seleucia, was the first man that scaled the walls, and with his +own hand beat off the defenders. And though at this time he was not above +thirty years old, he had a great name for wisdom and sagacity, and, indeed, by +these qualities chiefly, he overthrew Crassus, who first through his +overweening confidence, and afterwards because he was cowed by his calamities, +fell a ready victim to his subtlety. When Ariamnes had thus worked upon him, he +drew him from the river into vast plains, by a way that at first was pleasant +and easy, but afterwards very troublesome by reason of the depth of the sand; +no tree, nor any water, and no end of this to be seen; so that they were not +only spent with thirst, and the difficulty of the passage, but were dismayed +with the uncomfortable prospect of not a bough, not a stream, not a hillock, +not a green herb, but in fact a sea of sand, which encompassed the army with +its waves. They began to suspect some treachery, and at the same time came +messengers from Artavasdes, that he was fiercely attacked by Hyrodes, who had +invaded his country, so that now it was impossible for him to send any succors, +and that he therefore advised Crassus to turn back, and with joint forces to +give Hyrodes battle, or at least that he should march and encamp where horses +could not easily come, and keep to the mountains. Crassus, out of anger and +perverseness, wrote him no answer, but told them, at present he was not at +leisure to mind the Armenians, but he would call upon them another time, and +revenge himself upon Artavasdes for his treachery. Cassius and his friends +began again to complain, but when they perceived that it merely displeased +Crassus, they gave over, but privately railed at the barbarian, “What evil +genius, O thou worst of men, brought thee to our camp, and with what charms and +potions hast thou bewitched Crassus, that he should march his army through a +vast and deep desert, through ways which are rather fit for a captain of +Arabian robbers, than for the general of a Roman army?” But the barbarian being +a wily fellow, very submissively exhorted them, and encouraged them to sustain +it a little further, and ran about the camp, and, professing to cheer up the +soldiers, asked them, jokingly, “What, do you think you march through Campania, +expecting everywhere to find springs, and shady trees, and baths, and inns of +entertainment? Consider you now travel through the confines of Arabia and +Assyria.” Thus he managed them like children, and before the cheat was +discovered, he rode away; not but that Crassus was aware of his going, but he +had persuaded him that he would go and contrive how to disorder the affairs of +the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +It is related that Crassus came abroad that day not in his scarlet robe, which +Roman generals usually wear, but in a black one, which, as soon as he +perceived, he changed. And the standard-bearers had much ado to take up their +eagles, which seemed to be fixed to the place. Crassus laughed at it, and +hastened their march, and compelled his infantry to keep pace with his cavalry, +till some few of the scouts returned and told them that their fellows were +slain and they hardly escaped, that the enemy was at hand in full force, and +resolved to give them battle. On this all was in an uproar; Crassus was struck +with amazement, and for haste could scarcely put his army in good order. First, +as Cassius advised, he opened their ranks and files that they might take up as +much space as could be, to prevent their being surrounded, and distributed the +horse upon the wings, but afterwards changing his mind, he drew up his army in +a square, and made a front every way, each of which consisted of twelve +cohorts, to every one of which he allotted a troop of horse, that no part might +be destitute of the assistance that the horse might give, and that they might +be ready to assist everywhere, as need should require. Cassius commanded one of +the wings, young Crassus the other, and he himself was in the middle. Thus they +marched on till they came to a little river named Balissus, a very +inconsiderable one in itself, but very grateful to the soldiers, who had +suffered so much by drought and heat all along their march. Most of the +commanders were of the opinion that they ought to remain there that night, and +to inform themselves as much as possible of the number of the enemies, and +their order, and so march against them at break of day; but Crassus was so +carried away by the eagerness of his son, and the horsemen that were with him, +who desired and urged him to lead them on and engage, that he commanded those +that had a mind to it to eat and drink as they stood in their ranks, and before +they had all well done, he led them on, not leisurely and with halts to take +breath, as if he was going to battle, but kept on his pace as if he had been in +haste, till they saw the enemy, contrary to their expectation, neither so many +nor so magnificently armed as the Romans expected. For Surena had hid his main +force behind the first ranks, and ordered them to hide the glittering of their +armor with coats and skins. But when they approached and the general gave the +signal, immediately all the field rung with a hideous noise and terrible +clamor. For the Parthians do not encourage themselves to war with cornets and +trumpets, but with a kind of kettle-drum, which they strike all at once in +various quarters. With these they make a dead hollow noise like the bellowing +of beasts, mixed with sounds resembling thunder, having, it would seem, very +correctly observed, that of all our senses hearing most confounds and disorders +us, and that the feelings excited through it most quickly disturb, and most +entirely overpower the understanding. +</p> + +<p> +When they had sufficiently terrified the Romans with their noise, they threw +off the covering of their armor, and shone like lightning in their breastplates +and helmets of polished Margianian steel, and with their horses covered with +brass and steel trappings. Surena was the tallest and finest looking man +himself, but the delicacy of his looks and effeminacy of his dress did not +promise so much manhood as he really was master of; for his face was painted, +and his hair parted after the fashion of the Medes, whereas the other Parthians +made a more terrible appearance, with their shaggy hair gathered in a mass upon +their foreheads after the Scythian mode. Their first design was with their +lances to beat down and force back the first ranks of the Romans, but when they +perceived the depth of their battle, and that the soldiers firmly kept their +ground, they made a retreat, and pretending to break their order and disperse, +they encompassed the Roman square before they were aware of it. Crassus +commanded his light-armed soldiers to charge, but they had not gone far before +they were received with such a shower of arrows that they were glad to retire +amongst the heavy-armed, with whom this was the first occasion of disorder and +terror, when they perceived the strength and force of their darts, which +pierced their arms, and passed through every kind of covering, hard and soft +alike. The Parthians now placing themselves at distances began to shoot from +all sides, not aiming at any particular mark, (for, indeed, the order of the +Romans was so close, that they could not miss if they would,) but simply sent +their arrows with great force out of strong bent bows, the strokes from which +came with extreme violence. The position of the Romans was a very bad one from +the first; for if they kept their ranks, they were wounded, and if they tried +to charge, they hurt the enemy none the more, and themselves suffered none the +less. For the Parthians threw their darts as they fled, an art in which none +but the Scythians excel them, and it is, indeed, a cunning practice, for while +they thus fight to make their escape, they avoid the dishonor of a flight. +</p> + +<p> +However, the Romans had some comfort to think that when they had spent all +their arrows, they would either give over or come to blows; but when they +presently understood that there were numerous camels loaded with arrows, and +that when the first ranks had discharged those they had, they wheeled off and +took more, Crassus seeing no end of it, was out of all heart, and sent to his +son that he should endeavor to fall in upon them before he was quite +surrounded; for the enemy advanced most upon that quarter, and seemed to be +trying to ride round and come upon the rear. Therefore the young man, taking +with him thirteen hundred horse, one thousand of which he had from Caesar, five +hundred archers, and eight cohorts of the full-armed soldiers that stood next +him, led them up with design to charge the Parthians. Whether it was that they +found themselves in a piece of marshy ground, as some think, or else designing +to entice young Crassus as far as they could from his father, they turned and +began to fly; whereupon he crying out that they durst not stand, pursued them, +and with him Censorinus and Megabacchus, both famous, the latter for his +courage and prowess, the other for being of a senator’s family, and an +excellent orator, both intimates of Crassus, and of about the same age. The +horse thus pushing on, the infantry stayed little behind, being exalted with +hopes and joy, for they supposed they had already conquered, and now were only +pursuing; till when they were gone too far, they perceived the deceit, for they +that seemed to fly, now turned again, and a great many fresh ones came on. Upon +this they made an halt, for they doubted not but now the enemy would attack +them, because they were so few. But they merely placed their cuirassiers to +face the Romans, and with the rest of their horse rode about scouring the +field, and thus stirring up the sand, they raised such a dust that the Romans +could neither see nor speak to one another, and being driven in upon one +another in one close body, they were thus hit and killed, dying, not by a quick +and easy death, but with miserable pains and convulsions; for writhing upon the +darts in their bodies, they broke them in their wounds, and when they would by +force pluck out the barbed points, they caught the nerves and veins, so that +they tore and tortured themselves. Many of them died thus, and those that +survived were disabled for any service, and when Publius exhorted them to +charge the cuirassiers, they showed him their hands nailed to their shields, +and their feet stuck to the ground, so that they could neither fly nor fight. +He charged in himself boldly, however, with his horse, and came to close +quarters with them, but was very unequal, whether as to the offensive or +defensive part; for with his weak and little javelins, he struck against +targets that were of tough raw hides and iron, whereas the lightly clad bodies +of his Gaulish horsemen were exposed to the strong spears of the enemy. For +upon these he mostly depended, and with them he wrought wonders; for they would +catch hold of the great spears, and close upon the enemy, and so pull them off +from their horses, where they could scarce stir by reason of the heaviness of +their armor, and many of the Gauls quitting their own horses, would creep under +those of the enemy, and stick them in the belly; which, growing unruly with the +pain, trampled upon their riders and upon the enemies promiscuously. The Gauls +were chiefly tormented by the heat and drought being not accustomed to either, +and most of their horses were slain by being spurred on against the spears, so +that they were forced to retire among the foot, bearing off Publius grievously +wounded. Observing a sandy hillock not far off, they made to it, and tying +their horses to one another, and placing them in the midst, and joining all +their shields together before them, they thought they might make some defense +against the barbarians. But it fell out quite contrary, for when they were +drawn up in a plain, the front in some measure secured those that were behind; +but when they were upon the hill, one being of necessity higher up than +another, none were in shelter, but all alike stood equally exposed, bewailing +their inglorious and useless fate. There were with Publius two Greeks that +lived near there at Carrhae, Hieronymus and Nicomachus; these men urged him to +retire with them and fly to Ichnae, a town not far from thence, and friendly to +the Romans. “No,” said he, “there is no death so terrible, for the fear of +which Publius would leave his friends that die upon his account;” and bidding +them to take care of themselves, he embraced them and sent them away, and, +because he could not use his arm, for he was run through with a dart, he opened +his side to his armor-bearer, and commanded him to run him through. It is said +that Censorinus fell in the same manner. Megabacchus slew himself, as did also +the rest of best note. The Parthians coming upon the rest with their lances, +killed them fighting, nor were there above five hundred taken prisoners. +Cutting off the head of Publius, they rode off directly towards Crassus. +</p> + +<p> +His condition was thus. When he had commanded his son to fall upon the enemy, +and word was brought him that they fled and that there was a distant pursuit, +and perceiving also that the enemy did not press upon him so hard as formerly, +for they were mostly gone to fall upon Publius, he began to take heart a +little; and drawing his army towards some sloping ground, expected when his son +would return from the pursuit. Of the messengers whom Publius sent to him, (as +soon as he saw his danger,) the first were intercepted by the enemy, and slain; +the last hardly escaping, came and declared that Publius was lost, unless he +had speedy succors. Crassus was terribly distracted, not knowing what counsel +to take, and indeed no longer capable of taking any; overpowered now by fear +for the whole army, now by desire to help his son. At last he resolved to move +with his forces. Just upon this, up came the enemy with their shouts and noises +more terrible than before, their drums sounding again in the ears of the +Romans, who now feared a fresh engagement. And they who brought Publius’s head +upon the point of a spear, riding up near enough that it could be known, +scoffingly inquired where were his parents and what family he was of, for it +was impossible that so brave and gallant a warrior should be the son of so +pitiful a coward as Crassus. This sight above all the rest dismayed the Romans, +for it did not incite them to anger as it might have done, but to horror and +trembling, though they say Crassus outdid himself in this calamity, for he +passed through the ranks and cried out to them, “This, O my countrymen, is my +own peculiar loss, but the fortune and the glory of Rome is safe and untainted +so long as you are safe. But if any one be concerned for my loss of the best of +sons, let him show it in revenging him upon the enemy. Take away their joy, +revenge their cruelty, nor be dismayed at what is past; for whoever tries for +great objects must suffer something. Neither did Lucullus overthrow Tigranes +without bloodshed, nor Scipio Antiochus; our ancestors lost one thousand ships +about Sicily, and how many generals and captains in Italy? no one of which +losses hindered them from overthrowing their conquerors; for the State of Rome +did not arrive to this height by fortune, but by perseverance and virtue in +confronting danger.” +</p> + +<p> +While Crassus thus spoke exhorting them, he saw but few that gave much heed to +him, and when he ordered them to shout for the battle, he could no longer +mistake the despondency of his army, which made but a faint and unsteady noise, +while the shout of the enemy was clear and bold. And when they came to the +business, the Parthian servants and dependents riding about shot their arrows, +and the horsemen in the foremost ranks with their spears drove the Romans close +together, except those who rushed upon them for fear of being killed by their +arrows. Neither did these do much execution, being quickly dispatched; for the +strong thick spear made large and mortal wounds, and often run through two men +at once. As they were thus fighting, the night coming on parted them, the +Parthians boasting that they would indulge Crassus with one night to mourn his +son, unless upon better consideration he would rather go to Arsaces, than be +carried to him. These, therefore, took up their quarters near them, being +flushed with their victory. But the Romans had a sad night of it; for neither +taking care for the burial of their dead, nor the cure of the wounded, nor the +groans of the expiring, everyone bewailed his own fate. For there was no means +of escaping, whether they should stay for the light, or venture to retreat into +the vast desert in the dark. And now the wounded men gave them new trouble, +since to take them with them would retard their flight, and if they should +leave them, they might serve as guides to the enemy by their cries. However, +they were all desirous to see and hear Crassus, though they were sensible that +he was the cause of all their mischief. But he wrapped his cloak around him, +and hid himself, where he lay as an example, to ordinary minds, of the caprice +of fortune, but to the wise, of inconsiderateness and ambition; who, not +content to be superior to so many millions of men, being inferior to two, +esteemed himself as the lowest of all. Then came Octavius, his lieutenant, and +Cassius, to comfort him, but he being altogether past helping, they themselves +called together the centurions and tribunes, and agreeing that the best way was +to fly, they ordered the army out, without sound of trumpet, and at first with +silence. But before long, when the disabled men found they were left behind, +strange confusion and disorder, with an outcry and lamentation, seized the +camp, and a trembling and dread presently fell upon them, as if the enemy were +at their heels. By which means, now and then fuming out of their way, now and +then standing to their ranks, sometimes taking up the wounded that followed, +sometimes laying them down, they wasted the time, except three hundred horse, +whom Egnatius brought safe to Carrhae about midnight; where calling, in the +Roman tongue, to the watch, as soon as they heard him, he bade them tell +Coponius, the governor, that Crassus had fought a very great battle with the +Parthians; and having said but this, and not so much as telling his name, he +rode away at full speed to Zeugma. And by this means he saved himself and his +men, but lost his reputation by deserting his general. However, his message to +Coponius was for the advantage of Crassus; for he, suspecting by this hasty and +confused delivery of the message that all was not well, immediately ordered the +garrison to be in arms, and as soon as he understood that Crassus was upon the +way towards him, he went out to meet him, and received him with his army into +the town. +</p> + +<p> +The Parthians, although they perceived their dislodgement in the night, yet did +not pursue them, but as soon as it was day, they came upon those that were left +in the camp, and put no less than four thousand to the sword, and with their +light; horse picked up a great many stragglers. Varguntinus, the lieutenant, +while it was yet dark, had broken off from the main body with four cohorts +which had strayed out of the way; and the Parthians, encompassing these on a +small hill, slew every man of them excepting twenty, who with their drawn +swords forced their way through the thickest, and they admiring their courage, +opened their ranks to the right and left, and let them pass without molestation +to Carrhae. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after a false report was brought to Surena, that Crassus, with his +principal officers, had escaped, and that those who were got into Carrhae were +but a confused rout of insignificant people, not worth further pursuit. +Supposing, therefore, that he had lost the very crown and glory of his victory, +and yet being uncertain whether it were so or not, and anxious to ascertain the +fact, that so he should either stay and besiege Carrhae or follow Crassus, he +sent one of his interpreters to the walls, commanding him in Latin to call for +Crassus or Cassius, for that the general, Surena, desired a conference. As soon +as Crassus heard this, he embraced the proposal, and soon after there came up a +band of Arabians, who very well knew the faces of Crassus and Cassius, as +having been frequently in the Roman camp before the battle. They having espied +Cassius from the wall, told him that Surena desired a peace, and would give +them safe convoy, if they would make a treaty with the king his master, and +withdraw all their troops out of Mesopotamia; and this he thought most +advisable for them both, before things came to the last extremity; Cassius, +embracing the proposal, desired that a time and place might be appointed where +Crassus and Surena might have an interview. The Arabians, having charged +themselves with the message, went back to Surena, who wee not a little rejoiced +that Crassus was there to be besieged. +</p> + +<p> +Next day, therefore, he came up with his army, insulting over the Romans, and +haughtily demanding of them Crassus and Cassius bound, if they expected any +mercy. The Romans, seeing themselves deluded and mocked, were much troubled at +it, but advising Crassus to lay aside his distant and empty hopes of aid from +the Armenians, resolved to fly for it; and this design ought to have been kept +private, till they were upon their way, and not have been told to any of the +people of Carrhae. But Crassus let this also be known to Andromachus, the most +faithless of men, nay he was so infatuated as to choose him for his guide. The +Parthians then, to be sure, had punctual intelligence of all that passed; but +it being contrary to their usage, and also difficult for them to fight by +night, and Crassus having chosen that time to set out, Andromachus, lest he +should get the start too far of his pursuers, led him hither and thither, and +at last conveyed him into the midst of morasses and places full of ditches, so +that the Romans had a troublesome and perplexing journey of it, and some there +were who, supposing by these windings and turnings of Andromachus that no good +was intended, resolved to follow him no further. And at last Cassius himself +returned to Carrhae, and his guides, the Arabians, advising him to tarry there +till the moon was got out of Scorpio, he told them that he was most afraid of +Sagittarius, and so with five hundred horse went off to Syria. Others there +were, who having got honest guides, took their way by the mountains called +Sinnaca, and got into places of security by daybreak; these were five thousand +under the command of Octavius, a very gallant man. But Crassus fared worse; day +overtook him still deceived by Andromachus, and entangled in the fens and the +difficult country. There were with him four cohorts of legionary soldiers, a +very few horsemen, and five lictors, with whom having with great difficulty got +into the way, and not being a mile and a half from Octavius, instead of going +to join him, although the enemy were already upon him, he retreated to another +hill, neither so defensible nor impassable for the horse, but lying under the +hills of Sinnaca, and continued so as to join them in a long ridge through the +plain. Octavius could see in what danger the general was, and himself, at first +but slenderly followed, hurried to the rescue. Soon after, the rest, upbraiding +one another with baseness in forsaking their officers, marched down, and +falling upon the Parthians, drove them from the hill, and compassing Crassus +about, and fencing him with their shields, declared proudly, that no arrow in +Parthia should ever touch their general, so long as there was a man of them +left alive to protect him. +</p> + +<p> +Surena, therefore, perceiving his soldiers less inclined to expose themselves, +and knowing that if the Romans should prolong the battle till night, they might +then gain the mountains and be out of his reach, betook himself to his usual +craft. Some of the prisoners were set free, who had, as it was contrived, been +in hearing, while some of the barbarians spoke of a set purpose in the camp to +the effect that the king did not design the war to be pursued to extremity +against the Romans, but rather desired, by his gentle treatment of Crassus, to +make a step towards reconciliation. And the barbarians desisted from fighting, +and Surena himself, with his chief officers, riding gently to the hill, unbent +his bow and held out his hand, inviting Crassus to an agreement, and saying +that it was beside the king’s intentions, that they had thus had experience of +the courage and the strength of his soldiers; that now he desired no other +contention but that of kindness and friendship, by making a truce, and +permitting them to go away in safety. These words of Surena the rest received +joyfully, and were eager to accept the offer; but Crassus, who had had +sufficient experience of their perfidiousness, and was unable to see any reason +for the sudden change, would give no ear to them, and only took time to +consider. But the soldiers cried out and advised him to treat, and then went on +to upbraid and affront him, saying that it was very unreasonable that he should +bring them to fight with such men armed, whom himself, without their arms, +durst not look in the face. He tried first to prevail with them by entreaties, +and told them that if they would have patience till evening, they might get +into the mountains and passes, inaccessible for horse, and be out of danger, +and withal he pointed out the way with his hand, entreating them not to abandon +their preservation, now close before them. But when they mutinied and clashed +their targets in a threatening manner, he was overpowered and forced to go, and +only turning about at parting, said, “You, Octavius and Petronius, and the rest +of the officers who are present, see the necessity of going which I lie under, +and cannot but be sensible of the indignities and violence offered to me. Tell +all men when you have escaped, that Crassus perished rather by the subtlety of +his enemies, than by the disobedience of his countrymen.” +</p> + +<p> +Octavius, however, would not stay there, but with Petronius went down from the +hill; as for the lictors, Crassus bade them be gone. The first that met him +were two half-blood Greeks, who, leaping from their horses, made a profound +reverence to Crassus, and desired him, in Greek, to send some before him, who +might see that Surena himself was coming towards them, his retinue disarmed, +and not having so much as their wearing swords along with them. But Crassus +answered, that if he had the least concern for his life, he would never have +entrusted himself in their hands, but sent two brothers of the name of Roscius, +to inquire on what terms, and in what numbers they should meet. These Surena +ordered immediately to be seized, and himself with his principal officers came +up on horseback, and greetings him, said, “How is this, then? A Roman commander +is on foot, whilst I and my train are mounted.” But Crassus replied, that there +was no error committed on either side, for they both met according to the +custom of their own country. Surena told him that from that time there was a +league between the king his master and the Romans, but that Crassus must go +with him to the river to sign it, “for you Romans,” said he, “have not good +memories for conditions,” and so saying, reached out his hand to him. Crassus, +therefore, gave order that one of his horses should be brought; but Surena told +him there was no need, “the king, my master, presents you with this;” and +immediately a horse with a golden bit was brought up to him, and himself was +forcibly put into the saddle by the grooms, who ran by the side and struck the +horse to make the more haste. But Octavius running up, got hold of the bridle, +and soon after one of the officers, Petronius, and the rest of the company came +up, striving to stop the horse, and pulling back those who on both sides of him +forced Crassus forward. Thus from pulling and thrusting one another, they came +to a tumult, and soon after to blows. Octavius, drawing his sword, killed a +groom of one of the barbarians, and one of them, getting behind Octavius, +killed him. Petronius was not armed, but being struck on the breastplate, fell +down from his horse, though without hurt. Crassus was killed by a Parthian, +called Pomaxathres; others say, by a different man, and that Pomaxathres only +cut off his head and right hand after he had fallen. But this is conjecture +rather than certain knowledge, for those that were by had not leisure to +observe particulars, and were either killed fighting about Crassus, or ran off +at once to get to their comrades on the hill. But the Parthians coming up to +them, and saying that Crassus had the punishment he justly deserved, and that +Surena bade the rest come down from the hill without fear, some of them came +down and surrendered themselves, others were scattered up and down in the +night, a very few of whom got safe home, and others the Arabians, beating +through the country, hunted down and put to death. It is generally said, that +in all twenty thousand men were slain, and ten thousand taken prisoners. +</p> + +<p> +Surena sent the head and hand of Crassus to Hyrodes, the king, into Armenia, +but himself by his messengers scattering a report that he was bringing Crassus +alive to Seleucia, made a ridiculous procession, which by way of scorn, he +called a triumph. For one Caius Paccianus, who of all the prisoners was most +like Crassus, being put into a woman’s dress of the fashion of the barbarians, +and instructed to answer to the title of Crassus and Imperator, was brought +sitting upon his horse, while before him went a parcel of trumpeters and +lictors upon camels. Purses were hung at the end of the bundles of rods, and +the heads of the slain fresh bleeding at the end of their axes. After them +followed the Seleucian singing women, repeating scurrilous and abusive songs +upon the effeminacy and cowardliness of Crassus. This show was seen by +everybody; but Surena, calling together the senate of Seleucia, laid before +them certain wanton books, of the writings of Aristides, the Milesian; neither, +indeed, was this any forgery, for they had been found among the baggage of +Rustius, and were a good subject to supply Surena with insulting remarks upon +the Romans, who were not able even in the time of war to forget such writings +and practices. But the people of Seleucia had reason to commend the wisdom of +Aesop’s fable of the wallet, seeing their general Surena carrying a bag full of +loose Milesian stories before him, but keeping behind him a whole Parthian +Sybaris in his many wagons full of concubines; like the vipers and asps people +talk of, all the foremost and more visible parts fierce and terrible with +spears and arrows and horsemen, but the rear terminating in loose women and +castanets, music of the lute, and midnight revellings. Rustius, indeed, is not +to be excused, but the Parthians had forgot, when they mocked at the Milesian +stories, that many of the royal line of their Arsacidae had been born of +Milesian and Ionian mistresses. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst these things were doing, Hyrodes had struck up a peace with the king of +Armenia, and made a match between his son Pacorus and the king of Armenia’s +sister. Their feastings and entertainments in consequence were very sumptuous, +and various Grecian compositions, suitable to the occasion, were recited before +them. For Hyrodes was not ignorant of the Greek language and literature, and +Artavasdes was so expert in it, that he wrote tragedies and orations and +histories, some of which are still extant. When the head of Crassus was brought +to the door, the tables were just taken away, and one Jason, a tragic actor, of +the town of Tralles, was singing the scene in the Bacchae of Euripides +concerning Agave. He was receiving much applause, when Sillaces coming to the +room, and having made obeisance to the king, threw down the head of Crassus +into the midst of the company. The Parthians receiving it with joy and +acclamations, Sillaces, by the king’s command, was made to sit down, while +Jason handed over the costume of Pentheus to one of the dancers in the chorus, +and taking up the head of Crassus, and acting the part of a bacchante in her +frenzy, in a rapturous impassioned manner, sang the lyric passages, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +We’ve hunted down a mighty chase to-day,<br/> +And from the mountain bring the noble prey; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +to the great delight of all the company; but when the verses of the dialogue +followed, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +What happy hand the glorious victim slew?<br/> +I claim that honor to my courage due; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Pomaxathres, who happened to be there at the supper, started up and would have +got the head into his own hands, “for it is my due,” said he, “and no man’s +else.” The king was greatly pleased, and gave presents, according to the custom +of the Parthians, to them, and to Jason, the actor, a talent. Such was the +burlesque that was played, they tell us, as the afterpiece to the tragedy of +Crassus’s expedition. But divine justice failed not to punish both Hyrodes, for +his cruelty, and Surena for his perjury; for Surena not long after was put to +death by Hyrodes, out of mere envy to his glory; and Hyrodes himself, having +lost his son Pacorus, who was beaten in a battle with the Romans, falling into +a disease which turned to a dropsy, had aconite given him by his second son, +Phraates; but the poison working only upon the disease, and carrying away the +dropsical matter with itself, the king began suddenly to recover, so that +Phraates at length was forced to take the shortest course, and strangled him. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap40"></a>COMPARISON OF CRASSUS WITH NICIAS</h2> + +<p> +In the comparison of these two, first, if we compare the estate of Nicias with +that of Crassus, we must acknowledge Nicias’s to have been more honestly got. +In itself, indeed, one cannot much approve of gaining riches by working mines, +the greatest part of which is done by malefactors and barbarians, some of them, +too, bound, and perishing in those close and unwholesome places. But if we +compare this with the sequestrations of Sylla, and the contracts for houses +ruined by fire, we shall then think Nicias came very honestly by his money. For +Crassus publicly and avowedly made use of these arts, as other men do of +husbandry, and putting out money to interest; while as for other matters which +he used to deny, when taxed with them, as, namely, selling his voice in the +senate for gain’s sake, and injuring allies, and courting women, and conniving +at criminals, these are things which Nicias was never so much as falsely +accused of; nay, he was rather laughed at for giving money to those who made a +trade of impeachments, merely out of timorousness, a course, indeed, that would +by no means become Pericles and Aristides, but necessary for him who by nature +was wanting in assurance, even as Lycurgus, the orator, frankly acknowledged to +the people; for when he was accused for buying off an evidence, he said that he +was very much pleased that having administered their affairs for some time, he +was at last accused, rather for giving, than receiving. Again, Nicias, in his +expenses, was of a more public spirit than Crassus, priding himself much on the +dedication of gifts in temples, on presiding at gymnastic games, and furnishing +choruses for the plays, and adorning processions, while the expenses of +Crassus, in feasting and afterwards providing food for so many myriads of +people, were much greater than all that Nicias possessed as well as spent, put +together. So that one might wonder at anyone’s failing to see that vice is a +certain inconsistency and incongruity of habit, after such an example of money +dishonorably obtained, and wastefully lavished away. +</p> + +<p> +Let so much be said of their estates; as for their management of public +affairs, I see not that any dishonesty, injustice, or arbitrary action can be +objected to Nicias, who was rather the victim of Alcibiades’s tricks, and was +always careful and scrupulous in his dealings with the people. But Crassus is +very generally blamed for his changeableness in his friendships and enmities, +for his unfaithfulness, and his mean and underhand proceedings; since he +himself could not deny that to compass the consulship, he hired men to lay +violent hands upon Domitius and Cato. Then at the assembly held for assigning +the provinces, many were wounded and four actually killed, and he himself, +which I had omitted in the narrative of his life, struck with his fist one +Lucius Analius, a senator, for contradicting him, so that he left the place +bleeding. But as Crassus was to be blamed for his violent and arbitrary +courses, so is Nicias no less to be blamed for his timorousness and meanness of +spirit, which made him submit and give in to the basest people, whereas in this +respect Crassus showed himself lofty spirited and magnanimous, who having to do +not with such as Cleon or Hyperbolus, but with the splendid acts of Caesar and +the three triumphs of Pompey, would not stoop, but bravely bore up against +their joint interests, and in obtaining the office of censor, surpassed even +Pompey himself For a statesman ought not to regard how invidious the thing is, +but how noble, and by his greatness to overpower envy; but if he will be always +aiming at security and quiet, and dread Alcibiades upon the hustings, and the +Lacedaemonians at Pylos, and Perdiccas in Thrace, there is room and opportunity +enough for retirement, and he may sit out of the noise of business, and weave +himself, as one of the sophists says, his triumphal garland of inactivity. His +desire of peace, indeed, and of finishing the war, was a divine and truly +Grecian ambition, nor in this respect would Crassus deserve to be compared to +him, though he had enlarged the Roman empire to the Caspian Sea or the Indian +Ocean. +</p> + +<p> +In a State where there is a sense of virtue, a powerful man ought not to give +way to the ill-affected, or expose the government to those that are incapable +of it, nor suffer high trusts to be committed to those who want common honesty. +Yet Nicias, by his connivance, raised Cleon, a fellow remarkable for nothing +but his loud voice and brazen face, to the command of an army. Indeed, I do not +commend Crassus, who in the war with Spartacus was more forward to fight than +became a discreet general, though he was urged into it by a point of honor, +lest Pompey by his coming should rob him of the glory of the action, as Mummius +did Metellus at the taking of Corinth, but Nicias’s proceedings are +inexcusable. For he did not yield up a mere opportunity of getting honor and +advantage to his competitor, but believing that the expedition would be very +hazardous, was thankful to take care of himself, and left the Commonwealth to +shift for itself. And whereas Themistocles, lest a mean and incapable fellow +should ruin the State by holding command in the Persian war, bought him off, +and Cato, in a most dangerous and critical conjuncture, stood for the +tribuneship for the sake of his country, Nicias, reserving himself for trifling +expeditions against Minoa and Cythera, and the miserable Melians, if there be +occasion to come to blows with the Lacedaemonians, slips off his general’s +cloak and hands over to the unskillfulness and rashness of Cleon, fleet, men, +and arms, and the whole command, where the utmost possible skill was called +for. Such conduct, I say, is not to be thought so much carelessness of his own +fame, as of the interest and preservation of his country. By this means it came +to pass he was compelled to the Sicilian war, men generally believing that he +was not so much honestly convinced of the difficulty of the enterprise, as +ready out of mere love of ease and cowardice to lose the city the conquest of +Sicily. But yet it is a great sign of his integrity, that though he was always +averse from war, and unwilling to command, yet they always continued to appoint +him as the best experienced and ablest general they had. On the other hand +Crassus, though always ambitious of command, never attained to it, except by +mere necessity in the servile war, Pompey and Metellus and the two brothers +Lucullus being absent, although at that time he was at his highest pitch of +interest and reputation. Even those who thought most of him seem to have +thought him, as the comic poet says: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +A brave man anywhere but in the field. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +There was no help, however, for the Romans, against his passion for command and +for distinction. The Athenians sent out Nicias against his will to the war, and +Crassus led out the Romans against theirs; Crassus brought misfortune on Rome, +as Athens brought it on Nicias. +</p> + +<p> +Still this is rather ground for praising Nicias, than for finding fault with +Crassus. His experience and sound judgment as a general saved him from being +carried away by the delusive hopes of his fellow-citizens, and made him refuse +to entertain any prospect of conquering Sicily. Crassus, on the other hand, +mistook, in entering on a Parthian war as an easy matter. He was eager, while +Caesar was subduing the west, Gaul, Germany, and Britain, to advance for his +part to the east and the Indian Sea, by the conquest of Asia, to complete the +incursions of Pompey and the attempts of Lucullus, men of prudent temper and of +unimpeachable worth, who, nevertheless, entertained the same projects as +Crassus, and acted under the same convictions. When Pompey was appointed to the +like command, the senate was opposed to it; and after Caesar had routed three +hundred thousand Germans, Cato recommended that he should be surrendered to the +defeated enemy, to expiate in his own person the guilt of breach of faith. The +people, meantime, (their service to Cato!) kept holiday for fifteen days, and +were overjoyed. What would have been their feelings, and how many holidays +would they have celebrated, if Crassus had sent news from Babylon of victory, +and thence marching onward had converted Media and Persia, the Hyrcanians, +Susa, and Bactra, into Roman provinces? +</p> + +<p> +If wrong we must do, as Euripides says, and cannot be content with peace and +present good things, let it not be for such results as destroying Mende or +Scandea, or beating up the exiled Aeginetans in the coverts to which like +hunted birds they had fled, when expelled from their homes, but let it be for +some really great remuneration; nor let us part with justice, like a cheap and +common thing, for a small and trifling price. Those who praise Alexander’s +enterprise and blame that of Crassus, judge of the beginning unfairly by the +results. +</p> + +<p> +In actual service, Nicias did much that deserves high praise. He frequently +defeated the enemy in battle, and was on the very point of capturing Syracuse; +nor should he bear the whole blame of the disaster, which may fairly be +ascribed in part to his want of health and to the jealousy entertained of him +at home. Crassus, on the other hand, committed so many errors as not to leave +fortune room to show him favor. It is no surprise to find such imbecility fall +a victim to the power of Parthia; the only wonder is to see it prevailing over +the wonted good-fortune of Rome. One scrupulously observed, the other entirely +slighted the arts of divination; and as both equally perished, it is difficult +to see what inference we should draw. Yet the fault of over-caution, supported +by old and general opinion, better deserves forgiveness than that of +self-willed and lawless transgression. +</p> + +<p> +In his death, however, Crassus has the advantage, as he did not surrender +himself, nor submit to bondage, or let himself be taken in by trickery, but was +the victim only of the entreaties of his friends and the perfidy of his +enemies; whereas Nicias enhanced the shame of his death by yielding himself up +in the hope of a disgraceful and inglorious escape. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap41"></a>SERTORIUS</h2> + +<p> +It is no great wonder if in long process of time, while fortune takes her +course hither and thither, numerous coincidences should spontaneously occur. If +the number and variety of subjects to be wrought upon be infinite, it is all +the more easy for fortune, with such an abundance of material, to effect this +similarity of results. Or if, on the other hand, events are limited to the +combinations of some finite number, then of necessity the same must often +recur, and in the same sequence. There are people who take a pleasure in making +collections of all such fortuitous occurrences that they have heard or read of, +as look like works of a rational power and design; they observe, for example, +that two eminent persons, whose names were Attis, the one a Syrian, the other +of Arcadia, were both slain by a wild boar; that of two whose names were +Actaeon, the one was torn in pieces by his dogs, the other by his lovers; that +of two famous Scipios, the one overthrew the Carthaginians in war, the other +totally ruined and destroyed them; the city of Troy was the first time taken by +Hercules for the horses promised him by Laomedon, the second time by Agamemnon, +by means of the celebrated great wooden horse, and the third time by +Charidemus, by occasion of a horse falling down at the gate, which hindered the +Trojans, so that they could not shut them soon enough; and of two cities which +take their names from the most agreeable odoriferous plants, Ios and Smyrna, +the one from a violet, the other from myrrh, the poet Homer is reported to have +been born in the one, and to have died in the other. And so to these instances +let us further add, that the most warlike commanders, and most remarkable for +exploits of skillful stratagem, have had but one eye; as Philip, Antigonus, +Hannibal, and Sertorius, whose life and actions we describe at present; of +whom, indeed, we might truly say, that he was more continent than Philip, more +faithful to his friend than Antigonus, and more merciful to his enemies than +Hannibal; and that for prudence and judgment he gave place to none of them, but +in fortune was inferior to them all. Yet though he had continually in her a far +more difficult adversary to contend against than his open enemies, he +nevertheless maintained his ground, with the military skill of Metellus, the +boldness of Pompey, the success of Sylla, and the power of the Roman people, +all to be encountered by one who was a banished man and a stranger at the head +of a body of barbarians. Among Greek commanders, Eumenes of Cardia may be best +compared with him; they were both of them men born for command, for warfare, +and for stratagem; both banished from their countries, and holding command over +strangers; both had fortune for their adversary, in their last days so harshly +so, that they were both betrayed and murdered by those who served them, and +with whom they had formerly overcome their enemies. +</p> + +<p> +Quintus Sertorius was of a noble family, born in the city of Nursia, in the +country of the Sabines; his father died when he was young, and he was carefully +and decently educated by his mother, whose name was Rhea, and whom he appears +to have extremely loved and honored. He paid some attention to the study of +oratory and pleading in his youth, and acquired some reputation and influence +in Rome by his eloquence; but the splendor of his actions in arms, and his +successful achievements in the wars, drew off his ambition in that direction. +</p> + +<p> +At his first beginning, he served under Caepio, when the Cimbri and Teutones +invaded Gaul; where the Romans fighting unsuccessfully, and being put to +flight, he was wounded in many parts of his body, and lost his horse, yet, +nevertheless, swam across the river Rhone in his armor, with his breastplate +and shield, bearing himself up against the violence of the current; so strong +and so well inured to hardship was his body. +</p> + +<p> +The second time that the Cimbri and Teutones came down with some hundreds of +thousands, threatening death and destruction to all, when it was no small piece +of service for a Roman soldier to keep his ranks and obey his commander, +Sertorius undertook, while Marius led the army, to spy out the enemy’s camp. +Procuring a Celtic dress, and acquainting himself with the ordinary expressions +of their language requisite for common intercourse, he threw himself in amongst +the barbarians; where having carefully seen with his own eyes, or having been +fully informed by persons upon the place of all their most important concerns, +he returned to Marius, from whose hands he received the rewards of valor; and +afterwards giving frequent proofs both of conduct and courage in all the +following war, he was advanced to places of honor and trust under his general. +After the wars with the Cimbri and Teutones, he was sent into Spain, having the +command of a thousand men under Didius, the Roman general, and wintered in the +country of the Celtiberians, in the city of Castulo, where the soldiers +enjoying great plenty, and growing insolent, and continually drinking, the +inhabitants despised them and sent for aid by night to the Gyrisoenians, their +near neighbors, who fell upon the Romans in their lodgings and slew a great +number of them. Sertorius, with a few of his soldiers, made his way out, and +rallying together the rest who escaped, he marched round about the walls, and +finding the gate open, by which the Gyrisoenians had made their secret +entrance, he gave not them the same opportunity, but placing a guard at the +gate, and seizing upon all quarters of the city, he slew all who were of age to +bear arms, and then ordering his soldiers to lay aside their weapons and put +off their own clothes, and put on the accoutrements of the barbarians, he +commanded them to follow him to the city, from whence the men came who had made +this night attack upon the Romans. And thus deceiving the Gyrisoenians with the +sight of their own armor, he found the gates of their city open, and took a +great number prisoners, who came out thinking to meet their friends and +fellow-citizens come home from a successful expedition. Most of them were thus +slain by the Romans at their own gates, and the rest within yielded up +themselves and were sold for slaves. +</p> + +<p> +This action made Sertorius highly renowned throughout all Spain, and as soon as +he returned to Rome he was appointed quaestor of Cisalpine Gaul, at a very +seasonable moment for his country, the Marsian war being on the point of +breaking out. Sertorius was ordered to raise soldiers and provide arms, which +he performed with a diligence and alacrity, so contrasting with the feebleness +and slothfulness of other officers of his age, that he got the repute of a man +whose life would be one of action. Nor did he relinquish the part of a soldier, +now that he had arrived at the dignity of a commander, but performed wonders +with his own hands, and never sparing himself, but exposing his body freely in +all conflicts, he lost one of his eyes. This he always esteemed an honor to +him; observing that others do not continually carry about with them the marks +and testimonies of their valor, but must often lay aside their chains of gold, +their spears and crowns; whereas his ensigns of honor, and the manifestations +of his courage always remained with him, and those who beheld his misfortune, +must at the same time recognize his merits. The people also paid him the +respect he deserved, and when he came into the theater, received him with +plaudits and joyful acclamations, an honor rarely bestowed even on persons of +advanced standing and established reputation. Yet, notwithstanding this +popularity, when he stood to be tribune of the people, he was disappointed, and +lost the place, being opposed by the party of Sylla, which seems to have been +the principal cause of his subsequent enmity to Sylla. +</p> + +<p> +After that Marius was overcome by Sylla and fled into Africa, and Sylla had +left Italy to go to the wars against Mithridates, and of the two consuls +Octavius and Cinna, Octavius remained steadfast to the policy of Sylla, but +Cinna, desirous of a new revolution, attempted to recall the lost interest of +Marius, Sertorius joined Cinna’s party, more particularly as he saw that +Octavius was not very capable, and was also suspicious of anyone that was a +friend to Marius. When a great battle was fought between the two consuls in the +forum, Octavius overcame, and Cinna and Sertorius, having lost not less than +ten thousand men, left the city, and gaining over most part of the troops who +were dispersed about and remained still in many parts of Italy, they in a short +time mustered up a force against Octavius sufficient to give him battle again, +and Marius, also, now coming by sea out of Africa, proffered himself to serve +under Cinna, as a private soldier under his consul and commander. +</p> + +<p> +Most were for the immediate reception of Marius, but Sertorius openly declared +against it, whether he thought that Cinna would not now pay as much attention +to himself, when a man of higher military repute was present, or feared that +the violence of Marius would bring all things to confusion, by his boundless +wrath and vengeance after victory. He insisted upon it with Cinna that they +were already victorious, that there remained little to be done, and that, if +they admitted Marius, he would deprive them of the glory and advantage of the +war, as there was no man less easy to deal with, or less to be trusted in, as a +partner in power. Cinna answered, that Sertorius rightly judged the affair, but +that he himself was at a loss, and ashamed, and knew not how to reject him, +after he had sent for him to share in his fortunes. To which Sertorius +immediately replied, that he had thought that Marius came into Italy of his own +accord, and therefore had deliberated as to what might be most expedient, but +that Cinna ought not so much as to have questioned whether he should accept him +whom he had already invited, but should have honorably received and employed +him, for his word once past left no room for debate. Thus Marius being sent for +by Cinna, and their forces being divided into three parts, under Cinna, Marius, +and Sertorius, the war was brought to a successful conclusion; but those about +Cinna and Marius committing all manner of insolence and cruelty, made the +Romans think the evils of war a golden time in comparison. On the contrary, it +is reported of Sertorius, that he never slew any man in his anger, to satisfy +his own private revenge, nor ever insulted over anyone whom he had overcome, +but was much offended with Marius, and often privately entreated Cinna to use +his power more moderately. And in the end, when the slaves whom Marius had +freed at his landing to increase his army, being made not only his +fellow-soldiers in the war, but also now his guard in his usurpation, enriched +and powerful by his favor, either by the command or permission of Marius, or by +their own lawless violence, committed all sorts of crimes, killed their +masters, ravished their masters’ wives, and abused their children, their +conduct appeared so intolerable to Sertorius that he slew the whole body of +them, four thousand in number, commanding his soldiers to shoot them down with +their javelins, as they lay encamped together. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards, when Marius died, and Cinna shortly after was slain, when the +younger Marius made himself consul against Sertorius’s wishes and contrary to +law, when Carbo, Norbanus, and Scipio fought unsuccessfully against Sylla, now +advancing to Rome, when much was lost by the cowardice and remissness of the +commanders, but more by the treachery of their party, when with the want of +prudence in the chief leaders, all went so ill that his presence could do no +good, in the end when Sylla had placed his camp near to Scipio, and by +pretending friendship, and putting him in hopes of a peace, corrupted his army, +and Scipio could not be made sensible of this, although often forewarned of it +by Sertorius, at last he utterly despaired of Rome, and hasted into Spain, that +by taking possession there beforehand, he might secure refuge to his friends, +from their misfortunes at home. Having bad weather in his journey, and +traveling through mountainous countries, and the inhabitants stopping the way, +and demanding a toll and money for passage, those who were with him were out of +all patience at the indignity and shame it would be for a proconsul of Rome to +pay tribute to a crew of wretched barbarians. But he little regarded their +censure, and slighting that which had only the appearance of an indecency, told +them he must buy time, the most precious of all things to those who go upon +great enterprises; and pacifying the barbarous people with money, he hastened +his journey, and took possession of Spain, a country flourishing and populous, +abounding with young men fit to bear arms; but on account of the insolence and +covetousness of the governors from time to time sent thither from Rome, they +had generally an aversion to the Roman supremacy. He, however, soon gained the +affection of their nobles by intercourse with them, and the good opinion of the +people by remitting their taxes. But that which won him most popularity, was +his exempting them from finding lodgings for the soldiers, when he commanded +his army to take up their winter quarters outside the cities, and to pitch +their camp in the suburbs; and when he himself, first of all, caused his own +tent to be raised without the walls. Yet not being willing to rely totally upon +the good inclination of the inhabitants, he armed all the Romans who lived in +those countries that were of military age, and undertook the building of ships +and the making of all sorts of warlike engines, by which means he kept the +cities in due obedience, showing himself gentle in all peaceful business, and +at the same time formidable to his enemies by his great preparations for war. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he was informed that Sylla had made himself master of Rome, and that +the party which sided with Marius and Carbo was going to destruction, he +expected that some commander with a considerable army would speedily come +against him, and therefore sent away Julius Salinator immediately, with six +thousand men fully armed, to fortify and defend the passes of the Pyrenees. And +Caius Annius not long after being sent out by Sylla, finding Julius +unassailable, sat down short at the foot of the mountains in perplexity. But a +certain Calpurnius, surnamed Lanarius, having treacherously slain Julius, and +his soldiers then forsaking the heights of the Pyrenees, Caius Annius advanced +with large numbers and drove before him all who endeavored to hinder his march. +Sertorius, also, not being strong enough to give him battle, retreated with +three thousand men into New Carthage, where he took shipping, and crossed the +seas into Africa. And coming near the coast of Mauritania, his men went on +shore to water, and straggling about negligently, the natives fell upon them +and slew a great number. This new misfortune forced him to sail back again into +Spain, whence he was also repulsed, and, some Cilician pirate ships joining +with him, they made for the island of Pityussa, where they landed and +overpowered the garrison placed there by Annius, who, however, came not long +after with a great fleet of ships, and five thousand soldiers. And Sertorius +made ready to fight him by sea, although his ships were not built for strength, +but for lightness and swift sailing; but a violent west wind raised such a sea +that many of them were run aground and shipwrecked, and he himself, with a few +vessels, being kept from putting further out to sea by the fury of the weather, +and from landing by the power of his enemies, was tossed about painfully for +ten days together, amidst the boisterous and adverse waves. +</p> + +<p> +He escaped with difficulty, and after the wind ceased, ran for certain desert +islands scattered in those seas, affording no water, and after passing a night +there, making out to sea again, he went through the straits of Cadiz, and +sailing outward keeping the Spanish shore on his right hand, he landed a little +above the mouth of the river Baetis, where it falls into the Atlantic sea, and +gives the name to that part of Spain. Here he met with seamen recently arrived +from the Atlantic islands, two in number, divided from one another only by a +narrow channel, and distant from the coast of Africa ten thousand furlongs. +These are called the Islands of the Blest; rains fall there seldom, and in +moderate showers, but for the most part they have gentle breezes, bringing +along with them soft dews, which render the soil not only rich for plowing and +planting, but so abundantly fruitful that it produces spontaneously an +abundance of delicate fruits, sufficient to feed the inhabitants, who may here +enjoy all things without trouble or labor. The seasons of the year are +temperate, and the transitions from one to another so moderate, that the air is +almost always serene and pleasant. The rough northerly and easterly winds which +blow from the coasts of Europe and Africa, dissipated in the vast open space, +utterly lose their force before they reach the islands. The soft western and +southerly winds which breathe upon them sometimes produce gentle sprinkling +showers, which they convey along with them from the sea, but more usually bring +days of moist bright weather, cooling and gently fertilizing the soil, so that +the firm belief prevails even among the barbarians, that this is the seat of +the blessed, and that these are the Elysian Fields celebrated by Homer. +</p> + +<p> +When Sertorius heard this account, he was seized with a wonderful passion for +these islands, and had an extreme desire to go and live there in peace and +quietness, and safe from oppression and unending wars; but his inclinations +being perceived by the Cilician pirates, who desired not peace nor quiet, but +riches and spoils, they immediately forsook him, and sailed away into Africa to +assist Ascalis, the son of Iphtha, and to help to restore him to his kingdom of +Mauritania. Their sudden departure noways discouraged Sertorius; he presently +resolved to assist the enemies of Ascalis, and by this new adventure trusted to +keep his soldiers together, who from this might conceive new hopes, and a +prospect of a new scene of action. His arrival in Mauritania being very +acceptable to the Moors, he lost no time, but immediately giving battle to +Ascalis, beat him out of the field and besieged him; and Paccianus being sent +by Sylla, with a powerful supply, to raise the siege, Sertorius slew him in the +field, gained over all his forces, and took the city of Tingis, into which +Ascalis and his brothers were fled for refuge. The Africans tell that Antaeus +was buried in this city, and Sertorius had the grave opened, doubting the story +because of the prodigious size, and finding there his body, in effect, it is +said, full sixty cubits long, he was infinitely astonished, offered sacrifice, +and heaped up the tomb again, gave his confirmation to the story, and added new +honors to the memory of Antaeus. The Africans tell that after the death of +Antaeus, his wife Tinga lived with Hercules, and had a son by him called +Sophax, who was king of these countries, and gave his mother’s name to this +city, whose son, also, was Diodorus, a great conqueror, who brought the +greatest part of the Libyan tribes under his subjection, with an army of +Greeks, raised out of the colonies of the Olbians and Myceneans placed here by +Hercules. Thus much I may mention for the sake of king Juba, of all monarchs +the greatest student of history, whose ancestors are said to have sprung from +Diodorus and Sophax. +</p> + +<p> +When Sertorius had made himself absolute master of the whole country, he acted +with great fairness to those who had confided in him, and who yielded to his +mercy; he restored to them their property, cities, and government, accepting +only of such acknowledgments as they themselves freely offered. And whilst he +considered which way next to turn his arms, the Lusitanians sent ambassadors to +desire him to be their general; for being terrified with the Roman power, and +finding the necessity of having a commander of great authority and experience +in war, being also sufficiently assured of his worth and valor by those who had +formerly known him, they were desirous to commit themselves especially to his +care. And in fact Sertorius is said to have been of a temper unassailable +either by fear or pleasure, in adversity and dangers undaunted, and noways +puffed up with prosperity. In straightforward fighting, no commander in his +time was more bold and daring, and in whatever was to be performed in war by +stratagem, secrecy, or surprise, if any strong place was to be secured, any +pass to be gained speedily, for deceiving and overreaching an enemy, there was +no man equal to him in subtlety and skill. In bestowing rewards and conferring +honors upon those who had performed good service in the wars he was bountiful +and magnificent, and was no less sparing and moderate in inflicting punishment. +It is true that that piece of harshness and cruelty which he executed in the +latter part of his days upon the Spanish hostages, seems to argue that his +clemency was not natural to him, but only worn as a dress, and employed upon +calculation, as his occasion or necessity required. As to my own opinion, I am +persuaded that pure virtue, established by reason and judgment, can never be +totally perverted or changed into its opposite, by any misfortune whatever. Yet +I think it at the same time possible, that virtuous inclinations and natural +good qualities may, when unworthily oppressed by calamities, show, with change +of fortune, some change and alteration of their temper; and thus I conceive it +happened to Sertorius, who when prosperity failed him, became exasperated by +his disasters against those who had done him wrong. +</p> + +<p> +The Lusitanians having sent for Sertorius, he left Africa, and being made +general with absolute authority, he put all in order amongst them, and brought +the neighboring parts of Spain under subjection. Most of the tribes voluntarily +submitted themselves, won by the fame of his clemency and of his courage, and, +to some extent, also, he availed himself of cunning artifices of his own +devising to impose upon them and gain influence over them. Amongst which, +certainly, that of the hind was not the least. Spanus, a countryman who lived +in those parts, meeting by chance a hind that had recently calved, flying from +the hunters, let the dam go, and pursuing the fawn, took it, being wonderfully +pleased with the rarity of the color, which was all milk white. And as at that +time Sertorius was living in the neighborhood, and accepted gladly any presents +of fruit, fowl, or venison, that the country afforded, and rewarded liberally +those who presented them, the countryman brought him his young hind, which he +took and was well pleased with at the first sight, but when in time he had made +it so tame and gentle that it would come when he called, and follow him +wheresoever he went, and could endure the noise and tumult of the camp, knowing +well that uncivilized people are naturally prone to superstition, by little and +little he raised it into something preternatural, saying that it was given him +by the goddess Diana, and that it revealed to him many secrets. He added, also, +further contrivances. If he had received at any time private intelligence that +the enemies had made an incursion into any part of the districts under his +command, or had solicited any city to revolt, he pretended that the hind had +informed him of it in his sleep, and charged him to keep his forces in +readiness. Or if again he had notice that any of the commanders under him had +got a victory, he would hide the messengers and bring forth the hind crowned +with flowers, for joy of the good news that was to come, and would encourage +them to rejoice and sacrifice to the gods for the good account they should soon +receive of their prosperous success. +</p> + +<p> +By such practices, he brought them to be more tractable and obedient in all +things; for now they thought themselves no longer to be led by a stranger, but +rather conducted by a god, and the more so, as the facts themselves seemed to +bear witness to it, his power, contrary to all expectation or probability, +continually increasing. For with two thousand six hundred men, whom for honor’s +sake he called Romans, combined with seven hundred Africans, who landed with +him when he first entered Lusitania, together with four thousand targeteers, +and seven hundred horse of the Lusitanians themselves, he made war against four +Roman generals, who commanded a hundred and twenty thousand foot, six thousand +horse, two thousand archers and slingers, and had cities innumerable in their +power; whereas at the first he had not above twenty cities in all. And from +this weak and slender beginning, he raised himself to the command of large +nations of men, and the possession of numerous cities; and of the Roman +commanders who were sent against him, he overthrew Cotta in a sea-fight, in the +channel near the town of Mellaria; he routed Fufidius, the governor of Baetica, +with the loss of two thousand Romans, near the banks of the river Baetis; +Lucius Domitius, proconsul of the other province of Spain, was overthrown by +one of his lieutenants; Thoranius, another commander sent against him by +Metellus with a great force, was slain, and Metellus, one of the greatest and +most approved Roman generals then living, by a series of defeats, was reduced +to such extremities, that Lucius Manlius came to his assistance out of Gallia +Narbonensis, and Pompey the Great, was sent from Rome, itself, in all haste, +with considerable forces. Nor did Metellus know which way to turn himself, in a +war with such a bold and ready commander, who was continually molesting him, +and yet could not be brought to a set battle, but by the swiftness and +dexterity of his Spanish soldiery, was enabled to shift and adapt himself to +any change of circumstances. Metellus had had experience in battles fought by +regular legions of soldiers, fully armed and drawn up in due order into a heavy +standing phalanx, admirably trained for encountering and overpowering an enemy +who came to close combat, hand to hand, but entirely unfit for climbing among +the hills, and competing incessantly with the swift attacks and retreats of a +set of fleet mountaineers, or to endure hunger and thirst, and live exposed +like them to the wind and weather, without fire or covering. +</p> + +<p> +Besides, being now in years, and having been formerly engaged in many fights +and dangerous conflicts, he had grown inclined to a more remiss, easy, and +luxurious life, and was the less able to contend with Sertorius, who was in the +prime of his strength and vigor, and had a body wonderfully fitted for war, +being strong, active, and temperate, continually accustomed to endure hard +labor, to take long tedious journeys, to pass many nights together without +sleep, to eat little, and to be satisfied with very coarse fare, and who was +never stained with the least excess in wine, even when he was most at leisure. +What leisure time he allowed himself, he spent in hunting and riding about, and +so made himself thoroughly acquainted with every passage for escape when he +would fly, and for overtaking and intercepting in pursuit, and gained a perfect +knowledge of where he could and where he could not go. Insomuch that Metellus +suffered all the inconveniences of defeat, although he earnestly desired to +fight, and Sertorius, though he refused the field, reaped all the advantages of +a conqueror. For he hindered them from foraging, and cut them off from water; +if they advanced, he was nowhere to be found; if they stayed in any place and +encamped, he continually molested and alarmed them; if they besieged any town, +he presently appeared and besieged them again, and put them to extremities for +want of necessaries. And thus he so wearied out the Roman army, that when +Sertorius challenged Metellus to fight singly with him, they commended it, and +cried out, it was a fair offer, a Roman to fight against a Roman, and a general +against a general; and when Metellus refused the challenge, they reproached +him. Metellus derided and contemned this, and rightly so; for, as Theophrastus +observes, a general should die like a general, and not like a skirmisher. But +perceiving that the town of the Langobritae, who gave great assistance to +Sertorius, might easily be taken for want of water, as there was but one well +within the walls, and the besieger would be master of the springs and fountains +in the suburbs, he advanced against the place, expecting to carry it in two +days’ time, there being no more water, and gave command to his soldiers to take +five days’ provision only. Sertorius, however, resolving to send speedy relief, +ordered two thousand skins to be filled with water, naming a considerable sum +of money for the carriage of every skin; and many Spaniards and Moors +undertaking the work, he chose out those who were the strongest and swiftest of +foot, and sent them through the mountains, with order that when they had +delivered the water, they should convey away privately all those who would be +least serviceable in the siege, that there might be water sufficient for the +defendants. As soon as Metellus understood this, he was disturbed, as he had +already consumed most part of the necessary provisions for his army, but he +sent out Aquinus with six thousand soldiers to fetch in fresh supplies. But +Sertorius having notice of it, laid an ambush for him, and having sent out +beforehand three thousand men to take post in a thickly wooded watercourse, +with these he attacked the rear of Aquinus in his return, while he himself, +charging him in the front, destroyed part of his army, and took the rest +prisoners, Aquinus only escaping, after the loss of both his horse and his +armor. And Metellus, being forced shamefully to raise the siege, withdrew +amidst the laughter and contempt of the Spaniards; while Sertorius became yet +more the object of their esteem and admiration. +</p> + +<p> +He was also highly honored for his introducing discipline and good order +amongst them, for he altered their furious savage manner of fighting, and +brought them to make use of the Roman armor, taught them to keep their ranks, +and observe signals and watchwords; and out of a confused number of thieves and +robbers, he constituted a regular, well-disciplined army. He bestowed silver +and gold upon them liberally to gild and adorn their helmets, he had their +shields worked with various figures and designs, he brought them into the mode +of wearing flowered and embroidered cloaks and coats, and by supplying money +for these purposes, and joining with them in all improvements, he won the +hearts of all. That, however, which delighted them most, was the care that he +took of their children. He sent for all the boys of noblest parentage out of +all their tribes, and placed them in the great city of Osca, where he appointed +masters to instruct them in the Grecian and Roman learning, that when they came +to be men, they might, as he professed, be fitted to share with him in +authority, and in conducting the government, although under this pretext he +really made them hostages. However, their fathers were wonderfully pleased to +see their children going daily to the schools in good order, handsomely dressed +in gowns edged with purple, and that Sertorius paid for their lessons, examined +them often, distributed rewards to the most deserving, and gave them the golden +bosses to hang about their necks, which the Romans called bullae. +</p> + +<p> +There being a custom in Spain, that when a commander was slain in battle, those +who attended his person fought it out till they all died with him, which the +inhabitants of those countries called an offering, or libation, there were few +commanders that had any considerable guard or number of attendants; but +Sertorius was followed by many thousands who offered themselves, and vowed to +spend their blood with his. And it is told that when his army was defeated near +a city in Spain, and the enemy pressed hard upon them, the Spaniards, with no +care for themselves, but being totally solicitous to save Sertorius, took him +up on their shoulders and passed him from one to another, till they carried him +into the city, and only when they had thus placed their general in safety, +provided afterwards each man for his own security. +</p> + +<p> +Nor were the Spaniards alone ambitious to serve him, but the Roman soldiers, +also, that came out of Italy, were impatient to be under his command; and when +Perpenna Vento, who was of the same faction with Sertorius, came into Spain +with a quantity of money and a large number of troops, and designed to make war +against Metellus on his own account, his own soldiers opposed it, and talked +continually of Sertorius, much to the mortification of Perpenna, who was puffed +up with the grandeur of his family and his riches. And when they afterwards +received tidings that Pompey was passing the Pyrenees, they took up their arms, +laid hold on their ensigns, called upon Perpenna to lead them to Sertorius, and +threatened him that if he refused they would go without him, and place +themselves under a commander who was able to defend himself and those that +served him. And so Perpenna was obliged to yield to their desires, and joining +Sertorius, added to his army three and fifty cohorts. +</p> + +<p> +And when now all the cities on this side of the river Ebro also united their +forces together under his command, his army grew great, for they flocked +together and flowed in upon him from all quarters. But when they continually +cried out to attack the enemy, and were impatient of delay, their +inexperienced, disorderly rashness caused Sertorius much trouble, who at first +strove to restrain them with reason and good counsel, but when he perceived +them refractory and unseasonably violent, he gave way to their impetuous +desires, and permitted them to engage with the enemy, in such sort that they +might, being repulsed, yet not totally routed, become more obedient to his +commands for the future. Which happening as he had anticipated, he soon rescued +them, and brought them safe into his camp. And after a few days, being willing +to encourage them again, when he had called all his army together, he caused +two horses to be brought into the field, one an old, feeble, lean animal, the +other a lusty, strong horse, with a remarkably thick and long tail. Near the +lean one he placed a tall strong man, and near the strong young horse a weak +despicable-looking fellow; and at a sign given, the strong man took hold of the +weak horse’s tail with both his hands, and drew it to him with his whole force, +as if he would pull it off; the other, the weak man, in the mean time, set to +work to pluck off hair by hair from the great horse’s tail. And when the strong +man had given trouble enough to himself in vain, and sufficient diversion to +the company, and had abandoned his attempt, whilst the weak pitiful fellow in a +short time and with little pains had left not a hair on the great horse’s tail, +Sertorius rose up and spoke to his army, “You see, fellow soldiers, that +perseverance is more prevailing than violence, and that many things which +cannot be overcome when they are together, yield themselves up when taken +little by little. Assiduity and persistence are irresistible, and in time +overthrow and destroy the greatest powers whatever. Time being the favorable +friend and assistant of those who use their judgment to await his occasions, +and the destructive enemy of those who are unseasonably urging and pressing +forward.” With a frequent use of such words and such devices, he soothed the +fierceness of the barbarous people, and taught them to attend and watch for +their opportunities. +</p> + +<p> +Of all his remarkable exploits, none raised greater admiration than that which +he put in practice against the Characitanians. These are a people beyond the +river Tagus, who inhabit neither cities nor towns, but live in a vast high +hill, within the deep dens and caves of the rocks, the mouths of which open all +towards the north. The country below is of a soil resembling a light clay, so +loose as easily to break into powder, and is not firm enough to bear anyone +that treads upon it, and if you touch it in the least, it flies about like +ashes or unslaked lime. In any danger of war, these people descend into their +caves, and carrying in their booty and prey along with them, stay quietly +within, secure from every attack. And when Sertorius, leaving Metellus some +distance off had placed his camp near this hill, they slighted and despised +him, imagining, that he retired into these parts, being overthrown by the +Romans. And whether out of anger and resentment, or out of his unwillingness to +be thought to fly from his enemies, early in the morning he rode up to view the +situation of the place. But finding there was no way to come at it, as he rode +about, threatening them in vain and disconcerted, he took notice that the wind +raised the dust and carried it up towards the caves of the Characitanians, the +mouths of which, as I said before, opened towards the north; and the northerly +wind, which some call Caecias, prevailing most in those parts, coming up out of +moist plains or mountains covered with snow, at this particular time, in the +heat of summer, being further supplied and increased by the melting of the ice +in the northern regions, blew a delightful fresh gale, cooling and refreshing +the Characitanians and their cattle all the day long. Sertorius, considering +well all circumstances in which either the information of the inhabitants, or +his own experience had instructed him, commanded his soldiers to shovel up a +great quantity of this light, dusty earth, to heap it up together, and make a +mount of it over against the hill in which these barbarous people resided, who, +imagining that all this preparation was for raising a mound to get at them, +only mocked and laughed at it. However, he continued the work till the evening, +and brought his soldiers back into their camp. The next morning a gentle breeze +at first arose, and moved the lightest parts of the earth, and dispersed it +about as the chaff before the wind; but when the sun coming to be higher, the +strong northerly wind had covered the hills with the dust, the soldiers came +and turned this mound of earth over and over, and broke the hard clods in +pieces, whilst others on horseback rode through it backward and forward, and +raised a cloud of dust into the air: there with the wind the whole of it was +carried away and blown into the dwellings of the Characitanians, all lying open +to the north. And there being no other vent or breathing-place than that +through which the Caecias rushed in upon them, it quickly blinded their eyes, +and filled their lungs, and all but choked them, whilst they strove to draw in +the rough air mingled with dust and powdered earth. Nor were they able, with +all they could do, to hold out above two days, but yielded up themselves on the +third, adding, by their defeat, not so much to the power of Sertorius, as to +his renown, in proving that he was able to conquer places by art, which were +impregnable by the force of arms. +</p> + +<p> +So long as he had to do with Metellus, he was thought to owe his successes to +his opponent’s age and slow temper, which were ill-suited for coping with the +daring and activity of one who commanded a light army more like a band of +robbers than regular soldiers. But when Pompey also passed over the Pyrenees, +and Sertorius pitched his camp near him, and offered and himself accepted every +occasion by which military skill could be put to the proof, and in this contest +of dexterity was found to have the better, both in baffling his enemy’s designs +and in counter-scheming himself, the fame of him now spread even to Rome +itself, as the most expert commander of his time. For the renown of Pompey was +not small, who had already won much honor by his achievements in the wars of +Sylla, from whom he received the title of Magnus, and was called Pompey the +Great; and who had risen to the honor of a triumph before the beard had grown +on his face. And many cities which were under Sertorius were on the very eve of +revolting and going over to Pompey, when they were deterred from it by that +great action, amongst others, which he performed near the city of Lauron, +contrary to the expectation of all. +</p> + +<p> +For Sertorius had laid siege to Lauron, and Pompey came with his whole army to +relieve it; and there being a hill near this city very advantageously situated, +they both made haste to take it. Sertorius was beforehand, and took possession +of it first, and Pompey, having drawn down his forces, was not sorry that it +had thus happened, imagining that he had hereby enclosed his enemy between his +own army and the city, and sent in a messenger to the citizens of Lauron, to +bid them be of good courage, and to come upon their walls, where they might see +their besieger besieged. Sertorius, perceiving their intentions, smiled, and +said, he would now teach Sylla’s scholar, for so he called Pompey in derision, +that it was the part of a general to look as well behind him as before him, and +at the same time showed them six thousand soldiers, whom he had left in his +former camp, from whence he marched out to take the hill, where if Pompey +should assault him, they might fall upon his rear. Pompey discovered this too +late, and not daring to give battle, for fear of being encompassed, and yet +being ashamed to desert his friends and confederates in their extreme danger, +was thus forced to sit still, and see them ruined before his face. For the +besieged despaired of relief, and delivered up themselves to Sertorius, who +spared their lives and granted them their liberty, but burnt their city, not +out of anger or cruelty, for of all commanders that ever were, Sertorius seems +least of all to have indulged these passions, but only for the greater shame +and confusion of the admirers of Pompey, and that it might be reported amongst +the Spaniards, that though he had been so close to the fire which burnt down +the city of his confederates as actually to feel the heat of it, he still had +not dared to make any opposition. +</p> + +<p> +Sertorius, however, sustained many losses; but he always maintained himself and +those immediately with him undefeated, and it was by other commanders under him +that he suffered; and he was more admired for being able to repair his losses, +and for recovering the victory, than the Roman generals against him for gaining +these advantages; as at the battle of the Sucro against Pompey, and at the +battle near Tuttia, against him and Metellus together. The battle near the +Sucro was fought, it is said, through the impatience of Pompey, lest Metellus +should share with him in the victory, Sertorius being also willing to engage +Pompey before the arrival of Metellus. Sertorius delayed the time till the +evening, considering that the darkness of the night would be a disadvantage to +his enemies, whether flying or pursuing, being strangers, and having no +knowledge of the country. When the fight began, it happened that Sertorius was +not placed directly against Pompey, but against Afranius, who had command of +the left wing of the Roman army, as he commanded the right wing of his own; but +when he understood that his left wing began to give way, and yield to the +assault of Pompey, he committed the care of his right wing to other commanders, +and made haste to relieve those in distress; and rallying some that were +flying, and encouraging others that still kept their ranks, he renewed the +fight, and attacked the enemy in their pursuit so effectively as to cause a +considerable rout, and brought Pompey into great danger of his life. For after +being wounded and losing his horse, he escaped unexpectedly. For the Africans +with Sertorius, who took Pompey’s horse, set out with gold, and covered with +rich trappings, fell out with one another; and upon the dividing of the spoil, +gave over the pursuit. Afranius, in the meantime, as soon as Sertorius had left +his right wing, to assist the other part of his army, overthrew all that +opposed him; and pursuing them to their camp, fell in together with them, and +plundered them till it was dark night; knowing nothing of Pompey’s overthrow, +nor being able to restrain his soldiers from pillaging; when Sertorius, +returning with victory, fell upon him and upon his men, who were all in +disorder, and slew many of them. And the next morning he came into the field +again, well armed, and offered battle, but perceiving that Metellus was near, +he drew off, and returned to his camp, saying, “If this old woman had not come +up, I would have whipped that boy soundly and sent him to Rome.” +</p> + +<p> +He was much concerned that his white hind could nowhere be found; as he was +thus destitute of an admirable contrivance to encourage the barbarous people, +at a time when he most stood in need of it. Some men, however, wandering in the +night, chanced to meet her, and knowing her by her color, took her; to whom +Sertorius promised a good reward, if they would tell no one of it; and +immediately shut her up. A few days after, he appeared in public with a very +cheerful look, and declared to the chief men of the country, that the gods had +foretold him in a dream that some great good fortune should shortly attend him; +and, taking his seat, proceeded to answer the petitions of those who applied +themselves to him. The keepers of the hind, who were not far off, now let her +loose, and she no sooner espied Sertorius, but she came leaping with great joy +to his feet, laid her head upon his knees, and licked his hands, as she +formerly used to do. And Sertorius stroking her, and making much of her again, +with that tenderness that the tears stood in his eyes, all that were present +were immediately filled with wonder and astonishment, and accompanying him to +his house with loud shouts for joy, looked upon him as a person above the rank +of mortal men, and highly beloved by the gods; and were in great courage and +hope for the future. +</p> + +<p> +When he had reduced his enemies to the last extremity for want of provision, he +was forced to give them battle, in the plains near Saguntum, to hinder them +from foraying, and plundering the country. Both parties fought gloriously. +Memmius, the best commander in Pompey’s army, was slain in the heat of the +battle. Sertorius over threw all before him, and with great slaughter of his +enemies pressed forward towards Metellus. This old commander, making a +resistance beyond what could be expected from one of his years, was wounded +with a lance; an occurrence which filled all who either saw it or heard of it, +with shame, to be thought to have left their general in distress, but at the +same time it provoked them to revenge and fury against their enemies; they +covered Metellus with their shields, and brought him off in safety, and then +valiantly repulsed the Spaniards; and so victory changed sides, and Sertorius, +that he might afford a more secure retreat to his army, and that fresh forces +might more easily be raised, retired into a strong city in the mountains. And +though it was the least of his intention to sustain a long siege, yet he began +to repair the walls, and to fortify the gates, thus deluding his enemies, who +came and sat down before the town, hoping to take it without much resistance; +and meantime gave over the pursuit of the Spaniards, and allowed opportunity +for raising new forces for Sertorius, to which purpose he had sent commanders +to all their cities, with orders, when they had sufficiently increased their +numbers, to send him word of it. This news he no sooner received, but he +sallied out and forced his way through his enemies, and easily joined them with +the rest of his army. And having received this considerable reinforcement, he +set upon the Romans again, and by rapidly assaulting them, by alarming them on +all sides, by ensnaring, circumventing, and laying ambushes for them, he cut +off all provisions by land, while with his piratical vessels, he kept all the +coast in awe, and hindered their supplies by sea. He thus forced the Roman +generals to dislodge, and to separate from one another: Metellus departed into +Gaul, and Pompey wintered among the Vaccaeans, in a wretched condition, where, +being in extreme want of money, he wrote a letter to the senate, to let them +know that if they did not speedily supply him, he must draw off his army; for +he had already spent his own money in the defense of Italy. To these +extremities, the chiefest and the most powerful commanders of the age were +reduced by the skill of Sertorius; and it was the common opinion in Rome, that +he would be in Italy before Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +How far Metellus was terrified, and at what rate he esteemed him, he plainly +declared, when he offered by proclamation a hundred talents, and twenty +thousand acres of land, to any Roman that should kill him, and leave, if he +were banished, to return; attempting villainously to buy his life by treachery, +when he despaired of ever being able to overcome him in open war. And when once +he gained the advantage in a battle against Sertorius, he was so pleased and +transported with his good fortune, that he caused himself to be publicly +proclaimed imperator; and all the cities which he visited received him with +altars and sacrifices; he allowed himself, it is said, to have garlands placed +on his head, and accepted sumptuous entertainments, at which he sat drinking in +triumphal robes, while images and figures of victory were introduced by the +motion of machines, bringing in with them crowns and trophies of gold to +present to him, and companies of young men and women danced before him, and +sang to him songs of joy and triumph. By all which he rendered himself +deservedly ridiculous, for being so excessively delighted and puffed up with +the thoughts of having followed one who was retiring of his own accord, and for +having once had the better of him whom he used to call Sylla’s runaway slave, +and his forces, the remnant of the defeated troops of Carbo. +</p> + +<p> +Sertorius, meantime, showed the loftiness of his temper in calling together all +the Roman senators who had fled from Rome, and had come and resided with him, +and giving them the name of a senate; and out of these he chose praetors and +quaestors, and adorned his government with all the Roman laws and institutions. +And though he made use of the arms, riches, and cities of the Spaniards, yet he +would never, even in word, remit to them the imperial authority, but set Roman +officers and commanders over them, intimating his purpose to restore liberty to +the Romans, not to raise up the Spaniard’s power against them. For he was a +sincere lover of his country, and had a great desire to return home; but in his +adverse fortune he showed undaunted courage, and behaved himself towards his +enemies in a manner free from all dejection and mean-spiritedness; and when he +was in his prosperity, and in the height of his victories, he sent word to +Metellus and Pompey, that he was ready to lay down his arms, and live a private +life, if he were allowed to return home, declaring that he had rather live as +the meanest citizen in Rome, than, exiled from it, be supreme commander of all +other cities together. And it is thought that his great desire for his country +was in no small measure promoted by the tenderness he had for his mother, under +whom he was brought up after the death of his father, and upon whom he had +placed his entire affection. And after that his friends had sent for him into +Spain to be their general, as soon as he heard of his mother’s death, he had +almost cast away himself and died for grief; for he lay seven days together +continually in his tent, without giving the word, or being seen by the nearest +of his friends; and when the chief commanders of the army, and persons of the +greatest note came about his tent, with great difficulty they prevailed with +him at last to come abroad, and speak to his soldiers, and to take upon him the +management of affairs, which were in a prosperous condition. And thus, to many +men’s judgment, he seemed to have been in himself of a mild and compassionate +temper, and naturally given to ease and quietness, and to have accepted of the +command of military forces contrary to his own inclination, and not being able +to live in safety otherwise, to have been driven by his enemies to have +recourse to arms, and to espouse the wars as a necessary guard for the defense +of his person. +</p> + +<p> +His negotiations with king Mithridates further argue the greatness of his mind. +For when Mithridates, recovering himself from his overthrow by Sylla, like a +strong wrestler that gets up to try another fall, was again endeavoring to +reestablish his power in Asia, at this time the great fame of Sertorius was +celebrated in all places and when the merchants who came out of the western +parts of Europe, bringing these, as it were, among their other foreign wares, +had filled the kingdom of Pontus with their stories of his exploits in war, +Mithridates was extremely desirous to send an embassy to him, being also highly +encouraged to it by the boastings of his flattering courtiers, who, comparing +Mithridates to Pyrrhus, and Sertorius to Hannibal, professed that the Romans +would never be able to make any considerable resistance against such great +forces, and such admirable commanders, when they should be set upon on both +sides at once, on one by the most warlike general, and on the other by the most +powerful prince in existence. +</p> + +<p> +Accordingly, Mithridates sends ambassadors into Spain to Sertorius with letters +and instructions, and commission to promise ships and money towards the charge +of the war, if Sertorius would confirm his pretensions upon Asia, and authorize +him to possess all that he had surrendered to the Romans in his treaty with +Sylla. Sertorius summoned a full council which he called a senate, where, when +others joyfully approved of the conditions, and were desirous immediately to +accept of his offer, seeing that he desired nothing of them but a name, and an +empty title to places not in their power to dispose of, in recompense of which +they should be supplied with what they then stood most in need of, Sertorius +would by no means agree to it; declaring that he was willing that king +Mithridates should exercise all royal power and authority over Bithynia and +Cappadocia, countries accustomed to a monarchical government, and not belonging +to Rome, but he could never consent that he should seize or detain a province, +which, by the justest right and title, was possessed by the Romans, which +Mithridates had formerly taken away from them, and had afterwards lost in open +war to Fimbria, and quitted upon a treaty of peace with Sylla. For he looked +upon it as his duty to enlarge the Roman possessions by his conquering arms, +and not to increase his own power by the diminution of the Roman territories. +Since a noble-minded man, though he willingly accepts of victory when it comes +with honor, will never so much as endeavor to save his own life upon any +dishonorable terms. +</p> + +<p> +When this was related to Mithridates, he was struck with amazement, and said to +his intimate friends, “What will Sertorius enjoin us to do when he comes to be +seated in the Palatium in Rome, who at present, when he is driven out to the +borders of the Atlantic sea, sets bounds to our kingdoms in the east, and +threatens us with war, if we attempt the recovery of Asia?” However, they +solemnly, upon oath, concluded a league between them, upon these terms: that +Mithridates should enjoy the free possession of Cappadocia and Bithynia, and +that Sertorius should send him soldiers, and a general for his army, in +recompense of which the king was to supply him with three thousand talents and +forty ships. Marcus Marius, a Roman senator who had quitted Rome to follow +Sertorius, was sent general into Asia, in company with whom when Mithridates +had reduced divers of the Asian cities, Marius made his entrance with rods and +axes carried before him, and Mithridates followed in the second place, +voluntarily waiting upon him. Some of these cities he set at liberty, and +others he freed from taxes, signifying to them that these privileges were +granted to them by the favor of Sertorius, and hereby Asia, which had been +miserably tormented by the revenue-farmers, and oppressed by the insolent pride +and covetousness of the soldiers, began to rise again to new hopes, and to look +forward with joy to the expected change of government. +</p> + +<p> +But in Spain, the senators about Sertorius, and others of the nobility, finding +themselves strong enough for their enemies, no sooner laid aside fear, but +their minds were possessed by envy and irrational jealousies of Sertorius’s +power. And chiefly Perpenna, elevated by the thoughts of his noble birth, and +carried away with a fond ambition of commanding the army, threw out villainous +discourses in private amongst his acquaintance. “What evil genius,” he would +say, “hurries us perpetually from worse to worse? We who disdained to obey the +dictates of Sylla, the ruler of sea and land, and thus to live at home in peace +and quiet, are come hither to our destruction, hoping to enjoy our liberty, and +have made ourselves slaves of our own accord, and are become the contemptible +guards and attendants of the banished Sertorius, who, that he may expose us the +further, gives us name that renders us ridiculous to all that hear it, and +calls us the Senate, when at the same time he makes us undergo as much hard +labor, and forces us to be as subject to his haughty commands and insolences, +as any Spaniards and Lusitanians.” With these mutinous discourses, he seduced +them; and though the greater number could not be led into open rebellion +against Sertorius, fearing his power, they were prevailed with to endeavor to +destroy his interest secretly. For by abusing the Lusitanians and Spaniards, by +inflicting severe punishments upon them, by raising exorbitant taxes, and by +pretending that all this was done by the strict command of Sertorius, they +caused great troubles, and made many cities to revolt; and those who were sent +to mitigate and heal these differences, did rather exasperate them, and +increase the number of his enemies, and left them at their return more +obstinate and rebellious than they found them. And Sertorius, incensed with all +this, now so far forgot his former clemency and goodness, as to lay hands on +the sons of the Spaniards, educated in the city of Oscar and, contrary to all +justice, he cruelly put some of them to death, and sold others. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, Perpenna, having increased the number of his conspirators, +drew in Manlius, a commander in the army, who, at that time being attached to a +youth, to gain his affections the more, discovered the confederacy to him, +bidding him neglect others, and be constant to him alone; who, in a few days, +was to be a person of great power and authority. But the youth having a greater +inclination for Aufidius, disclosed all to him, which much surprised and amazed +him. For he was also one of the confederacy, but knew not that Manlius was +anyways engaged in it; but when the youth began to name Perpenna, Gracinus, and +others, whom he knew very well to be sworn conspirators, he was very much +terrified and astonished; but made light of it to the youth, and bade him not +regard what Manlius said, a vain boasting fellow. However, he went presently to +Perpenna, and giving him notice of the danger they were in, and of the +shortness of their time, desired him immediately to put their designs in +execution. And when all the confederates had consented to it, they provided a +messenger who brought feigned letters to Sertorius, in which he had notice of a +victory obtained, it said, by one of his lieutenants, and of the great +slaughter of his enemies; and as Sertorius, being extremely well pleased, was +sacrificing and giving thanks to the gods for his prosperous success, Perpenna +invited him, and those with him, who were also of the conspiracy, to an +entertainment, and being very importunate, prevailed with him to come. At all +suppers and entertainments where Sertorius was present, great order and decency +was wont to be observed, for he would not endure to hear or see any thing that +was rude or unhandsome, but made it the habit of all who kept his company, to +entertain themselves with quiet and inoffensive amusements. But in the middle +of this entertainment, those who sought occasion to quarrel, fell into +dissolute discourse openly, and making as if they were very drunk, committed +many insolences on purpose to provoke him. Sertorius, being offended with their +ill behavior, or perceiving the state of their minds by their way of speaking +and their unusually disrespectful manner, changed the posture of his lying, and +leaned backward, as one that neither heard nor regarded them. Perpenna now took +a cup full of wine, and, as he was drinking, let it fall out of his hand and +make a noise, which was the sign agreed upon amongst them; and Antonius, who +was next to Sertorius, immediately wounded him with his sword. And whilst +Sertorius, upon receiving the wound, turned himself, and strove to get up, +Antonius threw himself upon his breast, and held both his hands, so that he +died by a number of blows, without being able even to defend himself. +</p> + +<p> +Upon the first news of his death, most of the Spaniards left the conspirators, +and sent ambassadors to Pompey and Metellus, and yielded themselves up to them. +Perpenna attempted to do something with those that remained, but he made only +so much use of Sertorius’s arms and preparations for war, as to disgrace +himself in them, and to let it be evident to all, that he understood no more +how to command, than he knew how to obey; and when he came against Pompey, he +was soon overthrown, and taken prisoner. Neither did he bear this last +affliction with any bravery, but having Sertorius’s papers and writings in his +hands, he offered to show Pompey letters from persons of consular dignity, and +of the highest quality in Rome, written with their own hands, expressly to call +Sertorius into Italy, and to let him know what great numbers there were that +earnestly desired to alter the present state of affairs, and to introduce +another manner of government. Upon this occasion, Pompey behaved not like a +youth, or one of a light inconsiderate mind, but as a man of a confirmed, +mature, and solid judgment; and so freed Rome from great fears and dangers of +change. For he put all Sertorius’s writings and letters together and read not +one of them, nor suffered anyone else to read them, but burnt them all, and +caused Perpenna immediately to be put to death, lest by discovering their +names, further troubles and revolutions might ensue. +</p> + +<p> +Of the rest of the conspirators with Perpenna, some were taken and slain by the +command of Pompey, others fled into Africa, and were set upon by the Moors, and +run through with their darts; and in a short time, not one of them was left +alive, except only Aufidius, the rival of Manlius, who, hiding himself, or not +being much inquired after, died an old man, in an obscure village in Spain, in +extreme poverty, and hated by all. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap42"></a>EUMENES</h2> + +<p> +Duris reports that Eumenes, the Cardian, was the son of a poor wagoner in the +Thracian Chersonesus, yet liberally educated, both as a scholar and a soldier; +and that while he was but young, Philip, passing through Cardia, diverted +himself with a sight of the wrestling-matches and other exercises of the youth +of that place, among whom Eumenes performing with success, and showing signs of +intelligence and bravery, Philip was so pleased with him, as to take him into +his service. But they seem to speak more probably, who tell us that Philip +advanced Eumenes for the friendship he bore to his father, whose guest he had +sometime been. After the death of Philip, he continued in the service of +Alexander, with the title of his principal secretary, but in as great favor as +the most intimate of his familiars, being esteemed as wise and faithful as any +person about him, so that he went with troops under his immediate command as +general in the expedition against India, and succeeded to the post of +Perdiccas, when Perdiccas was advanced to that of Hephaestion, then newly +deceased. And therefore, after the death of Alexander, when Neoptolemus, who +had been captain of his lifeguard, said that he had followed Alexander with +shield and spear, but Eumenes only with pen and paper, the Macedonians laughed +at him, as knowing very well that, besides other marks of favor, the king had +done him the honor to make him a kind of kinsman to himself by marriage. For +Alexander’s first mistress in Asia, by whom he had his son Hercules, was +Barsine the daughter of Artabazus; and in the distribution of the Persian +ladies amongst his captains, Alexander gave Apame, one of her sisters, to +Ptolemy, and another, also called Barsine, to Eumenes. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding, he frequently incurred Alexander’s displeasure, and put +himself into some danger, through Hephaestion. The quarters that had been taken +up for Eumenes, Hephaestion assigned to Euius, the flute-player. Upon which, in +great anger, Eumenes and Mentor came to Alexander, and loudly complained, +saying that the way to be regarded was to throw away their arms, and turn +flute-players or tragedians; so much so that Alexander took their part and chid +Hephaestion; but soon after changed his mind again, and was angry with Eumenes, +and accounted the freedom he had taken to be rather an affront to the king, +than a reflection upon Hephaestion. Afterwards, when Nearchus, with a fleet, +was to be sent to the Southern Sea, Alexander borrowed money of his friends, +his own treasury being exhausted, and would have had three hundred talents of +Eumenes, but he sent a hundred only, pretending; that it was not without great +difficulty he had raised so much from his stewards. Alexander neither +complained nor took the money, but gave private order to set Eumenes’s tent on +fire, designing to take him in a manifest lie, when his money was carried out. +But before that could be done, the tent was consumed, and Alexander repented of +his orders, all his papers being burnt; the gold and silver, however, which was +melted down in the fire, being afterwards collected, was found to be more than +one thousand talents; yet Alexander took none of it, and only wrote to the +several governors and generals to send new copies of the papers that were +burnt, and ordered them to be delivered to Eumenes. +</p> + +<p> +Another difference happened between him and Hephaestion concerning a gift, and +a great deal of ill language passed between them, yet Eumenes still continued +in favor. But Hephaestion dying soon after, the king, in his grief, presuming +all those that differed with Hephaestion in his lifetime were now rejoicing at +his death, showed much harshness and severity in his behavior with them, +especially towards Eumenes, whom he often upbraided with his quarrels and ill +language to Hephaestion. But he, being a wise and dexterous courtier, made +advantage of what had done him prejudice, and struck in with the king’s passion +for glorifying his friend’s memory, suggesting various plans to do him honor, +and contributing largely and readily towards erecting his monument. +</p> + +<p> +After Alexander’s death, when the quarrel broke out between the troops of the +phalanx and the officers, his companions, Eumenes, though in his judgment he +inclined to the latter, yet in his professions stood neuter, as if he thought +it unbecoming him, who was a stranger, to interpose in the private quarrels of +the Macedonians. And when the rest of Alexander’s friends left Babylon, he +stayed behind, and did much to pacify the foot-soldiers, and to dispose them +towards an accommodation. And when the officers had agreed among themselves, +and, recovering from the first disorder, proceeded to share out the several +commands and provinces, they made Eumenes governor of Cappadocia and +Paphlagonia, and all the coast upon the Pontic Sea as far as Trebizond, which +at that time was not subject to the Macedonians, for Ariarathes kept it as +king, but Leonnatus and Antigonus, with a large army, were to put him in +possession of it. Antigonus, already filled with hopes of his own, and +despising all men, took no notice of Perdiccas’s letters; but Leonnatus with +his army came down into Phrygia to the service of Eumenes. But being visited by +Hecataeus, the tyrant of the Cardians, and requested rather to relieve +Antipater and the Macedonians that were besieged in Lamia, he resolved upon +that expedition, inviting Eumenes to a share in it, and endeavoring to +reconcile him to Hecataeus. For there was an hereditary feud between them, +arising out of political differences, and Eumenes had more than once been known +to denounce Hecataeus as a tyrant, and to exhort Alexander to restore the +Cardians their liberty. Therefore at this time, also, he declined the +expedition proposed, pretending that he feared lest Antipater, who already +hated him, should for that reason and to gratify Hecataeus, kill him. Leonnatus +so far believed, as to impart to Eumenes his whole design, which, as he had +pretended and given out, was to aid Antipater, but in truth was to seize the +kingdom of Macedon; and he showed him letters from Cleopatra, in which, it +appeared, she invited him to Pella, with promises to marry him. But Eumenes, +whether fearing Antipater, or looking upon Leonnatus as a rash, headstrong, and +unsafe man, stole away from him by night, taking with him all his men, namely, +three hundred horse, and two hundred of his own servants armed, and all his +gold, to the value of five thousand talents of silver, and fled to Perdiccas, +discovered to him Leonnatus’s design, and thus gained great interest with him, +and was made of the council. Soon after, Perdiccas, with a great army, which he +led himself, conducted Eumenes into Cappadocia, and, having taken Ariarathes +prisoner, and subdued the whole country, declared him governor of it. He +accordingly proceeded to dispose of the chief cities among his own friends, and +made captains of garrisons, judges, receivers, and other officers, of such as +he thought fit himself, Perdiccas not at all interposing. Eumenes, however, +still continued to attend upon Perdiccas, both out of respect to him, and a +desire not to be absent from the royal family. +</p> + +<p> +But Perdiccas, believing he was able enough to attain his own further objects +without assistance, and that the country he left behind him might stand in need +of an active and faithful governor, when he came into Cilicia, dismissed +Eumenes, under color of sending him to his command, but in truth to secure +Armenia, which was on its frontier, and was unsettled through the practices of +Neoptolemus. Him, a proud and vain man, Eumenes exerted himself to gain by +personal attentions; but to balance the Macedonian foot, whom he found insolent +and self-willed, he contrived to raise an army of horse, excusing from tax and +contribution all those of the country that were able to serve on horseback, and +buying up a number of horses, which he distributed among such of his own men as +he most confided in, stimulating the courage of his new soldiers by gifts and +honors, and inuring their bodies to service, by frequent marching and +exercising; so that the Macedonians were some of them astonished, others +overjoyed, to see that in so short a time he had got together a body of no less +than six thousand three hundred horsemen. +</p> + +<p> +But when Craterus and Antipater, having subdued the Greeks, advanced into Asia, +with intentions to quell the power of Perdiccas, and were reported to design an +invasion of Cappadocia, Perdiccas, resolving himself to march against Ptolemy, +made Eumenes commander-in-chief of all the forces of Armenia and Cappadocia, +and to that purpose wrote letters, requiring Alcetas and Neoptolemus to be +obedient to Eumenes, and giving full commission to Eumenes to dispose and order +all things as he thought fit. Alcetas flatly refused to serve, because his +Macedonians, he said, were ashamed to fight against Antipater, and loved +Craterus so well, they were ready to receive him for their commander. +Neoptolemus designed treachery against Eumenes, but was discovered; and being +summoned, refused to obey, and put himself in a posture of defense. Here +Eumenes first found the benefit of his own foresight and contrivance, for his +foot being beaten, he routed Neoptolemus with his horse, and took all his +baggage; and coming up with his whole force upon the phalanx while broken and +disordered in its flight, obliged the men to lay down their arms, and take an +oath to serve under him. Neoptolemus, with some few stragglers whom he rallied, +fled to Craterus and Antipater. From them had come an embassy to Eumenes, +inviting him over to their side, offering to secure him in his present +government and to give him additional command, both of men and of territory, +with the advantage of gaining his enemy Antipater to become his friend, and +keeping Craterus his friend from turning to be his enemy. To which Eumenes +replied, that he could not so suddenly be reconciled to his old enemy +Antipater, especially at a time when he saw him use his friends like enemies, +but was ready to reconcile Craterus to Perdiccas, upon any just and equitable +terms; but in case of any aggression, he would resist the injustice to his last +breath, and would rather lose his life than betray his word. +</p> + +<p> +Antipater, receiving this answer, took time to consider upon the whole matter; +when Neoptolemus arrived from his defeat, and acquainted them with the ill +success of his arms, and urged them to give him assistance, to come, both of +them, if possible, but Craterus at any rate, for the Macedonians loved him so +excessively, that if they saw but his hat, or heard his voice, they would all +pass over in a body with their arms. And in truth, Craterus had a mighty name +among them, and the soldiers after Alexander’s death were extremely fond of +him, remembering how he had often for their sakes incurred Alexander’s +displeasure, doing his best to withhold him when he began to follow the Persian +fashions, and always maintaining the customs of his country, when, through +pride and luxuriousness, they began to be disregarded. Craterus, therefore, +sent on Antipater into Cilicia, and himself and Neoptolemus marched with a +large division of the army against Eumenes; expecting to come upon him +unawares, and to find his army disordered with reveling after the late victory. +Now that Eumenes should suspect his coming, and be prepared to receive him, is +an argument of his vigilance, but not perhaps a proof of any extraordinary +sagacity, but that he should contrive both to conceal from his enemies the +disadvantages of his position, and from his own men whom they were to fight +with, so that he led them on against Craterus himself, without their knowing +that he commanded the enemy, this, indeed, seems to show peculiar address and +skill in the general. He gave out that Neoptolemus and Pigres were approaching +with some Cappadocian and Paphlagonian horse. And at night, having resolved on +marching, he fell asleep, and had an extraordinary dream. For he thought he saw +two Alexanders ready to engage, each commanding his several phalanx, the one +assisted by Minerva, the other by Ceres; and that after a hot dispute, he on +whose side Minerva was, was beaten, and Ceres, gathering ears of corn, wove +them into a crown for the victor. This vision Eumenes interpreted at once as +boasting success to himself, who was to fight for a fruitful country, and at +that very time covered with the young ears, the whole being sowed with corn, +and the fields so thick with it, that they made a beautiful show of a long +peace. And he was further emboldened, when he understood that the enemy’s +pass-word was Minerva and Alexander. Accordingly he also gave out as his, Ceres +and Alexander, and gave his men orders to make garlands for themselves, and to +dress their arms with wreaths of corn. He found himself under many temptations +to discover to his captains and officers whom they were to engage with, and not +to conceal a secret of such moment in his own breast alone, yet he kept to his +first resolutions, and ventured to run the hazard of his own judgment. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to give battle, he would not trust any Macedonian to engage +Craterus, but appointed two troops of foreign horse, commanded by Pharnabazus, +son to Artabazus, and Phoenix of Tenedos, with order to charge as soon as ever +they saw the enemy, without giving them leisure to speak or retire, or +receiving any herald or trumpet from them. For he was exceedingly afraid about +his Macedonians, lest, if they found out Craterus to be there, they should go +over to his side. He himself, with three hundred of his best horse, led the +right wing against Neoptolemus. When having passed a little hill they came in +view, and were seen advancing with more than ordinary briskness, Craterus was +amazed, and bitterly reproached Neoptolemus for deceiving him with hopes of the +Macedonians’ revolt, but he encouraged his men to do bravely, and forthwith +charged. The first engagement was very fierce, and the spears being soon broken +to pieces, they came to close fighting with their swords; and here Craterus did +by no means dishonor Alexander, but slew many of his enemies, and repulsed many +assaults, but at last received a wound in his side from a Thracian, and fell +off his horse. Being down, many not knowing him went past him, but Gorgias, one +of Eumenes’s captains, knew him, and alighting from his horse, kept guard over +him, as he lay badly wounded and slowly dying. In the meantime Neoptolemus and +Eumenes were engaged; who, being inveterate and mortal enemies, sought for one +another, but missed for the two first courses, but in the third discovering one +another, they drew their swords, and with loud shouts immediately charged. And +their horses striking against one another like two galleys, they quitted their +reins, and taking mutual hold pulled at one another’s helmets, and at the armor +from their shoulders. While they were thus struggling, their horses went from +under them, and they fell together to the ground, there again still keeping +their hold and wrestling. Neoptolemus was getting up first, but Eumenes wounded +him in the ham, and got upon his feet before him. Neoptolemus supporting +himself upon one knee, the other leg being disabled, and himself undermost, +fought courageously, though his blows were not mortal, but receiving a stroke +in the neck he fell and ceased to resist. Eumenes, transported with passion and +his inveterate hatred to him, fell to reviling and stripping him, and perceived +not that his sword was still in his hand. And with this he wounded Eumenes +under the bottom of his corslet in the groin, but in truth more frightened than +hurt him; his blow being faint for want of strength. Having stripped the dead +body, ill as he was with the wounds he had received in his legs and arms, he +took horse again, and hurried towards the left wing of his army, which he +supposed to be still engaged. Hearing of the death of Craterus, he rode up to +him, and finding there was yet some life in him, alighted from his horse and +wept, and laying his right hand upon him, inveighed bitterly against +Neoptolemus, and lamented both Craterus’s misfortune and his own hard fate, +that he should be necessitated to engage against an old friend and +acquaintance, and either do or suffer so much mischief. +</p> + +<p> +This victory Eumenes obtained about ten days after the former, and got great +reputation alike for his conduct and his valor in achieving it. But on the +other hand, it created him great envy both among his own troops, and his +enemies, that he, a stranger and a foreigner, should employ the forces and arms +of Macedon, to cut off the bravest and most approved man among them. Had the +news of this defeat come timely enough to Perdiccas, he had doubtless been the +greatest of all the Macedonians; but now, he being slain in a mutiny in Egypt, +two days before the news arrived, the Macedonians in a rage decreed Eumenes’s +death, giving joint commission to Antigonus and Antipater to prosecute the war +against him. Passing by Mount Ida, where there was a royal establishment of +horses, Eumenes took as many as he had occasion for, and sent an account of his +doing so to the overseers, at which Antipater is said to have laughed, calling +it truly laudable in Eumenes thus to hold himself prepared for giving in to +them (or would it be taking from them?) strict account of all matters of +administration. Eumenes had designed to engage in the plains of Lydia, near +Sardis, both because his chief strength lay in horse, and to let Cleopatra see +how powerful he was. But at her particular request, for she was afraid to give +any umbrage to Antipater, he marched into the upper Phrygia, and wintered in +Celaenae; when Alcetas, Polemon, and Docimus disputing with him who should +command in chief, “You know,” said he, “the old saying, That destruction +regards no punctilios.” Having promised his soldiers pay within three days, he +sold them all the farms and castles in the country, together with the men and +beasts with which they were filled; every captain or officer that bought, +received from Eumenes the use of his engines to storm the place, and divided +the spoil among his company, proportionably to every man’s arrears. By this +Eumenes came again to be popular, so that when letters were found thrown about +the camp by the enemy, promising one hundred talents, besides great honors, to +anyone that should kill Eumenes, the Macedonians were extremely offended, and +made an order that from that time forward one thousand of their best men should +continually guard his person, and keep strict watch about him by night in their +several turns. This order was cheerfully obeyed, and they gladly received of +Eumenes the same honors which the kings used to confer upon their favorites. He +now had leave to bestow purple hats and cloaks, which among the Macedonians is +one of the greatest honors the king can give. +</p> + +<p> +Good fortune will elevate even petty minds, and gives them the appearance of a +certain greatness and stateliness, as from their high place they look down upon +the world; but the truly noble and resolved spirit raises itself, and becomes +more conspicuous in times of disaster and ill fortune, as was now the case with +Eumenes. For having by the treason of one of his own men lost the field to +Antigonus at Orcynii, in Cappadocia, in his flight he gave the traitor no +opportunity to escape to the enemy, but immediately seized and hanged him. Then +in his flight, taking a contrary course to his pursuers, he stole by them +unawares, returned to the place where the battle had been fought, and encamped. +There he gathered up the dead bodies, and burnt them with the doors and windows +of the neighboring villages, and raised heaps of earth upon their graves; +insomuch that Antigonus, who came thither soon after, expressed his +astonishment at his courage and firm resolution. Falling afterwards upon the +baggage of Antigonus, he might easily have taken many captives, both bond and +freemen, and much wealth collected from the spoils of so many wars; but he +feared lest his men, overladen with so much booty, might become unfit for rapid +retreat, and too fond of their ease to sustain the continual marches and endure +the long waiting on which he depended for success, expecting to tire Antigonus +into some other course. But then considering it would be extremely difficult to +restrain the Macedonians from plunder, when it seemed to offer itself, he gave +them order to refresh themselves, and bait their horses, and then attack the +enemy. In the meantime he sent privately to Menander, who had care of all this +baggage, professing a concern for him upon the score of old friendship and +acquaintance; and therefore advising him to quit the plain and secure himself +upon the sides of the neighboring hills, where the horse might not be able to +hem him in. When Menander, sensible of his danger, had speedily packed up his +goods and decamped, Eumenes openly sent his scouts to discover the enemy’s +posture, and commanded his men to arm, and bridle their horses, as designing +immediately to give battle; but the scouts returning with news that Menander +had secured so difficult a post it was impossible to take him, Eumenes, +pretending to be grieved with the disappointment, drew off his men another way. +It is said that when Menander reported this afterwards to Antigonus, and the +Macedonians commended Eumenes, imputing it to his singular good-nature, that +having it in his power to make slaves of their children, and outrage their +wives, he forbore and spared them all, Antigonus replied, “Alas, good friends, +he had no regard to us, but to himself, being loath to wear so many shackles +when he designed to fly.” +</p> + +<p> +From this time Eumenes, daily flying and wandering about, persuaded many of his +men to disband, whether out of kindness to them, or unwillingness to lead about +such a body of men as were too few to engage, and too many to fly undiscovered. +Taking refuge at Nora, a place on the confines of Lycaonia and Cappadocia, with +five hundred horse, and two hundred heavy-armed foot, he again dismissed as +many of his friends as desired it, through fear of the probable hardships to be +encountered there, and embracing them with all demonstrations of kindness, gave +them license to depart. Antigonus, when he came before this fort, desired to +have an interview with Eumenes before the siege; but he returned answer, that +Antigonus had many friends who might command in his room; but they whom Eumenes +defended, had no body to substitute if he should miscarry; therefore, if +Antigonus thought it worth while to treat with him, he should first send him +hostages. And when Antigonus required that Eumenes should first address himself +to him as his superior, he replied, “While I am able to wield a sword, I shall +think no man greater than myself.” At last, when according to Eumenes’s demand, +Antigonus sent his own nephew Ptolemy to the fort, Eumenes went out to him, and +they mutually embraced with great tenderness and friendship, as having formerly +been very intimate. After long conversation, Eumenes making no mention of his +own pardon and security, but requiring that he should be confirmed in his +several governments, and restitution be made him of the rewards of his service, +all that were present were astonished at his courage and gallantry. And many of +the Macedonians flocked to see what sort of person Eumenes was, for since the +death of Craterus, no man had been so much talked of in the army. But +Antigonus, being afraid lest he might suffer some violence, first commanded the +soldiers to keep off, calling out and throwing stones at those who pressed +forwards. At last, taking Eumenes in his arms, and keeping off the crowd with +his guards, not without great difficulty, he returned him safe into the fort. +</p> + +<p> +Then Antigonus, having built a wall round Nora, left a force sufficient to +carry on the siege, and drew off the rest of his army; and Eumenes was +beleaguered and kept garrison, having plenty of corn and water and salt but no +other thing, either for food, or delicacy; yet with such as he had, he kept a +cheerful table for his friends, inviting them severally in their turns, and +seasoning his entertainment with a gentle and affable behavior. For he had a +pleasant countenance, and looked not like an old and practiced soldier, but was +smooth and florid, and his shape as delicate as if his limbs had been carved by +art in the most accurate proportions. He was not a great orator, but winning +and persuasive, as may be seen in his letters. The greatest distress of the +besieged was the narrowness of the place they were in, their quarters being +very confined, and the whole place but two furlongs in compass; so that both +they and their horses fed without exercise. Accordingly, not only to prevent +the listlessness of such inactive living, but to have them in condition to fly +if occasion required, he assigned a room one and twenty feet long, the largest +in all the fort, for the men to walk in, directing them to begin their walk +gently, and so gradually mend their pace. And for the horses, he tied them to +the roof with great halters, fastening which about their necks, with a pulley +he gently raised them, till standing upon the ground with their hinder feet, +they just touched it with the very ends of their fore feet. In this posture the +grooms plied them with whips and shouts, provoking them to curvet and kick out +with their hind legs, struggling and stamping at the same time to find support +for their fore feet, and thus their whole body was exercised, till they were +all in a foam and sweat; excellent exercise, whether for strength or speed; and +then he gave them their corn already coarsely ground, that they might sooner +dispatch, and better digest it. +</p> + +<p> +The siege continuing long, Antigonus received advice that Antipater was dead in +Macedon, and that affairs were embroiled by the differences of Cassander and +Polysperchon, upon which he conceived no mean hopes, purposing to make himself +master of all, and, in order to his design, thought to bring over Eumenes, that +he might have his advice and assistance. He, therefore, sent Hieronymus to +treat with him, proposing a certain oath, which Eumenes first corrected, and +then referred himself to the Macedonians themselves that besieged him, to be +judged by them, which of the two forms were the most equitable. Antigonus in +the beginning of his had slightly mentioned the kings as by way of ceremony, +while all the sequel referred to himself alone; but Eumenes changed the form of +it to Olympias and the kings, and proceeded to swear not to be true to +Antigonus only, but to them, and to have the same friends and enemies, not with +Antigonus, but with Olympias and the kings. This form the Macedonians thinking +the more reasonable, swore Eumenes according to it, and raised the siege, +sending also to Antigonus, that he should swear in the same form to Eumenes. +Meantime, all the hostages of the Cappadocians whom Eumenes had in Nora he +returned, obtaining from their friends war horses, beasts of carriage, and +tents in exchange. And collecting again all the soldiers who had dispersed at +the time of his flight, and were now wandering about the country, he got +together a body of near a thousand horse, and with them fled from Antigonus, +whom he justly feared. For he had sent orders not only to have him blocked up +and besieged again, but had given a very sharp answer to the Macedonians, for +admitting Eumenes’s amendment of the oath. +</p> + +<p> +While Eumenes was flying, he received letters from those in Macedonia, who were +jealous of Antigonus’s greatness, from Olympias, inviting him thither, to take +the charge and protection of Alexander’s infant son, whose person was in +danger, and other letters from Polysperchon, and Philip the king, requiring him +to make war upon Antigonus, as general of the forces in Cappadocia, and +empowering him out of the treasure at Quinda to take five hundred talents, +compensation for his own losses, and to levy as much as he thought necessary to +carry on the war. They wrote also to the same effect to Antigenes and Teutamus, +the chief officers of the Argyraspids; who, on receiving these letters, treated +Eumenes with a show of respect and kindness; but it was apparent enough they +were full of envy and emulation, disdaining to give place to him. Their envy +Eumenes moderated, by refusing to accept the money, as if he had not needed it; +and their ambition and emulation, who were neither able to govern, nor willing +to obey, he conquered by help of superstition. For he told them that Alexander +had appeared to him in a dream, and showed him a regal pavilion richly +furnished, with a throne in it; and told him if they would sit in council +there, he himself would be present and prosper all the consultations and +actions upon which they should enter in his name. Antigenes and Teutamus were +easily prevailed upon to believe this, being as little willing to come and +consult Eumenes, as he himself was to be seen waiting at other men’s doors. +Accordingly, they erected a tent royal, and a throne, called Alexander’s, and +there they met to consult upon all affairs of moment. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards they advanced into the interior of Asia, and in their march met with +Peucestes, who was friendly to them, and with the other satraps, who joined +forces with them, and greatly encouraged the Macedonians with the number and +appearance of their men. But they themselves, having since Alexander’s decease +become imperious and ungoverned in their tempers, and luxurious in their daily +habits, imagining themselves great princes, and pampered in their conceit by +the flattery of the barbarians, when all these conflicting pretensions now came +together, were soon found to be exacting and quarrelsome one with another, +while all alike unmeasurably flattered the Macedonians, giving them money for +revels and sacrifices, till in a short time they brought the camp to be a +dissolute place of entertainment, and the army a mere multitude of voters, +canvassed as in a democracy for the election of this or that commander. +Eumenes, perceiving they despised one another, and all of them feared him, and +sought an opportunity to kill him, pretended to be in want of money, and +borrowed many talents, of those especially who most hated him, to make them at +once confide in him, and forbear all violence to him for fear of losing their +own money. Thus his enemies’ estates were the guard of his person, and by +receiving money he purchased safety, for which it is more common to give it. +</p> + +<p> +The Macedonians, also, while there was no show of danger, allowed themselves to +be corrupted, and made all their court to those who gave them presents, who had +their body-guards, and affected to appear as generals-in-chief. But when +Antigonus came upon them with a great army, and their affairs themselves seemed +to call out for a true general, then not only the common soldiers cast their +eyes upon Eumenes, but these men, who had appeared so great in a peaceful time +of ease, submitted all of them to him, and quietly posted themselves severally +as he appointed them. And when Antigonus attempted to pass the river +Pasitigris, all the rest that were appointed to guard the passes were not so +much as aware of his march; only Eumenes met and encountered him, slew many of +his men, and filled the river with the dead, and took four thousand prisoners. +But it was most particularly when Eumenes was sick, that the Macedonians let it +be seen how in their judgment, while others could feast them handsomely and +make entertainments, he alone knew how to fight and lead an army. For +Peucestes, having made a splendid entertainment in Persia, and given each of +the soldiers a sheep to sacrifice with, made himself sure of being +commander-in-chief. Some few days after, the army was to march, and Eumenes, +having been dangerously ill, was carried in a litter apart from the body of the +army, that any rest he got might not be disturbed. But when they were a little +advanced, unexpectedly they had a view of the enemy, who had passed the hills +that lay between them, and was marching down into the plain. At the sight of +the golden armor glittering in the sun as they marched down in their order, the +elephants with their castles on their backs, and the men in their purple, as +their manner was when they were going to give battle, the front stopped their +march, and called out for Eumenes, for they would not advance a step but under +his conduct; and fixing their arms in the ground, gave the word among +themselves to stand, requiring their officers also not to stir or engage or +hazard themselves without Eumenes. News of this being brought to Eumenes, he +hastened those that carried his litter, and drawing back the curtains on both +sides, joyfully put forth his right hand. As soon as the soldiers saw him, they +saluted him in their Macedonian dialect, and took up their shields, and +striking them with their pikes, gave a great shout; inviting the enemy to come +on, for now they had a leader. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus understanding by some prisoners he had taken that Eumenes was out of +health, to that degree that he was carried in a litter, presumed it would be no +hard matter to crush the rest of them, since he was ill. He therefore made the +greater haste to come up with them and engage. But being come so near as to +discover how the enemy was drawn up and appointed, he was astonished, and +paused for some time; at last he saw the litter carrying from one wing of the +army to the other, and, as his manner was, laughing aloud, he said to his +friends, “That litter there, it seems, is the thing that offers us battle;” and +immediately wheeled about, retired with all his army, and pitched his camp. The +men on the other side, finding a little respite, returned to their former +habits, and allowing themselves to be flattered, and making the most of the +indulgence of their generals, took up for their winter quarters near the whole +country of the Gabeni, so that the front was quartered nearly a thousand +furlongs from the rear; which Antigonus understanding, marched suddenly towards +them, taking the most difficult road through a country that wanted water; but +the way was short though uneven; hoping, if he should surprise them thus +scattered in their winter quarters, the soldiers would not easily be able to +come up time enough, and join with their officers. But having to pass through a +country uninhabited, where he met with violent winds and severe frosts, he was +much checked in his march, and his men suffered exceedingly. The only possible +relief was making numerous fires, by which his enemies got notice of his +coming. For the barbarians who dwelt on the mountains overlooking the desert, +amazed at the multitude of fires they saw, sent messengers upon dromedaries to +acquaint Peucestes. He being astonished and almost out of his senses with the +news, and finding the rest in no less disorder, resolved to fly, and collect +what men he could by the way. But Eumenes relieved him from his fear and +trouble, undertaking so to stop the enemy’s advance, that he should arrive +three days later than he was expected. Having persuaded them, he immediately +dispatched expresses to all the officers to draw the men out of their winter +quarters, and muster them with all speed. He himself with some of the chief +officers rode out, and chose an elevated tract within view, at a distance, of +such as traveled the desert; this he occupied and quartered out, and commanded +many fires to be made in it, as the custom is in a camp. This done, and the +enemies seeing the fire upon the mountains, Antigonus was filled with vexation +and despondency, supposing that his enemies had been long since advertised of +his march, and were prepared to receive him. Therefore, lest his army, now +tired and wearied out with their march, should be forced immediately to +encounter with fresh men, who had wintered well, and were ready for him, +quitting the near way, he marched slowly through the towns and villages to +refresh his men. But meeting with no such skirmishes as are usual when two +armies lie near one another, and being assured by the people of the country +that no army had been seen, but only continual fires in that place, he +concluded he had been outwitted by a stratagem of Eumenes, and much troubled, +advanced to give open battle. +</p> + +<p> +By this time, the greatest part of the forces were come together to Eumenes, +and admiring his sagacity, declared him alone commander-in-chief of the whole +army; upon which Antigenes and Teutamus, the commanders of the Argyraspids, +being very much offended, and envying Eumenes, formed a conspiracy against him; +and assembling the greater part of the satraps and officers, consulted when and +how to cut him off. When they had unanimously agreed, first to use his service +in the next battle, and then to take an occasion to destroy him, Eudamus, the +master of the elephants, and Phaedimus, gave Eumenes private advice of this +design, not out of kindness or good-will to him, but lest they should lose the +money they had lent him. Eumenes, having commended them, retired to his tent, +and telling his friends he lived among a herd of wild beasts, made his will, +and tore up all his letters, lest his correspondents after his death should be +questioned or punished on account of anything in his secret papers. Having thus +disposed of his affairs, he thought of letting the enemy win the field, or of +flying through Media and Armenia and seizing Cappadocia, but came to no +resolution while his friends stayed with him. After turning to many expedients +in his mind, which his changeable fortune had made versatile, he at last put +his men in array, and encouraged the Greeks and barbarians; as for the phalanx +and the Argyraspids, they encouraged him, and bade him be of good heart; for +the enemy would never be able to stand them. For indeed they were the oldest of +Philip’s and Alexander’s soldiers, tried men, that had long made war their +exercise, that had never been beaten or foiled; most of them seventy, none less +than sixty years old. And so when they charged Antigonus’s men, they cried out, +“You fight against your fathers, you rascals,” and furiously falling on, routed +the whole phalanx at once, nobody being able to stand them, and the greatest +part dying by their hands. So that Antigonus’s foot were routed, but his horse +got the better, and he became master of the baggage, through the cowardice of +Peucestes, who behaved himself negligently and basely; while Antigonus used his +judgment calmly in the danger, being aided moreover by the ground. For the +place where they fought was a large plain, neither deep, nor hard under foot, +but, like the sea-shore, covered with a fine soft sand, which the treading of +so many men and horses, in the time of the battle, reduced to a small white +dust, that like a cloud of lime darkened the air, so that one could not see +clearly at any distance, and so made it easy for Antigonus to take the baggage +unperceived. +</p> + +<p> +After the battle, Teutamus sent a message to Antigonus to demand the baggage. +He made answer, he would not only restore it to the Argyraspids, but serve them +further in other things if they would but deliver up Eumenes. Upon which the +Argyraspids took a villainous resolution to deliver him up alive into the hands +of his enemies. So they came to wait upon him, being unsuspected by him, but +watching their opportunity, some lamenting the loss of the baggage, some +encouraging him as if he had been victor, some accusing the other commanders, +till at last they all fell upon him, and seizing his sword, bound his hands +behind him with his own girdle. When Antigonus had sent Nicanor to receive him, +he begged he might be led through the body of the Macedonians, and have liberty +to speak to them, neither to request, nor deprecate anything, but only to +advise them what would be for their interest. A silence being made, as he stood +upon a rising ground, he stretched out his hands bound, and said, “What trophy, +O ye basest of all the Macedonians, could Antigonus have wished for so great as +you yourselves have erected for him, in delivering up your general captive into +his hands? You are not ashamed, when you are conquerors, to own yourselves +conquered, for the sake only of your baggage, as if it were wealth, not arms, +wherein victory consisted; nay, you deliver up your general to redeem your +stuff. As for me, I am unvanquished, though a captive, conqueror of my enemies, +and betrayed by my fellow soldiers. For you, I adjure you by Jupiter, the +protector of arms, and by all the gods that are the avengers of perjury, to +kill me here with your own hands; for it is all one; and if I am murdered +yonder, it will be esteemed your act, nor will Antigonus complain, for he +desires not Eumenes alive, but dead. Or if you withhold your own hands, release +but one of mine, it shall suffice to do the work; and if you dare not trust me +with a sword throw me bound as I am under the feet of the wild beasts. This if +you do I shall freely acquit you from the guilt of my death, as the most just +and kind of men to their general.” +</p> + +<p> +While Eumenes was thus speaking, the rest of the soldiers wept for grief, but +the Argyraspids shouted out to lead him on, and give no attention to his +trilling. For it was no such great matter if this Chersonesian pest should meet +his death, who in thousands of battles had annoyed and wasted the Macedonians; +it would be a much more grievous thing for the choicest of Philip’s and +Alexander’s soldiers to be defrauded of the fruits of so long service, and in +their old age to come to beg their bread, and to leave their wives three nights +in the power of their enemies. So they hurried him on with violence. But +Antigonus, fearing the multitude, for nobody was left in the camp, sent ten of +his strongest elephants with divers of his Mede and Parthian lances to keep off +the press. Then he could not endure to have Eumenes brought into his presence, +by reason of their former intimacy and friendship; but when they that had taken +him inquired how he would have him kept, “As I would,” said he, “an elephant, +or a lion.” A little after, being loved with compassion, he commanded the +heaviest of his irons to be knocked off, one of his servants to be admitted to +anoint him, and that any of his friends that were willing should have liberty +to visit him, and bring him what he wanted. Long time he deliberated what to do +with him, sometimes inclining to the advice and promises of Nearchus of Crete, +and Demetrius his son, who were very earnest to preserve Eumenes, whilst all +the rest were unanimously instant and importunate to have him taken off. It is +related that Eumenes inquired of Onomarchus, his keeper, why Antigonus, now he +had his enemy in his hands, would not either forthwith dispatch or generously +release him? And that Onomarchus contumeliously answered him, that the field +had been a more proper place than this to show his contempt of death. To whom +Eumenes replied, “And by heavens, I showed it there; ask the men else that +engaged me, but I could never meet a man that was my superior.” “Therefore,” +rejoined Onomarchus, “now you have found such a man, why don’t you submit +quietly to his pleasure?” +</p> + +<p> +When Antigonus resolved to kill Eumenes, he commanded to keep his food from +him, and so with two or three days’ fasting he began to draw near his end; but +the camp being on a sudden to remove, an executioner was sent to dispatch him. +Antigonus granted his body to his friends, permitted them to burn it, and +having gathered his ashes into a silver urn, to send them to his wife and +children. +</p> + +<p> +Eumenes was thus taken off; and Divine Providence assigned to no other man the +chastisement of the commanders and soldiers that had betrayed him; but +Antigonus himself, abominating the Argyraspids as wicked and inhuman villains, +delivered them up to Sibyrtius, the governor of Arachosia, commanding him by +all ways and means to destroy and exterminate them, so that not a man of them +might ever come to Macedon, or so much as within sight of the Greek sea. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap43"></a>COMPARISON OF SERTORIUS WITH EUMENES</h2> + +<p> +These are the most remarkable passages that are come to our knowledge +concerning Eumenes and Sertorius. In comparing their lives, we may observe that +this was common to them both; that being aliens, strangers, and banished men, +they came to be commanders of powerful forces, and had the leading of numerous +and warlike armies, made up of divers nations. This was peculiar to Sertorius, +that the chief command was, by his whole party, freely yielded to him, as to +the person of the greatest merit and renown, whereas Eumenes had many who +contested the office with him, and only by his actions obtained the +superiority. They followed the one honestly, out of desire to be commanded by +him; they submitted themselves to the other for their own security, because +they could not commend themselves. The one, being a Roman, was the general of +the Spaniards and Lusitanians, who for many years had been under the subjection +of Rome; and the other, a Chersonesian, was chief commander of the Macedonians, +who were the great conquerors of mankind, and were at that time subduing the +world. Sertorius, being already in high esteem for his former services in the +wars, and his abilities in the senate, was advanced to the dignity of a +general; whereas Eumenes obtained this honor from the office of a writer, or +secretary, in which he had been despised. Nor did he only at first rise from +inferior opportunities, but afterwards, also, met with greater impediments in +the progress of his authority, and that not only from those who publicly +resisted him, but from many others that privately conspired against him. It was +much otherwise with Sertorius, not one of whose party publicly opposed him, +only late in life and secretly a few of his acquaintance entered into a +conspiracy against him. Sertorius put an end to his dangers as often as he was +victorious in the field, whereas the victories of Eumenes were the beginning of +his perils, through the malice of those that envied him. +</p> + +<p> +Their deeds in war were equal and parallel, but their general inclinations +different. Eumenes naturally loved war and contention, but Sertorius esteemed +peace and tranquillity; when Eumenes might have lived in safety, with honor, if +he would have quietly retired out of their way, he persisted in a dangerous +contest with the greatest of the Macedonian leaders; but Sertorius, who was +unwilling to trouble himself with any public disturbances, was forced, for the +safety of his person, to make war against those who would not suffer him to +live in peace. If Eumenes could have contented himself with the second place, +Antigonus, freed from his competition for the first, would have used him well, +and shown him favor, whereas Pompey’s friends would never permit Sertorius so +much as to live in quiet. The one made war of his own accord, out of a desire +for command; and the other was constrained to accept of command, to defend +himself from war that was made against him. Eumenes was certainly a true lover +of war, for he preferred his covetous ambition before his own security; but +Sertorius was truly warlike, who procured his own safety by the success of his +arms. +</p> + +<p> +As to the manner of their deaths, it happened to one without the least thought +or surmise of it; but to the other when he suspected it daily; which in the +first, argues an equitable temper, and a noble mind, not to distrust his +friends; but in the other, it showed some infirmity of spirit, for Eumenes +intended to fly and was taken. The death of Sertorius dishonored not his life; +he suffered that from his companions which none of his enemies were ever able +to perform. The other, not being able to deliver himself before his +imprisonment, being willing also to live in captivity, did neither prevent nor +expect his fate with honor or bravery; for by meanly supplicating and +petitioning, he made his enemy, that pretended only to have power over his +body, to be lord and master of his body and mind. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap44"></a>AGESILAUS</h2> + +<p> +Archidamus, the son of Zeuxidamus, having reigned gloriously over the +Lacedaemonians, left behind him two sons, Agis the elder, begotten of Lampido, +a noble lady, Agesilaus, much the younger, born of Eupolia, the daughter of +Melesippidas. Now the succession belonging to Agis by law, Agesilaus, who in +all probability was to be but a private man, was educated according to the +usual discipline of the country, hard and severe, and meant to teach young men +to obey their superiors. Whence it was that, men say, Simonides called Sparta +“the tamer of men,” because by early strictness of education, they, more than +any nation, trained the citizens to obedience to the laws, and made them +tractable and patient of subjection, as horses that are broken in while colts. +The law did not impose this harsh rule on the heirs apparent of the kingdom. +But Agesilaus, whose good fortune it was to be born a younger brother, was +consequently bred to all the arts of obedience, and so the better fitted for +the government, when it fell to his share; hence it was that he proved the most +popular-tempered of the Spartan kings, his early life having added to his +natural kingly and commanding qualities the gentle and humane feelings of a +citizen. +</p> + +<p> +While he was yet a boy, bred up in one of what are called the flocks, or +classes, he attracted the attachment of Lysander, who was particularly struck +with the orderly temper that he manifested. For though he was one of the +highest spirits, emulous above any of his companions, ambitious of preeminence +in everything, and showed an impetuosity and fervor of mind which irresistibly +carried him through all opposition or difficulty he could meet with; yet, on +the other side, he was so easy and gentle in his nature, and so apt to yield to +authority, that though he would do nothing on compulsion, upon ingenuous +motives he would obey any commands, and was more hurt by the least rebuke or +disgrace, than he was distressed by any toil or hardship. +</p> + +<p> +He had one leg shorter than the other, but this deformity was little observed +in the general beauty of his person in youth. And the easy way in which he bore +it, (he being the first always to pass a jest upon himself,) went far to make +it disregarded. And indeed his high spirit and eagerness to distinguish himself +were all the more conspicuous by it, since he never let his lameness withhold +him from any toil or any brave action. Neither his statue nor picture are +extant, he never allowing them in his life, and utterly forbidding them to be +made after his death. He is said to have been a little man, of a contemptible +presence; but the goodness of his humor, and his constant cheerfulness and +playfulness of temper, always free from anything of moroseness or haughtiness, +made him more attractive, even to his old age, than the most beautiful and +youthful men of the nation. Theophrastus writes, that the Ephors laid a fine +upon Archidamus for marrying a little wife, “For” said they, “she will bring us +a race of kinglets, instead of kings.” +</p> + +<p> +Whilst Agis, the elder brother, reigned, Alcibiades, being then an exile from +Athens, came from Sicily to Sparta; nor had he stayed long there, before his +familiarity with Timaea, the king’s wife, grew suspected, insomuch that Agis +refused to own a child of hers, which, he said, was Alcibiades’s, not his. Nor, +if we may believe Duris, the historian, was Timaea much concerned at it, being +herself forward enough to whisper among her helot maid-servants, that the +infant’s true name was Alcibiades, not Leotychides. Meanwhile it was believed, +that the amour he had with her was not the effect of his love but of his +ambition, that he might have Spartan kings of his posterity. This affair being +grown public, it became needful for Alcibiades to withdraw from Sparta. But the +child Leotychides had not the honors due to a legitimate son paid him, nor was +he ever owned by Agis, till by his prayers and tears he prevailed with him to +declare him his son before several witnesses upon his death-bed. But this did +not avail to fix him in the throne of Agis, after whose death Lysander, who had +lately achieved his conquest of Athens by sea, and was of the greatest power in +Sparta, promoted Agesilaus, urging Leotychides’s bastardy as a bar to his +pretensions. Many of the other citizens, also, were favorable to Agesilaus and +zealously joined his party, induced by the opinion they had of his merits, of +which they themselves had been spectators, in the time that he had been bred up +among them. But there was a man, named Diopithes, at Sparta, who had a great +knowledge of ancient oracles, and was thought particularly skillful and clever +in all points of religion and divination. He alleged, that it was unlawful to +make a lame man king of Lacedaemon, citing in the debate the following oracle: +— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Beware, great Sparta, lest there come of thee<br/> +Though sound thyself; an halting sovereignty;<br/> +Troubles, both long and unexpected too,<br/> +And storms of deadly warfare shall ensue. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But Lysander was not wanting with an evasion, alleging that if the Spartans +were really apprehensive of the oracle, they must have a care of Leotychides; +for it was not the limping foot of a king that the gods cared about, but the +purity of the Herculean family, into whose sights if a spurious issue were +admitted, it would make the kingdom to halt indeed. Agesilaus likewise alleged, +that the bastardy of Leotychides was witnessed to by Neptune, who threw Agis +out of bed by a violent earthquake, after which time he ceased to visit his +wife, yet Leotychides was born above ten months after this. +</p> + +<p> +Agesilaus was upon these allegations declared king, and soon possessed himself +of the private estate of Agis, as well as his throne, Leotychides being wholly +rejected as a bastard. He now turned his attention to his kindred by the +mother’s side, persons of worth and virtue, but miserably poor. To them he gave +half his brother’s estate, and by this popular act gained general good-will and +reputation, in the place of the envy and ill-feeling which the inheritance +might otherwise have procured him. What Xenophon tells us of him, that by +complying with, and, as it were, being ruled by his country, he grew into such +great power with them, that he could do what he pleased, is meant to apply to +the power he gained in the following manner with the Ephors and Elders. These +were at that time of the greatest authority in the State; the former, officers +annually chosen; the Elders, holding their places during life; both instituted, +as already told in the life of Lycurgus, to restrain the power of the kings. +Hence it was that there was always from generation to generation, a feud and +contention between them and the kings. But Agesilaus took another course. +Instead of contending with them, he courted them; in all proceedings he +commenced by taking their advice, was always ready to go, nay almost run, when +they called him; if he were upon his royal seat hearing causes and the Ephors +came in, he rose to them; whenever any man was elected into the Council of +Elders, he presented him with a gown and an ox. Thus, whilst he made show of +deference to them, and of a desire to extend their authority, he secretly +advanced his own, and enlarged the prerogatives of the kings by several +liberties which their friendship to his person conceded. +</p> + +<p> +To other citizens he so behaved himself, as to be less blamable in his enmities +than in his friendships; for against his enemy he forbore to take any unjust +advantage, but his friends he would assist, even in what was unjust. If an +enemy had done anything praiseworthy, he felt it shameful to detract from his +due, but his friends he knew not how to reprove when they did ill, nay, he +would eagerly join with them, and assist them in their misdeed, and thought all +offices of friendship commendable, let the matter in which they were employed +be what it would. Again, when any of his adversaries was overtaken in a fault, +he would be the first to pity him, and be soon entreated to procure his pardon, +by which he won the hearts of all men. Insomuch that his popularity grew at +last suspected by the Ephors, who laid a fine on him, professing that he was +appropriating the citizens to himself, who ought to be the common property of +the State. For as it is the opinion of philosophers, that could you take away +strife and opposition out of the universe, all the heavenly bodies would stand +still, generation and motion would cease in the mutual concord and agreement of +all things, so the Spartan legislator seems to have admitted ambition and +emulation, among the ingredients of his Commonwealth as the incentives of +virtue, distinctly wishing that there should be some dispute and competition +among his men of worth, and pronouncing the mere idle, uncontested, mutual +compliance to unproved deserts to be but a false sort of concord. And some +think Homer had an eye to this, when he introduces Agamemnon well pleased with +the quarrel arising between Ulysses and Achilles, and with the “terrible words” +that passed between them, which he would never have done, unless he had thought +emulations and dissensions between the noblest men to be of great public +benefit. Yet this maxim is not simply to be granted, without restriction, for +if animosities go too far, they are very dangerous to cities, and of most +pernicious consequence. +</p> + +<p> +When Agesilaus was newly entered upon the government, there came news from +Asia, that the Persian king was making great naval preparations, resolving with +a high hand to dispossess the Spartans of their maritime supremacy. Lysander +was eager for the opportunity of going over and succoring his friends in Asia, +whom he had there left governors and masters of the cities, whose +mal-administration and tyrannical behavior was causing them to be driven out, +and in some cases put to death. He therefore persuaded Agesilaus to claim the +command of the expedition, and by carrying the war far from Greece into Persia, +to anticipate the designs of the barbarian. He also wrote to his friends in +Asia, that by embassy they should demand Agesilaus for their captain. +Agesilaus, therefore, coming into the public assembly, offered his service, +upon condition that he might have thirty Spartans for captains and counselors, +two thousand chosen men of the newly enfranchised helots, and allies to the +number of six thousand. Lysander’s authority and assistance soon obtained his +request, so that he was sent away with the thirty Spartans, of whom Lysander +was at once the chief, not only because of his power and reputation, but also +on account of his friendship with Agesilaus, who esteemed his procuring him +this charge a greater obligation, than that of preferring him to the kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the army was collecting to the rendezvous at Geraestus, Agesilaus went +with some of his friends to Aulis, where in a dream he saw a man approach him, +and speak to him after this manner: “O king of the Lacedaemonians, you cannot +but know that, before yourself, there hath been but one general captain of the +whole of the Greeks, namely, Agamemnon; now, since you succeed him in the same +office and command of the same men, since you war against the same enemies, and +begin your expedition from the same place, you ought also to offer such a +sacrifice, as he offered before he weighed anchor.” Agesilaus at the same +moment remembered that the sacrifice which Agamemnon offered was his own +daughter, he being so directed by the oracle. Yet was he not at all disturbed +at it, but as soon as he arose, he told his dream to his friends, adding, that +he would propitiate the goddess with the sacrifices a goddess must delight in, +and would not follow the ignorant example of his predecessor. He therefore +ordered a hind to be crowned with chaplets, and bade his own soothsayer perform +the rite, not the usual person whom the Boeotians, in ordinary course, +appointed to that office. When the Boeotian magistrates understood it, they +were much offended, and sent officers to Agesilaus, to forbid his sacrificing +contrary to the laws of the country. These having delivered their message to +him, immediately went to the altar, and threw down the quarters of the hind +that lay upon it. Agesilaus took this very ill, and without further sacrifice +immediately sailed away, highly displeased with the Boeotians, and much +discouraged in his mind at the omen, boding to himself an unsuccessful voyage, +and an imperfect issue of the whole expedition. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to Ephesus, he found the power and interest of Lysander, and the +honors paid to him, insufferably great; all applications were made to him, +crowds of suitors attended at his door, and followed upon his steps, as if +nothing but the mere name of commander belonged, to satisfy the usage, to +Agesilaus, the whole power of it being devolved upon Lysander. None of all the +commanders that had been sent into Asia was either so powerful or so formidable +as he; no one had rewarded his friends better, or had been more severe against +his enemies; which things having been lately done, made the greater impression +on men’s minds, especially when they compared the simple and popular behavior +of Agesilaus, with the harsh and violent and brief-spoken demeanor which +Lysander still retained. Universal deference was yielded to this, and little +regard shown to Agesilaus. This first occasioned offense to the other Spartan +captains, who resented that they should rather seem the attendants of Lysander, +than the councilors of Agesilaus. And at length Agesilaus himself, though not +perhaps all envious man in his nature, nor apt to be troubled at the honors +redounding upon other men, yet eager for honor and jealous of his glory, began +to apprehend that Lysander’s greatness would carry away from him the reputation +of whatever great action should happen. He therefore went this way to work. He +first opposed him in all his counsels; whatever Lysander specially advised was +rejected, and other proposals followed. Then whoever made any address to him, +if he found him attached to Lysander, certainly lost his suit. So also in +judicial cases, anyone whom he spoke strongly against was sure to come off with +success, and any man whom he was particularly solicitous to procure some +benefit for, might think it well if he got away without an actual loss. These +things being clearly not done by chance, but constantly and of a set purpose, +Lysander was soon sensible of them, and hesitated not to tell his friends, that +they suffered for his sake, bidding them apply themselves to the king, and such +as were more powerful with him than he was. Such sayings of his seeming to be +designed purposely to excite ill feeling, Agesilaus went on to offer him a yet +more open affront, appointing him his meat-carver; and would in public +companies scornfully say, “Let them go now and pay their court to my carver.” +Lysander, no longer able to brook these indignities, complained at last to +Agesilaus himself, telling him, that he knew very well how to humble his +friends. Agesilaus answered, “I know certainly how to humble those who pretend +to more power than myself.” “That,” replied Lysander, “is perhaps rather said +by you, than done by me; I desire only, that you will assign me some office and +place, in which I may serve you without incurring your displeasure.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon this Agesilaus sent him to the Hellespont, whence he procured +Spithridates, a Persian of the province of Pharnabazus, to come to the +assistance of the Greeks with two hundred horse, and a great supply of money. +Yet his anger did not so come down, but he thenceforward pursued the design of +wresting the kingdom out of the hands of the two families which then enjoyed +it, and making it wholly elective; and it is thought that he would on account +of this quarrel have excited a great commotion in Sparta, if he had not died in +the Boeotian war. Thus ambitious spirits in a commonwealth, when they +transgress their bounds, are apt to do more harm than good. For though +Lysander’s pride and assumption was most ill-timed and insufferable in its +display, yet Agesilaus surely could have found some other way of setting him +right, less offensive to a man of his reputation and ambitious temper. Indeed +they were both blinded with the same passion, so as one not to recognize the +authority of his superior, the other not to bear with the imperfections of his +friend. +</p> + +<p> +Tisaphernes being at first afraid of Agesilaus, treated with him about setting +the Grecian cities at liberty, which was agreed on. But soon after finding a +sufficient force drawn together, he resolved upon war, for which Agesilaus was +not sorry. For the expectation of this expedition was great, and he did not +think it for his honor, that Xenophon with ten thousand men should march +through the heart of Asia to the sea, beating the Persian forces when and how +he pleased, and that he at the head of the Spartans, then sovereigns both at +sea and land, should not achieve some memorable action for Greece. And so to be +even with Tisaphernes, he requites his perjury by a fair stratagem. He pretends +to march into Caria, whither when he had drawn Tisaphernes and his army, he +suddenly turns back, and falls upon Phrygia, takes many of their cities, and +carries away great booty, showing his allies, that to break a solemn league was +a downright contempt of the gods, but the circumvention of an enemy in war was +not only just but glorious, a gratification at once and an advantage. +</p> + +<p> +Being weak in horse, and discouraged by ill omens in the sacrifices, he retired +to Ephesus, and there raised cavalry. He obliged the rich men, that were not +inclined to serve in person, to find each of them a horseman armed and mounted; +and there being many who preferred doing this, the army was quickly reinforced +by a body, not of unwilling recruits for the infantry, but of brave and +numerous horsemen. For those that were not good at fighting themselves, hired +such as were more military in their inclinations, and such as loved not +horse-service substituted in their places such as did. Agamemnon’s example had +been a good one, when he took the present of an excellent mare, to dismiss a +rich coward from the army. +</p> + +<p> +When by Agesilaus’s order the prisoners he had taken in Phrygia were exposed to +sale, they were first stripped of their garments, and then sold naked. The +clothes found many customers to buy them, but the bodies being, from the want +of all exposure and exercise, white and tender-skinned, were derided and +scorned as unserviceable. Agesilaus, who stood by at the auction, told his +Greeks, “These are the men against whom ye fight, and these the things you will +gain by it.” +</p> + +<p> +The season of the year being come, he boldly gave out that he would invade +Lydia; and this plaindealing of his was now mistaken for a stratagem by +Tisaphernes, who, by not believing Agesilaus, having been already deceived by +him, overreached himself. He expected that he should have made choice of Caria, +as a rough country, not fit for horse, in which he deemed Agesilaus to be weak, +and directed his own marches accordingly. But when he found him to be as good +as his word, and to have entered into the country of Sardis, he made great +haste after him, and by great marches of his horse, overtaking the loose +stragglers who were pillaging the country, he cut them off. Agesilaus +meanwhile, considering that the horse had outridden the foot, but that he +himself had the whole body of his own army entire, made haste to engage them. +He mingled his light-armed foot, carrying targets, with the horse, commanding +them to advance at full speed and begin the battle, whilst he brought up the +heavier-armed men in the rear. The success was answerable to the design; the +barbarians were put to the rout, the Grecians pursued hard, took their camp, +and put many of them to the sword. The consequence of this victory was very +great; for they had not only the liberty of foraging the Persian country, and +plundering at pleasure, but also saw Tisaphernes pay dearly for all the cruelty +he had showed the Greeks, to whom he was a professed enemy. For the king of +Persia sent Tithraustes, who took off his head, and presently dealt with +Agesilaus about his return into Greece, sending to him ambassadors to that +purpose, with commission to offer him great sums of money. Agesilaus’s answer +was, that the making of peace belonged to the Lacedaemonians, not to him; as +for wealth, he had rather see it in his soldiers’ hands than his own; that the +Grecians thought it not honorable to enrich themselves with the bribes of their +enemies, but with their spoils only. Yet, that he might gratify Tithraustes for +the justice he had done upon Tisaphernes, the common enemy of the Greeks, he +removed his quarters into Phrygia, accepting thirty talents for his expenses. +Whilst he was upon his march, he received a staff from the government at +Sparta, appointing him admiral as well as general. This was an honor which was +never done to any but Agesilaus, who being now undoubtedly the greatest and +most illustrious man of his time, still, as Theopompus has said, gave himself +more occasion of glory in his own virtue and merit than was given him in this +authority and power. Yet he committed a fault in preferring Pisander to the +command of the navy, when there were others at hand both older and more +experienced; in this not so much consulting the public good, as the +gratification of his kindred, and especially his wife, whose brother Pisander +was. +</p> + +<p> +Having removed his camp into Pharnabazus’s province, he not only met with great +plenty of provisions, but also raised great sums of money, and marching on to +the bounds of Paphlagonia, he soon drew Cotys, the king of it, into a league, +to which he of his own accord inclined, out of the opinion he had of +Agesilaus’s honor and virtue. Spithridates, from the time of his abandoning +Pharnabazus, constantly attended Agesilaus in the camp whithersoever he went. +This Spithridates had a son, a very handsome boy, called Megabates, of whom +Agesilaus was extremely fond, and also a very beautiful daughter, that was +marriageable. Her Agesilaus matched to Cotys, and taking of him a thousand +horse, with two thousand light-armed foot, he returned into Phrygia, and there +pillaged the country of Pharnabazus, who durst not meet him in the field, nor +yet trust to his garrisons, but getting his valuables together, got out of the +way and moved about up and down with a flying army, till Spithridates joining +with Herippidas the Spartan, took his camp, and all his property. Herippidas +being too severe an inquirer into the plunder with which the barbarian soldiers +had enriched themselves, and forcing them to deliver it up with too much +strictness, so disobliged Spithridates with his questioning and examining, that +he changed sides again, and went off with the Paphlagonians to Sardis. This was +a very great vexation to Agesilaus, not only that he had lost the friendship of +a valiant commander, and with him a considerable part of his army, but still +more that it had been done with the disrepute of a sordid and petty +covetousness, of which he always had made it a point of honor to keep both +himself and his country clear. Besides these public causes, he had a private +one, his excessive fondness for the son, which touched him to the quick, though +he endeavored to master it, and, especially in presence of the boy, to suppress +all appearance of it; so much so that when Megabates, for that was his name, +came once to receive a kiss from him, he declined it. At which when the young +boy blushed and drew back, and afterward saluted him at a more reserved +distance, Agesilaus soon repenting his coldness, and changing his mind, +pretended to wonder why he did not salute him with the same familiarity as +formerly. His friends about him answered, “You are in the fault, who would not +accept the kiss of the boy, but turned away in alarm; he would come to you +again, if you would have the courage to let him do so.” Upon this Agesilaus +paused a while, and at length answered, “You need not encourage him to it; I +think I had rather be master of myself in that refusal, than see all things +that are now before my eyes turned into gold.” Thus he demeaned himself to +Megabates when present, but he had so great a passion for him in his absence, +that it may be questioned whether if the boy had returned again, all the +courage he had would have sustained him in such another refusal. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Pharnabazus sought an opportunity of conferring with Agesilaus, +which Apollophanes of Cyzicus, the common host of them both, procured for him. +Agesilaus coming first to the appointed place, threw himself down upon the +grass under a tree, lying there in expectation of Pharnabazus, who, bringing +with him soft skins and wrought carpets to lie down upon, when he saw +Agesilaus’s posture, grew ashamed of his luxuries and made no use of them, but +laid himself down upon the grass also, without regard for his delicate and +richly dyed clothing. Pharnabazus had matter enough of complaint against +Agesilaus, and therefore, after the mutual civilities were over, he put him in +mind of the great services he had done the Lacedaemonians in the Attic war, of +which he thought it an ill recompense to have his country thus harassed and +spoiled, by those men who owed so much to him. The Spartans that were present +hung down their heads, as conscious of the wrong they had done to their ally. +But Agesilaus said, “We, O Pharnabazus, when we were in amity with your master +the king, behaved ourselves like friends, and now that we are at war with him, +we behave ourselves as enemies. As for you, we must look upon you as a part of +his property, and must do these outrages upon you, not intending the harm to +you, but to him whom we wound through you. But whenever you will choose rather +to be a friend to the Grecians, than a slave of the king of Persia, you may +then reckon this army and navy to be all at your command, to defend both you, +your country, and your liberties, without which there is nothing honorable, or +indeed desirable among men.” Upon this Pharnabazus discovered his mind, and +answered, “If the king sends another governor in my room, I will certainly come +over to you, but as long as he trusts me with the government, I shall be just +to him, and not fail to do my utmost endeavors in opposing you.” Agesilaus was +taken with the answer, and shook hands with him; and rising, said, “How much +rather had I have so brave a man my friend than mine enemy.” +</p> + +<p> +Pharnabazus being gone off, his son, staying behind, ran up to Agesilaus, and +smilingly said, “Agesilaus, I make you my guest;” and thereupon presented him +with a javelin which he had in his hand. Agesilaus received it, and being much +taken with the good mien and the courtesy of the youth, looked about to see if +there were anything in his train fit to offer him in return; and observing the +horse of Idaeus, the secretary, to have very fine trappings on, he took them +off, and bestowed them upon the young gentleman. Nor did his kindness rest +there, but he continued ever after to be mindful of him, so that when he was +driven out of his country by his brothers, and lived an exile in Peloponnesus, +he took great care of him, and condescended even to assist him in some +love-matters. He had an attachment for a youth of Athenian birth, who was bred +up as an athlete; and when at the Olympic games this boy, on account of his +great size and general strong and full-grown appearance, was in some danger of +not being admitted into the list, the Persian betook himself to Agesilaus, and +made use of his friendship. Agesilaus readily assisted him, and not without a +great deal of difficulty effected his desires. He was in all other things a man +of great and exact justice, but when the case concerned a friend, to be +straitlaced in point of justice, he said, was only a colorable presence of +denying him. There is an epistle written to Idrieus, prince of Caria, that is +ascribed to Agesilaus; it is this: “If Nicias be innocent, absolve him; if he +be guilty, absolve him upon my account; however be sure to absolve him.” This +was his usual character in his deportment towards his friends. Yet his rule was +not without exception; for sometimes he considered the necessity of his affairs +more than his friend, of which he once gave an example, when upon a sudden and +disorderly removal of his camp, he left a sick friend behind him, and when he +called loudly after him, and implored his help, turned his back, and said it +was hard to be compassionate and wise too. This story is related by Hieronymus, +the philosopher. +</p> + +<p> +Another year of the war being spent, Agesilaus’s fame still increased, insomuch +that the Persian king received daily information concerning his many virtues, +and the great esteem the world had of his temperance, his plain living, and his +moderation. When he made any journey, he would usually take up his lodging in a +temple, and there make the gods witnesses of his most private actions, which +others would scarce permit men to be acquainted with. In so great an army, you +should scarce find common soldier lie on a coarser mattress, than Agesilaus; he +was so indifferent to the varieties of heat and cold, that all the seasons, as +the gods sent them, seemed natural to him. The Greeks that inhabited Asia were +much pleased to see the great lords and governors of Persia, with all the +pride, cruelty, and luxury in which they lived, trembling and bowing before a +man in a poor threadbare cloak, and at one laconic word out of his mouth, +obsequiously deferring and changing their wishes and purposes. So that it +brought to the minds of many the verses of Timotheus, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Mars is the tyrant, gold Greece does not fear. +</p> + +<p> +Many parts of Asia now revolting from the Persians, Agesilaus restored order in +the cities, and without bloodshed or banishment of any of their members, +reestablished the proper constitution in the governments, and now resolved to +carry away the war from the seaside, and to march further up into the country, +and to attack the king of Persia himself in his own home in Susa and Ecbatana; +not willing to let the monarch sit idle in his chair, playing umpire in the +conflicts of the Greeks, and bribing their popular leaders. But these great +thoughts were interrupted by unhappy news from Sparta; Epicydidas is from +thence sent to remand him home, to assist his own country, which was then +involved in a great war; +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Greece to herself doth a barbarian grow,<br/> +Others could not, she doth herself o’erthrow. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +What better can we say of those jealousies, and that league and conspiracy of +the Greeks for their own mischief, which arrested fortune in full career, and +turned back arms that were already uplifted against the barbarians, to be used +upon themselves, and recalled into Greece the war which had been banished out +of her? I by no means assent to Demaratus of Corinth, who said, that those +Greeks lost a great satisfaction, that did not live to see Alexander sit in the +throne of Darius. That sight should rather have drawn tears from them, when +they considered, that they had left that glory to Alexander and the +Macedonians, whilst they spent all their own great commanders in playing them +against each other in the fields of Leuctra, Coronea, Corinth, and Arcadia. +</p> + +<p> +Nothing was greater or nobler than the behavior of Agesilaus on this occasion, +nor can a nobler instance be found in story, of a ready obedience and just +deference to orders. Hannibal, though in a bad condition himself, and almost +driven out of Italy, could scarcely be induced to obey, when he was called home +to serve his country. Alexander made a jest of the battle between Agis and +Antipater, laughing and saying, “So, whilst we were conquering Darius in Asia, +it seems there was a battle of mice in Arcadia.” Happy Sparta, meanwhile, in +the justice and modesty of Agesilaus, and in the deference he paid to the laws +of his country; who, immediately upon receipt of his orders, though in the +midst of his high fortune and power, and in full hope of great and glorious +success, gave all up and instantly departed, “his object unachieved,” leaving +many regrets behind him among his allies in Asia, and proving by his example +the falseness of that saying of Demostratus, the son of Phaeax, “That the +Lacedaemonians were better in public, but the Athenians in private.” For while +approving himself an excellent king and general, he likewise showed himself in +private an excellent friend, and a most agreeable companion. +</p> + +<p> +The coin of Persia was stamped with the figure of an archer; Agesilaus said, +That a thousand Persian archers had driven him out of Asia; meaning the money +that had been laid out in bribing the demagogues and the orators in Thebes and +Athens, and thus inciting those two States to hostility against Sparta. +</p> + +<p> +Having passed the Hellespont, he marched by land through Thrace, not begging or +entreating a passage anywhere, only he sent his messengers to them, to demand +whether they would have him pass as a friend or as an enemy. All the rest +received him as a friend, and assisted him on his journey. But the Trallians, +to whom Xerxes also is said to have given money, demanded a price of him, +namely, one hundred talents of silver, and one hundred women. Agesilaus in +scorn asked, Why they were not ready to receive them? He marched on, and +finding the Trallians in arms to oppose him, fought them, and slew great +numbers of them. He sent the like embassy to the king of Macedonia, who +replied, He would take time to deliberate: “Let him deliberate,” said +Agesilaus, “we will go forward in the meantime.” The Macedonian, being +surprised and daunted at the resolution of the Spartan, gave orders to let him +pass as friend. When he came into Thessaly, he wasted the country, because they +were in league with the enemy. To Larissa, the chief city of Thessaly, he sent +Xenocles and Scythes to treat of a peace, whom when the Larissaeans had laid +hold of, and put into custody, others were enraged, and advised the siege of +the town; but he answered, That he valued either of those men at more than the +whole country of Thessaly. He therefore made terms with them, and received his +men again upon composition. Nor need we wonder at this saying of Agesilaus, +since when he had news brought him from Sparta, of several great captains slain +in a battle near Corinth, in which the slaughter fell upon other Greeks, and +the Lacedaemonians obtained a great victory with small loss, he did not appear +at all satisfied; but with a great sigh cried out, “O Greece, how many brave +men hast thou destroyed; who, if they had been preserved to so good an use, had +sufficed to have conquered all Persia!” Yet when the Pharsalians grew +troublesome to him, by pressing upon his army, and incommoding his passage, he +led out five hundred horse, and in person fought and routed them, setting up a +trophy under the mount Narthacius. He valued himself very much upon that +victory, that with so small a number of his own training, he had vanquished a +body of men that thought themselves the best horsemen of Greece. +</p> + +<p> +Here Diphridas, the Ephor, met him, and delivered his message from Sparta, +which ordered him immediately to make an inroad into Boeotia; and though he +thought this fitter to have been done at another time, and with greater force, +he yet obeyed the magistrates. He thereupon told his soldiers that the day was +come, on which they were to enter upon that employment, for the performance of +which they were brought out of Asia. He sent for two divisions of the army near +Corinth to his assistance. The Lacedaemonians at home, in honor to him, made +proclamation for volunteers that would serve under the king, to come in and be +enlisted. Finding all the young men in the city ready to offer themselves, they +chose fifty of the strongest, and sent them. +</p> + +<p> +Agesilaus having gained Thermopylae, and passed quietly through Phocis, as soon +as he had entered Boeotia, and pitched his camp near Chaeronea, at once met +with an eclipse of the sun, and with ill news from the navy, Pisander, the +Spartan admiral, being beaten and slain at Cnidos, by Pharnabazus and Conon. He +was much moved at it, both upon his own and the public account. Yet lest his +army, being now near engaging, should meet with any discouragement, he ordered +the messengers to give out, that the Spartans were the conquerors, and he +himself putting on a garland, solemnly sacrificed for the good news, and sent +portions of the sacrifices to his friends. +</p> + +<p> +When he came near to Coronea, and was within view of the enemy, he drew up his +army, and giving the left wing to the Orchomenians, he himself led the right. +The Thebans took the right wing of their army, leaving the left to the Argives. +Xenophon, who was present, and fought on Agesilaus’s side, reports it to be the +hardest fought battle that he had seen. The beginning of it was not so, for the +Thebans soon put the Orchomenians to rout, as also did Agesilaus the Argives. +But both parties having news of the misfortune of their left wings, they betook +themselves to their relief. Here Agesilaus might have been sure of his victory, +had he contented himself not to charge them in the front, but in the flank or +rear; but being angry and heated in the fight, he would not wait the +opportunity, but fell on at once, thinking to bear them down before him. The +Thebans were not behind him in courage, so that the battle was fiercely carried +on on both sides, especially near Agesilaus’s person, whose new guard of fifty +volunteers stood him in great stead that day, and saved his life. They fought +with great valor, and interposed their bodies frequently between him and +danger, yet could they not so preserve him, but that he received many wounds +through his armor with lances and swords, and was with much difficulty gotten +off alive by their making a ring about him, and so guarding him, with the +slaughter of many of the enemy and the loss of many of their own number. At +length finding it too hard a task to break the front of the Theban troops, they +opened their own files, and let the enemy march through them, (an artifice +which in the beginning they scorned,) watching in the meantime the posture of +the enemy, who having passed through, grew careless, as esteeming themselves +past danger; in which position they were immediately set upon by the Spartans. +Yet were they not then put to rout, but marched on to Helicon, proud of what +they had done, being able to say, that they themselves, as to their part of the +army, were not worsted. +</p> + +<p> +Agesilaus, sore wounded as he was, would not be borne to his tent, till he had +been first carried about the field, and had seen the dead conveyed within his +encampment. As many of his enemies as had taken sanctuary in the temple, he +dismissed. For there stood near the battlefield, the temple of Minerva the +Itonian, and before it a trophy erected by the Boeotians, for the victory which +under the conduct of Sparton, their general, they obtained over the Athenians +under Tolmides, who himself fell in the battle. And next morning early, to make +trial of the Theban courage, whether they had any mind to a second encounter, +he commanded his soldiers to put on garlands on their heads, and play with +their flutes, and raise a trophy before their faces; but when they, instead of +fighting, sent for leave to bury their dead, he gave it them; and having so +assured himself of the victory, after this he went to Delphi, to the Pythian +games, which were then celebrating, at which feast he assisted, and there +solemnly offered the tenth part of the spoils he had brought from Asia, which +amounted to a hundred talents. +</p> + +<p> +Thence he returned to his own country, where his way and habits of life quickly +excited the affection and admiration of the Spartans; for, unlike other +generals, he came home from foreign lands the same man that he went out, having +not so learned the fashions of other countries, as to forget his own, much less +to dislike or despise them. He followed and respected all the Spartan customs, +without any change either in the manner of his supping, or bathing, or his +wife’s apparel, as if he had never traveled over the river Eurotas. So also +with his household furniture and his own armor; nay, the very gates of his +house were so old, that they might well be thought of Aristodemus’s setting up. +His daughter’s Canathrum, says Xenophon, was no richer than that of any one +else. The Canathrum, as they call it, is a chair or chariot made of wood, in +the shape of a griffin, or tragelaphus, on which the children and young virgins +are carried in processions. Xenophon has not left us the name of this daughter +of Agesilaus; and Dicaearchus expresses some indignation, because we do not +know, he says, the name of Agesilaus’s daughter, nor of Epaminondas’s mother. +But in the records of Laconia, we ourselves found his wife’s name to have been +Cleora, and his two daughters to have been called Eupolia and Prolyta. And you +may also to this day see Agesilaus’s spear kept in Sparta, nothing differing +from that of other men. +</p> + +<p> +There was a vanity he observed among the Spartans, about keeping running horses +for the Olympic games, upon which he found they much valued themselves. +Agesilaus regarded it as a display not of any real virtue, but of wealth and +expense; and to make this evident to the Greeks, induced his sister, Cynisca, +to send a chariot into the course. He kept with him Xenophon, the philosopher, +and made much of him, and proposed to him to send for his children, and educate +them at Sparta, where they would be taught the best of all learning; how to +obey, and how to command. Finding on Lysander’s death a large faction formed, +which he on his return from Asia had established against Agesilaus, he thought +it advisable to expose both him and it, by showing what manner of a citizen he +had been whilst he lived. To that end, finding among his writings all oration, +composed by Cleon the Halicarnassean, but to have been spoken by Lysander in a +public assembly, to excite the people to innovations and changes in the +government, he resolved to publish it, as an evidence of Lysander’s practices. +But one of the Elders having the perusal of it, and finding it powerfully +written, advised him to have a care of digging up Lysander again, and rather +bury that oration in the grave with him; and this advice he wisely hearkened +to, and hushed the whole thing up; and ever after forbore publicly to affront +any of his adversaries, but took occasions of picking out the ringleaders, and +sending them away upon foreign services. He thus had means for exposing the +avarice and the injustice of many of them in their employments; and again when +they were by others brought into question, he made it his business to bring +them off, obliging them, by that means, of enemies to become his friends, and +so by degrees left none remaining. +</p> + +<p> +Agesipolis, his fellow king, was under the disadvantage of being born of an +exiled father, and himself young, modest, and inactive, meddled not much in +affairs. Agesilaus took a course of gaining him over, and making him entirely +tractable. According to the custom of Sparta, the kings, if they were in town, +always dined together. This was Agesilaus’s opportunity of dealing with +Agesipolis, whom he found quick, as he himself was, in forming attachments for +young men, and accordingly talked with him always on such subjects, joining and +aiding him, and acting as his confidant, such attachments in Sparta being +entirely honorable, and attended always with lively feeling of modesty, love of +virtue, and a noble emulation; of which more is said in Lycurgus’s life. +</p> + +<p> +Having thus established his power in the city, he easily obtained that his +half-brother Teleutias might be chosen admiral, and thereupon making all +expedition against the Corinthians, he made himself master of the long walls by +land, through the assistance of his brother at sea. Coming thus upon the +Argives, who then held Corinth, in the midst of their Isthmian festival, he +made them fly from the sacrifice they had just commenced, and leave all their +festive provision behind them. The exiled Corinthians that were in the Spartan +army, desired him to keep the feast, and to preside in the celebration of it. +This he refused, but gave them leave to carry on the solemnity if they pleased, +and he in the meantime stayed and guarded them. When Agesilaus marched off, the +Argives returned and celebrated the games over again, when some who were +victors before, became victors a second time, others lost the prizes which +before they had gained. Agesilaus thus made it clear to everybody, that the +Argives must in their own eyes have been guilty of great cowardice, since they +set such a value on presiding at the games, and yet had not dared to fight for +it. He himself was of opinion, that to keep a mean in such things was best; he +assisted at the sports and dances usual in his own country, and was always +ready and eager to be present at the exercises either of the young men, or of +the girls, but things that many men used to be highly taken with, he seemed not +at all concerned about. Callippides, the tragic actor, who had a great name in +all Greece and was made much of, once met and saluted him; of which when he +found no notice taken, he confidently thrust himself into his train, expecting +that Agesilaus would pay him some attention. When all that failed, he boldly +accosted him, and asked him, whether he did not remember him? Agesilaus turned, +and looking him in the face, “Are you not,” said he, “Callippides the showman?” +Being invited once to hear a man who admirably imitated the nightingale, he +declined, saying, he had heard the nightingale itself. Menecrates, the +physician, having had great success in some desperate diseases, was by way of +flattery called Jupiter; he was so vain as to take the name, and having +occasion to write a letter to Agesilaus, thus addressed it: “Jupiter Menecrates +to King Agesilaus, greeting.” The king returned answer: “Agesilaus to +Menecrates, health and a sound mind.” +</p> + +<p> +Whilst Agesilaus was in the Corinthian territories, having just taken the +Heraeum, he was looking on while his soldiers were carrying away the prisoners +and the plunder, when ambassadors from Thebes came to him to treat of peace. +Having a great aversion for that city, and thinking it then advantageous to his +affairs publicly to slight them, he took the opportunity, and would not seem +either to see them, or hear them speak. But as if on purpose to punish him in +his pride, before they parted from him, messengers came with news of the +complete slaughter of one of the Spartan divisions by Iphicrates, a greater +disaster than had befallen them for many years; and that the more grievous, +because it was a choice regiment of full-armed Lacedaemonians overthrown by a +parcel of mere mercenary targeteers. Agesilaus leapt from his seat, to go at +once to their rescue, but found it too late, the business being over. He +therefore returned to the Heraeum, and sent for the Theban ambassadors to give +them audience. They now resolved to be even with him for the affront he gave +them, and without speaking one word of the peace, only desired leave to go into +Corinth. Agesilaus, irritated with this proposal, told them in scorn, that if +they were anxious to go and see how proud their friends were of their success, +they should do it tomorrow with safety. Next morning, taking the ambassadors +with him, he ravaged the Corinthian territories, up to the very gates of the +city, where having made a stand, and let the ambassadors see that the +Corinthians durst not come out to defend themselves, he dismissed them. Then +gathering up the small remainders of the shattered regiment, he marched +homewards, always removing his camp before day, and always pitching his tents +after night, that he might prevent their enemies among the Arcadians from +taking any opportunity of insulting over their loss. +</p> + +<p> +After this, at the request of the Achaeans, he marched with them into +Acarnania, and there collected great spoils, and defeated the Acarnanians in +battle. The Achaeans would have persuaded him to keep his winter quarters +there, to hinder the Acarnanians from sowing their corn; but he was of the +contrary opinion, alleging, that they would be more afraid of a war next +summer, when their fields were sown, than they would be if they lay fallow. The +event justified his opinion; for next summer, when the Achaeans began their +expedition again, the Acarnanians immediately made peace with them. +</p> + +<p> +When Conon and Pharnabazus with the Persian navy were grown masters of the sea, +and had not only infested the coast of Laconia, but also rebuilt the walls of +Athens at the cost of Pharnabazus, the Lacedaemonians thought fit to treat of +peace with the king of Persia. To that end, they sent Antalcidas to Tiribazus, +basely and wickedly betraying the Asiatic Greeks, on whose behalf Agesilaus had +made the war. But no part of this dishonor fell upon Agesilaus, the whole being +transacted by Antalcidas, who was his bitter enemy, and was urgent for peace +upon any terms, because war was sure to increase his power and reputation. +Nevertheless once being told by way of reproach, that the Lacedaemonians had +gone over to the Medes, he replied, “No, the Medes have come over to the +Lacedaemonians.” And when the Greeks were backward to submit to the agreement, +he threatened them with war, unless they fulfilled the king of Persia’s +conditions, his particular end in this being to weaken the Thebans; for it was +made one of the articles of peace, that the country of Boeotia should be left +independent. This feeling of his to Thebes appeared further afterwards, when +Phoebidas, in full peace, most unjustifiably seized upon the Cadmea. The thing +was much resented by all Greece, and not well liked by the Lacedaemonians +themselves; those especially who were enemies to Agesilaus, required an account +of the action, and by whose authority it was done, laying the suspicion of it +at his door. Agesilaus resolutely answered, on the behalf of Phoebidas, that +the profitableness of the act was chiefly to be considered; if it were for the +advantage of the commonwealth, it was no matter whether it were done with or +without authority. This was the more remarkable in him, because in his ordinary +language, he was always observed to be a great maintainer of justice, and would +commend it as the chief of virtues, saying, that valor without justice was +useless, and if all the world were just, there would be no need of valor. When +any would say to him, the Great King will have it so; he would reply, “How is +he greater than I, unless he be juster?” nobly and rightly taking, as a sort of +royal measure of greatness, justice, and not force. And thus when, on the +conclusion of the peace, the king of Persia wrote to Agesilaus, desiring a +private friendship and relations of hospitality, he refused it, saying, that +the public friendship was enough; whilst that lasted there was no need of +private. Yet in his acts he was not constant to his doctrine, but sometimes out +of ambition, and sometimes out of private pique, he let himself be carried +away; and particularly in this case of the Thebans, he not only saved +Phoebidas, but persuaded the Lacedaemonians to take the fault upon themselves, +and to retain the Cadmea, putting a garrison into it, and to put the government +of Thebes into the hands of Archias and Leontidas, who had been betrayers of +the castle to them. +</p> + +<p> +This excited strong suspicion that what Phoebidas did was by Agesilaus’s order, +which was corroborated by after occurrences. For when the Thebans had expelled +the garrison, and asserted their liberty, he, accusing them of the murder of +Archias and Leontidas, who indeed were tyrants, though in name holding the +office of Polemarchs, made war upon them. He sent Cleombrotus on that errand, +who was now his fellow king, in the place of Agesipolis, who was dead, excusing +himself by reason of his age; for it was forty years since he had first borne +arms, and he was consequently exempt by the law; meanwhile the true reason was, +that he was ashamed, having so lately fought against tyranny in behalf of the +Phliasians, to fight now in defense of a tyranny against the Thebans. +</p> + +<p> +One Sphodrias, of Lacedaemon, of the contrary faction to Agesilaus, was +governor in Thespiae, a bold and enterprising man, though he had perhaps more +of confidence than wisdom. This action of Phoebidas fired him, and incited his +ambition to attempt some great enterprise, which might render him as famous as +he perceived the taking of the Cadmea had made Phoebidas. He thought the sudden +capture of the Piraeus, and the cutting off thereby the Athenians from the sea, +would be a matter of far more glory. It is said, too, that Pelopidas and Melon, +the chief captains of Boeotia, put him upon it; that they privily sent men to +him, pretending to be of the Spartan faction, who, highly commending Sphodrias, +filled him with a great opinion of himself, protesting him to be the only man +in the world that was fit for so great an enterprise. Being thus stimulated, he +could hold no longer, but hurried into an attempt as dishonorable and +treacherous as that of the Cadmea, but executed with less valor and less +success; for the day broke whilst he was yet in the Thriasian plain, whereas he +designed the whole exploit to have been done in the night. As soon as the +soldiers perceived the rays of light reflecting from the temples of Eleusis, +upon the first rising of the sun, it is said that their hearts failed them; +nay, he himself, when he saw that he could not have the benefit of the night, +had not courage enough to go on with his enterprise; but, having pillaged the +country, he returned with shame to Thespiae. An embassy was upon this sent from +Athens to Sparta, to complain of the breach of peace; but the ambassadors found +their journey needless, Sphodrias being then under process by the magistrates +of Sparta. Sphodrias durst not stay to expect judgment, which he found would be +capital, the city being highly incensed against him, out of the shame they felt +at the business, and their desire to appear in the eyes of the Athenians as +fellow-sufferers; in the wrong, rather than accomplices in its being done. +</p> + +<p> +This Sphodrias had a son of great beauty named Cleonymus, to whom Archidamus, +the son of Agesilaus, was extremely attached. Archidamus, as became him, was +concerned for the danger of his friend’s father, but yet he durst not do +anything openly for his assistance, he being one of the professed enemies of +Agesilaus. But Cleonymus having solicited him with tears about it, as knowing +Agesilaus to be of all his father’s enemies the most formidable, the young man +for two or three days followed after his father with such fear and confusion, +that he durst not speak to him. At last, the day of sentence being at hand, he +ventured to tell him, that Cleonymus had entreated him to intercede for his +father Agesilaus, though well aware of the love between the two young men, yet +did not prohibit it, because Cleonymus from his earliest years had been looked +upon as a youth of very great promise; yet he gave not his son any kind or +hopeful answer in the case, but coldly told him, that he would consider what he +could honestly and honorably do in it, and so dismissed him. Archidamus, being +ashamed of his want of success, forbore the company of Cleonymus, whom he +usually saw several times every day. This made the friends of Sphodrias to +think his case desperate, till Etymocles, one of Agesilaus’s friends, +discovered to them the king’s mind, namely, that he abhorred the fact, but yet +he thought Sphodrias a gallant man, such as the commonwealth much wanted at +that time. For Agesilaus used to talk thus concerning the cause, out of a +desire to gratify his son. And now Cleonymus quickly understood, that +Archidamus had been true to him, in using all his interest with his father; and +Sphodrias’s friends ventured to be forward in his defense. The truth is, that +Agesilaus was excessively fond of his children; and it is to him the story +belongs, that when they were little ones, he used to make a horse of a stick, +and ride with them; and being caught at this sport by a friend, he desired him +not to mention it, till he himself were the father of children. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, Sphodrias being acquitted, the Athenians betook themselves to arms, +and Agesilaus fell into disgrace with the people; since to gratify the whims of +a boy, he had been willing to pervert justice, and make the city accessory to +the crimes of private men, whose most unjustifiable actions had broken the +peace of Greece. He also found his colleague, Cleombrotus, little inclined to +the Theban war; so that it became necessary for him to waive the privilege of +his age, which he before had claimed, and to lead the army himself into +Boeotia; which he did with variety of success, sometimes conquering, and +sometimes conquered; insomuch that receiving a wound in a battle, he was +reproached by Antalcidas, that the Thebans had paid him well for the lessons he +had given them in fighting. And, indeed, they were now grown far better +soldiers than ever they had been, being so continually kept in training, by the +frequency of the Lacedaemonian expeditions against them. Out of the foresight +of which it was, that anciently Lycurgus, in three several laws, forbade them +to make many wars with the same nation, as this would be to instruct their +enemies in the art of it. Meanwhile, the allies of Sparta were not a little +discontented at Agesilaus, because this war was commenced not upon any fair +public ground of quarrel, but merely out of his private hatred to the Thebans; +and they complained with indignation, that they, being the majority of the +army, should from year to year be thus exposed to danger and hardship here and +there, at the will of a few persons. It was at this time, we are told, that +Agesilaus, to obviate the objection, devised this expedient, to show the allies +were not the greater number. He gave orders that all the allies, of whatever +country, should sit down promiscuously on one side, and all the Lacedaemonians +on the other: which being done, he commanded a herald to proclaim, that all the +potters of both divisions should stand out; then all the blacksmiths; then all +the masons; next the carpenters; and so he went through all the handicrafts. By +this time almost all the allies were risen, but of the Lacedaemonians not a +man, they being by law forbidden to learn any mechanical business; and now +Agesilaus laughed and said, “You see, my friends, how many more soldiers we +send out than you do.” +</p> + +<p> +When he brought back his army from Boeotia through Megara, as he was going up +to the magistrate’s office in the Acropolis, he was suddenly seized with pain +and cramp in his sound leg, and great swelling and inflammation ensued. He was +treated by a Syracusan physician, who let him blood below the ankle; this soon +eased his pain, but then the blood could not be stopped, till the loss of it +brought on fainting and swooning; at length, with much trouble, he stopped it. +Agesilaus was carried home to Sparta in a very weak condition, and did not +recover strength enough to appear in the field for a long time after. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, the Spartan fortune was but ill; they received many losses both by +sea and land; but the greatest was that at Tegyrae, when for the first time +they were beaten by the Thebans in a set battle. +</p> + +<p> +All the Greeks were, accordingly, disposed to a general peace, and to that end +ambassadors came to Sparta. Among these was Epaminondas, the Theban, famous at +that time for his philosophy and learning, but he had not yet given proof of +his capacity as a general. He, seeing all the others crouch to Agesilaus, and +court favor with him, alone maintained the dignity of an ambassador, and with +that freedom that became his character, made a speech in behalf not of Thebes +only, from whence he came, but of all Greece, remonstrating, that Sparta alone +grew great by war, to the distress and suffering of all her neighbors. He +urged, that a peace should be made upon just and equal terms, such as alone +would be a lasting one, which could not otherwise be done, than by reducing all +to equality. Agesilaus, perceiving all the other Greeks to give much attention +to this discourse, and to be pleased with it, presently asked him, whether he +thought it a part of this justice and equality that the Boeotian towns should +enjoy their independence. Epaminondas instantly and without wavering asked him +in return, whether he thought it just and equal that the Laconian towns should +enjoy theirs. Agesilaus started from his seat and bade him once for all speak +out and say whether or not Boeotia should be independent. And when Epaminondas +replied once again with the same inquiry, whether Laconia should be so, +Agesilaus was so enraged that, availing himself of the pretext he immediately +struck the name of the Thebans out of the league, and declared war against +them. With the rest of the Greeks he made a peace, and dismissed them with this +saying, that what could be peaceably adjusted, should; what was otherwise +incurable, must be committed to the success of war, it being a thing of too +great difficulty to provide for all things by treaty. The Ephors upon this +dispatched their orders to Cleombrotus, who was at that time in Phocis, to +march directly into Boeotia, and at the same time sent to their allies for aid. +The confederates were very tardy in the business, and unwilling to engage, but +as yet they feared the Spartans too much to dare to refuse. And although many +portents, and prodigies of ill presage, which I have mentioned in the life of +Epaminondas, had appeared; and though Prothous, the Laconian, did all he could +to hinder it, yet Agesilaus would needs go forward, and prevailed so, that the +war was decreed. He thought the present juncture of affairs very advantageous +for their revenge, the rest of Greece being wholly free, and the Thebans +excluded from the peace. But that this war was undertaken more upon passion +than judgment, the event may prove; for the treaty was finished but the +fourteenth of Scirophorion, and the Lacedaemonians received their great +overthrow at Leuctra, on the fifth of Hecatombaeon, within twenty days. There +fell at that time a thousand, Spartans, and Cleombrotus their king, and around +him the bravest men of the nation; particularly, the beautiful youth, Cleonymus +the son of Sphodrias, who was thrice struck down at the feet of the king, and +as often rose, but was slain at the last. +</p> + +<p> +This unexpected blow, which fell so heavy upon the Lacedaemonians, brought +greater glory to Thebes than ever was acquired by any other of the Grecian +republics, in their civil wars against each other. The behavior, +notwithstanding, of the Spartans, though beaten, was as great, and as highly to +be admired, as that of the Thebans. And indeed, if, as Xenophon says, in +conversation good men even in their sports and at their wine let fall many +sayings that are worth the preserving; how much more worthy to be recorded, is +an exemplary constancy of mind, as shown both in the words and in the acts of +brave men, when they are pressed by adverse fortune! It happened that the +Spartans were celebrating a solemn feast, at which many strangers were present +from other countries, and the town full of them, when this news of the +overthrow came. It was the gymnopaediae, and the boys were dancing in the +theater, when the messengers arrived from Leuctra. The Ephors, though they were +sufficiently aware that this blow had ruined the Spartan power, and that their +primacy over the rest of Greece was gone for ever, yet gave orders that the +dances should not break off, nor any of the celebration of the festival abate; +but privately sending the names of the slain to each family, out of which they +were lost, they continued the public spectacles. The next morning, when they +had full intelligence concerning it, and everybody knew who were slain, and who +survived, the fathers, relatives, and friends of the slain came out rejoicing +in the market-place, saluting each other with a kind of exultation; on the +contrary, the fathers of the survivors hid themselves at home among the women. +If necessity drove any of them abroad, they went very dejectedly, with downcast +looks, and sorrowful countenances. The women outdid the men in it; those whose +sons were slain, openly rejoicing, cheerfully making visits to one another, and +meeting triumphantly in the temples; they who expected their children home, +being very silent, and much troubled. +</p> + +<p> +But the people in general, when their allies now began to desert them, and +Epaminondas, in all the confidence of victory, was expected with an invading +army in Peloponnesus, began to think again of Agesilaus’s lameness, and to +entertain feelings of religious fear and despondency, as if their having +rejected the sound-footed, and having chosen the halting king, which the oracle +had specially warned them against, was the occasion of all their distresses. +Yet the regard they had to the merit and reputation of Agesilaus, so far +stilled this murmuring of the people, that notwithstanding it, they entrusted +themselves to him in this distress, as the only man that was fit to heal the +public malady, the arbiter of all their difficulties, whether relating to the +affairs of war or peace. One great one was then before them, concerning the +runaways (as their name is for them) that had fled out of the battle, who being +many and powerful, it was feared that they might make some commotion in the +republic, to prevent the execution of the law upon them for their cowardice. +The law in that case was very severe; for they were not only to be debarred +from all honors, but also it was a disgrace to intermarry with them; whoever +met any of them in the streets, might beat him if he chose, nor was it lawful +for him to resist; they in the meanwhile were obliged to go about unwashed and +meanly dressed, with their clothes patched with divers colors, and to wear +their beards half shaved half unshaven. To execute so rigid a law as this, in a +case where the offenders were so many, and many of them of such distinction, +and that in a time when the commonwealth wanted soldiers so much as then it +did, was of dangerous consequence. Therefore they chose Agesilaus as a sort of +new lawgiver for the occasion. But he, without adding to or diminishing from or +any way changing the law, came out into the public assembly, and said, that the +law should sleep for today, but from this day forth be vigorously executed. By +this means he at once preserved the law from abrogation, and the citizens from +infamy; and that he might alleviate the despondency and self-distrust of the +young men, he made an inroad into Arcadia, where carefully avoiding all +fighting, he contented himself with spoiling the territory, and taking a small +town belonging to the Mantineans, thus reviving the hearts of the people, +letting them see that they were not everywhere unsuccessful. +</p> + +<p> +Epaminondas now invaded Laconia, with an army of forty thousand, besides +light-armed men and others that followed the camp only for plunder, so that in +all they were at least seventy thousand. It was now six hundred years since the +Dorians had possessed Laconia, and in all that time the face of an enemy had +not been seen within their territories, no man daring to invade them; but now +they made their entrance, and burnt and plundered without resistance the +hitherto untouched and sacred territory, up to Eurotas, and the very suburbs of +Sparta; for Agesilaus would not permit them to encounter so impetuous a +torrent, as Theopompus calls it, of war. He contented himself with fortifying +the chief parts of the city, and with placing guards in convenient places, +enduring meanwhile the taunts of the Thebans, who reproached him by name as the +kindler of the war, and the author of all that mischief to his country, bidding +him defend himself if he could. But this was not all; he was equally disturbed +at home with the tumults of the city, the outcries and running about of the old +men, who were enraged at their present condition, and the women, yet worse, out +of their senses with the clamors, and the fires of the enemy in the field. He +was also himself afflicted by the sense of his lost glory; who having come to +the throne of Sparta when it was in its most flourishing and powerful +condition, now lived to see it laid low in esteem, and all its great vaunts cut +down, even that which he himself had been accustomed to use, that the women of +Sparta had never seen the smoke of the enemy’s fire. As it is said, also, that +when Antalcidas once being in dispute with an Athenian about the valor of the +two nations, the Athenian boasted, that they had often driven the Spartans from +the river Cephisus, “Yes,” said Antalcidas, “but we never had occasion to drive +you from Eurotas.” And a common Spartan of less note, being in company with an +Argive, who was bragging how many Spartans lay buried in the fields of Argos, +replied, “None of you are buried in the country of Laconia.” Yet now the case +was so altered, that Antalcidas, being one of the Ephors, out of fear sent away +his children privately to the island of Cythera. +</p> + +<p> +When the enemy essayed to get over the river, and thence to attack the town, +Agesilaus, abandoning the rest, betook himself to the high places and +strong-holds of it. But it happened, that Eurotas at that time was swollen to a +great height with the snow that had fallen, and made the passage very difficult +to the Thebans, not only by its depth, but much more by its extreme coldness. +Whilst this was doing, Epaminondas was seen in the front of the phalanx, and +was pointed out to Agesilaus, who looked long at him, and said but these words, +“O, bold man!” But when he came to the city, and would have fain attempted +something within the limits of it that might raise him a trophy there, he could +not tempt Agesilaus out of his hold, but was forced to march off again, wasting +the country as he went. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, a body of long discontented and bad citizens, about two hundred in +number, having got into a strong part of the town called the Issorion, where +the temple of Diana stands, seized and garrisoned it. The Spartans would have +fallen upon them instantly; but Agesilaus, not knowing how far the sedition +might reach, bade them forbear, and going himself in his ordinary dress, with +but one servant, when he came near the rebels, called out, and told them, that +they mistook their orders; this was not the right place; they were to go, one +part of them thither, showing them another place in the city, and part to +another, which he also showed. The conspirators gladly heard this, thinking +themselves unsuspected of treason, and readily went off to the places which he +showed them. Whereupon Agesilaus placed in their room a guard of his own; and +of the conspirators he apprehended fifteen, and put them to death in the night. +But after this, a much more dangerous conspiracy was discovered of Spartan +citizens, who had privately met in each other’s houses, plotting a revolution. +These were men whom it was equally dangerous to prosecute publicly according to +law, and to connive at. Agesilaus took counsel with the Ephors, and put these +also to death privately without process; a thing never before known in the case +of any born Spartan. +</p> + +<p> +At this time, also, many of the Helots and country people, who were in the +army, ran away to the enemy, which was matter of great consternation to the +city. He therefore caused some officers of his, every morning before day, to +search the quarters of the soldiers, and where any man was gone, to hide his +arms, that so the greatness of the number might not appear. +</p> + +<p> +Historians differ about the cause of the Thebans’ departure from Sparta. Some +say, the winter forced them; as also that the Arcadian soldiers disbanding, +made it necessary for the rest to retire. Others say, that they stayed there +three months, till they had laid the whole country waste. Theopompus is the +only author who says that when the Boeotian generals had already resolved upon +the retreat, Phrixus, the Spartan, came to them, and offered them from +Agesilaus ten talents to be gone, so hiring them to do what they were already +doing of their own accord. How he alone should come to be aware of this, I know +not; only in this all authors agree, that the saving of Sparta from ruin was +wholly due to the wisdom of Agesilaus, who in this extremity of affairs quitted +all his ambition and his haughtiness, and resolved to play a saving game. But +all his wisdom and courage was not sufficient to recover the glory of it, and +to raise it to its ancient greatness. For as we see in human bodies, long used +to a very strict and too exquisitely regular diet, any single great disorder is +usually fatal; so here one stroke overthrew the whole State’s long prosperity. +Nor can we be surprised at this. Lycurgus had formed a polity admirably +designed for the peace, harmony, and virtuous life of the citizens; and their +fall came from their assuming foreign dominion and arbitrary sway, things +wholly undesirable, in the judgment of Lycurgus, for a well-conducted and happy +State. +</p> + +<p> +Agesilaus being now in years, gave over all military employments; but his son +Archidamus, having received help from Dionysius of Sicily, gave a great defeat +to the Arcadians, in the fight known by the name of the Tearless Battle, in +which there was a great slaughter of the enemy, without the loss of one +Spartan. Yet this victory, more than anything else, discovered the present +weakness of Sparta; for heretofore victory was esteemed so usual a thing with +them, that for their greatest successes, they merely sacrificed a cock to the +gods. The soldiers never vaunted, nor did the citizens display any great joy at +the news; even when the great victory, described by Thucydides, was obtained at +Mantinea, the messenger that brought the news had no other reward than a piece +of meat, sent by the magistrates from the common table. But at the news of this +Arcadian victory, they were not able to contain themselves; Agesilaus went out +in procession with tears of joy in his eyes, to meet and embrace his son, and +all the magistrates and public officers attended him. The old men and the women +marched out as far as the river Eurotas, lifting up their hands, and thanking +the gods, that Sparta was now cleared again of the disgrace and indignity that +had befallen her, and once more saw the light of day. Since before, they tell +us, the Spartan men, out of shame at their disasters, did not dare so much as +to look their wives in the face. +</p> + +<p> +When Epaminondas restored Messene, and recalled from all quarters the ancient +citizens to inhabit it, they were not able to obstruct the design, being not in +condition of appearing in the field against them. But it went greatly against +Agesilaus in the minds of his countrymen, when they found so large a territory, +equal to their own in compass, and for fertility the richest of all Greece, +which they had enjoyed so long, taken from them in his reign. Therefore it was +that the king broke off treaty with the Thebans, when they offered him peace, +rather than set his hand to the passing away of that country, though it was +already taken from him. Which point of honor had like to have cost him dear; +for not long after he was overreached by a stratagem, which had almost amounted +to the loss of Sparta. For when the Mantineans again revolted from Thebes to +Sparta, and Epaminondas understood that Agesilaus was come to their assistance +with a powerful army, he privately in the night quitted his quarters at Tegea, +and unknown to the Mantineans, passing by Agesilaus, marched towards Sparta, +insomuch that he failed very little of taking it empty and unarmed. Agesilaus +had intelligence sent him by Euthynus, the Thespian, as Callisthenes says, but +Xenophon says by a Cretan; and immediately dispatched a horseman to Lacedaemon, +to apprise them of it, and to let them know that he was hastening to them. +Shortly after his arrival the Thebans crossed the Eurotas. They made an assault +upon the town, and were received by Agesilaus with great courage, and with +exertions beyond what was to be expected at his years. For he did not now fight +with that caution and cunning which he formerly made use of, but put all upon a +desperate push; which, though not his usual method, succeeded so well, that he +rescued the city out of the very hands of Epaminondas, and forced him to +retire, and, at the erection of a trophy, was able, in the presence of their +wives and children, to declare that the Lacedaemonians had nobly paid their +debt to their country, and particularly his son Archidamus, who had that day +made himself illustrious, both by his courage and agility of body, rapidly +passing about by the short lanes to every endangered point, and everywhere +maintaining the town against the enemy with but few to help him. Isadas, +however, the son of Phoebidas, must have been, I think, the admiration of the +enemy as well as of his friends. He was a youth of remarkable beauty and +stature, in the very flower of the most attractive time of life, when the boy +is just rising into the man. He had no arms upon him, and scarcely clothes; he +had just anointed himself at home, when upon the alarm, without further +waiting, in that undress, he snatched a spear in one hand, and a sword in the +other, and broke his way through the combatants to the enemies, striking at all +he met. He received no wound, whether it were that a special divine care +rewarded his valor with an extraordinary protection, or whether his shape being +so large and beautiful, and his dress so unusual, they thought him more than a +man. The Ephors gave him a garland; but as soon as they had done so, they fined +him a thousand drachmas, for going out to battle unarmed. +</p> + +<p> +A few days after this there was another battle fought near Mantinea, in which +Epaminondas, having routed the van of the Lacedaemonians, was eager in the +pursuit of them, when Anticrates, the Laconian, wounded him with a spear, says +Dioscorides; but the Spartans to this day call the posterity of this +Anticrates, swordsmen, because he wounded Epaminondas with a sword. They so +dreaded Epaminondas when living, that the slayer of him was embraced and +admired by all; they decreed honors and gifts to him, and an exemption from +taxes to his posterity, a privilege enjoyed at this day by Callicrates, one of +his descendants. +</p> + +<p> +Epaminondas being slain, there was a general peace again concluded, from which +Agesilaus’s party excluded the Messenians, as men that had no city, and +therefore would not let them swear to the league; to which when the rest of the +Greeks admitted them, the Lacedaemonians broke off, and continued the war +alone, in hopes of subduing the Messenians. In this Agesilaus was esteemed a +stubborn and headstrong man, and insatiable of war, who took such pains to +undermine the general peace, and to protract the war at a time when he had not +money to carry it on with, but was forced to borrow of his friends and raise +subscriptions, with much difficulty, while the city, above all things, needed +repose. And all this to recover the one poor town of Messene, after he had lost +so great an empire both by sea and land, as the Spartans were possessed of, +when he began to reign. +</p> + +<p> +But it added still more to his ill-repute when he put himself into the service +of Tachos, the Egyptian. They thought it too unworthy of a man of his high +station, who was then looked upon as the first commander in all Greece, who had +filled all countries with his renown, to let himself out to hire to a +barbarian, an Egyptian rebel, (for Tachos was no better) and to fight for pay, +as captain only of a band of mercenaries. If, they said, at those years of +eighty and odd, after his body had been worn out with age, and enfeebled with +wounds, he had resumed that noble undertaking, the liberation of the Greeks +from Persia, it had been worthy of some reproof. To make an action honorable, +it ought to be agreeable to the age, and other circumstances of the person; +since it is circumstance and proper measure that give an action its character, +and make it either good or bad. But Agesilaus valued not other men’s +discourses; he thought no public employment dishonorable; the ignoblest thing +in his esteem, was for a man to sit idle and useless at home, waiting for his +death to come and take him. The money, therefore, that he received from Tachos, +he laid out in raising men, with whom having filled his ships, he took also +thirty Spartan counselors with him, as formerly he had done in his Asiatic +expedition, and set sail for Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he arrived in Egypt, all the great officers of the kingdom came to +pay their compliments to him at his landing. His reputation being so great had +raised the expectation of the whole country, and crowds flocked in to see him; +but when they found, instead of the splendid prince whom they looked for, a +little old man of contemptible appearance, without all ceremony lying down upon +the grass, in coarse and threadbare clothes, they fell into laughter and scorn +of him, crying out, that the old proverb was; now made good, “The mountain had +brought forth a mouse.” They were yet more astonished at his stupidity, as they +thought it, who, when presents were made him of all sorts of provisions, took +only the meal, the calves, and the geese, but rejected the sweetmeats, the +confections and perfumes; and when they urged him to the acceptance of them, +took them and gave them to the helots in his army. Yet he was taken, +Theophrastus tells us, with the garlands they made of the papyrus, because of +their simplicity, and when he returned home, he demanded one of the king, which +he carried with him. +</p> + +<p> +When he joined with Tachos, he found his expectation of being general-in-chief +disappointed. Tachos reserved that place for himself, making Agesilaus only +captain of the mercenaries, and Chabrias, the Athenian, commander of the fleet. +This was the first occasion of his discontent, but there followed others; he +was compelled daily to submit to the insolence and vanity of this Egyptian, and +was at length forced to attend him into Phoenicia, in a condition much below +his character and dignity, which he bore and put up with for a time, till he +had opportunity of showing his feelings. It was afforded him by Nectanabis, the +cousin of Tachos, who commanded a large force under him, and shortly after +deserted him, and was proclaimed king by the Egyptians. This man invited +Agesilaus to join his party, and the like he did to Chabrias, offering great +rewards to both. Tachos, suspecting it, immediately applied himself both to +Agesilaus and Chabrias, with great humility beseeching their continuance in his +friendship. Chabrias consented to it, and did what he could by persuasion and +good words to keep Agesilaus with them. But he gave this short reply, “You, O +Chabrias, came hither a volunteer, and may go and stay as you see cause; but I +am the servant of Sparta, appointed to head the Egyptians, and therefore I +cannot fight against those to whom I was sent as a friend, unless I am +commanded to do so by my country.” This being said, he dispatched messengers to +Sparta, who were sufficiently supplied with matter both for dispraise of +Tachos, and commendation of Nectanabis. The two Egyptians also sent their +ambassadors to Lacedaemon, the one to claim continuance of the league already +made, the other to make great offers for the breaking of it, and making a new +one. The Spartans having heard both sides, gave in their public answer, that +they referred the whole matter to Agesilaus; but privately wrote to him, to act +as he should find it best for the profit of the commonwealth. Upon receipt of +his orders, he at once changed sides, carrying all the mercenaries with him to +Nectanabis, covering with the plausible presence of acting for the benefit of +his country, a most questionable piece of conduct, which, stripped of that +disguise, in real truth was no better than downright treachery. But the +Lacedaemonians, who make it their first principle of action to serve their +country’s interest, know not anything to be just or unjust by any measure but +that. +</p> + +<p> +Tachos, being thus deserted by the mercenaries, fled for it; upon which a new +king of the Mendesian province was proclaimed his successor, and came against +Nectanabis with an army of one hundred thousand men. Nectanabis, in his talk +with Agesilaus, professed to despise them as newly raised men, who, though many +in number, were of no skill in war, being most of them mechanics and tradesmen, +never bred to war. To whom Agesilaus answered, that he did not fear their +numbers, but did fear their ignorance, which gave no room for employing +stratagem against them. Stratagem only avails with men who are alive to +suspicion, and expecting to be assailed, expose themselves by their attempts at +defense; but one who has no thought or expectation of anything, gives as little +opportunity to the enemy, as he who stands stock-still does to a wrestler. The +Mendesian was not wanting in solicitations of Agesilaus, insomuch that +Nectanabis grew jealous. But when Agesilaus advised to fight the enemy at once, +saying, it was folly to protract the war and rely on time, in a contest with +men who had no experience in fighting battles, but with their great numbers +might be able to surround them, and cut off their communications by +entrenchments, and anticipate them in many matters of advantage, this +altogether confirmed him in his fears and suspicions. He took quite the +contrary course, and retreated into a large and strongly fortified town. +Agesilaus, finding himself mistrusted, took it very ill, and was full of +indignation, yet was ashamed to change sides back again, or to go away without +effecting anything, so that he was forced to follow Nectanabis into the town. +</p> + +<p> +When the enemy came up, and began to draw lines about the town, and to +entrench, the Egyptian now resolved upon a battle, out of fear of a siege. And +the Greeks were eager for it, provisions growing already scarce in the town. +When Agesilaus opposed it, the Egyptians then suspected him much more, publicly +calling him the betrayer of the king. But Agesilaus, being now satisfied within +himself, bore these reproaches patiently, and followed the design which he had +laid, of overreaching the enemy, which was this. +</p> + +<p> +The enemy were forming a deep ditch and high wall, resolving to shut up the +garrison and starve it. When the ditch was brought almost quite round, and the +two ends had all but met, he took the advantage of the night, and armed all his +Greeks. Then going to the Egyptian, “This, young man, is your opportunity,” +said he, “of saving yourself, which I all this while durst not announce, lest +discovery should prevent it; but now the enemy has, at his own cost, and the +pains and labor of his own men, provided for our security. As much of this wall +as is built will prevent them from surrounding us with their multitude, the gap +yet left will be sufficient for us to sally out by; now play the man, and +follow the example the Greeks will give you, and by fighting valiantly, save +yourself and your army; their front will not be able to stand against us, and +their rear we are sufficiently secured from, by a wall of their own making.” +Nectanabis, admiring the sagacity of Agesilaus, immediately placed himself in +the middle of the Greek troops, and fought with them; and upon the first charge +soon routed the enemy. Agesilaus having now gained credit with the king, +proceeded to use, like a trick in wrestling, the same stratagem over again. He +sometimes pretended a retreat, at other times advanced to attack their flanks, +and by this means at last drew them into a place enclosed between two ditches +that were very deep, and full of water. When he had them at this advantage, he +soon charged them, drawing up the front of his battle equal to the space +between the two ditches, so that they had no way of surrounding him, being +enclosed themselves on both sides. They made but little resistance; many fell, +others fled and were dispersed. +</p> + +<p> +Nectanabis, being thus settled and fixed in his kingdom, with much kindness and +affection invited Agesilaus to spend his winter in Egypt, but he made haste +home to assist in the wars of his own country, which was he knew in want of +money, and forced to hire mercenaries, whilst their own men were fighting +abroad. The king, therefore, dismissed him very honorably, and among other +gifts presented him with two hundred and thirty talents of silver toward the +charge of the war. But the weather being tempestuous, his ships kept in shore, +and passing along the coast of Africa he reached an uninhabited spot called the +Port of Menelaus, and here, when his ships were just upon landing, he expired, +being eighty-four years old, and having reigned in Lacedaemon forty-one. Thirty +of which years he passed with the reputation of being the greatest and most +powerful man of all Greece, and was looked upon as, in a manner, general and +king of it, until the battle of Leuctra. It was the custom of the Spartans to +bury their common dead in the place where they died, whatsoever country it was, +but their kings they carried home. The followers of Agesilaus, for want of +honey, enclosed his body in wax, and so conveyed him to Lacedaemon. +</p> + +<p> +His son Archidamus succeeded him on his throne; so did his posterity +successively to Agis, the fifth from Agesilaus; who was slain by Leonidas, +while attempting to restore the ancient discipline of Sparta. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap45"></a>POMPEY</h2> + +<p> +The people of Rome seem to have entertained for Pompey from his childhood, the +same affection that Prometheus in the tragedy of Aeschylus expresses for +Hercules, speaking of him as the author of his deliverance, in these words, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Ah cruel Sire! how dear thy son to me!<br/> +The generous offspring of my enemy! +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For on the one hand, never did the Romans give such demonstrations of a +vehement and fierce hatred against any of their generals, as they did against +Strabo, the father of Pompey; during whose lifetime, it is true, they stood in +awe of his military power, as indeed he was a formidable warrior, but +immediately upon his death, which happened by a stroke of thunder, they treated +him with the utmost contumely, dragging his corpse from the bier, as it was +carried to his funeral. On the other side, never had any Roman the people’s +good-will and devotion more zealous throughout all the changes of fortune, more +early in its first springing up, or more steadily rising with his prosperity, +or more constant in his adversity, than Pompey had. In Strabo, there was one +great cause of their hatred, his insatiable covetousness; in Pompey, there were +many that helped to make him the object of their love; his temperance, his +skill, and exercise in war, his eloquence of speech, integrity of mind and +affability in conversation and address; insomuch that no man ever asked a favor +with less offense, or conferred one with a better grace. When he gave, it was +without assumption, when he received, it was with dignity and honor. +</p> + +<p> +In his youth, his countenance pleaded for him, seeming to anticipate his +eloquence, and win upon the affections of the people before he spoke. His +beauty even in his bloom of youth had something in it at once of gentleness and +dignity; and when his prime of manhood came, the majesty kingliness of his +character at once became visible in it. His hair sat somewhat hollow or rising +a little; and this, with the languishing motion of his eyes, seemed to form a +resemblance in his face, though perhaps more talked of than really apparent, to +the statues of king Alexander. And because many applied that name to him in his +youth, Pompey himself did not decline it, insomuch that some called him so in +derision. And Lucius Philippus, a man of consular dignity, when he was pleading +in favor of him, thought it not unfit to say, that people could not be +surprised if Philip was a lover of Alexander. +</p> + +<p> +It is related of Flora, the courtesan, that when she was now pretty old; she +took great delight in speaking of her early familiarity with Pompey, and was +wont to say, that she could never part after being with him without a bite. She +would further tell, that Geminius, a companion of Pompey’s, fell in love with +her, and made his court with great importunity; and on her refusing, and +telling him, however her inclinations were, yet she could not gratify his +desires for Pompey’s sake, he therefore made his request to Pompey, and Pompey +frankly gave his consent, but never afterwards would have any converse with +her, notwithstanding, that he seemed to have a great passion for her; and +Flora, on this occasion, showed none of the levity that might have been +expected of her, but languished for some time after under a sickness brought on +by grief and desire. This Flora, we are told, was such a celebrated beauty, +that Caecilius Metellus, when he adorned the temple of Castor and Pollux with +paintings and statues, among the rest dedicated hers for her singular beauty. +In his conduct also to the wife of Demetrius, his freed servant, (who had great +influence with him in his lifetime, and left an estate of four thousand +talents,) Pompey acted contrary to his usual habits, not quite fairly or +generously, fearing lest he should fall under the common censure of being +enamored and charmed with her beauty, which was irresistible, and became famous +everywhere. Nevertheless, though he seemed to be so extremely circumspect and +cautious, yet even in matters of this nature, he could not avoid the calumnies +of his enemies, but upon the score of married women, they accused him, as if he +had connived at many things, and embezzled the public revenue to gratify their +luxury. +</p> + +<p> +Of his easiness of temper and plainness, in what related to eating and +drinking, the story is told, that once in a sickness, when his stomach +nauseated common meats, his physician prescribed him a thrush to eat; but upon +search, there was none to be bought, for they were not then in season, and one +telling him they were to be had at Lucullus’s, who kept them all the year +round, “So then,” said he, “if it were not for Lucullus’s luxury, Pompey should +not live;” and thereupon not minding the prescription of the physician, he +contented himself with such meat as could easily be procured. But this was at a +later time. +</p> + +<p> +Being as yet a very young man, and upon an expedition in which his father was +commanding against Cinna, he had in his tent with him one Lucius Terentius, as +his companion and comrade, who, being corrupted by Cinna, entered into an +engagement to kill Pompey, as others had done, to set the general’s tent on +fire. This conspiracy being discovered to Pompey at supper, he showed no +discomposure at it, but on the contrary drank more liberally than usual, and +expressed great kindness to Terentius; but about bedtime, pretending to go to +his repose, he stole away secretly out of the tent, and setting a guard about +his father, quietly expected the event. Terentius, when he thought the proper +time come, rose with his naked sword, and coming to Pompey’s bedside, stabbed +several strokes through the bedclothes, as if he were lying there. Immediately +after this there was a great uproar throughout all the camp, arising from the +hatred they bore to the general, and a universal movement of the soldiers to +revolt, all tearing down their tents, and betaking themselves to their arms. +The general himself all this while durst not venture out because of the tumult; +but Pompey, going about in the midst of them, besought them with tears; and at +last threw himself prostrate upon his face before the gate of the camp, and lay +there in the passage at their feet, shedding tears, and bidding those that were +marching off, if they would go, trample upon him. Upon which, none could help +going back again, and all, except eight hundred, either through shame or +compassion, repented, and were reconciled to the general. +</p> + +<p> +Immediately upon the death of Strabo, there was an action commenced against +Pompey, as his heir, for that his father had embezzled the public treasure. But +Pompey, having traced the principal thefts, charged them upon one Alexander, a +freed slave of his father’s, and proved before the judges that he had been the +appropriator. But he himself was accused of having in his possession some +hunting tackle, and books, that were taken at Asculum. To this he confessed +thus far, that he received them from his father when he took Asculum, but +pleaded further, that he had lost them since, upon Cinna’s return to Rome when +his home was broken open and plundered by Cinna’s guards. In this cause he had +a great many preparatory pleadings against his accuser, in which he showed an +activity and steadfastness beyond his years, and gained great reputation and +favor; insomuch that Antistius, the praetor and judge of the cause, took a +great liking to him, and offered him his daughter in marriage, having had some +communications with his friends about it. Pompey accepted the proposal, and +they were privately contracted; however, the secret was not so closely kept as +to escape the multitude, but it was discernible enough from the favor shown him +by Antistius in his cause. And at last, when Antistius pronounced the +absolutory sentence of the judges, the people, as if it had been upon a signal +given, made the acclamation used according to ancient custom, at marriages, +Talasio. The origin of which custom is related to be this. At the time when the +daughters of the Sabines came to Rome, to see the shows and sports there, and +were violently seized upon by the most distinguished and bravest of the Romans +for wives, it happened that some goatswains and herdsmen of the meaner rank +were carrying off a beautiful and tall maiden; and lest any of their betters +should meet them, and take her away, as they ran, they cried out with one +voice, Talasio, Talasius being a well-known and popular person among them, +insomuch that all that heard the name, clapped their hands for joy, and joined +with them in the shout, as applauding and congratulating the chance. Now, say +they, because this proved a fortunate match to Talasius, hence it is that this +acclamation is sportively used as a nuptial cry at all weddings. This is the +most credible of the accounts that are given of the Talasio. And some few days +after this judgment, Pompey married Antistia. +</p> + +<p> +After this he went to Cinna’s camp, where finding some false suggestions and +calumnies prevailing against him, he began to be afraid and presently withdrew +himself secretly; which sudden disappearance occasioned great suspicion. And +there went a rumor and speech through all the camp, that Cinna had murdered the +young man; upon which all that had been anyways disobliged, and bore any malice +to him, resolved to make an assault upon him. He, endeavoring to make his +escape, was seized by a centurion, who pursued him with his naked sword. Cinna, +in this distress, fell upon his knees, and offered him his seal-ring, of great +value, for his ransom; but the centurion repulsed him insolently, saying, “I +did not come to seal a covenant, but to be revenged upon a lawless and wicked +tyrant;” and so dispatched him immediately. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Cinna being slain, Carbo, a tyrant yet more senseless than he, took the +command and exercised it, while Sylla meantime was approaching, much to the joy +and satisfaction of most people, who in their present evils were ready to find +some comfort if it were but in the exchange of a master. For the city was +brought to that pass by oppression and calamities, that being utterly in +despair of liberty, men were only anxious for the mildest and most tolerable +bondage. At that time Pompey was in Picenum in Italy, where he spent some time +amusing himself, as he had estates in the country there, though the chief +motive of his stay was the liking he felt for the towns of that district, which +all regarded him with hereditary feelings of kindness and attachment. But when +he now saw that the noblest and best of the city began to forsake their homes +and property, and fly from all quarters to Sylla’s camp, as to their haven, he +likewise was desirous to go; not, however, as a fugitive, alone and with +nothing to offer, but as a friend rather than a suppliant, in a way that would +gain him honor, bringing help along with him, and at the head of a body of +troops. Accordingly he solicited the Picentines for their assistance, who as +cordially embraced his motion, and rejected the messengers sent from Carbo; +insomuch that a certain Vindius taking upon him to say, that Pompey was come +from the school-room to put himself at the head of the people, they were so +incensed that they fell forthwith upon this Vindius and killed him. From +henceforward Pompey, finding a spirit of government upon him, though not above +twenty-three years of age, nor deriving, an authority by commission from any +man, took the privilege to grant himself full power, and causing a tribunal to +be erected in the market-place of Auximum, a populous city, expelled two of +their principal men, brothers, of the name of Ventidius, who were acting +against him in Carbo’s interest, commanding them by a public edict to depart +the city; and then proceeded to levy soldiers, issuing out commissions to +centurions, and other officers, according to the form of military discipline. +And in this manner he went round all the rest of the cities in the district. So +that those of Carbo’s faction flying, and all others cheerfully submitting to +his command, in a little time he mustered three entire legions, having supplied +himself beside with all manner of provisions, beasts of burden, carriages, and +other necessaries of war. And with this equipage he set forward on his march +towards Sylla, not as if he were in haste, or desirous of escaping observation, +but by small journeys, making several halts upon the road, to distress and +annoy the enemy, and exerting himself to detach from Carbo’s interest every +part of Italy that he passed through. +</p> + +<p> +Three commanders of the enemy encountered him at once, Carinna, Cloelius, and +Brutus, and drew up their forces, not all in the front, nor yet together on any +one part, but encamping three several armies in a circle about him, they +resolved to encompass and overpower him. Pompey was no way alarmed at this, but +collecting all his troops into one body, and placing his horse in the front of +the battle, where he himself was in person, he singled out and bent all his +forces against Brutus, and when the Celtic horsemen from the enemy’s side rode +out to meet him, Pompey himself encountering hand to hand with the foremost and +stoutest among them, killed him with his spear. The rest seeing this turned +their backs, and fled, and breaking the ranks of their own foot, presently +caused a general rout; whereupon the commanders fell out among themselves, and +marched off, some one way, some another, as their fortunes led them, and the +towns round about came in and surrendered themselves to Pompey, concluding that +the enemy was dispersed for fear. Next after these, Scipio, the consul, came to +attack him, and with as little success; for before the armies could join, or be +within the throw of their javelins, Scipio’s soldiers saluted Pompey’s, and +came over to them, while Scipio made his escape by flight. Last of all, Carbo +himself sent down several troops of horse against him by the river Arsis, which +Pompey assailed with the same courage and success as before; and having routed +and put them to flight, he forced them in the pursuit into difficult ground, +unpassable for horse, where seeing no hopes of escape, they yielded themselves +with their horses and armor, all to his mercy. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla was hitherto unacquainted with all these actions; and on the first +intelligence he received of his movements was in great anxiety about him, +fearing lest he should be cut off among so many and such experienced commanders +of the enemy, and marched therefore with all speed to his aid. Now Pompey, +having advice of his approach, sent out orders to his officers, to marshal and +draw up all his forces in full array, that they might make the finest and +noblest appearance before the commander-in-chief; for he expected indeed great +honors from him, but met with even greater. For as soon as Sylla saw him thus +advancing, his army so well appointed, his men so young and strong, and their +spirits so high and hopeful with their successes, he alighted from his horse, +and being first, as was his due, saluted by them with the title of Imperator, +he returned the salutation upon Pompey, in the same term and style of +Imperator, which might well cause surprise, as none could have ever anticipated +that he would have imparted, to one so young in years and not yet a senator, a +title which was the object of contention between him and the Scipios and Marii. +And indeed all the rest of his deportment was agreeable to this first +compliment; whenever Pompey came into his presence, he paid some sort of +respect to him, either in rising and being uncovered, or the like, which he was +rarely seen to do to anyone else, notwithstanding that there were many about +him of great rank and honor. Yet Pompey was not puffed up at all, or exalted +with these favors. And when Sylla would have sent him with all expedition into +Gaul, a province in which it was thought Metellus who commanded in it had done +nothing worthy of the large forces at his disposal, Pompey urged, that it could +not be fair or honorable for him, to take a province out of the hands of his +senior in command and superior in reputation; however, if Metellus were +willing, and should request his service, he should be very ready to accompany +and assist him in the war. Which when Metellus came to understand, he approved +of the proposal, and invited him over by letter. And on this Pompey fell +immediately into Gaul, where he not only achieved wonderful exploits of +himself, but also fired up and kindled again that bold and warlike spirit, +which old age had in a manner extinguished in Metellus, into a new heat; just +as molten copper, they say, when poured upon that which is cold and solid, will +dissolve and melt it faster than fire itself. But as when a famous wrestler has +gained the first place among men, and borne away the prizes at all the games, +it is not usual to take account of his victories as a boy, or to enter them +upon record among the rest; so with the exploits of Pompey in his youth, though +they were extraordinary in themselves, yet because they were obscured and +buried in the multitude and greatness of his later wars and conquests, I dare +not be particular in them, lest, by trifling away time in the lesser moments of +his youth, we should be driven to omit those greater actions and fortunes which +best illustrate his character. +</p> + +<p> +Now, when Sylla had brought all Italy under his dominion, and was proclaimed +dictator, he began to reward the rest of his followers, by giving them wealth, +appointing them to offices in the State, and granting them freely and without +restriction any favors they asked for. But as for Pompey, admiring his valor +and conduct, and thinking that he might prove a great stay and support to him +hereafter in his affairs, he sought means to attach him to himself by some +personal alliance, and his wife Metella joining in his wishes, they two +persuaded Pompey to put away Antistia, and marry Aemilia, the step-daughter of +Sylla, borne by Metella to Scaurus her former husband, she being at that very +time the wife of another man, living with him, and with child by him. These +were the very tyrannies of marriage, and much more agreeable to the times under +Sylla, than to the nature and habits of Pompey; that Aemilia great with child +should be, as it were, ravished from the embraces of another for him, and that +Antistia should be divorced with dishonor and misery by him, for whose sake she +had been but just before bereft of her father. For Antistius was murdered in +the senate, because he was suspected to be a favorer of Sylla for Pompey’s +sake; and her mother, likewise, after she had seen all these indignities, made +away with herself; a new calamity to be added to the tragic accompaniments of +this marriage, and that there might be nothing wanting to complete them, +Aemilia herself died, almost immediately after entering Pompey’s house, in +childbed. +</p> + +<p> +About this time news came to Sylla, that Perpenna was fortifying himself in +Sicily, that the island was now become a refuge and receptacle for the relics +of the adverse party; that Carbo was hovering about those seas with a navy, +that Domitius had fallen in upon Africa and that many of the exiled men of note +who had escaped from the proscriptions were daily flocking into those parts. +Against these, therefore, Pompey was sent with a large force; and no sooner was +he arrived in Sicily but Perpenna immediately departed, leaving the whole +island to him. Pompey received the distressed cities into favor, and treated +all with great humanity, except the Mamertines in Messena; for when they +protested against his court and jurisdiction, alleging their privilege and +exemption founded upon an ancient charter or grant of the Romans, he replied +sharply, “What! will you never cease prating of laws to us that have swords by +our sides?” It was thought, likewise, that he showed some inhumanity to Carbo, +seeming rather to insult over his misfortunes, than to chastise his crimes. For +if there had been a necessity, as perhaps there was, that he should be taken +off, that might have been done at first, as soon as he was taken prisoner, for +then it would have been the act of him that commanded it. But here Pompey +commended a man that had been thrice consul of Rome, to be brought in fetters +to stand at the bar, he himself sitting upon the bench in judgment, examining +the cause with the formalities of law, to the offense and indignation of all +that were present, and afterwards ordered him to be taken away and put to +death. It is related, by the way, of Carbo, that as soon as he was brought to +the place, and saw the sword drawn for execution, he was suddenly seized with a +looseness or pain in his bowels, and desired a little respite of the +executioner, and a convenient place to relieve himself. And yet further, Caius +Oppius, the friend of Caesar, tells us, that Pompey dealt cruelly with Quintus +Valerius, a man of singular learning and science. For when he was brought to +him, he walked aside, and drew him into conversation, and after putting a +variety of questions to him, and receiving answers from him, he ordered his +officers to take him away, and put him to death. But we must not be too +credulous in the case of narratives told by Oppius, especially when he +undertakes to relate anything touching the friends or foes of Caesar. This is +certain, that there lay a necessity upon Pompey to be severe upon many of +Sylla’s enemies, those at least that were eminent persons in themselves, and +notoriously known to be taken; but for the rest, he acted with all the clemency +possible for him, conniving at the concealment of some, and himself being the +instrument in the escape of others. So in the case of the Himeraeans; for when +Pompey had determined on severely punishing their city, as they had been +abettors of the enemy, Sthenis, the leader of the people there, craving liberty +of speech, told him, that what he was about to do was not at all consistent +with justice, for that he would pass by the guilty, and destroy the innocent; +and on Pompey demanding, who that guilty person was that would assume the +offenses of them all, Sthenis replied, it was himself, who had engaged his +friends by persuasion to what they had done, and his enemies by force; +whereupon Pompey being much taken with the frank speech and noble spirit of the +man, first forgave his crime, and then pardoned all the rest of the Himeraeans. +Hearing, likewise, that his soldiers were very disorderly their march, doing +violence upon the roads, he ordered their swords to be sealed up in their +scabbards, and whosoever kept them not so, were severely punished. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst Pompey was thus busy in the affairs and government of Sicily, he +received a decree of the senate, and a commission from Sylla, commanding him +forthwith to sail into Africa, and make war upon Domitius with all his forces: +for Domitius had rallied up a far greater army than Marius had had not long +since, when he sailed out of Africa into Italy, and caused a revolution in +Rome, and himself, of a fugitive outlaw, became a tyrant. Pompey, therefore, +having prepared everything with the utmost speed, left Memmius, his sister’s +husband, governor of Sicily, and set sail with one hundred and twenty galleys, +and eight hundred other vessels laden with provisions, money, ammunition, and +engines of battery. He arrived with his fleet, part at the port of Utica, part +at Carthage; and no sooner was he landed, but seven thousand of the enemy +revolted and came over to him, while his own forces that he brought with him +consisted of six entire legions. Here they tell us of a pleasant incident that +happened to him at his first arrival. For some of his soldiers having by +accident stumbled upon a treasure, by which they got a good sum of money, the +rest of the army hearing this, began to fancy that the field was full of gold +and silver, which had been hid there of old by the Carthaginians in the time of +their calamities, and thereupon fell to work, so that the army was useless to +Pompey for many days, being totally engaged in digging for the fancied +treasure, he himself all the while walking up and down only, and laughing to +see so many thousands together, digging and turning up the earth. Until at +last, growing weary and hopeless, they came to themselves, and returned to +their general, begging him to lead them where he pleased, for that they had +already received the punishment of their folly. By this time Domitius had +prepared himself; and drawn out his army in array against Pompey; but there was +a watercourse betwixt them, craggy, and difficult to pass over; and this, +together with a great storm of wind and rain pouring down even from break of +day, seemed to leave but little possibility of their coming together, so that +Domitius, not expecting any engagement that day, commanded his forces to draw +off and retire to the camp. Now Pompey, who was watchful upon every occasion, +making use of the opportunity, ordered a march forthwith, and having passed +over the torrent, fell in immediately upon their quarters. The enemy was in a +great disorder and tumult, and in that confusion attempted a resistance; but +they neither were all there, nor supported one another; besides, the wind +having veered about, beat the rain full in their faces. Neither indeed was the +storm less troublesome to the Romans, for that they could not clearly discern +one another, insomuch that even Pompey himself, being unknown, escaped +narrowly; for when one of his soldiers demanded of him the word of battle, it +happened that he was somewhat slow in his answer, which might have cost him his +life. +</p> + +<p> +The enemy being routed with a great slaughter, (for it is said, that of twenty +thousand there escaped but three thousand,) the army saluted Pompey by the name +of Imperator; but he declined it, telling them, that he could not by any means +accept of that title, as long as he saw the camp of the enemy standing; but if +they designed to make him worthy of the honor, they must first demolish that. +The soldiers on hearing this, went at once and made an assault upon the works +and trenches, and there Pompey fought without his helmet, in memory of his +former danger, and to avoid the like. The camp was thus taken by storm, and +among the rest, Domitius was slain. After that overthrow, the cities of the +country thereabouts were all either secured by surrender, or taken by storm. +King Iarbas, likewise, a confederate and auxiliary of Domitius, was taken +prisoner, and his kingdom was given to Hiempsal. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey could not rest here, but being ambitious to follow the good fortune and +use the valor of his army, entered Numidia; and marching forward many days’ +journey up into the country, he conquered all wherever he came. And having +revived the terror of the Roman power, which was now almost obliterated among +the barbarous nations, he said likewise, that the wild beasts of Africa ought +not to be left without some experience of the courage and success of the +Romans; and therefore he bestowed some few days in hunting lions and elephants. +And it is said, that it was not above the space of forty days at the utmost, in +which he gave a total overthrow to the enemy, reduced Africa, and established +the affairs of the kings and kingdoms of all that country, being then in the +twenty-fourth year of his age. +</p> + +<p> +When Pompey returned back to the city of Utica, there were presented to him +letters and orders from Sylla, commanding him to disband the rest of his army, +and himself with one legion only to wait there the coming of another general, +to succeed him in the government. This, inwardly, was extremely grievous to +Pompey, though he made no show of it. But the army resented it openly, and when +Pompey besought them to depart and go home before him, they began to revile +Sylla, and declared broadly, that they were resolved not to forsake him, +neither did they think it safe for him to trust the tyrant. Pompey at first +endeavored to appease and pacify them by fair speeches; but when he saw that +his persuasions were vain, he left the bench, and retired to his tent with +tears in his eyes. But the soldiers followed him, and seizing upon him, by +force brought him again, and placed him in his tribunal; where great part of +that day was spent in dispute, they on their part persuading him to stay and +command them, he, on the other side, pressing upon them obedience, and the +danger of mutiny. At last, when they grew yet more importunate and clamorous, +he swore that he would kill himself if they attempted to force him; and +scarcely even thus appeased them. Nevertheless, the first tidings brought to +Sylla were, that Pompey was up in rebellion; on which he remarked to some of +his friends, “I see, then, it is my destiny to contend with children in my old +age;” alluding at the same time to Marius, who, being but a mere youth, had +given him great trouble, and brought him into extreme danger. But being +undeceived afterwards by better intelligence, and finding the whole city +prepared to meet Pompey, and receive him with every display of kindness and +honor, he resolved to exceed them all. And, therefore, going out foremost to +meet him, and embracing him with great cordiality, he gave him his welcome +aloud in the title of Magnus, or the Great, and bade all that were present call +him by that name. Others say that he had this title first given him by a +general acclamation of all the army in Africa, but that it was fixed upon him +by this ratification of Sylla. It is certain that he himself was the last that +owned the title; for it was a long time after, when he was sent proconsul into +Spain against Sertorius, that he began to write himself in his letters and +commissions by the name of Pompeius Magnus; common and familiar use having then +worn off the invidiousness of the title. And one cannot but accord respect and +admiration to the ancient Romans, who did not reward the successes of action +and conduct in war alone with such honorable titles, but adorned likewise the +virtues and services of eminent men in civil government with the same +distinctions and marks of honor. Two persons received from the people the name +of Maximus, or the Greatest, Valerius, for reconciling the senate and people, +and Fabius Rullus, because he put out of the senate certain sons of freed +slaves who had been admitted into it because of their wealth. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey now desired the honor of a triumph, which Sylla opposed, alleging that +the law allowed that honor to none but consuls and praetors, and therefore +Scipio the elder, who subdued the Carthaginians in Spain in far greater and +nobler conflicts, never petitioned for a triumph, because he had never been +consul or praetor; and if Pompey, who had scarcely yet fully grown a beard, and +was not of age to be a senator, should enter the city in triumph, what a weight +of envy would it bring, he said, at once upon his government and Pompey’s +honor. This was his language to Pompey, intimating that he could not by any +means yield to his request, but if he would persist in his ambition, that he +was resolved to interpose his power to humble him. Pompey, however, was not +daunted; but bade Sylla recollect, that more worshiped the rising than the +setting sun; as if to tell him that his power was increasing, and Sylla’s in +the wane. Sylla did not perfectly hear the words, but observing a sort of +amazement and wonder in the looks and gestures of those that did hear them, he +asked what it was that he said. When it was told him, he seemed astounded at +Pompey’s boldness, and cried out twice together, “Let him triumph,” and when +others began to show their disapprobation and offense at it, Pompey, it is +said, to gall and vex them the more, designed to have his triumphant chariot +drawn with four elephants, (having brought over several which belonged to the +African kings,) but the gates of the city being too narrow, he was forced to +desist from that project, and be content with horses. And when his soldiers, +who had not received as large rewards as they had expected, began to clamor, +and interrupt the triumph, Pompey regarded these as little as the rest, and +plainly told them that he had rather lose the honor of his triumph, than +flatter them. Upon which Servilius, a man of great distinction, and at first +one of the chief opposers of Pompey’s triumph, said, he now perceived that +Pompey was truly great and worthy of a triumph. It is clear that he might +easily have been a senator, also, if he had wished, but he did not sue for +that, being ambitious, it seems, only of unusual honors. For what wonder had it +been for Pompey, to sit in the senate before his time? But to triumph before he +was in the senate, was really an excess of glory. +</p> + +<p> +And moreover, it did not a little ingratiate him with the people; who were much +pleased to see him after his triumph take his place again among the Roman +knights. On the other side, it was no less distasteful to Sylla to see how fast +he came on, and to what a height of glory and power he was advancing; yet being +ashamed to hinder him, he kept quiet. But when, against his direct wishes, +Pompey got Lepidus made consul, having openly joined in the canvass and, by the +good-will the people felt for himself, conciliated their favor for Lepidus, +Sylla could forbear no longer; but when he saw him coming away from the +election through the forum with a great train after him, cried out to him, +“Well, young man, I see you rejoice in your victory. And, indeed, is it not a +most generous and worthy act, that the consulship should be given to Lepidus, +the vilest of men, in preference to Catulus, the best and most deserving in the +city, and all by your influence with the people? It will be well, however, for +you to be wakeful and look to your interests; as you have been making your +enemy stronger than yourself.” But that which gave the clearest demonstration +of Sylla’s ill-will to Pompey, was his last will and testament; for whereas he +had bequeathed several legacies to all the rest of his friends, and appointed +some of them guardians to his eon, he passed by Pompey without the least +remembrance. However, Pompey bore this with great moderation and temper; and +when Lepidus and others were disposed to obstruct his interment in the Campus +Martius, and to prevent any public funeral taking place, came forward in +support of it, and saw his obsequies performed with all honor and security. +</p> + +<p> +Shortly after the death of Sylla, his prophetic words were fulfilled; and +Lepidus proposing to be the successor to all his power and authority, without +any ambiguities or pretences, immediately appeared in arms, rousing once more +and gathering about him all the long dangerous remains of the old factions, +which had escaped the hand of Sylla. Catulus, his colleague, who was followed +by the sounder part of the senate and people, was a man of the greatest esteem +among the Romans for wisdom and justice; but his talent lay in the government +of the city rather than the camp, whereas the exigency required the skill of +Pompey. Pompey, therefore, was not long in suspense which way to dispose of +himself, but joining with the nobility, was presently appointed general of the +army against Lepidus, who had already raised up war in great part of Italy, and +held Cisalpine Gaul in subjection with an army under Brutus. As for the rest of +his garrisons, Pompey subdued them with ease in his march, but Mutina in Gaul +resisted in a formal siege, and he lay here a long time encamped against +Brutus. In the meantime Lepidus marched in all haste against Rome, and sitting +down before it with a crowd of followers, to the terror of those within, +demanded a second consulship. But that fear quickly vanished upon letters sent +from Pompey, announcing that he had ended the war without a battle; for Brutus, +either betraying his army, or being betrayed by their revolt, surrendered +himself to Pompey, and receiving a guard of horse, was conducted to a little +town upon the river Po; where he was slain the next day by Geminius, in +execution of Pompey’s commands. And for this Pompey was much censured; for, +having at the beginning of the revolt written to the senate that Brutus had +voluntarily surrendered himself, immediately afterward he sent other letters, +with matter of accusation against the man, after he was taken off. Brutus, who +with Cassius slew Caesar, was son to this Brutus; neither in war nor in his +death like his father, as appears at large in his life. Lepidus upon this being +driven out of Italy, fled to Sardinia, where he fell sick and died of sorrow, +not for his public misfortunes, as they say, but, upon the discovery of a +letter, proving his wife to have been unfaithful to him. +</p> + +<p> +There yet remained Sertorius, a very different general from Lepidus, in +possession of Spain, and making himself formidable to Rome; the final disease, +as it were, in which the scattered evils of the civil wars had now collected. +He had already cut off various inferior commanders, and was at this time coping +with Metellus Pius, a man of repute and a good soldier, though perhaps he might +now seem too slow, by reason of his age, to second and improve the happier +moments of war, and might be sometimes wanting to those advantages which +Sertorius by his quickness and dexterity would wrest out of his hands. For +Sertorius was always hovering about, and coming upon him unawares, like a +captain of thieves rather than soldiers, disturbing him perpetually with +ambuscades and light skirmishes; whereas Metellus was accustomed to regular +conduct, and fighting in battle array with full-armed soldiers. Pompey, +therefore, keeping his army in readiness, made it his object to be sent in aid +to Metellus; neither would he be induced to disband his forces, notwithstanding +that Catulus called upon him to do so, but by some colorable device or other he +still kept them in arms about the city, until the senate at last thought fit, +upon the report of Lucius Philippus, to decree him that government. At that +time, they say, one of the senators there expressing his wonder and demanding +of Philippus whether his meaning was that Pompey should be sent into Spain as +proconsul, “No,” replied Philippus, “but as proconsuls,” as if both consuls for +that year were in his opinion wholly useless. +</p> + +<p> +When Pompey was arrived in Spain, as is usual upon the fame of a new leader, +men began to be inspired with new hopes, and those nations that had not entered +into a very strict alliance with Sertorius, began to waver and revolt; +whereupon Sertorius uttered various arrogant and scornful speeches against +Pompey, saying in derision, that he should want no other weapon but a ferula +and rod to chastise this boy with, if he were not afraid of that old woman, +meaning Metellus. Yet in deed and reality he stood in awe of Pompey, and kept +on his guard against him, as appeared by his whole management of the war, which +he was observed to conduct much more warily than before; for Metellus, which +one would not have imagined, was grown excessively luxurious in his habits +having given himself over to self-indulgence and pleasure, and from a moderate +and temperate, became suddenly a sumptuous and ostentatious liver, so that this +very thing gained Pompey great reputation and goodwill, as he made himself +somewhat specially an example of frugality, although that virtue was habitual +in him, and required no great industry to exercise it, as he was naturally +inclined to temperance, and no ways inordinate in his desires. The fortune of +the war was very various; nothing however annoyed Pompey so much as the taking +of the town of Lauron by Sertorius. For when Pompey thought he had him safe +inclosed, and had boasted somewhat largely of raising the siege, he found +himself all of a sudden encompassed; insomuch that he durst not move out of his +camp, but was forced to sit still whilst the city was taken and burnt before +his face. However, afterwards in a battle near Valentia, he gave great defeat +to Herennius and Perpenna, two commanders among the refugees who had fled to +Sertorius, and now lieutenants under him, in which he slew above ten thousand +men. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey, being elated and filled with confidence by this victory, made all haste +to engage Sertorius himself, and the rather lest Metellus should come in for a +share in the honor of the victory. Late in the day, towards sunset, they joined +battle near the river Sucro, both being in fear lest Metellus should come; +Pompey, that he might engage alone, Sertorius, that he might have one alone to +engage with. The issue of the battle proved doubtful, for a wing of each side +had the better; but of the generals, Sertorius had the greater honor, for that +he maintained his post, having put to flight the entire division that was +opposed to him, whereas Pompey was himself almost made a prisoner; for being +set upon by a strong man at arms that fought on foot, (he being on horseback,) +as they were closely engaged hand to hand, the strokes of their swords chanced +to light upon their hands, but with a different success; for Pompey’s was a +slight wound only, whereas he cut off the other’s hand. However, it happened +so, that many now falling upon Pompey together, and his own forces there being +put to the rout, he made his escape beyond expectation, by quitting his horse, +and turning him out among the enemy. For the horse being richly adorned with +golden trappings, and having a caparison of great value, the soldiers quarreled +among themselves for the booty, so that while they were fighting with one +another, and dividing the spoil, Pompey made his escape. By break of day the +next morning, each drew out his forces into the field to claim the victory; but +Metellus coming up, Sertorius vanished, having broken up and dispersed his +army. For this was the way in which he used to raise and disband his armies, so +that sometimes he would be wandering up and down all alone, and at other times +again he would come pouring into the field at the head of no less than one +hundred and fifty thousand fighting-men, swelling of a sudden like a winter +torrent. +</p> + +<p> +When Pompey was going after the battle to meet and welcome Metellus, and when +they were near one another, he commanded his attendants to lower their rods in +honor of Metellus, as his senior and superior. But Metellus on the other side +forbade it, and behaved himself in general very obligingly to him, not claiming +any prerogative either in respect of his consular rank or seniority; excepting +only that when they encamped together, the watchword was given to the whole +camp by Metellus. But generally they had their camps asunder, being divided and +distracted by the enemy, who took all shapes, and being always in motion, would +by some skillful artifice appear in a variety of places almost in the same +instant, drawing them from one attack to another, and at last keeping them from +foraging, wasting the country, and holding the dominion of the sea, Sertorius +drove them both out of that part of Spain which was under his control, and +forced them for want of necessaries to retreat into provinces that did not +belong to them. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey, having made use of and expended the greatest part of his own private +revenues upon the war, sent and demanded moneys of the senate, adding, that in +case they did not furnish him speedily, he should be forced to return into +Italy with his army. Lucullus being consul at that time, though at variance +with Pompey, yet in consideration that he himself was a candidate for the +command against Mithridates, procured and hastened these supplies, fearing lest +there should be any presence or occasion given to Pompey of returning home, who +of himself was no less desirous of leaving Sertorius, and of undertaking the +war against Mithridates, as an enterprise which by all appearance would prove +much more honorable and not so dangerous. In the meantime Sertorius died, being +treacherously murdered by some of his own party; and Perpenna, the chief among +them, took the command, and attempted to carry on the same enterprises with +Sertorius, having indeed the same forces and the same means, only wanting the +same skill and conduct in the use of them. Pompey therefore marched directly +against, Perpenna, and finding him acting merely at random in his affairs, had +a decoy ready for him, and sent out a detachment of ten cohorts into the level +country with orders to range up and down and disperse themselves abroad. The +bait took accordingly, and no sooner had Perpenna turned upon the prey and had +them in chase, but Pompey appeared suddenly with all his army and joining +battle, gave him a total overthrow. Most of his officers were slain in the +field, and he himself being brought prisoner to Pompey, was by his order put to +death. Neither was Pompey guilty in this of ingratitude or unmindfulness of +what had occurred in Sicily, which some have laid to his charge, but was guided +by a high minded policy and a deliberate counsel for the security of his +country. For Perpenna, having in his custody all Sertorius’s papers, offered to +produce several letters from the greatest men in Rome, who, desirous of a +change and subversion of the government, had invited Sertorius into Italy. And +Pompey, fearing that these might be the occasion of worse wars than those which +were now ended, thought it advisable to put Perpenna to death, and burnt the +letters without reading them. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey continued in Spain after this so long a time as was necessary for the +suppression of all the greatest disorders in the province; and after moderating +and allaying the more violent heats of affairs there, returned with his army +into Italy, where he arrived, as chance would have it, in the height of the +servile war. Accordingly, upon his arrival, Crassus, the commander in that war, +at some hazard precipitated a battle, in which he had great success, and slew +upon the place twelve thousand three hundred of the insurgents. Nor yet was he +so quick, but that fortune reserved to Pompey some share of honor in the +success of this war, for five thousand of those that had escaped out of the +battle fell into his hands; and when he had totally cut them off, he wrote to +the senate, that Crassus had overthrown the slaves in battle, but that he had +plucked up the whole war by the roots. And it was agreeable to the people in +Rome both thus to say, and thus to hear said, because of the general favor of +Pompey. But of the Spanish war and the conquest of Sertorius, no one, even in +jest, could have ascribed the honor to anyone else. Nevertheless, all this high +respect for him, and this desire to see him come home, were not unmixed with +apprehensions and suspicions that he might perhaps not disband his army, but +take his way by the force of arms and a supreme command to the seat of Sylla. +And so in the number of all those that ran out to meet him and congratulate his +return, as many went out of fear as affection. But after Pompey had removed +this alarm, by declaring beforehand that he would discharge the army after his +triumph, those that envied him could now only complain that he affected +popularity, courting the common people more than the nobility, and that whereas +Sylla had abolished the tribuneship of the people, he designed to gratify the +people by restoring that office, which was indeed the fact. For there was not +any one thing that the people of Rome were more wildly eager for, or more +passionately desired, than the restoration of that office, insomuch that Pompey +thought himself extremely fortunate in this opportunity, despairing (if he were +anticipated by someone else in this) of ever meeting with any other sufficient +means of expressing his gratitude for the favors which he had received from the +people. +</p> + +<p> +Though a second triumph was decreed him, and he was declared consul, yet all +these honors did not seem so great an evidence of his power and glory, as the +ascendant which he had over Crassus; for he, the wealthiest among all the +statesmen of his time, and the most eloquent and greatest too, who had looked +down on Pompey himself, and on all others as beneath him, durst not appear a +candidate for the consulship before he had applied to Pompey. The request was +made accordingly, and was eagerly embraced by Pompey, who had long sought an +occasion to oblige him in some friendly office; so that he solicited for +Crassus, and entreated the people heartily, declaring, that their favor would +be no less to him in choosing Crassus his colleague, than in making himself +consul. Yet for all this, when they were created consuls, they were always at +variance, and opposing one another. Crassus prevailed most in the senate, and +Pompey’s power was no less with the people, he having restored to them the +office of tribune, and having allowed the courts of judicature to be +transferred back to the knights by a new law. He himself in person, too, +afforded them a most grateful spectacle, when he appeared and craved his +discharge from the military service. For it is an ancient custom among the +Romans, that the knights, when they had served out their legal time in the +wars, should lead their horses into the market-place before the two officers, +called censors, and having given an account of the commanders and generals +under whom they served, as also of the places and actions of their service, +should be discharged, every man with honor or disgrace, according to his +deserts. There were then sitting in state upon the bench two censors, Gellius +and Lentulus, inspecting the knights, who were passing by in muster before +them, when Pompey was seen coming down into the forum, with all the ensigns of +a consul, but leading his horse in his hand. When he came up, he bade his +lictors make way for him, and so he led his horse to the bench; the people +being all this while in a sort of amaze, and all in silence, and the censors +themselves regarding the sight with a mixture of respect and gratification. +Then the senior censor examined him: “Pompeius Magnus, I demand of you whether +you have served the full time in the wars that is prescribed by the law?” +“Yes,” replied Pompey with a loud voice, “I have served all, and all under +myself as general.” The people hearing this gave a great shout, and made such +an outcry for delight, that there was no appeasing it; and the censors rising +from their judgment-seat, accompanied him home to gratify the multitude, who +followed after, clapping their hands and shouting. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey’s consulship was now expiring, and yet his difference with Crassus +increasing, when one Caius Aurelius, a knight, a man who had declined public +business all his lifetime, mounted the hustings, and addressed himself in an +oration to the assembly, declaring that Jupiter had appeared to him in a dream, +commanding him to tell the consuls, that they should not give up office until +they were friends. After this was said, Pompey stood silent, but Crassus took +him by the hand, and spoke in this manner: “I do not think, fellow-citizens, +that I shall do anything mean or dishonorable, in yielding first to Pompey, +whom you were pleased to ennoble with the title of Great, when as yet he scarce +had a hair on his face; and granted the honor of two triumphs, before he had a +place in the senate.” Hereupon they were reconciled and laid down their office. +Crassus resumed the manner of life which he had always pursued before; but +Pompey in the great generality of causes for judgment declined appearing on +either side, and by degrees withdrew himself totally from the forum, showing +himself but seldom in public; and whenever he did, it was with a great train +after him. Neither was it easy to meet or visit him without a crowd of people +about him; he was most pleased to make his appearance before large numbers at +once, as though he wished to maintain in this way his state and majesty, and as +if he held himself bound to preserve his dignity from contact with the +addresses and conversation of common people. And life in the robe of peace is +only too apt to lower the reputation of men that have grown great by arms, who +naturally find difficulty in adapting themselves to the habits of civil +equality. They expect to be treated as the first in the city, even as they were +in the camp; and on the other hand, men who in war were nobody, think it +intolerable if in the city at any rate they are not to take the lead. And so, +when a warrior renowned for victories and triumphs shall turn advocate and +appear among them in the forum, they endeavor their utmost to obscure and +depress him; whereas, if he gives up any pretensions here and retires, they +will maintain his military honor and authority beyond the reach of envy. Events +themselves not long after showed the truth of this. +</p> + +<p> +The power of the pirates first commenced in Cilicia, having in truth but a +precarious and obscure beginning, but gained life and boldness afterwards in +the wars of Mithridates, where they hired themselves out, and took employment +in the king’s service. Afterwards, whilst the Romans were embroiled in their +civil wars, being engaged against one another even before the very gates of +Rome, the seas lay waste and unguarded, and by degrees enticed and drew them on +not only to seize upon and spoil the merchants and ships upon the seas, but +also to lay waste the islands and seaport towns. So that now there embarked +with these pirates men of wealth and noble birth and superior abilities, as if +it had been a natural occupation to gain distinction in. They had divers +arsenals, or piratic harbors, as likewise watch towers and beacons, all along +the sea-coast; and fleets were here received that were well manned with the +finest mariners, and well served with the expertest pilots, and composed of +swift sailing and light-built vessels adapted for their special purpose. Nor +was it merely their being thus formidable that excited indignation; they were +even more odious for their ostentation than they were feared for their force. +Their ships had gilded masts at their stems; the sails woven of purple, and the +oars plated with silver, as if their delight were to glory in their iniquity. +There was nothing but music and dancing, banqueting and revels, all along the +shore. Officers in command were taken prisoners, and cities put under +contribution, to the reproach and dishonor of the Roman supremacy. There were +of these corsairs above one thousand sail, and they had taken no less than four +hundred cities, committing sacrilege upon the temples of the gods, and +enriching themselves with the spoils of many never violated before, such as +were those of Claros, Didyma, and Samothrace; and the temple of the Earth in +Hermione, and that of Aesculapius in Epidaurus, those of Neptune at the +Isthmus, at Taenarus, and at Calauria; those of Apollo at Actium and Leucas, +and those of Juno, in Samos, at Argos, and at Lacinium. They themselves offered +strange sacrifices upon Mount Olympus, and performed certain secret rites or +religious mysteries, among which those of Mithras have been preserved to our +own time, having received their previous institution from them. But besides +these insolencies by sea, they were also injurious to the Romans by land; for +they would often go inland up the roads, plundering and destroying their +villages and country-houses. And once they seized upon two Roman praetors, +Sextilius and Bellinus, in their purple-edged robes, and carried them off +together with their officers and lictors. The daughter also of Antonius, a man +that had had the honor of a triumph, taking a journey into the country, was +seized, and redeemed upon payment of a large ransom. But it was most abusive of +all, that when any of the captives declared himself to be a Roman and told his +name, they affected to be surprised, and feigning fear, smote their thighs and +fell down at his feet, humbly beseeching him to be gracious and forgive them. +The captive seeing them so humble and suppliant, believed them to be in +earnest; and some of them now would proceed to put Roman shoes on his feet, and +to dress him in a Roman gown, to prevent, they said, his being mistaken another +time. After all this pageantry, when they had thus deluded and mocked him long +enough, at last putting out a ship’s ladder, when they were in the midst of the +sea, they told him he was free to go, and wished him a pleasant journey; and if +he resisted, they themselves threw him overboard, and drowned him. +</p> + +<p> +This piratic power having got the dominion and control of all the +Mediterranean, there was left no place for navigation or commerce. And this it +was which most of all made the Romans, finding themselves to be extremely +straitened in their markets, and considering that if it should continue, there +would be a dearth and famine in the land, determine at last to send out Pompey +to recover the seas from the pirates. Gabinius, one of Pompey’s friends, +preferred a law, whereby there was granted to him, not only the government of +the seas as admiral, but in direct words, sole and irresponsible sovereignty +over all men. For the decree gave him absolute power and authority in all the +seas within the pillars of Hercules, and in the adjacent mainland for the space +of four hundred furlongs from the sea. Now there were but few regions in the +Roman empire out of that compass; and the greatest of the nations and most +powerful of the kings were included in the limit. Moreover by this decree he +had a power of selecting fifteen lieutenants out of the senate, and of +assigning to each his province in charge; then he might take likewise out of +the treasury and out of the hands of the revenue-farmers what moneys he +pleased; as also two hundred sail of ships, with a power to press and levy what +soldiers and seamen he thought fit. When this law was read, the common people +approved of it exceedingly, but the chief men and most important among the +senators looked upon it as an exorbitant power, even beyond the reach of envy, +but well deserving their fears. Therefore concluding with themselves that such +unlimited authority was dangerous, they agreed unanimously to oppose the bill, +and all went against it, except Caesar, who gave his vote for the law, not to +gratify Pompey, but the people, whose favor he had courted underhand from the +beginning, and hoped to compass for himself. The rest inveighed bitterly +against Pompey, insomuch that one of the consuls told him, that if he was +ambitious of the place of Romulus, he would scarce avoid his end, but he was in +danger of being torn in pieces by the multitude for his speech. Yet when +Catulus stood up to speak against the law, the people in reverence to him were +silent and attentive. And when, after saying much in the most honorable terms +in favor of Pompey, he proceeded to advise the people in kindness to spare him, +and not to expose a man of his value to such a succession of dangers and wars, +“For,” said he, “where could you find another Pompey, or whom would you have in +case you should chance to lose him?” they all cried out with one voice, +“Yourself.” And so Catulus, finding all his rhetoric ineffectual, desisted. +Then Roscius attempted to speak, but could obtain no hearing, and made signs +with his fingers, intimating, “Not him alone,” but that there might be a second +Pompey or colleague in authority with him. Upon this, it is said, the multitude +being extremely incensed, made such a loud outcry, that a crow flying over the +market-place at that instant was struck, and drops down among the crowd; whence +it would appear that the cause of birds falling down to the ground, is not any +rupture or division of the air causing a vacuum, but purely the actual stroke +of the voice, which when carried up in a great mass and with violence, raises a +sort of tempest and billow, as it were, in the air. +</p> + +<p> +The assembly broke up for that day; and when the day was come, on which the +bill was to pass by suffrage into a decree, Pompey went privately into the +country; but hearing that it was passed and confirmed, he resumed again into +the city by night, to avoid the envy that might be occasioned by the concourse +of people that would meet and congratulate him. The next morning he came abroad +and sacrificed to the gods, and having audience at an open assembly, so handled +the matter that they enlarged his power, giving him many things besides what +was already granted, and almost doubling the preparation appointed in the +former decree. Five hundred ships were manned for him, and an army raised of +one hundred and twenty thousand foot, and five thousand horse. Twenty-four +senators that had been generals of armies were appointed to serve as +lieutenants under him, and to these were added two quaestors. Now it happened +within this time that the prices of provisions were much reduced, which gave an +occasion to the joyful people of saying, that the very name of Pompey had ended +the war. However, Pompey in pursuance of his charge divided all the seas, and +the whole Mediterranean into thirteen parts, allotting a squadron to each, +under the command of his officers; and having thus dispersed his power into all +quarters, and encompassed the pirates everywhere, they began to fall into his +hands by whole shoals, which he seized and brought into his harbors. As for +those that withdrew themselves betimes, or otherwise escaped his general chase, +they all made to Cilicia, where they hid themselves as in their hive; against +whom Pompey now proceeded in person with sixty of his best ships, not however +until he had first scoured and cleared all the seas near Rome, the Tyrrhenian, +and the African, and all the waters of Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily; all which +he performed in the space of forty days, by his own indefatigable industry and +the zeal of his lieutenants. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey met with some interruption in Rome, through the malice and envy of Piso, +the consul, who had given some check to his proceedings, by withholding his +stores and discharging his seamen; whereupon he sent his fleet round to +Brundusium, himself going the nearest way by land through Tuscany to Rome; +which was no sooner known by the people, than they all flocked out to meet him +upon the way, as if they had not sent him out but few days before. What chiefly +excited their joy, was the unexpectedly rapid change in the markets, which +abounded now with the greatest plenty, so that Piso was in great danger to have +been deprived of his consulship, Gabinius having a law ready prepared for that +purpose; but Pompey forbade it, behaving himself as in that, so in all things +else, with great moderation, and when he had made sure of all that he wanted or +desired, he departed for Brundusium, whence he set sail in pursuit of the +pirates. And though he was straitened in time, and his hasty voyage forced him +to sail by several cities without touching, yet he would not pass by the city +of Athens unsaluted; but landing there, after he had sacrificed to the gods, +and made an address to the people, as he was returning out of the city, he read +at the gates two epigrams, each in a single line, written in his own praise; +one within the gate: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Thy humbler thoughts make thee a god the more; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +the other without: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Adieu we bid, who welcome bade before. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Now because Pompey had shown himself merciful to some of these pirates that +were yet roving in bodies about the seas, having upon their supplication +ordered a seizure of their ships and persons only, without any further process +or severity, therefore the rest of their comrades in hopes of mercy too, made +their escape from his other commanders, and surrendered themselves with their +wives and children into his protection. He continued to pardon all that came +in, and the rather because by them he might make discovery of those who fled +from his justice, as conscious that their crimes were beyond an act of +indemnity. The most numerous and important part of these conveyed their +families and treasures, with all their people that were unfit for war, into +castles and strong forts about Mount Taurus; but they themselves having well +manned their galleys, embarked for Coracesium in Cilicia, where they received +Pompey and gave him battle. Here they had a final overthrow, and retired to the +land, where they were besieged. At last, having dispatched their heralds to him +with a submission, they delivered up to his mercy themselves, their towns, +islands, and strong-holds, all which they had so fortified that they were +almost impregnable, and scarcely even accessible. +</p> + +<p> +Thus was this war ended, and the whole power of the pirates at sea dissolved +everywhere in the space of three months, wherein, besides a great number of +other vessels, he took ninety men-of-war with brazen beaks; and likewise +prisoners of war to the number of no less than twenty thousand. +</p> + +<p> +As regarded the disposal of these prisoners, he never so much as entertained +the thought of putting them to death; and yet it might be no less dangerous on +the other hand to disperse them, as they might reunite and make head again, +being numerous, poor, and warlike. Therefore wisely weighing with himself, that +man by nature is not a wild or unsocial creature, neither was he born so, but +makes himself what he naturally is not, by vicious habit; and that again on the +other side, he is civilized and grows gentle by a change of place, occupation, +and manner of life, as beasts themselves that are wild by nature, become tame +and tractable by housing and gentler usage, upon this consideration he +determined to translate these pirates from sea to land, and give them a taste +of an honest and innocent course of life, by living in towns, and tilling the +ground. Some therefore were admitted into the small and half-peopled towns of +the Cilicians, who for an enlargement of their territories, were willing to +receive them. Others he planted in the city of the Solians, which had been +lately laid waste by Tigranes, king of Armenia, and which he now restored. But +the largest number were settled in Dyme, the town of Achaea, at that time +extremely depopulated, and possessing an abundance of good land. +</p> + +<p> +However, these proceedings could not escape the envy and censure of his +enemies; and the course he took against Metellus in Crete was disapproved of +even by the chiefest of his friends. For Metellus, a relation of Pompey’s +former colleague in Spain, had been sent praetor into Crete, before this +province of the seas was assigned to Pompey. Now Crete was the second source of +pirates next to Cilicia, and Metellus having shut up a number of them in their +strong-holds there, was engaged in reducing and extirpating them. Those that +were yet remaining and besieged sent their supplications to Pompey, and invited +him into the island as a part of his province, alleging it to fall, every part +of it, within the distance from the sea specified in his commission, and so +within the precincts of his charge. Pompey receiving the submission, sent +letters to Metellus, commanding him to leave off the war; and others in like +manner to the cities, in which he charged them not to yield any obedience to +the commands of Metellus. And after these, he sent Lucius Octavius, one of his +lieutenants, to act as general, who entering the besieged fortifications, and +fighting in defense of the pirates, rendered Pompey not odious only, but even +ridiculous too; that he should lend his name as a guard to a nest of thieves, +that knew neither god nor law, and make his reputation serve as a sanctuary to +them, only out of pure envy and emulation to Metellus. For neither was Achilles +thought to act the part of a man, but rather of a mere boy, mad after glory, +when by signs he forbade the rest of the Greeks to strike at Hector: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“for fear<br/> +Some other hand should give the blow, and he<br/> +Lose the first honor of the victory.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Whereas Pompey even sought to preserve the common enemies of the world, only +that he might deprive a Roman praetor, after all his labors, of the honor of a +triumph. Metellus however was not daunted, but prosecuted the war against the +pirates, expelled them from their strongholds and punished them; and dismissed +Octavius with the insults and reproaches of the whole camp. +</p> + +<p> +When the news came to Rome that the war with the pirates was at an end, and +that Pompey was unoccupied, diverting himself in visits to the cities for want +of employment, one Manlius, a tribune of the people, preferred a law that +Pompey should have all the forces of Lucullus, and the provinces under his +government, together with Bithynia, which was under the command of Glabrio; and +that he should forthwith conduct the war against the two kings, Mithridates and +Tigranes, retaining still the same naval forces and the sovereignty of the seas +as before. But this was nothing less than to constitute one absolute monarch of +all the Roman empire. For the provinces which seemed to be exempt from his +commission by the former decree, such as were Phrygia, Lycaonia, Galatia, +Cappadocia, Cilicia, the upper Colchis, and Armenia, were all added in by this +latter law, together with all the troops and forces with which Lucullus had +defeated Mithridates and Tigranes. And though Lucullus was thus simply robbed +of the glory of his achievements in having a successor assigned him, rather to +the honor of his triumph, than the danger of the war; yet this was of less +moment in the eyes of the aristocratical party, though they could not but admit +the injustice and ingratitude to Lucullus. But their great grievance was, that +the power of Pompey should be converted into a manifest tyranny; and they +therefore exhorted and encouraged one another privately to bend all their +forces in opposition to this law, and not tamely to cast away their liberty; +yet when the day came on which it was to pass into a decree, their hearts +failed them for fear of the people, and all were silent except Catulus, who +boldly inveighed against the law and its proposer, and when he found that he +could do nothing with the people, turned to the senate, crying out and bidding +them seek out some mountain as their forefathers had done, and fly to the rocks +where they might preserve their liberty. The law passed into a decree, as it is +said, by the suffrages of all the tribes. And Pompey in his absence was made +lord of almost all that power, which Sylla only obtained by force of arms, +after a conquest of the very city itself. When Pompey had advice by letters of +the decree, it is said that in the presence of his friends, who came to give +him joy of his honor, he seemed displeased, frowning and smiting his thigh, and +exclaimed as one overburdened, and weary of government, “Alas, what a series of +labors upon labors! If I am never to end my service as a soldier, nor to escape +from this invidious greatness, and live at home in the country with my wife, I +had better have been an unknown man.” But all this was looked upon as mere +trifling, neither indeed could the best of his friends call it anything else, +well knowing that his enmity with Lucullus, setting a flame just now to his +natural passion for glory and empire, made him feel more than usually +gratified. +</p> + +<p> +As indeed appeared not long afterwards by his actions, which clearly unmasked +him; for in the first place, he sent out his proclamations into all quarters, +commanding the soldiers to join him, and summoned all the tributary kings and +princes within his charge; and in short, as soon as he had entered upon his +province, he left nothing unaltered that had been done and established by +Lucullus. To some he remitted their penalties, and deprived others of their +rewards, and acted in all respects as if with the express design that the +admirers of Lucullus might know that all his authority was at an end. Lucullus +expostulated by friends, and it was thought fitting that there should be a +meeting betwixt them; and accordingly they met in the country of Galatia. As +they were both great and successful generals, their officers bore their rods +before them all wreathed with branches of laurel; Lucullus came through a +country full of green trees and shady woods, but Pompey’s march was through a +cold and barren district. Therefore the lictors of Lucullus, perceiving that +Pompey’s laurels were withered and dry, helped him to some of their own, and +adorned and crowned his rods with fresh laurels. This was thought ominous, and +looked as if Pompey came to take away the reward and honor of Lucullus’s +victories. Lucullus had the priority in the order of consulships, and also in +age; but Pompey’s two triumphs made him the greater man. Their first addresses +in this interview were dignified and friendly, each magnifying the other’s +actions, and offering congratulations upon his success. But when they came to +the matter of their conference or treaty, they could agree on no fair or +equitable terms of any kind, but even came to harsh words against each other, +Pompey upbraiding Lucullus with avarice, and Lucullus retorting ambition upon +Pompey, so that their friends could hardly part them. Lucullus, remaining in +Galatia, made a distribution of the lands within his conquests, and gave +presents to whom he pleased; and Pompey encamping not far distant from him, +sent out his prohibitions, forbidding the execution of any of the orders of +Lucullus, and commanded away all his soldiers, except sixteen hundred, whom he +thought likely to be unserviceable to himself, being disorderly and mutinous, +and whom he knew to be hostile to Lucullus; and to these acts he added +satirical speeches, detracting openly from the glory of his actions, and giving +out, that the battles of Lucullus had been but with the mere stage-shows and +idle pictures of royal pomp, whereas the real war against a genuine army, +disciplined by defeat, was reserved to him, Mithridates having now begun to be +in earnest, and having betaken himself to his shields, swords, and horses. +Lucullus, on the other side, to be even with him, replied, that Pompey came to +fight with the mere image and shadow of war, it being his usual practice, like +a lazy bird of prey, to come upon the carcass, when others had slain the dead, +and to tear in pieces the relics of a war. Thus he had appropriated to himself +the victories over Sertorius, over Lepidus, and over the insurgents under +Spartacus; whereas this last had been achieved by Crassus, that obtained by +Catulus, and the first won by Metellus. And therefore it was no great wonder, +that the glory of the Pontic and Armenian war should be usurped by a man who +had condescended to any artifices to work himself into the honor of a triumph +over a few runaway slaves. +</p> + +<p> +After this Lucullus went away, and Pompey having placed his whole navy in guard +upon the seas betwixt Phoenicia and Bosporus, himself marched against +Mithridates, who had a phalanx of thirty thousand foot, with two thousand +horse, yet durst not bid him battle. He had encamped upon a strong mountain +where it would have been hard to attack him, but abandoned it in no long time, +as destitute of water. No sooner was he gone but Pompey occupied it, and +observing the plants that were thriving there, together with the hollows which +he found in several places, conjectured that such a plot could not be without +springs, and therefore ordered his men to sink wells in every corner. After +which there was, in a little time, great plenty of water throughout all the +camp, insomuch that he wondered how it was possible for Mithridates to be +ignorant of this, during all that time of his encampment there. After this +Pompey followed him to his next camp, and there drawing lines round about him, +shut him in. But he, after having endured a siege of forty-five days, made his +escape secretly, and fled away with all the best part of his army, having first +put to death all the sick and unserviceable. Not long after Pompey overtook him +again near the banks of the river Euphrates, and encamped close by him; but +fearing lest he should pass over the river and give him the slip there too, he +drew up his army to attack him at midnight. And at that very time Mithridates, +it is said, saw a vision in his dream foreshowing what should come to pass. For +he seemed to be under sail in the Euxine Sea with a prosperous gale, and just +in view of Bosporus, discoursing pleasantly with the ship’s company, as one +overjoyed for his past danger and present security, when on a sudden he found +himself deserted of all, and floating upon a broken plank of the ship at the +mercy of the sea. Whilst he was thus laboring under these passions and +phantasms, his friends came and awaked him with the news of Pompey’s approach; +who was now indeed so near at hand, that the fight must be for the camp itself, +and the commanders accordingly drew up the forces in battle array. Pompey +perceiving how ready they were and well prepared for defense, began to doubt +with himself whether he should put it to the hazard of a fight in the dark, +judging it more prudent to encompass them only at present, lest they should +fly, and to give them battle with the advantage of numbers the next day. But +his oldest officers were of another opinion, and by entreaties and +encouragements obtained permission that they might charge them immediately. +Neither was the night so very dark, but that, though the moon was going down, +it yet gave light enough to discern a body. And indeed this was one especial +disadvantage to the king’s army. For the Romans coming upon them with the moon +on their backs, the moon, being very low, and just upon setting, cast the +shadows a long way before their bodies, reaching almost to the enemy, whose +eyes were thus so much deceived that not exactly discerning the distance, but +imagining them to be near at hand, they threw their darts at the shadows, +without the least execution. The Romans therefore perceiving this, ran in upon +them with a great shout; but the barbarians, all in a panic, unable to endure +the charge, turned and fled, and were put to great slaughter, above ten +thousand being slain; the camp also was taken. As for Mithridates himself, he +at the beginning of the onset, with a body of eight hundred horse charged +through the Roman army, and made his escape. But before long all the rest +dispersed, some one way, some another, and he was left only with three persons, +among whom was his concubine, Hypsicratia, a girl always of a manly and daring +spirit, and the king called her on that account Hypsicrates. She being attired +and mounted like a Persian horseman, accompanied the king in all his flight, +never weary even in the longest journey, nor ever failing to attend the king in +person, and look after his horse too, until they came to Inora, a castle of the +king’s, well stored with gold and treasure. From thence Mithridates took his +richest apparel, and gave it among those that had resorted to him in their +flight; and to every one of his friends he gave a deadly poison, that they +might not fall into the power of the enemy against their wills. From thence he +designed to have gone to Tigranes in Armenia, but being prohibited by Tigranes, +who put out a proclamation with a reward of one hundred talents to any one that +should apprehend him, he passed by the head-waters of the river Euphrates, and +fled through the country of Colchis. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey in the meantime made an invasion into Armenia, upon the invitation of +young Tigranes, who was now in rebellion against his father, and gave Pompey a +meeting about the river Araxes, which rises near the head of Euphrates, but +turning its course and bending towards the east, falls into the Caspian Sea. +They two, therefore, marched together through the country, taking in all the +cities by the way, and receiving their submission. But king Tigranes, having +lately suffered much in the war with Lucullus, and understanding that Pompey +was of a kind and gentle disposition, admitted Roman troops into his royal +palaces, and taking along with him his friends and relations, went in person to +surrender himself into the hands of Pompey. He came as far as the trenches on +horseback, but there he was met by two of Pompey’s lictors, who commanded him +to alight and walk on foot, for no man ever was seen on horseback within a +Roman camp. Tigranes submitted to this immediately, and not only so, but +loosing his sword, delivered up that too; and last of all, as soon as he +appeared before Pompey, he pulled off his royal turban, and attempted to have +laid it at his feet. Nay, worst of all, even he himself had fallen prostrate as +an humble suppliant at his knees, had not Pompey prevented it, taking him by +the hand and placing him near him, Tigranes himself on one side of him and his +son upon the other. Pompey now told him that the rest of his losses were +chargeable upon Lucullus, by whom he had been dispossessed of Syria, Phoenicia, +Cilicia, Galatia, and Sophene; but all that he had preserved to himself entire +till that time he should peaceably enjoy, paying the sum of six thousand +talents as a fine or penalty for injuries done to the Romans, and that his son +should have the kingdom of Sophene. Tigranes himself was well pleased with +these conditions of peace, and when the Romans saluted him king, seemed to be +overjoyed, and promised to every common soldier half a mina of silver, to every +centurion ten minas, and to every tribune a talent; but the son was displeased, +insomuch that when he was invited to supper, he replied, that he did not stand +in need of Pompey for that sort of honor, for he would find out some other +Roman to sup with. Upon this he was put into close arrest, and reserved for the +triumph. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after this Phraates, king of Parthia, sent to Pompey, and demanded to +have young Tigranes, as his son-in-law, given up to him, and that the river +Euphrates should be the boundary of the empires. Pompey replied, that for +Tigranes, he belonged more to his own natural father than his father-in-law, +and for the boundaries, he would take care that they should be according to +right and justice. +</p> + +<p> +So Pompey, leaving Armenia in the custody of Afranius, went himself in chase of +Mithridates; to do which he was forced of necessity to march through several +nations inhabiting about Mount Caucasus. Of these the Albanians and Iberians +were the two chiefest. The Iberians stretch out as far as the Moschian +mountains and the Pontus; the Albanians lie more eastwardly, and towards the +Caspian Sea. These Albanians at first permitted Pompey, upon his request, to +pass through the country; but when winter had stolen upon the Romans whilst +they were still in the country, and they were busy celebrating the festival of +Saturn, they mustered a body of no less than forty thousand fighting men, and +set upon them, having passed over the river Cyrnus, which rising from the +mountains of Iberia, and receiving the river Araxes in its course from Armenia, +discharges itself by twelve mouths into the Caspian. Or, according to others, +the Araxes does not fall into it, but they flow near one another, and so +discharge themselves as neighbors into the same sea. It was in the power of +Pompey to have obstructed the enemy’s passage over the river, but he suffered +them to pass over quietly; and then leading on his forces and giving battle, he +routed them, and slew great numbers of them in the field. The king sent +ambassadors with his submission, and Pompey upon his supplication pardoned the +offense, and making a treaty with him, he marched directly against the +Iberians, a nation no less in number than the other, but much more warlike, and +extremely desirous of gratifying Mithridates, and driving out Pompey. These +Iberians were never subject to the Medes or Persians, and they happened +likewise to escape the dominion of the Macedonians, because Alexander was so +quick in his march through Hyrcania. But these also Pompey subdued in a great +battle, where there were slain nine thousand upon the spot, and more than ten +thousand taken prisoners. From thence he entered into the country of Colchis, +where Servilius met him by the river Phasis, bringing the fleet with which he +was guarding the Pontus. +</p> + +<p> +The pursuit of Mithridates, who had thrown himself among the tribes inhabiting +Bosporus and the shores of the Maeotian Sea, presented great difficulties. News +was also brought to Pompey that the Albanians had again revolted. This made him +turn back, out of anger and determination not to be beaten by them, and with +difficulty and great danger he passed back over the Cyrnus, which the barbarous +people had fortified a great way down the banks with palisadoes. And after +this, having a tedious march to make through a waterless and difficult country, +he ordered ten thousand skins to be filled with water, and so advanced towards +the enemy; whom he found drawn up in order of battle near the river Abas, to +the number of sixty thousand horse, and twelve thousand foot, ill armed +generally, and most of them covered only with the skins of wild beasts. Their +general was Cosis, the king’s brother, who as soon as the battle was begun, +singled out Pompey, and rushing in upon him, darted his javelin into the joints +of his breastplate; while Pompey, in return, struck him through the body with +his lance, and slew him. It is related that in this battle there were Amazons +fighting as auxiliaries with the barbarians, and that they came down from the +mountains by the river Thermodon. For that after the battle, when the Romans +were taking the spoil and plunder of the field, they met with several targets +and buskins of the Amazons; but no woman’s body was found among the dead. They +inhabit the parts of Mount Caucasus that reach down to the Hyrcanian Sea, not +immediately bordering upon the Albanians, for the Gelae and the Leges lie +betwixt; and they keep company with these people yearly, for two months only, +near the river Thermodon; after which they retire to their own habitations, and +live alone all the rest of the year. +</p> + +<p> +After this engagement, Pompey was eager to advance with his forces upon the +Hyrcanian and Caspian Sea, but was forced to retreat at a distance of three +days’ march from it, by the number of venomous serpents, and so he retreated +into Armenia the Less. Whilst he was there, kings of the Elymaeans and Medes +sent ambassadors to him, to whom he gave friendly answer by letter; and sent +against the king of Parthia, who had made incursions upon Gordyene, and +despoiled the subjects of Tigranes, an army under the command of Afranius, who +put him to the rout, and followed him in chase as far as the district of +Arbela. +</p> + +<p> +Of the concubines of king Mithridates that were brought before Pompey, he took +none to himself, but sent them all away to their parents and relations; most of +them being either the daughters or wives of princes and great commanders. +Stratonice, however, who had the greatest power and influence with him, and to +whom he had committed the custody of his best and richest fortress, had been, +it seems, the daughter of a musician, an old man, and of no great fortune, and +happening to sing one night before Mithridates at a banquet, she struck his +fancy so, that immediately he took her with him, and sent away the old man much +dissatisfied, the king having not so much as said one kind word to himself. But +when he rose in the morning, and saw tables in his house richly covered with +gold and silver plate, a great retinue of servants, eunuchs, and pages, +bringing him rich garments, and a horse standing before the door richly +caparisoned, in all respects as was usual with the king’s favorites, he looked +upon it all as a piece of mockery, and thinking himself trifled with, attempted +to make off and run away. But the servants laying hold upon him, and informing +him really that the king had bestowed on him the house and furniture of a rich +man lately deceased, and that these were but the first-fruits or earnests of +greater riches and possessions that were to come, he was persuaded at last with +much difficulty to believe them. And so putting on his purple robes, and +mounting his horse, he rode through the city, crying out, “All this is mine;” +and to those that laughed at him, he said, there was no such wonder in this, +but it was a wonder rather that he did not throw stones at all he met, he was +so transported with joy. Such was the parentage and blood of Stratonice. She +now delivered up this castle into the hands of Pompey, and offered him many +presents of great value, of which he accepted only such as he thought might +serve to adorn the temples of the gods, and add to the splendor of his triumph; +the rest he left to Stratonice’s disposal, bidding her please herself in the +enjoyment of them. +</p> + +<p> +And in the same manner he dealt with the presents offered him by the king of +Iberia, who sent him a bedstead, table, and a chair of state, all of gold, +desiring him to accept of them; but he delivered them all into the custody of +the public treasurers, for the use of the Commonwealth. +</p> + +<p> +In another castle called Caenum, Pompey found and read with pleasure several +secret writings of Mithridates, containing much that threw light on his +character. For there were memoirs by which it appeared that besides others, he +had made away with his son Ariarathes by poison, as also with Alcaeus the +Sardian, for having robbed him of the first honors in a horse-race. There were +several judgments upon the interpretation of dreams, which either he himself or +some of his mistresses had had; and besides these, there was a series of wanton +letters to and from his concubine Monime. Theophanes tells us that there was +found also an address by Rutilius, in which he attempted to exasperate him to +the laughter of all the Romans in Asia; though most men justly conjecture this +to be a malicious invention of Theophanes, who probably hated Rutilius because +he was a man in nothing like himself; or perhaps it might be to gratify Pompey, +whose father is described by Rutilius in his history, as the vilest man alive. +</p> + +<p> +From thence Pompey came to the city of Amisus, where his passion for glory put +him into a position which might be called a punishment on himself. For whereas +he had often sharply reproached Lucullus, in that while the enemy was still +living, he had taken upon him to issue decrees, and distribute rewards and +honors, as conquerors usually do only when the war is brought to an end, yet +now was he himself, while Mithridates was paramount in the kingdom of Bosporus, +and at the head of a powerful army, as if all were ended, just doing the same +thing, regulating the provinces, and distributing rewards, many great +commanders and princes having flocked to him, together with no less than twelve +barbarian kings; insomuch that to gratify these other kings, when he wrote to +the king of Parthia, he would not condescend, as others used to do, in the +superscription of his letter, to give him his title of king of kings. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, he had a great desire and emulation to occupy Syria, and to march +through Arabia to the Red Sea, that he might thus extend his conquests every +way to the great ocean that encompasses the habitable earth; as in Africa he +was the first Roman that advanced his victories to the ocean; and again in +Spain he made the Atlantic Sea the limit of the empire; and then thirdly, in +his late pursuit of the Albanians, he had wanted but little of reaching the +Hyrcanian Sea. Accordingly he raised his camp, designing to bring the Red Sea +within the circuit of his expedition, especially as he saw how difficult it was +to hunt after Mithridates with an army, and that he would prove a worse enemy +flying than fighting. But yet he declared, that he would leave a sharper enemy +behind him than himself, namely, famine; and therefore he appointed a guard of +ships to lie in wait for the merchants that sailed to Bosporus, death being the +penalty for any who should attempt to carry provisions thither. +</p> + +<p> +Then he set forward with the greatest part of his army, and in his march +casually fell in with several dead bodies still uninterred, of those soldiers +who were slain with Triarius in his unfortunate engagement with Mithridates; +these he buried splendidly and honorably. The neglect of whom, it is thought, +caused, as much as anything, the hatred that was felt against Lucullus, and +alienated the affections of the soldiers from him. Pompey having now by his +forces under the command of Afranius, subdued the Arabians about the mountain +Amanus, himself entered Syria, and finding it destitute of any natural and +lawful prince, reduced it into the form of a province, as a possession of the +people of Rome. He conquered also Judaea, and took its king, Aristobulus, +captive. Some cities he built anew, and to others he gave their liberty, +chastising their tyrants. Most part of the time that he spent there was +employed in the administration of justice, In deciding controversies of kings +and States; and where he himself could not be present in person, he gave +commissions to his friends, and sent them. Thus when there arose a difference +betwixt the Armenians and Parthians about some territory, and the judgment was +referred to him, he gave a power by commission to three judges and arbiters to +hear and determine the controversy. For the reputation of his power was great; +nor was the fame of his justice and clemency inferior to that of his power, and +served indeed as a veil for a multitude of faults committed by his friends and +familiars. For although it was not in his nature to check or chastise +wrongdoers, yet he himself always treated those that had to do with him in such +a manner, that they submitted to endure with patience the acts of covetousness +and oppression done by others. +</p> + +<p> +Among these friends of his, there was one Demetrius who had the greatest +influence with him of all; he was a freed slave, a youth of good understanding, +but somewhat too insolent in his good fortune, of whom there goes this story. +Cato, the philosopher, being as yet a very young man, but of great repute and a +noble mind, took a journey of pleasure to Antioch, at a time when Pompey was +not there, having a great desire to see the city. He, as his custom was, walked +on foot, and his friends accompanied him on horseback; and seeing before the +gates of the city a multitude dressed in white, the young men on one side of +the road, and the boys on the other, he was somewhat offended at it, imagining +that it was officiously done in honor of him, which was more than he had any +wish for. However, he desired his companions to alight and walk with him; but +when they drew near, the master of the ceremonies in this procession came out +with a garland and a rod in his hand, and met them, inquiring, where they had +left Demetrius, and when he would come? Upon which Cato’s companions burst out +into laughter, but Cato said only, “Alas, poor city!” and passed by without any +other answer. However, Pompey rendered Demetrius less odious to others by +enduring his presumption and impertinence to himself. For it is reported how +that Pompey, when he had invited his friends to an entertainment, would be very +ceremonious in waiting, till they all came and were placed, while Demetrius +would be already stretched upon the couch as if he cared for no one, with his +dress over his ears, hanging down from his head. Before his return into Italy, +he had purchased the pleasantest country-seat about Rome, with the finest walks +and places for exercise, and there were sumptuous gardens, called by the name +of Demetrius, while Pompey his master, up to his third triumph, was contented +with an ordinary and simple habitation. Afterwards, it is true, when he had +erected his famous and stately theater for the people of Rome, he built as a +sort of appendix to it, a house for himself, much more splendid than his +former, and yet no object even this to excite men’s envy, since he who came to +be master of it after Pompey could not but express wonder and inquire where +Pompey the Great used to sup. Such is the story told us. +</p> + +<p> +The king of the Arabs near Petra, who had hitherto despised the power of the +Romans, now began to be in great alarm at it, and sent letters to him promising +to be at his commands, and to do whatever he should see fit to order. However, +Pompey having a desire to confirm and keep him in the same mind, marched +forwards for Petra, an expedition not altogether irreprehensible in the opinion +of many; who thought it a mere running away from their proper duty, the pursuit +of Mithridates, Rome’s ancient and inveterate enemy, who was now rekindling the +war once more, and making preparations, it was reported, to lead his army +through Scythia and Paeonia, into Italy. Pompey, on the other side, judging it +easier to destroy his forces in battle, than to seize his person in flight, +resolved not to tire himself out in a vain pursuit, but rather to spend his +leisure upon another enemy, as a sort of digression in the meanwhile. But +fortune resolved the doubt; for when he was now not far from Petra, and had +pitched his tents and encamped for that day, as he was talking exercise with +his horse outside the camp, couriers came riding up from Pontus, bringing good +news, as was known at once by the heads of their javelins, which it is the +custom to carry crowned with branches of laurel. The soldiers, as soon as they +saw them, flocked immediately to Pompey, who notwithstanding was minded to +finish his exercise; but when they began to be clamorous and importunate, he +alighted from his horse, and taking the letters went before them into the camp. +Now there being no tribunal erected there, not even that military substitute +for one which they make by cutting up thick turfs of earth and piling them one +upon another, they, through eagerness and impatience, heaped up a pile of +pack-saddles, and Pompey standing upon that, told them the news of +Mithridates’s death, how that he had himself put an end to his life upon the +revolt of his son Pharnaces, and that Pharnaces had taken all things there into +his hands and possession, which he did, his letters said, in right of himself +and the Romans. Upon this news, the whole army expressing their joy, as was to +be expected, fell to sacrificing to the gods, and feasting, as if in the person +of Mithridates alone there had died many thousands of their enemies. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey by this event having brought this war to its completion, with much more +ease than was expected, departed forthwith out of Arabia, and passing rapidly +through the intermediate provinces, he came at length to the city Amisus. There +he received many presents brought from Pharnaces, with several dead bodies of +the royal blood, and the corpse of Mithridates himself, which was not easy to +be known by the face, for the physicians that embalmed him had not dried up his +brain, but those who were curious to see him knew him by the scars there. +Pompey himself would not endure to see him, but to deprecate the divine +jealousy, sent it away to the city of Sinope. He admired the richness of his +robes, no less than the size and splendor of his armor. His swordbelt, however, +which had cost four hundred talents, was stolen by Publius, and sold to +Ariarathes; his tiara also, a piece of admirable workmanship, Gaius, the roster +brother of Mithridates, gave secretly to Faustus, the son of Sylla, at his +request. All which Pompey was ignorant of, but afterwards, when Pharnaces came +to understand it, he severely punished those that embezzled them. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey now having ordered all things, and established that province, took his +journey homewards in greater pomp and with more festivity. For when he came to +Mitylene, he gave the city their freedom upon the intercession of Theophanes, +and was present at the contest, there periodically held, of the poets, who took +at that time no other theme or subject than the actions of Pompey. He was +extremely pleased with the theater itself, and had a model of it taken, +intending to erect one in Rome on the same design, but larger and more +magnificent. When he came to Rhodes, he attended the lectures of all the +philosophers there, and gave to every one of them a talent. Posidonius has +published the disputation which he held before him against Hermagoras the +rhetorician, upon the subject of Invention in general. At Athens, also, he +showed similar, munificence to the philosophers, and gave fifty talents towards +the repairing and beautifying the city. So that now by all these acts he well +hoped to return into Italy in the greatest splendor and glory possible to man, +and find his family as desirous to see him, as he felt himself to come home to +them. But that supernatural agency, whose province and charge it is always to +mix some ingredient of evil with the greatest and most glorious goods of +fortune, had for some time back been busy in his household, preparing him a sad +welcome. For Mucia during his absence had dishonored his bed. Whilst he was +abroad at a distance, he had refused all credence to the report; but when he +drew nearer to Italy, where his thoughts were more at leisure to give +consideration to the charge, he sent her a bill of divorce; but neither then in +writing, nor afterwards by word of mouth, did he ever give a reason why he +discharged her; the cause of it is mentioned in Cicero’s epistles. +</p> + +<p> +Rumors of every kind were scattered abroad about Pompey, and were carried to +Rome before him, so that there was a great tumult and stir, as if he designed +forthwith to march with his army into the city, and establish himself securely +as sole ruler. Crassus withdrew himself, together with his children and +property, out of the city, either that he was really afraid, or that he +counterfeited rather, as is most probable, to give credit to the calumny and +exasperate the jealousy of the people. Pompey, therefore, as soon as he entered +Italy, called a general muster of the army; and having made a suitable address +and exchanged a kind farewell with his soldiers, he commanded them to depart +every man to his country and place of habitation, only taking care that they +should not fail to meet again at his triumph. Thus the army being disbanded, +and the news commonly reported, a wonderful result ensued. For when the cities +saw Pompey the Great passing through the country unarmed, and with a small +train of familiar friends only, as if he was returning from a journey of +pleasure, not from his conquests, they came pouring out to display their +affection for him, attending and conducting him to Rome with far greater forces +than he disbanded; insomuch that if he had designed any movement or innovation +in the State, he might have done it without his army. +</p> + +<p> +Now, because the law permitted no commander to enter into the city before his +triumph, he sent to the senate, entreating them as a favor to him to prorogue +the election of consuls, that thus he might be able to attend and give +countenance to Piso, one of the candidates. The request was resisted by Cato, +and met with a refusal. However, Pompey could not but admire the liberty and +boldness of speech which Cato alone had dared to use in the maintenance of law +and justice. He therefore had a great desire to win him over, and purchase his +friendship at any rate; and to that end, Cato having two nieces, Pompey asked +for one in marriage for himself, the other for his son. But Cato looked +unfavorably on the proposal, regarding it as a design for undermining his +honesty, and in a manner bribing him by a family alliance; much to the +displeasure of his wife and sister, who were indignant that he should reject a +connection with Pompey the Great. About that time Pompey having a design of +setting up Afranius for the consulship, gave a sum of money among the tribes +for their votes, and people came and received it in his own gardens a +proceeding which, when it came to be generally known, excited great +disapprobation, that he should thus for the sake of men who could not obtain +the honor by their own merits, make merchandise of an office which had been +given to himself as the highest reward of his services. “Now,” said Cato to his +wife and sister, “had we contracted an alliance with Pompey, we had been allied +to this dishonor too;” and this they could not but acknowledge, and allow his +judgment of what was right and fitting to have been wiser and better than +theirs. +</p> + +<p> +The splendor and magnificence of Pompey’s triumph was such that though it took +up the space of two days, yet they were extremely straitened in time, so that +of what was prepared for that pageantry, there was as much withdrawn as would +have set out and adorned another triumph. In the first place, there were tables +carried, inscribed with the names and titles of the nations over whom he +triumphed, Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, Colchis, the +Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, and Mesopotamia, together with +Phoenicia and Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, and all the power of the pirates +subdued by sea and land. And in these different countries there appeared the +capture of no less than one thousand fortified places, nor much less than nine +hundred cities, together with eight hundred ships of the pirates, and the +foundation of thirty-nine towns. Besides, there was set forth in these tables +an account of all the tributes throughout the empire, and how that before these +conquests the revenue amounted but to fifty millions, whereas from his +acquisitions they had a revenue of eighty-five millions; and that in present +payment he was bringing into the common treasury ready money, and gold and +silver plate, and ornaments, to the value of twenty thousand talents, over and +above what had been distributed among the soldiers, of whom he that had least +had fifteen hundred drachmas for his share. The prisoners of war that were led +in triumph, besides the chief pirates, were the son of Tigranes, king of +Armenia, with his wife and daughter; as also Zosime, wife of king Tigranes +himself, and Aristobulus, king of Judaea, the sister of king Mithridates and +her five sons, and some Scythian women. There were likewise the hostages of the +Albanians and Iberians, and of the king of Commagene, besides a vast number of +trophies, one for every battle in which he was conqueror, either himself in +person, or by his lieutenants. But that which seemed to be his greatest glory, +being one which no other Roman ever attained to, was this, that he made his +third triumph over the third division of the world. For others among the Romans +had the honor of triumphing thrice, but his first triumph was over Africa, his +second, over Europe, and this last, over Asia; so that he seemed in these three +triumphs to have led the whole world captive. +</p> + +<p> +As for his age, those who affect to make the parallel exact in all things +betwixt him and Alexander the Great, do not allow him to have been quite +thirty-four, whereas in truth at that time he was near forty. And well had it +been for him had he terminated his life at this date, while he still enjoyed +Alexander’s fortune, since all his aftertime served only either to bring him +prosperity that made him odious, or calamities too great to be retrieved. For +that great authority which he had gained in the city by his merits, he made use +of only in patronizing the iniquities of others, so that by advancing their +fortunes, he detracted from his own glory, till at last he was overthrown even +by the force and greatness of his own power. And as the strongest citadel or +fort in a town, when it is taken by an enemy, does then afford the same +strength to the foe, as it had done to friends before; so Caesar, after +Pompey’s aid had made him strong enough to defy his country, ruined and +overthrew at last the power which had availed him against the rest. The course +of things was as follows. Lucullus, when he returned out of Asia, where he had +been treated with insult by Pompey, was received by the senate with great +honor, which was yet increased when Pompey came home; to check whose ambition +they encouraged him to assume the administration of the government, whereas he +was now grown cold and disinclined to business, having given himself over to +the pleasures of ease and the enjoyment of a splendid fortune. However, he +began for the time to exert himself against Pompey, attacked him sharply, and +succeeded in having his own acts and decrees, which were repealed by Pompey, +reestablished, and with the assistance of Cato, gained the superiority in the +senate. Pompey having fallen from his hopes in such an unworthy repulse, was +forced to fly to the tribunes of the people for refuge, and to attach himself +to the young men, among whom was Clodius, the vilest and most impudent wretch +alive, who took him about, and exposed him as a tool to the people, carrying +him up and down among the throngs in the market-place, to countenance those +laws and speeches which he made to cajole the people and ingratiate himself. +And at last for his reward, he demanded of Pompey, as if he had not disgraced, +but done him great kindness, that he should forsake (as in the end he did +forsake) Cicero, his friend, who on many public occasions had done him the +greatest service. And so when Cicero was in danger, and implored his aid, he +would not admit him into his presence, but shutting up his gates against those +that came to mediate for him, slips out at a back door, whereupon Cicero +fearing the result of his trial, departed privately from Rome. +</p> + +<p> +About that time Caesar, returning from military service, started a course of +policy which brought him great present favor, and much increased his power for +the future, and proved extremely destructive both to Pompey and the +commonwealth. For now he stood candidate for his first consulship, and well +observing the enmity betwixt Pompey and Crassus, and finding that by joining +with one he should make the other his enemy, he endeavored by all means to +reconcile them, an object in itself honorable and tending to the public good, +but as he undertook it, a mischievous and subtle intrigue. For he well knew +that opposite parties or factions in a commonwealth, like passengers in a boat, +serve to trim and balance the unready motions of power there; whereas if they +combine and come all over to one side, they cause a shock which will be sure to +overset the vessel and carry down everything. And therefore Cato wisely told +those who charged all the calamities of Rome upon the disagreement betwixt +Pompey and Caesar, that they were in error in charging all the crime upon the +last cause; for it was not their discord and enmity, but their unanimity and I +friendship, that gave the first and greatest blow to the commonwealth. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar being thus elected consul, began at once to make an interest with the +poor and meaner sort, by preferring and establishing laws for planting colonies +and dividing lands, lowering the dignity of his office, and turning his +consulship into a sort of tribuneship rather. And when Bibulus, his colleague, +opposed him, and Cato was prepared to second Bibulus, and assist him +vigorously, Caesar brought Pompey upon the hustings, and addressing him in the +sight of the people, demanded his opinion upon the laws that were proposed. +Pompey gave his approbation. “Then,” said Caesar, “in case any man should offer +violence to these laws, will you be reedy to give assistance to the people?” +“Yes,” replied Pompey, “I shall be ready, and against those that threaten the +sword, I will appear with sword and buckler.” Nothing ever was said or done by +Pompey up to that day, that seemed more insolent or overbearing; so that his +friends endeavored to apologize for it as a word spoken inadvertently; but by +his actions afterwards it appeared plainly that he was totally devoted to +Caesar’s service. For on a sudden, contrary to all expectation, he married +Julia, the daughter of Caesar, who had been affianced before and was to be +married within a few days to Caepio. And to appease Caepio’s wrath, he gave him +his own daughter in marriage, who had been espoused before to Faustus, the son +of Sylla. Caesar himself married Calpurnia, the daughter of Piso. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this Pompey, filling the city with soldiers, carried all things by force +as he pleased. As Bibulus, the consul, was going to the forum, accompanied by +Lucullus and Cato, they fell upon him on a sudden and broke his rods; and +somebody threw a vessel of ordure upon the head of Bibulus himself; and two +tribunes of the people, who escorted him, were desperately wounded in the fray. +And thus having cleared the forum of all their adversaries, they got their bill +for the division of lands established and passed into an act; and not only so, +but the whole populace being taken with this bait, became totally at their +devotion, inquiring into nothing and without a word giving their suffrages to +whatever they propounded. Thus they confirmed all those acts and decrees of +Pompey, which were questioned and contested by Lucullus; and to Caesar they +granted the provinces of Gaul, both within and without the Alps, together with +Illyricum, for five years, and likewise an army of four entire legions; then +they created consuls for the year ensuing, Piso, the father-in-law of Caesar, +and Gabinius, the most extravagant of Pompey’s flatterers. +</p> + +<p> +During all these transactions, Bibulus kept close within doors, nor did he +appear publicly in person for the space of eight months together, +notwithstanding he was consul, but sent out proclamations full of bitter +invectives and accusations against them both. Cato turned prophet, and, as if +he had been possessed with a spirit of divination, did nothing else in the +senate but foretell what evils should befall the Commonwealth and Pompey. +Lucullus pleaded old age, and retired to take his ease, as superannuated for +affairs of State; which gave occasion to the saying of Pompey, that the +fatigues of luxury were not more seasonable for an old man than those of +government. Which in truth proved a reflection upon himself; for he not long +after let his fondness for his young wife seduce him also into effeminate +habits. He gave all his time to her, and passed his days in her company in +country-houses and gardens, paying no heed to what was going on in the forum. +Insomuch that Clodius, who was then tribune of the people, began to despise +him, and engage in the most audacious attempts. For when he had banished +Cicero, and sent away Cato into Cyprus under pretence of military duty, and +when Caesar was gone upon his expedition to Gaul, finding the populace now +looking to him as the leader who did everything according to their pleasure, he +attempted forthwith to repeal some of Pompey’s decrees; he took Tigranes, the +captive, out of prison, and kept him about him as his companion; and commenced +actions against several of Pompey’s friends, thus designing to try the extent +of his power. At last, upon a time when Pompey was present at the hearing of a +certain cause, Clodius, accompanied with a crowd of profligate and impudent +ruffians, standing up in a place above the rest, put questions to the populace +as follows: “Who is the dissolute general? who is the man that seeks another +man? who scratches his head with one finger?” and the rabble, upon the signal +of his shaking his gown, with a great shout to every question, like singers +making, responses in a chorus, made answer, “Pompey.” +</p> + +<p> +This indeed was no small annoyance to Pompey, who was quite unaccustomed to +hear anything ill of himself, and unexperienced altogether in such encounters; +and he was yet more vexed, when he saw that the senate rejoiced at this foul +usage, and regarded it as a just punishment upon him for his treachery to +Cicero. But when it came even to blows and wounds in the forum, and that one of +Clodius’s bondslaves was apprehended, creeping through the crowd towards Pompey +with a sword in his hand, Pompey laid hold of this pretence, though perhaps +otherwise apprehensive of Clodius’s insolence and bad language, and never +appeared again in the forum during all the time he was tribune, but kept close +at home, and passed his time in consulting with his friends, by what means he +might best allay the displeasure of the senate and nobles against him. Among +other expedients, Culleo advised the divorce of Julia, and to abandon Caesar’s +friendship to gain that of the senate; this he would not hearken to. Others +again advised him to call home Cicero from banishment, a man who was always the +great adversary of Clodius, and as great a favorite of the senate; to this he +was easily persuaded. And therefore he brought Cicero’s brother into the forum, +attended with a strong party, to petition for his return; where, after a warm +dispute, in which several were wounded and some slain, he got the victory over +Clodius. No sooner was Cicero returned home upon this decree, but immediately +he used his efforts to reconcile the senate to Pompey; and by speaking in favor +of the law upon the importation of corn, did again, in effect, make Pompey +sovereign lord of all the Roman possessions by sea and land. For by that law, +there were placed under his control all ports, markets, and storehouses, and in +short, all the concerns both of the merchants and the husbandmen; which gave +occasion to the charge brought against it by Clodius, that the law was not made +because of the scarcity of corn, but the scarcity of corn was made, that they +might pass a law, whereby that power of his, which was now grown feeble and +consumptive, might be revived again, and Pompey reinstated in a new empire. +Others look upon it as a politic device of Spinther, the consul, whose design +it was to secure Pompey in a greater authority, that he himself might be sent +in assistance to king Ptolemy. However, it is certain that Canidius, the +tribune, preferred a law to dispatch Pompey in the character of an ambassador, +without an army, attended only with two lictors, as a mediator betwixt the king +and his subjects of Alexandria. Neither did this proposal seem unacceptable to +Pompey, though the senate cast it out upon the specious pretence, that they +were unwilling to hazard his person. However, there were found several writings +scattered about the forum and near the senate-house, intimating how grateful it +would be to Ptolemy to have Pompey appointed for his general instead of +Spinther. And Timagenes even asserts that Ptolemy went away and left Egypt, not +out of necessity, but purely upon the persuasion of Theophanes, who was anxious +to give Pompey the opportunity for holding a new command, and gaining further +wealth. But Theophanes’s want of honesty does not go so far to make this story +credible as does Pompey’s own nature, which was averse, with all its ambition, +to such base and disingenuous acts, to render it improbable. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Pompey being appointed chief purveyor, and having within his +administration and management all the corn trade, sent abroad his factors and +agents into all quarters, and he himself sailing into Sicily, Sardinia, and +Africa, collected vast stores of corn. He was just ready to set sail upon his +voyage home, when a great storm arose upon the sea, and the ships’ commanders +doubted whether it were safe. Upon which Pompey himself went first aboard, and +bid the mariners weigh anchor, declaring with a loud voice, that there was a +necessity to sail, but no necessity to live. So that with this spirit and +courage, and having met with favorable fortune, he made a prosperous return, +and filled the markets with corn, and the sea with ships. So much so that this +great plenty and abundance of provisions yielded a sufficient supply, not only +to the city of Rome, but even to other places too, dispersing itself; like +waters from a spring, into all quarters. +</p> + +<p> +Meantime Caesar grew great and famous with his wars in Gaul, and while in +appearance he seemed far distant from Rome, entangled in the affairs of the +Belgians, Suevians, and Britons, in truth he was working craftily by secret +practices in the midst of the people, and countermining Pompey in all political +matters of most importance. He himself with his army close about him, as if it +had been his own body, not with mere views of conquest over the barbarians, but +as though his contests with them were but mere sports and exercises of the +chase, did his utmost with this training and discipline to make it invincible +and alarming. And in the meantime his gold and silver and other spoils and +treasure which he took from the enemy in his conquests, he sent to Rome in +presents, tempting people with his gifts, and aiding aediles, praetors, and +consuls, as also their wives, in their expenses, and thus purchasing himself +numerous friends. Insomuch, that when he passed back again over the Alps, and +took up his winter quarters in the city of Luca, there flocked to him an +infinite number of men and women, striving who should get first to him, two +hundred senators included, among whom were Pompey and Crassus; so that there +were to be seen at once before Caesar’s door no less than six score rods of +proconsuls and praetors. The rest of his addressers he sent all away full +fraught with hopes and money; but with Crassus and Pompey, he entered into +special articles of agreement, that they should stand candidates for the +consulship next year; that Caesar on his part should send a number of his +soldiers to give their votes at the election; that as soon as they were +elected, they should use their interest to have the command of some provinces +and legions assigned to themselves, and that Caesar should have his present +charge confirmed to him for five years more. When these arrangements came to be +generally known, great indignation was excited among the chief men in Rome; and +Marcellinus, in an open assembly of the people, demanded of them both, whether +they designed to sue for the consulship or no. And being urged by the people +for their answer, Pompey spoke first, and told them, perhaps he would sue for +it, perhaps he would not. Crassus was more temperate, and said, that he would +do what should be judged most agreeable with the interest of the Commonwealth; +and when Marcellinus persisted in his attack on Pompey, and spoke, as it was +thought, with some vehemence, Pompey remarked that Marcellinus was certainly +the unfairest of men, to show him no gratitude for having thus made him an +orator out of a mute, and converted him from a hungry starveling into a man so +full-fed that he could not contain himself. +</p> + +<p> +Most of the candidates nevertheless abandoned their canvass for the consulship; +Cato alone persuaded and encouraged Lucius Domitius not to desist, “since,” +said he, “the contest now is not for office, but for liberty against tyrants +and usurpers.” Therefore those of Pompey’s party, fearing this inflexible +constancy in Cato, by which he kept with him the whole senate, lest by this he +should likewise pervert and draw after him all the well-affected part of the +commonalty, resolved to withstand Domitius at once, and to prevent his entrance +into the forum. To this end, therefore, they sent in a band of armed men, who +slew the torchbearer of Domitius, as he was leading the way before him, and put +all the rest to flight; last of all, Cato himself retired, having received a +wound in his right arm while defending Domitius. Thus by these means and +practices they obtained the consulship; neither did they behave themselves with +more decency in their further proceedings; but in the first place, when the +people were choosing Cato praetor, and just ready with their votes for the +poll, Pompey broke up the assembly, upon a pretext of some inauspicious +appearance, and having gained the tribes by money, they publicly proclaimed +Vatinius praetor. Then, in pursuance of their covenants with Caesar, they +introduced several laws by Trebonius, the tribune, continuing Caesar’s +commission to another five years’ charge of his province; to Crassus there were +appointed Syria, and the Parthian war; and to Pompey himself, all Africa, +together with both Spains, and four legions of soldiers, two of which he lent +to Caesar upon his request, for the wars in Gaul. +</p> + +<p> +Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, departed forthwith into his +province; but Pompey spent some time in Rome, upon the opening or dedication of +his theater, where he treated the people with all sorts of games, shows, and +exercises, in gymnastics alike and in music. There was likewise the hunting or +baiting of wild beasts, and combats with them, in which five hundred lions were +slain; but above all, the battle of elephants was a spectacle full of horror +and amazement. +</p> + +<p> +These entertainments brought him great honor and popularity; but on the other +side he created no less envy to himself, in that he committed the government of +his provinces and legions into the hands of friends as his lieutenants, whilst +he himself was going about and spending his time with his wife in all the +places of amusement in Italy; whether it were he was so fond of her himself, or +she so fond of him, and he unable to distress her by going away, for this also +is stated. And the love displayed by this young wife for her elderly husband +was a matter of general note, to be attributed, it would seem, to his constancy +in married life, and to his dignity of manner, which in familiar intercourse +was tempered with grace and gentleness, and was particularly attractive to +women, as even Flora, the courtesan, may be thought good enough evidence to +prove. It once happened in a public assembly, as they were at an election of +the aediles, that the people came to blows, and several about Pompey were +slain, so that he, finding himself all bloody, ordered a change of apparel; but +the servants who brought home his clothes, making a great bustle and hurry +about the house, it chanced that the young lady, who was then with child, saw +his gown all stained with blood; upon which she dropped immediately into a +swoon, and was hardly brought to life again; however, what with her fright and +suffering, she fell into labor and miscarried; even those who chiefly censured +Pompey for his friendship to Caesar, could not reprove him for his affection to +so attached a wife. Afterwards she was great again, and brought to bed of a +daughter, but died in childbed; neither did the infant outlive her mother many +days. Pompey had prepared all things for the interment of her corpse at his +house near Alba, but the people seized upon it by force, and performed the +solemnities in the field of Mars, rather in compassion for the young lady, than +in favor either for Pompey or Caesar; and yet of these two, the people seemed +at that time to pay Caesar a greater share of honor in his absence, than to +Pompey, though he was present. +</p> + +<p> +For the city now at once began to roll and swell, so to say, with the stir of +the coming storm. Things everywhere were in a state of agitation, and +everybody’s discourse tended to division, now that death had put an end to that +relation which hitherto had been a disguise rather than restraint to the +ambition of these men. Besides, not long after came messengers from Parthia +with intelligence of the death of Crassus there, by which another safeguard +against civil war was removed, since both Caesar and Pompey kept their eyes on +Crassus, and awe of him held them together more or less within the bounds of +fair-dealing all his lifetime. But when fortune had taken away this second, +whose province it might have been to revenge the quarrel of the conquered, you +might then say with the comic poet, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The combatants are waiting to begin,<br/> +Smearing their hands with dust and oiling each his skin. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +So inconsiderable a thing is fortune in respect of human nature, and so +insufficient to give content to a covetous mind, that an empire of that mighty +extent and sway could not satisfy the ambition of two men; and though they knew +and had read, that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The gods, when they divided out ’twixt three,<br/> +This massive universe, heaven, hell, and sea,<br/> +Each one sat down contented on his throne,<br/> +And undisturbed each god enjoys his own, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +yet they thought the whole Roman empire not sufficient to contain them, though +they were but two. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey once in an oration to the people, told them, that he had always come +into office before he expected he should, and that he had always left it sooner +than they expected he would; and, indeed, the disbanding of all his armies +witnessed as much. Yet when he perceived that Caesar would not so willingly +discharge his forces, he endeavored to strengthen himself against him by +offices and commands in the city; but beyond this he showed no desire for any +change, and would not seem to distrust, but rather to disregard and contemn +him. And when he saw how they bestowed the places of government quite contrary +to his wishes, because the citizens were bribed in their elections, he let +things take their course, and allowed the city to be left without any +government at all. Hereupon there was mention straightaway made of appointing a +dictator. Lucilius, a tribune of the people, was the man who first adventured +to propose it, urging the people to make Pompey dictator. But the tribune was +in danger of being turned out of his office, by the opposition that Cato made +against it. And for Pompey, many of his friends appeared and excused him, +alleging that he never was desirous of that government, neither would he accept +of it. And when Cato therefore made a speech in commendation of Pompey, and +exhorted him to support the cause of good order in the Commonwealth, he could +not for shame but yield to it, and so for the present Domitius and Messala were +elected consuls. But shortly afterwards, when there was another anarchy, or +vacancy in the government, and the talk of a dictator was much louder and more +general than before, those of Cato’s party, fearing lest they should be forced +to appoint Pompey, thought it policy to keep him from that arbitrary and +tyrannical power, by giving him an office of more legal authority. Bibulus +himself, who was Pompey’s enemy, first gave his vote in the senate, that Pompey +should be created consul alone; alleging, that by these means either the +Commonwealth would be freed from its present confusion, or that its bondage +should be lessened by serving the worthiest. This was looked upon as a very +strange opinion, considering the man that spoke it; and therefore on Cato’s +standing up, everybody expected that he would have opposed it; but after +silence made, he said that he would never have been the author of that advice +himself, but since it was propounded by another, his advice was to follow it, +adding, that any form of government was better than none at all; and that in a +time so full of distraction, he thought no man fitter to govern than Pompey. +This counsel was unanimously approved of, and a decree passed that Pompey +should be made sole consul, with this clause, that if he thought it necessary +to have a colleague, he might choose whom he pleased, provided it were not till +after two months expired. +</p> + +<p> +Thus was Pompey created and declared sole consul by Sulpicius, regent in this +vacancy; upon which he made very cordial acknowledgments to Cato, professing +himself much his debtor, and requesting his good advice in conducting the +government; to this Cato replied, that Pompey had no reason to thank him, for +all that he had said was for the service of the commonwealth, not of Pompey; +but that he would be always ready to give his advice privately, if he were +asked for it; and if not, he should not fail to say what he thought in public. +Such was Cato’s conduct on all occasions. +</p> + +<p> +On his return into the city Pompey married Cornelia, the daughter of Metellus +Scipio, not a maiden, but lately left a widow by Publius, the son of Crassus, +her first husband, who had been killed in Parthia. The young lady had other +attractions besides those of youth and beauty; for she was highly educated, +played well upon the lute, understood geometry, and had been accustomed to +listen with profit to lectures on philosophy; all this, too, without in any +degree becoming unamiable or pretentious, as sometimes young women do when they +pursue such studies. Nor could any fault be found either with her father’s +family or reputation. The disparity of their ages was however not liked by +everybody; Cornelia being in this respect a fitter match for Pompey’s son. And +wiser judges thought it rather a slight upon the commonwealth when he, to whom +alone they had committed their broken fortunes, and from whom alone, as from +their physician, they expected a cure to these distractions, went about crowned +with garlands and celebrating his nuptial feasts; never considering, that his +very consulship was a public calamity, which would never have been given him, +contrary to the rules of law, had his country been in a flourishing state. +Afterwards, however, he took cognizance of the cases of those that had obtained +offices by gifts and bribery, and enacted laws and ordinances, setting forth +the rules of judgment by which they should be arraigned; and regulating all +things with gravity and justice, he restored security, order, and silence to +their courts of judicature, himself giving his presence there with a band of +soldiers. But when his father-in-law Scipio was accused, he sent for the three +hundred and sixty judges to his house, and entreated them to be favorable to +him; whereupon his accuser, seeing Scipio come into the court, accompanied by +the judges themselves, withdrew the prosecution. Upon this Pompey was very ill +spoken of, and much worse in the case of Plancus; for whereas he himself had +made a law, putting a stop to the practice of making speeches in praise of +persons under trial, yet notwithstanding this prohibition, he came into court, +and spoke openly in commendation of Plancus, insomuch that Cato, who happened +to be one of the judges at that time, stopping his ears with his hands, told +him, he could not in conscience listen to commendations contrary to law. Cato +upon this was refused, and set aside from being a judge, before sentence was +given, but Plancus was condemned by the rest of the judges, to Pompey’s +dishonor. Shortly after, Hypsaeus, a man of consular dignity, who was under +accusation, waited for Pompey’s return from his bath to his supper, and falling +down at his feet, implored his favor; but he disdainfully passed him by, +saying, that he did nothing else but spoil his supper. Such partiality was +looked upon as a great fault in Pompey, and highly condemned; however, he +managed all things else discreetly, and having put the government in very good +order, he chose his father-in-law to be his colleague in the consulship for the +last five months. His provinces were continued to him for the term of four +years longer, with a commission to take one thousand talents yearly out of the +treasury for the payment of his army. +</p> + +<p> +This gave occasion to some of Caesar’s friends to think it reasonable, that +some consideration should be had of him too, who had done such signal services +in war, and fought so many battles for the empire, alleging, that he deserved +at least a second consulship, or to have the government of his province +continued, that so he might command and enjoy in peace what he had obtained in +war, and no successor come in to reap the fruits of his labor, and carry off +the glory of his actions. There arising some debate about this matter, Pompey +took upon him, as it were out of kindness to Caesar, to plead his cause, and +allay any jealousy that was conceived against him, telling them, that he had +letters from Caesar, expressing his desire for a successor, and his own +discharge from the command; but it would be only right that they should give +him leave to stand for the consulship though in his absence. But those of +Cato’s party withstood this, saying, that if he expected any favor from the +citizens, he ought to leave his army, and come in a private capacity to canvas +for it. And Pompey’s making no rejoinder, but letting it pass as a matter in +which he was overruled, increased the suspicion of his real feelings towards +Caesar. Presently, also, under presence of a war with Parthia, he sent for his +two legions which he had lent him. However, Caesar, though he well knew why +they were asked for, sent them home very liberally rewarded. +</p> + +<p> +About that time Pompey recovered of a dangerous fit of sickness which seized +him at Naples, where the whole city, upon the suggestion of Praxagoras, made +sacrifices of thanksgiving to the gods for his recovery. The neighboring towns +likewise happening to follow their example, the thing then went its course +throughout all Italy, so that there was not a city either great or small, that +did not feast and rejoice for many days together. And the company of those that +came from all parts to meet him was so numerous, that no place was able to +contain them, but the villages, seaport towns, and the very highways, were all +full of people, feasting and sacrificing to the gods. Nay, many went to meet +him with garlands on their heads, and flambeaux in their hands, casting flowers +and nosegays upon him as he went along; so that this progress of his, and +reception, was one of the noblest and most glorious sights imaginable. And yet +it is thought that this very thing was not one of the least causes and +occasions of the civil war. For Pompey, yielding to a feeling of exultation, +which in the greatness of the present display of joy lost sight of more solid +grounds of consideration, and abandoning that prudent temper which had guided +him hitherto to a safe use of all his good fortune and his successes, gave +himself up to an extravagant confidence in his own, and contempt of Caesar’s +power; insomuch that he thought neither force of arms nor care necessary +against him, but that he could pull him down much easier than he had set him +up. Besides this, Appius, under whose command those legions which Pompey lent +to Caesar were returned, coming lately out of Gaul, spoke slightingly of +Caesar’s actions there, and spread scandalous reports about him, at the same +time telling Pompey, that he was unacquainted with his own strength and +reputation, if he made use of any other forces against Caesar than Caesar’s +own; for such was the soldiers’ hatred to Caesar, and their love to Pompey so +great, that they would all come over to him upon his first appearance. By these +flatteries Pompey was so puffed up, and led on into such a careless security, +that he could not choose but laugh at those who seemed to fear a war; and when +some were saying, that if Caesar should march against the city, they could not +see what forces there were to resist him, he replied with a smile, bidding them +be in no concern, “for,” said he, “whenever I stamp with my foot in any part of +Italy, there will rise up forces enough in an instant, both horse and foot.” +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, on the other side, was more and more vigorous in his proceedings, +himself always at hand about the frontiers of Italy, and sending his soldiers +continually into the city to attend all elections with their votes. Besides, he +corrupted several of the magistrates, and kept them in his pay; among others, +Paulus, the consul, who was brought over by a bribe of one thousand and five +hundred talents; and Curio, tribune of the people, by a discharge of the debts +with which he was overwhelmed; together with Mark Antony, who, out of +friendship to Curio, had become bound with him in the same obligations for them +all. And it was stated as a fact, that a centurion of Caesar’s waiting at the +senate-house, and hearing that the senate refused to give him a longer term of +his government, clapped his hand upon his sword, and said, “But this shall give +it.” And indeed all his practices and preparations seemed to bear this +appearance. Curio’s demands, however, and requests in favor of Caesar, were +more popular in appearance; for he desired one of these two things, either that +Pompey also should be called upon to resign his army, or that Caesar’s should +not be taken away from him; for if both of them became private persons, both +would be satisfied with simple justice; or if both retained their present +power, each being a match for the other, they would be contented with what they +already had; but he that weakens one, does at the same time strengthen the +other, and so doubles that very strength and power which he stood in fear of +before. Marcellus, the consul, replied nothing to all this, but that Caesar was +a robber, and should be proclaimed an enemy to the state, if he did not disband +his army. However, Curio, with the assistance of Antony and Piso, prevailed, +that the matter in debate should be put to the question, and decided by vote in +the senate. So that it being ordered upon the question for those to withdraw, +who were of opinion that Caesar only should lay down his army and Pompey +command, the majority withdrew. But when it was ordered again for those to +withdraw, whose vote was that both should lay down their arms and neither +command, there were but twenty-two for Pompey, all the rest remained on Curio’s +side. Whereupon he, as one proud of his conquest, leaped out in triumph among +the people, who received him with as great tokens of joy, clapping their hands, +and crowning him with garlands and flowers. Pompey was not then present in the +senate, because it is not lawful for generals in command of an army to come +into the city. But Marcellus rising up, said, that he would not sit there +hearing speeches, when he saw ten legions already passing the Alps on their +march toward the city, but on his own authority would send someone to oppose +them in defense of the country. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this the city went into mourning, as in a public calamity, and Marcellus, +accompanied by the senate, went solemnly through the forum to meet Pompey, and +made him this address. “I hereby give you orders, O Pompey, to defend your +country, to employ the troops you now command, and to levy more.” Lentulus, +consul elect for the year following, spoke to the same purpose. Antony, +however, contrary to the will of the senate, having in a public assembly read a +letter of Caesar’s, containing various plausible overtures such as were likely +to gain the common people, proposing, namely, that both Pompey and he quitting +their governments, and dismissing their armies, should submit to the judgment +of the people, and give an account of their actions before them, the +consequence was that when Pompey began to make his levies, he found himself +disappointed in his expectations. Some few, indeed, came in, but those very +unwillingly; others would not answer to their names, and the generality cried +out for peace. Lentulus, notwithstanding he was now entered upon his +consulship, would not assemble the senate; but Cicero, who was lately returned +from Cilicia, labored for a reconciliation, proposing that Caesar should leave +his province of Gaul and army, reserving two legions only, together with the +government of Illyricum, and should thus be put in nomination for a second +consulship. Pompey disliking this motion, Caesar’s friends were contented that +he should surrender one of the two; but Lentulus still opposing, and Cato +crying out that Pompey did ill to be deceived again, the reconciliation did not +take effect. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, news was brought that Caesar had occupied Ariminum, a great +city in Italy, and was marching directly towards Rome with all his forces. But +this latter was altogether false, for he had no more with him at that time than +three hundred horse and five thousand foot; and he did not mean to tarry for +the body of his army, which lay beyond the Alps, choosing rather to fall in on +a sudden upon his enemies, while they were in confusion, and did not expect +him, than to give them time, and fight them after they had made preparations. +For when he came to the banks of the Rubicon, a river that made the bounds of +his province, there he made a halt, pausing a little, and considering, we may +suppose, with himself the greatness of the enterprise which he had undertaken; +then, at last, like men that are throwing themselves headlong from some +precipice into a vast abyss, having shut, as it were, his mind’s eyes and put +away from his sight the idea of danger, he merely uttered to those near him in +Greek the words, “Anerriphtho kubos,” (let the die be cast,) and led his army +through it. No sooner was the news arrived, but there was an uproar throughout +all the city, and a consternation in the people even to astonishment, such as +never was known in Rome before; all the senate ran immediately to Pompey, and +the magistrates followed. And when Tullus made inquiry about his legions and +forces, Pompey seemed to pause a little, and answered with some hesitation, +that he had those two legions ready that Caesar sent back, and that out of the +men who had been previously enrolled he believed he could shortly make up a +body of thirty thousand men. On which Tullus crying out aloud, “O Pompey, you +have deceived us,” gave his advice to send off a deputation to Caesar. +Favonius, a man of fair character, except that he used to suppose his own +petulance and abusive talking a copy of Cato’s straight-forwardness, bade +Pompey stamp upon the ground, and call forth the forces he had promised. But +Pompey bore patiently with this unseasonable raillery; and on Cato putting him +in mind of what he had foretold from the very beginning about Caesar, made this +answer only, that Cato indeed had spoken more like a prophet, but he had acted +more like a friend. Cato then advised them to choose Pompey general with +absolute power and authority, saying that the same men who do great evils, know +best how to cure them. He himself went his way forthwith into Sicily, the +province that was allotted him, and all the rest of the senators likewise +departed every one to his respective government. +</p> + +<p> +Thus all Italy in a manner being up in arms, no one could say what was best to +be done. For those that were without, came from all parts flocking into the +city; and they who were within, seeing the confusion and disorder so great +there, all good things impotent, and disobedience and insubordination grown too +strong to be controlled by the magistrates, were quitting it as fast as the +others came in. Nay, it was so far from being possible to allay their fears, +that they would not suffer Pompey to follow out his own judgment, but every man +pressed and urged him according to his particular fancy, whether it proceeded +from doubt, fear, grief, or any meaner passion; so that even in the same day +quite contrary counsels were acted upon. Then, again, it was as impossible to +have any good intelligence of the enemy; for what each man heard by chance upon +a flying rumor, he would report for truth, and exclaim against Pompey if he did +not believe it. Pompey, at length, seeing such a confusion in Rome, determined +with himself to put an end to their clamors by his departure, and therefore +commanding all the senate to follow him, and declaring, that whosoever tarried +behind, should be judged a confederate of Caesar’s, about the dusk of the +evening he went out and left the city. The consuls also followed after in a +hurry, without offering the sacrifices to the gods, usual before a war. But in +all this, Pompey himself had the glory, that in the midst of such calamities, +he had so much of men’s love and good-will. For though many found fault with +the conduct of the war, yet no man hated the general; and there were more to be +found of those that went out of Rome, because that they could not forsake +Pompey, than of those that fled for love of liberty. +</p> + +<p> +Some few days after Pompey was gone out, Caesar came into the city, and made +himself master of it, treating everyone with a great deal of courtesy, and +appeasing their fears, except only Metellus, one of the tribunes; on whose +refusing to let him take any money out of the treasury, Caesar threatened him +with death, adding words yet harsher than the threat, that it was far easier +for him to do it than say it. By this means removing Metellus, and taking what +moneys were of use for his occasions, he set forwards in pursuit of Pompey, +endeavoring with all speed to drive him out of Italy before his army, that was +in Spain, could join him. +</p> + +<p> +But Pompey arriving at Brundusium, and having plenty of ships there, bade the +two consuls embark immediately, and with them shipped thirty cohorts of foot, +bound before him for Dyrrhachium. He sent likewise his father-in-law Scipio, +and Cnaeus his son, into Syria, to provide and fit out a fleet there; himself +in the meantime having blocked up the gates, placed his lightest soldiers as +guards upon the walls; and giving express orders that the citizens should keep +within doors, he dug up all the ground inside the city, cutting trenches, and +fixing stakes and palisades throughout all the streets of the city, except only +two that led down to the sea-side. Thus in three days space having with ease +put all the rest of his army on shipboard, he suddenly gave the signal to those +that guarded the walls, who nimbly repairing to the ships, were received on +board and carried off. Caesar meantime perceiving their departure by seeing the +walls unguarded, hastened after, and in the heat of pursuit was all but +entangled himself among the stakes and trenches. But the Brundusians +discovering the danger to him, and showing him the way, he wheeled about, and +taking a circuit round the city, made towards the haven, where he found all the +ships on their way, excepting only two vessels that had but a few soldiers +aboard. +</p> + +<p> +Most are of opinion, that this departure of Pompey’s is to be counted among the +best of his military performances, but Caesar himself could not but wonder that +he, who was thus ingarrisoned in a city well fortified, who was in expectation +of his forces from Spain, and was master of the sea besides, should leave and +abandon Italy. Cicero accuses him of imitating the conduct of Themistocles, +rather than of Pericles, when the circumstances were more like those of +Pericles than they were like those of Themistocles. However, it appeared +plainly, and Caesar showed it by his actions, that he was in great fear of +delay, for when he had taken Numerius, a friend of Pompey’s, prisoner, he sent +him as an ambassador to Brundusium, with offers of peace and reconciliation +upon equal terms; but Numerius sailed away with Pompey. And now Caesar having +become master of all Italy in sixty days, without a drop of blood shed, had a +great desire forthwith to follow Pompey; but being destitute of shipping, he +was forced to divert his course, and march into Spain, designing to bring over +Pompey’s forces there to his own. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime Pompey raised a mighty army both by sea and land. As for his +navy, it was irresistible. For there were five hundred men of war, besides an +infinite company of light vessels, Liburnians, and others; and for his land +forces, the cavalry made up a body of seven thousand horse, the very flower of +Rome and Italy, men of family, wealth, and high spirit; but the infantry was a +mixture of unexperienced soldiers drawn from different quarters, and these he +exercised and trained near Beroea, where he quartered his army; himself noways +slothful, but performing all his exercises as if he had been in the flower of +his youth, conduct which raised the spirits of his soldiers extremely. For it +was no small encouragement for them to see Pompey the Great, sixty years of age +wanting two, at one time handling his arms among the foot, then again mounted +among the horse, drawing out his sword with ease in full career, and sheathing +it up as easily; and in darting the javelin, showing not only skill and +dexterity in hitting the mark, but also strength and activity in throwing it so +far that few of the young men went beyond him. +</p> + +<p> +Several kings and princes of nations came thither to him, and there was a +concourse of Roman citizens who had held the magistracies, so numerous that +they made up a complete senate. Labienus forsook his old friend Caesar, whom he +had served throughout all his wars in Gaul, and came over to Pompey; and +Brutus, son to that Brutus that was put to death in Gaul, a man of a high +spirit, and one that to that day had never so much as saluted or spoke to +Pompey, looking upon him as the murderer of his father, came then and submitted +himself to him as the defender of their liberty. Cicero likewise, though he had +written and advised otherwise, yet was ashamed not to be accounted in the +number of those that would hazard their lives and fortunes for the safeguard of +their country. There came to him also into Macedonia, Tidius Sextius, a man +extremely old, and lame of one leg; so that others indeed mocked and laughed at +the spectacle, but Pompey, as soon as he saw him, rose and ran to meet him, +esteeming it no small testimony in his favor, when men of such age and +infirmities should rather choose to be with him in danger, than in safety at +home. Afterwards in a meeting of their senate they passed a decree, on the +motion of Cato, that no Roman citizen should be put to death but in battle, and +that they should not sack or plunder any city that was subject to the Roman +empire, a resolution which gained Pompey’s party still greater reputation, +insomuch that those who were noways at all concerned in the war, either because +they dwelt afar off, or were thought incapable of giving help, were yet, in +their good wishes, upon his side, and in all their words, so far as that went, +supported the good or just cause, as they called it; esteeming those as enemies +to the gods and men, that wished not victory to Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +Neither was Pompey’s clemency such, but that Caesar likewise showed himself as +merciful a conqueror; for when he had taken and overthrown all Pompey’s forces +in Spain, he gave them easy terms, leaving the commanders at their liberty, and +taking the common soldiers into his own pay. Then repassing the Alps, and +making a running march through Italy, he came to Brundusium about the winter +solstice, and crossing the sea there, landed at the port of Oricum. And having +Jubius, an intimate friend of Pompey’s, with him as his prisoner, he dispatched +him to Pompey with an invitation, that they, meeting together in a conference, +should disband both their armies within three days, and renewing their former +friendship with solemn oaths, should return together into Italy. Pompey looked +upon this again as some new stratagem, and therefore marching down in all haste +to the sea-coast, possessed himself of all forts and places of strength +suitable to encamp in, and to secure his laud forces, as likewise of all ports +and harbors commodious to receive any that came by sea, so that what wind +soever blew, it must needs in some way or other be favorable to him, bringing +in either provision, men, or money; while Caesar, on the contrary, was so +hemmed in both by sea and land, that he was forced to desire battle, daily +provoking the enemy, and assailing them in their very forts; and in these light +skirmishes for the most part had the better. Once only he was dangerously +overthrown, and was within a little of losing his whole army, Pompey having +fought nobly, routing the whole force, and killing two thousand on the spot. +But either he was not able, or was afraid, to go on and force his way into +their camp with them, so that Caesar made the remark, that “Today the victory +had been the enemy’s, had there been anyone among them to gain it.” Pompey’s +soldiers were so encouraged by this victory that they were eager now to have +all put to the decision of a battle; but Pompey himself, though he wrote to +distant kings, generals, and states in confederacy with him, as a conqueror, +yet was afraid to hazard the success of a battle, choosing rather by delays, +and distress of provisions, to tire out a body of men, who had never yet been +conquered by force of arms, and had long been used to fight and conquer +together; while their time of life, now an advanced one, which made them +quickly weary of those other hardships of war, such as were long marches, and +frequent decampings, making trenches, and building fortifications, made them +eager to come to close combat and venture a battle with all speed. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey had all along hitherto by his persuasions pretty well quieted his +soldiers; but after this last engagement, when Caesar for want of provisions +was forced to raise his camp, and passed through Athamania into Thessaly, it +was impossible to curb or allay the heat of their spirits any longer. For all +crying out with a general voice, that Caesar was fled, some were for pursuing +and pressing upon him, others for returning into Italy; some there were that +sent their friends and servants beforehand to Rome, to hire houses near the +forum, that they might be in readiness to sue for offices; several of their own +motion sailed off at once to Lesbos to carry to Cornelia, (whom Pompey had +conveyed thither to be in safety,) the joyful news, that the war was ended. And +a senate being called, and the matter being under debate, Afranius was of +opinion, that Italy should first be regained, for that it was the grand prize +and crown of all the war; and they who were masters of that, would quickly have +at their devotion all the provinces of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, and +Gaul; but what was of greatest weight and moment to Pompey, it was his own +native country that lay near, reaching out her hand for his help; and certainly +it could not be consistent with his honor to leave her thus exposed to all +indignities, and in bondage under slaves and the flatterers of a tyrant. But +Pompey himself, on the contrary, thought it neither honorable to fly a second +time before Caesar, and be pursued, when fortune had given him the advantage of +a pursuit; nor indeed lawful before the gods to forsake Scipio and divers other +men of consular dignity dispersed throughout Greece and Thessaly, who must +necessarily fall into Caesar’s hands, together with large sums of money and +numerous forces; and as to his care for the city of Rome, that would most +eminently appear, by removing the scene of war to a greater distance, and +leaving her, without feeling the distress or even hearing the sound of these +evils, to await in peace the return of whichever should be the victor. +</p> + +<p> +With this determination, Pompey marched forwards in pursuit of Caesar, firmly +resolved with himself not to give him battle, but rather to besiege and +distress him, by keeping close at his heels, and cutting him short. There were +other reasons that made him continue this resolution, but especially because a +saying that was current among the Romans serving in the cavalry came to his +ear, to the effect, that they ought to beat Caesar as soon as possible, and +then humble Pompey too. And some report, it was for this reason that Pompey +never employed Cato in any matter of consequence during the whole war, but now +when he pursued Caesar, left him to guard his baggage by sea, fearing lest, if +Caesar should be taken off, he himself also by Cato’s means not long after +should be forced to give up his power. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst he was thus slowly attending the motions of the enemy, he was exposed on +all sides to outcries, and imputations of using his generalship to defeat, not +Caesar, but his country and the senate, that he might always continue in +authority, and never cease to keep those for his guards and servants, who +themselves claimed to govern the world. Domitius Aenobarbus, continually +calling him Agamemnon, and king of kings, excited jealousy against him; and +Favonius, by his unseasonable raillery, did him no less injury than those who +openly attacked him, as when he cried out, “Good friends, you must not expect +to gather any figs in Tusculum this year.” But Lucius Afranius, who had lain +under an imputation of treachery for the loss of the army in Spain, when he saw +Pompey purposely declining an engagement, declared openly, that he could not +but admire, why those who were so ready to accuse him, did not go themselves +and fight this buyer and seller of their provinces. +</p> + +<p> +With these and many such speeches they wrought upon Pompey, who never could +bear reproach, or resist the expectations of his friends; and thus they forced +him to break his measures, so that he forsook his own prudent resolution to +follow their vain hopes and desires: weakness that would have been blamable ill +the pilot of a ship, how much more in the sovereign commander of such an army, +and so many nations. But he, though he had often commended those physicians who +did not comply with the capricious appetites of their patients, yet himself +could not but yield to the malady and disease of his companions and advisers in +the war, rather than use some severity in their cure. Truly who could have said +that health was not disordered and a cure not required in the case of men who +went up and down the camp, suing already for the consulship and office of +praetor, while Spinther, Domitius, and Scipio made friends, raised factions, +and quarrelled among themselves, who should succeed Caesar in the dignity of +his high-priesthood, esteeming all as lightly, as if they were to engage only +with Tigranes, king of Armenia, or some petty Nabathaean king, not with that +Caesar and his army that had stormed a thousand towns, and subdued more than +three hundred several nations; that had fought innumerable battles with the +Germans and Gauls, and always carried the victory; that had taken a million of +men prisoners, and slain as many upon the spot in pitched battles? +</p> + +<p> +But they went on soliciting and clamoring, and on reaching the plain of +Pharsalia, they forced Pompey by their pressure and importunities to call a +council of war, where Labienus, general of the horse, stood up first and swore +that he would not return out of the battle if he did not rout the enemies; and +a]l the rest took the same oath. That night Pompey dreamed that as he went into +the theater, the people received him with great applause, and that he himself +adorned the temple of Venus the Victorious, with many spoils. This vision +partly encouraged, but partly also disheartened him, fearing lest that splendor +and ornament to Venus should be made with spoils furnished by himself to +Caesar, who derived his family from that goddess. Besides there were some panic +fears and alarms that ran through the camp, with such a noise that it awaked +him out of his sleep. And about the time of renewing the watch towards morning, +there appeared a great light over Caesar’s camp, whilst they were all at rest, +and from thence a ball of flaming fire was carried into Pompey’s camp, which +Caesar himself says he saw, as he was walking his rounds. +</p> + +<p> +Now Caesar having designed to raise his camp with the morning and move to +Scotussa, whilst the soldiers were busy in pulling down their tents, and +sending on their cattle and servants before them with their baggage, there came +in scouts who brought word that they saw arms carried to and fro in the enemy’s +camp, and heard a noise and running up and down, as of men preparing for +battle; not long after there came in other scouts with further intelligence, +that the first ranks were already set in battle array. Thereupon Caesar, when +he had told them that the wished for day was come at last, when they should +fight with men, not with hunger and famine, instantly gave orders for the red +colors to be set up before his tent, that being the ordinary signal of battle +among the Romans. As soon as the soldiers saw that, they left their tents, and +with great shouts of joy ran to their arms; the officers, likewise, on their +parts drawing up their companies in order of battle, every man fell into his +proper rank without any trouble or noise, as quietly and orderly as if they had +been in a dance. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey himself led the right wing of his army against Antony, and placed his +father-in-law Scipio in the middle against Lucius Calvinus. The left wing was +commanded by Lucius Domitius; and supported by the great mass of the horse. For +almost the whole cavalry was posted there, in the hope of crushing Caesar, and +cutting off the tenth legion, which was spoken of as the stoutest in all the +army, and in which Caesar himself usually fought in person. Caesar observing +the left wing of the enemy to be lined and fortified with such a mighty guard +of horse, and alarmed at the gallantry of their appearance, sent for a +detachment of six cohorts out of the reserves, and placed them in the rear of +the tenth legion, commanding them not to stir, lest they should be discovered +by the enemy; but when the enemy’s horse should begin to charge, and press upon +them, that they should make up with all speed to the front through the foremost +ranks, and not throw their javelins at a distance, as is usual with brave +soldiers, that they may come to a close fight with their swords the sooner, but +that they should strike them upwards into the eyes and faces of the enemy; +telling them that those fine young dancers would never endure the steel shining +in their eyes, but would fly to save their handsome faces. This was Caesar’s +employment at that time. But while he was thus instructing his soldiers, Pompey +on horseback was viewing the order of both armies, and when he saw how well the +enemy kept their ranks, expecting quietly the signal of battle; and, on the +contrary, how impatient and unsteady his own men were, waving up and down in +disorder for want of experience, he was very much afraid that their ranks would +be broken upon the first onset; and therefore he gave out orders that the van +should make a stand, and keeping close in their ranks, should receive the +enemy’s charge. Caesar much condemns this command; which he says not only took +off from the strength of the blows, which would otherwise have been made with a +spring; but also lost the men the impetus, which, more than anything, in the +moment of their coming upon the enemy, fills soldiers with impulse and +inspiration, the very shouts and rapid pace adding to their fury; of which +Pompey deprived his men, arresting them in their course and cooling down their +heat. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar’s army consisted of twenty-two thousand, and Pompey’s of somewhat above +twice as many. When the signal of battle was given on both sides, and the +trumpets began to sound a charge, most men of course were fully occupied with +their own matters; only some few of the noblest Romans, together with certain +Greeks there present, standing as spectators without the battle, seeing the +armies now ready to join, could not but consider in themselves to what a pass +private ambition and emulation had brought the empire. Common arms, and kindred +ranks drawn up under the self-same standards, the whole flower and strength of +the same single city here meeting in collision with itself, offered plain proof +how blind and how mad a thing human nature is, when once possessed with any +passion; for if they had been desirous only to rule, and enjoy in peace what +they had conquered in war, the greatest and best part of the world was subject +to them both by sea and land. But if there was yet a thirst in their ambition, +that must still be fed with new trophies and triumphs, the Parthian and German +wars would yield matter enough to satisfy the most covetous of honor. Scythia, +moreover, was yet unconquered, and the Indians too, where their ambition might +be colored over with the specious pretext of civilizing barbarous nations. And +what Scythian horse, Parthian arrows, or Indian riches, could be able to resist +seventy thousand Roman soldiers, well appointed in arms, under the command of +two such generals as Pompey and Caesar, whose names they had heard of before +that of the Romans, and whose prowess, by their conquests of such wild, remote, +savage, and brutish nations, was spread further than the fame of the Romans +themselves? Today they met in conflict, and could no longer be induced to spare +their country, even out of regard for their own glory or the fear of losing the +name which till this day both had held, of having never yet been defeated. As +for their former private ties, and the charms of Julia, and the marriage that +had made them near connections, these could now only be looked upon as tricks +of state, the mere securities of a treaty made to serve the needs of an +occasion, not the pledges of any real friendship. +</p> + +<p> +Now, therefore, as soon as the plains of Pharsalia were covered with men, +horse, and armor, and that the signal of battle was raised on either side, +Caius Crassianus, a centurion, who commanded a company of one hundred and +twenty men, was the first that advanced out of Caesar’s army, to give the +charge, and acquit himself of a solemn engagement that he had made to Caesar. +He had been the first man that Caesar had seen going out of the camp in the +morning, and Caesar, after saluting him, had asked him what he thought of the +coming battle. To which he, stretching out his right hand, replied aloud, +“Thine is the victory, O Caesar, thou shalt conquer gloriously, and I myself +this day will be the subject of thy praise either alive or dead.” In pursuance +of this promise he hastened forward, and being followed by many more, charged +into the midst of the enemy. There they came at once to a close fight with +their swords, and made a great slaughter; but as he was still pressing forward, +and breaking the ranks of the vanguard, one of Pompey’s soldiers ran him in at +the mouth, so that the point of the sword came out behind at his neck; and +Crassianus being thus slain, the fight became doubtful, and continued equal on +that part of the battle. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey had not yet brought on the right wing, but stayed and looked about, +waiting to see what execution his cavalry would do on the left. They had +already drawn out their squadrons in form, designing to turn Caesar’s flank, +and force those few horse, which he had placed in the front, to give back upon +the battalion of foot. But Caesar, on the other side, having given the signal, +his horse retreated back a little, and gave way to those six subsidiary +cohorts, which had been posted in the rear, as a reserve to cover the flank; +and which now came out, three thousand men in number, and met the enemy; and +when they came up, standing by the horses, struck their javelins upwards, +according to their instructions, and hit the horsemen full in their faces. +They, unskillful in any manner of fight, and least of all expecting or +understanding such a kind as this, had not courage enough to endure the blows +upon their faces, but turning their backs, and covering their eyes with their +hands, shamefully took to flight. Caesar’s men, however, did not follow them, +but marched upon the foot, and attacked the wing, which the flight of the +cavalry had left unprotected, and liable to be turned and taken in the rear, so +that this wing now being attacked in the flank by these, and charged in the +front by the tenth legion, was not able to abide the charge, or make any longer +resistance, especially when they saw themselves surrounded and circumvented in +the very way in which they had designed to invest the enemy. Thus these being +likewise routed and put to flight, when Pompey, by the dust flying in the air, +conjectured the fate of his horse, it were very hard to say what his thoughts +or intentions were, but looking like one distracted and beside himself, and +without any recollection or reflection that he was Pompey the Great, he retired +slowly towards his camp, without speaking a word to any man, exactly according +to the description in the verses, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But Jove from heaven struck Ajax with a fear;<br/> +Ajax the bold then stood astonished there,<br/> +Flung o’er his back the mighty sevenfold shield,<br/> +And trembling gazed and spied about the field. +</p> + +<p> +In this state and condition he went into his own tent, and sat down, speechless +still, until some of the enemy fell in together with his men that were flying +into the camp, and then he let fall only this one word, “What? into the very +camp?” and said no more; but rose up, and putting on a dress suitable to his +present fortune, made his way secretly out. +</p> + +<p> +By this time the rest of the army was put to flight, and there was a great +slaughter in the camp among the servants and those that guarded the tents, but +of the soldiers themselves there were not above six thousand slain, as is +stated by Asinius Pollio, who himself fought in this battle on Caesar’s side. +When Caesar’s soldiers had taken the camp, they saw clearly the folly and +vanity of the enemy; for all their tents and pavilions were richly set out with +garlands of myrtle, embroidered carpets and hangings, and tables laid and +covered with goblets. There were large bowls of wine ready, and everything +prepared and put in array, in the manner rather of people who had offered +sacrifice and were going to celebrate a holiday, than of soldiers who had armed +themselves to go out to battle, so possessed with the expectation of success +and so full of empty confidence had they gone out that morning. +</p> + +<p> +When Pompey had got a little way from the camp, he dismounted and forsook his +horse, having but a small retinue with him; and finding that no man pursued +him, walked on softly afoot, taken up altogether with thoughts, such as +probably might possess a man that for the space of thirty-four years together +had been accustomed to conquest and victory, and was then at last, in his old +age, learning for the first time what defeat and flight were. And it was no +small affliction to consider, that he had lost in one hour all that glory and +power, which he had been getting in so many wars, and bloody battles; and that +he who but a little before was guarded with such an army of foot, so many +squadrons of horse, and such a mighty fleet, was now flying in so mean a +condition, and with such a slender retinue, that his very enemies who fought +him could not know him. Thus, when he had passed by the city of Larissa, and +came into the pass of Tempe, being very thirsty, he kneeled down and drank out +of the river; then rising up again, he passed through Tempe, until he came to +the seaside, and there he betook himself to a poor fisherman’s cottage, where +he rested the remainder of the night. The next morning about break of day he +went into one of the river boats, and taking none of those that followed him +except such as were free, dismissed his servants, advising them to go boldly to +Caesar, and not be afraid. As he was rowing up and down near the shore, he +chanced to spy a large merchant-ship, lying off, just ready to set sail; the +master of which was a Roman citizen, named Peticius, who, though he was not +familiarly acquainted with Pompey, yet knew him well by sight. Now it happened +that this Peticius dreamed, the night before, that he saw Pompey, not like the +man he had often seen him, but in a humble and dejected condition, and in that +posture discoursing with him. He was then telling his dream to the people on +board, as men do when at leisure, and especially dreams of that consequence, +when of a sudden one of the mariners told him, he saw a river boat with oars +putting off from shore, and that some of the men there shook their garments, +and held out their hands, with signs to take them in; thereupon Peticius +looking attentively, at once recognized Pompey, just as he appeared in his +dream, and smiting his hand on his head, ordered the mariners to let down the +ship’s boat, he himself waving his hand, and calling to him by his name, +already assured of his change and the change of his fortune by that of his +garb. So that without waiting for any further entreaty or discourse, he took +him into his ship, together with as many of his company as he thought fit, and +hoisted sail. There were with him the two Lentuli, and Favonius; and a little +after they spied king Deiotarus, making up towards them from the shore; so they +stayed and took him in along with them. At supper time, the master of the ship +having made ready such provisions as he had aboard, Pompey, for want of his +servants, began to undo his shoes himself; which Favonius noticing ran to him +and undid them, and helped him to anoint himself, and always after continued to +wait upon, and attend him in all things, as servants do their masters, even to +the washing of his feet, and preparing his supper. Insomuch that anyone there +present, observing the free and unaffected courtesy of these services, might +have well exclaimed, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +O heavens, in those that noble are,<br/> +Whate’er they do is fit and fair. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey, sailing by the city of Amphipolis, crossed over from thence to +Mitylene, with a design to take in Cornelia and his son; and as soon as he +arrived at the port in that island, he dispatched a messenger into the city, +with news very different from Cornelia’s expectation. For she, by all the +former messages and letters sent to please her, had been put in hopes that the +war was ended at Dyrrhachium, and that there was nothing more remaining for +Pompey, but the pursuit of Caesar. The messenger finding her in the same hopes +still, was not able to salute or speak to her, but declaring the greatness of +her misfortune by his tears rather than by his words, desired her to make haste +if she would see Pompey, with one ship only, and that not of his own. The young +lady hearing this, fell down in a swoon, and continued a long time senseless +and speechless. And when with some trouble she was brought to her senses again, +being conscious to herself that this was no time for lamentation and tears, she +started up and ran through the city towards the seaside, where Pompey meeting +and embracing her, as she sank down, supported by his arms, “This, sir,” she +exclaimed, “is the effect of my fortune, not of yours, that I see you thus +reduced to one poor vessel, who before your marriage with Cornelia, were wont +to sail in these seas with a fleet of five hundred ships. Why therefore should +you come to see me, or why not rather have left to her evil genius one who has +brought upon you her own ill-fortune? How happy a woman had I been, if I had +breathed out my last, before the news came from Parthia of the death of +Publius, the husband of my youth, and how prudent if I had followed his +destiny, as I designed! But I was reserved for a greater mischief, even the +ruin of Pompey the Great.” +</p> + +<p> +Thus, they say, Cornelia spoke to him, and this was Pompey’s reply: “You have +had, Cornelia, but one season of a better fortune, which it may be, gave you +unfounded hopes, by attending me a longer time than is usual. It behoves us, +who are mortals born, to endure these events, and to try fortune yet again; +neither is it any less possible to recover our former state, than it was to +fall from that into this.” Thereupon Cornelia sent for her servants and baggage +out of the city. The citizens also of Mitylene came out to salute and invite +Pompey into the city, but he refused, advising them to be obedient to the +conqueror, and fear not, for that Caesar was a man of great goodness and +clemency. Then turning to Cratippus, the philosopher, who came among the rest +out of the city to visit him, he began to find some fault, and briefly argued +with him upon Providence, but Cratippus modestly declined the dispute, putting +him in better hopes only, lest by opposing, he might seem too austere or +unseasonable. For he might have put Pompey a question in his turn, in defense +of Providence; and might have demonstrated the necessity there was that the +commonwealth should be turned into a monarchy, because of their ill government +in the state; and could have asked, “How, O Pompey, and by what token or +assurance can we ascertain, that if the victory had been yours, you would have +used your fortune better than Caesar? We must leave the divine power to act as +we find it do.” +</p> + +<p> +Pompey having taken his wife and friends aboard, set sail, making no port, nor +touching anywhere, but when he was necessitated to take in provisions, or fresh +water. The first city he entered was Attalia, in Pamphylia, and whilst he was +there, there came some galleys thither to him out of Cilicia, together with a +small body of soldiers, and he had almost sixty senators with him again; then +hearing that his navy was safe too, and that Cato had rallied a considerable +body of soldiers after their overthrow, and was crossing with them over into +Africa, he began to complain and blame himself to his friends that he had +allowed himself to be driven into engaging by land, without making use of his +other forces, in which he was irresistibly the stronger, and had not kept near +enough to his fleet, that failing by land, he might have reinforced himself +from the sea, and would have been again at the head of a power quite sufficient +to encounter the enemy on equal terms. And in truth, neither did Pompey during +all the war commit a greater oversight, nor Caesar use a more subtle stratagem, +than in drawing the fight so far off from the naval forces. +</p> + +<p> +As it now was, however, since he must come to some decision, and try some plan +within his present ability, he dispatched his agents to the neighboring cities, +and himself sailed about in person to others, requiring their aid in money and +men for his ships. But, fearing lest the rapid approach of the enemy might cut +off all his preparations, he began to consider what place would yield him the +safest refuge and retreat at present. A consultation was held, and it was +generally agreed that no province of the Romans was secure enough. As for +foreign kingdoms, he himself was of opinion, that Parthia would be the fittest +to receive and defend them in their present weakness, and best able to furnish +them with new means and send them out again with large forces. Others of the +council were for going into Africa, and to king Juba. But Theophanes the +Lesbian, thought it madness to leave Egypt, that was but at a distance of three +days’ sailing, and make no use of Ptolemy, who was still a boy, and was highly +indebted to Pompey for the friendship and favor he had shown to his father, +only to put himself under the Parthian, and trust the most treacherous nation +in the world; and rather than make any trial of the clemency of a Roman, and +his own near connection, to whom if he would but yield to be second, he might +be the first and chief over all the rest, to go and place himself at the mercy +of Arsaces, which even Crassus had not submitted to, while alive; and, +moreover, to expose his young wife, of the family of the Scipios, among a +barbarous people, who govern by their lusts, and measure their greatness by +their power to commit affronts and insolencies; from whom, though she suffered +no dishonor, yet it might be thought she did, being in the hands of those who +had the power to do it. This argument alone, they say, was persuasive enough to +divert his course, that was designed towards Euphrates, if it were so indeed +that any counsel of Pompey’s, and not some superior power, made him take this +other way. +</p> + +<p> +As soon, therefore, as it was resolved upon, that he should fly into Egypt, +setting sail from Cyprus in a galley of Seleucia, together with Cornelia, while +the rest of his company sailed along near him, some in ships of war, and others +in merchant vessels, he passed over sea without danger. But on hearing that +king Ptolemy was posted with his army at the city of Pelusium, making war +against his sister, he steered his course that way, and sent a messenger before +to acquaint the king with his arrival, and to crave his protection. Ptolemy +himself was quite young, and therefore Pothinus, who had the principal +administration of all affairs, called a council of the chief men, those being +the greatest whom he pleased to make so, and commanded them every man to +deliver his opinion touching the reception of Pompey. It was, indeed, a +miserable thing, that the fate of the great Pompey should be left to the +determinations of Pothinus the eunuch, Theodotus of Chios, the paid rhetoric +master, and Achillas the Egyptian. For these, among the chamberlains and menial +domestics, that made up the rest of the council, were the chief and leading +men. Pompey, who thought it dishonorable for him to owe his safety to Caesar, +riding at anchor at a distance from shore, was forced to wait the sentence of +this tribunal. It seems they were so far different in their opinions that some +were for sending the man away, and others again for inviting and receiving him; +but Theodotus, to show his cleverness and the cogency of his rhetoric, +undertook to demonstrate, that neither the one nor the other was safe in that +juncture of affairs. For if they entertained him, they would be sure to make +Caesar their enemy, and Pompey their master; or if they dismissed him, they +might render themselves hereafter obnoxious to Pompey, for that inhospitable +expulsion, and to Caesar, for the escape; so that the most expedient course +would be to send for him and take away his life, for by that means they would +ingratiate themselves with the one, and have no reason to fear the other; +adding, it is related, with a smile, that “a dead man cannot bite.” +</p> + +<p> +This advice being approved of, they committed the execution of it to Achillas. +He, therefore, taking with him as his accomplices one Septimius, a man that had +formerly held a command under Pompey, and Salvius, another centurion, with +three or four attendants, made up towards Pompey’s galley. In the meantime, all +the chiefest of those who accompanied Pompey in this voyage, were come into his +ship to learn the event of their embassy. But when they saw the manner of their +reception, that in appearance it was neither princely nor honorable, nor indeed +in any way answerable to the hopes of Theophanes, or their expectation, (for +there came but a few men in a fisherman’s boat to meet them,) they began to +suspect the meanness of their entertainment, and gave warning to Pompey that he +should row back his galley, whilst he was out of their reach, and make for the +sea. By this time, the Egyptian boat drew near, and Septimius standing up +first, saluted Pompey in the Latin tongue, by the title of imperator. Then +Achillas, saluting him in the Greek language, desired him to come aboard his +vessel, telling him, that the sea was very shallow towards the shore, and that +a galley of that burden could not avoid striking upon the sands. At the same +time they saw several of the king’s galleys getting their men on board, and all +the shore covered with soldiers; so that even if they changed their minds, it +seemed impossible for them to escape, and besides, their distrust would have +given the assassins a pretence for their cruelty. Pompey, therefore, taking his +leave of Cornelia, who was already lamenting his death before it came, bade two +centurions, with Philip, one of his freedmen, and a slave called Scythes, go on +board the boat before him. And as some of the crew with Achillas were reaching +out their hands to help him, he turned about towards his wife and son, and +repeated those iambics of Sophocles, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He that once enters at a tyrant’s door,<br/> +Becomes a slave, though he were free before. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +These were the last words he spoke to his friends, and so he went aboard. +Observing presently that notwithstanding there was a considerable distance +betwixt his galley and the shore, yet none of the company addressed any words +of friendliness or welcome to him all the way, he looked earnestly upon +Septimius, and said, “I am not mistaken, surely, in believing you to have been +formerly my fellow-soldier.” But he only nodded with his head, making no reply +at all, nor showing any other courtesy. Since, therefore, they continued +silent, Pompey took a little book in his hand, in which was written out an +address in Greek, which he intended to make to king Ptolemy, and began to read +it. When they drew near to the shore, Cornelia, together with the rest of his +friends in the galley, was very impatient to see the event, and began to take +courage at last, when she saw several of the royal escort coming to meet him, +apparently to give him a more honorable reception; but in the meantime, as +Pompey took Philip by the hand to rise up more easily, Septimius first stabbed +him from behind with his sword; and after him likewise Salvius and Achillas +drew out their swords. He, therefore, taking up his gown with both hands, drew +it over his face, and neither saying nor doing anything unworthy of himself, +only groaning a little, endured the wounds they gave him, and so ended his +life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, the very next day after the day of +his birth. +</p> + +<p> +Cornelia, with her company from the galley, seeing him murdered, gave such a +cry that it was heard to the shore, and weighing anchor with all speed, they +hoisted sail, and fled. A strong breeze from the shore assisted their flight +into the open sea, so that the Egyptians, though desirous to overtake them, +desisted from the pursuit. But they cut off Pompey’s head, and threw the rest +of his body overboard, leaving it naked upon the shore, to be viewed by any +that had the curiosity to see so sad a spectacle. Philip stayed by and watched +till they had glutted their eyes in viewing it; and then washing it with +sea-water, having nothing else, he wrapped it up in a shirt of his own for a +winding-sheet. Then seeking up and down about the sands, at last he found some +rotten planks of a little fisher-boat, not much, but yet enough to make up a +funeral pile for a naked body, and that not quite entire. As Philip was busy in +gathering and putting these old planks together, an old Roman citizen, who in +his youth had served in the wars under Pompey, came up to him and demanded, who +he was that was preparing the funeral of Pompey the Great. And Philip making +answer, that he was his freedman, “Nay, then,” said he, “you shall not have +this honor alone; let even me, too, I pray you, have my share in such a pious +office. that I may not altogether repent me of this pilgrimage in a strange +land, but in compensation of many misfortunes, may obtain this happiness at +last, even with mine own hands to touch the body of Pompey, and do the last +duties to the greatest general among the Romans.” And in this manner were the +obsequies of Pompey performed. The next day Lucius Lentulus, not knowing what +had passed, came sailing from Cyprus along the shore of that coast, and seeing +a funeral pile, and Philip standing by, exclaimed, before he was yet seen by +any one, “Who is this that has found his end here?” adding, after a short +pause, with a sigh, “Possibly even thou, Pompeius Magnus!” and so going ashore, +he was presently apprehended and slain. This was the end of Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after, Caesar arrived in the country that was polluted with this foul +act, and when one of the Egyptians was sent to present him with Pompey’s head, +he turned away from him with abhorrence as from a murderer; and on receiving +his seal, on which was engraved a lion holding a sword in his paw, he burst +into tears. Achillas and Pothinus he put to death; and king Ptolemy himself, +being overthrown in battle upon the banks of the Nile, fled away and was never +heard of afterwards. Theodotus, the rhetorician, flying out of Egypt, escaped +the hands of Caesar’s justice, but lived a vagabond in banishment; wandering up +and down, despised and hated of all men, till at last Marcus Brutus, after he +had killed Caesar, finding him in his province of Asia, put him to death, with +every kind of ignominy. The ashes of Pompey were carried to his wife Cornelia, +who deposited them at his country house near Alba. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap46"></a>COMPARISON OF POMPEY AND AGESILAUS</h2> + +<p> +Thus having drawn out the history of the lives of Agesilaus and Pompey, the +next thing is to compare them; and in order to this, to take a cursory view, +and bring together the points in which they chiefly disagree; which are these. +In the first place, Pompey attained to all his greatness and glory by the +fairest and justest means, owing his advancement to his own efforts, and to the +frequent and important aid which he rendered Sylla, in delivering Italy from +its tyrants. But Agesilaus appears to have obtained his kingdom, not without +offense both towards gods and towards men, towards these, by procuring judgment +of bastardy against Leotychides, whom his brother had declared his lawful son, +and towards those, by putting a false gloss upon the oracle, and eluding its +sentence against his lameness. Secondly, Pompey never ceased to display his +respect for Sylla during his lifetime, and expressed it also after his death, +by enforcing the honorable interment of his corpse, in despite of Lepidus, and +by giving his daughter in marriage to his son Faustus. But Agesilaus, upon a +slight presence, cast off Lysander with reproach and dishonor. Yet Sylla in +fact had owed to Pompey’s services, as much as Pompey ever received from him, +whereas Lysander made Agesilaus king of Sparta, and general of all Greece. +Thirdly, Pompey’s transgressions of right and justice in his political life +were occasioned chiefly by his relations with other people, and most of his +errors had some affinity, as well as himself, to Caesar and Scipio, his +fathers-in-law. But Agesilaus, to gratify the fondness of his son, saved the +life of Sphodrias by a sort of violence, when he deserved death for the wrong +he had done to the Athenians; and when Phoebidas treacherously broke the peace +with Thebes, zealously abetted him for the sake, it was clear, of the unjust +act itself. In short, what mischief soever Pompey might be said to have brought +on Rome through compliance with the wishes of his friends or through +inadvertency, Agesilaus may be said to have brought on Sparta out of obstinacy +and malice, by kindling the Boeotian war. And if, moreover, we are to attribute +any part of these disasters to some personal ill-fortune attaching to the men +themselves, in the case of Pompey, certainly, the Romans had no reason to +anticipate it. Whereas Agesilaus would not suffer the Lacedaemonians to avoid +what they foresaw and were forewarned must attend the “lame sovereignty.” For +had Leotychides been chargeable ten thousand times as foreign and spurious, yet +the race of the Eurypontidae was still in being, and could easily have +furnished Sparta with a lawful king, that was sound in his limbs, had not +Lysander darkened and disguised the true sense of the oracle in favor of +Agesilaus. +</p> + +<p> +Such a politic piece of sophistry as was devised by Agesilaus, in that great +perplexity of the people as to the treatment to be given to those who had +played the coward at the battle of Leuctra, when after that unhappy defeat, he +decreed, that the laws should sleep for that day, it would be hard to find any +parallel to; neither indeed have we the fellow of it in all Pompey’s story. But +on the contrary, Pompey for a friend thought it no sin to break those very laws +which he himself had made; as if to show at once the force of his friendship, +and the greatness of his power; whereas Agesilaus, under the necessity, as it +seemed, of either rescinding the laws, or not saving the citizens, contrived an +expedient by the help of which the laws should not touch these citizens, and +yet should not, to avoid it, be overthrown. Then I must commend it as an +incomparable act of civil virtue and obedience in Agesilaus, that immediately +upon the receipt of the scytala, he left the wars in Asia, and returned into +his country. For he did not like Pompey merely advance his country’s interest +by acts that contributed at the same time to promote his own greatness, but +looking to his country’s good, for its sake laid aside as great authority and +honor as ever any man had before or since, except Alexander the Great. +</p> + +<p> +But now to take another point of view, if we sum up Pompey’s military +expeditions and exploits of war, the number of his trophies, and the greatness +of the powers which he subdued, and the multitude of battles in which he +triumphed, I am persuaded even Xenophon himself would not put the victories of +Agesilaus in balance with his, though Xenophon has this privilege allowed him, +as a sort of special reward for his other excellences, that he may write and +speak, in favor of his hero, whatever he pleases. Methinks, too, there is a +great deal of difference betwixt these men, in their clemency and moderation +towards their enemies. For Agesilaus, while attempting to enslave Thebes and +exterminate Messene, the latter, his country’s ancient associate, and Thebes, +the mother-city of his own royal house, almost lost Sparta itself, and did +really lose the government of Greece; whereas Pompey gave cities to those of +the pirates who were willing to change their manner of life; and when it was in +his power to lead Tigranes, king of Armenia, in triumph, he chose rather to +make him a confederate of the Romans, saying, that a single day was worth less +than all future time. But if the preeminence in that which relates to the +office and virtues of a general, should be determined by the greatest and most +important acts and counsels of war, the Lacedaemonian would not a little exceed +the Roman. For Agesilaus never deserted his city, though it was besieged by an +army of seventy thousand men, when there were very few soldiers within to +defend it, and those had been defeated too, but a little before, at the battle +of Leuctra. But Pompey, when Caesar with a body only of fifty-three hundred +men, had taken but one town in Italy, departed in a panic out of Rome, either +through cowardice, when there were so few, or at least through a false and +mistaken belief that there were more; and having conveyed away his wife and +children, he left all the rest of the citizens defenseless, and fled; whereas +he ought either to have conquered in fight for the defense of his country, or +yielded upon terms to the conqueror, who was moreover his fellow-citizen, and +allied to him; but now to the same man to whom he refused a prolongation of the +term of his government, and thought it intolerable to grant another consulship, +to him he gave the power, by letting him take the city, to tell Metellus, +together with all the rest, that they were his prisoners. +</p> + +<p> +That which is chiefly the office of a general, to force the enemy into fighting +when he finds himself the stronger, and to avoid being driven into it himself +when he is the weaker, this excellence Agesilaus always displayed, and by it +kept himself invincible; whereas in contending with Pompey, Caesar, who was the +weaker, successfully declined the danger, and his own strength being in his +land forces. drove him into putting the conflict to issue with these, and thus +made himself master of the treasure, stores, and the sea too, which were all in +his enemy’s hands, and by the help of which the victory could have been secured +without fighting. And what is alleged as an apology in vindication of Pompey, +is to a general of his age and standing the greatest of disgraces. For, +granting that a young commander might by clamor and outcry be deprived of his +fortitude and strength of mind, and weakly forsake his better judgment, and the +thing be neither strange nor altogether unpardonable, yet for Pompey the Great, +whose camp the Romans called their country, and his tent the senate, styling +the consuls, praetors, and all other magistrates who were conducting, the +government at Rome, by no better title than that of rebels and traitors, for +him, whom they well knew never to have been under the command of any but +himself, having served all his campaigns under himself as sole general, for him +upon so small a provocation as the scoffs of Favonius and Domitius, and lest he +should bear the nickname of Agamemnon, to be wrought upon, and even forced to +hazard the whole empire and liberty of Rome upon the cast of a die, was surely +indeed intolerable. Who, if he had so much regarded a present infamy, should +have guarded the city at first with his arms, and fought the battle in defense +of Rome, not have left it as he did; nor while declaring his flight from Italy +an artifice in the manner of Themistocles, nevertheless be ashamed in Thessaly +of a prudent delay before engaging. Heaven had not appointed the Pharsalian +fields to be the stage and theater upon which they should contend for the +empire of Rome, neither was he summoned thither by any herald upon challenge, +with intimation that he must either undergo the combat, or surrender the prize +to another. There were many other fields, thousands of cities, and even the +whole earth placed at his command, by the advantage of his fleet, and his +superiority at sea, if he would but have followed the examples of Maximus, +Marius, Lucullus, and even Agesilaus himself, who endured no less tumults +within the city of Sparta, when the Thebans provoked him to come out and fight +in defense of the land, and sustained in Egypt also numerous calumnies, +slanders, and suspicions on the part of the king, whom he counseled to abstain +from a battle. And thus following always what he had determined in his own +judgment upon mature advice, by that means he not only preserved the Egyptians, +against their wills, not only kept Sparta, in those desperate convulsions, by +his sole act, safe from overthrow, but even was able to set up trophies +likewise in the city over the Thebans, having given his countrymen an occasion +of being victorious afterwards by not at first leading them out, as they tried +to force him to do to their own destruction. The consequence was that in the +end Agesilaus was commended by the very men, when they found themselves saved, +upon whom he had put this compulsion, whereas Pompey, whose error had been +occasioned by others, found those his accusers whose advice had misled him. +Some indeed profess that he was deceived by his father-in-law Scipio, who, +designing to conceal and keep to himself the greatest part of that treasure +which he had brought out of Asia, pressed Pompey to battle, upon the pretence +that there would be a want of money. Yet admitting he was deceived, one in his +place ought not to have been so, nor should have allowed so slight an artifice +to cause the hazard of such mighty interests. And thus we have taken a view of +each, by comparing together their conduct, and actions in war. +</p> + +<p> +As to their voyages into Egypt, one steered his course thither out of necessity +in flight; the other neither honorably, nor of necessity, but as a mercenary +soldier, having enlisted himself into the service of a barbarous nation for +pay, that he might be able afterwards to wage war upon the Greeks. And +secondly, what we charge upon the Egyptians in the name of Pompey, the +Egyptians lay to the charge of Agesilaus. Pompey trusted them and was betrayed +and murdered by them; Agesilaus accepted their confidence and deserted them, +transferring his aid to the very enemies who were now attacking those whom be +had been brought over to assist. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap47"></a>ALEXANDER</h2> + +<p> +It being my purpose to write the lives of Alexander the king, and of Caesar, by +whom Pompey was destroyed, the multitude of their great actions affords so +large a field that I were to blame if I should not by way of apology forewarn +my reader that I have chosen rather to epitomize the most celebrated parts of +their story, than to insist at large on every particular circumstance of it. It +must be borne in mind that my design is not to write histories, but lives. And +the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with the clearest +discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter of less moment, an +expression or a jest, informs us better of their characters and inclinations, +than the most famous sieges, the greatest armaments, or the bloodiest battles +whatsoever. Therefore as portrait-painters are more exact in the lines and +features of the face in which the character is seen, than in the other parts of +the body, so I must be allowed to give my more particular attention to the +marks and indications of the souls of men, and while I endeavor by these to +portray their lives, may be free to leave more weighty matters and great +battles to be treated of by others. +</p> + +<p> +It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father’s side, Alexander descended +from Hercules by Caranus, and from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on the mother’s side. +His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was quite young, fell in love +there with Olympias, in company with whom he was initiated in the religious +ceremonies of the country, and her father and mother being both dead, soon +after, with the consent of her brother Arymbas, he married her. The night +before the consummation of their marriage, she dreamed that a thunderbolt fell +upon her body, which kindled a great fire, whose divided flames dispersed +themselves all about, and then were extinguished. And Philip some time after he +was married, dreamt that he sealed up his wife’s body with a seal, whose +impression, as he fancied, was the figure of a lion. Some of the diviners +interpreted this as a warning to Philip to look narrowly to his wife; but +Aristander of Telmessus, considering how unusual it was to seal up anything +that was empty, assured him the meaning of his dream was, that the queen was +with child of a boy, who would one day prove as stout and courageous as a lion. +Once, moreover, a serpent was found lying by Olympias as she slept, which more +than anything else, it is said, abated Philip’s passion for her; and whether he +feared her as an enchantress, or thought she had commerce with some god, and so +looked on himself as excluded, he was ever after less fond of her conversation. +Others say, that the women of this country having always been extremely +addicted to the enthusiastic Orphic rites, and the wild worship of Bacchus, +(upon which account they were called Clodones, and Mimallones,) imitated in +many things the practices of the Edonian and Thracian women about Mount Haemus, +from whom the word threskeuein, seems to have been derived, as a special term +for superfluous and over-curious forms of adoration; and that Olympias, +zealously affecting these fanatical and enthusiastic inspirations, to perform +them with more barbaric dread, was wont in the dances proper to these +ceremonies to have great tame serpents about her, which sometimes creeping out +of the ivy and the mystic fans, sometimes winding themselves about the sacred +spears, and the women’s chaplets, made a spectacle which the men could not look +upon without terror. +</p> + +<p> +Philip, after this vision, sent Chaeron of Megalopolis to consult the oracle of +Apollo at Delphi, by which he was commanded to perform sacrifice, and +henceforth pay particular honor, above all other gods, to Ammon; and was told +he should one day lose that eye with which he presumed to peep through the +chink of the door, when he saw the god, under the form of a serpent, in the +company of his wife. Eratosthenes says that Olympias, when she attended +Alexander on his way to the army in his first expedition, told him the secret +of his birth, and bade him behave himself with courage suitable to his divine +extraction. Others again affirm that she wholly disclaimed any pretensions of +the kind, and was wont to say, “When will Alexander leave off slandering me to +Juno?” +</p> + +<p> +Alexander was born the sixth of Hecatombaeon, which month the Macedonians call +Lous, the same day that the temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt; which +Hegesias of Magnesia makes the occasion of a conceit, frigid enough to have +stopped the conflagration. The temple, he says, took fire and was burnt while +its mistress was absent, assisting at the birth of Alexander. And all the +Eastern soothsayers who happened to be then at Ephesus, looking upon the ruin +of this temple to be the forerunner of some other calamity, ran about the town, +beating their faces, and crying, that this day had brought forth something that +would prove fatal and destructive to all Asia. +</p> + +<p> +Just after Philip had taken Potidaea, he received these three messages at one +time, that Parmenio had overthrown the Illyrians in a great battle, that his +race-horse had won the course at the Olympic games, and that his wife had given +birth to Alexander; with which being naturally well pleased, as an addition to +his satisfaction, he was assured by the diviners that a son, whose birth was +accompanied with three such successes, could not fail of being invincible. +</p> + +<p> +The statues that gave the best representation of Alexander’s person, were those +of Lysippus, (by whom alone he would suffer his image to be made,) those +peculiarities which many of his successors afterwards and his friends used to +affect to imitate, the inclination of his head a little on one side towards his +left shoulder, and his melting eye, having been expressed by this artist with +great exactness. But Apelles, who drew him with thunderbolts in his hand, made +his complexion browner and darker than it was naturally; for he was fair and of +a light color, passing into ruddiness in his face and upon his breast. +Aristoxenus in his Memoirs tells us that a most agreeable odor exhaled from his +skin, and that his breath and body all over was so fragrant as to perfume the +clothes which he wore next him; the cause of which might probably be the hot +and adjust temperament of his body. For sweet smells, Theophrastus conceives, +are produced by the concoction of moist humors by heat, which is the reason +that those parts of the world which are driest and most burnt up, afford spices +of the best kind, and in the greatest quantity; for the heat of the sun +exhausts all the superfluous moisture which lies in the surface of bodies, +ready to generate putrefaction. And this hot constitution, it may be, rendered +Alexander so addicted to drinking, and so choleric. His temperance, as to the +pleasures of the body, was apparent in him in his very childhood, as he was +with much difficulty incited to them, and always used them with great +moderation; though in other things he was extremely eager and vehement, and in +his love of glory, and the pursuit of it, he showed a solidity of high spirit +and magnanimity far above his age. For he neither sought nor valued it upon +every occasion, as his father Philip did, (who affected to show his eloquence +almost to a degree of pedantry, and took care to have the victories of his +racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved on his coin,) but when he was +asked by some about him, whether he would run a race in the Olympic games, as +he was very swift-footed, he answered, he would, if he might have kings to run +with him. Indeed, he seems in general to have looked with indifference, if not +with dislike, upon the professed athletes. He often appointed prizes, for which +not only tragedians and musicians, pipers and harpers, but rhapsodists also, +strove to outvie one another; and delighted in all manner of hunting and +cudgel-playing, but never gave any encouragement to contests either of boxing +or of the pancratium. +</p> + +<p> +While he was yet very young, he entertained the ambassadors from the king of +Persia, in the absence of his father, and entering much into conversation with +them, gained so much upon them by his affability, and the questions he asked +them, which were far from being childish or trifling, (for he inquired of them +the length of the ways, the nature of the road into inner Asia, the character +of their king, how he carried himself to his enemies, and what forces he was +able to bring, into the field,) that they were struck with admiration of him, +and looked upon the ability so much famed of Philip, to be nothing in +comparison with the forwardness and high purpose that appeared thus early in +his son. Whenever he heard Philip had taken any town of importance, or won any +signal victory, instead of rejoicing at it altogether, he would tell his +companions that his father would anticipate everything, and leave him and them +no opportunities of performing great and illustrious actions. For being more +bent upon action and glory than either upon pleasure or riches, he esteemed all +that he should receive from his father as a diminution and prevention of his +own future achievements; and would have chosen rather to succeed to a kingdom +involved in troubles and wars, which would have afforded him frequent exercise +of his courage, and a large field of honor, than to one already flourishing and +settled, where his inheritance would be an inactive life, and the mere +enjoyment of wealth and luxury. +</p> + +<p> +The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed to a great +many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the whole of whom Leonidas, a +near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an austere temper, presided, who did not +indeed himself decline the name of what in reality is a noble and honorable +office, but in general his dignity, and his near relationship, obtained him +from other people the title of Alexander’s foster father and governor. But he +who took upon him the actual place and style of his pedagogue, was Lysimachus +the Acarnanian, who, though he had nothing specially to recommend him, but his +lucky fancy of calling himself Phoenix, Alexander Achilles, and Philip Peleus, +was therefore well enough esteemed, and ranked in the next degree after +Leonidas. +</p> + +<p> +Philonicus the Thessalian brought the horse Bucephalas to Philip, offering to +sell him for thirteen talents; but when they went into the field to try him, +they found him so very vicious and unmanageable, that he reared up when they +endeavored to mount him, and would not so much as endure the voice of any of +Philip’s attendants. Upon which, as they were leading him away as wholly +useless and untractable, Alexander, who stood by, said, “What an excellent +horse do they lose, for want of address and boldness to manage him!” Philip at +first took no notice of what he said; but when he heard him repeat the same +thing several times, and saw he was much vexed to see the horse sent away, “Do +you reproach,” said he to him, “those who are older than yourself, as if you +knew more, and were better able to manage him than they?” “I could manage this +horse,” replied he, “better than others do.” “And if you do not,” said Philip, +“what will you forfeit for your rashness?” “I will pay,” answered Alexander, +“the whole price of the horse.” At this the whole company fell a laughing; and +as soon as the wager was settled amongst them, he immediately ran to the horse, +and taking hold of the bridle, turned him directly towards the sun, having, it +seems, observed that he was disturbed at and afraid of the motion of his own +shadow; then letting him go forward a little, still keeping the reins in his +hand, and stroking him gently when he found him begin to grow eager and fiery, +he let fall his upper garment softly, and with one nimble leap securely mounted +him, and when he was seated, by little and little drew in the bridle, and +curbed him without either striking or spurring him. Presently, when he found +him free from all rebelliousness, and on]y impatient for the course, he let him +go at full speed, inciting him now with a commanding voice, and urging him also +with his heel. Philip and his friends looked on at first in silence and anxiety +for the result, till seeing him turn at the end of his career, and come back +rejoicing and triumphing for what he had performed, they all burst out into +acclamations of applause; and his father, shedding tears, it is said, for joy, +kissed him as he came down from his horse, and in his transport, said, “O my +son, look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is +too little for thee.” +</p> + +<p> +After this, considering him to be of a temper easy to be led to his duty by +reason, but by no means to be compelled, he always endeavored to persuade +rather than to command or force him to anything; and now looking upon the +instruction and tuition of his youth to be of greater difficulty and +importance, than to be wholly trusted to the ordinary masters in music and +poetry, and the common school subjects, and to require, as Sophocles says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The bridle and the rudder too, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +he sent for Aristotle, the most learned and most cerebrated philosopher of his +time, and rewarded him with a munificence proportionable to and becoming the +care he took to instruct his son. For he repeopled his native city Stagira, +which he had caused to be demolished a little before, and restored all the +citizens who were in exile or slavery, to their habitations. As a place for the +pursuit of their studies and exercises, he assigned the temple of the Nymphs, +near Mieza, where, to this very day, they show you Aristotle’s stone seats, and +the shady walks which he was wont to frequent. It would appear that Alexander +received from him not only his doctrines of Morals, and of Politics, but also +something of those more abstruse and profound theories which these +philosophers, by the very names they gave them, professed to reserve for oral +communication to the initiated, and did not allow many to become acquainted +with. For when he was in Asia, and heard Aristotle had published some treatises +of that kind, he wrote to him, using very plain language to him in behalf of +philosophy, the following letter. “Alexander to Aristotle greeting. You have +not done well to publish your books of oral doctrine; for what is there now +that we excel others in, if those things which we have been particularly +instructed in be laid open to all? For my part, I assure you, I had rather +excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my +power and dominion. Farewell.” And Aristotle, soothing this passion for +preeminence, speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these doctrines, as in fact +both published and not published: as indeed, to say the truth, his books on +metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless for ordinary +teaching, and instructive only, in the way of memoranda, for those who have +been already conversant in that sort of learning. +</p> + +<p> +Doubtless also it was to Aristotle, that he owed the inclination he had, not to +the theory only, but likewise to the practice of the art of medicine. For when +any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe them their course of +diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may find in his epistles. He +was naturally a great lover of all kinds of learning and reading; and +Onesicritus informs us, that he constantly laid Homer’s Iliads, according to +the copy corrected by Aristotle, called the casket copy, with his dagger under +his pillow, declaring that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all +military virtue and knowledge. When he was in the upper Asia, being destitute +of other books, he ordered Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him with +Philistus’s History, a great many of the plays of Euripides, Sophocles, and +Aeschylus, and some dithyrambic odes, composed by Telestes and Philoxenus. For +awhile he loved and cherished Aristotle no less, as he was wont to say himself, +than if he had been his father, giving this reason for it, that as he had +received life from the one, so the other had taught him to live well. But +afterwards, upon some mistrust of him, yet not so great as to make him do him +any hurt, his familiarity and friendly kindness to him abated so much of its +former force and affectionateness, as to make it evident he was alienated from +him. However, his violent thirst after and passion for learning, which were +once implanted, still grew up with him, and never decayed; as appears by his +veneration of Anaxarchus, by the present of fifty talents which he sent to +Xenocrates, and his particular care and esteem of Dandamis and Calanus. +</p> + +<p> +While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he left Alexander, +then sixteen years old, his lieutenant in Macedonia, committing the charge of +his seal to him; who, not to sit idle, reduced the rebellious Maedi, and having +taken their chief town by storm, drove out the barbarous inhabitants, and +planting a colony of several nations in their room, called the place after his +own name, Alexandropolis. At the battle of Chaeronea, which his father fought +against the Grecians, he is said to have been the first man that charged the +Thebans’ sacred band. And even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near +the river Cephisus, which people called Alexander’s oak, because his tent was +pitched under it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of the Macedonians +who fell in that battle. This early bravery made Philip so fond of him, that +nothing pleased him more than to hear his subjects call himself their general +and Alexander their king. +</p> + +<p> +But the disorders of his family, chiefly caused by his new marriages and +attachments, (the troubles that began in the women’s chambers spreading, so to +say, to the whole kingdom,) raised various complaints and differences between +them, which the violence of Olympias, a woman of a jealous and implacable +temper, made wider, by exasperating Alexander against his father. Among the +rest, this accident contributed most to their falling out. At the wedding of +Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young +for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore +the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so +irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, “You villain,” +said he, “what, am I then a bastard?” Then Philip taking Attalus’s part, rose +up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, +either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so +that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over +him: “See there,” said he, “the man, who makes preparations to pass out of +Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another.” After this +debauch, he and his mother Olympias withdrew from Philip’s company, and when he +had placed her in Epirus, he himself retired into Illyria. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, Demaratus the Corinthian, an old friend of the family, who had +the freedom to say anything among them without offense, coming to visit Philip, +after the first compliments and embraces were over, Philip asked him, whether +the Grecians were at amity with one another. “It ill becomes you,” replied +Demaratus, “to be so solicitous about Greece, when you have involved your own +house in so many dissensions and calamities.” He was so convinced by this +seasonable reproach, that he immediately sent for his son home, and by +Demartatus’s mediation prevailed with him to return. But this reconciliation +lasted not long; for when Pixodorus, viceroy of Caria, sent Aristocritus to +treat for a match between his eldest daughter and Philip’s son Arrhidaeus, +hoping by this alliance to secure his assistance upon occasion, Alexander’s +mother, and some who pretended to be his friends, presently filled his head +with tales and calumnies, as if Philip, by a splendid marriage and important +alliance, were preparing the way for settling the kingdom upon Arrhidaeus. In +alarm at this, he dispatched Thessalus, the tragic actor, into Caria, to +dispose Pixodorus to slight Arrhidaeus, both as illegitimate and a fool, and +rather to accept of himself for his son-in-law. This proposition was much more +agreeable to Pixodorus than the former. But Philip, as soon as he was made +acquainted with this transaction, went to his son’s apartment, taking with him +Philotas, the son of Parmenio, one of Alexander’s intimate friends and +companions, and there reproved him severely, and reproached him bitterly, that +he should be so degenerate, and unworthy of the power he was to leave him, as +to desire the alliance of a mean Carian, who was at best but the slave of a +barbarous prince. Nor did this satisfy his resentment, for he wrote to the +Corinthians, to send Thessalus to him in chains, and banished Harpalus, +Nearchus, Erigyius, and Ptolemy, his son’s friends and favorites, whom +Alexander afterwards recalled, and raised to great honor and preferment. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after this, Pausanias, having had an outrage done to him at the +instance of Attalus and Cleopatra, when he found he could get no reparation for +his disgrace at Philip’s hands, watched his opportunity and murdered him. The +guilt of which fact was laid for the most part upon Olympias, who was said to +have encouraged and exasperated the enraged youth to revenge; and some sort of +suspicion attached even to Alexander himself, who, it was said, when Pausanias +came and complained to him of the injury he had received, repeated the verse +out of Euripides’s Medea: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +On husband, and on father, and on bride. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +However, he took care to find out and punish the accomplices of the conspiracy +severely, and was very angry with Olympias for treating Cleopatra inhumanly in +his absence. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander was but twenty years old when his father was murdered, and succeeded +to a kingdom beset on all sides with great dangers, and rancorous enemies. For +not only the barbarous nations that bordered on Macedonia, were impatient of +being governed by any but their own native princes; but Philip likewise, though +he had been victorious over the Grecians, yet, as the time had not been +sufficient for him to complete his conquest and accustom them to his sway, had +simply left all things in a general disorder and confusion. It seemed to the +Macedonians a very critical time; and some would have persuaded Alexander to +give up all thought of retaining the Grecians in subjection by force of arms, +and rather to apply himself to win back by gentle means the allegiance of the +tribes who were designing revolt, and try the effect of indulgence in arresting +the first motions towards revolution. But he rejected this counsel as weak and +timorous, and looked upon it to be more prudence to secure himself by +resolution and magnanimity, than, by seeming to buckle to any, to encourage all +to trample on him. In pursuit of this opinion, he reduced the barbarians to +tranquility, and put an end to all fear of war from them, by a rapid expedition +into their country as far as the river Danube, where he gave Syrmus, king of +the Triballians, an entire overthrow. And hearing the Thebans were in revolt, +and the Athenians in correspondence with them, he immediately marched through +the pass of Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes who had called him a child +while he was in Illyria and in the country of the Triballians, and a youth when +he was in Thessaly, he would appear a man before the walls of Athens. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to Thebes, to show how willing he was to accept of their +repentance for what was past, he only demanded of them Phoenix and Prothytes, +the authors of the rebellion, and proclaimed a general pardon to those who +would come over to him. But when the Thebans merely retorted by demanding +Philotas and Antipater to be delivered into their hands, and by a proclamation +on their part, invited all who would assert the liberty of Greece to come over +to them, he presently applied himself to make them feel the last extremities of +war. The Thebans indeed defended themselves with a zeal and courage beyond +their strength, being much outnumbered by their enemies. But when the +Macedonian garrison sallied out upon them from the citadel, they were so hemmed +in on all sides, that the greater part of them fell in the battle; the city +itself being taken by storm, was sacked and razed, Alexander’s hope being that +so severe an example might terrify the rest of Greece into obedience, and also +in order to gratify the hostility of his confederates, the Phocians and +Plataeans. So that, except the priests, and some few who had heretofore been +the friends and connections of the Macedonians, the family of the poet Pindar, +and those who were known to have opposed the public vote for the war, all the +rest, to the number of thirty thousand, were publicly sold for slaves; and it +is computed that upwards of six thousand were put to the sword. Among the other +calamities that befell the city, it happened that some Thracian soldiers having +broken into the house of a matron of high character and repute, named Timoclea, +their captain, after he had used violence with her, to satisfy his avarice as +well as lust, asked her, if she knew of any money concealed; to which she +readily answered she did, and bade him follow her into a garden, where she +showed him a well, into which, she told him, upon the taking of the city she +had thrown what she had of most value. The greedy Thracian presently stooping +down to view the place where he thought the treasure lay, she came behind him, +and pushed him into the well, and then flung great stones in upon him, till she +had killed him. After which, when the soldiers led her away bound to Alexander, +her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity, and of a mind no +less elevated, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. And when +the king asked her who she was, “I am,” said she, “the sister of Theagenes, who +fought the battle of Chaeronea with your father Philip, and fell there in +command for the liberty of Greece.” Alexander was so surprised, both at what +she had done, and what she said, that he could not choose but give her and her +children their freedom to go whither they pleased. +</p> + +<p> +After this he received the Athenians into favor, although they had shown +themselves so much concerned at the calamity of Thebes that out of sorrow they +omitted the celebration of the Mysteries, and entertained those who escaped +with all possible humanity. Whether it were, like the lion, that his passion +was now satisfied, or that after an example of extreme cruelty, he had a mind +to appear merciful, it happened well for the Athenians; for he not only forgave +them all past offenses, but bade them to look to their affairs with vigilance, +remembering that if he should miscarry, they were likely to be the arbiters of +Greece. Certain it is, too, that in after-time he often repented of his +severity to the Thebans, and his remorse had such influence on his temper as to +make him ever after less rigorous to all others. He imputed also the murder of +Clitus, which he committed in his wine, and the unwillingness of the +Macedonians to follow him against the Indians, by which his enterprise and +glory was left imperfect, to the wrath and vengeance of Bacchus, the protector +of Thebes. And it was observed that whatsoever any Theban, who had the good +fortune to survive this victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant without the +least difficulty. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after, the Grecians, being assembled at the Isthmus, declared their +resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the Persians, and +proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, many public ministers and +philosophers came from all parts to visit him, and congratulated him on his +election, but contrary to his expectation, Diogenes of Sinope, who then was +living at Corinth, thought so little of him, that instead of coming to +compliment him, he never so much as stirred out of the suburb called the +Cranium, where Alexander found him lying along in the sun. When he saw so much +company near him, he raised himself a little, and vouchsafed to look upon +Alexander; and when he kindly asked him whether he wanted anything, “Yes,” said +he, “I would have you stand from between me and the sun.” Alexander was so +struck at this answer, and surprised at the greatness of the man, who had taken +so little notice of him, that as he went away, he told his followers who were +laughing at the moroseness of the philosopher, that if he were not Alexander, +he would choose to be Diogenes. +</p> + +<p> +Then he went to Delphi, to consult Apollo concerning the success of the war he +had undertaken, and happening to come on one of the forbidden days, when it was +esteemed improper to give any answers from the oracle, he sent messengers to +desire the priestess to do her office; and when she refused, on the plea of a +law to the contrary, he went up himself, and began to draw her by force into +the temple, until tired and overcome with his importunity, “My son,” said she, +“thou art invincible.” Alexander taking hold of what she spoke, declared he had +received such an answer as he wished for, and that it was needless to consult +the god any further. Among other prodigies that attended the departure of his +army, the image of Orpheus at Libethra, made of cypress-wood, was seen to sweat +in great abundance, to the discouragement of many. But Aristander told him, +that far from presaging any ill to him, it signified he should perform acts so +important and glorious as would make the poets and musicians of future ages +labor and sweat to describe and celebrate them. +</p> + +<p> +His army, by their computation who make the smallest amount, consisted of +thirty thousand foot, and four thousand horse; and those who make the most of +it, speak but of forty-three thousand foot, and three thousand horse. +Aristobulus says, he had not a fund of above seventy talents for their pay, nor +had he more than thirty days’ provision, if we may believe Duris; Onesicritus +tells us, he was two hundred talents in debt. However narrow and +disproportionable the beginnings of so vast an undertaking might seem to be, +yet he would not embark his army until he had informed himself particularly +what means his friends had to enable them to follow him, and supplied what they +wanted, by giving good farms to some, a village to one, and the revenue of some +hamlet or harbor town to another. So that at last he had portioned out or +engaged almost all the royal property; which giving Perdiccas an occasion to +ask him what he would leave himself, he replied, his hopes. “Your soldiers,” +replied Perdiccas, “will be your partners in those,” and refused to accept of +the estate he had assigned him. Some others of his friends did the like, but to +those who willingly received, or desired assistance of him, he liberally +granted it, as far as his patrimony in Macedonia would reach, the most part of +which was spent in these donations. +</p> + +<p> +With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he passed the +Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and honored the memory of the +heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations; especially Achilles, whose +gravestone he anointed, and with his friends, as the ancient custom is, ran +naked about his sepulchre, and crowned it with garlands, declaring how happy he +esteemed him, in having while he lived so faithful a friend, and when he was +dead, so famous a poet to proclaim his actions. While he was viewing the rest +of the antiquities and curiosities of the place, being told he might see +Paris’s harp, if he pleased, he said, he thought it not worth looking on, but +he should be glad to see that of Achilles, to which he used to sing the glories +and great actions of brave men. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime Darius’s captains having collected large forces, were encamped +on the further bank of the river Granicus, and it was necessary to fight, as it +were, in the gate of Asia for an entrance into it. The depth of the river, with +the unevenness and difficult ascent of the opposite bank, which was to be +gained by main force, was apprehended by most, and some pronounced it an +improper time to engage, because it was unusual for the kings of Macedonia to +march with their forces in the month called Daesius. But Alexander broke +through these scruples, telling; them they should call it a second Artemisius. +And when Parmenio advised him not to attempt anything that day, because it was +late, he told him that he should disgrace the Hellespont, should he fear the +Granicus. And so without more saying, he immediately took the river with +thirteen troops of horse, and advanced against whole showers of darts thrown +from the steep opposite side, which was covered with armed multitudes of the +enemy’s horse and foot, notwithstanding the disadvantage of the ground and the +rapidity of the stream; so that the action seemed to have more of frenzy and +desperation in it, than of prudent conduct. However, he persisted obstinately +to gain the passage, and at last with much ado making his way up the banks, +which were extremely muddy and slippery, he had instantly to join in a mere +confused hand-to-hand combat with the enemy, before he could draw up his men, +who were still passing over, into any order. For the enemy pressed upon him +with loud and warlike outcries; and charging horse against horse, with their +lances, after they had broken and spent these, they fell to it with their +swords. And Alexander, being easily known by his buckler, and a large plume of +white feathers on each side of his helmet, was attacked on all sides, yet +escaped wounding, though his cuirass was pierced by a javelin in one of the +joinings. And Rhoesaces and Spithridates, two Persian commanders, falling upon +him at once, he avoided one of them, and struck at Rhoesaces, who had a good +cuirass on, with such force, that his spear breaking in his hand, he was glad +to betake himself to his dagger. While they were thus engaged, Spithridates +came up on one side of him, and raising himself upon his horse, gave him such a +blow with his battle-axe on the helmet, that he cut off the crest of it, with +one of his plumes, and the helmet was only just so far strong enough to save +him, that the edge of the weapon touched the hair of his head. But as he was +about to repeat his stroke, Clitus, called the black Clitus, prevented him, by +running him through the body with his spear. At the same time Alexander +dispatched Rhoesaces with his sword. While the horse were thus dangerously +engaged, the Macedonian phalanx passed the river, and the foot on each side +advanced to fight. But the enemy hardly sustaining the first onset, soon gave +ground and fled, all but the mercenary Greeks, who, making a stand upon a +rising ground, desired quarter, which Alexander, guided rather by passion than +judgment, refused to grant, and charging them himself first, had his horse (not +Bucephalas, but another) killed under him. And this obstinacy of his to cut off +these experienced desperate men, cost him the lives of more of his own soldiers +than all the battle before, besides those who were wounded. The Persians lost +in this battle twenty thousand foot, and two thousand five hundred horse. On +Alexander’s side, Aristobulus says there were not wanting above four and +thirty, of whom nine were foot-soldiers; and in memory of them he caused so +many statues of brass, of Lysippus’s making, to be erected. And that the +Grecians might participate the honor of his victory, he sent a portion of the +spoils home to them, particularly to the Athenians three hundred bucklers, and +upon all the rest he ordered this inscription to be set: “Alexander the son of +Philip, and the Grecians, except the Lacedaemonians, won these from the +barbarians who inhabit Asia.” All the plate and purple garments, and other +things of the same kind that he took from the Persians, except a very small +quantity which he reserved for himself, he sent as a present to his mother. +</p> + +<p> +This battle presently made a great change of affairs to Alexander’s advantage. +For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the barbarian’s power in the maritime +provinces, and many other considerable places were surrendered to him; only +Halicarnassus and Miletus stood out, which he took by force, together with the +territory about them. After which he was a little unsettled in his opinion how +to proceed. Sometimes he thought it best to find out Darius as soon as he +could, and put all to the hazard of a battle; another while he looked upon it +as a more prudent course to make an entire reduction of the sea-coast, and not +to seek the enemy till he had first exercised his power here and made himself +secure of the resources of these provinces. While he was thus deliberating what +to do, it happened that a spring of water near the city of Xanthus in Lycia, of +its own accord swelled over its banks, and threw up a copper plate upon the +margin, in which was engraven in ancient characters, that the time would come, +when the Persian empire should be destroyed by the Grecians. Encouraged by this +accident, he proceeded to reduce the maritime parts of Cilicia and Phoenicia, +and passed his army along the sea-coasts of Pamphylia with such expedition that +many historians have described and extolled it with that height of admiration, +as if it were no less than a miracle, and an extraordinary effect of divine +favor, that the waves which usually come rolling in violently from the main, +and hardly ever leave so much as a narrow beach under the steep, broken cliffs +at any time uncovered, should on a sudden retire to afford him passage. +Menander, in one of his comedies, alludes to this marvel when he says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Was Alexander ever favored more?<br/> +Each man I wish for meets me at my door,<br/> +And should I ask for passage through the sea,<br/> +The sea I doubt not would retire for me. +</p> + +<p> +But Alexander himself in his epistles mentions nothing unusual in this at all, +but says he went from Phaselis, and passed through what they call the Ladders. +At Phaselis he stayed some time, and finding the statue of Theodectes, who was +a native of this town and was now dead, erected in the marketplace, after he +had supped, having drunk pretty plentifully, he went and danced about it, and +crowned it with garlands, honoring not ungracefully in his sport, the memory of +a philosopher whose conversation he had formerly enjoyed, when he was +Aristotle’s scholar. +</p> + +<p> +Then he subdued the Pisidians who made head against him, and conquered the +Phrygians, at whose chief city Gordium, which is said to be the seat of the +ancient Midas, he saw the famous chariot fastened with cords made of the rind +of the corner-tree, which whosoever should untie, the inhabitants had a +tradition, that for him was reserved the empire of the world. Most authors tell +the story that Alexander, finding himself unable to untie the knot, the ends of +which were secretly twisted round and folded up within it, cut it asunder with +his sword. But Aristobulus tells us it was easy for him to undo it, by only +pulling the pin out of the pole, to which the yoke was tied, and afterwards +drawing off the yoke itself from below. From hence he advanced into Paphlagonia +and Cappadocia, both which countries he soon reduced to obedience, and then +hearing of the death of Memnon, the best commander Darius had upon the +sea-coasts, who, if he had lived, might, it was supposed, have put many +impediments and difficulties in the way of the progress of his arms, he was the +rather encouraged to carry the war into the upper provinces of Asia. +</p> + +<p> +Darius was by this time upon his march from Susa, very confident, not only in +the number of his men, which amounted to six hundred thousand, but likewise in +a dream, which the Persian soothsayers interpreted rather in flattery to him, +than according to the natural probability. He dreamed that he saw the +Macedonian phalanx all on fire, and Alexander waiting on him, clad in the same +dress which he himself had been used to wear when he was courier to the late +king; after which, going into the temple of Belus, he vanished out of his +sight. The dream would appear to have supernaturally signified to him the +illustrious actions the Macedonians were to perform, and that as he from a +courier’s place had risen to the throne, so Alexander should come to be master +of Asia, and not long surviving his conquests, conclude his life with glory. +Darius’s confidence increased the more, because Alexander spent so much time in +Cilicia, which he imputed to his cowardice. But it was sickness that detained +him there, which some say he contracted from his fatigues, others from bathing +in the river Cydnus, whose waters were exceedingly cold. However it happened, +none of his physicians would venture to give him any remedies, they thought his +case so desperate, and were so afraid of the suspicions and ill-will of the +Macedonians if they should fail in the cure; till Philip, the Acarnanian, +seeing how critical his case was, but relying on his own well-known friendship +for him, resolved to try the last efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own +credit and life, than suffer him to perish for want of physic, which he +confidently administered to him, encouraging him to take it boldly, if he +desired a speedy recovery, in order to prosecute the war. At this very time, +Parmenio wrote to Alexander from the camp, bidding him have a care of Philip, +as one who was bribed by Darius to kill him, with great sums of money, and a +promise of his daughter in marriage. When he had perused the letter, he put it +under his pillow, without showing it so much as to any of his most intimate +friends, and when Philip came in with the potion, he took it with great +cheerfulness and assurance, giving him meantime the letter to read. This was a +spectacle well worth being present at, to see Alexander take the draught, and +Philip read the letter at the same time, and then turn and look upon one +another, but with different sentiments; for Alexander’s looks were cheerful and +open, to show his kindness to and confidence in his physician, while the other +was full of surprise and alarm at the accusation, appealing to the gods to +witness his innocence, sometimes lifting up his hands to heaven, and then +throwing himself down by the bedside, and beseeching Alexander to lay aside all +fear, and follow his directions without apprehension. For the medicine at first +worked so strongly as to drive, so to say, the vital forces into the interior; +he lost his speech, and falling into a swoon, had scarce any sense or pulse +left. However, in no long time, by Philip’s means, his health and strength +returned, and he showed himself in public to the Macedonians, who were in +continual fear and dejection until they saw him abroad again. +</p> + +<p> +There was at this time in Darius’s army a Macedonian refugee, named Amyntas, +one who was pretty well acquainted with Alexander’s character. This man, when +he saw Darius intended to fall upon the enemy in the passes and defiles, +advised him earnestly to keep where he was, in the open and extensive plains, +it being the advantage of a numerous army to have field-room enough when it +engages with a lesser force. Darius, instead of taking his counsel, told him he +was afraid the enemy would endeavor to run away, and so Alexander would escape +out of his hands. “That fear,” replied Amyntas, “is needless, for assure +yourself that far from avoiding, you, he will make all the speed he can to meet +you, and is now most likely on his march towards you.” But Amyntas’s counsel +was to no purpose, for Darius immediately decamping, marched into Cilicia, at +the same time that Alexander advanced into Syria to meet him; and missing one +another in the night, they both turned back again. Alexander, greatly pleased +with the event, made all the haste he could to fight in the defiles, and Darius +to recover his former ground, and draw his army out of so disadvantageous a +place. For now he began to perceive his error in engaging himself too far in a +country in which the sea, the mountains, and the river Pinarus running through +the midst of it, would necessitate him to divide his forces, render his horse +almost unserviceable, and only cover and support the weakness of the enemy. +Fortune was not kinder to Alexander in the choice of the ground, than he was +careful to improve it to his advantage. For being much inferior in numbers, so +far from allowing himself to be outflanked, he stretched his right wing much +further out than the left wing of his enemies, and fighting there himself in +the very foremost ranks, put the barbarians to flight. In this battle he was +wounded in the thigh, Chares says by Darius, with whom he fought hand to hand. +But in the account which he gave Antipater of the battle though indeed he owns +he was wounded in the thigh with sword, though not dangerously, yet he takes no +notice who it was that wounded him. +</p> + +<p> +Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which he overthrew above a +hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, but the taking the person of Darius, +who escaped very narrowly by flight. However, having taken his chariot and his +bow, he returned from pursuing him, and found his own men busy in pillaging the +barbarians’ camp, which (though to disburden themselves, they had left most of +their baggage at Damascus) was exceedingly rich. But Darius’s tent, which was +full of splendid furniture, and quantities of gold and silver, they reserved +for Alexander himself, who after he had put off his arms, went to bathe +himself, saying, “Let us now cleanse ourselves from the toils of war in the +bath of Darius.” “Not so,” replied one of his followers, “but in Alexander’s +rather; for the property of the conquered is, and should be called the +conqueror’s.” Here, when he beheld the bathing vessels, the water-pots, the +pans, and the ointment boxes, all of gold, curiously wrought, and smelt the +fragrant odors with which the whole place was exquisitely perfumed, and from +thence passed into a pavilion of great size and height, where the couches and +tables and preparations for an entertainment were perfectly magnificent, he +turned to those about him and said, “This, it seems, is royalty.” +</p> + +<p> +But as he was going to supper, word was brought him that Darius’s mother and +wife and two unmarried daughters, being taken among the rest of the prisoners, +upon the sight of his chariot and bow were all in mourning and sorrow, +imagining him to be dead. After a little pause, more livelily affected with +their affliction than with his own success he sent Leonnatus to them to let +them know Darius was not dead, and that they need not fear any harm from +Alexander, who made war upon him only for dominion; they should themselves be +provided with everything they had been used to receive from Darius. This kind +message could not but be very welcome to the captive ladies, especially being +made good by actions no less humane and generous. For he gave them leave to +bury whom they pleased of the Persians, and to make use for this purpose of +what garments and furniture they thought fit out of the booty. He diminished +nothing of their equipage, or of the attentions and respect formerly paid them, +and allowed larger pensions for their maintenance than they had before. But the +noblest and most royal part of their usage was, that he treated these +illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character, not suffering +them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend anything that was +unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some temple, or some holy +virgin chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy sacred and uninterrupted, +than in the camp of an enemy. Nevertheless Darius’s wife was accounted the most +beautiful princess then living, as her husband the tallest and handsomest man +of his time, and the daughters were not unworthy of their parents. But +Alexander, esteeming it more kingly to govern himself than to conquer his +enemies, sought no intimacy with any one of them, nor indeed with any other +woman before marriage, except Barsine, Memnon’s widow, who was taken prisoner +at Damascus. She had been instructed in the Grecian learning, was of a gentle +temper, and, by her father Artabazus, royally descended, which good qualities, +added to the solicitations and encouragement of Parmenio, as Aristobulus tells +us, made him the more willing to attach himself to so agreeable and illustrious +a woman. Of the rest of the female captives though remarkably handsome and well +proportioned, he took no further notice than to say jestingly, that Persian +women were terrible eye-sores. And he himself, retaliating, as it were, by the +display of the beauty of his own temperance and self-control, bade them be +removed, as he would have done so many lifeless images. When Philoxenus, his +lieutenant on the sea-coast, wrote to him to know if he would buy two young +boys, of great beauty, whom one Theodorus, a Tarentine, had to sell, he was so +offended, that he often expostulated with his friends, what baseness Philoxenus +had ever observed in him, that he should presume to make him such a reproachful +offer. And he immediately wrote him a very sharp letter, telling him Theodorus +and his merchandise might go with his good-will to destruction. Nor was he less +severe to Hagnon, who sent him word he would buy a Corinthian youth named +Crobylus, as a present for him. And hearing that Damon and Timotheus, two of +Parmenio’s Macedonian soldiers, had abused the wives of some strangers who were +in his pay, he wrote to Parmenio, charging him strictly, if he found them +guilty, to put them to death, as wild beasts that were only made for the +mischief of mankind. In the same letter he added, that he had not so much as +seen or desired to see the wife of Darius, no, nor suffered anybody to speak of +her beauty before him. He was wont to say, that sleep and the act of generation +chiefly made him sensible that he was mortal; as much as to say, that weariness +and pleasure proceed both from the same frailty and imbecility of human nature. +</p> + +<p> +In his diet, also, he was most temperate, as appears, omitting many other +circumstances, by what he said to Ada, whom he adopted, with the title of +mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. For when she out of kindness +sent him every day many curious dishes, and sweetmeats, and would have +furnished him with some cooks and pastry-men, who were thought to have great +skill, he told her he wanted none of them, his preceptor, Leonidas, having +already given him the best, which were a night march to prepare for breakfast, +and a moderate breakfast to create an appetite for supper. Leonidas also, he +added, used to open and search the furniture of his chamber, and his wardrobe, +to see if his mother had left him anything that was delicate or superfluous. He +was much less addicted to wine than was generally believed; that which gave +people occasion to think so of him was, that when he had nothing else to do, he +loved to sit long and talk, rather than drink, and over every cup hold a long +conversation. For when his affairs called upon him, he would not be detained, +as other generals often were, either by wine, or sleep, nuptial solemnities, +spectacles, or any other diversion whatsoever; a convincing argument of which +is, that in the short time he lived, he accomplished so many and so great +actions. When he was free from employment, after he was up, and had sacrificed +to the gods, he used to sit down to breakfast, and then spend the rest of the +day in hunting, or writing memoirs, giving decisions on some military +questions, or reading. In marches that required no great haste, he would +practice shooting as he went along, or to mount a chariot, and alight from it +in full speed. Sometimes, for sport’s sake, as his journals tell us, he would +hunt foxes and go fowling. When he came in for the evening, after he had bathed +and was anointed, he would call for his bakers and chief cooks, to know if they +had his dinner ready. He never cared to dine till it was pretty late and +beginning to be dark, and was wonderfully circumspect at meals that everyone +who sat with him should be served alike and with proper attention; and his love +of talking, as was said before, made him delight to sit long at his wine. And +then, though otherwise no prince’s conversation was ever so agreeable, he would +fall into a temper of ostentation and soldierly boasting, which gave his +flatterers a great advantage to ride him, and made his better friends very +uneasy. For though they thought it too base to strive who should flatter him +most, yet they found it hazardous not to do it; so that between the shame and +the danger, they were in a great strait how to behave themselves. After such an +entertainment, he was wont to bathe, and then perhaps he would sleep till noon, +and sometimes all day long. He was so very temperate in his eating, that when +any rare fish or fruits were sent him, he would distribute them among his +friends, and often reserve nothing for himself. His table, however, was always +magnificent, the expense of it still increasing with his good fortune, till it +amounted to ten thousand drachmas a day, to which sum he limited it, and beyond +this he would suffer none to lay out in any entertainment where he himself was +the guest. +</p> + +<p> +After the battle of Issus, he sent to Damascus to seize upon the money and +baggage, the wives and children of the Persians, of which spoil the Thessalian +horsemen had the greatest share; for he had taken particular notice of their +gallantry in the fight, and sent them thither on purpose to make their reward +suitable to their courage. Not but that the rest of the army had so +considerable a part of the booty as was sufficient to enrich them all. This +first gave the Macedonians such a taste of the Persian wealth and women and +barbaric splendor of living, that they were ready to pursue and follow upon it +with all the eagerness of hounds upon a scent. But Alexander, before he +proceeded any further, thought it necessary to assure himself of the sea-coast. +Those who governed in Cyprus, put that island into his possession, and +Phoenicia, Tyre only excepted, was surrendered to him. During the siege of this +city, which with mounds of earth cast up, and battering engines, and two +hundred galleys by sea, was carried on for seven months together, he dreamt +that he saw Hercules upon the walls, reaching, out his hand, and calling to +him. And many of the Tyrians in their sleep, fancied that Apollo told them he +was displeased with their actions, and was about to leave them and go over to +Alexander. Upon which, as if the god had been a deserting soldier, they seized +him, so to say, in the act, tied down the statue with ropes, and nailed it to +the pedestal, reproaching him, that he was a favorer of Alexander. Another +time, Alexander dreamed he saw a Satyr mocking him at a distance, and when he +endeavored to catch him, he still escaped from him, till at last with much +perseverance, and running about after him, he got him into his power. The +soothsayers making two words of Satyrus, assured him, that Tyre should he his +own. The inhabitants at this time show a spring of water, near which they say +Alexander slept, when he fancied the Satyr appeared to him. +</p> + +<p> +While the body of the army lay before Tyre, he made an excursion against the +Arabians who inhabit the Mount Antilibanus, in which he hazarded his life +extremely to bring off his master Lysimachus, who would needs go along with +him, declaring he was neither older nor inferior in courage to Phoenix, +Achilles’s guardian. For when, quitting their horses, they began to march up +the hills on foot, the rest of the soldiers outwent them a great deal, so that +night drawing on, and the enemy near, Alexander was fain to stay behind so +long, to encourage and help up the lagging and tired old man, that before he +was aware, he was left behind, a great way from his soldiers, with a slender +attendance, and forced to pass an extremely cold night in the dark, and in a +very inconvenient place; till seeing a great many scattered fires of the enemy +at some distance, and trusting to his agility of body, and as he was always +wont by undergoing toils and labors himself to cheer and support the +Macedonians in any distress, he ran straight to one of the nearest fires, and +with his dagger dispatching two of the barbarians that sat by it, snatched up a +lighted brand, and returned with it to his own men. They immediately made a +great fire, which so alarmed the enemy that most of them fled, and those that +assaulted them were soon routed, and thus they rested securely the remainder of +the night. Thus Chares writes. +</p> + +<p> +But to return to the siege, it had this issue. Alexander, that he might refresh +his army, harassed with many former encounters, had led only a small party +towards the walls, rather to keep the enemy busy, than with any prospect of +much advantage. It happened at this time that Aristander, the soothsayer, after +he had sacrificed, upon view of the entrails, affirmed confidently to those who +stood by, that the city should be certainly taken that very month, upon which +there was a laugh and some mockery among the soldiers, as this was the last day +of it. The king seeing him in perplexity, and always anxious to support the +credit of the predictions, gave order that they should not count it as the +thirtieth, but as the twenty-third of the month, and ordering the trumpets to +sound, attacked the walls more seriously than he at first intended. The +sharpness of the assault so inflamed the rest of his forces who were left in +the camp, that they could not hold from advancing to second it, which they +performed with so much vigor, that the Tyrians retired, and the town was +carried that very day. The next place he sat down before was Gaza, one of the +largest cities of Syria, where this accident befell him. A large bird flying +over him, let a clod of earth fall upon his shoulder, and then settling upon +one of the battering engines, was suddenly entangled and caught in the nets +composed of sinews, which protected the ropes with which the machine was +managed. This fell out exactly according to Aristander’s prediction, which was, +that Alexander should be wounded, and the city reduced. +</p> + +<p> +From hence he sent great part of the spoils to Olympias, Cleopatra, and the +rest of his friends, not omitting his preceptor Leonidas, on whom he bestowed +five hundred talents weight of frankincense, and a hundred of myrrh, in +remembrance of the hopes he had once expressed of him when he was but a child. +For Leonidas, it seems, standing by him one day while he was sacrificing, and +seeing him take both his hands full of incense to throw into the fire, told him +it became him to be more sparing in his offerings, and not be so profuse till +he was master of the countries which those sweet gums and spices came from. So +Alexander now wrote to him, saying, “We have sent you abundance of myrrh and +frankincense, that for the future you may not be stingy to the gods.” Among the +treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, there was a very precious +casket, which being brought to Alexander for a great rarity, he asked those +about him what they thought fittest to be laid up in it; and when they had +delivered their various opinions, he told them he should keep Homer’s Iliad in +it. This is attested by many credible authors, and if what those of Alexandria +tell us, relying upon the authority of Heraclides, be true, Homer was neither +an idle, nor an unprofitable companion to him in his expedition. For when he +was master of Egypt, designing to settle a colony of Grecians there, he +resolved to build a large and populous city, and give it his own name. In order +to which, after he had measured and staked out the ground with the advice of +the best architects, he chanced one night in his sleep to see a wonderful +vision; a grey-headed old man, of a venerable aspect, appeared to stand by him, +and pronounce these verses:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +An island lies, where loud the billows roar,<br/> +Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which, at that +time, was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth of the river Nile, +though it has now been joined to the main land by a mole. As soon as he saw the +commodious situation of the place, it being a long neck of land, stretching +like an isthmus between large lagoons and shallow waters on one side, and the +sea on the other, the latter at the end of it making a spacious harbor, he +said, Homer, besides his other excellences, was a very good architect, and +ordered the plan of a city to be drawn out answerable to the place. To do +which, for want of chalk, the soil being black, they laid out their lines with +flour, taking in a pretty large compass of ground in a semicircular figure, and +drawing into the inside of the circumference equal straight lines from each +end, thus giving it something of the form of a cloak or cape. While he was +pleasing himself with his design, on a sudden an infinite number of great birds +of several kinds, rising like a black cloud out of the river and the lake, +devoured every morsel of the flour that had been used in setting out the lines; +at which omen even Alexander himself was troubled, till the augurs restored his +confidence again by telling him, it was a sign the city he was about to build +would not only abound in all things within itself, but also be the nurse and +feeder of many nations. He commanded the workmen to proceed, while he went to +visit the temple of Ammon. +</p> + +<p> +This was a long and painful, and, in two respects, a dangerous journey; first, +if they should lose their provision of water, as for several days none could be +obtained; and, secondly, if a violent south wind should rise upon them, while +they were traveling through the wide extent of deep sands, as it is said to +have done when Cambyses led his army that way, blowing the sand together in +heaps, and raising, as it were, the whole desert like a sea upon them, till +fifty thousand were swallowed up and destroyed by it. All these difficulties +were weighed and represented to him; but Alexander was not easily to be +diverted from anything he was bent upon. For fortune having hitherto seconded +him in his designs, made him resolute and firm in his opinions, and the +boldness of his temper raised a sort of passion in him for surmounting +difficulties; as if it were not enough to be always victorious in the field, +unless places and seasons and nature herself submitted to him. In this journey, +the relief and assistance the gods afforded him in his distresses, were more +remarkable, and obtained greater belief than the oracles he received +afterwards, which, however, were valued and credited the more on account of +those occurrences. For first, plentiful rains that fell, preserved them from +any fear of perishing by drought, and, allaying the extreme dryness of the +sand, which now became moist and firm to travel on, cleared and purified the +air. Besides this, when they were out of their way, and were wandering up and +down, because the marks which were wont to direct the guides were disordered +and lost, they were set right again by some ravens, which flew before them when +on their march, and waited for them when they lingered and fell behind; and the +greatest miracle, as Callisthenes tells us, was that if any of the company went +astray in the night, they never ceased croaking and making a noise, till by +that means they had brought them into the right way again. Having passed +through the wilderness, they came to the place; where the high-priest at the +first salutation bade Alexander welcome from his father Ammon. And being asked +by him whether any of his father’s murderers had escaped punishment, he charged +him to speak with more respect, since his was not a mortal father. Then +Alexander, changing his expression, desired to know of him if any of those who +murdered Philip were yet unpunished, and further concerning dominion, whether +the empire of the world was reserved for him? This, the god answered, he should +obtain, and that Philip’s death was fully revenged, which gave him so much +satisfaction, that he made splendid offerings to Jupiter, and gave the priests +very rich presents. This is what most authors write concerning the oracles. But +Alexander, in a letter to his mother, tells her there were some secret answers, +which at his return he would communicate to her only. Others say that the +priest, desirous as a piece of courtesy to address him in Greek, “O Paidion,” +by a slip in pronunciation ended with the s instead of the n, and said, “O +Paidios,” which mistake Alexander was well enough pleased with, and it went for +current that the oracle had called him so. +</p> + +<p> +Among the sayings of one Psammon, a philosopher, whom he heard in Egypt, he +most approved of this, that all men are governed by God, because in everything, +that which is chief and commands, is divine. But what he pronounced himself +upon this subject, was even more like a philosopher, for he said, God was the +common father of us all, but more particularly of the best of us. To the +barbarians he carried himself very haughtily, as if he were fully persuaded of +his divine birth and parentage; but to the Grecians more moderately, and with +less affectation of divinity, except it were once in writing to the Athenians +about Samos, when he tells them that he should not himself have bestowed upon +them that free and glorious city; “You received it,” he says, “from the bounty +of him who at that time was called my lord and father,” meaning Philip. +However, afterwards being wounded with an arrow, and feeling much pain, he +turned to those about him, and told them, “This, my friends, is real flowing +blood, not Ichor, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Such as immortal gods are wont to shed.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And another time, when it thundered so much that everybody was afraid, and +Anaxarchus, the sophist, asked him if he who was Jupiter’s son could do +anything like this, “Nay,” said Alexander, laughing, “I have no desire to be +formidable to my friends, as you would have me, who despised my table for being +furnished with fish, and not with the heads of governors of provinces.” For in +fact it is related as true, that Anaxarchus seeing a present of small fishes, +which the king sent to Hephaestion, had used this expression, in a sort of +irony, and disparagement of those who undergo vast labors and encounter great +hazards in pursuit of magnificent objects, which after all bring them little +more pleasure or enjoyment than what others have. From what I have said upon +this subject, it is apparent that Alexander in himself was not foolishly +affected, or had the vanity to think himself really a god, but merely used his +claims to divinity as a means of maintaining among other people the sense of +his superiority. +</p> + +<p> +At his return out of Egypt into Phoenicia, he sacrificed and made solemn +processions, to which were added shows of lyric dances and tragedies, +remarkable not merely for the splendor of the equipage and decorations, but for +the competition among those who exhibited them. For the kings of Cyprus were +here the exhibitors, just in the same manner as at Athens those who are chosen +by lot out of the tribes. And, indeed, they showed the greatest emulation to +outvie each other; especially Nicocreon, king of Salamis, and Pasicrates of +Soli, who furnished the chorus, and defrayed the expenses of the two most +celebrated actors, Athenodorus and Thessalus, the former performing for +Pasicrates, and the latter for Nicocreon. Thessalus was most favored by +Alexander, though it did not appear till Athenodorus was declared victor by the +plurality of votes. For then at his going away, he said the judges deserved to +be commended for what they had done, but that he would willingly have lost part +of his kingdom, rather than to have seen Thessalus overcome. However, when he +understood Athenodorus was fined by the Athenians for being absent at the +festivals of Bacchus, though he refused his request that he would write a +letter in his behalf, he gave him a sufficient sum to satisfy the penalty. +Another time, when Lycon of Scarphia happened to act with great applause in the +theater, and in a verse which he introduced into the comic part which he was +acting, begged for a present of ten talents, he laughed and gave him the money. +</p> + +<p> +Darius wrote him a letter, and sent friends to intercede with him, requesting +him to accept as a ransom of his captives the sum of a thousand talents, and +offering him in exchange for his amity and alliance, all the countries on this +side the river Euphrates, together with one of his daughters in marriage. These +propositions he communicated to his friends, and when Parmenio told him, that +for his part, if he were Alexander, he should readily embrace them, “So would +I,” said Alexander, “if I were Parmenio.” Accordingly, his answer to Darius +was, that if he would come and yield himself up into his power, he would treat +him with all possible kindness; if not, he was resolved immediately to go +himself and seek him. But the death of Darius’s wife in childbirth made him +soon after regret one part of this answer, and he showed evident marks of +grief, at being thus deprived of a further opportunity of exercising his +clemency and good nature, which he manifested, however, as far as he could, by +giving her a most sumptuous funeral. +</p> + +<p> +Among the eunuchs who waited in the queen’s chamber, and were taken prisoners +with the women, there was one Tireus, who getting out of the camp, fled away on +horseback to Darius, to inform him of his wife’s death. He, when he heard it, +beating his head, and bursting into tears and lamentations, said, “Alas! how +great is the calamity of the Persians! Was it not enough that their king’s +consort and sister was a prisoner in her lifetime, but she must, now she is +dead also, be but meanly and obscurely buried?” “Oh king,” replied the eunuch, +“as to her funeral rites, or any respect or honor that should have been shown +in them, you have not the least reason to accuse the ill-fortune of your +country; for to my knowledge neither your queen Statira when alive, nor your +mother, nor children, wanted anything of their former happy condition, unless +it were the light of your countenance, which I doubt not but the lord Oromasdes +will yet restore to its former glory. And after her decease, I assure you, she +had not only all due funeral ornaments, but was honored also with the tears of +your very enemies; for Alexander is as gentle after victory, as he is terrible +in the field.” At the hearing of these words, such was the grief and emotion of +Darius’s mind, that they carried him into extravagant suspicions; and taking +Tireus aside into a more private part of his tent, “Unless thou likewise,” said +he to him, “hast deserted me, together with the good fortune of Persia, and art +become a Macedonian in thy heart; if thou yet ownest me for thy master Darius, +tell me, I charge thee, by the veneration thou payest the light of Mithras, and +this right hand of thy king, do I not lament the least of Statira’s misfortunes +in her captivity and death? Have I not suffered something more injurious and +deplorable in her lifetime? And had I not been miserable with less dishonor, if +I had met with a more severe and inhuman enemy? For how is it possible a young +man as he is, should treat the wife of his opponent with so much distinction, +were it not from some motive that does me disgrace?” Whilst he was yet +speaking, Tireus threw himself at his feet, and besought him neither to wrong +Alexander so much, nor his dead wife and sister, as to give utterance to any +such thoughts, which deprived him of the greatest consolation left him in his +adversity, the belief that he was overcome by a man whose virtues raised him +above human nature; that he ought to look upon Alexander with love and +admiration, who had given no less proofs of his continence towards the Persian +women, than of his valor among the men. The eunuch confirmed all he said with +solemn and dreadful oaths, and was further enlarging upon Alexander’s +moderation and magnanimity on other occasions, when Darius, breaking away from +him into the other division of the tent, where his friends and courtiers were, +lifted up his hands to heaven, and uttered this prayer, “Ye gods,” said he, “of +my family, and of my kingdom, if it be possible, I beseech you to restore the +declining affairs of Persia, that I may leave them in as flourishing a +condition as I found them, and have it in my power to make a grateful return to +Alexander for the kindness which in my adversity he has shown to those who are +dearest to me. But if, indeed, the fatal time be come, which is to give a +period to the Persian monarchy, if our ruin be a debt that must be paid to the +divine jealousy and the vicissitude of things, then I beseech you grant that no +other man but Alexander may sit upon the throne of Cyrus.” Such is the +narrative given by the greater number of the historians. +</p> + +<p> +But to return to Alexander. After he had reduced all Asia on this side the +Euphrates, he advanced towards Darius, who was coming down against him with a +million of men. In his march, a very ridiculous passage happened. The servants +who followed the camp, for sport’s sake divided themselves into two parties, +and named the commander of one of them Alexander, and of the other Darius. At +first they only pelted one another with clods of earth, but presently took to +their fists, and at last, heated with the contention, they fought in good +earnest with stones and clubs, so that they had much ado to part them; till +Alexander, upon hearing of it, ordered the two captains to decide the quarrel +by single combat, and armed him who bore his name himself, while Philotas did +the same to him who represented Darius. The whole army were spectators of this +encounter, willing from the event of it to derive an omen of their own future +success. After they had fought stoutly a pretty long while, at last he who was +called Alexander had the better, and for a reward of his prowess, had twelve +villages given him, with leave to wear the Persian dress. So we are told by +Eratosthenes. +</p> + +<p> +But the great battle of all that was fought with Darius, was not, as most +writers tell us, at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which, in their language, +signifies the camel’s house, forasmuch as one of their ancient kings having +escaped the pursuit of his enemies on a swift camel, in gratitude to his beast, +settled him at this place, with an allowance of certain villages and rents for +his maintenance. It came to pass that in the month Boedromion, about the +beginning of the feast of Mysteries at Athens, there was an eclipse of the +moon, the eleventh night after which, the two armies being now in view of one +another, Darius kept his men in arms, and by torchlight took a general review +of them. But Alexander, while his soldiers slept, spent the night before his +tent with his diviner Aristander, performing certain mysterious ceremonies, and +sacrificing to the god Fear. In the meanwhile the oldest of his commanders, and +chiefly Parmenio, when they beheld all the plain between Niphates and the +Gordyaean mountains shining with the lights and fires which were made by the +barbarians, and heard the uncertain and confused sound of voices out of their +camp, like the distant roaring of a vast ocean, were so amazed at the thoughts +of such a multitude, that after some conference among themselves, they +concluded it an enterprise too difficult and hazardous for them to engage so +numerous an enemy in the day, and therefore meeting the king as he came from +sacrificing, besought him to attack Darius by night, that the darkness might +conceal the danger of the ensuing battle. To this he gave them the celebrated +answer, “I will not steal a victory,” which though some at the time thought a +boyish and inconsiderate speech, as if he played with danger, others, however, +regarded as an evidence that he confided in his present condition, and acted on +a true judgment of the future, not wishing to leave Darius, in case he were +worsted, the pretext of trying his fortune again, which he might suppose +himself to have, if he could impute his overthrow to the disadvantage of the +night, as he did before to the mountains, the narrow passages, and the sea. For +while he had such numerous forces and large dominions still remaining, it was +not any want of men or arms that could induce him to give up the war, but only +the loss of all courage and hope upon the conviction of an undeniable and +manifest defeat. +</p> + +<p> +After they were gone from him with this answer, he laid himself down in his +tent and slept the rest of the night more soundly than was usual with him, to +the astonishment of the commanders, who came to him early in the morning, and +were fain themselves to give order that the soldiers should breakfast. But at +last, time not giving them leave to wait any longer, Parmenio went to his +bedside, and called him twice or thrice by his name, till he waked him, and +then asked him how it was possible, when he was to fight the most important +battle of all, he could sleep as soundly as if he were already victorious. “And +are we not so, indeed,” replied Alexander, smiling, “since we are at last +relieved from the trouble of wandering in pursuit of Darius through a wide and +wasted country, hoping in vain that he would fight us?” And not only before the +battle, but in the height of the danger, he showed himself great, and +manifested the self-possession of a just foresight and confidence. For the +battle for some time fluctuated and was dubious. The left wing, where Parmenio +commanded, was so impetuously charged by the Bactrian horse that it was +disordered and forced to give ground, at the same time that Mazaeus had sent a +detachment round about to fall upon those who guarded the baggage, which so +disturbed Parmenio, that he sent messengers to acquaint Alexander that the camp +and baggage would be all lost unless he immediately believed the rear by a +considerable reinforcement drawn out of the front. This message being brought +him just as he was giving the signal to those about him for the onset, he bade +them tell Parmenio that he must have surely lost the use of his reason, and had +forgotten, in his alarm, that soldiers, if victorious, become masters of their +enemies’ baggage; and if defeated, instead of taking care of their wealth or +their slaves, have nothing more to do but to fight gallantly and die with +honor. When he had said this, he put on his helmet, having the rest of his arms +on before he came out of his tent, which were coat of the Sicilian make, girt +close about him, and over that a breastpiece of thickly quilted linen, which +was taken among other booty at the battle of Issus. The helmet, which was made +by Theophilus, though of iron, was so well wrought and polished, that it was as +bright as the most refined silver. To this was fitted a gorget of the same +metal, set with precious stones. His sword, which was the weapon he most used +in fight, was given him by the king of the Citieans, and was of an admirable +temper and lightness. The belt which he also wore in all engagements, was of +much richer workmanship than the rest of his armor. It was a work of the +ancient Helicon, and had been presented to him by the Rhodians, as mark of +their respect to him. So long as he was engaged in drawing up his men, or +riding about to give orders or directions, or to view them, he spared +Bucephalas, who was now growing old, and made use of another horse; but when he +was actually to fight, he sent for him again, and as soon as he was mounted, +commenced the attack. +</p> + +<p> +He made the longest address that day to the Thessalians and other Greeks, who +answered him with loud shouts, desiring him to lead them on against the +barbarians, upon which he shifted his javelin into his left hand, and with his +right lifted up towards heaven, besought the gods, as Callisthenes tells us, +that if he was of a truth the son of Jupiter, they would he pleased to assist +and strengthen the Grecians. At the same time the augur Aristander, who had a +white mantle about him, and a crown of gold on his head, rode by and showed +them an eagle that soared just over Alexander, and directed his Right towards +the enemy; which so animated the beholders, that after mutual encouragements +and exhortations, the horse charged at full speed, and were followed in a mass +by the whole phalanx of the foot. But before they could well come to blows with +the first ranks, the barbarians shrunk back, and were hotly pursued by +Alexander, who drove those that fled before him into the middle of the battle, +where Darius himself was in person, whom he saw from a distance over the +foremost ranks, conspicuous in the midst of his life-guard, a tall and +fine-looking man, drawn in a lofty chariot, defended by an abundance of the +best horse, who stood close in order about it, ready to receive the enemy. But +Alexander’s approach was so terrible, forcing those who gave back upon those +who yet maintained their ground, that he beat down and dispersed them almost +all. Only a few of the bravest and valiantest opposed the pursuit, who were +slain in their king’s presence, falling in heaps upon one another, and in the +very pangs of death striving to catch hold of the horses. Darius now seeing all +was lost, that those who were placed in front to defend him were broken and +beat back upon him, that he could not turn or disengage his chariot without +great difficulty, the wheels being clogged and entangled among the dead bodies, +which lay in such heaps as not only stopped, but almost covered the horses, and +made them rear and grow so unruly, that the frighted charioteer could govern +them no longer, in this extremity was glad to quit his chariot and his arms, +and mounting, it is said, upon a mare that had been taken from her foal, betook +himself to flight. But he had not escaped so either, if Parmenio had not sent +fresh messengers to Alexander, to desire him to return and assist him against a +considerable body of the enemy which yet stood together, and would not give +ground. For, indeed, Parmenio is on all hands accused of having been sluggish +and unserviceable in this battle, whether age had impaired his courage, or +that, as Callisthenes says, he secretly disliked and envied Alexander’s growing +greatness. Alexander, though he was not a little vexed to be so recalled and +hindered from pursuing his victory, yet concealed the true reason from his men, +and causing a retreat to be sounded, as if it were too late to continue the +execution any longer, marched back towards the place of danger, and by the way +met with the news of the enemy’s total overthrow and flight. +</p> + +<p> +This battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian empire; and +Alexander, who was now proclaimed king of Asia, returned thanks to the gods in +magnificent sacrifices, and rewarded his friends and followers with great sums +of money, and places, and governments of provinces. And eager to gain honor +with the Grecians, he wrote to them that he would have all tyrannies abolished, +that they might live free according to their own laws, and specially to the +Plataeans, that their city should be rebuilt, because their ancestors had +permitted their countrymen of old to make their territory the seat of the war, +when they fought with the barbarians for their common liberty. He sent also +part of the spoils into Italy, to the Crotoniats, to honor the zeal and courage +of their citizen Phayllus, the wrestler, who, in the Median war, when the other +Grecian colonies in Italy disowned Greece, that he might have a share in the +danger, joined the fleet at Salamis, with a vessel set forth at his own charge. +So affectionate was Alexander to all kind of virtue, and so desirous to +preserve the memory of laudable actions. +</p> + +<p> +From hence he marched through the province of Babylon, which immediately +submitted to him, and in Ecbatana was much surprised at the sight of the place +where fire issues in a continuous stream, like a spring of water, out of a +cleft in the earth, and the stream of naphtha, which, not far from this spot, +flows out so abundantly as to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, in other +respects resembling bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that before it touches +the flame, it will kindle at the very light that surrounds it, and often +inflame the intermediate air also. The barbarians, to show the power and nature +of it, sprinkled the street that led to the king’s lodgings with little drops +of it, and when it was almost night, stood at the further end with torches, +which being applied to the moistened places, the first at once taking fire, +instantly, as quick as a man could think of it, it caught from one end to +another, in such a manner that the whole street was one continued flame. Among +those who used to wait on the king and find occasion to amuse him when he +anointed and washed himself, there was one Athenophanes, an Athenian, who +desired him to make an experiment of the naphtha upon Stephanus, who stood by +in the bathing place, a youth with a ridiculously ugly face, whose talent was +singing well, “For,” said he, “if it take hold of him and is not put out, it +must undeniably be allowed to be of the most invincible strength.” The youth, +as it happened, readily consented to undergo the trial, and as soon as he was +anointed and rubbed with it, his whole body broke out into such a flame, and +was so seized by the fire, that Alexander was in the greatest perplexity and +alarm for him, and not without reason; for nothing could have prevented his +being consumed by it, if by good chance there had not been people at hand with +a great many vessels of water for the service of the bath, with all which they +had much ado to extinguish the fire; and his body was so burned all over, that +he was not cured of it a good while after. And thus it is not without some +plausibility that they endeavor to reconcile the fable to truth, who say this +was the drug in the tragedies with which Medea anointed the crown and veil +which she gave to Creon’s daughter. For neither the things themselves, nor the +fire could kindle of its own accord, but being prepared for it by the naphtha, +they imperceptibly attracted and caught a flame which happened to be brought +near them. For the rays and emanations of fire at a distance have no other +effect upon some bodies than bare light and heat, but in others, where they +meet with airy dryness, and also sufficient rich moisture, they collect +themselves and soon kindle and create a transformation. The manner, however, of +the production of naphtha admits of a diversity of opinion on whether this +liquid substance that feeds the flame does not rather proceed from a soil that +is unctuous and productive of fire, as that of the province of Babylon is, +where the ground is so very hot, that oftentimes the grains of barley leap up, +and are thrown out, as if the violent inflammation had made the earth throb; +and in the extreme heats the inhabitants are wont to sleep upon skins filled +with water. Harpalus, who was left governor of this country, and was desirous +to adorn the palace gardens and walks with Grecian plants, succeeded in raising +all but ivy, which the earth would not bear, but constantly killed. For being a +plant that loves a cold soil, the temper of this hot and fiery earth was +improper for it. But such digressions as these the impatient reader will be +more willing to pardon, if they are kept within a moderate compass. +</p> + +<p> +At the taking of Susa, Alexander found in the palace forty thousand talents in +money ready coined, besides an unspeakable quantity of other furniture and +treasure; amongst which was five thousand talents’ worth of Hermionian purple, +that had been laid up there a hundred and ninety years, and yet kept its color +as fresh and lively as at first. The reason of which, they say, is that in +dyeing the purple they made use of honey, and of white oil in the white +tincture, both which after the like space of time preserve the clearness and +brightness of their luster. Dinon also relates that the Persian kings had water +fetched from the Nile and the Danube, which they laid up in their treasuries as +a sort of testimony of the greatness of their power and universal empire. +</p> + +<p> +The entrance into Persia was through a most difficult country, and was guarded +by the noblest of the Persians, Darius himself having escaped further. +Alexander, however, chanced to find a guide in exact correspondence with what +the Pythia had foretold when he was a child, that a lycus should conduct him +into Persia. For by such an one, whose father was a Lycian, and his mother a +Persian, and who spoke both languages, he was now led into the country, by a +way something about, yet without fetching any considerable compass. Here a +great many of the prisoners were put to the sword, of which himself gives this +account, that he commanded them to be killed in the belief that it would be for +his advantage. Nor was the money found here less, he says, than at Susa, +besides other movables and treasure, as much as ten thousand pair of mules and +five thousand camels could well carry away. Amongst other things he happened to +observe a large statue of Xerxes thrown carelessly down to the ground in the +confusion made by the multitude of soldiers pressing; into the palace. He stood +still, and accosting it as if it had been alive, “Shall we,” said he, +“neglectfully pass thee by, now thou art prostrate on the ground, because thou +once invadedst Greece, or shall we erect thee again in consideration of the +greatness of thy mind and thy other virtues?” But at last, after he had paused +some time, and silently considered with himself, he went on without taking any +further notice of it. In this place he took up his winter quarters, and stayed +four months to refresh his soldiers. It is related that the first time he sat +on the royal throne of Persia, under the canopy of gold, Demaratus, the +Corinthian, who was much attached to him and had been one of his father’s +friends, wept, in an old man’s manner, and deplored the misfortune of those +Creeks whom death had deprived of the satisfaction of seeing Alexander seated +on the throne of Darius. +</p> + +<p> +From hence designing to march against Darius, before he set out, he diverted +himself with his officers at an entertainment of drinking and other pastimes, +and indulged so far as to let every one’s mistress sit by and drink with them. +The most celebrated of them was Thais, an Athenian, mistress of Ptolemy, who +was afterwards king of Egypt. She, partly as a sort of well-turned compliment +to Alexander, partly out of sport, as the drinking went on, at last was carried +so far as to utter a saying, not misbecoming her native country’s character, +though somewhat too lofty for her own condition. She said it was indeed some +recompense for the toils she had undergone in following the camp all over Asia, +that she was that day treated in, and could insult over, the stately palace of +the Persian monarchs. But, she added, it would please her much better, if while +the king looked on, she might in sport, with her own hands, set fire to the +court of that Xerxes who reduced the city of Athens to ashes, that it might be +recorded to posterity, that the women who followed Alexander had taken a +severer revenge on the Persians for the sufferings and affronts of Greece, than +all the famed commanders had been able to do by sea or land. What she said was +received with such universal liking and murmurs of applause, and so seconded by +the encouragement and eagerness of the company, that the king himself, +persuaded to be of the party, started from his seat, and with a chaplet of +flowers on his head, and a lighted torch in his hand, led them the way, while +they went after him in a riotous manner, dancing and making loud cries about +the place; which when the rest of the Macedonians perceived, they also in great +delight ran thither with torches; for they hoped the burning and destruction of +the royal palace was an argument that he looked homeward, and had no design to +reside among the barbarians. Thus some writers give their account of this +action, while others say it was done deliberately; however, all agree that he +soon repented of it, and gave order to put out the fire. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander was naturally most munificent, and grew more so as his fortune +increased, accompanying what he gave with that courtesy and freedom, which, to +speak truth, is necessary to make a benefit really obliging. I will give a few +instances of this kind. Ariston, the captain of the Paeonians, having killed an +enemy, brought his head to show him, and told him that in his country, such a +present was recompensed with a cup of gold. “With an empty one,” said +Alexander, smiling, “but I drink to you in this, which I give you full of +wine.” Another time, as one of the common soldier was driving a mule laden with +some of the king’s treasure, the beast grew tired, and the soldier took it upon +his own back, and began to march with it, till Alexander seeing the man so +overcharged, asked what was the matter; and when he was informed, just as he +was ready to lay down his burden for weariness, “Do not faint now,” said he to +him, “but finish the journey, and carry what you have there to your own tent +for yourself.” He was always more displeased with those who would not accept of +what he gave than with those who begged of him. And therefore he wrote to +Phocion, that he would not own him for his friend any longer, if he refused his +presents. He had never given anything to Serapion, one of the youths that +played at ball with him, because he did not ask of him, till one day, it coming +to Serapion’s turn to play, he still threw the ball to others, and when the +king asked him why he did not direct it to him, “Because you do not ask for +it,” said he; which answer pleased him so, that he was very liberal to him +afterwards. One Proteas, a pleasant, jesting, drinking fellow, having incurred +his displeasure, got his friends to intercede for him, and begged his pardon +himself with tears, which at last prevailed, and Alexander declared he was +friends with him. “I cannot believe it,” said Proteas, “unless you first give +me some pledge of it.” The king understood his meaning, and presently ordered +five talents to be given him. How magnificent he was in enriching his friends, +and those who attended on his person, appears by a letter which Olympias wrote +to him, where she tells him he should reward and honor those about him in a +more moderate way, For now,” said she, “you make them all equal to kings, you +give them power and opportunity of making many friends of their own, and in the +meantime you leave yourself destitute.” She often wrote to him to this purpose, +and he never communicated her letters to anybody, unless it were one which he +opened when Hephaestion was by, whom he permitted, as his custom was, to read +it along with him; but then as soon as he had done, he took off his ring, and +set the seal upon Hephaestion’s lips. Mazaeus, who was the most considerable +man in Darius’s court, had a son who was already governor of a province. +Alexander bestowed another upon him that was better; he, however, modestly +refused, and told him, instead of one Darius, he went the way to make many +Alexanders. To Parmenio he gave Bagoas’s house, in which he found a wardrobe of +apparel worth more than a thousand talents. He wrote to Antipater, commanding +him to keep a life-guard about him for the security of his person against +conspiracies. To his mother he sent many presents, but would never suffer her +to meddle with matters of state or war, not indulging her busy temper, and when +she fell out with him upon this account, he bore her ill-humor very patiently. +Nay more, when he read a long letter from Antipater, full of accusations +against her, “Antipater,” he said, “does not know that one tear of a mother +effaces a thousand such letters as these.” +</p> + +<p> +But when he perceived his favorites grow so luxurious and extravagant in their +way of living and expenses, that Hagnon, the Teian, wore silver nails in his +shoes, that Leonnatus employed several camels, only to bring him powder out of +Egypt to use when he wrestled, and that Philotas had hunting nets a hundred +furlongs in length, that more used precious ointment than plain oil when they +went to bathe, and that they carried about servants everywhere with them to rub +them and wait upon them in their chambers, he reproved them in gentle and +reasonable terms, telling them he wondered that they who had been engaged in so +many signal battles did not know by experience, that those who labor sleep more +sweetly and soundly than those who are labored for, and could fail to see by +comparing the Persians’ manner of living with their own, that it was the most +abject and slavish condition to be voluptuous, but the most noble arid royal to +undergo pain and labor. He argued with them further, how it was possible for +anyone who pretended to be a soldier, either to look well after his horse, or +to keep his armor bright and in good order, who thought it much to let his +hands be serviceable to what was nearest to him, his own body. “Are you still +to learn,” said he, “that the end and perfection of our victories is to avoid +the vices and infirmities of those whom we subdue?” And to strengthen his +precepts by example, he applied himself now more vigorously than ever to +hunting and warlike expeditions, embracing all opportunities of hardship and +danger, insomuch that a Lacedaemonian, who was there on an embassy to him, and +chanced to be by when he encountered with and mastered a huge lion, told him he +had fought gallantly with the beast, which of the two should be king. Craterus +caused a representation to be made of this adventure, consisting of the lion +and the dogs, of the king engaged with the lion, and himself coming in to his +assistance, all expressed in figures of brass, some of which were by Lysippus, +and the rest by Leochares; and had it dedicated in the temple of Apollo at +Delphi. Alexander exposed his person to danger in this manner, with the object +both of inuring himself, and inciting others to the performance of brave and +virtuous actions. +</p> + +<p> +But his followers, who were grown rich, and consequently proud, longed to +indulge themselves in pleasure and idleness, and were weary of marches and +expeditions, and at last went on so far as to censure and speak ill of him. All +which at first he bore very patiently, saying, it became a king well to do good +to others, and be evil spoken of. Meantime, on the smallest occasions that +called for a show of kindness to his friends, there was every indication on his +part of tenderness and respect. Hearing Peucestes was bitten by a bear, he +wrote to him, that he took it unkindly he should send others notice of it, and +not make him acquainted with it; “But now,” said he, “since it is so, let me +know how you do, and whether any of your companions forsook you when you were +in danger, that I may punish them.” He sent Hephaestion, who was absent about +some business, word how while they were fighting for their diversion with an +ichneumon, Craterus was by chance run through both thighs with Perdiccas’s +javelin. And upon Peucestes’s recovery from a fit of sickness, he sent a letter +of thanks to his physician Alexippus. When Craterus was ill, he saw a vision in +his sleep, after which he offered sacrifices for his health, and bade him to do +so likewise. He wrote also to Pausanias, the physician, who was about to purge +Craterus with hellebore, partly out of an anxious concern for him, and partly +to give him a caution how he used that medicine. He was so tender of his +friends’ reputation that he imprisoned Ephialtes and Cissus, who brought him +the first news of Harpalus’s flight and withdrawal from his service, as if they +had falsely accused him. When he sent the old and infirm soldiers home, +Eurylochus, a citizen of Aegae, got his name enrolled among the sick, though he +ailed nothing, which being discovered, he confessed he was in love with a young +woman named Telesippa, and wanted to go along with her to the seaside. +Alexander inquired to whom the woman belonged, and being told she was a free +courtesan, “I will assist you,” said he to Eurylochus, “in your amour, if your +mistress be to be gained either by presents or persuasions; but we must use no +other means, because she is free-born.” +</p> + +<p> +It is surprising to consider upon what slight occasions he would write letters +to serve his friends. As when he wrote one in which he gave order to search for +a youth that belonged to Seleucus, who was run away into Cilicia; and in +another, thanked and commended Peucestes for apprehending Nicon, a servant of +Craterus; and in one to Megabyzus, concerning a slave that had taken sanctuary +in a temple, gave direction that he should not meddle with him while he was +there, but if he could entice him out by fair means, then he gave him leave to +seize him. It is reported of him that when he first sat in judgment upon +capital causes, he would lay his hand upon one of his ears while the accuser +spoke, to keep it free and unprejudiced in behalf of the party accused. But +afterwards such a multitude of accusations were brought before him, and so many +proved true, that he lost his tenderness of heart, and gave credit to those +also that were false; and especially when anybody spoke ill of him, he would be +transported out of his reason, and show himself cruel and inexorable, valuing +his glory and reputation beyond his life or kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +He now, as we said, set forth to seek Darius, expecting he should be put to the +hazard of another battle, but heard he was taken and secured by Bessus, upon +which news he sent home the Thessalians, and gave them a largess of two +thousand talents over and above the pay that was due to them. This long and +painful pursuit of Darius, for in eleven days he marched thirty-three hundred +furlongs, harassed his soldiers so that most of them were ready to give it up, +chiefly for want of water. While they were in this distress, it happened that +some Macedonians who had fetched water in skins upon their mules from a river +they had found out, came about noon to the place where Alexander was, and +seeing him almost choked with thirst, presently filled a helmet and offered it +him. He asked them to whom they were carrying the water; they told him to their +children, adding, that if his life were but saved, it was no matter for them, +they should be able well enough to repair that loss, though they all perished. +Then he took the helmet into his hands, and looking round about, when he saw +all those who were near him stretching their heads out and looking, earnestly +after the drink, he returned it again with thanks without tasting a drop of it, +“For,” said he, “if I alone should drink, the rest will be out of heart.” The +soldiers no sooner took notice of his temperance and magnanimity upon this +occasion, but they one and all cried out to him to lead them forward boldly, +and began whipping on their horses. For whilst they had such a king, they said +they defied both weariness and thirst, and looked upon themselves to be little +less than immortal. But though they were all equally cheerful and willing, yet +not above threescore horse were able, it is said, to keep up, and to fall in +with Alexander upon the enemy’s camp, where they rode over abundance of gold +and silver that lay scattered about, and passing by a great many chariots full +of women that wandered here and there for want of drivers, they endeavored to +overtake the first of those that fled, in hopes to meet with Darius among them. +And at last, after much trouble, they found him lying in a chariot, wounded all +over with darts, just at the point of death. However, he desired they would +give him some drink, and when he had drunk a little cold water, he told +Polystratus, who gave it him, that it had become the last extremity of his ill +fortune, to receive benefits and not be able to return them. “But Alexander,” +said he, “whose kindness to my mother, my wife, and my children I hope the gods +will recompense, will doubtless thank you for your humanity to me. Tell him, +therefore, in token of my acknowledgment, I give him this right hand,” with +which words he took hold of Polystratus’s hand and died. When Alexander came up +to them, he showed manifest tokens of sorrow, and taking off his own cloak, +threw it upon the body to cover it. And sometime afterwards, when Bessus was +taken, he ordered him to be torn in pieces in this manner. They fastened him to +a couple of trees which were bound down so as to meet, and then being let +loose, with a great force returned to their places, each of them carrying that +part of the body along with it that was tied to it. Darius’s body was laid in +state, and sent to his mother with pomp suitable to his quality. His brother +Exathres, Alexander received into the number of his intimate friends. +</p> + +<p> +And now with the flower of his army he marched into Hyrcania, where he saw a +large bay of an open sea, apparently not much less than the Euxine, with water, +however, sweeter than that of other seas, but could learn nothing of certainty +concerning it, further than that in all probability it seemed to him to be an +arm issuing from the lake of Maeotis. However, the naturalists were better +informed of the truth, and had given an account of it many years before +Alexander’s expedition; that of four gulfs which out of the main sea enter into +the continent, this, known indifferently as the Caspian and as the Hyrcanian +sea, is the most northern. Here the barbarians, unexpectedly meeting with those +who led Bucephalas, took them prisoners, and carried the horse away with them, +at which Alexander was so much vexed, that he sent a herald to let them know he +would put them all to the sword, men, women, and children, without mercy, if +they did not restore him. But on their doing so, and at the same time +surrendering their cities into his hands, he not only treated them kindly, but +also paid a ramsom for his horse to those who took him. +</p> + +<p> +From hence he marched into Parthia, where not having much to do, he first put +on the barbaric dress, perhaps with the view of making the work of civilizing +them the easier, as nothing gains more upon men than a conformity to their +fashions and customs. Or it may have been as a first trial, whether the +Macedonians might be brought to adore him, as the Persians did their kings, by +accustoming them by little and little to bear with the alteration of his rule +and course of life in other things. However, he followed not the Median +fashion, which was altogether foreign and uncouth, and adopted neither the +trousers nor the sleeved vest, nor the tiara for the head, but taking a middle +way between the Persian mode and the Macedonian, so contrived his habit that it +was not so flaunting as the one, and yet more pompous and magnificent than the +other. At first he wore this habit only when he conversed with the barbarians, +or within doors, among his intimate friends and companions, but afterwards he +appeared in it abroad, when he rode out, and at public audiences, a sight which +the Macedonians beheld with grief; but they so respected his other virtues and +good qualities, that they felt it reasonable in some things to gratify his +fancies and his passion of glory, in pursuit of which he hazarded himself so +far, that, besides his other adventures, he had but lately been wounded in the +leg by an arrow, which had so shattered the shank-bone that splinters were +taken out. And on another occasion he received a violent blow with a stone upon +the nape of the neck, which dimmed his sight for a good while afterwards. And +yet all this could not hinder him from exposing himself freely to any dangers, +insomuch that he passed the river Orexartes, which he took to be the Tanais, +and putting the Scythians to flight, followed them above a hundred furlongs, +though suffering all the time from a diarrhea. +</p> + +<p> +Here many affirm that the Amazon came to give him a visit. So Clitarchus, +Polyclitus, Onesicritus, Antigenes, and Ister, tell us. But Aristobulus and +Chares, who held the office of reporter of requests, Ptolemy and Anticlides, +Philon the Theban, Philip of Theangela, Hecataeus the Eretrian, Philip the +Chalcidian, and Duris the Samian, say it is wholly a fiction. And truly +Alexander himself seems to confirm the latter statement, for in a letter in +which he gives Antipater an account of all that happened, he tells him that the +king of Scythia offered him his daughter in marriage, but makes no mention at +all of the Amazon. And many years after, when Onesicritus read this story in +his fourth book to Lysimachus, who then reigned, the king laughed quietly and +asked, “Where could I have been at that time?” +</p> + +<p> +But it signifies little to Alexander whether this be credited or no. Certain it +is, that apprehending the Macedonians would be weary of pursuing the war, he +left the greater part of them in their quarters; and having with him in +Hyrcania the choice of his men only, amounting to twenty thousand foot, and +three thousand horse, he spoke to them to this effect: That hitherto the +barbarians had seen them no otherwise than as it were in a dream, and if they +should think of returning when they had only alarmed Asia, and not conquered +it, their enemies would set upon them as upon so many women. However, he told +them he would keep none of them with him against their will, they might go if +they pleased; he should merely enter his protest, that when on his way to make +the Macedonians the masters of the world, he was left alone with a few friends +and volunteers. This is almost word for word, as he wrote in a letter to +Antipater, where he adds, that when he had thus spoken to them, they all cried +out, they would go along with him whithersoever it was his pleasure to lead +them. After succeeding with these, it was no hard matter for him to bring over +the multitude, which easily followed the example of their betters. Now, also, +he more and more accommodated himself in his way of living to that of the +natives, and tried to bring them, also, as near as he could to the Macedonian +customs, wisely considering that whilst he was engaged in an expedition which +would carry him far from thence, it would be wiser to depend upon the goodwill +which might arise from intermixture and association as a means of maintaining +tranquillity, than upon force and compulsion. In order to this, he chose out +thirty thousand boys, whom he put under masters to teach them the Greek tongue, +and to train them up to arms in the Macedonian discipline. As for his marriage +with Roxana, whose youthfulness and beauty had charmed him at a drinking +entertainment, where he first happened to see her, taking part in a dance, it +was, indeed, a love affair, yet it seemed at the same time to be conducive to +the object he had in hand. For it gratified the conquered people to see him +choose a wife from among themselves, and it made them feel the most lively +affection for him, to find that in the only passion which he, the most +temperate of men, was overcome by, he yet forbore till he could obtain her in a +lawful and honorable way. +</p> + +<p> +Noticing, also, that among his chief friends and favorites, Hephaestion most +approved all that he did, and complied with and imitated him in his change of +habits, while Craterus continued strict in the observation of the customs and +fashions of his own country, he made it his practice to employ the first in all +transactions with the Persians, and the latter when he had to do with the +Greeks or Macedonians. And in general he showed more affection for Hephaestion, +and more respect for Craterus; Hephaestion, as he used to say, being +Alexander’s, and Craterus the king’s friend. And so these two friends always +bore in secret a grudge to each other, and at times quarreled openly, so much +so, that once in India they drew upon one another, and were proceeding in good +earnest, with their friends on each side to second them, when Alexander rode up +and publicly reproved Hephaestion, calling him fool and madman, not to be +sensible that without his favor he was nothing. He rebuked Craterus, also, in +private, severely, and then causing them both to come into his presence, he +reconciled them, at the same time swearing by Ammon and the rest of the gods, +that he loved them two above all other men, but if ever he perceived them fall +out again he would be sure to put both of them to death, or at least the +aggressor. After which they neither ever did or said anything, so much as in +jest, to offend one another. +</p> + +<p> +There was scarcely anyone who had greater repute among the Macedonians than +Philotas, the son of Parmenio. For besides that he was valiant and able to +endure any fatigue of war, he was also next to Alexander himself the most +munificent, and the greatest lover of his friends, one of whom asking him for +some money, he commanded his steward to give it him; and when he told him he +had not wherewith, “Have you not any plate then,” said he, “or any clothes of +mine to sell?” But he carried his arrogance and his pride of wealth and his +habits of display and luxury to a degree of assumption unbecoming a private +man, and affecting all the loftiness without succeeding in showing any of the +grace or gentleness of true greatness, by this mistaken and spurious majesty he +gained so much envy and ill-will, that Parmenio would sometimes tell him, “My +son, to be not quite so great would be better.” For he had long before been +complained of, and accused to Alexander. Particularly when Darius was defeated +in Cilicia, and an immense booty was taken at Damascus, among the rest of the +prisoners who were brought into the camp, there was one Antigone of Pydna, a +very handsome woman, who fell to Philotas’s share. The young man one day in his +cups, in the vaunting, outspoken, soldier’s manner, declared to his mistress, +that all the great actions were performed by him and his father, the glory and +benefit of which, he said, together with the title of king, the boy Alexander +reaped and enjoyed by their means. She could not hold, but discovered what he +had said to one of her acquaintance, and he, as is usual in such cases, to +another, till at last the story came to the ears of Craterus, who brought the +woman secretly to the king. When Alexander had heard what she had to say, he +commanded her to continue her intrigue with Philotas, and give him an account +from time to time of all that should fall from him to this purpose. He thus +unwittingly caught in a snare, to gratify some times a fit of anger, sometimes +a mere love of vainglory, let himself utter numerous foolish, indiscreet +speeches against the king in Antigone’s hearing, of which though Alexander was +informed and convinced by strong evidence, yet he would take no notice of it at +present, whether it was that he confided in Parmenio’s affection and loyalty, +or that he apprehended their authority and interest in the army. But about this +time one Limnus, a Macedonian of Chalastra, conspired against Alexander’s life, +and communicated his design to a youth whom he was fond of, named Nicomachus, +inviting him to be of the party. But he not relishing the thing, revealed it to +his brother Balinus, who immediately addressed himself to Philotas, requiring +him to introduce them both to Alexander, to whom they had something of great +moment to impart which very nearly concerned him. But he, for what reason is +uncertain, went not with them, professing that the king was engaged with +affairs of more importance. And when they had urged him a second time, and were +still slighted by him, they applied themselves to another, by whose means being +admitted into Alexander’s presence, they first told about Limnus’s conspiracy, +and by the way let Philotas’s negligence appear, who had twice disregarded +their application to him. Alexander was greatly incensed, and on finding that +Limnus had defended himself, and had been killed by the soldier who was sent to +seize him, he was still more discomposed, thinking he had thus lost the means +of detecting the plot. As soon as his displeasure against Philotas began to +appear, presently all his old enemies showed themselves, and said openly, the +king was too easily imposed on, to imagine that one so inconsiderable as +Limnus, a Chalastrian, should of his own head undertake such an enterprise; +that in all likelihood he was but subservient to the design, an instrument that +was moved by some greater spring; that those ought to be more strictly examined +about the matter whose interest it was so much to conceal it. When they had +once gained the king’s ear for insinuations of this sort, they went on to show +a thousand grounds of suspicion against Philotas, till at last they prevailed +to have him seized and put to the torture, which was done in the presence of +the principal officers, Alexander himself being placed behind some tapestry to +understand what passed. Where, when he heard in what a miserable tone, and with +what abject submissions Philotas applied himself to Hephaestion, he broke out, +it is said, in this manner: “Are you so mean-spirited and effeminate, Philotas, +and yet can engage in so desperate a design?” After his death, he presently +sent into Media, and put also Parmenio, his father, to death, who had done +brave service under Philip, and was the only man, of his older friends and +counselors, who had encouraged Alexander to invade Asia. Of three sons whom he +had had in the army, he had already lost two, and now was himself put to death +with the third. These actions rendered Alexander an object of terror to many of +his friends, and chiefly to Antipater, who, to strengthen himself, sent +messengers privately to treat for an alliance with the Aetolians, who stood in +fear of Alexander, because they had destroyed the town of the Oeniadae; on +being informed of which, Alexander had said the children of the Oeniadae need +not revenge their fathers’ quarrel, for he would himself take care to punish +the Aetolians. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after this happened the deplorable end of Clitus, which to those who +barely hear the matter-of-fact, may seem more inhuman than that of Philotas; +but if we consider the story with its circumstance of time, and weigh the +cause, we shall find it to have occurred rather through a sort of mischance of +the king’s, whose anger and over-drinking offered an occasion to the evil +genius of Clitus. The king had a present of Grecian fruit brought him from the +sea-coast, which was so fresh and beautiful, that he was surprised at it, and +called Clitus to him to see it, and to give him a share of it. Clitus was then +sacrificing, but he immediately left off and came, followed by three sheep, on +whom the drink-offering had been already poured preparatory to sacrificing +them. Alexander, being informed of this, told his diviners, Aristander and +Cleomantis the Lacedaemonian, and asked them what it meant; on whose assuring +him, it was an ill omen, he commanded them in all haste to offer sacrifices for +Clitus’s safety, forasmuch as three days before he himself had seen a strange +vision in his sleep, of Clitus all in mourning, sitting by Parmenio’s sons who +were dead. Clitus, however, stayed not to finish his devotions, but came +straight to supper with the king, who had sacrificed to Castor and Pollux. And +when they had drunk pretty hard, some of the company fell a singing the verses +of one Pranichus, or as others say of Pierion, which were made upon those +captains who had been lately worsted by the barbarians, on purpose to disgrace +and turn them to ridicule. This gave offense to the older men who were there, +and they upbraided both the author and the singer of the verses, though +Alexander and the younger men about him were much amused to hear them, and +encouraged them to go on, till at last Clitus, who had drunk too much, and was +besides of a froward and willful temper, was so nettled that he could hold no +longer, saying, it was not well done to expose the Macedonians so before the +barbarians and their enemies, since though it was their unhappiness to be +overcome, yet they were much better men than those who laughed at them. And +when Alexander remarked, that Clitus was pleading his own cause, giving +cowardice the name of misfortune, Clitus started up; “This cowardice, as you +are pleased to term it,” said he to him, “saved the life of a son of the gods, +when in flight from Spithridates’s sword; and it is by the expense of +Macedonian blood, and by these wounds, that you are now raised to such a +height, as to be able to disown your father Philip, and call yourself the Son +of Ammon.” “Thou base fellow,” said Alexander, who was now thoroughly +exasperated, “dost thou think to utter these things everywhere of me, and stir +up the Macedonians to sedition, and not be punished for it?” “We are +sufficiently punished already,” answered Clitus, “if this be the recompense of +our toils, and we must esteem theirs a happy lot, who have not lived to see +their countrymen scourged with Median rods, and forced to sue to the Persians +to have access to their king.” While he talked thus at random, and those near +Alexander got up from their seats and began to revile him in turn, the elder +men did what they could to compose the disorder. Alexander, in the meantime +turning about to Xenodochus, the Cardian, and Artemius, the Colophonian, asked +them if they were not of opinion that the Greeks, in comparison with the +Macedonians, behaved themselves like so many demi-gods among wild beasts. But +Clitus for all this would not give over, desiring Alexander to speak out if he +had anything more to say, or else why did he invite men who were freeborn and +accustomed to speak their minds openly without restraint, to sup with him. He +had better live and converse with barbarians and slaves who would not scruple +to bow the knee to his Persian girdle and his white tunic. Which words so +provoked Alexander, that not able to suppress his anger any longer, he threw +one of the apples that lay upon the table at him, and hit him, and then looked +about for his sword. But Aristophanes, one of his life-guard, had hid that out +of the way, and others came about him and besought him, but in vain. For +breaking from them, he called out aloud to his guards in the Macedonian +language, which was a certain sign of some great disturbance in him, and +commanded a trumpeter to sound, giving him a blow with his clenched fist for +not instantly obeying him; though afterwards the same man was commended for +disobeying an order which would have put the whole army into tumult and +confusion. Clitus still refusing to yield, was with much trouble forced by his +friends out of the room. But he came in again immediately at another door, very +irreverently and confidently singing the verses out of Euripides’s Andromache, +— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In Greece, alas! how ill things ordered are! +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Upon this, at last, Alexander, snatching a spear from one of the soldiers, met +Clitus as he was coming forward and was putting by the curtain that hung before +the door, and ran him through the body. He fell at once with a cry and a groan. +Upon which the king’s anger immediately vanishing, he came perfectly to +himself, and when he saw his friends about him all in a profound silence, he +pulled the spear out of the dead body, and would have thrust it into his own +throat, if the guards had not held his hands, and by main force carried him +away into his chamber, where all that night and the next day he wept bitterly, +till being quite spent with lamenting and exclaiming, he lay as it were +speechless, only fetching deep sighs. His friends apprehending some harm from +his silence, broke into the room, but he took no notice of what any of them +said, till Aristander putting him in mind of the vision he had seen concerning +Clitus, and the prodigy that followed, as if all had come to pass by an +unavoidable fatality, he then seemed to moderate his grief. They now brought +Callisthenes, the philosopher, who was the near friend of Aristotle, and +Anaxarchus of Abdera, to him. Callisthenes used moral language, and gentle and +soothing means, hoping to find access for words of reason, and get a hold upon +the passion. But Anaxarchus, who had always taken a course of his own in +philosophy, and had a name for despising and slighting his contemporaries, as +soon as he came in, cried out aloud, “Is this the Alexander whom the whole +world looks to, lying here weeping like a slave, for fear of the censure and +reproach of men, to whom he himself ought to be a law and measure of equity, if +he would use the right his conquests have given him as supreme lord and +governor of all, and not be the victim of a vain and idle opinion? Do not you +know,” said he, “that Jupiter is represented to have Justice and Law on each +hand of him, to signify that all the actions of a conqueror are lawful and +just?” With these and the like speeches, Anaxarchus indeed allayed the king’s +grief, but withal corrupted his character, rendering him more audacious and +lawless than he had been. Nor did he fail by these means to insinuate himself +into his favor, and to make Callisthenes’s company, which at all times, because +of his austerity, was not very acceptable, more uneasy and disagreeable to him. +</p> + +<p> +It happened that these two philosophers meeting at an entertainment, where +conversation turned on the subject of climate and the temperature of the air, +Callisthenes joined with their opinion, who held that those countries were +colder, and the winter sharper there than in Greece. Anaxarchus would by no +means allow this, but argued against it with some heat. “Surely,” said +Callisthenes, “you cannot but admit this country to be colder than Greece, for +there you used to have but one threadbare cloak to keep out the coldest winter, +and here you have three good warm mantles one over another.” This piece of +raillery irritated Anaxarchus and the other pretenders to learning, and the +crowd of flatterers in general could not endure to see Callisthenes so much +admired and followed by the youth, and no less esteemed by the older men for +his orderly life, and his gravity, and for being contented with his condition; +all confirming what he had professed about the object he had in his journey to +Alexander, that it was only to get his countrymen recalled from banishment, and +to rebuild and repeople his native town. Besides the envy which his great +reputation raised, he also, by his own deportment, gave those who wished him +ill, opportunity to do him mischief. For when he was invited to public +entertainments, he would most times refuse to come, or if he were present at +any, he put a constraint upon the company by his austerity and silence, which +seemed to intimate his disapproval of what he saw. So that Alexander himself +said in application to him, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +That vain pretense to wisdom I detest,<br/> +Where a man’s blind to his own interest. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Being with many more invited to sup with the king, he was called upon when the +cup came to him, to make an oration extempore in praise of the Macedonians; and +he did it with such a flow of eloquence, that all who heard it rose from their +seats to clap and applaud him, and threw their garland upon him; only Alexander +told him out of Euripides, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +I wonder not that you have spoke so well,<br/> +’Tis easy on good subjects to excel. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +“Therefore,” said he, “if you will show the force of your eloquence, tell my +Macedonians their faults, and dispraise them, that by hearing their errors they +may learn to he better for the future.” Callisthenes presently obeyed him, +retracting all he had said before, and, inveighing against the Macedonians with +great freedom, added, that Philip thrived and grew powerful, chiefly by the +discord of the Grecians, applying this verse to him:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In civil strife e’en villains rise to fame; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +which so offended the Macedonians, that he was odious to them ever after. And +Alexander said, that instead of his eloquence, he had only made his ill-will +appear in what he had spoken. Hermippus assures us, that one Stroebus, a +servant whom Callisthenes kept to read to him, gave this account of these +passages afterwards to Aristotle; and that when he perceived the king grow more +and more averse to him, two or three times, as he was going away, he repeated +the verses, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Death seiz’d at last on great Patroclus too,<br/> +Though he in virtue far exceeded you. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Not without reason, therefore, did Aristotle give this character of +Callisthenes, that he was, indeed, a powerful speaker, but had no judgment. He +acted certainly a true philosopher’s part in positively refusing, as he did, to +pay adoration; and by speaking out openly against that which the best and +gravest of the Macedonians only repined at in secret, he delivered the Grecians +and Alexander himself from a great disgrace, when the practice was given up. +But he ruined himself by it, because he went too roughly to work, as if he +would have forced the king to that which he should have effected by reason and +persuasion. Chares of Mitylene writes, that at a banquet, Alexander, after he +had drunk, reached the cup to one of his friends, who, on receiving it, rose up +towards the domestic altar, and when he had drunk, first adored, and then +kissed Alexander, and afterwards laid himself down at the table with the rest. +Which they all did one after another, till it came to Callisthenes’s turn, who +took the cup and drank, while the king who was engaged in conversation with +Hephaestion was not observing, and then came and offered to kiss him. But +Demetrius, surnamed Phidon, interposed, saying, “Sir, by no means let him kiss +you, for he only of us all has refused to adore you;” upon which the king +declined it, and all the concern Callisthenes showed was, that he said aloud, +“Then I go away with a kiss less than the rest.” The displeasure he incurred by +this action procured credit for Hephaestion’s declaration that he had broken +his word to him in not paying the king the same veneration that others did, as +he had faithfully promised to do. And to finish his disgrace, a number of such +men as Lysimachus and Hagnon now came in with their asseverations that the +sophist went about everywhere boasting of his resistance to arbitrary power, +and that the young men all ran after him, and honored him as the only man among +so many thousands who had the courage to preserve his liberty. Therefore when +Hermolaus’s conspiracy came to be discovered, the charges which his enemies +brought against him were the more easily believed, particularly that when the +young man asked him what he should do to be the most illustrious person on +earth, he told him the readiest way was to kill him who was already so; and +that to incite him to commit the deed, he bade him not be awed by the golden +couch, but remember Alexander was a man equally infirm and vulnerable as +another. However, none of Hermolaus’s accomplices, in the utmost extremity, +made any mention of Callisthenes’s being engaged in the design. Nay, Alexander +himself, in the letters which he wrote soon after to Craterus, Attalus, and +Alcetas, tells them that the young men who were put to the torture, declared +they had entered into the conspiracy of themselves, without any others being +privy to, or guilty of it. But yet afterwards, in a letter to Antipater, he +accuses Callisthenes. “The young men,” he says, “were stoned to death by the +Macedonians, but for the sophist,” (meaning Callisthenes,) “I will take care to +punish him with them too who sent him to me, and who harbor those in their +cities who conspire against my life,” an unequivocal declaration against +Aristotle, in whose house Callisthenes, for his relationship’s sake, being his +niece Hero’s son, had been educated. His death is variously related. Some say +he was hanged by Alexander’s orders; others, that he died of sickness in +prison; but Chares writes he was kept in chains seven months after he was +apprehended, on purpose that he might be proceeded against in full council, +when Aristotle should be present; and that growing very fat, and contracting a +disease of vermin, he there died, about the time that Alexander was wounded in +India, in the country of the Malli Oxydracae, all which came to pass +afterwards. +</p> + +<p> +For to go on in order, Demaratus of Corinth, now quite an old man, had made a +great effort, about this time, to pay Alexander a visit; and when he had seen +him, said he pitied the misfortune of those Grecians, who were so unhappy as to +die before they had beheld Alexander seated on the throne of Darius. But he did +not long enjoy the benefit of the king’s kindness for him, any otherwise than +that soon after falling sick and dying, he had a magnificent funeral, and the +army raised him a monument of earth, fourscore cubits high, and of a vast +circumference. His ashes were conveyed in a very rich chariot, drawn by four +horses, to the seaside. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander now intent upon his expedition into India, took notice that his +soldiers were so charged with booty that it hindered their marching. Therefore, +at break of day, as soon as the baggage wagons were laden, first he set fire to +his own, and to those of his friends, and then commanded those to be burnt +which belonged to the rest of the army. An act which in the deliberation of it +had seemed more dangerous and difficult than it proved in the execution, with +which few were dissatisfied; for most of the soldiers, as if they had been +inspired, uttering loud outcries and warlike shoutings, supplied one another +with what was absolutely necessary, and burnt and destroyed all that was +superfluous, the sight of which redoubled Alexander’s zeal and eagerness for +his design. And, indeed, he was now grown very severe and inexorable in +punishing those who committed any fault. For he put Menander, one of his +friends, to death, for deserting a fortress where he had placed him in +garrison, and shot Orsodates, one of the barbarians who revolted from him, with +his own hand. +</p> + +<p> +At this time a sheep happened to yean a lamb, with the perfect shape and color +of a tiara upon the head, and testicles on each side; which portent Alexander +regarded with such dislike, that he immediately caused his Babylonian priests, +whom he usually carried about with him for such purposes, to purify him, and +told his friends he was not so much concerned for his own sake as for theirs, +out of an apprehension that after his death the divine power might suffer his +empire to fall into the hands of some degenerate, impotent person. But this +fear was soon removed by a wonderful thing that happened not long after, and +was thought to presage better. For Proxenus, a Macedonian, who was the chief of +those who looked to the king’s furniture, as he was breaking up the ground near +the river Oxus, to set up the royal pavilion, discovered a spring of a fat, +oily liquor, which after the top was taken off, ran pure, clear oil, without +any difference either of taste or smell, having exactly the same smoothness and +brightness, and that, too, in a country where no olives grew. The water, +indeed, of the river Oxus, is said to be the smoothest to the feeling of all +waters, and to leave a gloss on the skins of those who bathe themselves in it. +Whatever might be the cause, certain it is that Alexander was wonderfully +pleased with it, as appears by his letters to Antipater, where he speaks of it +as one of the most remarkable presages that God had ever favored him with. The +diviners told him it signified his expedition would be glorious in the event, +but very painful, and attended with many difficulties; for oil, they said, was +bestowed on mankind by God as a refreshment of their labors. +</p> + +<p> +Nor did they judge amiss, for he exposed himself to many hazards in the battles +which he fought, and received very severe wounds, but the greatest loss in his +army was occasioned through the unwholesomeness of the air, and the want of +necessary provisions. But he still applied himself to overcome fortune and +whatever opposed him, by resolution and virtue, and thought nothing impossible +to true intrepidity, and on the other hand nothing secure or strong for +cowardice. It is told of him that when he besieged Sisimithres, who held an +inaccessible, impregnable rock against him, and his soldiers began to despair +of taking it, he asked Oxyartes whether Sisimithres was a man of courage, who +assuring him he was the greatest coward alive, “Then you tell me,” said he, +“that the place may easily be taken, since what is in command of it is weak.” +And in a little time he so terrified Sisimithres, that he took it without any +difficulty. At an attack which he made upon such another precipitous place with +some of his Macedonian soldiers, he called to one whose name was Alexander, and +told him, he at any rate must fight bravely, if it were but for his name’s +sake. The youth fought gallantly and was killed in the action, at which he was +sensibly afflicted. Another time, seeing his men march slowly and unwillingly +to the siege of the place called Nysa, because of a deep river between them and +the town, he advanced before them, and standing upon the bank, “What a +miserable man,” said he, “am I, that I have not learned to swim!” and then was +hardly dissuaded from endeavoring to pass it upon his shield. Here, after the +assault was over, the ambassadors who from several towns which he had blocked +up, came to submit to him and make their peace, were surprised to find him +still in his armor, without anyone in waiting or attendance upon him, and when +at last some one brought him a cushion, he made the eldest of them, named +Acuphis, take it and sit down upon it. The old man, marveling at his +magnanimity and courtesy, asked him what his countrymen should do to merit his +friendship. “I would have them,” said Alexander, “choose you to govern them, +and send one hundred of the most worthy men among them to remain with me as +hostages.” Acuphis laughed and answered, “I shall govern them with more ease, +Sir, if I send you so many of the worst, rather than the best of my subjects.” +</p> + +<p> +The extent of king Taxiles’s dominions in India was thought to be as large as +Egypt, abounding in good pastures, and producing beautiful fruits. The king +himself had the reputation of a wise man, and at his first interview with +Alexander, he spoke to him in these terms: “To what purpose,” said he, “should +we make war upon one another, if the design of your coming into these parts be +not to rob us of our water or our necessary food, which are the only things +that wise men are indispensably obliged to fight for? As for other riches and +possessions, as they are accounted in the eye of the world, if I am better +provided of them than you, I am ready to let you share with me; but if fortune +has been more liberal to you than me, I have no objection to be obliged to +you.” This discourse pleased Alexander so much, that embracing him, “Do you +think,” said he to him, “your kind words and courteous behavior will bring you +off in this interview without a contest? No, you shall not escape so. I shall +contend and do battle with you so far, that how obliging soever you are, you +shall not have the better of me.” Then receiving some presents from him, he +returned him others of greater value, and to complete his bounty, gave him in +money ready coined one thousand talents; at which his old friends were much +displeased, but it gained him the hearts of many of the barbarians. But the +best soldiers of the Indians now entering into the pay of several of the +cities, undertook to defend them, and did it so bravely, that they put +Alexander to a great deal of trouble, till at last, after a capitulation, upon +the surrender of the place, he fell upon them as they were marching away, and +put them all to the sword. This one breach of his word remains as a blemish +upon his achievements in war, which he otherwise had performed throughout with +that justice and honor that became a king. Nor was he less incommoded by the +Indian philosophers, who inveighed against those princes who joined his party, +and solicited the free nations to oppose him. He took several of these also, +and caused them to be hanged. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war with Porus. +He says the two armies were separated by the river Hydaspes, on whose opposite +bank Porus continually kept his elephants in order of battle, with their heads +towards their enemies, to guard the passage; that he, on the other hand, made +every day a great noise and clamor in his camp, to dissipate the apprehensions +of the barbarians; that one stormy dark night he passed the river, at a +distance from the place where the enemy lay, into a little island, with part of +his foot, and the best of his horse. Here there fell a most violent storm of +rain, accompanied with lightning and whirlwinds, and seeing some of his men +burnt and dying with the lightning, he nevertheless quitted the island and made +over to the other side. The Hydaspes, he says, now after the storm, was so +swollen and grown so rapid, as to have made a breach in the bank, and a part of +the river was now pouring in here, so that when he came across, it was with +difficulty he got a footing on the land, which was slippery and unsteady, and +exposed to the force of the currents on both sides. This is the occasion when +he is related to have said, “O ye Athenians, will ye believe what dangers I +incur to merit your praise?” This, however, is Onesicritus’s story. Alexander +says, here the men left their boats, and passed the breach in their armor, up +to the breast in water, and that then he advanced with his horse about twenty +furlongs before his foot, concluding that if the enemy charged him with their +cavalry, he should be too strong for them; if with their foot, his own would +come up time enough to his assistance. Nor did he judge amiss; for being +charged by a thousand horse, and sixty armed chariots, which advanced before +their main body, he took all the chariots, and killed four hundred horse upon +the place. Porus, by this time guessing that Alexander himself had crossed +over, came on with his whole army, except a party which he left behind, to hold +the rest of the Macedonians in play, if they should attempt to pass the river. +But he, apprehending the multitude of the enemy, and to avoid the shock of +their elephants, dividing his forces, attacked their left wing himself, and +commanded Coenus to fall upon the right, which was performed with good success. +For by this means both wings being broken, the enemies fell back in their +retreat upon the center, and crowded in upon their elephants. There rallying, +they fought a hand to hand battle, and it was the eighth hour of the day before +they were entirely defeated. This description the conqueror himself has left us +in his own epistles. +</p> + +<p> +Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four cubits and a +span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, which was of the largest +size, his stature and bulk were so answerable, that he appeared to be +proportionably mounted, as a horseman on his horse. This elephant, during the +whole battle, gave many singular proofs of sagacity and of particular care of +the king, whom as long as he was strong and in a condition to fight, he +defended with great courage, repelling those who set upon him; and as soon as +he perceived him overpowered with his numerous wounds and the multitude of +darts that were thrown at him, to prevent his falling off, he softly knelt down +and began to draw out the darts with his proboscis. When Porus was taken +prisoner; and Alexander asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, “As +a king.” For that expression, he said, when the same question was put to him a +second time, comprehended everything. And Alexander, accordingly, not only +suffered him to govern his own kingdom as satrap under himself, but gave him +also the additional territory of various independent tribes whom he subdued, a +district which, it is said, contained fifteen several nations and five thousand +considerable towns, besides abundance of villages. To another government, three +times as large as this, he appointed Philip, one of his friends. +</p> + +<p> +Some little time after the battle with Porus, Bucephalas died, as most of the +authorities state, under cure of his wounds, or as Onesicritus says, of fatigue +and age, being thirty years old. Alexander was no less concerned at his death, +than if he had lost an old companion or an intimate friend, and built a city, +which he named Bucephalia, in memory of him, on the bank of the river Hydaspes. +He also, we are told, built another city, and called it after the name of a +favorite dog, Peritas, which he had brought up himself. So Sotion assures us he +was informed by Potamon of Lesbos. +</p> + +<p> +But this last combat with Porus took off the edge of the Macedonians’ courage, +and stayed their further progress into India. For having found it hard enough +to defeat an enemy who brought but twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse +into the field, they thought they had reason to oppose Alexander’s design of +leading them on to pass the Ganges too, which they were told was thirty-two +furlongs broad and a hundred fathoms deep, and the banks on the further side +covered with multitudes of enemies. For they were told that the kings of the +Gandaritans and Praesians expected them there with eighty thousand horse, two +hundred thousand foot, eight thousand armed chariots, and six thousand fighting +elephants. Nor was this a mere vain report, spread to discourage them. For +Androcottus, who not long after reigned in those parts, made a present of five +hundred elephants at once to Seleucus, and with an army of six hundred thousand +men subdued all India. Alexander at first was so grieved and enraged at his +men’s reluctancy, that he shut himself up in his tent, and threw himself upon +the ground, declaring, if they would not pass the Ganges, he owed them no +thanks for anything they had hitherto done, and that to retreat now, was +plainly to confess himself vanquished. But at last the reasonable persuasions +of his friends and the cries and lamentations of his soldiers, who in a +suppliant manner crowded about the entrance of his tent, prevailed with him to +think of returning. Yet he could not refrain from leaving behind him various +deceptive memorials of his expedition, to impose upon after-times, and to +exaggerate his glory with posterity, such as arms larger than were really worn, +and mangers for horses, with bits of bridles above the usual size, which he set +up, and distributed in several places. He erected altars, also, to the gods, +which the kings of the Praesians even in our time do honor to when they pass +the river, and offer sacrifice upon them after the Grecian manner. Androcottus, +then a boy, saw Alexander there, and is said often afterwards to have been +heard to say, that he missed but little of making himself master of those +countries; their king, who then reigned, was so hated and despised for the +viciousness of his life, and the meanness of his extraction. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander was now eager to see the ocean. To which purpose he caused a great +many row-boats and rafts to be built, in which he fell gently down the rivers +at his leisure, yet so that his navigation was neither unprofitable nor +inactive. For by several descents upon the banks, he made himself master of the +fortified towns, and consequently of the country on both sides. But at a siege +of a town of the Mallians, who have the repute of being the bravest people of +India, he ran in great danger of his life. For having beaten off the defendants +with showers of arrows, he was the first man that mounted the wall by a scaling +ladder, which, as soon as he was up, broke and left him almost alone, exposed +to the darts which the barbarians threw at him in great numbers from below. In +this distress, turning himself as well as he could, he leaped down in the midst +of his enemies, and had the good fortune to light upon his feet. The brightness +and clattering of his armor when he came to the ground, made the barbarians +think they saw rays of light, or some bright phantom playing before his body, +which frightened them so at first, that they ran away and dispersed. Till +seeing him seconded but by two of his guards, they fell upon him hand to hand, +and some, while he bravely defended himself, tried to wound him through his +armor with their swords and spears. And one who stood further off, drew a bow +with such just strength, that the arrow finding its way through his cuirass, +stuck in his ribs under the breast. This stroke was so violent, that it made +him give back, and set one knee to the ground, upon which the man ran up with +his drawn scimitar, thinking to dispatch him, and had done it, if Peucestes and +Limnaeus had not interposed, who were both wounded, Limnaeus mortally, but +Peucestes stood his ground, while Alexander killed the barbarian. But this did +not free him from danger; for besides many other wounds, at last he received so +weighty a stroke of a club upon his neck, that he was forced to lean his body +against the wall, still, however, facing the enemy. At this extremity, the +Macedonians made their way in and gathered round him. They took him up, just as +he was fainting away, having lost all sense of what was done near him, and +conveyed him to his tent, upon which it was presently reported all over the +camp that he was dead. But when they had with great difficulty and pains sawed +off the shaft of the arrow, which was of wood, and so with much trouble got off +his cuirass, they came to cut out the head of it, which was three fingers broad +and four long, and stuck fast in the bone. During the operation, he was taken +with almost mortal swoonings, but when it was out he came to himself again. Yet +though all danger was past, he continued very weak, and confined himself a +great while to a regular diet and the method of his cure, till one day hearing +the Macedonians clamoring outside in their eagerness to see him, he took his +cloak and went out. And having sacrificed to the gods, without more delay he +went on board again, and as he coasted along, subdued a great deal of the +country on both sides, and several considerable cities. +</p> + +<p> +In this voyage, he took ten of the Indian philosophers prisoners, who had been +most active in persuading Sabbas to revolt, and had caused the Macedonians a +great deal of trouble. These men, called Gymnosophists, were reputed to be +extremely ready and succinct in their answers, which he made trial of, by +putting difficult questions to them, letting them know that those whose answers +were not pertinent, should be put to death, of which he made the eldest of them +judge. The first being asked which he thought most numerous, the dead or the +living, answered, “The living, because those who are dead are not at all.” Of +the second, he desired to know whether the earth or the sea produced the +largest beast; who told him, “The earth, for the sea is but a part of it.” His +question to the third was, Which is the cunningest of beasts? “That,” said he, +“which men have not yet found out.” He bade the fourth tell him what argument +he used to Sabbas to persuade him to revolt. “No other,” said he, “than that he +should either live or die nobly.” Of the fifth he asked, Which was eldest, +night or day? The philosopher replied, “Day was eldest, by one day at least.” +But perceiving Alexander not well satisfied with that account, he added, that +he ought not to wonder if strange questions had as strange answers made to +them. Then he went on and inquired of the next, what a man should do to be +exceedingly beloved. “He must be very powerful,” said he, “without making +himself too much feared.” The answer of the seventh to his question, how a man +might become a god, was, “By doing that which was impossible for men to do.” +The eighth told him, “Life is stronger than death, because it supports so many +miseries.” And the last being asked, how long he thought it decent for a man to +live, said, “Till death appeared more desirable than life.” Then Alexander +turned to him whom he had made judge, and commanded him to give sentence. “All +that I can determine,” said he, “is, that they have every one answered worse +than another.” “Nay,” said the king, “then you shall die first, for giving such +a sentence.” “Not so, O king,” replied the gymnosophist, “unless you said +falsely that he should die first who made the worst answer.” In conclusion he +gave them presents and dismissed them. +</p> + +<p> +But to those who were in greatest reputation among them, and lived a private +quiet life, he sent Onesicritus, one of Diogenes the Cynic’s disciples, +desiring them to come to him. Calanus, it is said, very arrogantly and roughly +commanded him to strip himself, and hear what he said, naked, otherwise he +would not speak a word to him, though he came from Jupiter himself. But +Dandamis received him with more civility, and hearing him discourse of +Socrates, Pythagoras, and Diogenes, told him he thought them men of great +parts, and to have erred in nothing so much as in having too great respect for +the laws and customs of their country. Others say, Dandamis only asked him the +reason why Alexander undertook so long a journey to come into those parts. +Taxiles, however, persuaded Calanus to wait upon Alexander. His proper name was +Sphines, but because he was wont to say Cale, which in the Indian tongue is a +form of salutation, to those he met with anywhere, the Greeks called him +Calanus. He is said to have shown Alexander an instructive emblem of +government, which was this. He threw a dry shriveled hide upon the ground, and +trod upon the edges of it. The skin when it was pressed in one place, still +rose up in another, wheresoever he trod round about it, till he set his foot in +the middle, which made all the parts lie even and quiet. The meaning of this +similitude being that he ought to reside most in the middle of his empire, and +not spend too much time on the borders of it. +</p> + +<p> +His voyage down the rivers took up seven months’ time, and when he came to the +sea, he sailed to an island which he himself called Scillustis, others +Psiltucis, where going ashore, he sacrificed, and made what observations he +could as to the nature of the sea and the sea-coast. Then having besought the +gods that no other man might ever go beyond the bounds of this expedition, he +ordered his fleet of which he made Nearchus admiral, and Onesicritus pilot, to +sail round about, keeping the Indian shore on the right hand, and returned +himself by land through the country of the Orites, where he was reduced to +great straits for want of provisions, and lost a vast number of men, so that of +an army of one hundred and twenty thousand foot and fifteen thousand horse, he +scarcely brought back above a fourth part out of India, they were so diminished +by diseases, ill diet, and the scorching heats, but most by famine. For their +march was through an uncultivated country whose inhabitants fared hardly, +possessing only a few sheep, and those of a wretched kind, whose flesh was rank +and unsavory, by their continual feeding upon sea-fish. +</p> + +<p> +After sixty days march he came into Gedrosia, where he found great plenty of +all things, which the neighboring kings and governors of provinces, hearing of +his approach, had taken care to provide. When he had here refreshed his army, +he continued his march through Carmania, feasting all the way for seven days +together. He with his most intimate friends banqueted and reveled night and day +upon a platform erected on a lofty, conspicuous scaffold, which was slowly +drawn by eight horses. This was followed by a great many chariots, some covered +with purple and embroidered canopies, and some with green boughs, which were +continually supplied afresh, and in them the rest of his friends and commanders +drinking, and crowned with garlands of flowers. Here was now no target or +helmet or spear to be seen; instead of armor, the soldiers handled nothing but +cups and goblets and Thericlean drinking vessels, which, along the whole way, +they dipped into large bowls and jars, and drank healths to one another, some +seating themselves to it, others as they went along. All places resounded with +music of pipes and flutes, with harping and singing, and women dancing as in +the rites of Bacchus. For this disorderly, wandering march, besides the +drinking part of it, was accompanied with all the sportiveness and insolence of +bacchanals, as much as if the god himself had been there to countenance and +lead the procession. As soon as he came to the royal palace of Gedrosia, he +again refreshed and feasted his army; and one day after he had drunk pretty +hard, it is said, he went to see a prize of dancing contended for, in which his +favorite Bagoas, having gained the victory, crossed the theater in his dancing +habit, and sat down close by him, which so pleased the Macedonians, that they +made loud acclamations for him to kiss Bagoas, and never stopped clapping their +hands and shouting till Alexander put his arms round him and kissed him. +</p> + +<p> +Here his admiral, Nearchus, came to him and delighted him so with the narrative +of his voyage, that he resolved himself to sail out of the mouth of Euphrates +with a great fleet, with which he designed to go round by Arabia and Africa, +and so by Hercules’s Pillars into the Mediterranean; in order for which, he +directed all sorts of vessels to be built at Thapsacus, and made great +provision everywhere of seamen and pilots. But the tidings of the difficulties +he had gone through in his Indian expedition, the danger of his person among +the Mallians, the reported loss of a considerable part of his forces, and a +general doubt as to his own safety, had begun to give occasion for revolt among +many of the conquered nations, and for acts of great injustice, avarice, and +insolence on the part of the satraps and commanders in the provinces, so that +there seemed to be an universal fluctuation and disposition to change. Even at +home, Olympias and Cleopatra had raised a faction against Antipater, and +divided his government between them, Olympias seizing upon Epirus, and +Cleopatra upon Macedonia. When Alexander was told of it, he said his mother had +made the best choice, for the Macedonians would never endure to be ruled by a +woman. Upon this he dispatched Nearchus again to his fleet, to carry the war +into the maritime provinces, and as he marched that way himself, he punished +those commanders who had behaved ill, particularly Oxyartes, one of the sons of +Abuletes, whom he killed with his own hand, thrusting him through the body with +his spear. And when Abuletes, instead of the necessary provisions which he +ought to have furnished, brought him three thousand talents in coined money, he +ordered it to be thrown to his horses, and when they would not touch it, “What +good,” he said, “will this provision do us?” and sent him away to prison. +</p> + +<p> +When he came into Persia, he distributed money among the women, as their own +kings had been wont to do, who as often as they came thither, gave every one of +them a piece of gold; on account of which custom, some of them, it is said, had +come but seldom, and Ochus was so sordidly covetous, that to avoid this +expense, he never visited his native country once in all his reign. Then +finding Cyrus’s sepulchre opened and rifled, he put Polymachus, who did it, to +death, though he was a man of some distinction, a born Macedonian of Pella. And +after he had read the inscription, he caused it to be cut again below the old +one in Greek characters; the words being these: “O man, whosoever thou art, and +from whencesoever thou comest (for I know thou wilt come), I am Cyrus, the +founder of the Persian empire; do not grudge me this little earth which covers +my body.” The reading of this sensibly touched Alexander, filling him with the +thought of the uncertainty and mutability of human affairs. At the same time, +Calanus having been a little while troubled with a disease in the bowels, +requested that he might have a funeral pile erected, to which he came on +horseback, and after he had said some prayers and sprinkled himself and cut off +some of his hair to throw into the fire, before he ascended it, he embraced and +took leave of the Macedonians who stood by, desiring them to pass that day in +mirth and good-fellowship with their king, whom in a little time, he said, he +doubted not but to see again at Babylon. Having thus said, he lay down, and +covering up his face, he stirred not when the fire came near him, but continued +still in the same posture as at first, and so sacrificed himself, as it was the +ancient custom of the philosophers in those countries to do. The same thing was +done long after by another Indian, who came with Caesar to Athens, where they +still show you “the Indian’s monument.” At his return from the funeral pile, +Alexander invited a great many of his friends and principal officers to supper, +and proposed a drinking match, in which the victor should receive a crown. +Promachus drank twelve quarts of wine, and won the prize, which was a talent, +from them all; but he survived his victory but three days, and was followed, as +Chares says, by forty-one more, who died of the same debauch, some extremely +cold weather having set in shortly after. +</p> + +<p> +At Susa, he married Darius’s daughter Statira, and celebrated also the nuptials +of his friends, bestowing the noblest of the Persian ladies upon the worthiest +of them, at the same time making in an entertainment in honor of the other +Macedonians whose marriages had already taken place. At this magnificent +festival, it is reported, there were no less than nine thousand guests, to each +of whom he gave a golden cup for the libations. Not to mention other instances +of his wonderful magnificence, he paid the debts of his army, which amounted to +nine thousand eight hundred and seventy talents. But Antigenes, who had lost +one of his eyes, though he owed nothing, got his name set down in the list of +those who were in debt, and bringing one who pretended to be his creditor, and +to have supplied him from the bank, received the money. But when the cheat was +found out, the king was so incensed at it, that he banished him from court, and +took away his command, though he was an excellent soldier, and a man of great +courage. For when he was but a youth, and served under Philip at the siege of +Perinthus, where he was wounded in the eye by an arrow shot out of an engine, +he would neither let the arrow be taken out, nor be persuaded to quit the +field, till he had bravely repulsed the enemy and forced them to retire into +the town. Accordingly he was not able to support such a disgrace with any +patience, and it was plain that grief and despair would have made him kill +himself, but that the king fearing it, not only pardoned him, but let him also +enjoy the benefit of his deceit. +</p> + +<p> +The thirty thousand boys whom he left behind him to be taught and disciplined, +were so improved at his return, both in strength and beauty, and performed +their exercises with such dexterity and wonderful agility, that he was +extremely pleased with them, which grieved the Macedonians, and made them fear +he would have the less value for them. And when he proceeded to send down the +infirm and maimed soldiers to the sea, they said they were unjustly and +infamously dealt with, after they were worn out in his service upon all +occasions, now to be turned away with disgrace and sent home into their country +among their friends and relations, in a worse condition than when they came +out; therefore they desired him to dismiss them one and all, and to account his +Macedonians useless, now he was so well furnished with a set of dancing boys, +with whom, if he pleased, he might go on and conquer the world. These speeches +so incensed Alexander, that after he had given them a great deal of reproachful +language in his passion, he drove them away, and committed the watch to +Persians, out of whom he chose his guards and attendants. When the Macedonians +saw him escorted by these men, and themselves excluded and shamefully +disgraced, their high spirits fell, and conferring with one another, they found +that jealousy and rage had almost distracted them. But at last coming to +themselves again, they went without their arms, with on]y their under garments +on, crying and weeping, to offer themselves at his tent, and desired him to +deal with them as their baseness and ingratitude deserved. However, this would +not prevail; for though his anger was already something mollified, yet he would +not admit them into his presence, nor would they stir from thence, but +continued two days and nights before his tent, bewailing themselves, and +imploring him as their lord to have compassion on them. But the third day he +came out to them, and seeing them very humble and penitent, he wept himself a +great while, and after a gentle reproof spoke kindly to them, and dismissed +those who were unserviceable with magnificent rewards, and with this +recommendation to Antipater, that when they came home, at all public shows and +in the theaters, they should sit on the best and foremost seats, crowned with +chaplets of flowers. He ordered, also, that the children of those who had lost +their lives in his service, should have their fathers’ pay continued to them. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to Ecbatana in Media, and had dispatched his most urgent affairs, +he began to divert himself again with spectacles and public entertainments, to +carry on which he had a supply of three thousand actors and artists, newly +arrived out of Greece. But they were soon interrupted by Hephaestion’s falling +sick of a fever, in which, being a young man and a soldier too, he could not +confine himself to so exact a diet as was necessary; for whilst his physician +Glaucus was gone to the theater, he ate a fowl for his dinner, and drank a +large draught of wine, upon which he became very ill, and shortly after died. +At this misfortune, Alexander was so beyond all reason transported, that to +express his sorrow, he immediately ordered the manes and tails of all his +horses and mules to be cut, and threw down the battlements of the neighboring +cities. The poor physician he crucified, and forbade playing on the flute, or +any other musical instrument in the camp a great while, till directions came +from the oracle of Ammon, and enjoined him to honor Hephaestion, and sacrifice +to him as to a hero. Then seeking to alleviate his grief in war, he set out, as +it were, to a hunt and chase of men, for he fell upon the Cossaeans, and put +the whole nation to the sword. This was called a sacrifice to Hephaestion’s +ghost. In his sepulchre and monument and the adorning of them, he intended to +bestow ten thousand talents; and designing that the excellence of the +workmanship and the singularity of the design might outdo the expense, his +wishes turned, above all other artists, to Stasicrates, because he always +promised something very bold, unusual, and magnificent in his projects. Once +when they had met before, he had told him, that of all the mountains he knew, +that of Athos in Thrace was the most capable of being adapted to represent the +shape and lineaments of a man; that if he pleased to command him, he would make +it the noblest and most durable statue in the world, which in its left hand +should hold a city of ten thousand inhabitants, and out of its right should +pour a copious river into the sea. Though Alexander declined this proposal, yet +now he spent a great deal of time with workmen to invent and contrive others +even more extravagant and sumptuous. +</p> + +<p> +As he was upon his way to Babylon, Nearchus, who had sailed back out of the +ocean up the mouth of the river Euphrates, came to tell him he had met with +some Chaldaean diviners, who had warned him against Alexander’s going thither. +Alexander, however, took no thought of it, and went on, and when he came near +the walls of the place, he saw a great many crows fighting with one another, +some of whom fell down just by him. After this, being privately informed that +Apollodorus, the governor of Babylon, had sacrificed, to know what would become +of him, he sent for Pythagoras, the soothsayer, and on his admitting the thing, +asked him, in what condition he found the victim; and when he told him the +liver was defective in its lobe, “A great presage indeed!” said Alexander. +However, he offered Pythagoras no injury, but was sorry that he had neglected +Nearchus’s advice, and stayed for the most part outside the town, removing his +tent from place to place, and sailing up and down the Euphrates. Besides this, +he was disturbed by many other prodigies. A tame ass fell upon the biggest and +handsomest lion that he kept, and killed him by a kick. And one day after he +had undressed himself to be anointed, and was playing at ball, just as they +were going to bring his clothes again, the young men who played with him +perceived a man clad in the king’s robes, with a diadem upon his head, sitting +silently upon his throne. They asked him who he was, to which he gave no answer +a good while, till at last coming to himself, he told them his name was +Dionysius, that he was of Messenia, that for some crime of which he was +accused, he was brought thither from the sea-side, and had been kept long in +prison, that Serapis appeared to him, had freed him from his chains, conducted +him to that place, and commanded him to put on the king’s robe and diadem, and +to sit where they found him, and to say nothing. Alexander, when he heard this, +by the direction of his soothsayers, put the fellow to death, but he lost his +spirits, and grew diffident of the protection and assistance of the gods, and +suspicious of his friends. His greatest apprehension was of Antipater and his +sons, one of whom, Iolaus, was his chief cupbearer; and Cassander, who had +lately arrived, and had been bred up in Greek manners, the first time he saw +some of the barbarians adore the king, could not forbear laughing at it aloud, +which so incensed Alexander, that he took him by the hair with both hands, and +dashed his head against the wall. Another time, Cassander would have said +something in defense of Antipater to those who accused him, but Alexander +interrupting him said, “What is it you say? Do you think people, if they had +received no injury, would come such a journey only to calumniate your father?” +To which when Cassander replied, that their coming so far from the evidence was +a great proof of the falseness of their charges, Alexander smiled, and said +those were some of Aristotle’s sophisms, which would serve equally on both +sides; and added, that both he and his father should be severely punished, if +they were found guilty of the least injustice towards those who complained. All +which made such a deep impression of terror in Cassander’s mind, that long +after when he was king of Macedonia, and master of Greece, as he was walking up +and down at Delphi, and looking at the statues, at the sight of that of +Alexander he was suddenly struck with alarm, and shook all over, his eyes +rolled, his head grew dizzy, and it was long before he recovered himself. +</p> + +<p> +When once Alexander had given way to fears of supernatural influence, his mind +grew so disturbed and so easily alarmed, that if the least unusual or +extraordinary thing happened, he thought it a prodigy or a presage, and his +court was thronged with diviners and priests whose business was to sacrifice +and purify and foretell the future. So miserable a thing is incredulity and +contempt of divine power on the one hand, and so miserable, also, superstition +on the other, which like water, where the level has been lowered, flowing in +and never stopping, fills the mind with slavish fears and follies, as now in +Alexander’s case. But upon some answers which were brought him from the oracle +concerning Hephaestion, he laid aside his sorrow, and fell again to sacrificing +and drinking; and having given Nearchus a splendid entertainment, after he had +bathed, as was his custom, just as he was going to bed, at Medius’s request he +went to supper with him. Here he drank all the next day, and was attacked with +a fever, which seized him, not as some write, after he had drunk of the bowl of +Hercules; nor was he taken with any sudden pain in his back, as if he had been +struck with lance, for these are the inventions of some authors who thought it +their duty to make the last scene of so great an action as tragical and moving +as they could. Aristobulus tells us, that in the rage of his fever and a +violent thirst, he took a draught of wine, upon which he fell into delirium, +and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius. +</p> + +<p> +But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth of the month, he +slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. The next day he bathed and +removed into his chamber, and spent his time in playing dice with Medius. In +the evening he bathed and sacrificed, and ate freely, and had the fever on him +through the night. On the twentieth, after the usual sacrifices and bathing, he +lay in the bathing-room and heard Nearchus’s narrative of his voyage, and the +observations he had made in the great sea. The twenty-first he passed in the +same manner, his fever still increasing, and suffered much during the night. +The next day the fever was very violent, and he had himself removed and his bed +set by the great bath, and discoursed with his principal officers about finding +fit men to fill up the vacant places in the army. On the twenty-fourth he was +much worse, and was carried out of his bed to assist at the sacrifices, and +gave order that the general officers should wait within the court, whilst the +inferior officers kept watch without doors. On the twenty-fifth he was removed +to his palace on the other side the river, where he slept a little, but his +fever did not abate, and when the generals came into his chamber, he was +speechless, and continued so the following day. The Macedonians, therefore, +supposing he was dead, came with great clamors to the gates, and menaced his +friends so that they were forced to admit them, and let them all pass through +unarmed along by his bedside. The same day Python and Seleucus were dispatched +to the temple of Serapis to inquire if they should bring Alexander thither, and +were answered by the god, that they should not remove him. On the +twenty-eighth, in the evening, he died. This account is most of it word for +word as it is written in the diary. +</p> + +<p> +At the time, nobody had any suspicion of his being poisoned, but upon some +information given six years after, they say Olympias put many to death, and +scattered the ashes of Iolaus, then dead, as if he had given it him. But those +who affirm that Aristotle counseled Antipater to do it, and that by his means +the poison was brought, adduce one Hagnothemis as their authority, who, they +say, heard king Antigonus speak of it, and tell us that the poison was water, +deadly cold as ice, distilling from a rock in the district of Nonacris, which +they gathered like a thin dew, and kept in an ass’s hoof; for it was so very +cold and penetrating that no other vessel would hold it. However, most are of +opinion that all this is a mere made-up story, no slight evidence of which is, +that during the dissensions among the commanders, which lasted several days, +the body continued clear and fresh, without any sign of such taint or +corruption, though it lay neglected in a close, sultry place. +</p> + +<p> +Roxana, who was now with child, and upon that account much honored by the +Macedonians, being jealous of Statira, sent for her by a counterfeit letter, as +if Alexander had been still alive; and when she had her in her power, killed +her and her sister, and threw their bodies into a well, which they filled up +with earth, not without the privity and assistance of Perdiccas, who in the +time immediately following the king’s death, under cover of the name of +Arrhidaeus, whom he carried about him as a sort of guard to his person, +exercised the chief authority Arrhidaeus, who was Philip’s son by an obscure +woman of the name of Philinna, was himself of weak intellect, not that he had +been originally deficient either in body or mind; on the contrary, in his +childhood, he had showed a happy and promising character enough. But a diseased +habit of body, caused by drugs which Olympias gave him, had ruined not only his +health, but his understanding. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap48"></a>CAESAR</h2> + +<p> +After Sylla became master of Rome, he wished to make Caesar put away his wife +Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, the late sole ruler of the commonwealth, but was +unable to effect it either by promises or intimidation, and so contented +himself with confiscating her dowry. The ground of Sylla’s hostility to Caesar, +was the relationship between him and Marius; for Marius, the elder, married +Julia, the sister of Caesar’s father, and had by her the younger Marius, who +consequently was Caesar’s first cousin. And though at the beginning, while so +many were to be put to death and there was so much to do, Caesar was overlooked +by Sylla, yet he would not keep quiet, but presented himself to the people as a +candidate for the priesthood, though he was yet a mere boy. Sylla, without any +open opposition, took measures to have him rejected, and in consultation +whether he should be put to death, when it was urged by some that it was not +worth his while to contrive the death of a boy, he answered, that they knew +little who did not see more than one Marius in that boy. Caesar, on being +informed of this saying, concealed himself, and for a considerable time kept +out of the way in the country of the Sabines, often changing his quarters, till +one night, as he was removing from one house to another on account of his +health, he fell into the hands of Sylla’s soldiers, who were searching those +parts in order to apprehend any who had absconded. Caesar, by a bribe of two +talents, prevailed with Cornelius, their captain, to let him go, and was no +sooner dismissed but he put to sea, and made for Bithynia. After a short stay +there with Nicomedes, the king, in his passage back he was taken near the +island Pharmacusa by some of the pirates, who, at that time, with large fleets +of ships and innumerable smaller vessels infested the seas everywhere. +</p> + +<p> +When these men at first demanded of him twenty talents for his ransom, he +laughed at them for not understanding the value of their prisoner, and +voluntarily engaged to give them fifty. He presently dispatched those about him +to several places to raise the money, till at last he was left among a set of +the most bloodthirsty people in the world, the Cilicians, only with one friend +and two attendants. Yet he made so little of them, that when he had a mind to +sleep, he would send to them, and order them to make no noise. For thirty-eight +days, with all the freedom in the world, he amused himself with joining in +their exercises and games, as if they had not been his keepers, but his guards. +He wrote verses and speeches, and made them his auditors, and those who did not +admire them, he called to their faces illiterate and barbarous, and would +often, in raillery, threaten to hang them. They were greatly taken with this, +and attributed his free talking to a kind of simplicity and boyish playfulness. +As soon as his ransom was come from Miletus, he paid it, and was discharged, +and proceeded at once to man some ships at the port of Miletus, and went in +pursuit of the pirates, whom he surprised with their ships still stationed at +the island, and took most of them. Their money he made his prize, and the men +he secured in prison at Pergamus, and made application to Junius, who was then +governor of Asia, to whose office it belonged, as praetor, to determine their +punishment. Junius, having his eye upon the money, for the sum was +considerable, said he would think at his leisure what to do with the prisoners, +upon which Caesar took his leave of him, and went off to Pergamus, where he +ordered the pirates to be brought forth and crucified; the punishment he had +often threatened them with whilst he was in their hands, and they little +dreamed he was in earnest. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime Sylla’s power being now on the decline, Caesar’s friends +advised him to return to Rome, but he went to Rhodes, and entered himself in +the school of Apollonius, Molon’s son, a famous rhetorician, one who had the +reputation of a worthy man, and had Cicero for one of his scholars. Caesar is +said to have been admirably fitted by nature to make a great statesman and +orator, and to have taken such pains to improve his genius this way, that +without dispute he might challenge the second place. More he did not aim at, as +choosing to be first rather amongst men of arms and power, and, therefore, +never rose to that height of eloquence to which nature would have carried him, +his attention being diverted to those expeditions and designs, which at length +gained him the empire. And he himself, in his answer to Cicero’s panegyric on +Cato, desires his reader not to compare the plain discourse of a soldier with +the harangues of an orator who had not only fine parts, but had employed his +life in this study. +</p> + +<p> +When he was returned to Rome, he accused Dolabella of maladministration, and +many cities of Greece came in to attest it. Dolabella was acquitted, and +Caesar, in return for the support he had received from the Greeks, assisted +them in their prosecution of Publius Antonius for corrupt practices, before +Marcus Lucullus, praetor of Macedonia. In this cause he so far succeeded, that +Antonius was forced to appeal to the tribunes at Rome, alleging that in Greece +he could not have fair play against Grecians. In his pleadings at Rome, his +eloquence soon obtained him great credit and favor, and he won no less upon the +affections of the people by the affability of his manners and address, in which +he slowed a tact and consideration beyond what could have been expected at his +age; and the open house he kept, the entertainments he gave, and the general +splendor of his manner of life contributed little by little to create and +increase his political influence. His enemies slighted the growth of it at +first, presuming it would soon fail when his money was gone; whilst in the +meantime it was growing up and flourishing among the common people. When his +power at last was established and not to be overthrown, and now openly tended +to the altering of the whole constitution, they were aware too late, that there +is no beginning so mean, which continued application will not make +considerable, and that despising a danger at first, will make it at last +irresistible. Cicero was the first who had any suspicions of his designs upon +the government, and, as a good pilot is apprehensive of a storm when the sea is +most smiling, saw the designing temper of the man through this disguise of +good-humor and affability, and said, that in general, in all he did and +undertook, he detected the ambition for absolute power, “but when I see his +hair so carefully arranged, and observe him adjusting it with one finger, I +cannot imagine it should enter into such a man’s thoughts to subvert the Roman +state.” But of this more hereafter. +</p> + +<p> +The first proof he had of the people’s good-will to him, was when he received +by their suffrages a tribuneship in the army, and came out on the list with a +higher place than Caius Popilius. A second and clearer instance of their favor +appeared upon his making a magnificent oration in praise of his aunt Julia, +wife to Marius, publicly in the forum, at whose funeral he was so bold as to +bring forth the images of Marius, which nobody had dared to produce since the +government came into Sylla’s hands, Marius’s party having from that time been +declared enemies of the State. When some who were present had begun to raise a +cry against Caesar, the people answered with loud shouts and clapping in his +favor, expressing their joyful surprise and satisfaction at his having, as it +were, brought up again from the grave those honors of Marius, which for so long +a time had been lost to the city. It had always been the custom at Rome to make +funeral orations in praise of elderly matrons, but there was no precedent of +any upon young women till Caesar first made one upon the death of his own wife. +This also procured him favor, and by this show of affection he won upon the +feelings of the people, who looked upon him as a man of great tenderness and +kindness of heart. After he had buried his wife, he went as quaestor into Spain +under one of the praetors, named Vetus, whom he honored ever after, and made +his son his own quaestor, when he himself came to be praetor. After this +employment was ended, he married Pompeia, his third wife, having then a +daughter by Cornelia, his first wife, whom he afterwards married to Pompey the +Great. He was so profuse in his expenses, that before he had any public +employment, he was in debt thirteen hundred talents, and many thought that by +incurring such expense to be popular, he changed a solid good for what would +prove but short and uncertain return; but in truth he was purchasing what was +of the greatest value at an inconsiderable rate. When he was made surveyor of +the Appian Way, he disbursed, besides the public money, a great sum out of his +private purse; and when he was aedile, be provided such a number of gladiators, +that he entertained the people with three hundred and twenty single combats, +and by his great liberality and magnificence in theatrical shows, in +processions, and public feastings, he threw into the shade all the attempts +that had been made before him, and gained so much upon the people, that +everyone was eager to find out new offices and new honors for him in return for +his munificence. +</p> + +<p> +There being two factions in the city, one that of Sylla, which was very +powerful, the other that of Marius, which was then broken and in a very low +condition, he undertook to revive this and to make it his own. And to this end, +whilst he was in the height of his repute with the people for the magnificent +shows he gave as aedile, he ordered images of Marius, and figures of Victory, +with trophies in their hands, to be carried privately in the night and placed +in the capitol. Next morning, when some saw them bright with gold and +beautifully made, with inscriptions upon them, referring them to Marius’s +exploits over the Cimbrians, they were surprised at the boldness of him who had +set them up, nor was it difficult to guess who it was. The fame of this soon +spread and brought together a great concourse of people. Some cried out that it +was an open attempt against the established government thus to revive those +honors which had been buried by the laws and decrees of the senate; that Caesar +had done it to sound the temper of the people whom he had prepared before, and +to try whether they were tame enough to bear his humor, and would quietly give +way to his innovations. On the other hand, Marius’s party took courage, and it +was incredible how numerous they were suddenly seen to be, and what a multitude +of them appeared and came shouting into the capitol. Many, when they saw +Marius’s likeness, cried for joy, and Caesar was highly extolled as the one +man, in the place of all others, who was a relation worthy of Marius. Upon this +the senate met, and Catulus Lutatius, one of the most eminent Romans of that +time, stood up and inveighed against Caesar, closing his speech with the +remarkable saying, that Caesar was now not working mines, but planting +batteries to overthrow the state. But when Caesar had made an apology for +himself, and satisfied the senate, his admirers were very much animated, and +advised him not to depart from his own thoughts for anyone, since with the +people’s good favor he would erelong get the better of them all, and be the +first man in the commonwealth. +</p> + +<p> +At this time, Metellus, the High-Priest, died, and Catulus and Isauricus, +persons of the highest reputation, and who had great influence in the senate, +were competitors for the office; yet Caesar would not give way to them, but +presented himself to the people as a candidate against them. The several +parties seeming very equal, Catulus, who, because he had the most honor to +lose, was the most apprehensive of the event, sent to Caesar to buy him off, +with offers of a great sum of money. But his answer was, that he was ready to +borrow a larger sum than that, to carry on the contest. Upon the day of +election, as his mother conducted him out of doors with tears, after embracing +her, “My mother,” he said, “today you will see me either High-Priest, or an +exile.” When the votes were taken, after a great struggle, he carried it, and +excited among the senate and nobility great alarm lest he might now urge on the +people to every kind of insolence. And Piso and Catulus found fault with Cicero +for having let Caesar escape, when in the conspiracy of Catiline he had given +the government such advantage against him. For Catiline, who had designed not +only to change the present state of affairs, but to subvert the whole empire +and confound all, had himself taken to flight, while the evidence was yet +incomplete against him, before his ultimate purposes had been properly +discovered. But he had left Lentulus and Cethegus in the city to supply his +place in the conspiracy, and whether they received any secret encouragement and +assistance from Caesar is uncertain; all that is certain, is, that they were +fully convicted in the senate, and when Cicero, the consul, asked the several +opinions of the senators, how they would have them punished, all who spoke +before Caesar sentenced them to death; but Caesar stood up and made a set +speech, in which he told them, that he thought it without precedent and not +just to take away the lives of persons of their birth and distinction before +they were fairly tried, unless there was an absolute necessity for it; but that +if they were kept confined in any towns of Italy Cicero himself should choose, +till Catiline was defeated, then the senate might in peace and at their leisure +determine what was best to be done. +</p> + +<p> +This sentence of his carried so much appearance of humanity, and he gave it +such advantage by the eloquence with which he urged it, that not only those who +spoke after him closed with it, but even they who had before given a contrary +opinion, now came over to his, till it came about to Catulus’s and Cato’s turn +to speak. They warmly opposed it, and Cato intimated in his speech the +suspicion of Caesar himself, and pressed the matter so strongly, that the +criminals were given up to suffer execution. As Caesar was going out of the +senate, many of the young men who at that time acted as guards to Cicero, ran +in with their naked swords to assault him. But Curio, it is said, threw his +gown over him, and conveyed him away, and Cicero himself, when the young men +looked up to see his wishes, gave a sign not to kill him, either for fear of +the people, or because he thought the murder unjust and illegal. If this be +true, I wonder how Cicero came to omit all mention of it in his book about his +consulship. He was blamed, however, afterwards, for not having made use of so +fortunate an opportunity against Caesar, as if he had let it escape him out of +fear of the populace, who, indeed, showed remarkable solicitude about Caesar, +and some time after, when he went into the senate to clear himself of the +suspicions he lay under, and found great clamors raised against him, upon the +senate in consequence sitting longer than ordinary, they went up to the house +in a tumult, and beset it, demanding Caesar, and requiring them to dismiss him. +Upon this, Cato, much fearing some movement among the poor citizens, who were +always the first to kindle the flame among the people, and placed all their +hopes in Caesar, persuaded the senate to give them a monthly allowance of corn, +an expedient which put the commonwealth to the extraordinary charge of seven +million five hundred thousand drachmas in the year, but quite succeeded in +removing the great cause of terror for the present, and very much weakened +Caesar’s power, who at that time was just going to be made praetor, and +consequently would have been more formidable by his office. +</p> + +<p> +But there was no disturbance during his praetorship, only what misfortune he +met with in his own domestic affairs. Publius Clodius was a patrician by +descent, eminent both for his riches and eloquence, but in licentiousness of +life and audacity exceeded the most noted profligates of the day. He was in +love with Pompeia, Caesar’s wife, and she had no aversion to him. But there was +strict watch kept on her apartment, and Caesar’s mother, Aurelia, who was a +discreet woman, being continually about her, made any interview very dangerous +and difficult. The Romans have a goddess whom they call Bona, the same whom the +Greeks call Gynaecea. The Phrygians, who claim a peculiar title to her, say she +was mother to Midas. The Romans profess she was one of the Dryads, and married +to Faunus. The Grecians affirm that she is that mother of Bacchus whose name is +not to be uttered, and, for this reason, the women who celebrate her festival, +cover the tents with vine-branches, and, in accordance with the fable, a +consecrated serpent is placed by the goddess. It is not lawful for a man to be +by, nor so much as in the house, whilst the rites are celebrated, but the women +by themselves perform the sacred offices, which are said to be much the same +with those used in the solemnities of Orpheus. When the festival comes, the +husband, who is either consul or praetor; and with him every male creature, +quits the house. The wife then taking it under her care, sets it in order, and +the principal ceremonies are performed during the night, the women playing +together amongst themselves as they keep watch, and music of various kinds +going on. +</p> + +<p> +As Pompeia was at that time celebrating this feast, Clodius, who as yet had no +beard, and so thought to pass undiscovered, took upon him the dress and +ornaments of a singing woman, and so came thither, having the air of a young +girl. Finding the doors open, he was without any stop introduced by the maid, +who was in the intrigue. She presently ran to tell Pompeia, but as she was away +a long time, he grew uneasy in waiting for her, and left his post and traversed +the house from one room to another, still taking care to avoid the lights, till +at last Aurelia’s woman met him, and invited him to play with her, as the women +did among themselves. He refused to comply, and she presently pulled him +forward, and asked him who he was, and whence he came. Clodius told her he was +waiting for Pompeia’s own maid, Abra, being in fact her own name also, and as +he said so, betrayed himself by his voice. Upon which the woman shrieking, ran +into the company where there were lights, and cried out, she had discovered a +man. The women were all in a fright. Aurelia covered up the sacred things and +stopped the proceedings, and having ordered the doors to be shut, went about +with lights to find Clodius, who was got into the maid’s room that he had come +in with, and was seized there. The women knew him, and drove him out of doors, +and at once, that same night, went home and told their husbands the story. In +the morning, it was all about the town, what an impious attempt Clodius had +made, and how he ought to be punished as an offender, not only against those +whom he had affronted, but also against the public and the gods. Upon which one +of the tribunes impeached him for profaning the holy rites, and some of the +principal senators combined together and gave evidence against him, that +besides many other horrible crimes, he had been guilty of incest with his own +sister, who was married to Lucullus. But the people set themselves against this +combination of the nobility, and defended Clodius, which was of great service +to him with the judges, who took alarm and were afraid to provoke the +multitude. Caesar at once dismissed Pompeia, but being summoned as a witness +against Clodius, said he had nothing to charge him with. This looking like a +paradox, the accuser asked him why he parted with his wife. Caesar replied, “I +wished my wife to be not so much as suspected.” Some say that Caesar spoke this +as his real thought; others, that he did it to gratify the people, who were +very earnest to save Clodius. Clodius, at any rate, escaped; most of the judges +giving their opinions so written as to be illegible, that they might not be in +danger from the people by condemning him, nor in disgrace with the nobility by +acquitting him. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, in the meantime, being out of his praetorship, had got the province of +Spain, but was in great embarrassment with his creditors, who, as he was going +off, came upon him, and were very pressing and importunate. This led him to +apply himself to Crassus, who was the richest man in Rome, but wanted Caesar’s +youthful vigor and heat to sustain the opposition against Pompey. Crassus took +upon him to satisfy those creditors who were most uneasy to him, and would not +be put off any longer, and engaged himself to the amount of eight hundred and +thirty talents, upon which Caesar was now at liberty to go to his province. In +his journey, as he was crossing the Alps, and passing by a small village of the +barbarians with but few inhabitants and those wretchedly poor, his companions +asked the question among themselves by way of mockery, if there were any +canvassing for offices there; any contention which should be uppermost, or +feuds of great men one against another. To which Caesar made answer seriously, +“For my part, I had rather be the first man among these fellows, than the +second man in Rome.” It is said that another time, when free from business in +Spain, after reading some part of the history of Alexander, he sat a great +while very thoughtful, and at last burst out into tears. His friends were +surprised, and asked him the reason of it. “Do you think,” said he, “I have not +just cause to weep, when I consider that Alexander at my age had conquered so +many nations, and I have all this time done nothing that is memorable?” As soon +as he came into Spain he was very active, and in a few days had got together +ten new cohorts of foot in addition to the twenty which were there before. With +these he marched against the Calaici and Lusitani and conquered them, and +advancing as far as the ocean, subdued the tribes which never before had been +subject to the Romans. Having managed his military affairs with good success, +he was equally happy in the course of his civil government. He took pains to +establish a good understanding amongst the several states, and no less care to +heal the differences between debtors and creditors. He ordered that the +creditor should receive two parts of the debtor’s yearly income, and that the +other part should be managed by the debtor himself, till by this method the +whole debt was at last discharged. This conduct made him leave his province +with a fair reputation; being rich himself, and having enriched his soldiers, +and having received from them the honorable name of Imperator. +</p> + +<p> +There is a law among the Romans, that whoever desires the honor of a triumph +must stay without the city and expect his answer. And another, that those who +stand for the consulship shall appear personally upon the place. Caesar was +come home at the very time of choosing consuls, and being in a difficulty +between these two opposite laws, sent to the senate to desire that since he was +obliged to be absent, he might sue for the consulship by his friends. Cato, +being backed by the law, at first opposed his request; afterwards perceiving +that Caesar had prevailed with a great part of the senate to comply with it, he +made it his business to gain time, and went on wasting the whole day in +speaking. Upon which Caesar thought fit to let the triumph fall, and pursued +the consulship. Entering the town and coming forward immediately, he had +recourse to a piece of state-policy by which everybody was deceived but Cato. +This was the reconciling of Crassus and Pompey, the two men who then were most +powerful in Rome. There had been a quarrel between them, which he now succeeded +in making up, and by this means strengthened himself by the united power of +both, and so under the cover of an action which carried all the appearance of a +piece of kindness and good-nature, caused what was in effect a revolution in +the government. For it was not the quarrel between Pompey and Caesar, as most +men imagine, which was the origin of the civil wars, but their union, their +conspiring together at first to subvert the aristocracy, and so quarreling +afterwards between themselves. Cato, who often foretold what the consequence of +this alliance would be, had then the character of a sullen, interfering man, +but in the end the reputation of a wise but unsuccessful counselor. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Caesar being doubly supported by the interests of Crassus and Pompey, was +promoted to the consulship, and triumphantly proclaimed with Calpurnius +Bibulus. When he entered on his office, he brought in bills which would have +been preferred with better grace by the most audacious of the tribunes than by +a consul, in which he proposed the plantation of colonies and division of +lands, simply to please the commonalty. The best and most honorable of the +senators opposed it, upon which, as he had long wished for nothing more than +for such a colorable pretext, he loudly protested how much against his will it +was to be driven to seek support from the people, and how the senate’s +insulting and harsh conduct left no other course possible for him, than to +devote himself henceforth to the popular cause and interest. And so he hurried +out of the senate, and presenting himself to the people, and there placing +Crassus and Pompey, one on each side of him, he asked them whether they +consented to the bills he had proposed. They owned their assent, upon which he +desired them to assist him against those who had threatened to oppose him with +their swords. They engaged they would, and Pompey added further, that he would +meet their swords with a sword and buckler too. These words the nobles much +resented, as neither suitable to his own dignity, nor becoming the reverence +due to the senate, but resembling rather the vehemence of a boy, or the fury of +a madman. But the people were pleased with it. In order to get a yet firmer +hold upon Pompey, Caesar having a daughter, Julia, who had been before +contracted to Servilius Caepio, now betrothed her to Pompey, and told Servilius +he should have Pompey’s daughter, who was not unengaged either, but promised to +Sylla’s son, Faustus. A little time after, Caesar married Calpurnia, the +daughter of Piso, and got Piso made consul for the year following. Cato +exclaimed loudly against this, and protested with a great deal of warmth, that +it was intolerable the government should be prostituted by marriages, and that +they should advance one another to the commands of armies, provinces, and other +great posts, by means of women. Bibulus, Caesar’s colleague, finding it was to +no purpose to oppose his bills, but that he was in danger of being murdered in +the forum, as also was Cato, confined himself to his house, and there let the +remaining part of his consulship expire. Pompey, when he was married, at once +filled the forum with soldiers, and gave the people his help in passing the new +laws, and secured Caesar the government of all Gaul, both on this and the other +side of the Alps, together with Illyricum, and the command of four legions for +five years. Cato made some attempts against these proceedings, but was seized +and led off on the way to prison by Caesar, who expected he would appeal to the +tribunes. But when he saw that Cato went along without speaking a word, and not +only the nobility were indignant, but that the people, also, out of respect for +Cato’s virtue, were following in silence, and with dejected looks, he himself +privately desired one of the tribunes to rescue Cato. As for the other +senators, some few of them attended the house, the rest being disgusted, +absented themselves. Hence Considius, a very old man, took occasion one day to +tell Caesar, that the senators did not meet because they were afraid of his +soldiers. Caesar asked, “Why don’t you then, out of the same fear, keep at +home?” To which Considius replied, that age was his guard against fear, and +that the small remains of his life were not worth much caution. But the most +disgraceful thing that was done in Caesar’s consulship, was his assisting to +gain the tribuneship for the same Clodius who had made the attempt upon his +wife’s chastity, and intruded upon the secret vigils. He was elected on purpose +to effect Cicero’s downfall; nor did Caesar leave the city to join his army, +till they two had overpowered Cicero, and driven him out of Italy. +</p> + +<p> +Thus far have we followed Caesar’s actions before the wars of Gaul. After this, +he seems to begin his course afresh, and to enter upon a new life and scene of +action. And the period of those wars which he now fought, and those many +expeditions in which he subdued Gaul, showed him to be a soldier and general +not in the least inferior to any of the greatest and most admired commanders +who had ever appeared at the head of armies. For if we compare him with the +Fabii, the Metelli, the Scipios, and with those who were his contemporaries, or +not long before him, Sylla, Marius, the two Luculli, or even Pompey himself, +whose glory, it may be said, went up at that time to heaven for every +excellence in war, we shall find Caesar’s actions to have surpassed them all. +One he may be held to have outdone in consideration of the difficulty of the +country in which he fought, another in the extent of territory which he +conquered; some, in the number and strength of the enemies whom he defeated; +one man, because of the wildness and perfidiousness of the tribes whose +good-will he conciliated, another in his humanity and clemency to those he +overpowered; others, again in his gifts and kindnesses to his soldiers; all +alike in the number of the battles which he fought and the enemies whom he +killed. For he had not pursued the wars in Gaul full ten years, when he had +taken by storm above eight hundred towns, subdued three hundred states, and of +the three millions of men, who made up the gross sum of those with whom at +several times he engaged, he had killed one million, and taken captive a +second. +</p> + +<p> +He was so much master of the good-will and hearty service of his soldiers, that +those who in other expeditions were but ordinary men, displayed a courage past +defeating or withstanding when they went upon any danger where Caesar’s glory +was concerned. Such a one was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight before Marseilles, +had his right hand struck off with a sword, yet did not quit his buckler out of +his left, but struck the enemies in the face with it, till he drove them off, +and made himself master of the vessel. Such another was Cassius Scaeva, who, in +a battle near Dyrrhachium, had one of his eyes shot out with an arrow, his +shoulder pierced with one javelin, and his thigh with another; and having +received one hundred and thirty darts upon his target, called to the enemy, as +though he would surrender himself. But when two of them came up to him, he cut +off the shoulder of one with a sword, and by a blow over the face forced the +other to retire, and so with the assistance of his friends, who now came up, +made his escape. Again, in Britain, when some of the foremost officers had +accidentally got into a morass full of water, and there were assaulted by the +enemy, a common soldier, whilst Caesar stood and looked on, threw himself into +the midst of them, and after many signal demonstrations of his valor, rescued +the officers, and beat off the barbarians. He himself, in the end, took to the +water, and with much difficulty, partly by swimming, partly by wading, passed +it, but in the passage lost his shield. Caesar and his officers saw it and +admired, and went to meet him with joy and acclamation. But the soldier, much +dejected and in tears, threw himself down at Caesar’s feet, and begged his +pardon for having let go his buckler. Another time in Africa, Scipio having +taken a ship of Caesar’s in which Granius Petro, lately appointed quaestor, was +sailing, gave the other passengers as free prize to his soldiers, but thought +fit to offer the quaestor his life. But he said it was not usual for Caesar’s +soldiers to take, but give mercy, and having said so, fell upon his sword and +killed himself. +</p> + +<p> +This love of honor and passion for distinction were inspired into them and +cherished in them by Caesar himself, who, by his unsparing distribution of +money and honors, showed them that he did not heap up wealth from the wars for +his own luxury, or the gratifying his private pleasures, but that all he +received was but a public fund laid by for the reward and encouragement of +valor, and that he looked upon all he gave to deserving soldiers as so much +increase to his own riches. Added to this, also, there was no danger to which +he did not willingly expose himself, no labor from which he pleaded all +exemption. His contempt of danger was not so much wondered at by his soldiers, +because they knew how much he coveted honor. But his enduring so much hardship, +which he did to all appearance beyond his natural strength, very much +astonished them. For he was a spare man, had a soft and white skin, was +distempered in the head, and subject to an epilepsy, which, it is said, first +seized him at Corduba. But he did not make the weakness of his constitution a +pretext for his ease, but rather used war as the best physic against his +indispositions; whilst by indefatigable journeys, coarse diet, frequent lodging +in the field, and continual laborious exercise, he struggled with his diseases, +and fortified his body against all attacks. He slept generally in his chariots +or litters, employing even his rest in pursuit of action. In the day he was +thus carried to the forts, garrisons, and camps, one servant sitting with him, +who used to write down what he dictated as he went, and a soldier attending +behind with his sword drawn. He drove so rapidly, that when he first left Rome, +he arrived at the river Rhone within eight days. He had been an expert rider +from his childhood; for it was usual with him to sit with his hands joined +together behind his back, and so to put his horse to its full speed. And in +this war he disciplined himself so far as to be able to dictate letters from on +horseback, and to give directions to two who took notes at the same time, or, +as Oppius says, to more. And it is thought that he was the first who contrived +means for communicating with friends by cipher, when either press of business, +or the large extent of the city, left him no time for a personal conference +about matters that required dispatch. How little nice he was in his diet, may +be seen in the following instance. When at the table of Valerius Leo, who +entertained him at supper at Milan, a dish of asparagus was put before him, on +which his host instead of oil had poured sweet ointment. Caesar partook of it +without any disgust, and reprimanded his friends for finding fault with it. +“For it was enough,” said he, “not to eat what you did not like; but he who +reflects on another man’s want of breeding, shows he wants it as much himself.” +Another time upon the road he was driven by a storm into a poor man’s cottage, +where he found but one room, and that such as would afford but a mean reception +to a single person, and therefore told his companions, places of honor should +be given up to the greater men, and necessary accommodations to the weaker, and +accordingly ordered that Oppius, who was in bad health, should lodge within, +whilst he and the rest slept under a shed at the door. +</p> + +<p> +His first war in Gaul was against the Helvetians and Tigurini, who having burnt +their own towns, twelve in number, and four hundred villages, would have +marched forward through that part of Gaul which was included in the Roman +province, as the Cimbrians and Teutons formerly had done. Nor were they +inferior to these in courage; and in numbers they were equal, being in all +three hundred thousand, of which one hundred and ninety thousand were fighting +men. Caesar did not engage the Tigurini in person, but Labienus, under his +directions, routed them near the river Arar. The Helvetians surprised Caesar, +and unexpectedly set upon him as he was conducting his army to a confederate +town. He succeeded, however, in making his retreat into a strong position, +where, when he had mustered and marshalled his men, his horse was brought to +him; upon which he said, “When I have won the battle, I will use my horse for +the chase, but at present let us go against the enemy,” and accordingly charged +them on foot. After a long and severe combat, he drove the main army out of the +field, but found the hardest work at their carriages and ramparts, where not +only the men stood and fought, but the women also and children defended +themselves, till they were cut to pieces; insomuch that the fight was scarcely +ended till midnight. This action, glorious in itself, Caesar crowned with +another yet more noble, by gathering in a body all the barbarians that had +escaped out of the battle, above one hundred thousand in number, and obliging +them to reoccupy the country which they had deserted, and the cities which they +had burnt. This he did for fear the Germans should pass in and possess +themselves of the land whilst it lay uninhabited. +</p> + +<p> +His second war was in defense of the Gauls against the Germans, though some +time before he had made Ariovistus, their king, recognized at Rome as an ally. +But they were very insufferable neighbors to those under his government; and it +was probable, when occasion offered, they would renounce the present +arrangements, and march on to occupy Gaul. But finding his officers timorous, +and especially those of the young nobility who came along with him in hopes of +turning their campaigns with him into a means for their own pleasure or profit, +he called them together, and advised them to march off, and not run the hazard +of a battle against their inclinations, since they had such weak and unmanly +feelings; telling them that he would take only the tenth legion, and march +against the barbarians, whom he did not expect to find an enemy more formidable +than the Cimbri, nor, he added, should they find him a general inferior to +Marius. Upon this, the tenth legion deputed some of their body to pay him their +acknowledgments and thanks, and the other legions blamed their officers, and +all, with great vigor and zeal, followed him many days’ journey, till they +encamped within two hundred furlongs of the enemy. Ariovistus’s courage to some +extent was cooled upon their very approach; for never expecting the Romans +would attack the Germans, whom he had thought it more likely they would not +venture to withstand even in defense of their own subjects, he was the more +surprised at Caesar’s conduct, and saw his army to be in consternation. They +were still more discouraged by the prophecies of their holy women, who foretell +the future by observing the eddies of rivers, and taking signs from the +windings and noise of streams, and who now warned them not to engage before the +next new moon appeared. Caesar having had intimation of this, and seeing the +Germans lie still, thought it expedient to attack them whilst they were under +these apprehensions, rather than sit still and wait their time. Accordingly he +made his approaches to the strong-holds and hills on which they lay encamped, +and so galled and fretted them, that at last they came down with great fury to +engage. But he gained a signal victory, and pursued them for four hundred +furlongs, as far as the Rhine; all which space was covered with spoils and +bodies of the slain. Ariovistus made shift to pass the Rhine with the small +remains of an army, for it is said the number of the slain amounted to eighty +thousand. +</p> + +<p> +After this action, Caesar left his army at their winter-quarters in the country +of the Sequani, and in order to attend to affairs at Rome, went into that part +of Gaul which lies on the Po, and was part of his province; for the river +Rubicon divides Gaul, which is on this side the Alps, from the rest of Italy. +There he sat down and employed himself in courting people’s favor; great +numbers coming to him continually, and always finding their requests answered; +for he never failed to dismiss all with present pledges of his kindness in +hand, and further hopes for the future. And during all this time of the war in +Gaul, Pompey never observed how Caesar was on the one hand using the arms of +Rome to effect his conquests, and on the other was gaining over and securing to +himself the favor of the Romans, with the wealth which those conquests obtained +him. But when he heard that the Belgae, who were the most powerful of all the +Gauls, and inhabited a third part of the country, were revolted, and had got +together a great many thousand men in arms, he immediately set out and took his +way thither with great expedition, and falling upon the enemy as they were +ravaging the Gauls, his allies, he soon defeated and put to flight the largest +and least scattered division of them. For though their numbers were great, yet +they made but a slender defense, and the marshes and deep rivers were made +passable to the Roman foot by the vast quantity of dead bodies. Of those who +revolted, all the tribes that lived near the ocean came over without fighting, +and he, therefore, led his army against the Nervii, the fiercest and most +warlike people of all in those parts. These live in a country covered with +continuous woods, and having lodged their children and property out of the way +in the depth of the forest, fell upon Caesar with a body of sixty thousand men, +before he was prepared for them, while he was making his encampment. They soon +routed his cavalry, and having surrounded the twelfth and seventh legions, +killed all the officers, and had not Caesar himself snatched up a buckler, and +forced his way through his own men to come up to the barbarians, or had not the +tenth legion, when they saw him in danger, run in from the tops of the hills, +where they lay, and broken through the enemy’s ranks to rescue him, in all +probability not a Roman would have been saved. But now, under the influence of +Caesar’s bold example, they fought a battle, as the phrase is, of more than +human courage, and yet with their utmost efforts they were not able to drive +the enemy out of the field, but cut them down fighting in their defense. For +out of sixty thousand men, it is stated that not above five hundred survived +the battle, and of four hundred of their senators not above three. +</p> + +<p> +When the Roman senate had received news of this, they voted sacrifices and +festivals to the gods, to be strictly observed for the space of fifteen days, a +longer space than ever was observed for any victory before. The danger to which +they had been exposed by the joint outbreak of such a number of nations was +felt to have been great; and the people’s fondness for Caesar gave additional +luster to successes achieved by him. He now, after settling everything in Gaul, +came back again, and spent the winter by the Po, in order to carry on the +designs he had in hand at Rome. All who were candidates for offices used his +assistance, and were supplied with money from him to corrupt the people and buy +their votes, in return of which, when they were chosen, they did all things to +advance his power. But what was more considerable, the most eminent and +powerful men in Rome in great numbers came to visit him at Lucca, Pompey, and +Crassus, and Appius, the governor of Sardinia, and Nepos, the proconsul of +Spain, so that there were in the place at one time one hundred and twenty +lictors, and more than two hundred senators. In deliberation here held, it was +determined that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls again for the following +year; that Caesar should have a fresh supply of money, and that his command +should be renewed to him for five years more. It seemed very extravagant to all +thinking men, that those very persons who had received so much money from +Caesar should persuade the senate to grant him more, as if he were in want. +Though in truth it was not so much upon persuasion as compulsion, that, with +sorrow and groans for their own acts, they passed the measure. Cato was not +present, for they had sent him seasonably out of the way into Cyprus; but +Favonius, who was a zealous imitator of Cato, when he found he could do no good +by opposing it, broke out of the house, and loudly declaimed against these +proceedings to the people, but none gave him any hearing; some slighting him +out of respect to Crassus and Pompey, and the greater part to gratify Caesar, +on whom depended their hopes. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Caesar returned again to his forces in Gaul, where he found that +country involved in a dangerous war, two strong nations of the Germans having +lately passed the Rhine, to conquer it; one of them called the Usipes, the +other the Tenteritae. Of the war with this people, Caesar himself has given +this account in his commentaries, that the barbarians, having sent ambassadors +to treat with him, did, during the treaty, set upon him in his march, by which +means with eight hundred men they routed five thousand of his horse, who did +not suspect their coming; that afterwards they sent other ambassadors to renew +the same fraudulent practices, whom he kept in custody, and led on his army +against the barbarians, as judging it mere simplicity to keep faith with those +who had so faithlessly broken the terms they had agreed to. But Tanusius +states, that when the senate decreed festivals and sacrifices for this victory, +Cato declared it to be his opinion that Caesar ought to be given into the hands +of the barbarians, that so the guilt which this breach of faith might otherwise +bring upon the state, might be expiated by transferring the curse on him, who +was the occasion of it. Of those who passed the Rhine, there were four hundred +thousand cut off; those few who escaped were sheltered by the Sugambri, a +people of Germany. Caesar took hold of this pretense to invade the Germans, +being at the same time ambitious of the honor of being the first man that +should pass the Rhine with an army. He carried a bridge across it, though it +was very wide, and the current at that particular point very full, strong, and +violent, bringing down with its waters trunks of trees, and other lumber, which +much shook and weakened the foundations of his bridge. But he drove great piles +of wood into the bottom of the river above the passage, to catch and stop these +as they floated down, and thus fixing his bridle upon the stream, successfully +finished this bridge, which no one who saw could believe to be the work but of +ten days. +</p> + +<p> +In the passage of his army over it, he met with no opposition; the Suevi +themselves, who are the most warlike people of all Germany, flying with their +effects into the deepest and most densely wooded valleys. When he had burnt all +the enemy’s country, and encouraged those who embraced the Roman interest, he +went back into Gaul, after eighteen days’ stay in Germany. But his expedition +into Britain was the most famous testimony of his courage. For he was the first +who brought a navy into the western ocean, or who sailed into the Atlantic with +an army to make war; and by invading an island, the reported extent of which +had made its existence a matter of controversy among historians, many of whom +questioned whether it were not a mere name and fiction, not a real place, he +might be said to have carried the Roman empire beyond the limits of the known +world. He passed thither twice from that part of Gaul which lies over against +it, and in several battles which he fought, did more hurt to the enemy than +service to himself, for the islanders were so miserably poor, that they had +nothing worth being plundered of. When he found himself unable to put such an +end to the war as he wished, he was content to take hostages from the king, and +to impose a tribute, and then quitted the island. At his arrival in Gaul, he +found letters which lay ready to be conveyed over the water to him from his +friends at Rome, announcing his daughter’s death, who died in labor of a child +by Pompey. Caesar and Pompey both were much afflicted with her death, nor were +their friends less disturbed, believing that the alliance was now broken, which +had hitherto kept the sickly commonwealth in peace, for the child also died +within a few days after the mother. The people took the body of Julia, in spite +of the opposition of the tribunes, and carried it into the field of Mars, and +there her funeral rites were performed, and her remains are laid. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar’s army was now grown very numerous, so that he was forced to disperse +them into various camps for their winter-quarters, and he having gone himself +to Italy as he used to do, in his absence a general outbreak throughout the +whole of Gaul commenced, and large armies marched about the country, and +attacked the Roman quarters, and attempted to make themselves masters of the +forts where they lay. The greatest and strongest party of the rebels, under the +command of Abriorix, cut off Costa and Titurius with all their men, while a +force sixty thousand strong besieged the legion under the command of Cicero, +and had almost taken it by storm, the Roman soldiers being all wounded, and +having quite spent themselves by a defense beyond their natural strength. But +Caesar, who was at a great distance, having received the news, quickly got +together seven thousand men, and hastened to relieve Cicero. The besiegers were +aware of it, and went to meet him, with great confidence that they should +easily overpower such an handful of men. Caesar, to increase their presumption, +seemed to avoid fighting, and still marched off, till he found a place +conveniently situated for a few to engage against many, where he encamped. He +kept his soldiers from making any attack upon the enemy, and commanded them to +raise the ramparts higher, and barricade the gates, that by show of fear, they +might heighten the enemy’s contempt of them. Till at last they came without any +order in great security to make an assault, when he issued forth, and put them +to flight with the loss of many men. +</p> + +<p> +This quieted the greater part of the commotions in these parts of Gaul, and +Caesar, in the course of the winter, visited every part of the country, and +with great vigilance took precautions against all innovations. For there were +three legions now come to him to supply the place of the men he had lost, of +which Pompey furnished him with two, out of those under his command; the other +was newly raised in the part of Gaul by the Po. But in a while the seeds of +war, which had long since been secretly sown and scattered by the most powerful +men in those warlike nations, broke forth into the greatest and most dangerous +war that ever was in those parts, both as regards the number of men in the +vigor of their youth who were gathered and armed from all quarters, the vast +funds of money collected to maintain it, the strength of the towns, and the +difficulty of the country where it was carried on. It being winter, the rivers +were frozen, the woods covered with snow, and the level country flooded, so +that in some places the ways were lost through the depth of the snow; in +others, the overflowing of marshes and streams made every kind of passage +uncertain. All which difficulties made it seem impracticable for Caesar to make +any attempt upon the insurgents. Many tribes had revolted together, the chief +of them being the Arverni and Carnutini ; the general who had the supreme +command in war was Vergentorix, whose father the Gauls had put to death on +suspicion of his aiming at absolute government. +</p> + +<p> +He having disposed his army in several bodies, and set officers over them, drew +over to him all the country round about as far as those that lie upon the Arar, +and having intelligence of the opposition which Caesar now experienced at Rome, +thought to engage all Gaul in the war. Which if he had done a little later, +when Caesar was taken up with the civil wars, Italy had been put into as great +a terror as before it was by the Cimbri. But Caesar, who above all men was +gifted with the faculty of making the right use of everything in war, and most +especially of seizing the right moment, as soon as he heard of the revolt, +returned immediately the same way he went, and showed the barbarians, by the +quickness of his march in such a severe season, that an army was advancing +against them which was invincible. For in the time that one would have thought +it scarce credible that a courier or express should have come with a message +from him, he himself appeared with all his army, ravaging the country, reducing +their posts, subduing their towns, receiving into his protection those who +declared for him. Till at last the Edui, who hitherto had styled themselves +brethren to the Romans, and had been much honored by them, declared against +him, and joined the rebels, to the great discouragement of his army. +Accordingly he removed thence, and passed the country of the Lingones, desiring +to reach the territories of the Sequani, who were his friends, and who lay like +a bulwark in front of Italy against the other tribes of Gaul. There the enemy +came upon him, and surrounded him with many myriads, whom he also was eager to +engage; and at last, after some time and with much slaughter, gained on the +whole a complete victory; though at first he appears to have met with some +reverse, and the Aruveni show you a small sword hanging up in a temple, which +they say was taken from Caesar. Caesar saw this afterwards himself, and smiled, +and when his friends advised it should be taken down, would not permit it, +because he looked upon it as consecrated. +</p> + +<p> +After the defeat a great part of those who had escaped, fled with their king +into a town called Alesia, which Caesar besieged, though the height of the +walls, and number of those who defended them, made it appear impregnable; and +meantime, from without the walls, he was assailed by a greater danger than can +be expressed. For the choice men of Gaul, picked out of each nation, and well +armed, came to relieve Alesia, to the number of three hundred thousand; nor +were there in the town less than one hundred and seventy thousand. So that +Caesar being shut up betwixt two such forces, was compelled to protect himself +by two walls, one towards the town, the other against the relieving army, as +knowing it these forces should join, his affairs would be entirely ruined. The +danger that he underwent before Alesia, justly gained him great honor on many +accounts, and gave him an opportunity of showing greater instances of his valor +and conduct than any other contest had done. One wonders much how he should be +able to engage and defeat so many thousands of men without the town, and not be +perceived by those within, but yet more, that the Romans themselves, who +guarded their wall which was next the town, should be strangers to it. For even +they knew nothing of the victory, till they heard the cries of the men and +lamentations of the women who were in the town, and had from thence seen the +Romans at a distance carrying into their camp a great quantity of bucklers, +adorned with gold and silver, many breastplates stained with blood, besides +cups and tents made in the Gallic fashion. So soon did so vast an army dissolve +and vanish like a ghost or dream, the greatest part of them being killed upon +the spot. Those who were in Alesia, having given themselves and Caesar much +trouble, surrendered at last; and Vergentorix, who was the chief spring of all +the war, putting his best armor on, and adorning his horse, rode out of the +gates, and made a turn about Caesar as he was sitting, then quitted his horse, +threw off his armor, and remained seated quietly at Caesar’s feet until he was +led away to be reserved for the triumph. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar had long ago resolved upon the overthrow of Pompey, as had Pompey, for +that matter, upon his. For Crassus, the fear of whom had hitherto kept them in +peace, having now been killed in Parthia, if the one of them wished to make +himself the greatest man in Rome, he had only to overthrow the other; and if he +again wished to prevent his own fall, he had nothing for it but to be +beforehand with him whom he feared. Pompey had not been long under any such +apprehensions, having till lately despised Caesar, as thinking it no difficult +matter to put down him whom he himself had advanced. But Caesar had entertained +this design from the beginning against his rivals, and had retired, like an +expert wrestler, to prepare himself apart for the combat. Making the Gallic +wars his exercise-ground, he had at once improved the strength of his soldiery, +and had heightened his own glory by his great actions, so that he was looked on +as one who might challenge comparison with Pompey. Nor did he let go any of +those advantages which were now given him both by Pompey himself and the times, +and the ill government of Rome, where all who were candidates for offices +publicly gave money, and without any shame bribed the people, who having +received their pay, did not contend for their benefactors with their bare +suffrages, but with bows, swords, and slings. So that after having many times +stained the place of election with the blood of men killed upon the spot, they +left the city at last without a government at all, to be carried about like a +ship without a pilot to steer her; while all who had any wisdom could only be +thankful if a course of such wild and stormy disorder and madness might end no +worse than in a monarchy. Some were so bold as to declare openly, that the +government was incurable but by a monarchy, and that they ought to take that +remedy from the hands of the gentlest physician, meaning Pompey, who, though in +words he pretended to decline it, yet in reality made his utmost efforts to be +declared dictator. Cato perceiving his design, prevailed with the senate to +make him sole consul, that with the offer of a more legal sort of monarchy he +might be withheld from demanding the dictatorship. They over and above voted +him the continuance of his provinces, for he had two, Spain and all Africa, +which he governed by his lieutenants, and maintained armies under him, at the +yearly charge of a thousand talents out of the public treasury. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this Caesar also sent and petitioned for the consulship, and the +continuance of his provinces. Pompey at first did not stir in it, but Marcellus +and Lentulus opposed it, who had always hated Caesar, and now did every thing, +whether fit or unfit, which might disgrace and affront him. For they took away +the privilege of Roman citizens from the people of New Comum, who were a colony +that Caesar had lately planted in Gaul; and Marcellus, who was then consul, +ordered one of the senators of that town, then at Rome, to be whipped, and told +him he laid that mark upon him to signify he was no citizen of Rome, bidding +him, when he went back again, to show it to Caesar. After Marcellus’s +consulship, Caesar began to lavish gifts upon all the public men out of the +riches he had taken from the Gauls; discharged Curio, the tribune, from his +great debts; gave Paulus, then consul, fifteen hundred talents, with which he +built the noble court of justice adjoining the forum, to supply the place of +that called the Fulvian. Pompey, alarmed at these preparations, now openly took +steps, both by himself and his friends, to have a successor appointed in +Caesar’s room, and sent to demand back the soldiers whom he had lent him to +carry on the wars in Gaul. Caesar returned them, and made each soldier a +present of two hundred and fifty drachmas. The officer who brought them home to +Pompey, spread amongst the people no very fair or favorable report of Caesar, +and flattered Pompey himself with false suggestions that he was wished for by +Caesar’s army; and though his affairs here were in some embarrassment through +the envy of some, and the ill state of the government, yet there the army was +at his command, and if they once crossed into Italy, would presently declare +for him; so weary were they of Caesar’s endless expeditions, and so suspicious +of his designs for a monarchy. Upon this Pompey grew presumptuous, and +neglected all warlike preparations, as fearing no danger, and used no other +means against him than mere speeches and votes, for which Caesar cared nothing. +And one of his captains, it is said, who was sent by him to Rome, standing +before the senate-house one day, and being told that the senate would not give +Caesar a longer time in his government, clapped his hand on the hilt of his +sword, and said, “But this shall.” +</p> + +<p> +Yet the demands which Caesar made had the fairest colors of equity imaginable. +For he proposed to lay down his arms, and that Pompey should do the same, and +both together should become private men, and each expect a reward of his +services from the public. For that those who proposed to disarm him, and at the +same time to confirm Pompey in all the power he held, were simply establishing +the one in the tyranny which they accused the other of aiming at. When Curio +made these proposals to the people in Caesar’s name, he was loudly applauded, +and some threw garlands towards him, and dismissed him as they do successful +wrestlers, crowned with flowers. Antony, being tribune, produced a letter sent +from Caesar on this occasion, and read it, though the consuls did what they +could to oppose it. But Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, proposed in the senate, +that if Caesar did not lay down his arms within such a time, he should be voted +an enemy; and the consuls putting it to the question, whether Pompey should +dismiss his soldiers, and again, whether Caesar should disband his, very few +assented to the first, but almost all to the latter. But Antony proposing +again, that both should lay down their commissions, all but a very few agreed +to it. Scipio was upon this very violent, and Lentulus the consul cried aloud, +that they had need of arms, and not of suffrages, against a robber; so that the +senators for the present adjourned, and appeared in mourning as a mark of their +grief for the dissension. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards there came other letters from Caesar, which seemed yet more +moderate, for he proposed to quit everything else, and only to retain Gaul +within the Alps, Illyricum, and two legions, till he should stand a second time +for consul. Cicero, the orator, who was lately returned from Cilicia, +endeavored to reconcile differences, and softened Pompey, who was willing to +comply in other things, but not to allow him the soldiers. At last Cicero used +his persuasions with Caesar’s friends to accept of the provinces, and six +thousand soldiers only, and so to make up the quarrel. And Pompey was inclined +to give way to this, but Lentulus, the consul, would not hearken to it, but +drove Antony and Curio out of the senate-house with insults, by which he +afforded Caesar the most plausible pretense that could be, and one which he +could readily use to inflame the soldiers, by showing them two persons of such +repute and authority, who were forced to escape in a hired carriage in the +dress of slaves. For so they were glad to disguise themselves, when they fled +out of Rome. +</p> + +<p> +There were not about him at that time above three hundred horse, and five +thousand foot; for the rest of his army, which was left behind the Alps, was to +be brought after him by officers who had received orders for that purpose. But +he thought the first motion towards the design which he had on foot did not +require large forces at present, and that what was wanted was to make this +first step suddenly, and so as to astound his enemies with the boldness of it; +as it would be easier, he thought, to throw them into consternation by doing +what they never anticipated, than fairly to conquer them, if he had alarmed +them by his preparations. And therefore, he commanded his captains and other +officers to go only with their swords in their hands, without any other arms, +and make themselves masters of Ariminum, a large city of Gaul, with as little +disturbance and bloodshed as possible. He committed the care of these forces to +Hortensius, and himself spent the day in public as a stander-by and spectator +of the gladiators, who exercised before him. A little before night he attended +to his person, and then went into the hall, and conversed for some time with +those he had invited to supper, till it began to grow dusk, when he rose from +table, and made his excuses to the company, begging them to stay till he came +back, having already given private directions to a few immediate friends, that +they should follow him, not all the same way, but some one way, some another. +He himself got into one of the hired carriages, and drove at first another way, +but presently turned towards Ariminum. When he came to the river Rubicon, which +parts Gaul within the Alps from the rest of Italy, his thoughts began to work, +now he was just entering upon the danger, and he wavered much in his mind, when +he considered the greatness of the enterprise into which he was throwing +himself. He checked his course, and ordered a halt, while he revolved with +himself, and often changed his opinion one way and the other, without speaking +a word. This was when his purposes fluctuated most; presently he also discussed +the matter with his friends who were about him, (of which number Asinius Pollio +was one,) computing how many calamities his passing that river would bring upon +mankind, and what a relation of it would be transmitted to posterity. At last, +in a sort of passion, casting aside calculation, and abandoning himself to what +might come, and using the proverb frequently in their mouths who enter upon +dangerous and bold attempts, “The die is cast,” with these words he took the +river. Once over, he used all expedition possible, and before it was day +reached Ariminum, and took it. It is said that the night before he passed the +river, he had an impious dream, that he was unnaturally familiar with his own +mother. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Ariminum was taken, wide gates, so to say, were thrown open, to let +in war upon every land alike and sea, and with the limits of the province, the +boundaries of the laws were transgressed. Nor would one have thought that, as +at other times, the mere men and women fled from one town of Italy to another +in their consternation, but that the very towns themselves left their sites, +and fled for succor to each other. The city of Rome was overrun as it were with +a deluge, by the conflux of people flying in from all the neighboring places. +Magistrates could no longer govern, nor the eloquence of any orator quiet it; +it was all but suffering shipwreck by the violence of its own tempestuous +agitation. The most vehement contrary passions and impulses were at work +everywhere. Nor did those who rejoiced at the prospect of the change altogether +conceal their feelings, but when they met, as in so great a city they +frequently must, with the alarmed and dejected of the other party, they +provoked quarrels by their bold expressions of confidence in the event. Pompey, +sufficiently disturbed of himself; was yet more perplexed by the clamors of +others; some telling him that he justly suffered for having armed Caesar +against himself and the government; others blaming him for permitting Caesar to +be insolently used by Lentulus, when he made such ample concessions, and +offered such reasonable proposals towards an accommodation. Favonius bade him +now stamp upon the ground; for once talking big in the senate, he desired them +not to trouble themselves about making any preparations for the war, for that +he himself, with one stamp of his foot, would fill all Italy with soldiers. Yet +still Pompey at that time had more forces than Caesar; but he was not permitted +to pursue his own thoughts, but being continually disturbed with false reports +and alarms, as if the enemy was close upon him and carrying all before him, he +gave way, and let himself be borne down by the general cry. He put forth an +edict declaring the city to be in a state of anarchy, and left it with orders +that the senate should follow him, and that no one should stay behind who did +not prefer tyranny to their country and liberty. +</p> + +<p> +The consuls at once fled, without making even the usual sacrifices; so did most +of the senators, carrying off their own goods in as much haste as if they had +been robbing their neighbors. Some, who had formerly much favored Caesar’s +cause, in the prevailing alarm, quitted their own sentiments, and without any +prospect of good to themselves, were carried along by the common stream. It was +a melancholy thing to see the city tossed in these tumults, like a ship given +up by her pilots, and left to run, as chance guides her, upon any rock in her +way. Yet, in spite of their sad condition, people still esteemed the place of +their exile to be their country for Pompey’s sake, and fled from Rome, as if it +had been Caesar’s camp. Labienus even, who had been one of Caesar’s nearest +friends, and his lieutenant, and who had fought by him zealously in the Gallic +wars, now deserted him, and went over to Pompey. Caesar sent all his money and +equipage after him, and then sat down before Corfinium, which was garrisoned +with thirty cohorts under the command of Domitius. He, in despair of +maintaining the defense, requested a physician, whom he had among his +attendants, to give him poison; and taking the dose, drank it, in hopes of +being dispatched by it. But soon after, when he was told that Caesar showed the +utmost clemency towards those he took prisoners, he lamented his misfortune, +and blamed the hastiness of his resolution. His physician consoled him, by +informing him that he had taken a sleeping draught, not a poison; upon which, +much rejoiced, and rising from his bed, he went presently to Caesar, and gave +him the pledge of his hand, yet afterwards again went over to Pompey. The +report of these actions at Rome, quieted those who were there, and some who had +fled thence returned. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar took into his army Domitius’s soldiers, as he did all those whom he +found in any town enlisted for Pompey’s service. Being now strong and +formidable enough, he advanced against Pompey himself, who did not stay to +receive him, but fled to Brundisium, having sent the consuls before with a body +of troops to Dyrrhachium. Soon after, upon Caesar’s approach, he set to sea, as +shall be more particularly related in his Life. Caesar would have immediately +pursued him, but wanted shipping, and therefore went back to Rome, having made +himself master of all Italy without bloodshed in the space of sixty days. When +he came thither, he found the city more quiet than he expected, and many +senators present, to whom he addressed himself with courtesy and deference, +desiring them to send to Pompey about any reasonable accommodations towards a +peace. But nobody complied with this proposal; whether out of fear of Pompey, +whom they had deserted, or that they thought Caesar did not mean what he said, +but thought it his interest to talk plausibly. Afterwards, when Metellus, the +tribune, would have hindered him from taking money out of the public treasure, +and adduced some laws against it, Caesar replied, that arms and laws had each +their own time; “If what I do displeases you, leave the place; war allows no +free talking. When I have laid down my arms, and made peace, come back and make +what speeches you please. And this,” he added, “I tell you in diminution of my +own just right, as indeed you and all others who have appeared against me and +are now in my power, may be treated as I please.” Having said this to Metellus, +he went to the doors of the treasury, and the keys being not to be found, sent +for smiths to force them open. Metellus again making resistance, and some +encouraging him in it, Caesar, in a louder tone, told him he would put him to +death, if he gave him any further disturbance. “And this,” said he, “you know, +young man, is more disagreeable for me to say, than to do.” These words made +Metellus withdraw for fear, and obtained speedy execution henceforth for all +orders that Caesar gave for procuring necessaries for the war. +</p> + +<p> +He was now proceeding to Spain, with the determination of first crushing +Afranius and Varro, Pompey’s lieutenants, and making himself master of the +armies and provinces under them, that he might then more securely advance +against Pompey, when he had no enemy left behind him. In this expedition his +person was often in danger from ambuscades, and his army by want of provisions, +yet he did not desist from pursuing the enemy, provoking them to fight, and +hemming them with his fortifications, till by main force he made himself master +of their camps and their forces. Only the generals got off, and fled to Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +When Caesar came back to Rome, Piso, his father-in-law, advised him to send men +to Pompey, to treat of a peace; but Isauricus, to ingratiate himself with +Caesar, spoke against it. After this, being created dictator by the senate, he +called home the exiles, and gave back then rights as citizens to the children +of those who had suffered under Sylla; he relieved the debtors by an act +remitting some part of the interest on their debts, and passed some other +measures of the same sort, but not many. For within eleven days he resigned his +dictatorship, and having declared himself consul, with Servilius Isauricus, +hastened again to the war. He marched so fast, that he left all his army behind +him, except six hundred chosen horse, and five legions, with which he put to +sea in the very middle of winter, about the beginning of the month January, +(which corresponds pretty nearly with the Athenian month Posideon,) and having +past the Ionian Sea, took Oricum and Apollonia, and then sent back the ships to +Brundisium, to bring over the soldiers who were left behind in the march. They, +while yet on the march, their bodies now no longer in the full vigor of youth, +and they themselves weary with such a multitude of wars, could not but exclaim +against Caesar, “When at last, and where, will this Caesar let us be quiet? He +carries us from place to place, and uses us as if we were not to be worn out, +and had no sense of labor. Even our iron itself is spent by blows, and we ought +to have some pity on our bucklers and breastplates, which have been used so +long. Our wounds, if nothing else, should make him see that we are mortal men, +whom he commands, subject to the same pains and sufferings as other human +beings. The very gods themselves cannot force the winter season, or hinder the +storms in their time; yet he pushes forward, as if he were not pursuing, but +flying from an enemy.” So they talked as they marched leisurely towards +Brundisium. But when they came thither, and found Caesar gone off before them, +their feelings changed, and they blamed themselves as traitors to their +general. They now railed at their officers for marching so slowly, and placing +themselves on the heights overlooking the sea towards Epirus, they kept watch +to see if they could espy the vessels which were to transport them to Caesar. +</p> + +<p> +He in the meantime was posted in Apollonia, but had not an army with him able +to fight the enemy, the forces from Brundisium being so long in coming, which +put him to great suspense and embarrassment what to do. At last he resolved +upon a most hazardous experiment, and embarked, without anyone’s knowledge, in +a boat of twelve oars, to cross over to Brundisium, though the sea was at that +time covered with a vast fleet of the enemies. He got on board in the night +time, in the dress of a slave, and throwing himself down like a person of no +consequence, lay along at the bottom of the vessel. The river Anius was to +carry them down to sea, and there used to blow a gentle gale every morning from +the land, which made it calm at the mouth of the river, by driving the waves +forward; but this night there had blown a strong wind from the sea, which +overpowered that from the land, so that where the river met the influx of the +sea-water and the opposition of the waves, it was extremely rough and angry; +and the current was beaten back with such a violent swell, that the master of +the boat could not make good his passage, but ordered his sailors to tack about +and return. Caesar, upon this, discovers himself, and taking the man by the +hand, who was surprised to see him there, said, “Go on, my friend, and fear +nothing; you carry Caesar and his fortune in your boat.” The mariners, when +they heard that, forgot the storm, and laying all their strength to their oars, +did what they could to force their way down the river. But when it was to no +purpose, and the vessel now took in much water, Caesar finding himself in such +danger in the very mouth of the river, much against his will permitted the +master to turn back. When he was come to land, his soldiers ran to him in a +multitude, reproaching him for what he had done, and indignant that he should +think himself not strong enough to get a victory by their sole assistance, but +must disturb himself, and expose his life for those who were absent, as if he +could not trust those who were with him. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Antony came over with the forces from Brundisium, which encouraged +Caesar to give Pompey battle, though he was encamped very advantageously, and +furnished with plenty of provisions both by sea and land, whilst he himself was +at the beginning but ill-supplied, and before the end was extremely pinched for +want of necessaries, so that his soldiers were forced to dig up a kind of root +which grew there, and tempering it with milk, to feed on it. Sometimes they +made a kind of bread of it, and advancing up to the enemy’s outposts, would +throw in these loaves, telling them, that as long as the earth produced such +roots they would not give up blockading Pompey. But Pompey took what care he +could, that neither the loaves nor the words should reach his men, who were out +of heart and despondent, through terror at the fierceness and hardiness of +their enemies, whom they looked upon as a sort of wild beasts. There were +continual skirmishes about Pompey’s outworks, in all which Caesar had the +better, except one, when his men were forced to fly in such a manner that he +had like to have lost his camp. For Pompey made such a vigorous sally on them +that not a man stood his ground; the trenches were filled with the slaughter, +many fell upon their own ramparts and bulwarks, whither they were driven in +flight by the enemy. Caesar met them, and would have turned them back, but +could not. When he went to lay hold of the ensigns, those who carried them +threw them down, so that the enemies took thirty-two of them. He himself +narrowly escaped; for taking hold of one of his soldiers, a big and strong man, +that was flying by him, he bade him stand and face about; but the fellow, full +of apprehensions from the danger he was in, laid hold of his sword, as if he +would strike Caesar, but Caesar’s armor-bearer cut off his arm. Caesar’s +affairs were so desperate at that time, that when Pompey, either through +over-cautiousness, or his ill fortune, did not give the finishing stroke to +that great success, but retreated after he had driven the routed enemy within +their camp, Caesar, upon seeing his withdrawal, said to his friends, “The +victory to-day had been on the enemies’ side, if they had had a general who +knew how to gain it.” When he was retired into his tent, he laid himself down +to sleep, but spent that night as miserably as ever he did any, in perplexity +and consideration with himself, coming to the conclusion that he had conducted +the war amiss. For when he had a fertile country before him, and all the +wealthy cities of Macedonia and Thessaly, he had neglected to carry the war +thither, and had sat down by the seaside, where his enemies had such a powerful +fleet, so that he was in fact rather besieged by the want of necessaries, than +besieging others with his arms. Being thus distracted in his thoughts with the +view of the difficulty and distress he was in, he raised his camp, with the +intention of advancing towards Scipio, who lay in Macedonia; hoping either to +entice Pompey into a country where he should fight without the advantage he now +had of supplies from the sea, or to overpower Scipio, if not assisted. +</p> + +<p> +This set all Pompey’s army and officers on fire to hasten and pursue Caesar, +whom they concluded to be beaten and flying. But Pompey was afraid to hazard a +battle on which so much depended, and being himself provided with all +necessaries for any length of time, thought to tire out and waste the vigor of +Caesar’s army, which could not last long. For the best part of his men, though +they had great experience and showed an irresistible courage in all +engagements, yet by their frequent marches, changing their camps, attacking +fortifications, and keeping long night-watches, were getting worn-out and +broken; they being now old, their bodies less fit for labor, and their courage, +also, beginning to give way with the failure of their strength. Besides, it was +said that an infectious disease, occasioned by their irregular diet, was +prevailing in Caesar’s army, and what was of greatest moment, he was neither +furnished with money nor provisions, so that in a little time he must needs +fall of himself. +</p> + +<p> +For these reasons Pompey had no mind to fight him, but was thanked for it by +none but Cato, who rejoiced at the prospect of sparing his fellow-citizens. For +he when he saw the dead bodies of those who had fallen in the last battle on +Caesar’s side, to the number of a thousand, turned away, covered his face, and +shed tears. But everyone else upbraided Pompey for being reluctant to fight, +and tried to goad him on by such nicknames as Agamemnon, and king of kings, as +if he were in no hurry to lay down his sovereign authority, but was pleased to +see so many commanders attending on him, and paying their attendance at his +tent. Favonius, who affected Cato’s free way of speaking his mind, complained +bitterly that they should eat no figs even this year at Tusculum, because of +Pompey’s love of command. Afranius, who was lately returned out of Spain, and +on account of his ill success there, labored under the suspicion of having been +bribed to betray the army, asked why they did not fight this purchaser of +provinces. Pompey was driven, against his own will, by this kind of language, +into offering battle, and proceeded to follow Caesar. Caesar had found great +difficulties in his march, for no country would supply him with provisions, his +reputation being very much fallen since his late defeat. But after he took +Gomphi, a town of Thessaly, he not only found provisions for his army, but +physic too. For there they met with plenty of wine, which they took very +freely, and heated with this, sporting and reveling on their march in +bacchanalian fashion, they shook off the disease, and their whole constitution +was relieved and changed into another habit. +</p> + +<p> +When the two armies were come into Pharsalia, and both encamped there, Pompey’s +thoughts ran the same way as they had done before, against fighting, and the +more because of some unlucky presages, and a vision he had in a dream. But +those who were about him were so confident of success, that Domitius, and +Spinther, and Scipio, as if they had already conquered, quarreled which should +succeed Caesar in the pontificate. And many sent to Rome to take houses fit to +accommodate consuls and praetors, as being sure of entering upon those offices, +as soon as the battle was over. The cavalry especially were obstinate for +fighting, being splendidly armed and bravely mounted, and valuing themselves +upon the fine horses they kept, and upon their own handsome persons; as also +upon the advantage of their numbers, for they were five thousand against one +thousand of Caesar’s. Nor were the numbers of the infantry less +disproportionate, there being forty-five thousand of Pompey’s, against +twenty-two thousand of the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, collecting his soldiers together, told them that Corfinius was coming +up to them with two legions, and that fifteen cohorts more under Calenus were +posted at Megara and Athens; he then asked them whether they would stay till +these joined them, or would hazard the battle by themselves. They all cried out +to him not to wait, but on the contrary to do whatever he could to bring about +an engagement as soon as possible. When he sacrificed to the gods for the +lustration of his army, upon the death of the first victim, the augur told him, +within three days he should come to a decisive action. Caesar asked him whether +he saw anything in the entrails, which promised a happy event. “That,” said the +priest, “you can best answer yourself; for the gods signify a great alteration +from the present posture of affairs. If, therefore, you think yourself well off +now, expect worse fortune; if unhappy, hope for better.” The night before the +battle, as he walked the rounds about midnight, there was a light seen in the +heaven, very bright and flaming, which seemed to pass over Caesar’s camp, and +fall into Pompey’s. And when Caesar’s soldiers came to relieve the watch in the +morning, they perceived a panic disorder among the enemies. However, he did not +expect to fight that day, but set about raising his camp with the intention of +marching towards Scotussa. +</p> + +<p> +But when the tents were now taken down, his scouts rode up to him, and told him +the enemy would give him battle. With this news he was extremely pleased, and +having performed his devotions to the gods, set his army in battle array, +dividing them into three bodies. Over the middlemost he placed Domitius +Calvinus; Antony commanded the left wing, and he himself the right, being +resolved to fight at the head of the tenth legion. But when he saw the enemies’ +cavalry taking position against him, being struck with their fine appearance +and their number, he gave private orders that six cohorts from the rear of the +army should come round and join him, whom he posted behind the right wing, and +instructed them what they should do, when the enemy’s horse came to charge. On +the other side, Pompey commanded the right wing, Domitius the left, and Scipio, +Pompey’s father-in-law, the center. The whole weight of the cavalry was +collected on the left wing, with the intent that they should outflank the right +wing of the enemy, and rout that part where the general himself commanded. For +they thought no phalanx of infantry could be solid enough to sustain such a +shock, but that they must necessarily be broken and shattered all to pieces +upon the onset of so immense a force of cavalry. When they were ready on both +sides to give the signal for battle, Pompey commended his foot who were in the +front to stand their ground, and without breaking their order, receive quietly +the enemy’s first attack, till they came within javelin’s cast. Caesar, in this +respect, also, blames Pompey’s generalship, as if he had not been aware how the +first encounter, when made with an impetus and upon the run, gives weight and +force to the strokes, and fires the men’s spirits into a flame, which the +general concurrence fans to full heat. He himself was just putting the troops +into motion and advancing to the action, when he found one of his captains, a +trusty and experienced soldier, encouraging his men to exert their utmost. +Caesar called him by his name, and said, “What hopes, Caius Crassinius, and +what grounds for encouragement?” Crassinius stretched out his hand, and cried +in a loud voice, “We shall conquer nobly, Caesar; and I this day will deserve +your praises, either alive or dead.” So he said, and was the first man to run +in upon the enemy, followed by the hundred and twenty soldiers about him, and +breaking through the first rank, still pressed on forwards with much slaughter +of the enemy, till at last he was struck back by the wound of a sword, which +went in at his mouth with such force that it came out at his neck behind. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the foot was thus sharply engaged in the main battle, on the flank +Pompey’s horse rode up confidently, and opened their ranks very wide, that they +might surround the Fight wing of Caesar. But before they engaged, Caesar’s +cohorts rushed out and attacked them, and did not dart their javelins at a +distance, nor strike at the thighs and legs, as they usually did in close +battle, but aimed at their faces. For thus Caesar had instructed them, in hopes +that young gentlemen, who had not known much of battles and wounds, but came +wearing their hair long, in the flower of their age and height of their beauty, +would be more apprehensive of such blows, and not care for hazarding both a +danger at present and a blemish for the future. And so it proved, for they were +so far from bearing the stroke of the javelins, that they could not stand the +sight of them, but turned about, and covered their faces to secure them. Once +in disorder, presently they turned about to fly; and so most shamefully ruined +all. For those who had beat them back, at once outflanked the infantry, and +falling on their rear, cut them to pieces. Pompey, who commanded the other wing +of the army, when he saw his cavalry thus broken and flying, was no longer +himself, nor did he now remember that he was Pompey the Great, but like one +whom some god had deprived of his senses, retired to his tent without speaking; +a word, and there sat to expect the event, till the whole army was routed, and +the enemy appeared upon the works which were thrown up before the camp, where +they closely engaged with his men, who were posted there to defend it. Then +first he seemed to have recovered his senses, and uttering, it is said, only +these words, “What, into the camp too?” he laid aside his general’s habit, and +putting on such clothes as might best favor his flight, stole off. What fortune +he met with afterwards, how he took shelter in Egypt, and was murdered there, +we tell you in his Life. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, when he came to view Pompey’s camp, and saw some of his opponents dead +upon the ground, others dying, said, with a groan, “This they would have; they +brought me to this necessity. I, Caius Caesar, after succeeding in so many +wars, had been condemned, had I dismissed my army.” These words, Pollio says, +Caesar spoke in Latin at that time, and that he himself wrote them in Greek; +adding, that those who were killed at the taking of the camp, were most of them +servants; and that not above six thousand soldiers fell. Caesar incorporated +most of the foot whom he took prisoners, with his own legions, and gave a free +pardon to many of the distinguished persons, and amongst the rest, to Brutus, +who afterwards killed him. He did not immediately appear after the battle was +over, which put Caesar, it is said, into great anxiety for him; nor was his +pleasure less when he saw him present himself alive. +</p> + +<p> +There were many prodigies that foreshowed this victory, but the most remarkable +that we are told of, was that at Tralles. In the temple of Victory stood +Caesar’s statue. The ground on which it stood was naturally hard and solid, and +the stone with which it was paved still harder; yet it is said that a palm-tree +shot itself up near the pedestal of this statue. In the city of Padua, one +Caius Cornelius, who had the character of a good augur, the fellow-citizen and +acquaintance of Livy, the historian, happened to be making some augural +observations that very day when the battle was fought. And first, as Livy tells +us, he pointed out the time of the fight, and said to those who were by him, +that just then the battle was begun, and the men engaged. When he looked a +second time, and observed the omens, he leaped up as if he had been inspired, +and cried out, “Caesar, you are victorious.” This much surprised the standers +by, but he took the garland which he had on from his head, and swore he would +never wear it again till the event should give authority to his art. This Livy +positively states for a truth. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, as a memorial of his victory, gave the Thessalians their freedom, and +then went in pursuit of Pompey. When he was come into Asia, to gratify +Theopompus, the author of the collection of fables, he enfranchised the +Cnidians, and remitted one third of their tribute to all the people of the +province of Asia. When he came to Alexandria, where Pompey was already +murdered, he would not look upon Theodotus, who presented him with his head, +but taking only his signet, shed tears. Those of Pompey’s friends who had been +arrested by the king of Egypt, as they were wandering in those parts, he +relieved, and offered them his own friendship. In his letter to his friends at +Rome, he told them that the greatest and most signal pleasure his victory had +given him, was to be able continually to save the lives of fellow-citizens who +had fought against him. As to the war in Egypt, some say it was at once +dangerous and dishonorable, and noways necessary, but occasioned only by his +passion for Cleopatra. Others blame the ministers of the king, and especially +the eunuch Pothinus, who was the chief favorite, and had lately killed Pompey, +who had banished Cleopatra, and was now secretly plotting Caesar’s destruction, +(to prevent which, Caesar from that time began to sit up whole nights, under +pretense of drinking, for the security of his person,) while openly he was +intolerable in his affronts to Caesar, both by his words and actions. For when +Caesar’s soldiers had musty and unwholesome corn measured out to them, Pothinus +told them they must be content with it, since they were fed at another’s cost. +He ordered that his table should be served with wooden and earthen dishes, and +said Caesar had carried off all the gold and silver plate, under pretense of +arrears of debt. For the present king’s father owed Caesar one thousand seven +hundred and fifty myriads of money; Caesar had formerly remitted to his +children the rest, but thought fit to demand the thousand myriads at that time, +to maintain his army. Pothinus told him that he had better go now and attend to +his other affairs of greater consequence, and that he should receive his money +at another time with thanks. Caesar replied that he did not want Egyptians to +be his counselors, and soon after, privately sent for Cleopatra from her +retirement. +</p> + +<p> +She took a small boat, and one only of her confidents, Apollodorus, the +Sicilian, along with her, and in the dusk of the evening landed near the +palace. She was at a loss how to get in undiscovered, till she thought of +putting herself into the coverlet of a bed and lying at length, whilst +Apollodorus tied up the bedding and carried it on his back through the gates to +Caesar’s apartment. Caesar was first captivated by this proof of Cleopatra’s +bold wit, and was afterwards so overcome by the charm of her society, that he +made a reconciliation between her and her brother, on condition that she should +rule as his colleague in the kingdom. A festival was kept to celebrate this +reconciliation, where Caesar’s barber, a busy, listening fellow, whose +excessive timidity made him inquisitive into everything, discovered that there +was a plot carrying on against Caesar by Achillas, general of the king’s +forces, and Pothinus, the eunuch. Caesar, upon the first intelligence of it, +set a guard upon the hall where the feast was kept, and killed Pothinus. +Achillas escaped to the army, and raised a troublesome and embarrassing war +against Caesar, which it was not easy for him to manage with his few soldiers +against so powerful a city and so large an army. The first difficulty he met +with was want of water, for the enemies had turned the canals. Another was, +when the enemy endeavored to cut off his communication by sea, he was forced to +divert that danger by setting fire to his own ships, which, after burning the +docks, thence spread on and destroyed the great library. A third was, when in +an engagement near Pharos, he leaped from the mole into a small boat, to assist +his soldiers who were in danger, and when the Egyptians pressed him on every +side, he threw himself into the sea, and with much difficulty swam off. This +was the time when, according to the story, he had a number of manuscripts in +his hand, which, though he was continually darted at, and forced to keep his +head often under water, yet he did not let go, but held them up safe from +wetting in one hand, whilst he swam with the other. His boat, in the meantime, +was quickly sunk. At last, the king having gone off to Achillas and his party, +Caesar engaged and conquered them. Many fell in that battle, and the king +himself was never seen after. Upon this, he left Cleopatra queen of Egypt, who +soon after had a son by him, whom the Alexandrians called Caesarion, and then +departed for Syria. +</p> + +<p> +Thence he passed to Asia, where he heard that Domitius was beaten by Pharnaces, +son of Mithridates, and had fled out of Pontus with a handful of men; and that +Pharnaces pursued the victory so eagerly, that though he was already master of +Bithynia and Cappadocia, he had a further design of attempting the Lesser +Armenia, and was inviting all the kings and tetrarchs there to rise. Caesar +immediately marched against him with three legions, fought him near Zela, drove +him out of Pontus, and totally defeated his army. When he gave Amantius, a +friend of his at Rome, an account of this action, to express the promptness and +rapidity of it, he used three words, I came, saw, and conquered, which in Latin +having all the same cadence, carry with them a very suitable air of brevity. +</p> + +<p> +Hence he crossed into Italy, and came to Rome at the end of that year, for +which he had been a second time chosen dictator, though that office had never +before lasted a whole year, and was elected consul for the next. He was ill +spoken of, because upon a mutiny of some soldiers, who killed Cosconius and +Galba, who had been praetors, he gave them only the slight reprimand of calling +them Citizens, instead of Fellow-Soldiers, and afterwards assigned to each man +a thousand drachmas, besides a share of lands in Italy. He was also reflected +on for Dolabella’s extravagance, Amantius’s covetousness, Antony’s debauchery, +and Corfinius’s profuseness, who pulled down Pompey’s house, and rebuilt it, as +not magnificent enough; for the Romans were much displeased with all these. But +Caesar, for the prosecution of his own scheme of government, though he knew +their characters and disapproved them, was forced to make use of those who +would serve him. +</p> + +<p> +After the battle of Pharsalia, Cato and Scipio fled into Africa, and there, +with the assistance of king Juba, got together a considerable force, which +Caesar resolved to engage. He, accordingly, passed into Sicily about the +winter-solstice, and to remove from his officers’ minds all hopes of delay +there, encamped by the sea-shore, and as soon as ever he had a fair wind, put +to sea with three thousand foot and a few horse. When he had landed them, he +went back secretly, under some apprehensions for the larger part of his army, +but met them upon the sea, and brought them all to the same camp. There he was +informed that the enemies relied much upon an ancient oracle, that the family +of the Scipios should be always victorious in Africa. There was in his army a +man, otherwise mean and contemptible, but of the house of the Africani, and his +name Scipio Sallutio. This man Caesar, (whether in raillery, to ridicule +Scipio, who commended the enemy, or seriously to bring over the omen to his +side, it were hard to say,) put at the head of his troops, as if he were +general, in all the frequent battles which he was compelled to fight. For he +was in such want both of victualing for his men, and forage for his horses, +that he was forced to feed the horses with sea-weed, which he washed thoroughly +to take off its saltiness, and mixed with a little grass, to give it a more +agreeable taste. The Numidians, in great numbers, and well horsed, whenever he +went, came up and commanded the country. Caesar’s cavalry being one day +unemployed, diverted themselves with seeing an African, who entertained them +with dancing and at the same time playing upon the pipe to admiration. They +were so taken with this, that they alighted, and gave their horses to some +boys, when on a sudden the enemy surrounded them, killed some, pursued the +rest, and fell in with them into their camp; and had not Caesar himself and +Asinius Pollio come to their assistance, and put a stop to their flight, the +war had been then at an end. In another engagement, also, the enemy had again +the better, when Caesar, it is said, seized a standard-bearer, who was running +away, by the neck, and forcing him to face about, said, “Look, that is the way +to the enemy.” +</p> + +<p> +Scipio, flushed with this success at first, had a mind to come to one decisive +action. He therefore left Afranius and Juba in two distinct bodies not far +distant, and marched himself towards Thapsus, where he proceeded to build a +fortified camp above a lake, to serve as a center-point for their operations, +and also as a place of refuge. Whilst Scipio was thus employed, Caesar with +incredible dispatch made his way through thick woods, and a country supposed to +be impassable, cut off one party of the enemy, and attacked another in the +front. Having routed these, he followed up his opportunity and the current of +his good fortune, and on the first onset carried Afranius’s camp, and ravaged +that of the Numidians, Juba, their king, being glad to save himself by flight; +so that in a small part of a single day he made himself master of three camps, +and killed fifty thousand of the enemy, with the loss only of fifty of his own +men. This is the account some give of that fight. Others say, he was not in the +action, but that he was taken with his usual distemper just as he was setting +his army in order. He perceived the approaches of it, and before it had too far +disordered his senses, when he was already beginning to shake under its +influence, withdrew into a neighboring fort, where he reposed himself. Of the +men of consular and praetorian dignity that were taken after the fight, several +Caesar put to death, others anticipated him by killing themselves. +</p> + +<p> +Cato had undertaken to defend Utica, and for that reason was not in the battle. +The desire which Caesar had to take him alive, made him hasten thither; and +upon the intelligence that he had dispatched himself, he was much discomposed, +for what reason is not so well agreed. He certainly said, “Cato, I must grudge +you your death, as you grudged me the honor of saving your life.” Yet the +discourse he wrote against Cato after his death, is no great sign of his +kindness, or that he was inclined to be reconciled to him. For how is it +probable that he would have been tender of his life, when he was so bitter +against his memory? But from his clemency to Cicero, Brutus, and many others +who fought against him, it may be divined that Caesar’s book was not written so +much out of animosity to Cato, as in his own vindication. Cicero had written an +encomium upon Cato, and called it by his name. A composition by so great a +master upon so excellent a subject, was sure to be in everyone’s hands. This +touched Caesar, who looked upon a panegyric on his enemy, as no better than an +invective against himself; and therefore he made in his Anti-Cato, a collection +of whatever could be said in his derogation. The two compositions, like Cato +and Caesar themselves, have each of them their several admirers. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, upon his return to Rome, did not omit to pronounce before the people a +magnificent account of his victory, telling them that he had subdued a country +which would supply the public every year with two hundred thousand attic +bushels of corn, and three million pounds weight of oil. He then led three +triumphs for Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, the last for the victory over, not +Scipio, but king Juba, as it was professed, whose little son was then carried +in the triumph, the happiest captive that ever was, who of a barbarian +Numidian, came by this means to obtain a place among the most learned +historians of Greece. After the triumphs, he distributed rewards to his +soldiers, and treated the people with feasting and shows. He entertained the +whole people together at one feast, where twenty-two thousand dining couches +were laid out; and he made a display of gladiators, and of battles by sea, in +honor, as he said, of his daughter Julia, though she had been long since dead. +When these shows were over, an account was taken of the people, who from three +hundred and twenty thousand, were now reduced to one hundred and fifty +thousand. So great a waste had the civil war made in Rome alone, not to mention +what the other parts of Italy and the provinces suffered. +</p> + +<p> +He was now chosen a fourth time consul, and went into Spain against Pompey’s +sons. They were but young, yet had gathered together a very numerous army, and +showed they had courage and conduct to command it, so that Caesar was in +extreme danger. The great battle was near the town of Munda, in which Caesar +seeing his men hard pressed, and making but a weak resistance, ran through the +ranks among the soldiers, and crying out, asked them whether they were not +ashamed to deliver him into the hands of boys? At last, with great difficulty, +and the best efforts he could make, he forced back the enemy, killing thirty +thousand of them, though with the loss of one thousand of his best men. When he +came back from the fight, he told his friends that he had often fought for +victory, but this was the first time that he had ever fought for life. This +battle was won on the feast of Bacchus, the very day in which Pompey, four +years before. had set out for the war. The younger of Pompey’s sons escaped; +but Didius, some days after the fight, brought the head of the elder to Caesar. +This was the last war he was engaged in. The triumph which he celebrated for +this victory, displeased the Romans beyond any thing. For he had not defeated +foreign generals, or barbarian kings, but had destroyed the children and family +of one of the greatest men of Rome, though unfortunate; and it did not look +well to lead a procession in celebration of the calamities of his country, and +to rejoice in those things for which no other apology could be made either to +gods or men, than their being absolutely necessary. Besides that, hitherto he +had never sent letters or messengers to announce any victory over his +fellow-citizens, but had seemed rather to be ashamed of the action, than to +expect honor from it. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless his countrymen, conceding all to his fortune, and accepting the +bit, in the hope that the government of a single person would give them time to +breathe after so many civil wars and calamities, made him dictator for life. +This was indeed a tyranny avowed, since his power now was not only absolute, +but perpetual too. Cicero made the first proposals to the senate for conferring +honors upon him, which might in some sort be said not to exceed the limits of +ordinary human moderation. But others, striving which should deserve most, +carried them so excessively high, that they made Caesar odious to the most +indifferent and moderate sort of men, by the pretension and the extravagance of +the titles which they decreed him. His enemies, too, are thought to have had +some share in this, as well as his flatterers. It gave them advantage against +him, and would be their justification for any attempt they should make upon +him; for since the civil wars were ended, he had nothing else that he could be +charged with. And they had good reason to decree a temple to Clemency, in token +of their thanks for the mild use he made of his victory. For he not only +pardoned many of those who fought against him, but, further, to some gave +honors and offices; as particularly to Brutus and Cassius, who both of them +were praetors. Pompey’s images that were thrown down, he set up again, upon +which Cicero also said that by raising Pompey’s statues he had fixed his own. +When his friends advised him to have a guard, and several offered their +service, he would not hear of it; but said it was better to suffer death once, +than always to live in fear of it. He looked upon the affections of the people +to be the best and surest guard, and entertained them again with public +feasting, and general distributions of corn; and to gratify his army, he sent +out colonies to several places, of which the most remarkable were Carthage and +Corinth; which as before they had been ruined at the same time, so now were +restored and repeopled together. +</p> + +<p> +As for the men of high rank, he promised to some of them future consulships and +praetorships, some he consoled with other offices and honors, and to all held +out hopes of favor by the solicitude he showed to rule with the general +good-will; insomuch that upon the death of Maximus one day before his +consulship was ended, he made Caninius Revilius consul for that day. And when +many went to pay the usual compliments and attentions to the new consul, “Let +us make haste,” said Cicero, “lest the man be gone out of his office before we +come.” +</p> + +<p> +Caesar was born to do great things, and had a passion after honor, and the many +noble exploits he had done did not now serve as an inducement to him to sit +still and reap the fruit of his past labors, but were incentives and +encouragments to go on, and raised in him ideas of still greater actions, and a +desire of new glory, as if the present were all spent. It was in fact a sort of +emulous struggle with himself, as it had been with another, how he might outdo +his past actions by his future. In pursuit of these thoughts, he resolved to +make war upon the Parthians, and when he had subdued them, to pass through +Hyrcania; thence to march along by the Caspian Sea to Mount Caucasus, and so on +about Pontus, till he came into Scythia; then to overrun all the countries +bordering upon Germany, and Germany itself; and so to return through Gaul into +Italy, after completing the whole circle of his intended empire, and bounding +it on every side by the ocean. While preparations were making for this +expedition, he proposed to dig through the isthmus on which Corinth stands; and +appointed Anienus to superintend the work. He had also a design of diverting +the Tiber, and carrying it by a deep channel directly from Rome to Circeii, and +so into the sea near Tarracina, that there might be a safe and easy passage for +all merchants who traded to Rome. Besides this, he intended to drain all the +marshes by Pomentium and Setia, and gain ground enough from the water to employ +many thousands of men in tillage. He proposed further to make great mounds on +the shore nearest Rome, to hinder the sea from breaking in upon the land, to +clear the coast at Ostia of all the hidden rocks and shoals that made it unsafe +for shipping, and to form ports and harbors fit to receive the large number of +vessels that would frequent them. +</p> + +<p> +These things were designed without being carried into effect; but his +reformation of the calendar, in order to rectify the irregularity of time, was +not only projected with great scientific ingenuity, but was brought to its +completion, and proved of very great use. For it was not only in ancient times +that the Romans had wanted a certain rule to make the revolutions of their +months fall in with the course of the year, so that their festivals and solemn +days for sacrifice were removed by little and little, till at last they came to +be kept at seasons quite the contrary to what was at first intended, but even +at this time the people had no way of computing the solar year; only the +priests could say the time, and they, at their pleasure, without giving any +notice, slipped in the intercalary month, which they called Mercedonius. Numa +was the first who put in this month, but his expedient was but a poor one and +quite inadequate to correct all the errors that arose in the returns of the +annual cycles, as we have shown in his life. Caesar called in the best +philosophers and mathematicians of his time to settle the point, and out of the +systems he had before him, formed a new and more exact method of correcting the +calendar, which the Romans use to this day, and seem to succeed better than any +nation in avoiding the errors occasioned by the inequality of the cycles. Yet +even this gave offense to those who looked with an evil eye on his position, +and felt oppressed by his power. Cicero, the orator, when someone in his +company chanced to say, the next morning Lyra would rise, replied, “Yes, in +accordance with the edict,” as if even this were a matter of compulsion. +</p> + +<p> +But that which brought upon him the most apparent and mortal hatred, was his +desire of being king; which gave the common people the first occasion to +quarrel with him, and proved the most specious pretense to those who had been +his secret enemies all along. Those, who would have procured him that title, +gave it out, that it was foretold in the Sybils’ books that the Romans should +conquer the Parthians when they fought against them under the conduct of a +king, but not before. And one day, as Caesar was coming down from Alba to Rome, +some were so bold as to salute him by the name of king; but he finding the +people disrelish it, seemed to resent it himself, and said his name was Caesar, +not king. Upon this, there was a general silence, and he passed on looking not +very well pleased or contented. Another time, when the senate had conferred on +him some extravagant honors, he chanced to receive the message as he was +sitting on the rostra, where, though the consuls and praetors themselves waited +on him, attended by the whole body of the senate, he did not rise, but behaved +himself to them as if they had been private men, and told them his honors +wanted rather to be retrenched than increased. This treatment offended not only +the senate, but the commonalty too, as if they thought the affront upon the +senate equally reflected upon the whole republic; so that all who could +decently leave him went off, looking much discomposed. Caesar, perceiving the +false step he had made, immediately retired home; and laying his throat bare, +told his friends that he was ready to offer this to anyone who would give the +stroke. But afterwards he made the malady from which he suffered, the excuse +for his sitting, saying that those who are attacked by it, lose their presence +of mind, if they talk much standing; that they presently grow giddy, fall into +convulsions, and quite lose their reason. But this was not the reality, for he +would willingly have stood up to the senate, had not Cornelius Balbus, one of +his friends, or rather flatterers, hindered him. “Will you not remember,” said +he, “you are Caesar, and claim the honor which is due to your merit?” +</p> + +<p> +He gave a fresh occasion of resentment by his affront to the tribunes. The +Lupercalia were then celebrated, a feast at the first institution belonging, as +some writers say, to the shepherds, and having some connection with the +Arcadian Lycaea. Many young noblemen and magistrates run up and down the city +with their upper garments off, striking all they meet with thongs of hide, by +way of sport; and many women, even of the highest rank, place themselves in the +way, and hold out their hands to the lash, as boys in a school do to the +master, out of a belief that it procures an easy labor to those who are with +child, and makes those conceive who are barren. Caesar, dressed in a triumphal +robe, seated himself in a golden chair at the rostra, to view this ceremony. +Antony, as consul, was one of those who ran this course, and when he came into +the forum, and the people made way for him, he went up and reached to Caesar a +diadem wreathed with laurel. Upon this, there was a shout, but only a slight +one, made by the few who were planted there for that purpose; but when Caesar +refused it, there was universal applause. Upon the second offer, very few, and +upon the second refusal, all again applauded. Caesar finding it would not take, +rose up, and ordered the crown to be carried into the capitol. Caesar’s statues +were afterwards found with royal diadems on their heads. Flavius and Marullus, +two tribunes of the people, went presently and pulled them off, and having +apprehended those who first saluted Caesar as king, committed them to prison. +The people followed them with acclamations, and called them by the name of +Brutus, because Brutus was the first who ended the succession of kings, and +transferred the power which before was lodged in one man into the hands of the +senate and people. Caesar so far resented this, that he displaced Marullus and +Flavius; and in urging his charges against them, at the same time ridiculed the +people, by himself giving the men more than once the names of Bruti, and +Cumaei. +</p> + +<p> +This made the multitude turn their thoughts to Marcus Brutus, who, by his +father’s side, was thought to be descended from that first Brutus, and by his +mother’s side from the Servilii, another noble family, being besides nephew and +son-in-law to Cato. But the honors and favors he had received from Caesar, took +off the edge from the desires he might himself have felt for overthrowing the +new monarchy. For he had not only been pardoned himself after Pompey’s defeat +at Pharsalia, and had procured the same grace for many of his friends, but was +one in whom Caesar had a particular confidence. He had at that time the most +honorable praetorship of the year, and was named for the consulship four years +after, being preferred before Cassius, his competitor. Upon the question as to +the choice, Caesar, it is related, said that Cassius had the fairer +pretensions, but that he could not pass by Brutus. Nor would he afterwards +listen to some who spoke against Brutus, when the conspiracy against him was +already afoot, but laying his hand on his body, said to the informers, “Brutus +will wait for this skin of mine,” intimating that he was worthy to bear rule on +account of his virtue, but would not be base and ungrateful to gain it. Those +who desired a change, and looked on him as the only, or at least the most +proper, person to effect it, did not venture to speak with him; but in the +night time laid papers about his chair of state, where he used to sit and +determine causes, with such sentences in them as, “You are asleep, Brutus,” +“You are no longer Brutus.” Cassius, when he perceived his ambition a little +raised upon this, was more instant than before to work him yet further, having +himself a private grudge against Caesar, for some reasons that we have +mentioned in the Life of Brutus. Nor was Caesar without suspicions of him, and +said once to his friends, “What do you think Cassius is aiming at? I don’t like +him, he looks so pale.” And when it was told him that Antony and Dolabella were +in a plot against him, he said he did not fear such fat, luxurious men, but +rather the pale, lean fellows, meaning Cassius and Brutus. +</p> + +<p> +Fate, however, is to all appearance more unavoidable than unexpected. For many +strange prodigies and apparitions are said to have been observed shortly before +the event. As to the lights in the heavens, the noises heard in the night, and +the wild birds which perched in the forum, these are not perhaps worth taking +notice of in so great a case as this. Strabo, the philosopher, tells us that a +number of men were seen, looking as if they were heated through with fire, +contending with each other; that a quantity of flame issued from the hand of a +soldier’s servant, so that they who saw it thought he must be burnt, but that +after all he had no hurt. As Caesar was sacrificing, the victim’s heart was +missing, a very bad omen, because no living creature can subsist without a +heart. One finds it also related by many, that a soothsayer bade him prepare +for some great danger on the ides of March. When the day was come, Caesar, as +he went to the senate, met this soothsayer, and said to him by way of raillery, +“The ides of March are come;” who answered him calmly, “Yes, they are come, but +they are not past.” The day before this assassination, he supped with Marcus +Lepidus; and as he was signing some letters, according to his custom, as he +reclined at table, there arose a question what sort of death was the best. At +which he immediately, before anyone could speak, said, “A sudden one.” +</p> + +<p> +After this, as he was in bed with his wife, all the doors and windows of the +house flew open together; he was startled at the noise, and the light which +broke into the room, and sat up in his bed, where by the moonshine he perceived +Calpurnia fast asleep, but heard her utter in her dream some indistinct words +and inarticulate groans. She fancied at that time she was weeping over Caesar, +and holding him butchered in her arms. Others say this was not her dream, but +that she dreamed that a pinnacle which the senate, as Livy relates, had ordered +to be raised on Caesar’s house by way of ornament and grandeur, was tumbling +down, which was the occasion of her tears and ejaculations. When it was day, +she begged of Caesar, if it were possible, not to stir out, but to adjourn the +senate to another time; and if he slighted her dreams, that he would be pleased +to consult his fate by sacrifices, and other kinds of divination. Nor was he +himself without some suspicion and fears; for he never before discovered any +womanish superstition in Calpurnia, whom he now saw in such great alarm. Upon +the report which the priests made to him, that they had killed several +sacrifices, and still found them inauspicious, he resolved to send Antony to +dismiss the senate. +</p> + +<p> +In this juncture, Decimus Brutus, surnamed Albinus, one whom Caesar had such +confidence in that he made him his second heir, who nevertheless was engaged in +the conspiracy with the other Brutus and Cassius, fearing lest if Caesar should +put off the senate to another day, the business might get wind, spoke +scoffingly and in mockery of the diviners, and blamed Caesar for giving the +senate so fair an occasion of saying he had put a slight upon them, for that +they were met upon his summons, and were ready to vote unanimously, that he +should be declared king of all the provinces out of Italy, and might wear a +diadem in any other place but Italy, by sea or land. If anyone should be sent +to tell them they might break up for the present, and meet again when Calpurnia +should chance to have better dreams, what would his enemies say? Or who would +with any patience hear his friends, if they should presume to defend his +government as not arbitrary and tyrannical? But if he was possessed so far as +to think this day unfortunate, yet it were more decent to go himself to the +senate, and to adjourn it in his own person. Brutus, as he spoke these words, +took Caesar by the hand, and conducted him forth. He was not gone far from the +door, when a servant of some other person’s made towards him, but not being +able to come up to him, on account of the crowd of those who pressed about him, +he made his way into the house, and committed himself to Calpurnia, begging of +her to secure him till Caesar returned, because he had matters of great +importance to communicate to him. +</p> + +<p> +Artemidorus, a Cnidian, a teacher of Greek logic, and by that means so far +acquainted with Brutus and his friends as to have got into the secret, brought +Caesar in a small written memorial, the heads of what he had to depose. He had +observed that Caesar, as he received any papers, presently gave them to the +servants who attended on him; and therefore came as near to him as he could, +and said, “Read this, Caesar, alone, and quickly, for it contains matter of +great importance which nearly concerns you.” Caesar received it, and tried +several times to read it, but was still hindered by the crowd of those who came +to speak to him. However, he kept it in his hand by itself till he came into +the senate. Some say it was another who gave Caesar this note, and that +Artemidorus could not get to him, being all along kept off by the crowd. +</p> + +<p> +All these things might happen by chance. But the place which was destined for +the scene of this murder, in which the senate met that day, was the same in +which Pompey’s statue stood, and was one of the edifices which Pompey had +raised and dedicated with his theater to the use of the public, plainly showing +that there was something of a supernatural influence which guided the action, +and ordered it to that particular place. Cassius, just before the act, is said +to have looked towards Pompey’s statue, and silently implored his assistance, +though he had been inclined to the doctrines of Epicurus. But this occasion, +and the instant danger, carried him away out of all his reasonings, and filled +him for the time with a sort of inspiration. As for Antony, who was firm to +Caesar, and a strong man, Brutus Albinus kept him outside the house, and +delayed him with a long conversation contrived on purpose. When Caesar entered, +the senate stood up to show their respect to him, and of Brutus’s confederates, +some came about his chair and stood behind it, others met him, pretending to +add their petitions to those of Tillius Cimber, in behalf of his brother, who +was in exile; and they followed him with their joint supplications till he came +to his seat. When he was sat down, he refused to comply with their requests, +and upon their urging him further, began to reproach them severally for their +importunities, when Tillius, laying hold of his robe with both his hands, +pulled it down from his neck, which was the signal for the assault. Casca gave +him the first cut, in the neck, which was not mortal nor dangerous, as coming +from one who at the beginning of such a bold action was probably very much +disturbed. Caesar immediately turned about, and laid his hand upon the dagger +and kept hold of it. And both of them at the same time cried out, he that +received the blow, in Latin, “Vile Casca, what does this mean?” and he that +gave it, in Greek, to his brother, “Brother, help!” Upon this first onset, +those who were not privy to the design were astonished and their horror and +amazement at what they saw were so great, that they durst not fly nor assist +Caesar, nor so much as speak a word. But those who came prepared for the +business enclosed him on every side, with their naked daggers in their hands. +Which way soever he turned, he met with blows, and saw their swords leveled at +his face and eyes, and was encompassed, like a wild beast in the toils, on +every side. For it had been agreed they should each of them make a thrust at +him, and flesh themselves with his blood; for which reason Brutus also gave him +one stab in the groin. Some say that he fought and resisted all the rest, +shifting his body to avoid the blows, and calling out for help, but that when +he saw Brutus’s sword drawn, he covered his face with his robe and submitted, +letting himself fall, whether it were by chance, or that he was pushed in that +direction by his murderers, at the foot of the pedestal on which Pompey’s +statue stood, and which was thus wetted with his blood. So that Pompey himself +seemed to have presided, as it were, over the revenge done upon his adversary, +who lay here at his feet, and breathed out his soul through his multitude of +wounds, for they say he received three and twenty. And the conspirators +themselves were many of them wounded by each other, whilst they all leveled +their blows at the same person. +</p> + +<p> +When Caesar was dispatched, Brutus stood forth to give a reason for what they +had done, but the senate would not hear him, but flew out of doors in all +haste, and filled the people with so much alarm and distraction, that some shut +up their houses, others left their counters and shops. All ran one way or the +other, some to the place to see the sad spectacle, others back again after they +had seen it. Antony and Lepidus, Caesar’s most faithful friends, got off +privately, and hid themselves in some friends’ houses. Brutus and his +followers, being yet hot from the deed, marched in a body from the senate-house +to the capitol with their drawn swords, not like persons who thought of +escaping, but with an air of confidence and assurance, and as they went along, +called to the people to resume their liberty, and invited the company of any +more distinguished people whom they met. And some of these joined the +procession and went up along with them, as if they also had been of the +conspiracy, and could claim a share in the honor of what had been done. As, for +example, Caius Octavius and Lentulus Spinther, who suffered afterwards for +their vanity, being taken off by Antony and the young Caesar, and lost the +honor they desired, as well as their lives, which it cost them, since no one +believed they had any share in the action. For neither did those who punished +them profess to revenge the fact, but the ill-will. The day after, Brutus with +the rest came down from the capitol, and made a speech to the people, who +listened without expressing either any pleasure or resentment, but showed by +their silence that they pitied Caesar, and respected Brutus. The senate passed +acts of oblivion for what was past, and took measures to reconcile all parties. +They ordered that Caesar should be worshipped as a divinity, and nothing, even +of the slightest consequence, should be revoked, which he had enacted during +his government. At the same time they gave Brutus and his followers the command +of provinces, and other considerable posts. So that all people now thought +things were well settled, and brought to the happiest adjustment. +</p> + +<p> +But when Caesar’s will was opened, and it was found that he had left a +considerable legacy to each one of the Roman citizens, and when his body was +seen carried through the market-place all mangled with wounds, the multitude +could no longer contain themselves within the bounds of tranquillity and order, +but heaped together a pile of benches, bars, and tables, which they placed the +corpse on, and setting fire to it, burnt it on them. Then they took brands from +the pile, and ran some to fire the houses of the conspirators, others up and +down the city, to find out the men and tear them to pieces, but met, however, +with none of them, they having taken effectual care to secure themselves. +</p> + +<p> +One Cinna, a friend of Caesar’s, chanced the night before to have an odd dream. +He fancied that Caesar invited him to supper, and that upon his refusal to go +with him, Caesar took him by the hand and forced him, though he hung back. Upon +hearing the report that Caesar’s body was burning in the market-place, he got +up and went thither, out of respect to his memory, though his dream gave him +some ill apprehensions, and though he was suffering from a fever. One of the +crowd who saw him there, asked another who that was, and having learned his +name, told it to his next neighbor. It presently passed for a certainty that he +was one of Caesar’s murderers, as, indeed, there was another Cinna, a +conspirator, and they, taking this to be the man, immediately seized him, and +tore him limb from limb upon the spot. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus and Cassius, frightened at this, within a few days retired out of the +city. What they afterwards did and suffered, and how they died, is written in +the Life of Brutus. Caesar died in his fifty-sixth year, not having survived +Pompey above four years. That empire and power which he had pursued through the +whole course of his life with so much hazard, he did at last with much +difficulty compass, but reaped no other fruits from it than the empty name and +invidious glory. But the great genius which attended him through his lifetime, +even after his death remained as the avenger of his murder, pursuing through +every sea and land all those who were concerned in it, and suffering none to +escape, but reaching all who in any sort or kind were either actually engaged +in the fact, or by their counsels any way promoted it. +</p> + +<p> +The most remarkable of mere human coincidences was that which befell Cassius, +who, when he was defeated at Philippi, killed himself with the same dagger +which he had made use of against Caesar. The most signal preternatural +appearances were the great comet, which shone very bright for seven nights +after Caesar’s death, and then disappeared, and the dimness of the sun, whose +orb continued pale and dull for the whole of that year, never showing its +ordinary radiance at its rising, and giving but a weak and feeble heat. The air +consequently was damp and gross, for want of stronger rays to open and rarify +it. The fruits, for that reason, never properly ripened, and began to wither +and fall off for want of heat, before they were fully formed. But above all, +the phantom which appeared to Brutus showed the murder was not pleasing to the +gods. The story of it is this. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus being to pass his army from Abydos to the continent on the other side, +laid himself down one night, as he used to do, in his tent, and was not asleep, +but thinking of his affairs, and what events he might expect. For he is related +to have been the least inclined to sleep of all men who have commanded armies, +and to have had the greatest natural capacity for continuing awake, and +employing himself without need of rest. He thought he heard a noise at the door +of his tent, and looking that way, by the light of his lamp, which was almost +out, saw a terrible figure, like that of a man, but of unusual stature and +severe countenance. He was somewhat frightened at first, but seeing it neither +did nor spoke anything to him, only stood silently by his bed-side, he asked +who it was. The specter answered him, “Thy evil genius, Brutus, thou shalt see +me at Philippi.” Brutus answered courageously, “Well, I shall see you,” and +immediately the appearance vanished. When the time was come, he drew up his +army near Philippi against Antony and Caesar, and in the first battle won the +day, routed the enemy, and plundered Caesar’s camp. The night before the second +battle, the same phantom appeared to him again, but spoke not a word. He +presently understood his destiny was at hand, and exposed himself to all the +danger of the battle. Yet he did not die in the fight, but seeing his men +defeated, got up to the top of a rock, and there presenting his sword to his +naked breast, and assisted, as they say, by a friend, who helped him to give +the thrust, met his death. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap49"></a>PHOCION</h2> + +<p> +Demades, the orator, when in the height of the power which he obtained at +Athens by advising the state in the interest of Antipater and the Macedonians, +being necessitated to write and speak many things below the dignity, and +contrary to the character, of the city, was wont to excuse himself by saying he +steered only the shipwrecks of the commonwealth. This hardy saying of his might +have some appearance of truth, if applied to Phocion’s government. For Demades +indeed was himself the mere wreck of his country, living and ruling so +dissolutely, that Antipater took occasion to say of him, when he was now grown +old, that he was like a sacrificed beast, all consumed except the tongue and +the belly. But Phocion’s was a real virtue, only overmatched in the unequal +contest with an adverse time, and rendered by the ill fortunes of Greece +inglorious and obscure. We must not, indeed, allow ourselves to concur with +Sophocles in so far diminishing the force of virtue as to say that, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +When fortune fails, the sense we had before<br/> +Deserts us also, and is ours no more. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Yet thus much, indeed, must be allowed to happen in the conflicts between good +men and ill fortune, that instead of due returns of honor and gratitude, +obloquy and unjust surmises may often prevail, to weaken, in a considerable +degree, the credit of their virtue. +</p> + +<p> +It is commonly said that public bodies are most insulting and contumelious to a +good man, when they are puffed up with prosperity and success. But the contrary +often happens; afflictions and public calamities naturally embittering and +souring the minds and tempers of men, and disposing them to such peevishness +and irritability, that hardly any word or sentiment of common vigor can be +addressed to them, but they will be apt to take offense. He that remonstrates +with them on their errors, is presumed to be insulting over their misfortunes, +and any free spoken expostulation is construed into contempt. Honey itself is +searching in sore and ulcerated parts; and the wisest and most judicious +counsels prove provoking to distempered minds, unless offered with those +soothing and compliant approaches which made the poet, for instance, +characterize agreeable things in general, by a word expressive of a grateful +and easy touch, exciting nothing of offense or resistance. Inflamed eyes +require a retreat into dusky places, amongst colors of the deepest shades, and +are unable to endure the brilliancy of light. So fares it in the body politic, +in times of distress and humiliation; a certain sensitiveness and soreness of +humor prevail, with a weak incapacity of enduring any free and open advice, +even when the necessity of affairs most requires such plain-dealing, and when +the consequences of any single error may be beyond retrieving. At such times +the conduct of public affairs is on all hands most hazardous. Those who humor +the people are swallowed up in the common ruin; those who endeavor to lead them +aright, perish the first in their attempt. +</p> + +<p> +Astronomers tell us, the sun’s motion is neither exactly parallel with that of +the heavens in general, nor yet directly and diametrically opposite, but +describing an oblique line, with insensible declination he steers his course in +such a gentle, easy curve, as to dispense his light and influence, in his +annual revolution, at several seasons, in just proportions to the whole +creation. So it happens in political affairs; if the motions of rulers be +constantly opposite and cross to the tempers and inclination of the people, +they will be resented as arbitrary and harsh; as, on the other side, too much +deference, or encouragement, as too often it has been, to popular faults and +errors, is full of danger and ruinous consequences. But where concession is the +response to willing obedience, and a statesman gratifies his people, that he +may the more imperatively recall them to a sense of the common interest, then, +indeed, human beings, who are ready enough to serve well and submit to much, if +they are not always ordered about and roughly handled, like slaves, may be said +to be guided and governed upon the method that leads to safety. Though it must +be confessed, it is a nice point and extremely difficult, so to temper this +lenity as to preserve the authority of the government. But if such a blessed +mixture and temperament may be obtained, it seems to be of all concords and +harmonies the most concordant and most harmonious. For thus we are taught even +God governs the world, not by irresistible force, but persuasive argument and +reason, controlling it into compliance with his eternal purposes. +</p> + +<p> +Cato the younger is a similar instance. His manners were little agreeable or +acceptable to the people, and he received very slender marks of their favor; +witness his repulse when he sued for the consulship, which he lost, as Cicero +says, for acting rather like a citizen in Plato’s commonwealth, than among the +dregs of Romulus’s posterity, the same thing happening to him, in my opinion, +as we observe in fruits ripe before their season, which we rather take pleasure +in looking at and admiring, than actually use; so much was his old-fashioned +virtue out of the present mode, among the depraved customs which time and +luxury had introduced, that it appeared indeed remarkable and wonderful, but +was too great and too good to suit the present exigencies, being so out of all +proportion to the times. Yet his circumstances were not altogether like +Phocion’s, who came to the helm when the ship of the state was just upon +sinking. Cato’s time was, indeed, stormy and tempestuous, yet so as he was able +to assist in managing the sails, and lend his helping hand to those who, which +he was not allowed to do, commanded at the helm. Others were to blame for the +result; yet his courage and virtue made it in spite of all a hard task for +fortune to ruin the commonwealth, and it was only with long time and effort and +by slow degrees, when he himself had all but succeeded in averting it, that the +catastrophe was at last effected. +</p> + +<p> +Phocion and he may be well compared together, not for any mere general +resemblances, as though we should say, both were good men and great statesmen. +For assuredly there is difference enough among virtues of the same +denomination, as between the bravery of Alcibiades and that of Epaminondas, the +prudence of Themistocles and that of Aristides, the justice of Numa and that of +Agesilaus. But these men’s virtues, even looking to the most minute points of +difference, bear the same color, stamp, and character impressed upon them, so +as not to be distinguishable. The mixture is still made in the same exact +proportions, whether we look at the combination to be found in them both of +lenity on the one hand, with austerity on the other; their boldness upon some +occasions, and caution on others; their extreme solicitude for the public, and +perfect neglect of themselves; their fixed and immovable bent to all virtuous +and honest actions, accompanied with an extreme tenderness and scrupulosity as +to doing anything which might appear mean or unworthy; so that we should need a +very nice and subtle logic of discrimination to detect and establish the +distinctions between them. +</p> + +<p> +As to Cato’s extraction, it is confessed by all to have been illustrious, as +will be said hereafter, nor was Phocion’s, I feel assured, obscure or ignoble. +For had he been the son of a turner, as Idomeneus reports, it had certainly not +been forgotten to his disparagement by Glaucippus, the son of Hyperides, when +heaping up a thousand spiteful things to say against him. Nor, indeed, had it +been possible for him, in such circumstances, to have had such a liberal +breeding and education in his youth, as to be first Plato’s, and afterwards +Xenocrates’s scholar in the Academy, and to have devoted himself from the first +to the pursuit of the noblest studies and practices. His countenance was so +composed, that scarcely was he ever seen by any Athenian either laughing, or in +tears. He was rarely known, so Duris has recorded, to appear in the public +baths, or was observed with his hand exposed outside his cloak, when he wore +one. Abroad, and in the camp, he was so hardy in going always thin clad and +barefoot, except in a time of excessive and intolerable cold, that the soldiers +used to say in merriment, that it was like to be a hard winter when Phocion +wore his coat. +</p> + +<p> +Although he was most gentle and humane in his disposition, his aspect was stern +and forbidding, so that he was seldom accosted alone by any who were not +intimate with him. When Chares once made some remark on his frowning looks, and +the Athenians laughed at the jest. “My sullenness,” said Phocion, “never yet +made any of you sad, but these men’s jollities have given you sorrow enough.” +In like manner Phocion’s language, also, was full of instruction, abounding in +happy maxims and wise thoughts, but admitted no embellishment to its austere +and commanding brevity. Zeno said a philosopher should never speak till his +words had been steeped in meaning; and such, it may be said, were Phocion’s, +crowding the greatest amount of significance into the smallest allowance of +space. And to this, probably, Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, referred, when he said +that Demosthenes was, indeed, the best orator of his time, but Phocion the most +powerful speaker. His oratory, like small coin of great value, was to be +estimated, not by its bulk, but its intrinsic worth. He was once observed, it +is said, when the theater was filling with the audience, to walk musing alone +behind the scenes, which one of his friends taking notice of, said, “Phocion, +you seem to be thoughtful.” “Yes,” replied he, “I am considering how I may +shorten what I am going to say to the Athenians.” Even Demosthenes himself, who +used to despise the rest of the haranguers, when Phocion stood up, was wont to +say quietly to those about him, “Here is the pruning-knife of my periods.” This +however, might refer, perhaps, not so much to his eloquence, as to the +influence of his character, since not only a word, but even a nod from a person +who is esteemed, is of more force than a thousand arguments or studied +sentences from others. +</p> + +<p> +In his youth he followed Chabrias, the general, from whom he gained many +lessons in military knowledge, and in return did something to correct his +unequal and capricious humor. For whereas at other times Chabrias was heavy and +phlegmatic, in the heat of battle he used to be so fired and transported, that +he threw himself headlong into danger beyond the forwardest, which, indeed, in +the end, cost him his life in the island of Chios, he having pressed his own +ship foremost to force a landing. But Phocion, being a man of temper as well as +courage, had the dexterity at some times to rouse the general, when in his +procrastinating mood, to action, and at others to moderate and cool the +impetuousness of his unseasonable fury. Upon which account Chabrias, who was a +good-natured, kindly-tempered man, loved him much, and procured him commands +and opportunities for action, giving him means to make himself known in Greece, +and using his assistance in all his affairs of moment. Particularly the +sea-fight at Naxos added not a little to Phocion’s reputation, when he had the +left squadron committed to him by Chabrias, as in this quarter the battle was +sharply contested, and was decided by a speedy victory. And this being the +first prosperous sea-battle the city had engaged in with its own force since +its captivity, Chabrias won great popularity by it, and Phocion, also, got the +reputation of a good commander. The victory was gained at the time of the Great +Mysteries, and Chabrias used to keep the commemoration of it, by distributing +wine among the Athenians, yearly, on the sixteenth day of Boedromion. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Chabrias sent Phocion to demand their quota of the charges of the +war from the islanders, and offered him a guard of twenty ships. Phocion told +him, if he intended him to go against them as enemies, that force was +insignificant; if as to friends and allies, one vessel was sufficient. So he +took his own single galley, and having visited the cities, and treated with the +magistrates in an equitable and open manner, he brought back a number of ships, +sent by the confederates to Athens, to convey the supplies. Neither did his +friendship and attention close with Chabrias’s life, but after his decease he +carefully maintained it to all that were related to him, and chiefly to his son +Ctesippus, whom he labored to bring to some good, and although he was a stupid +and intractable young fellow, always endeavored, so far as in him lay, to +correct and cover his faults and follies. Once, however, when the youngster was +very impertinent and troublesome to him in the camp, interrupting him with idle +questions, and putting forward his opinions and suggestions of how the war +should be conducted, he could not forbear exclaiming, “O Chabrias, Chabrias, +how grateful I show myself for your friendship, in submitting to endure your +son.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon looking into public matters, and the way in which they were now conducted, +he observed that the administration of affairs was cut and parceled out, like +so much land by allotment, between the military men and the public speakers, so +that neither these nor those should interfere with the claims of the others. As +the one were to address the assemblies, to draw up votes and prepare motions, +men, for example, like Eubulus, Aristophon, Demosthenes, Lycurgus, and +Hyperides, and were to push their interests here; so, in the meantime, +Diopithes, Menestheus, Leosthenes, and Chares, were to make their profit by war +and in military commands. Phocion, on the other hand, was desirous to restore +and carry out the old system, more complete in itself, and more harmonious and +uniform, which prevailed in the times of Pericles, Aristides, and Solon; when +statesmen showed themselves, to use Archilochus’s words, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Mars’ and the Muses’ friends alike designed,<br/> +To arts and arms indifferently inclined, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and the presiding goddess of his country was, he did not fail to see, the +patroness and protectress of both civil and military wisdom. With these views, +while his advice at home was always for peace and quietness, he nevertheless +held the office of general more frequently than any of the statesmen, not only +of his own times, but of those preceding, never, indeed, promoting or +encouraging military expeditions, yet never, on the other hand, shunning or +declining, when he was called upon by the public voice. Thus much is well +known, that he was no less than forty-five several times chosen general, he +being never on any one of those occasions present at the election, but having +the command, in his absence, by common suffrage, conferred on him, and he sent +for on purpose to undertake it. Insomuch that it amazed those who did not well +consider, to see the people always prefer Phocion, who was so far from humoring +them or courting their favor, that he always thwarted and opposed them. But so +it was, as great men and princes are said to call in their flatterers when +dinner has been served, so the Athenians, upon slight occasions, entertained +and diverted themselves with their spruce speakers and trim orators, but when +it came to action, they were sober and considerate enough to single out the +austerest and wisest for public employment, however much he might be opposed to +their wishes and sentiments. This, indeed, he made no scruple to admit, when +the oracle from Delphi was read, which informed them that the Athenians were +all of one mind, a single dissentient only excepted, frankly coming forward and +declaring that they need look no further; he was the man, there was no one but +he who was dissatisfied with everything they did. And when once he gave his +opinion to the people, and was met with the general approbation and applause of +the assembly, turning to some of his friends, he asked them, “Have I +inadvertently said something foolish?” +</p> + +<p> +Upon occasion of a public festivity, being solicited for his contribution by +the example of others, and the people pressing him much, he bade them apply +themselves to the wealthy; for his part he should blush to make a present here, +rather than a repayment there, turning and, pointing to Callicles, the +money-lender. Being still clamored upon and importuned, he told them this tale. +A certain cowardly fellow setting out for the wars, hearing the ravens croak in +his passage, threw down his arms, resolving to wait. Presently he took them and +ventured out again, but hearing the same music, once more made a stop. “For,” +said he, “you may croak till you are tired, but you shall make no dinner upon +me.” +</p> + +<p> +The Athenians urging him at an unseasonable time to lead them out against the +enemy, he peremptorily refused, and being upbraided by them with cowardice and +pusillanimity, he told them, “Just now, do what you will, I shall not be brave; +and do what I will, you will not be cowards. Nevertheless, we know well enough +what we are.” And when again, in a time of great danger, the people were very +harsh upon him, demanding a strict account how the public money had been +employed, and the like, he bade them, “First, good friends, make sure you are +safe.” After a war, during which they had been very tractable and timorous, +when, upon peace being made, they began again to be confident and overbearing, +and to cry out upon Phocion, as having lost them the honor of victory, to all +their clamor he made only this answer, “My friends, you are fortunate in having +a leader who knows you; otherwise, you had long since been undone.” +</p> + +<p> +Having a controversy with the Boeotians about boundaries, which he counseled +them to decide by negotiation, they inclined to blows. “You had better,” said +he, “carry on the contest with the weapons in which you excel, (your tongues,) +and not by war, in which you are inferior.” Once, when he was addressing them, +and they would not hear him or let him go on, said he, “You may compel me to +act against my wishes, but you shall never force me to speak against my +judgment.” Among the many public speakers who opposed him, Demosthenes, for +example, once told him, “The Athenians, Phocion, will kill you some day when +they once are in a rage.” “And you,” said he, “if they once are in their +senses.” Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, once on a hot day was urging war with +Philip, and being a corpulent man, and out of breath and in a great heat with +speaking, took numerous draughts of water as he went on. “Here, indeed,” said +Phocion, “is a fit man to lead us into a war! What think you he will do when he +is carrying his corslet and his shield to meet the enemy, if even here, +delivering a prepared speech to you has almost killed him with exhaustion?” +When Lycurgus in the assembly made many reflections on his past conduct, +upbraiding him above all for having advised them to deliver up the ten citizens +whom Alexander had demanded, he replied that he had been the author of much +safe and wholesome counsel, which had not been followed. +</p> + +<p> +There was a man called Archibiades, nicknamed the Lacedaemonian, who used to go +about with a huge overgrown beard, wearing an old threadbare cloak, and +affecting a very stern countenance. Phocion once, when attacked in council by +the rest, appealed to this man for his support and testimony. And when he got +up and began to speak on the popular side, putting his hand to his beard, “O +Archibiades,” said he, “it is time you should shave.” Aristogiton, a common +accuser, was a terrible man of war within the assembly, always inflaming the +people to battle, but when the muster-roll came to be produced, he appeared +limping on a crutch, with a bandage on his leg; Phocion descried him afar off, +coming in, and cried out to the clerk, “Put down Aristogiton, too, as lame and +worthless.” +</p> + +<p> +So that it is a little wonderful, how a man so severe and harsh upon all +occasions should, notwithstanding, obtain the name of the Good. Yet, though +difficult, it is not, I suppose, impossible for men’s tempers, any more than +for wines, to be at the same time harsh and agreeable to the taste; just as on +the other hand many that are sweet at the first taste, are found, on further +use, extremely disagreeable and very unwholesome. Hyperides, we are told, once +said to the people, “Do not ask yourselves, men of Athens, whether or not I am +bitter, but whether or not I am paid for being so,” as though a covetous +purpose were the only thing that should make a harsh temper insupportable, and +as if men might not even more justly render themselves obnoxious to popular +dislike and censure, by using their power and influence in the indulgence of +their own private passions of pride and jealousy, anger and animosity. Phocion +never allowed himself from any feeling of personal hostility to do hurt to any +fellow-citizen, nor, indeed, reputed any man his enemy, except so far as he +could not but contend sharply with such as opposed the measures he urged for +the public good; in which argument he was, indeed, a rude, obstinate, and +uncompromising adversary. For his general conversation, it was easy, courteous, +and obliging to all, to that point that he would befriend his very opponents in +their distress, and espouse the cause of those who differed most from him, when +they needed his patronage. His friends reproaching him for pleading in behalf +of a man of indifferent character, he told them the innocent had no need of an +advocate. Aristogiton, the sycophant, whom we mentioned before, having after +sentence passed upon him, sent earnestly to Phocion to speak with him in the +prison, his friends dissuaded him from going; “Nay, by your favor,” said he, +“where should I rather choose to pay Aristogiton a visit?” +</p> + +<p> +As for the allies of the Athenians, and the islanders, whenever any admiral +besides Phocion was sent, they treated him as an enemy suspect, barricaded +their gates, blocked up their havens, brought in from the country their cattle, +slaves, wives, and children, and put them in garrison; but upon Phocion’s +arrival, they went out to welcome him in their private boats and barges, with +streamers and garlands, and received him at landing with every demonstration of +joy and pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +When king Philip was effecting his entry into Euboea, and was bringing over +troops from Macedonia, and making himself master of the cities, by means of the +tyrants who ruled in them, Plutarch of Eretria sent to request aid of the +Athenians for the relief of the island, which was in imminent danger of falling +wholly into the hands of the Macedonians. Phocion was sent thither with a +handful of men in comparison, in expectation that the Euboeans themselves would +flock in and join him. But when he came, he found all things in confusion, the +country all betrayed, the whole ground, as it were, undermined under his feet, +by the secret pensioners of king Philip, so that he was in the greatest risk +imaginable. To secure himself as far as he could, he seized a small rising +ground, which was divided from the level plains about Tamynae by a deep +watercourse, and here he enclosed and fortified the choicest of his army. As +for the idle talkers and disorderly bad citizens who ran off from his camp and +made their way back, he bade his officers not regard them, since here they +would have been not only useless and ungovernable themselves, but an actual +hindrance to the rest; and further, being conscious to themselves of the +neglect of their duty, they would be less ready to misrepresent the action, or +raise a cry against them at their return home. When the enemy drew nigh, he +bade his men stand to their arms, until he had finished the sacrifice, in which +he spent a considerable time, either by some difficulty of the thing itself, or +on purpose to invite the enemy nearer. Plutarch, interpreting this tardiness as +a failure in his courage, fell on alone with the mercenaries, which the cavalry +perceiving, could not be contained, but issuing also out of the camp, +confusedly and in disorder, spurred up to the enemy. The first who came up were +defeated, the rest were put to the rout, Plutarch himself took to flight, and a +body of the enemy advanced in the hope of carrying the camp, supposing +themselves to have secured the victory. But by this time, the sacrifice being +over, the Athenians within the camp came forward, and falling upon them put +them to flight, and killed the greater number as they fled among the +entrenchments, while Phocion ordering his infantry to keep on the watch and +rally those who came in from the previous flight, himself, with a body of his +best men, engaged the enemy in a sharp and bloody fight, in which all of them +behaved with signal courage and gallantry. Thallus, the son of Cineas, and +Glaucus, of Polymedes, who fought near the general, gained the honors of the +day. Cleophanes, also, did good service in the battle. Recovering the cavalry +from its defeat, and with his shouts and encouragement bringing them up to +succor the general, who was in danger, he confirmed the victory obtained by the +infantry. Phocion now expelled Plutarch from Eretria, and possessed himself of +the very important fort of Zaretra, situated where the island is pinched in, as +it were, by the seas on each side, and its breadth most reduced to a narrow +girth. He released all the Greeks whom he took out of fear of the public +speakers at Athens, thinking they might very likely persuade the people in +their anger into committing some act of cruelty. +</p> + +<p> +This affair thus dispatched and settled, Phocion set sail homewards, and the +allies had soon as good reason to regret the loss of his just and humane +dealing, as the Athenians that of his experience and courage. Molossus, the +commander who took his place, had no better success than to fall alive into the +enemy’s hands. Philip, full of great thoughts and designs, now advanced with +all his forces into the Hellespont, to seize the Chersonesus and Perinthus, and +after them, Byzantium. The Athenians raised a force to relieve them, but the +popular leaders made it their business to prefer Chares to be general, who, +sailing thither, effected nothing worthy of the means placed in his hands. The +cities were afraid, and would not receive his ships into their harbors, so that +he did nothing but wander about, raising money from their friends, and despised +by their enemies. And when the people, chafed by the orators, were extremely +indignant, and repented having ever sent any help to the Byzantines, Phocion +rose and told them they ought not to be angry with the allies for distrusting, +but with their generals for being distrusted. “They make you suspected,” he +said, “even by those who cannot possibly subsist without your succor.” The +assembly being moved with this speech of his, changed their minds on the +sudden, and commanded him immediately to raise another force, and go himself to +assist their confederates in the Hellespont; an appointment which, in effect, +contributed more than anything to the relief of Byzantium. +</p> + +<p> +For Phocion’s name was already honorably known; and an old acquaintance of his, +who had been his fellow-student in the Academy, Leon, a man of high renown for +virtue among the Byzantines, having vouched for Phocion to the city, they +opened their gates to receive him, not permitting him, though he desired it, to +encamp without the walls, but entertained him and all the Athenians with +perfect reliance, while they, to requite their confidence, behaved among their +new hosts soberly and inoffensively, and exerted themselves on all occasions +with the greatest zeal and resolution for their defense. Thus king Philip was +driven out of the Hellespont, and was despised to boot, whom till now, it had +been thought impossible to match, or even to oppose. Phocion also took some of +his ships, and recaptured some of the places he had garrisoned, making besides +several inroads into the country, which he plundered and overran, until he +received a wound from some of the enemy who came to the defense, and, +thereupon, sailed away home. +</p> + +<p> +The Megarians at this time privately praying aid of the Athenians, Phocion, +fearing lest the Boeotians should hear of it, and anticipate them, called an +assembly at sunrise, and brought forward the petition of the Megarians, and +immediately after the vote had been put, and carried in their favor, he sounded +the trumpet, and led the Athenians straight from the assembly, to arm and put +themselves in posture. The Megarians received them joyfully, and he proceeded +to fortify Nisea, and built two new long walls from the city to the arsenal, +and so joined it to the sea, so that having now little reason to regard the +enemies on the land side, it placed its dependence entirely on the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +When final hostilities with Philip were now certain, and in Phocion’s absence +other generals had been nominated, he on his arrival from the islands, dealt +earnestly with the Athenians, that since Philip showed peaceable inclinations +towards them, and greatly apprehended the danger, they would consent to a +treaty. Being contradicted in this by one of the ordinary frequenters of the +courts of justice, a common accuser, who asked him if he durst presume to +persuade the Athenians to peace, now their arms were in their hands, “Yes,” +said he, “though I know that if there be war, I shall be in office over you, +and if peace, you over me.” But when he could not prevail, and Demosthenes’s +opinion carried it, advising them to make war as far off from home as possible, +and fight the battle out of Attica, “Good friend,” said Phocion, “let us not +ask where we shall fight, but how we may conquer in the war. That will be the +way to keep it at a distance. If we are beaten, it will be quickly at our +doors.” After the defeat, when the clamorers and incendiaries in the town would +have brought up Charidemus to the hustings, to be nominated to the command, the +best of the citizens were in a panic, and supporting themselves with the aid of +the council of the Areopagus, with entreaties and tears hardly prevailed upon +the people to have Phocion entrusted with the care of the city. He was of +opinion, in general, that the fair terms to be expected from Philip should be +accepted, yet after Demades had made a motion that the city should receive the +common conditions of peace in concurrence with the rest of the states of +Greece, he opposed it, till it were known what the particulars were which +Philip demanded. He was overborne in this advice, under the pressure of the +time, but almost immediately after, the Athenians repented it, when they +understood that by these articles, they were obliged to furnish Philip both +with horse and shipping. “It was the fear of this,” said Phocion, “that +occasioned my opposition. But since the thing is done, let us make the best of +it, and not be discouraged. Our forefathers were sometimes in command, and +sometimes under it; and by doing their duty, whether as rulers or as subjects, +saved their own country and the rest of Greece.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon the news of Philip’s death, he opposed himself to any public +demonstrations of joy and jubilee, saying it would be ignoble to show malice +upon such an occasion, and that the army that had fought them at Chaeronea, was +only diminished by a single man. +</p> + +<p> +When Demosthenes made his invectives against Alexander, now on his way to +attack Thebes, he repeated those verses of Homer, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Unwise one, wherefore to a second stroke<br/> +His anger be foolhardy to provoke?” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and asked, “Why stimulate his already eager passion for glory? Why take pains +to expose the city to the terrible conflagration now so near? We, who accepted +office to save our fellow-citizens, will not, however they desire it, be +consenting to their destruction.” +</p> + +<p> +After Thebes was lost, and Alexander had demanded Demosthenes, Lycurgus, +Hyperides, and Charidemus to be delivered up, the whole assembly turning their +eyes to him, and calling on him by name to deliver his opinion, at last he rose +up, and showing them one of his most intimate friends, whom he loved and +confided in above all others, told them, “You have brought things amongst you +to that pass, that for my part, should he demand this my friend Nicocles, I +would not refuse to give him up. For as for myself, to have it in my power to +sacrifice my own life and fortune for the common safety, I should think the +greatest of good fortune. Truly,” he added, “it pierces my heart to see those +who are fled hither for succor from the desolation of Thebes. Yet it is enough +for Greece to have Thebes to deplore. It will be more for the interest of all +that we should deprecate the conqueror’s anger, and intercede for both, than +run the hazard of another battle.” +</p> + +<p> +When this was decreed by the people, Alexander is said to have rejected their +first address when it was presented, throwing it from him scornfully, and +turning his back upon the deputation, who left him in affright. But the second, +which was presented by Phocion, he received, understanding from the older +Macedonians how much Philip had admired and esteemed him. And he not only gave +him audience and listened to his memorial and petition, but also permitted him +to advise him, which he did to this effect, that if his designs were for +quietness, he should make peace at once; if glory were his aim, he should make +war, not upon Greece, but on the barbarians. And with various counsels and +suggestions, happily designed to meet the genius and feelings of Alexander, he +so won upon him, and softened his temper, that he bade the Athenians not forget +their position, as if anything went wrong with him, the supremacy belonged to +them. And to Phocion himself, whom he adopted as his friend and guest, he +showed a respect, and admitted him to distinctions, which few of those who were +continually near his person ever received. Duris, at any rate, tells us, that +when he became great, and had conquered Darius, in the heading of all his +letters he left off the word Greeting, except in those he wrote to Phocion. To +him, and to Antipater alone, he condescended to use it. This, also, is stated +by Chares. +</p> + +<p> +As for his munificence to him, it is well known he sent him a present at one +time of one hundred talents; and this being brought to Athens, Phocion asked of +the bearers, how it came to pass, that among all the Athenians, he alone should +be the object of this bounty. And being told that Alexander esteemed him alone +a person of honor and worth, “Let him, then,” said he, “permit me to continue +so, and be still so reputed.” Following him to his house, and observing his +simple and plain way of living, his wife employed in kneading bread with her +own hands, himself drawing water to wash his feet, they pressed him to accept +it, with some indignation, being ashamed, as they said, that Alexander’s friend +should live so poorly and pitifully. So Phocion pointing out to them a poor old +fellow, in a dirty worn-out coat, passing by, asked them if they thought him in +worse condition than this man. They bade him not mention such a comparison. +“Yet,” said Phocion, “he with less to live upon than I, finds it sufficient, +and in brief,” he continued, “if I do not use this money, what good is there in +my having it; and if I do use it, I shall procure an ill name, both for myself +and for Alexander, among my countrymen.” So the treasure went back again from +Athens, to prove to Greece, by a signal example, that he who could afford to +give so magnificent a present, was yet not so rich as he who could afford to +refuse it. And when Alexander was displeased, and wrote back to him to say that +he could not esteem those his friends, who would not be obliged by him, not +even would this induce Phocion to accept the money, but he begged leave to +intercede with him in behalf of Echecratides, the sophist, and Athenodorus, the +Imbrian, as also for Demaratus and Sparton, two Rhodians, who had been arrested +upon some charges, and were in custody at Sardis. This was instantly granted by +Alexander, and they were set at liberty. Afterwards, when sending Craterus into +Macedonia, he commanded him to make him an offer of four cities in Asia, Cius, +Gergithus, Mylasa, and Elaea, any one of which, at his choice, should be +delivered to him; insisting yet more positively with him, and declaring he +should resent it, should he continue obstinate in his refusal. But Phocion was +not to be prevailed with at all, and, shortly after, Alexander died. +</p> + +<p> +Phocion’s house is shown to this day in Melita, ornamented with small plates of +copper, but otherwise plain and homely. Concerning his wives, of the first of +them there is little said, except that she was sister of Cephisodotus, the +statuary. The other was a matron of no less reputation for her virtues and +simple living among the Athenians, than Phocion was for his probity. It +happened once when the people were entertained with a new tragedy, that the +actor, just as he was to enter the stage to perform the part of a queen, +demanded to have a number of attendants sumptuously dressed, to follow in his +train, and on their not being provided, was sullen and refused to act, keeping +the audience waiting, till at last Melanthius, who had to furnish the chorus, +pushed him on the stage, crying out, “What, don’t you know that Phocion’s wife +is never attended by more than a single waiting woman, but you must needs be +grand, and fill our women’s heads with vanity?” This speech of his, spoken loud +enough to be heard, was received with great applause, and clapped all round the +theater. She herself, when once entertaining a visitor out of Ionia, who showed +her all her rich ornaments, made of gold and set with jewels, her wreaths, +necklaces, and the like, “For my part,” said she, “all my ornament is my +husband Phocion, now for the twentieth year in office as general at Athens.” +</p> + +<p> +He had a son named Phocus, who wished to take part in the games at the great +feast of Minerva. He permitted him so to do, in the contest of leaping, not +with any view to the victory, but in the hope that the training and discipline +for it would make him a better man, the youth being in a general way a lover of +drinking, and ill-regulated in his habits. On his having succeeded in the +sports, many were eager for the honor of his company at banquets in celebration +of the victory. Phocion declined all these invitations but one, and when he +came to this entertainment and saw the costly preparations, even the water +brought to wash the guests’ feet being mingled with wine and spices, he +reprimanded his son, asking him why he would so far permit his friend to sully +the honor of his victory. And in the hope of wholly weaning the young man from +such habits and company, he sent him to Lacedaemon, and placed him among the +youths then under the course of the Spartan discipline. This the Athenians took +offense at, as though he slighted and contemned the education at home; and +Demades twitted him with it publicly, “Suppose, Phocion, you and I advise the +Athenians to adopt the Spartan constitution. If you like, I am ready to +introduce a bill to that effect, and to speak in its favor.” “Indeed,” said +Phocion, “you with that strong scent of perfumes about you, and with that +mantle on your shoulders, are just the very man to speak in honor of Lycurgus, +and recommend the Spartan table.” +</p> + +<p> +When Alexander wrote to demand a supply of galleys, and the public speakers +objected to sending them, Phocion, on the council requesting his opinion, told +them freely, “Sirs, I would either have you victorious yourselves, or friends +of those who are so.” He took up Pytheas, who about this time first began to +address the assembly, and already showed himself a confident, talking fellow, +by saying that a young slave whom the people had but bought yesterday, ought to +have the manners to hold his tongue. And when Harpalus, who had fled from +Alexander out of Asia, carrying off a large sum of money, came to Attica, and +there was a perfect race among the ordinary public men of the assembly who +should be the first to take his pay, he distributed amongst these some trifling +sums by way of a bait and provocative, but to Phocion he made an offer of no +less than seven hundred talents and all manner of other advantages he pleased +to demand; with the compliment that he would entirely commit himself and all +his affairs to his disposal. Phocion answered sharply, Harpalus should repent +of it, if he did not quickly leave off corrupting and debauching the city, +which for the time silenced him, and checked his proceedings. But afterwards, +when the Athenians were deliberating in council about him, he found those that +had received money from him to be his greatest enemies, urging and aggravating +matters against him, to prevent themselves being discovered, whereas Phocion, +who had never touched his pay, now, so far as the public interest would admit +of it, showed some regard to his particular security. This encouraged him once +more to try his inclinations, and upon further survey, finding that he himself +was a fortress, inaccessible on every quarter to the approaches of corruption, +he professed a particular friendship to Phocion’s son-in-law, Charicles. And +admitting him into his confidence in all his affairs, and continually +requesting his assistance, he brought him into some suspicion. Upon the +occasion, for example, of the death of Pythonice, who was Harpalus’s mistress, +for whom he had a great fondness, and had a child by her, he resolved to build +her a sumptuous monument, and committed the care of it to his friend Charicles. +This commission, disreputable enough in itself, was yet further disparaged by +the figure the piece of workmanship made after it was finished. It is yet to be +seen in the Hermeum. as you go from Athens to Eleusis, with nothing in its +appearance answerable to the sum of thirty talents, with which Charicles is +said to have charged Harpalus for its erection. After Harpalus’s own decease, +his daughter was educated by Phocion and Charicles with great care. But when +Charicles was called to account for his dealings with Harpalus, and entreated +his father-in-law’s protection, begging that he would appear for him in the +court, Phocion refused, telling him, “I did not choose you for my son-in-law +for any but honorable purposes.” +</p> + +<p> +Asclepiades, the son of Hipparchus, brought the first tidings of Alexander’s +death to Athens, which Demades told them was not to be credited; for, were it +true, the whole world would ere this have stunk with the dead body. But Phocion +seeing the people eager for an instant revolution, did his best to quiet and +repress them. And when numbers of them rushed up to the hustings to speak, and +cried out that the news was true, and Alexander was dead, “If he is dead +today,” said he, “he will be so tomorrow and the day after tomorrow equally. So +that there is no need to take counsel hastily or before it is safe.” +</p> + +<p> +When Leosthenes now had embarked the city in the Lamian war, greatly against +Phocion’s wishes, to raise a laugh against Phocion, he asked him scoffingly, +what the State had been benefited by his having now so many years been general. +“It is not a little,” said Phocion, “that the citizens have been buried in +their own sepulchers.” And when Leosthenes continued to speak boldly and +boastfully in the assembly, “Young man,” he said, “your speeches are like +cypress trees, stately and tall, and no fruit to come of them.” And when he was +then attacked by Hyperides, who asked him when the time would come, that he +would advise the Athenians to make war, “As soon,” said he, “as I find the +young men keep their ranks, the rich men contribute their money, and the +Orators leave off robbing the treasury.” Afterwards, when many admired the +forces raised, and the preparations for war that were made by Leosthenes, they +asked Phocion how he approved of the new levies. “Very well,” said he, “for the +short course; but what I fear, is the long race. Since however late the war may +last, the city has neither money, ships, nor soldiers, but these.” And the +event justified his prognostics. At first all things appeared fair and +promising. Leosthenes gained great reputation by worsting the Boeotians in +battle, and driving Antipater within the walls of Lamia, and the citizens were +so transported with the first successes, that they kept solemn festivities for +them, and offered public sacrifices to the gods. So that some, thinking Phocion +must now be convinced of his error, asked him whether he would not willingly +have been author of these successful actions. “Yes,” said he, “most gladly, but +also of the former counsel.” And when one express after another came from the +camp, confirming and magnifying the victories, “When,” said he, “will the end +of them come?” +</p> + +<p> +Leosthenes, soon after, was killed, and now those who feared lest if Phocion +obtained the command, he would put an end to the war, arranged with an obscure +person in the assembly, who should stand up and profess himself to be a friend +and old confidant of Phocion’s, and persuade the people to spare him at this +time, and reserve him (with whom none could compare) for a more pressing +occasion, and now to give Antiphilus the command of the army. This pleased the +generality, but Phocion made it appear he was so far from having any friendship +with him of old standing, that he had not so much as the least familiarity with +him; “Yet now, sir,” says he, “give me leave to put you down among the number +of my friends and well-wishers, as you have given a piece of advice so much to +my advantage.” +</p> + +<p> +And when the people were eager to make an expedition against the Boeotians, he +at first opposed it; and on his friends telling him the people would kill him, +for always running counter to them, “That will be unjust of them,” he said, “if +I give them honest advice, if not, it will be just of them.” But when he found +them persisting and shouting to him to lead them out, he commanded the crier to +make proclamation, that all the Athenians under sixty should instantly provide +themselves with five days’ provision, and follow him from the assembly. This +caused a great tumult. Those in years were startled, and clamored against the +order; he demanded wherein he injured them, “For I,” says he, “am now +fourscore, and am ready to lead you.” This succeeded in pacifying them for the +present. +</p> + +<p> +But when Micion, with a large force of Macedonians and mercenaries, began to +pillage the sea-coast, having made a descent upon Rhamnus, and overrun the +neighboring country, Phocion led out the Athenians to attack him. And when +sundry private persons came, intermeddling with his dispositions, and telling +him that he ought to occupy such or such a hill, detach the cavalry in this or +that direction, engage the enemy on this point or that, “O Hercules,” said he, +“how many generals have we here, and how few soldiers!” Afterwards, having +formed the battle, one who wished to show his bravery, advanced out of his post +before the rest, but on the enemy’s approaching, lost heart, and retired back +into his rank. “Young man,” said Phocion, “are you not ashamed twice in one day +to desert your station, first that on which I had placed you, and secondly, +that on which you had placed yourself?” However, he entirely routed the enemy, +killing Micion and many more on the spot. The Grecian army, also, in Thessaly, +after Leonnatus and the Macedonians who came with him out of Asia, had arrived +and joined Antipater, fought and beat them in a battle. Leonnatus was killed in +the fight, Antiphilus commanding the foot, and Menon, the Thessalian, the +horse. +</p> + +<p> +But not long after, Craterus crossed from Asia with numerous forces; a pitched +battle was fought at Cranon; the Greeks were beaten; though not, indeed, in a +signal defeat, nor with any great loss of men. But what with their want of +obedience to their commanders, who were young and over-indulgent with them, and +what with Antipater’s tampering and treating with their separate cities, one by +one, the end of it was that the army was dissolved, and the Greeks shamefully +surrendered the liberty of their country. +</p> + +<p> +Upon the news of Antipater’s now advancing at once against Athens with all his +force, Demosthenes and Hyperides deserted the city, and Demades, who was +altogether insolvent for any part of the fines that had been laid upon him by +the city, for he had been condemned no less than seven times for introducing +bills contrary to the laws, and who had been disfranchised, and was no longer +competent to vote in the assembly, laid hold of this season of impunity, to +bring in a bill for sending ambassadors with plenipotentiary power to +Antipater, to treat about a peace. But the people distrusted him, and called +upon Phocion to give his opinion, as the person they only and entirely confided +in. He told them, “If my former counsels had been prevalent with you, we had +not been reduced to deliberate on the question at all.” However, the vote +passed; and a decree was made, and he with others deputed to go to Antipater, +who lay now encamped in the Theban territories, but intended to dislodge +immediately, and pass into Attica. Phocion’s first request was, that he would +make the treaty without moving his camp. And when Craterus declared that it was +not fair to ask them to be burdensome to the country of their friends and +allies by their stay, when they might rather use that of their enemies for +provisions and the support of their army, Antipater taking him by the hand, +said, “We must grant this favor to Phocion.” For the rest, he bade them return +to their principals, and acquaint them that he could only offer them the same +terms, namely, to surrender at discretion, which Leosthenes had offered to him +when he was shut up in Lamia. +</p> + +<p> +When Phocion had returned to the city, and acquainted them with this answer, +they made a virtue of necessity, and complied, since it would be no better. So +Phocion returned to Thebes with the other ambassadors, and among the rest, +Xenocrates, the philosopher, the reputation of whose virtue and wisdom was so +great and famous everywhere, that they conceived there could not be any pride, +cruelty, or anger arising in the heart of man, which would not at the mere +sight of him be subdued into something of reverence and admiration. But the +result, as it happened, was the very opposite, Antipater showed such a want of +feeling, and such a dislike of goodness. He saluted everyone else, but would +not so much as notice Xenocrates. Xenocrates, they tell us, observed upon it, +that Antipater when meditating such cruelty to Athens, did well to be ashamed +of seeing him. When he began to speak, he would not hear him, but broke in and +rudely interrupted him, until at last he was obliged to he silent. But when +Phocion had declared the purport of their embassy, he replied shortly, that he +would make peace with the Athenians on these conditions, and no others; that +Demosthenes and Hyperides should be delivered up to him; that they should +retain their ancient form of government, the franchise being determined by a +property qualification; that they should receive a garrison into Munychia, and +pay a certain sum for the cost of the war. As things stood, these terms were +judged tolerable by the rest of the ambassadors; Xenocrates only said, that if +Antipater considered the Athenians slaves, he was treating them fairly, but if +free, severely. Phocion pressed him only to spare them the garrison, and used +many arguments and entreaties. Antipater replied, “Phocion, we are ready to do +you any favor, which will not bring ruin both on ourselves and on you.” Others +report it differently; that Antipater asked Phocion, supposing he remitted the +garrison to the Athenians, would he, Phocion, stand surety for the city’s +observing the terms and attempting no revolution? And when he hesitated, and +did not at once reply, Callimedon, the Carabus, a hot partisan and professed +enemy of free states, cried out, “And if he should talk so idly, Antipater, +will you be so much abused as to believe him and not carry out your own +purpose?” So the Athenians received the garrison, and Menyllus for the +governor, a fair-dealing man, and one of Phocion’s acquaintance. +</p> + +<p> +But the proceeding seemed sufficiently imperious and arbitrary, indeed rather a +spiteful and insulting ostentation of power, than that the possession of the +fortress would be of any great importance. The resentment felt upon it was +heightened by the time it happened in, for the garrison was brought in on the +twentieth of the month of Boedromion, just at the time of the great festival, +when they carry forth Iacchus with solemn pomp from the city to Eleusis; so +that the solemnity being disturbed, many began to call to mind instances, both +ancient and modern, of divine interventions and intimations. For in old time, +upon the occasions of their happiest successes, the presence of the shapes and +voices of the mystic ceremonies had been vouchsafed to them, striking terror +and amazement into their enemies; but now, at the very season of their +celebration, the gods themselves stood witnesses of the saddest oppressions of +Greece, the most holy time being profaned, and their greatest jubilee made the +unlucky date of their most extreme calamity. Not many years before, they had a +warning from the oracle at Dodona, that they should carefully guard the summits +of Diana, lest haply strangers should seize them. And about this very time, +when they dyed the ribbons and garlands with which they adorn the couches and +cars of the procession, instead of a purple they received only a faint yellow +color; and to make the omen yet greater, all the things that were dyed for +common use, took the natural color. While a candidate for initiation was +washing a young pig in the haven of Cantharus, a shark seized him, bit off all +his lower parts up to the belly, and devoured them, by which the god gave them +manifestly to understand, that having lost the lower town and the sea-coast, +they should keep only the upper city. +</p> + +<p> +Menyllus was sufficient security that the garrison should behave itself +inoffensively. But those who were now excluded from the franchise by poverty, +amounted to more than twelve thousand; so that both those that remained in the +city thought themselves oppressed and shamefully used, and those who on this +account left their homes and went away into Thrace, where Antipater offered +them a town and some territory to inhabit, regarded themselves only as a colony +of slaves and exiles. And when to this was added the deaths of Demosthenes at +Calauria, and of Hyperides at Cleonae, as we have elsewhere related, the +citizens began to think with regret of Philip and Alexander, and almost to wish +the return of those times. And as, after Antigonus was slain, when those that +had taken him off were afflicting and oppressing the people, a countryman in +Phrygia, digging in the fields, was asked what he was doing, “I am,” said he, +fetching a deep sigh, “searching for Antigonus;” so said many that remembered +those days, and the contests they had with those kings, whose anger, however +great, was yet generous and placable; whereas Antipater, with the counterfeit +humility of appearing like a private man, in the meanness of his dress and his +homely fare, merely belied his real love of that arbitrary power, which he +exercised, as a cruel master and despot, to distress those under his command. +Yet Phocion had interest with him to recall many from banishment by his +intercession, and prevailed also for those who were driven out, that they might +not, like others, be hurried beyond Taenarus, and the mountains of Ceraunia, +but remain in Greece, and plant themselves in Peloponnesus, of which number was +Agnonides, the sycophant. He was no less studious to manage the affairs within +the city with equity and moderation, preferring constantly those that were men +of worth and good education to the magistracies, and recommending the busy and +turbulent talkers, to whom it was a mortal blow to be excluded from office and +public debating, to learn to stay at home, and be content to till their land. +And observing that Xenocrates paid his alien-tax as a foreigner, he offered him +the freedom of the city, which he refused, saying he could not accept a +franchise which he had been sent, as an ambassador, to deprecate. +</p> + +<p> +Menyllus wished to give Phocion a considerable present of money, who, thanking +him, said, neither was Menyllus greater than Alexander, nor his own occasions +more urgent to receive it now, than when he refused it from him.. And on his +pressing him to permit his son Phocus to receive it, he replied, “If my son +returns to a right mind, his patrimony is sufficient; if not, all supplies will +be insufficient.” But to Antipater he answered more sharply, who would have him +engaged in something dishonorable. “Antipater,” said he, “cannot have me both +as his friend and his flatterer.” And, indeed, Antipater was wont to say, he +had two friends at Athens, Phocion and Demades; the one would never suffer him +to gratify him at all, the other would never be satisfied. Phocion might well +think that poverty a virtue, in which, after having so often been general of +the Athenians, and admitted to the friendship of potentates and princes, he had +now grown old. Demades, meantime, delighted in lavishing his wealth even in +positive transgressions of the law. For there having been an order that no +foreigner should be hired to dance in any chorus on the penalty of a fine of +one thousand drachmas on the exhibitor, he had the vanity to exhibit an entire +chorus of a hundred foreigners, and paid down the penalty of a thousand +drachmas a head upon the stage itself. Marrying his son Demeas, he told him +with the like vanity, “My son, when I married your mother, it was done so +privately it was not known to the next neighbors, but kings and princes give +presents at your nuptials.” +</p> + +<p> +The garrison in Munychia continued to be felt as a great grievance, and the +Athenians did not cease to be importunate upon Phocion, to prevail with +Antipater for its removal; but whether he despaired of effecting it, or perhaps +observed the people to be more orderly, and public matters more reasonably +conducted by the awe that was thus created, he constantly declined the office, +and contented himself with obtaining from Antipater the postponement for the +present of the payment of the sum of money in which the city was fined. So the +people, leaving him off, applied themselves to Demades, who readily undertook +the employment, and took along with him his son also into Macedonia; and some +superior power, as it seems, so ordering it, he came just at that nick of time, +when Antipater was already seized with his sickness, and Cassander, taking upon +himself the command, had found a letter of Demades’s, formerly written by him +to Antigonus in Asia, recommending him to come and possess himself of the +empire of Greece and Macedon, now hanging, he said, (a scoff at Antipater,) “by +an old and rotten thread.” So when Cassander saw him come, he seized him; and +first brought out the son and killed him so close before his face, that the +blood ran all over his clothes and person, and then, after bitterly taunting +and upbraiding him with his ingratitude and treachery, dispatched him himself. +</p> + +<p> +Antipater being dead, after nominating Polysperchon general-in-chief, and +Cassander commander of the cavalry, Cassander at once set up for himself and +immediately dispatched Nicanor to Menyllus, to succeed him in the command of +the garrison, commanding him to possess himself of Munychia before the news of +Antipater’s death should be heard; which being done, and some days after the +Athenians hearing the report of it, Phocion was taxed as privy to it before, +and censured heavily for dissembling it, out of friendship for Nicanor. But he +slighted their talk, and making it his duty to visit and confer continually +with Nicanor, he succeeded in procuring his good-will and kindness for the +Athenians, and induced him even to put himself to trouble and expense to seek +popularity with them, by undertaking the office of presiding at the games. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime Polysperchon, who was entrusted with the charge of the king, to +countermine Cassander, sent a letter to the city, declaring in the name of the +king, that he restored them their democracy, and that the whole Athenian people +were at liberty to conduct their commonwealth according to their ancient +customs and constitutions. The object of these pretenses was merely the +overthrow of Phocion’s influence, as the event manifested. For Polysperchon’s +design being to possess himself of the city, he despaired altogether of +bringing it to pass, whilst Phocion retained his credit; and the most certain +way to ruin him, would be again to fill the city with a crowd of disfranchised +citizens, and let loose the tongues of the demagogues and common accusers. +</p> + +<p> +With this prospect, the Athenians were all in excitement, and Nicanor, wishing +to confer with them on the subject, at a meeting of the Council in Piraeus, +came himself, trusting for the safety of his person to Phocion. And when +Dercyllus, who commanded the guard there, made an attempt to seize him, upon +notice of it beforehand, he made his escape, and there was little doubt he +would now lose no time in righting himself upon the city for the affront; and +when Phocion was found fault with for letting him get off and not securing him, +he defended himself by saying that he had no mistrust of Nicanor, nor the least +reason to expect any mischief from him, but should it prove otherwise, for his +part he would have them all know, he would rather receive than do the wrong. +And so far as he spoke for himself alone, the answer was honorable and +high-minded enough, but he who hazards his country’s safety, and that, too, +when he is her magistrate and chief commander, can scarcely he acquitted, I +fear, of transgressing a higher and more sacred obligation of justice, which he +owed to his fellow citizens. For it will not even do to say, that he dreaded +the involving the city in war, by seizing Nicanor, and hoped by professions of +confidence and just-dealing, to retain him in the observance of the like; but +it was, indeed, his credulity and confidence in him, and an overweening opinion +of his sincerity, that imposed upon him. So that notwithstanding the sundry +intimations he had of his making preparations to attack Piraeus, sending +soldiers over into Salamis, and tampering with, and endeavoring to corrupt +various residents in Piraeus, he would, notwithstanding all this evidence, +never be persuaded to believe it. And even when Philomedes of Lampra had got a +decree passed, that all the Athenians should stand to their arms, and be ready +to follow Phocion their general, he yet sat still and did nothing, until +Nicanor actually led his troops out from Munychia, and drew trenches about +Piraeus; upon which, when Phocion at last would have led out the Athenians, +they cried out against him, and slighted his orders. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander, the son of Polysperchon, was at hand with a considerable force, and +professed to come to give them succor against Nicanor, but intended nothing +less, if possible, than to surprise the city, whilst they were in tumult and +divided among themselves. For all that had previously been expelled from the +city, now coming back with him, made their way into it, and were joined by a +mixed multitude of foreigners and disfranchised persons, and of these a motley +and irregular public assembly came together, in which they presently divested +Phocion of all power, and chose other generals; and if, by chance Alexander had +not been spied from the walls, alone in close conference with Nicanor, and had +not this, which was often repeated, given the Athenians cause of suspicion, the +city had not escaped the snare. The orator Agnonides, however, at once fell +foul upon Phocion, and impeached him of treason; Callimedon and Charicles, +fearing the worst, consulted their own security by flying from the city; +Phocion, with a few of his friends that stayed with him, went over to +Polysperchon, and out of respect for him, Solon of Plataea, and Dinarchus of +Corinth, who were reputed friends and confidants of Polysperchon, accompanied +him. But on account of Dinarchus falling ill, they remained several days in +Elatea, during which time, upon the persuasion of Agnonides and on the motion +of Archestratus a decree passed that the people should send delegates thither +to accuse Phocion. So both parties reached Polysperchon at the same time, who +was going through the country with the king, and was then at a small village of +Phocis, Pharygae, under the mountain now called Galate, but then Acrurium. +</p> + +<p> +There Polysperchon, having set up the golden canopy, and seated the king and +his company under it, ordered Dinarchus at once to be taken, and tortured, and +put to death; and that done, gave audience to the Athenians, who filled the +place with noise and tumult, accusing and recriminating on one another, till at +last Agnonides came forward, and requested they might all be shut up together +in one cage, and conveyed to Athens, there to decide the controversy. At that +the king could not forbear smiling, but the company that attended, for their +own amusement, Macedonians and strangers, were eager to hear the altercation, +and made signs to the delegates to go on with their case at once. But it was no +sort of fair hearing. Polysperchon frequently interrupted Phocion, till at last +Phocion struck his staff on the ground, and declined to speak further. And when +Hegemon said, Polysperchon himself could bear witness to his affection for the +people, Polysperchon called out fiercely, “Give over slandering me to the +king,” and the king starting up was about to have run him through with his +javelin, but Polysperchon interposed and hindered him; so that the assembly +dissolved. +</p> + +<p> +Phocion, then, and those about him, were seized; those of his friends that were +not immediately by him, on seeing this, hid their faces, and saved themselves +by flight. The rest Clitus took and brought to Athens, to be submitted to +trial; but, in truth, as men already sentenced to die. The manner of conveying +them was indeed extremely moving; they were carried in chariots through the +Ceramicus, straight to the place of judicature, where Clitus secured them till +they had convoked an assembly of the people, which was open to all comers, +neither foreigners, nor slaves, nor those who had been punished with +disfranchisement, being refused admittance, but all alike, both men and women, +being allowed to come into the court, and even upon the place of speaking. So +having read the king’s letters, in which he declared he was satisfied himself +that these men were traitors, however, they being a free city, he willingly +accorded them the grace of trying and judging them according to their own laws, +Clitus brought in his prisoners. Every respectable citizen, at the sight of +Phocion, covered up his face, and stooped down to conceal his tears. And one of +them had the courage to say, that since the king had committed so important a +cause to the judgment of the people, it would be well that the strangers, and +those of servile condition, should withdraw. But the populace would not endure +it, crying out they were oligarchs, and enemies to the liberty of the people, +and deserved to be stoned; after which no man durst offer anything further in +Phocion’s behalf. He was himself with difficulty heard at all, when he put the +question, “Do you wish to put us to death lawfully, or unlawfully?” Some +answered, “According to law.” He replied, “How can you, except we have a fair +hearing?” But when they were deaf to all he said, approaching nearer, “As to +myself,” said he, “I admit my guilt, and pronounce my public conduct to have +deserved sentence of death. But why, O men of Athens, kill others who have +offended in nothing?” The rabble cried out, they were his friends, that was +enough. Phocion therefore drew back, and said no more. +</p> + +<p> +Then Agnonides read the bill, in accordance with which the people should decide +by show of hands whether they judged them guilty, and if so it should be found, +the penalty should be death. When this had been read out, some desired it might +be added to the sentence, that Phocion should be tortured also, and that the +rack should be produced with the executioners. But Agnonides perceiving even +Clitus to dislike this, and himself thinking it horrid and barbarous, said, +“When we catch that slave, Callimedon, men of Athens, we will put him to the +rack, but I shall make no motion of the kind in Phocion’s case.” Upon which one +of the better citizens remarked, he was quite right; “If we should torture +Phocion, what could we do to you?” So the form of the bill was approved of, and +the show of hands called for; upon which, not one man retaining his seat, but +all rising up, and some with garlands on their heads, they condemned them all +to death. +</p> + +<p> +There were present with Phocion, Nicocles, Thudippus, Hegemon, and Pythocles. +Demetrius the Phalerian, Callimedon, Charicles, and some others, were included +in the condemnation, being absent. +</p> + +<p> +After the assembly was dismissed, they were carried to the prison; the rest +with cries and lamentations, their friends and relatives following; and +clinging about them, but Phocion looking (as men observed with astonishment at +his calmness and magnanimity) just the same as when he had been used to return +to his home attended, as general, from the assembly. His enemies ran along by +his side, reviling and abusing him. And one of them coming up to him, spat in +his face; at which Phocion, turning to the officers, only said, “You should +stop this indecency.” Thudippus, on their reaching the prison, when he observed +the executioner tempering the poison and preparing it for them, gave way to his +passion, and began to bemoan his condition and the hard measure he received, +thus unjustly to suffer with Phocion. “You cannot be contented,” said he, “to +die with Phocion?” One of his friends that stood by, asked him if he wished to +have anything said to his son. “Yes, by all means,” said he, “bid him bear no +grudge against the Athenians.” Then Nicocles, the dearest and most faithful of +his friends, begged to be allowed to drink the poison first. “My friend,” said +he, “you ask what I am loath and sorrowful to give, but as I never yet in all +my life was so thankless as to refuse you, I must gratify you in this also.” +After they had all drunk of it, the poison ran short; and the executioner +refused to prepare more, except they would pay him twelve drachmas, to defray +the cost of the quantity required. Some delay was made, and time spent, when +Phocion called one of his friends, and observing that a man could not even die +at Athens without paying for it, requested him to give the sum. +</p> + +<p> +It was the nineteenth day of the month Munychion, on which it was the usage to +have a solemn procession in the city, in honor of Jupiter. The horsemen, as +they passed by, some of them threw away their garlands, others stopped, +weeping, and casting sorrowful looks towards the prison doors, and all the +citizens whose minds were not absolutely debauched by spite and passion, or who +had any humanity left, acknowledged it to have been most impiously done, not, +at least, to let that day pass, and the city so be kept pure from death and a +public execution at the solemn festival. But as if this triumph had been +insufficient, the malice of Phocion’s enemies went yet further; his dead body +was excluded from burial within the boundaries of the country, and none of the +Athenians could light a funeral pile to burn the corpse; neither durst any of +his friends venture to concern themselves about it. A certain Conopion, a man +who used to do these offices for hire, took the body and carried it beyond +Eleusis, and procuring fire from over the frontier of Megara, burned it. +Phocion’s wife, with her servant-maids, being present and assisting at the +solemnity, raised there an empty tomb, and performed the customary libations, +and gathering up the bones in her lap, and bringing them home by night, dug a +place for them by the fireside in her house, saying, “Blessed hearth, to your +custody I commit the remains of a good and brave man; and, I beseech you, +protect and restore them to the sepulcher of his fathers, when the Athenians +return to their right minds.” +</p> + +<p> +And, indeed, a very little time and their own sad experience soon informed them +what an excellent governor, and how great an example and guardian of justice +and of temperance they had bereft themselves of. And now they decreed him a +statue of brass, and his bones to be buried honorably at the public charge; and +for his accusers, Agnonides they took themselves, and caused him to be put to +death. Epicurus and Demophilus, who fled from the city for fear, his son met +with, and took his revenge upon them. This son of his, we are told, was in +general of an indifferent character, and once, when enamored of a slave girl +kept by a common harlot merchant, happened to hear Theodorus, the atheist, +arguing in the Lyceum, that if it were a good and honorable thing to buy the +freedom of a friend in the masculine, why not also of a friend in the feminine, +if, for example, a master, why not also a mistress? So putting the good +argument and his passion together, he went off and purchased the girl’s +freedom. The death which was thus suffered by Phocion, revived among the Greeks +the memory of that of Socrates, the two cases being so similar, and both +equally the sad fault and misfortune of the city. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap50"></a>CATO THE YOUNGER</h2> + +<p> +The family of Cato derived its first luster from his great-grandfather Cato, +whose virtue gained him such great reputation and authority among the Romans, +as we have written in his life. +</p> + +<p> +This Cato was, by the loss of both his parents, left an orphan, together with +his brother Caepio, and his sister Porcia. He had also a half-sister, Servilia, +by the mother’s side. All these lived together, and were bred up in the house +of Livius Drusus, their uncle by the mother who, at that time, had a great +share in the government, being a very eloquent speaker, a man of the greatest +temperance, and yielding in dignity to none of the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +It is said of Cato, that even from his infancy, in his speech, his countenance, +and all his childish pastimes, he discovered an inflexible temper, unmoved by +any passion, and firm in everything. He was resolute in his purposes, much +beyond the strength of his age, to go through with whatever he undertook. He +was rough and ungentle toward those that flattered him, and still more +unyielding to those who threatened him. It was difficult to excite him to +laughter; his countenance seldom relaxed even into a smile; he was not quickly +or easily provoked to anger, but if once incensed, he was no less difficult to +pacify. +</p> + +<p> +When he began to learn, he proved dull, and slow to apprehend, but of what he +once received, his memory was remarkably tenacious. And such, in fact, we find +generally to be the course of nature; men of fine genius are readily reminded +of things, but those who receive with most pains and difficulty, remember best; +every new thing they learn, being, as it were, burnt and branded in on their +minds. Cato’s natural stubbornness and slowness to be persuaded, may also have +made it more difficult for him to be taught. For to learn, is to submit to have +something done to one; and persuasion comes soonest to those who have least +strength to resist it. Hence young men are sooner persuaded than those that are +more in years, and sick men, than those that are well in health In fine, where +there is least previous doubt and difficulty the new impression is most easily +accepted. Yet Cato, they say, was very obedient to his preceptor, and would do +whatever he was commanded; but he would also ask the reason, and inquire the +cause of everything. And, indeed, his teacher was a very well-bred man, more +ready to instruct, than to beat his scholars. His name was Sarpedon. +</p> + +<p> +When Cato was a child, the allies of the Romans sued to be made free citizens +of Rome. Pompaedius Silo, one of their deputies, a brave soldier, and a man of +great repute, who had contracted a friendship with Drusus, lodged at his house +for several days, in which time being grown familiar with the children, “Well,” +said he to them, “will you entreat your uncle to befriend us in our business?” +Caepio, smiling, assented, but Cato made no answer, only he looked steadfastly +and fiercely on the strangers. Then said Pompaedius, “And you, young sir, what +say you to us? will not you, as well as your brother, intercede with your uncle +in our behalf?” And when Cato continued to give no answer, by his silence and +his countenance seeming to deny their petition, Pompaedius snatched him up to +the window as if he would throw him out, and told him to consent, or he would +fling him down, and, speaking in a harsher tone, held his body out of the +window, and shook him several times. When Cato had suffered this a good while, +unmoved and unalarmed, Pompaedius setting him down, said in an under-voice to +his friend, “What a blessing for Italy, that he is but a child! If he were a +man, I believe we should not gain one voice among the people.” Another time, +one of his relations, on his birthday, invited Cato and some other children to +supper, and some of the company diverted themselves in a separate part of the +house, and were at play, the elder and the younger together, their sport being +to act the pleadings before the judges, accusing one another, and carrying away +the condemned to prison. Among these a very beautiful young child, being bound +and carried by a bigger into prison, cried out to Cato, who seeing what was +going on, presently ran to the door, and thrusting away those who stood there +as guard, took out the child, and went home in anger, followed by some of his +companions. +</p> + +<p> +Cato at length grew so famous among them, that when Sylla designed to exhibit +the sacred game of young men riding courses on horseback, which they called +Troy, having gotten together the youth of good birth, he appointed two for +their leaders. One of them they accepted for his mother’s sake, being the son +of Metella, the wife of Sylla; but as for the other, Sextus, the nephew of +Pompey, they would not be led by him, nor exercise under him. Then Sylla +asking, whom they would have, they all cried out, Cato; and Sextus willingly +yielded the honor to him, as the more worthy. +</p> + +<p> +Sylla, who was a friend of their family, sent at times for Cato and his brother +to see them and talk with them; a favor which he showed to very few, after +gaining his great power and authority. Sarpedon, full of the advantage it would +be, as well for the honor as the safety of his scholars, would often bring Cato +to wait upon Sylla at his house, which, for the multitude of those that were +being carried off in custody, and tormented there, looked like a place of +execution. Cato was then in his fourteenth year, and seeing the heads of men +said to be of great distinction brought thither, and observing the secret sighs +of those that were present, he asked his preceptor, “Why does nobody kill this +man?” “Because,” said he, “they fear him, child, more than they hate him.” +“Why, then,” replied Cato, “did you not give me a sword, that I might stab him, +and free my country from this slavery?” Sarpedon hearing this, and at the same +time seeing his countenance swelling with anger and determination, took care +thenceforward to watch him strictly, lest he should hazard any desperate +attempt. +</p> + +<p> +While he was yet very young, to some that asked him, whom he loved best, he +answered, his brother. And being asked, whom next, he replied, his brother, +again. So likewise the third time, and still the same, till they left off to +ask any further. As he grew in age, this love to his brother grew yet the +stronger. When he was about twenty years old, he never supped, never went out +of town, nor into the forum, without Caepio. But when his brother made use of +precious ointments and perfumes, Cato declined them; and he was, in all his +habits, very strict and austere, so that when Caepio was admired for his +moderation and temperance, he would acknowledge that indeed he might be +accounted such, in comparison with some other men, “but,” said he, “when I +compare myself with Cato, I find myself scarcely different from Sippius,” one +at that time notorious for his luxurious and effeminate living. +</p> + +<p> +Cato being made priest of Apollo, went to another house, took his portion of +their paternal inheritance, amounting to a hundred and twenty talents, and +began to live yet more strictly than before. Having gained the intimate +acquaintance of Antipater the Tyrian, the Stoic philosopher, he devoted himself +to the study, above everything, of moral and political doctrine. And though +possessed, as it were, by a kind of inspiration for the pursuit of every +virtue, yet what most of all virtue and excellence fixed his affection, was +that steady and inflexible Justice, which is not to be wrought upon by favor or +compassion. He learned also the art of speaking and debating in public, +thinking that political philosophy, like a great city, should maintain for its +security the military and warlike element. But he would never recite his +exercises before company, nor was he ever heard to declaim. And to one that +told him, men blamed his silence, “But I hope not my life,” he replied, “I will +begin to speak, when I have that to say which had not better be unsaid.” +</p> + +<p> +The great Porcian Hall, as it was called, had been built and dedicated to the +public use by the old Cato, when aedile. Here the tribunes of the people used +to transact their business, and because one of the pillars was thought to +interfere with the convenience of their seats, they deliberated whether it were +best to remove it to another place, or to take it away. This occasion first +drew Cato, much against his will, into the forum; for he opposed the demand of +the tribunes, and in so doing, gave a specimen both of his courage and his +powers of speaking, which gained him great admiration. His speech had nothing +youthful or refined in it, but was straightforward, full of matter, and rough, +at the same time that there was a certain grace about his rough statements +which won the attention; and the speaker’s character showing itself in all he +said, added to his severe language something that excited feelings of natural +pleasure and interest. His voice was full and sounding, and sufficient to be +heard by so great a multitude, and its vigor and capacity of endurance quite +indefatigable; for he often would speak a whole day, and never stop. +</p> + +<p> +When he had carried this cause, he betook himself again to study and +retirement. He employed himself in inuring his body to labor and violent +exercise; and habituated himself to go bareheaded in the hottest and the +coldest weather, and to walk on foot at all seasons. When he went on a journey +with any of his friends, though they were on horseback and he on foot, yet he +would often join now one, then another, and converse with them on the way. In +sickness, the patience he showed in supporting, and the abstinence he used for +curing his distempers, were admirable. When he had an ague, he would remain +alone, and suffer nobody to see him, till he began to recover, and found the +fit was over. At supper, when he threw dice for the choice of dishes, and lost, +and the company offered him nevertheless his choice, he declined to dispute, as +he said, the decision of Venus. At first, he was wont to drink only once after +supper, and then go away; but in process of time he grew to drink more, +insomuch that oftentimes he would continue till morning. This his friends +explained by saying that state affairs and public business took him up all day, +and being desirous of knowledge, he liked to pass the night at wine in the +conversation of philosophers. Hence, upon one Memmius saying in public, that +Cato spent whole nights in drinking, “You should add,” replied Cicero, “that he +spends whole days in gambling.” And in general Cato esteemed the customs and +manners of men at that time so corrupt, and a reformation in them so necessary, +that he thought it requisite, in many things, to go contrary to the ordinary +way of the world. Seeing the lightest and gayest purple was then most in +fashion, he would always wear that which was nearest black; and he would often +go out of doors, after his morning meal, without either shoes or tunic; not +that he sought vainglory from such novelties, but he would accustom himself to +be ashamed only of what deserves shame, and to despise all other sorts of +disgrace. +</p> + +<p> +The estate of one Cato, his cousin, which was worth one hundred talents, +falling to him, he turned it all into ready money, which he kept by him for any +of his friends that should happen to want, to whom he would lend it without +interest. And for some of them, he suffered his own land and his slaves to be +mortgaged to the public treasury. +</p> + +<p> +When he thought himself of an age fit to marry, having never before known any +woman, he was contracted to Lepida, who had before been contracted to Metellus +Scipio, but on Scipio’s own withdrawal from it, the contract had been +dissolved, and she left at liberty. Yet Scipio afterward repenting himself, did +all he could to regain her, before the marriage with Cato was completed, and +succeeded in so doing. At which Cato was violently incensed, and resolved at +first to go to law about it; but his friends persuaded him to the contrary. +However, he was so moved by the heat of youth and passion, that he wrote a +quantity of iambic verses against Scipio, in the bitter, sarcastic style of +Archilochus, without, however, his license and scurrility. After this, he +married Atilia, the daughter of Soranus, the first, but not the only woman he +ever knew, less happy thus far than Laelius, the friend of Scipio, who in the +whole course of so long a life never knew but the one woman to whom he was +united in his first and only marriage. +</p> + +<p> +In the war of the slaves, which took its name from Spartacus, their ringleader, +Gellius was general, and Cato went a volunteer, for the sake of his brother +Caepio, who was a tribune in the army. Cato could find here no opportunity to +show his zeal or exercise his valor, on account of the ill conduct of the +general. However, amidst the corruption and disorders of that army, he showed +such a love of discipline, so much bravery upon occasion, and so much courage +and wisdom in everything, that it appeared he was no way inferior to the old +Cato. Gellius offered him great rewards, and would have decreed him the first +honors; which, however, he refused, saying, he had done nothing that deserved +them. This made him be thought a man of a strange and eccentric temper. +</p> + +<p> +There was a law passed, moreover, that the candidates who stood for any office +should not have prompters in their canvass, to tell them the names of the +citizens; and Cato, when he sued to be elected tribune, was the only man that +obeyed this law. He took great pains to learn by his own knowledge to salute +those he had to speak with, and to call them by their names; yet even those who +praised him for this, did not do so without some envy and jealousy, for the +more they considered the excellence of what he did, the more they were grieved +at the difficulty they found to do the like. +</p> + +<p> +Being chosen tribune, he was sent into Macedon to join Rubrius, who was general +there. It is said that his wife showing much concern, and weeping at his +departure, Munatius, one of Cato’s friends, said to her, “Do not trouble +yourself, Atilia, I will engage to watch over him for you.” “By all means,” +replied Cato; and when they had gone one day’s journey together, “Now,” said he +to Munatius, after they had supped, “that you may be sure to keep your promise +to Atilia, you must not leave me day nor night,” and from that time, he ordered +two beds to be made in his own chamber, that Munatius might lie there. And so +he continued to do, Cato making it his jest to see that he was always there. +There went with him fifteen slaves, two freedmen, and four of his friends; +these rode on horseback, but Cato always went on foot, yet would he keep by +them, and talk with each of them in turn, as they went. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to the army, which consisted of several legions, the general gave +him the command of one; and as he looked upon it as a small matter, and not +worthy a commander, to give evidence of his own single valor, he resolved to +make his soldiers, as far as he could, like himself, not, however, in this, +relaxing the terrors of his office, but associating reason with his authority. +He persuaded and instructed every one in particular, and bestowed rewards or +punishments according to desert; and at length his men were so well +disciplined, that it was hard to say, whether they were more peaceable, or more +warlike, more valiant, or more just; they were alike formidable to their +enemies and courteous to their allies, fearful to do wrong, and forward to gain +honor. And Cato himself acquired in the fullest measure, what it had been his +least desire to seek, glory and good repute; he was highly esteemed by all men, +and entirely beloved by the soldiers. Whatever he commanded to be done, he +himself took part in the performing; in his apparel, his diet and mode of +traveling, he was more like a common soldier than an officer; but in character, +high purpose, and wisdom, he far exceeded all that had the names and titles of +commanders, and he made himself, without knowing it, the object of general +affection. For the true love of virtue is in all men produced by the love and +respect they bear to him that teaches it; and those who praise good men, yet do +not love them, may respect their reputation, but do not really admire, and will +never imitate their virtue. +</p> + +<p> +There dwelt at that time in Pergamus, Athenodorus, surnamed Cordylio, a man of +high repute for his knowledge of the stoic philosophy, who was now grown old, +and had always steadily refused the friendship and acquaintance of princes and +great men. Cato understood this; so that imagining he should not be able to +prevail with him by sending or writing, and being by the laws allowed two +months’ absence from the army, he resolved to go into Asia to see him in +person, trusting to his own good qualities not to lose his labor. And when he +had conversed with him, and succeeded in persuading him out of his former +resolutions, he returned and brought him to the camp, as joyful and as proud of +this victory as if he had done some heroic exploit, greater than any of those +of Pompey or Lucullus, who, with their armies, at that time were subduing so +many nations and kingdoms. +</p> + +<p> +While Cato was yet in the service, his brother, on a journey towards Asia, fell +sick at Aenus in Thrace, letters with intelligence of which were immediately +dispatched to him. The sea was very rough, and no convenient ship of any size +to be had; so Cato, getting into a small trading-vessel, with only two of his +friends and three servants, set sail from Thessalonica, and having very +narrowly escaped drowning, he arrived at Aenus just as Caepio expired. Upon +this occasion, he was thought to have showed himself more a fond brother than a +philosopher, not only in the excess of his grief, bewailing, and embracing the +dead body, but also in the extravagant expenses of the funeral, the vast +quantity of rich perfumes and costly garments which were burnt with the corpse, +and the monument of Thasian marble, which he erected, at the cost of eight +talents, in the public place of the town of Aenus. For there were some who took +upon them to cavil at all this, as not consistent with his usual calmness and +moderation, not discerning that though he were steadfast, firm, and inflexible +to pleasure, fear, or foolish entreaties, yet he was full of natural tenderness +and brotherly affection. Divers of the cities and princes of the country, sent +him many presents, to honor the funeral of his brother; but he took none of +their money, only the perfumes and ornaments he received, and paid for them +also. And afterwards, when the inheritance was divided between him and Caepio’s +daughter, he did not require any portion of the funeral expenses to be +discharged out of it. Notwithstanding this, it has been affirmed that he made +his brother’s ashes be passed through a sieve, to find the gold that was melted +down when burnt with the body. But he who made this statement appears to have +anticipated an exemption for his pen, as much as for his sword, from all +question and criticism. +</p> + +<p> +The time of Cato’s service in the army being expired, he received, at his +departure, not only the prayers and praises, but the tears, and embraces of the +soldiers, who spread their clothes at his feet, and kissed his hand as he +passed, an honor which the Romans at that time scarcely paid even to a very few +of their generals and commander-in-chief. Having left the army, he resolved, +before he would return home and apply himself to state affairs, to travel in +Asia, and observe the manners, the customs, and the strength of every province. +He was also unwilling to refuse the kindness of Deiotarus, king of Galatia, who +having had great familiarity and friendship with his father, was very desirous +to receive a visit from him. Cato’s arrangements in his journey were as +follows. Early in the morning he sent out his baker and his cook towards the +place where he designed to stay the next night; these went soberly and quietly +into the town, in which, if there happened to be no friend or acquaintance of +Cato or his family, they provided for him in an inn, and gave no disturbance to +anybody; but if there were no inn, then and in this case only, they went to the +magistrates, and desiring them to help them to lodgings, took without complaint +whatever was allotted to them. His servants thus behaving themselves towards +the magistrates, without noise and threatening, were often discredited, or +neglected by them, so that Cato many times arrived and found nothing provided +for him. And it was all the worse when he appeared himself; still less account +was taken of him. When they saw him sitting, without saying anything, on his +baggage, they set him down at once as a person of no consequence, who did not +venture to make any demand. Sometimes, on such occasions, he would call them to +him and tell them, “Foolish people, lay aside this inhospitality. All your +visitors will not be Catos. Use your courtesy, to take off the sharp edge of +power. There are men enough who desire but a pretense, to take from you by +force, what you give with such reluctance.” +</p> + +<p> +While he traveled in this manner, a diverting accident befell him in Syria. As +he was going into Antioch, he saw a great multitude of people outside the +gates, ranged in order on either side the way; here the young men with long +cloaks, there the children decently dressed; others wore garlands and white +garments, who were the priests and magistrates. Cato, imagining all this could +mean nothing but a display in honor of his reception, began to be angry with +his servants who had been sent before, for suffering it to be done; then making +his friends alight, he walked along with them on foot. As soon as he came near +the gate, an elderly man, who seemed to be master of these ceremonies, with a +wand and a garland in his hand, came up to Cato, and without saluting him, +asked him, where he had left Demetrius, and how soon he thought he would be +there. This Demetrius was Pompey’s servant, and as at this time the whole +world, so to say, had its eyes fixed upon Pompey, this man also was highly +honored, on account of his influence with his master. Upon this, Cato’s friends +fell into such violent laughter, that they could not restrain themselves while +they passed through the crowd; and he himself, ashamed and distressed, uttered +the words, “Unfortunate city!” and said no more. Afterwards, however, it always +made him laugh, when he either told the story or was otherwise reminded of it. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey himself shortly after made the people ashamed of their ignorance and +folly in thus neglecting him, for Cato, coming in his journey to Ephesus, went +to pay his respects to him, who was the elder man, had gained much honor, and +was then general of a great army. Yet Pompey would not receive him sitting, but +as soon as he saw him, rose up, and going to meet him, as the more honorable +person, gave him his hand, and embraced him with great show of kindness. He +said much in commendation of his virtue, both at that time when receiving him, +and also yet more, after he had withdrawn. So that now all men began at once to +display their respect for Cato, and discovered in the very same things for +which they despised him before, an admirable mildness of temper, and greatness +of spirit. And indeed the civility that Pompey himself showed him, appeared to +come from one that rather respected than loved him; and the general opinion +was, that while Cato was there, he paid him admiration, but was not sorry when +he was gone. For when other young men came to see him, he usually urged and +entreated them to continue with him. Now he did not at all invite Cato to stay, +but as if his own power were lessened by the other’s presence, he very +willingly allowed him to take his leave. Yet to Cato alone, of all those who +went for Rome, he recommended his children and his wife, who was indeed +connected by relationship with Cato. +</p> + +<p> +After this, all the cities through which he passed, strove and emulated each +other in showing him respect and honor. Feasts and entertainments were made for +his reception, so that he bade his friends keep strict watch and take care of +him, lest he should end by making good what was said by Curio, who though he +were his familial friend, yet disliking the austerity of his temper, asked him +one day, if when he left the army, he designed to see Asia, and Cato answering, +“Yes, by all means,” “You do well,” replied Curio, “you will bring back with +you a better temper and pleasanter manners;” pretty nearly the very words he +used. +</p> + +<p> +Deiotarus being now an old man, had sent for Cato, to recommend his children +and family to his protection; and as soon as he came, brought him presents of +all sorts of things, which he begged and entreated him to accept. And his +importunities displeased Cato so much, that though he came but in the evening, +he stayed only that night, and went away early the next morning. After he was +gone one day’s journey, he found at Pessinus a yet greater quantity of presents +provided for him there, and also letters from Deiotarus, entreating him to +receive them, or at least to permit his friends to take them, who for his sake +deserved some gratification, and could not have much done for them out of +Cato’s own means. Yet he would not suffer it, though he saw some of them very +willing to receive such gifts, and ready to complain of his severity; but he +answered, that corruption would never want pretense, and his friends should +share with him in whatever he should justly and honestly obtain, and so +returned the presents to Deiotarus. +</p> + +<p> +When he took ship for Brundusium, his friends would have persuaded him to put +his brother’s ashes into another vessel; but he said, he would sooner part with +his life than leave them, and so set sail. And as it chanced, he, we are told, +had a very dangerous passage, though others at the same time went over safely +enough. +</p> + +<p> +After he was returned to Rome, he spent his time for the most part either at +home, in conversation with Athenodorus, or at the forum, in the service of his +friends. Though it was now the time that he should become quaestor, he would +not stand for the place till he had studied the laws relating to it, and by +inquiry from persons of experience, had attained a distinct understanding of +the duty and authority belonging to it. With this knowledge, as soon as he came +into the office, he made a great reformation among the clerks and +under-officers of the treasury, people who had long practice and familiarity in +all the public records and the laws, and, when new magistrates came in year by +year, so ignorant and unskillful as to be in absolute need of others to teach +them what to do, did not submit and give way, but kept the power in their own +hands, and were in effect the treasurers themselves. Till Cato, applying +himself roundly to the work, showed that he possessed not only the title and +honor of a quaestor, but the knowledge and understanding and full authority of +his office. So that he used the clerks and under-officers like servants, as +they were, exposing their corrupt practices, and instructing their ignorance. +Being bold impudent fellows, they flattered the other quaestors, his +colleagues, and by their means endeavored to maintain an opposition against +him. But he convicted the chiefest of them of a breach of trust in the charge +of an inheritance, and turned him out of his place. A second he brought to +trial for dishonesty, who was defended by Lutatius Catulus, at that time +censor, a man very considerable for his office, but yet more for his character, +as he was eminent above all the Romans of that age for his reputed wisdom and +integrity. He was also intimate with Cato, and much commended his way of +living. So perceiving he could not bring off his client, if he stood a fair +trial, he openly began to beg him off. Cato objected to his doing this. And +when he continued still to be importunate, “It would be shameful, Catulus,” he +said, “that the censor, the judge of all our lives, should incur the dishonor +of removal by our officers.” At this expression, Catalus looked as if he would +have made some answer; but he said nothing, and either through anger or shame +went away silent, and out of countenance. Nevertheless, the man was not found +guilty, for the voices that acquitted him were but one in number less than +those that condemned him, and Marcus Lollius, one of Cato’s colleagues, who was +absent by reason of sickness, was sent for by Catalus, and entreated to come +and save the man. So Lollius was brought into court in a chair, and gave his +voice also for acquitting him. Yet Cato never after made use of that clerk, and +never paid him his salary, nor would he make any account of the vote given by +Lollius. Having thus humbled the clerks, and brought them to be at command, he +made use of the books and registers as he thought fit, and in a little while +gained the treasury a higher name than the Senate-house itself; and all men +said, Cato had made the office of a quaestor equal to the dignity of a consul. +When he found many indebted to the state upon old accounts, and the state also +in debt to many private persons, he took care that the public might no longer +either do or suffer wrong; he strictly and punctually exacted what was due to +the treasury, and as freely and speedily paid all those to whom it was +indebted. So that the people were filled with sentiments of awe and respect, on +seeing those made to pay, who thought to have escaped with their plunder, and +others receiving all their due, who despaired of getting anything. And whereas +usually those who brought false bills and pretended orders of the senate, could +through favor get them accepted, Cato would never be so imposed upon, and in +the case of one particular order, question arising, whether it had passed the +senate, he would not believe a great many witnesses that attested it, nor would +admit of it, till the consuls came and affirmed it upon oath. +</p> + +<p> +There were at that time a great many whom Sylla had made use of as his agents +in the proscription, and to whom he had for their service in putting men to +death, given twelve thousand drachmas apiece. These men everybody hated as +wicked and polluted wretches, but nobody durst be revenged upon them. Cato +called everyone to account, as wrongfully possessed of the public money, and +exacted it of them, and at the same time sharply reproved them for their +unlawful and impious actions. After these proceedings, they were presently +accused of murder, and being already in a manner prejudged as guilty, they were +easily found so, and accordingly suffered; at which the whole people rejoiced, +and thought themselves now to see the old tyranny finally abolished, and Sylla +himself, so to say, brought to punishment. +</p> + +<p> +Cato’s assiduity also, and indefatigable diligence, won very much upon the +people. He always came first of any of his colleagues to the treasury, and went +away the last. He never missed any assembly of the people, or sitting of the +senate; being always anxious and on the watch for those who lightly, or as a +matter of interest, passed votes in favor of this or that person, for remitting +debts or granting away customs that were owing to the state. And at length, +having kept the exchequer pure and clear from base informers, and yet having +filled it with treasure, he made it appear the state might be rich, without +oppressing the people. At first he excited feelings of dislike and irritation +in some of his colleagues, but after a while they were well contented with him, +since he was perfectly willing that they should cast all the odium on him, when +they declined to gratify their friends with the public money, or to give +dishonest judgments in passing their accounts; and when hard pressed by +suitors, they could readily answer it was impossible to do anything, unless +Cato would consent. On the last day of his office, he was honorably attended to +his house by almost all the people; but on the way he was informed that several +powerful friends were in the treasury with Marcellus, using all their interest +with him to pass a certain debt to the public revenue, as if it had been a +gift. Marcellus had been one of Cato’s friends from his childhood, and so long +as Cato was with him, was one of the best of his colleagues in this office, but +when alone, was unable to resist the importunity of suitors, and prone to do +anybody a kindness. So Cato immediately turned back, and finding that Marcellus +had yielded to pass the thing, he took the book, and while Marcellus silently +stood by and looked on, struck it out. This done, he brought Marcellus out of +the treasury, and took him home with him; who for all this, neither then, nor +ever after, complained of him, but always continued his friendship and +familiarity with him. +</p> + +<p> +Cato after he had laid down his office, yet did not cease to keep a watch upon +the treasury. He had his servants who continually wrote out the details of the +expenditure, and he himself kept always by him certain books, which contained +the accounts of the revenue from Sylla’s time to his own quaestorship, which he +had bought for five talents. +</p> + +<p> +He was always first at the senate, and went out last; and often, while the +others were slowly collecting, he would sit and read by himself, holding his +gown before his book. He was never once out of town when the senate was to +meet. And when afterwards Pompey and his party, finding that he could never be +either persuaded or compelled to favor their unjust designs, endeavored to keep +him from the senate, by engaging him in business for his friends, to plead +their causes, or arbitrate in their differences, or the like, he quickly +discovered the trick, and to defeat it, fairly told all his acquaintance that +he would never meddle in any private business when the senate was assembled. +Since it was not in the hope of gaining honor or riches, nor out of mere +impulse, or by chance that he engaged himself in politics, but he undertook the +service of the state, as the proper business of an honest man, and therefore he +thought himself obliged to be as constant to his public duty, as the bee to the +honeycomb. To this end, he took care to have his friends and correspondents +everywhere, to send him reports of the edicts, decrees, judgments, and all the +important proceedings that passed in any of the provinces. Once when Clodius, +the seditious orator, to promote his violent and revolutionary projects, +traduced to the people some of the priests and priestesses, (among whom Fabia, +sister to Cicero’s wife, Terentia, ran great danger,) Cato, having boldly +interfered, and having made Clodius appear so infamous that he was forced to +leave the town, was addressed, when it was over, by Cicero, who came to thank +him for what he had done. “You must thank the commonwealth,” said he, for whose +sake alone he professed to do everything. Thus he gained a great and wonderful +reputation; so that an advocate in a cause, where there was only one witness +against him, told the judges they ought not to rely upon a single witness, +though it were Cato himself. And it was a sort of proverb with many people, if +any very unlikely and incredible thing were asserted, to say, they would not +believe it, though Cato himself should affirm it. One day a debauched and +sumptuous liver talking in the senate about frugality and temperance, Amnaeus +standing up, cried, “Who can endure this, Sir, to have you feast like Crassus, +build like Lucullus and talk like Cato.” So likewise those who were vicious and +dissolute in their manners, yet affected to be grave and severe in their +language, were in derision called Catos. +</p> + +<p> +At first, when his friends would have persuaded him to stand to be tribune of +the people, he thought it undesirable; for that the power of so great an office +ought to be reserved, as the strongest medicines, for occasions of the last +necessity. But afterwards in a vacation time, as he was going, accompanied with +his books and philosophers, to Lucania, where he had lands with a pleasant +residence, they met by the way a great many horses, carriages, and attendants, +of whom they understood, that Metellus Nepos was going to Rome, to stand to be +tribune of the people. Hereupon Cato stopped, and after a little pause, gave +orders to return back immediately; at which the company seeming to wonder, +“Don’t you know,” said he, “how dangerous of itself the madness of Metellus is? +and now that he comes armed with the support of Pompey, he will fall like +lightning on the state, and bring it to utter disorder; therefore this is no +time for idleness and diversion, but we must go and prevent this man in his +designs, or bravely die in defense of our liberty.” Nevertheless, by the +persuasion of his friends, he went first to his country-house, where he stayed +but a very little time, and then returned to town. +</p> + +<p> +He arrived in the evening, and went straight the next morning to the forum, +where he began to solicit for the tribuneship, in opposition to Metellus. The +power of this office consists rather in controlling, than performing any +business; for though all the rest except any one tribune should be agreed, yet +his denial or intercession could put a stop to the whole matter. Cato, at +first, had not many that appeared for him; but as soon as his design was known, +all the good and distinguished persons of the city quickly came forward to +encourage and support him, looking upon him, not as one that desired a favor of +them, but one that proposed to do a great favor to his country and all honest +men; who had many times refused the same office, when he might have had it +without trouble, but now sought it with danger, that he might defend their +liberty and their government. It is reported that so great a number flocked +about him, that he was like to be stifled amidst the press, and could scarce +get through the crowd. He was declared tribune, with several others, among whom +was Metellus. +</p> + +<p> +When Cato was chosen into this office, observing that the election of consuls +was become a matter of purchase, he sharply rebuked the people for this +corruption, and in the conclusion of his speech protested, he would bring to +trial whomever he should find giving money, making an exception only in the +case of Silanus, on account of their near connection, he having married +Servilia, Cato’s sister. He therefore did not prosecute him, but accused Lucius +Murena, who had been chosen consul by corrupt means with Silanus. There was a +law that the party accused might appoint a person to keep watch upon his +accuser, that he might know fairly what means he took in preparing the +accusation. He that was set upon Cato by Murena, at first followed and observed +him strictly, yet never found him dealing any way unfairly or insidiously, but +always generously and candidly going on in the just and open methods of +proceeding. And he so admired Cato’s great spirit, and so entirely trusted to +his integrity, that meeting him in the forum, or going to his house, he would +ask him, if he designed to do anything that day in order to the accusation, and +if Cato said no, he went away, relying on his word. When the cause was pleaded, +Cicero, who was then consul and defended Murena, took occasion to be extremely +witty and jocose, in reference to Cato, upon the stoic philosophers, and their +paradoxes, as they call them, and so excited great laughter among the judges; +upon which Cato, smiling, said to the standers by, “What a pleasant consul we +have, my friends.” Murena was acquitted, and afterwards showed himself a man of +no ill feeling or want of sense; for when he was consul, he always took Cato’s +advice in the most weighty affairs, and during all the time of his office, paid +him much honor and respect. Of which not only Murena’s prudence, but also +Cato’s own behavior, was the cause; for though he were terrible and severe as +to matters of justice, in the senate, and at the bar, yet after the thing was +over, his manner to all men was perfectly friendly and humane. +</p> + +<p> +Before he entered on the office of tribune, he assisted Cicero, at that time +consul, in many contests that concerned his office, but most especially in his +great and noble acts at the time of Catiline’s conspiracy, which owed their +last successful issue to Cato. Catiline had plotted a dreadful and entire +subversion of the Roman state by sedition and open war, but being convicted by +Cicero, was forced to fly the city. Yet Lentulus and Cethegus remained with +several others, to carry on the same plot; and blaming Catiline, as one that +wanted courage, and had been timid and petty in his designs, they themselves +resolved to set the whole town on fire, and utterly to overthrow the empire, +rousing whole nations to revolt and exciting foreign wars. But the design was +discovered by Cicero, (as we have written in his life,) and the matter brought +before the senate. Silanus, who spoke first, delivered his opinion, that the +conspirators ought to suffer the last of punishments, and was therein followed +by all who spoke after him; till it came to Caesar, who being an excellent +speaker, and looking upon all changes and commotions in the state as materials +useful for his own purposes, desired rather to increase than extinguish them; +and standing up, he made a very merciful and persuasive speech, that they ought +not to suffer death without fair trial according to law, and moved that they +might be kept in prison. Thus was the house almost wholly turned by Caesar, +apprehending also the anger of the people; insomuch that even Silanus +retracted, and said he did not mean to propose death, but imprisonment, for +that was the utmost a Roman could suffer. Upon this they were all inclined to +the milder and more merciful opinion, when Cato standing up, began at once with +great passion and vehemence to reproach Silanus for his change of opinion, and +to attack Caesar, who would, he said, ruin the commonwealth by soft words and +popular speeches, and was endeavoring to frighten the senate, when he himself +ought to fear, and be thankful, if he escaped unpunished or unsuspected, who +thus openly and boldly dared to protect the enemies of the state, and while +finding no compassion for his own native country, brought, with all its +glories, so near to utter ruin, could yet be full of pity for those men, who +had better never have been born, and whose death must deliver the commonwealth +from bloodshed and destruction. This only of all Cato’s speeches, it is said, +was preserved; for Cicero, the consul, had disposed, in various parts of the +senate-house, several of the most expert and rapid writers, whom he had taught +to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes; as up to that +time they had not used those we call short-hand writers, who then, as it is +said, established the first example of the art. Thus Cato carried it, and so +turned the house again, that it was decreed the conspirators should be put to +death. +</p> + +<p> +Not to omit any small matters that may serve to show Cato’s temper, and add +something to the portraiture of his mind, it is reported, that while Caesar and +he were in the very heat, and the whole senate regarding them two, a little +note was brought in to Caesar, which Cato declared to be suspicious, and urging +that some seditious act was going on, bade the letter be read. Upon which +Caesar handed the paper to Cato; who discovering it to be a love-letter from +his sister Servilia to Caesar, by whom she had been corrupted, threw it to him +again, saying, “Take it, drunkard,” and so went on with his discourse. And, +indeed, it seems Cato had but ill-fortune in women; for this lady was ill +spoken of, for her familiarity with Caesar, and the other Servilia, Cato’s +sister also, was yet more ill-conducted; for being married to Lucullus, one of +the greatest men in Rome, and having brought him a son, she was afterwards +divorced for incontinency. But what was worst of all, Cato’s own wife Atilia +was not free from the same fault; and after she had borne him two children, he +was forced to put her away for her misconduct. After that he married Marcia, +the daughter of Philippus, a woman of good reputation, who yet has occasioned +much discourse; and the life of Cato, like a dramatic piece, has this one scene +or passage full of perplexity and doubtful meaning. +</p> + +<p> +It is thus related by Thrasea, who refers to the authority of Munatius, Cato’s +friend and constant companion. Among many that loved and admired Cato, some +were more remarkable and conspicuous than others. Of these was Quintus +Hortensius, a man of high repute and approved virtue, who desired not only to +live in friendship and familiarity with Cato, but also to unite his whole house +and family with him by some sort or other of alliance in marriage. Therefore he +set himself to persuade Cato, that his daughter Porcia, who was already married +to Bibulus, and had borne him two children, might nevertheless be given to him, +as a fair plot of land, to bear fruit also for him. “For,” said he, “though +this in the opinion of men may seem strange, yet in nature it is honest, and +profitable for the public, that a woman in the prime of her youth should not +lie useless, and lose the fruit of her womb, nor, on the other side, should +burden and impoverish one man, by bringing him too many children. Also by this +communication of families among worthy men, virtue would increase, and be +diffused through their posterity; and the commonwealth would be united and +cemented by their alliances.” Yet if Bibulus would not part with his wife +altogether, he would restore her as soon as she had brought him a child, +whereby he might be united to both their families. Cato answered, that he loved +Hortensius very well, and much approved of uniting their houses, but he thought +it strange to speak of marrying his daughter, when she was already given to +another. Then Hortensius, turning the discourse, did not hesitate to speak +openly and ask for Cato’s own wife, for she was young and fruitful, and he had +already children enough. Neither can it be thought that Hortensius did this, as +imagining Cato did not care for Marcia; for, it is said, she was then with +child. Cato, perceiving his earnest desire, did not deny his request, but said +that Philippus, the father of Marcia, ought also to be consulted. Philippus, +therefore, being sent for, came; and finding they were well agreed, gave his +daughter Marcia to Hortensius in the presence of Cato, who himself also +assisted at the marriage. This was done at a later time, but since I was +speaking of women, I thought it well to mention it now. +</p> + +<p> +Lentulus and the rest of the conspirators were put to death, but Caesar, +finding so much insinuated and charged against him in the senate, betook +himself to the people, and proceeded to stir up the most corrupt and dissolute +elements of the state to form a party in his support. Cato, apprehensive of +what might ensue, persuaded the senate to win over the poor and unprovided-for +multitude, by a distribution of corn, the annual charge of which amounted to +twelve hundred and fifty talents. This act of humanity and kindness +unquestionably dissipated the present danger. But Metellus, coming into his +office of tribune, began to hold tumultuous assemblies, and had prepared a +decree, that Pompey the Great should presently be called into Italy, with all +his forces, to preserve the city from the danger of Catiline’s conspiracy. This +was the fair pretense; but the true design was, to deliver all into the hands +of Pompey, and give him an absolute power. Upon this the senate was assembled, +and Cato did not fall sharply upon Metellus, as he often did, but urged his +advice in the most reasonable and moderate tone. At last he descended even to +entreaty, and extolled the house of Metellus, as having always taken part with +the nobility. At this Metellus grew the more insolent, and despising Cato, as +if he yielded and were afraid, let himself proceed to the most audacious +menaces, openly threatening to do whatever he pleased in spite of the senate. +Upon this Cato changed his countenance, his voice, and his language; and after +many sharp expressions, boldly concluded, that while he lived, Pompey should +never come armed into the city. The senate thought them both extravagant, and +not well in their safe senses; for the design of Metellus seemed to be mere +rage and frenzy, out of excess of mischief bringing all things to ruin and +confusion, and Cato’s virtue looked like a kind of ecstasy of contention in the +cause of what was good and just. +</p> + +<p> +But when the day came for the people to give their voices for the passing this +decree, and Metellus beforehand occupied the forum with armed men, strangers, +gladiators, and slaves, those that in hopes of change followed Pompey, were +known to be no small part of the people, and besides, they had great assistance +from Caesar, who was then praetor; and though the best and chiefest men of the +city were no less offended at these proceedings than Cato, they seemed rather +likely to suffer with him, than able to assist him. In the meantime Cato’s +whole family were in extreme fear and apprehension for him; some of his friends +neither ate nor slept all the night, passing the whole time in debating and +perplexity; his wife and sisters also bewailed and lamented him. But he +himself, void of all fear, and full of assurance, comforted and encouraged them +by his own words and conversation with them. After supper he went to rest at +his usual hour, and was the next day waked out of a profound sleep by Minucius +Thermus, one of his colleagues. So soon as he was up, they two went together +into the forum, accompanied by very few, but met by a great many, who bade them +have a care of themselves. Cato, therefore, when he saw the temple of Castor +and Pollux encompassed with armed men, and the steps guarded by gladiators, and +at the top Metellus and Caesar seated together, turning to his friends, +“Behold,” said he, “this audacious coward, who has levied a regiment of +soldiers against one unarmed naked man;” and so he went on with Thermus. Those +who kept the passages, gave way to these two only, and would not let anybody +else pass. Yet Cato taking Munatius by the hand, with much difficulty pulled +him through along with him. Then going directly to Metellus and Caesar, he sat +himself down between them, to prevent their talking to one another, at which +they were both amazed and confounded. And those of the honest party, observing +the countenance, and admiring the high spirit and boldness of Cato, went +nearer, and cried out to him to have courage, exhorting also one another to +stand together, and not betray their liberty, nor the defender of it. +</p> + +<p> +Then the clerk took out the bill, but Cato forbade him to read it, whereupon +Metellus took it, and would have read it himself, but Cato snatched away the +book. Yet Metellus having the decree by heart, began to recite it without book; +but Thermus put his hand to his mouth, and stopped his speech. Metellus seeing +them fully bent to withstand him, and the people cowed, and inclining to the +better side, sent to his house for armed men. And on their rushing in with +great noise and terror, all the rest dispersed and ran away, except Cato, who +alone stood still, while the other party threw sticks and stones at him from +above, until Murena, whom he had formerly accused, came up to protect him, and +holding his gown before him, cried out to them to leave off throwing; and, in +fine, persuading and pulling him along, he forced him into the temple of Castor +and Pollux. Metellus now seeing the place clear, and all the adverse party fled +out of the forum, thought he might easily carry his point; so he commanded the +soldiers to retire, and recommencing in an orderly manner, began to proceed to +passing the decree. But the other side having recovered themselves, returned +very boldly, and with loud shouting, insomuch that Metellus’s adherents were +seized with a panic, supposing them to be coming with a reinforcement of armed +men, and fled every one out of the place. They being thus dispersed, Cato came +in again, and confirmed the courage, and commended the resolution of the +people; so that now the majority were, by all means, for deposing Metellus from +his office. The senate also being assembled, gave orders once more for +supporting Cato, and resisting the motion, as of a nature to excite sedition +and perhaps civil war in the city. +</p> + +<p> +But Metellus continued still very bold and resolute; and seeing his party stood +greatly in fear of Cato, whom they looked upon as invincible, he hurried out of +the senate into the forum, and assembled the people, to whom he made a bitter +and invidious speech against Cato, crying out, he was forced to fly from his +tyranny, and this conspiracy against Pompey; that the city would soon repent +their having dishonored so great a man. And from hence he started to go to +Asia, with the intention, as would be supposed, of laying before Pompey all the +injuries that were done him. Cato was highly extolled for having delivered the +state from this dangerous tribuneship, and having in some measure defeated, in +the person of Metellus, the power of Pompey; but he was yet more commended +when, upon the senate proceeding to disgrace Metellus and depose him from his +office, he altogether opposed and at length diverted the design. The common +people admired his moderation and humanity, in not trampling wantonly on an +enemy whom he had overthrown, and wiser men acknowledged his prudence and +policy, in not exasperating Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +Lucullus soon after returned from the war in Asia, the finishing of which, and +thereby the glory of the whole, was thus, in all appearance, taken out of his +hands by Pompey. And he was also not far from losing his triumph, for Caius +Memmius traduced him to the people, and threatened to accuse him; rather, +however, out of love to Pompey, than for any particular enmity to him. But +Cato, being allied to Lucullus, who had married his sister Servilia, and also +thinking it a great injustice, opposed Memmius, thereby exposing himself to +much slander and misrepresentation, insomuch that they would have turned him +out of his office, pretending that he used his power tyrannically. Yet at +length Cato so far prevailed against Memmius, that he was forced to let fall +the accusations, and abandon the contest. And Lucullus having thus obtained his +triumph, yet more sedulously cultivated Cato’s friendship, which he looked upon +as a great guard and defense for him against Pompey’s power. +</p> + +<p> +And now Pompey also returning with glory from the war, and confiding in the +good-will of the people, shown in their splendid reception of him, thought he +should be denied nothing, and sent therefore to the senate to put off the +assembly for the election of consuls, till he could be present to assist Piso, +who stood for that office. To this most of the senators were disposed to yield; +Cato, only, not so much thinking that this delay would be of great importance, +but, desiring to cut down at once Pompey’s high expectations and designs, +withstood his request, and so overruled the senate, that it was carried against +him. And this not a little disturbed Pompey, who found he should very often +fail in his projects, unless he could bring over Cato to his interest. He sent, +therefore, for Munatius, his friend; and Cato having two nieces that were +marriageable, he offered to marry the eldest himself, and take the youngest for +his son. Some say they were not his nieces, but his daughters. Munatius +proposed the matter to Cato, in presence of his wife and sisters; the women +were full of joy at the prospect of an alliance with so great and important a +person. But Cato, without delay or balancing, forming his decision at once, +answered, “Go, Munatius, go and tell Pompey, that Cato is not assailable on the +side of the women’s chamber; I am grateful indeed for the intended kindness, +and so long as his actions are upright, I promise him a friendship more sure +than any marriage alliance, but I will not give hostages to Pompey’s glory, +against my country’s safety.” This answer was very much against the wishes of +the women, and to all his friends it seemed somewhat harsh and haughty. But +afterwards, when Pompey, endeavoring to get the consulship for one of his +friends, gave pay to the people for their votes, and the bribery was notorious, +the money being counted out in Pompey’s own gardens, Cato then said to the +women, they must necessarily have been concerned in the contamination of these +misdeeds of Pompey, if they had been allied to his family; and they +acknowledged that he did best in refusing it. Yet if we may judge by the event, +Cato was much to blame in rejecting that alliance, which thereby fell to +Caesar. And then that match was made, which, uniting his and Pompey’s power, +had well-nigh ruined the Roman empire, and did destroy the commonwealth. +Nothing of which perhaps had come to pass, but that Cato was too apprehensive +of Pompey’s least faults, and did not consider how he forced him into +conferring on another man the opportunity of committing the greatest. +</p> + +<p> +These things, however, were yet to come. Lucullus, meantime, and Pompey, had a +great dispute concerning their orders and arrangements in Pontus, each +endeavoring that his own ordinances might stand. Cato took part with Lucullus, +who was manifestly suffering wrong; and Pompey, finding himself the weaker in +the senate, had recourse to the people, and to gain votes, he proposed a law +for dividing the lands among the soldiers. Cato opposing him in this also, made +the bill be rejected. Upon this he joined himself with Clodius, at that time +the most violent of all the demagogues; and entered also into friendship with +Caesar, upon an occasion of which also Cato was the cause. For Caesar returning +from his government in Spain, at the same time sued to be chosen consul, and +yet desired not to lose his triumph. Now the law requiring that those who stood +for any office should be present, and yet that whoever expected a triumph +should continue without the walls, Caesar requested the senate, that his +friends might be permitted to canvass for him in his absence. Many of the +senators were willing to consent to it, but Cato opposed it, and perceiving +them inclined to favor Caesar, spent the whole day in speaking, and so +prevented the senate from coming to any conclusion. Caesar, therefore, +resolving to let fall his pretensions to the triumph, came into the town, and +immediately made a friendship with Pompey, and stood for the consulship. And so +soon as he was declared consul elect, he married his daughter Julia to Pompey. +And having thus combined themselves together against the commonwealth, the one +proposed laws for dividing the lands among the poor people, and the other was +present to support the proposals Lucullus, Cicero, and their friends, joined +with Bibulus, the other consul, to hinder their passing, and, foremost of them +all, Cato, who already looked upon the friendship and alliance of Pompey and +Caesar as very dangerous, and declared he did not so much dislike the advantage +the people should get by this division of the lands, as he feared the reward +these men would gain, by thus courting and cozening the people. And in this he +gained over the senate to his opinion, as likewise many who were not senators, +who were offended at Caesar’s ill conduct, that he, in the office of consul, +should thus basely and dishonorably flatter the people; practicing, to win +their favor, the same means that were wont to be used only by the most rash and +rebellious tribunes. Caesar, therefore, and his party, fearing they should not +carry it by fair dealing, fell to open force. First a basket of dung was thrown +upon Bibulus as he was going to the forum; then they set upon his lictors and +broke their rods; at length several darts were thrown, and many men wounded; so +that all that were against those laws, fled out of the forum, the rest with +what haste they could, and Cato, last of all, walking out slowly, often turning +back and calling down vengeance upon them. +</p> + +<p> +Thus the other party not only carried their point of dividing the lands, but +also ordained, that all the senate should swear to confirm this law, and to +defend it against whoever should attempt to alter it, indicting great penalties +on those that should refuse the oath. All the senators seeing the necessity +they were in, took the oath, remembering the example of Metellus in old time, +who refusing to swear upon the like occasion, was forced to leave Italy. As for +Cato, his wife and children with tears besought him, his friends and familiars +persuaded and entreated him, to yield and take the oath; but he that +principally prevailed with him was Cicero, the orator, who urged upon him that +it was perhaps not even right in itself, that a private man should oppose what +the public had decreed; that the thing being already past altering, it were +folly and madness to throw himself into danger, without the chance of doing his +country any good; it would be the greatest of all evils, to embrace, as it +were, the opportunity to abandon the commonwealth, for whose sake he did +everything, and to let it fall into the hands of those who designed nothing but +its ruin, as if he were glad to be saved from the trouble of defending it. +“For,” said he, “though Cato have no need of Rome, yet Rome has need of Cato, +and so likewise have all his friends.” Of whom Cicero professed he himself was +the chief, being; at that time aimed at by Clodius, who openly threatened to +fall upon him, as soon as ever he should get to be tribune. Thus Cato, they +say, moved by the entreaties and the arguments of his friends, went unwillingly +to take the oath, which he did the last of all, except only Favonius, one of +his intimate acquaintance. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, exalted with this success, proposed another law, for dividing almost +all the country of Campania among the poor and needy citizens. Nobody durst +speak against it but Cato, whom Caesar therefore pulled from the rostra, and +dragged to prison: yet Cato did not even thus remit his freedom of speech, but +as he went along, continued to speak against the law, and advised the people to +put down all legislators who proposed the like. The senate and the best of the +citizens followed him with sad and dejected looks, showing their grief and +indignation by their silence, so that Caesar could not be ignorant how much +they were offended; but for contention’s sake, he still persisted, expecting +Cato should either supplicate him, or make an appeal. But when he saw that he +did not so much as think of doing either, ashamed of what he was doing and of +what people thought of it, he himself privately bade one of the tribunes +interpose and procure his release. However, having won the multitude by these +laws and gratifications, they decreed that Caesar should have the government of +Illyricum, and all Gaul, with an army of four legions, for the space of five +years, though Cato still cried out they were, by their own vote, placing a +tyrant in their citadel. Publius Clodius, who illegally of a patrician became a +plebeian, was declared tribune of the people, as he had promised to do all +things according to their pleasure, on condition he might banish Cicero. And +for consuls, they set up Calpurnius Piso, the father of Caesar’s wife, and +Aulus Gabinius, one of Pompey’s creatures, as they tell us, who best knew his +life and manners. +</p> + +<p> +Yet when they had thus firmly established all things, having mastered one part +of the city by favor, and the other by fear, they themselves were still afraid +of Cato, and remembered with vexation what pains and trouble their success over +him had cost them, and indeed what shame and disgrace, when at last they were +driven to use violence to him. This made Clodius despair of driving Cicero out +of Italy while Cato stayed at home. Therefore, having first laid his design, as +soon as he came into his office, he sent for Cato, and told him, that he looked +upon him as the most incorrupt of all the Romans, and was ready to show he did +so. “For whereas,” said he, “many have applied to be sent to Cyprus on the +commission in the case of Ptolemy, and have solicited to have the appointment, +I think you alone are deserving of it, and I desire to give you the favor of +the appointment.” Cato at once cried out, it was a mere design upon him, and no +favor, but an injury. Then Clodius proudly and fiercely answered, “If you will +not take it as a kindness, you shall go, though never so unwillingly;” and +immediately going into the assembly of the people, he made them pass a decree, +that Cato should be sent to Cyprus. But they ordered him neither ship, nor +soldier, nor any attendant, except two secretaries; one of whom was a thief and +a rascal, and the other a retainer to Clodius. Besides, as if Cyprus and +Ptolemy were not work sufficient, he was ordered also to restore the refugees +of Byzantium. For Clodius was resolved to keep him far enough off, whilst +himself continued tribune. +</p> + +<p> +Cato being in this necessity of going away, advised Cicero, who was next to be +set upon, to make no resistance, lest he should throw the state into civil war +and confusion, but to give way to the times, and thus become once more the +preserver of his country. He himself sent forward Canidius, one of his friends, +to Cyprus, to persuade Ptolemy to yield, without being forced; which if he did, +he should want neither riches nor honor, for the Romans would give him the +priesthood of the goddess at Paphos. He himself stayed at Rhodes, making some +preparations, and expecting an answer from Cyprus. In the meantime, Ptolemy, +king of Egypt, who had left Alexandria, upon some quarrel between him and his +subjects, and was sailing for Rome, in hopes that Pompey and Caesar would send +troops to restore him, in his way thither desired to see Cato, to whom he sent, +supposing he would come to him. Cato had taken purging medicine at the time +when the messenger came, and made answer, that Ptolemy had better come to him, +if he thought fit. And when he came, he neither went forward to meet him, nor +so much as rose up to him, but saluting him as an ordinary person, bade him sit +down. This at once threw Ptolemy into some confusion, who was surprised to see +such stern and haughty manners in one who made so plain and unpretending an +appearance; but afterwards, when he began to talk about his affairs, he was no +less astonished at the wisdom and freedom of his discourse. For Cato blamed his +conduct, and pointed out to him what honor and happiness he was abandoning, and +what humiliations and troubles he would run himself into; what bribery he must +resort to and what cupidity he would have to satisfy, when he came to the +leading men at Rome, whom all Egypt turned into silver would scarcely content. +He therefore advised him to return home, and be reconciled to his subjects, +offering to go along with him, and assist him in composing the differences. And +by this language Ptolemy being brought to himself, as it might be out of a fit +of madness or delirium and discerning the truth and wisdom of what Cato said, +resolved to follow his advice; but he was again over-persuaded by his friends +to the contrary, and so, according to his first design, went to Rome. When he +came there, and was forced to wait at the gate of one of the magistrates, he +began to lament his folly, in having rejected, rather, as it seemed to him, the +oracle of a god, than the advice merely of a good and wise man. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, the other Ptolemy, in Cyprus, very luckily for Cato, poisoned +himself. It was reported he had left great riches; therefore Cato designing to +go first to Byzantium, sent his nephew Brutus to Cyprus, as he would not wholly +trust Canidius. Then, having reconciled the refugees and the people of +Byzantium, he left the city in peace and quietness; and so sailed to Cyprus, +where he found a royal treasure of plate, tables, precious stones and purple, +all which was to be turned into ready money. And being determined to do +everything with the greatest exactness, and to raise the price of everything to +the utmost, to this end he was always present at selling the things, and went +carefully into all the accounts. Nor would he trust to the usual customs of the +market, but looked doubtfully upon all alike, the officers, criers, purchasers, +and even his own friends; and so in fine he himself talked with the buyers, and +urged them to bid high, and conducted in this manner the greatest part of the +sales. +</p> + +<p> +This mistrustfulness offended others of his friends, and, in particular, +Munatius, the most intimate of them all, became almost irreconcilable. And this +afforded Caesar the subject of his severest censures in the book he wrote +against Cato. Yet Munatius himself relates, that the quarrel was not so much +occasioned by Cato’s mistrust, as by his neglect of him, and by his own +jealousy of Canidius. For Munatius also wrote a book concerning Cato, which is +the chief authority followed by Thrasea. Munatius says, that coming to Cyprus +after the other, and having a very poor lodging provided for him, he went to +Cato’s house, but was not admitted, because he was engaged in private with +Canidius; of which he afterwards complained in very gentle terms to Cato, but +received a very harsh answer, that too much love, according to Theophrastus, +often causes hatred; “and you,” he said, “because you bear me much love, think +you receive too little honor, and presently grow angry. I employ Canidius on +account of his industry and his fidelity; he has been with me from the first, +and I have found him to be trusted.” These things were said in private between +them two; but Cato afterwards told Canidius what had passed; on being informed +of which, Munatius would no more go to sup with him, and when he was invited to +give his counsel, refused to come. Then Cato threatened to seize his goods, as +was the custom in the case of those who were disobedient; but Munatius not +regarding his threats, returned to Rome, and continued a long time thus +discontented. But afterwards, when Cato was come back also, Marcia, who as yet +lived with him, contrived to have them both invited to sup together at the +house of one Barca; Cato came in last of all, when the rest were laid down, and +asked, where he should be. Barca answered him, where he pleased; then looking +about, he said, he would be near Munatius, and went and placed himself next to +him; yet he showed him no other mark of kindness, all the time they were at +table together. But another time, at the entreaty of Marcia, Cato wrote to +Munatius, that he desired to speak with him. Munatius went to his house in the +morning, and was kept by Marcia till all the company was gone; then Cato came, +threw both his arms about him, and embraced him very kindly, and they were +reconciled. I have the more fully related this passage, for that I think the +manners and tempers of men are more clearly discovered by things of this +nature, than by great and conspicuous actions. +</p> + +<p> +Cato got together little less than seven thousand talents of silver; but +apprehensive of what might happen in so long a voyage by sea, he provided a +great many coffers, that held two talents and five hundred drachmas apiece; to +each of these he fastened a long rope, and to the other end of the rope a piece +of cork, so that if the ship should miscarry, it might be discovered thereabout +the chests lay under water. Thus all the money, except a very little, was +safely transported. But he had made two books, in which all the accounts of his +commission were carefully written out, and neither of these was preserved. For +his freedman Philargyrus, who had the charge of one of them, setting sail from +Cenchreae was lost, together with the ship and all her freight. And the other +Cato himself kept safe, till he came to Corcyra, but there he set up his tent +in the market-place, and the sailors being very cold in the night, made a great +many fires, some of which caught the tents, so that they were burnt, and the +book lost. And though he had brought with him several of Ptolemy’s stewards, +who could testify to his integrity, and stop the mouths of enemies and false +accusers, yet the loss annoyed him, and he was vexed with himself about the +matter, as he had designed them not so much for a proof of his own fidelity, as +for a pattern of exactness to others. +</p> + +<p> +The news did not fail to reach Rome, that he was coming up the river. All the +magistrates, the priests, and the whole senate, with great part of the people, +went out to meet him; both the banks of the Tiber were covered with people; so +that his entrance was in solemnity and honor not inferior to a triumph. But it +was thought somewhat strange, and looked like willfulness and pride, that when +the consuls and praetors appeared, he did not disembark, nor stay to salute +them, but rowed up the stream in a royal galley of six banks of oars, and +stopped not till he brought his vessels to the dock. However, when the money +was carried through the streets, the people much wondered at the vast quantity +of it, and the senate being assembled, decreed him in honorable terms an +extraordinary praetorship, and also the privilege of appearing at the public +spectacles in a robe faced with purple. Cato declined all these honors, but +declaring what diligence and fidelity he had found in Nicias, the steward of +Ptolemy, he requested the senate to give him his freedom. +</p> + +<p> +Philippus, the father of Marcia, was that year consul, and the authority and +power of the office rested in a manner in Cato; for the other consul paid him +no less regard for his virtue’s sake, than Philippus did on account of the +connection between them. And Cicero now being returned from his banishment, +into which he was driven by Clodius, and having again obtained great credit +among the people, went, in the absence of Clodius, and by force took away the +records of his tribuneship, which had been laid up in the capitol. Hereupon the +senate was assembled, and Clodius complained of Cicero, who answered, that +Clodius was never legally tribune, and therefore whatever he had done, was +void, and of no authority. But Cato interrupted him while he spoke, and at last +standing up said, that indeed he in no way justified or approved of Clodius’s +proceedings; but if they questioned the validity of what had been done in his +tribuneship, they might also question what himself had done at Cyprus, for the +expedition was unlawful, if he that sent him had no lawful authority: for +himself, he thought Clodius wee legally made tribune, who, by permission of the +law, was from a patrician adopted into a plebeian family; if he had done ill in +his office, he ought to be called to account for it; but the authority of the +magistracy ought not to suffer for the faults of the magistrate. Cicero took +this ill, and for a long time discontinued his friendship with Cato; but they +were afterwards reconciled. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey and Crassus, by agreement with Caesar, who crossed the Alps to see them, +had formed a design, that they two should stand to be chosen consuls a second +time, and when they should be in their office, they would continue to Caesar +his government for five years more, and take to themselves the greatest +provinces, with armies and money to maintain them. This seemed a plain +conspiracy to subvert the constitution and parcel out the empire. Several men +of high character had intended to stand to be consuls that year, but upon the +appearance of these great competitors, they all desisted, except only Lucius +Domitius, who had married Porcia, the sister of Cato, and was by him persuaded +to stand it out, and not abandon such an undertaking, which, he said, was not +merely to gain the consulship, but to save the liberty of Rome. In the +meantime, it was the common topic among the more prudent part of the citizens, +that they ought not to suffer the power of Pompey and Crassus to be united, +which would then be carried beyond all bounds, and become dangerous to the +state; that therefore one of them must be denied. For these reasons they took +part with Domitius, whom they exhorted and encouraged to go on, assuring him, +that many who feared openly to appear for him, would privately assist him. +Pompey’s party fearing this, laid wait for Domitius, and set upon him as he was +going before daylight, with torches, into the Field. First he that bore the +light next before Domitius, was knocked down and killed; then several others +being wounded, all the rest fled, except Cato and Domitius, whom Cato held, +though himself were wounded in the arm, and crying out, conjured the others to +stay, and not while they had any breath, forsake the defense of their liberty +against those tyrants, who plainly showed with what moderation they were likely +to use the power, which they endeavored to gain by such violence. But at length +Domitius also, no longer willing to face the danger, fled to his own house, and +so Pompey and Crassus were declared consuls. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless, Cato would not give over, but resolved to stand himself to be +praetor that year, which he thought would be some help to him in his design of +opposing them; that he might not act as a private man, when he was to contend +with public magistrates. Pompey and Crassus apprehended this; and fearing that +the office of praetor in the person of Cato might be equal in authority to that +of consul, they assembled the senate unexpectedly, without giving any notice to +a great many of the senators, and made an order, that those who were chosen +praetors, should immediately enter upon their office, without attending the +usual time, in which, according to law, they might be accused, if they had +corrupted the people with gifts. When by this order they had got leave to bribe +freely, without being called to account, they set up their own friends and +dependents to stand for the praetorship, giving money, and watching the people +as they voted. Yet the virtue and reputation of Cato was like to triumph over +all these stratagems; for the people generally felt it to be shameful that a +price should be paid for the rejection of Cato, who ought rather to be paid +himself to take upon him the office. So he carried it by the voices of the +first tribe. Hereupon Pompey immediately framed a lie, crying out, it +thundered; and straight broke up the assembly; for the Romans religiously +observed this as a bad omen, and never concluded any matter after it had +thundered. Before the next time, they had distributed larger bribes, and +driving also the best men out of the Field, by these foul means they procured +Vatinius to be chosen praetor, instead of Cato. It is said, that those who had +thus corruptly and dishonestly given their voices, at once, when it was done, +hurried, as if it were in flight, out of the Field. The others staying +together, and exclaiming at the event, one of the tribunes continued the +assembly, and Cato standing up, as it were by inspiration, foretold all the +miseries that afterward befell the state, exhorted them to beware of Pompey and +Crassus, who were guilty of such things, and had laid such designs, that they +might well fear to have Cato praetor. When he had ended this speech, he was +followed to his house by a greater number of people than were all the new +praetors elect put together. +</p> + +<p> +Caius Trebonius now proposed the law for allotting provinces to the consuls, +one of whom was to have Spain and Africa, the other Egypt and Syria, with full +power of making war, and carrying it on both by sea and land, as they should +think fit. When this was proposed, all others despaired of putting any stop to +it, and neither did nor said anything against it. But Cato, before the voting +began, went up into the place of speaking, and desiring to be heard, was with +much difficulty allowed two hours to speak. Having spent that time in informing +them and reasoning with them, and in foretelling to them much that was to come, +he was not suffered to speak any longer; but as he was going on, a sergeant +came and pulled him down; yet when he was down, he still continued speaking in +a loud voice, and finding many to listen to him, and join in his indignation. +Then the sergeant took him, and forced him out of the forum; but as soon as he +got loose, he returned again to the place of speaking, crying out to the people +to stand by him. When he had done thus several times, Trebonius grew very +angry, and commanded him to be carried to prison; but the multitude followed +him, and listened to the speech which he made to them, as he went along, so +that Trebonius began to be afraid again, and ordered him to be released. Thus +that day was expended, and the business staved off by Cato. But in the days +succeeding, many of the citizens being overawed by fears and threats, and +others won by gifts and favors, Aquillius, one of the tribunes, they kept by an +armed force within the senate-house; Cato, who cried, it thundered, they drove +out of the forum; many were wounded, and some slain; and at length by open +force they passed the law. At this many were so incensed, that they got +together, and were going to throw down the statues of Pompey; but Cato went, +and diverted them from that design. +</p> + +<p> +Again, another law was proposed, concerning the provinces and legions for +Caesar. Upon this occasion Cato did not apply himself to the people, but +appealed to Pompey himself; and told him, he did not consider now, that he was +setting Caesar upon his own shoulders, who would shortly grow too weighty for +him, and at length, not able to lay down the burden, nor yet to bear it any +longer, he would precipitate both it and himself with it upon the commonwealth; +and then he would remember Cato’s advice, which was no less advantageous to +him, than just and honest in itself. Thus was Pompey often warned, but still +disregarded and slighted it, never mistrusting Caesar’s change, and always +confiding in his own power and good fortune. +</p> + +<p> +Cato was made praetor the following year; but, it seems, he did not do more +honor and credit to the office by his signal integrity, than he disgraced and +diminished it by his strange behavior. For he would often come to the court +without his shoes, and sit upon the bench without any under garment, and in +this attire would give judgment in capital causes, and upon persons of the +highest rank. It is said, also, he used to drink wine after his morning meal, +and then transact the business of his office; but this was wrongfully reported +of him. The people were at that time extremely corrupted by the gifts of those +who sought offices, and most made a constant trade of selling their voices. +Cato was eager utterly to root this corruption out of the commonwealth; he +therefore persuaded the senate to make an order, that those who were chosen +into any office, though nobody should accuse them, should be obliged to come +into the court, and give account upon oath of their proceedings in their +election. This was extremely obnoxious to those who stood for the offices, and +yet more to those vast numbers who took the bribes. Insomuch that one morning, +as Cato was going to the tribunal, a great multitude of people flocked +together, and with loud cries and maledictions reviled him, and threw stones at +him. Those that were about the tribunal presently fled, and Cato himself being +forced thence, and jostled about in the throng, very narrowly escaped the +stones that were thrown at him, and with much difficulty got hold of the +Rostra, where, standing up with a bold and undaunted countenance, he at once +mastered the tumult, and silenced the clamor; and addressing them in fit terms +for the occasion, was heard with great attention, and perfectly quelled the +sedition. Afterwards, on the senate commending him for this, “But I,” said he, +“do not commend you for abandoning your praetor in danger, and bringing him no +assistance.” +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, the candidates were in great perplexity; for every one dreaded +to give money himself, and yet feared lest his competitors should. At length +they agreed to lay down one hundred and twenty-five thousand drachmas apiece, +and then all of them to canvass fairly and honestly, on condition, that if any +one was found to make use of bribery, he should forfeit the money. Being thus +agreed, they chose Cato to keep the stakes, and arbitrate the matter; to him +they brought the sum concluded on, and before him subscribed the agreement. The +money he did not choose to have paid for them, but took their securities who +stood bound for them. Upon the day of election, he placed himself by the +tribune who took the votes, and very watchfully observing all that passed, he +discovered one who had broken the agreement, and immediately ordered him to pay +his money to the rest. They, however, commending his justice highly, remitted +the penalty, as thinking the discovery a sufficient punishment. It raised, +however, as much envy against Cato as it gained him reputation, and many were +offended at his thus taking upon himself the whole authority of the senate, the +courts of judicature, and the magistracies. For there is no virtue, the honor +and credit for which procures a man more odium than that of justice; and this, +because more than any other, it acquires a man power and authority among the +common people. For they only honor the valiant and admire the wise, while in +addition they also love just men, and put entire trust and confidence in them. +They fear the bold man, and mistrust the clever man, and moreover think them +rather beholding; to their natural complexion, than to any goodness of their +will, for these excellences; they look upon valor as a certain natural strength +of the mind, and wisdom as a constitutional acuteness; whereas a man has it in +his power to be just, if he have but the will to be so, and therefore injustice +is thought the most dishonorable, because it is least excusable. +</p> + +<p> +Cato upon this account was opposed by all the great men, who thought themselves +reproved by his virtue. Pompey especially looked upon the increase of Cato’s +credit, as the ruin of his own power, and therefore continually set up men to +rail against him. Among these was the seditious Clodius, now again united to +Pompey; who declared openly, that Cato had conveyed away a great deal of the +treasure that was found in Cyprus; and that he hated Pompey, only because he +refused to marry his daughter. Cato answered, that although they had allowed +him neither horse nor man, he had brought more treasure from Cyprus alone, than +Pompey had, after so many wars and triumphs, from the ransacked world; that he +never sought the alliance of Pompey; not that he thought him unworthy of being +related to him, but because he differed so much from him, in things that +concerned the commonwealth. “For,” said he, “I laid down the province that was +given me, when I went out of my praetorship; Pompey, on the contrary, retains +many provinces for himself; and he bestows many on others; and but now he sent +Caesar a force of six thousand men into Gaul, which Caesar never asked the +people for, nor had Pompey obtained their consent to give. Men, and horse, and +arms in any number, are become the mutual gifts of private men to one another; +and Pompey keeping the titles of commander and general, hands over the armies +and provinces to others to govern, while he himself stays at home to preside at +the contests of the canvass, and to stir up tumults at elections; out of the +anarchy he thus creates amongst us, seeking, we see well enough, a monarchy for +himself.” Thus he retorted on Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +He had an intimate friend and admirer of the name of Marcus Favonius, much the +same to Cato as we are told Apollodorus, the Phalerian, was in old time to +Socrates, whose words used to throw him into perfect transports and ecstasies, +getting into his head, like strong wine, and intoxicating him to a sort of +frenzy. This Favonius stood to be chosen aedile, and was like to lose it; but +Cato, who was there to assist him, observed that all the votes were written in +one hand, and discovering the cheat, appealed to the tribunes, who stopped the +election. Favonius was afterward chosen aedile, and Cato, who assisted him in +all things that belonged to his office, also undertook the care of the +spectacles that were exhibited in the theater; giving the actors crowns, not of +gold, but of wild olive, such as used to be given at the Olympic games; and +instead of the magnificent presents that were usually made, he offered to the +Greeks beet root, lettuces, radishes, and pears; and to the Romans, earthen +pots of wine, pork, figs, cucumbers, and little fagots of wood. Some ridiculed +Cato for his economy, others looked with respect on this gentle relaxation of +his usual rigor and austerity. In fine, Favonius himself mingled with the +crowd, and sitting among the spectators, clapped and applauded Cato, bade him +bestow rewards on those who did well, and called on the people to pay their +honors to him, as for himself he had placed his whole authority in Cato’s +hands. At the same time, Curio, the colleague of Favonius, gave very +magnificent entertainments in another theater; but the people left his, and +went to those of Favonius, which they much applauded, and joined heartily in +the diversion, seeing him act the private man, and Cato the master of the +shows, who, in fact, did all this in derision of the great expenses that others +incurred, and to teach them that in amusements men ought to seek amusement +only, and the display of a decent cheerfulness, not great preparations and +costly magnificence, demanding the expenditure of endless care and trouble +about things of little concern. +</p> + +<p> +After this Scipio, Hypsaeus, and Milo, stood to be consuls, and that not only +with the usual and now recognized disorders of bribery and corruption, but with +arms and slaughter, and every appearance of carrying their audacity and +desperation to the length of actual civil war. Whereupon it was proposed, that +Pompey might be empowered to preside over that election. This Cato at first +opposed, saying that the laws ought not to seek protection from Pompey, but +Pompey from the laws. Yet the confusion lasting a long time, the forum +continually, as it were, besieged with three armies, and no possibility +appearing of a stop being put to these disorders, Cato at length agreed, that +rather than fall into the last extremity, the senate should freely confer all +on Pompey, since it was necessary to make use of a lesser illegality as a +remedy against the greatest of all, and better to set up a monarchy themselves, +than to suffer a sedition to continue, that must certainly end in one. Bibulus, +therefore, a friend of Cato’s, moved the senate to create Pompey sole consul; +for that either he would reestablish the lawful government, or they should +serve under the best master. Cato stood up, and, contrary to all expectation, +seconded this motion, concluding, that any government was better than mere +confusion, and that he did not question but Pompey would deal honorably, and +take care of the commonwealth, thus committed to his charge. Pompey being +hereupon declared consul, invited Cato to see him in the suburbs. When he came, +he saluted and embraced him very kindly, acknowledged the favor he had done +him, and desired his counsel and assistance, in the management of this office. +Cato made answer, that what he had spoken on any former occasion was not out of +hate to Pompey, nor what he had now done, out of love to him, but all for the +good of the commonwealth; that in private, if he asked him, he would freely +give his advice; and in public, though he asked him not, he would always speak +his opinion. And he did accordingly. For first, when Pompey made severe laws +for punishing and laying great fines on those who had corrupted the people with +gifts, Cato advised him to let alone what was already passed, and to provide +for the future; for if he should look up past misdemeanors, it would be +difficult to know where to stop; and if he would ordain new penalties, it would +be unreasonable to punish men by a law, which at that time they had not the +opportunity of breaking. Afterwards, when many considerable men, and some of +Pompey’s own relations were accused, and he grew remiss, and disinclined to the +prosecution, Cato sharply reproved him, and urged him to proceed. Pompey had +made a law, also, to forbid the custom of making commendatory orations in +behalf of those that were accused; yet he himself wrote one for Munatius +Plancus, and sent it while the cause was pleading; upon which Cato, who was +sitting as one of the judges, stopped his ears with his hands, and would not +hear it read. Whereupon Plancus, before sentence was given, excepted against +him, but was condemned notwithstanding. And indeed Cato was a great trouble and +perplexity to almost all that were accused of anything, as they feared to have +him one of their judges, yet did not dare to demand his exclusion. And many had +been condemned, because by refusing him, they seemed to show that they could +not trust their own innocence; and it was a reproach thrown in the teeth of +some by their enemies, that they had not accepted Cato for their judge. +</p> + +<p> +In the meanwhile, Caesar kept close with his forces in Gaul, and continued in +arms; and at the same time employed his gifts, his riches, and his friends +above all things, to increase his power in the city. And now Cato’s old +admonitions began to rouse Pompey out of the negligent security in which he +lay, into a sort of imagination of danger at hand; but seeing him slow and +unwilling, and timorous to undertake any measures of prevention against Caesar, +Cato resolved himself to stand for the consulship, and presently force Caesar +either to lay down his arms or discover his intentions. Both Cato’s competitors +were persons of good position; Sulpicius, who was one, owed much to Cato’s +credit and authority in the city, and it was thought unhandsome and +ungratefully done, to stand against him; not that Cato himself took it ill, +“For it is no wonder,” said he, “if a man will not yield to another, in that +which he esteems the greatest good.” He had persuaded the senate to make an +order, that those who stood for offices, should themselves ask the people for +their votes, and not solicit by others, nor take others about with them, to +speak for them, in their canvass. And this made the common people very hostile +to him, if they were to lose not only the means of receiving money, but also +the opportunity of obliging several persons, and so to become by his means both +poor and less regarded. Besides this, Cato himself was by nature altogether +unfit for the business of canvassing, as he was more anxious to sustain the +dignity of his life and character, than to obtain the office. Thus by following +his own way of soliciting, and not suffering his friends to do those things +which take with the multitude, he was rejected, and lost the consulship. +</p> + +<p> +But whereas, upon such occasions, not only those who missed the office, but +even their friends and relations, used to feel themselves disgraced and +humiliated, and observed a sort of mourning for several days after, Cato took +it so unconcernedly, that he anointed himself, and played at ball in the Field, +and after breakfasting, went into the forum, as he used to do, without his +shoes or his tunic, and there walked about with his acquaintance. Cicero blames +him, for that when affairs required such a consul, he would not take more +pains, nor condescend to pay some court to the people, as also because that he +afterwards neglected to try again; whereas he had stood a second time to be +chosen praetor. Cato answered, that he lost the praetorship the first time, not +by the voice of the people, but by the violence and corrupt dealing of his +adversaries; whereas in the election of consuls, there had been no foul play. +So that he plainly saw the people did not like his manners, which an honest man +ought not to alter for their sake; nor yet would a wise man attempt the same +thing again, while liable to the same prejudices. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar was at this time engaged with many warlike nations, and was subduing +them at great hazards. Among the rest, it was believed he had set upon the +Germans, in a time of truce, and had thus slain three hundred thousand of them. +Upon which, some of his friends moved the senate for a public thanksgiving; but +Cato declared, they ought to deliver Caesar into the hands of those who had +been thus unjustly treated, and so expiate the offense and not bring a curse +upon the city; “Yet we have reason,” said he, “to thank the gods, for that they +spared the commonwealth, and did not take vengeance upon the army, for the +madness and folly of the general.” Hereupon Caesar wrote a letter to the +senate, which was read openly, and was full of reproachful language and +accusations against Cato; who, standing up, seemed not at all concerned, and +without any heat or passion, but in a calm and, as it were, premeditated +discourse, made all Caesar’s charges against him show like mere common scolding +and abuse, and in fact a sort of pleasantry and play on Caesar’s part; and +proceeding then to go into all Caesar’s political courses, and to explain and +reveal (as though he had been not his constant opponent, but his +fellow-conspirator,) his whole conduct and purpose from its commencement, he +concluded by telling the senate, it was not the sons of the Britons or the +Gauls they need fear, but Caesar himself, if they were wise. And this discourse +so moved and awakened the senate, that Caesar’s friends repented they had had a +letter read, which had given Cato an opportunity of saying so many reasonable +things, and such severe truths against him. However, nothing was then decided +upon; it was merely said, that it would be well to send him a successor. Upon +that Caesar’s friends required, that Pompey also should lay down his arms, and +resign his provinces, or else that Caesar might not be obliged to either. Then +Cato cried out, what he had foretold was come to pass; now it was manifest he +was using his forces to compel their judgment, and was turning against the +state those armies he had got from it by imposture and trickery. But out of the +Senate-house Cato could do but little, as the people were ever ready to magnify +Caesar and the senate, though convinced by Cato, were afraid of the people. +</p> + +<p> +But when the news was brought that Caesar had seized Ariminum, and was marching +with his army toward Rome, then all men, even Pompey, and the common people +too, cast their eyes on Cato, who had alone foreseen and first clearly declared +Caesar’s intentions. He, therefore, told them, “If you had believed me, or +regarded my advice, you would not now have been reduced to stand in fear of one +man, or to put all your hopes in one alone.” Pompey acknowledged, that Cato +indeed had spoken most like a prophet, while he himself had acted too much like +a friend. And Cato advised the senate to put all into the hands of Pompey; “For +those who can raise up great evils,” said he, “can best allay them.” +</p> + +<p> +Pompey, finding he had not sufficient forces, and that those he could raise, +were not very resolute, forsook the city. Cato, resolving to follow Pompey into +exile, sent his younger son to Munatius, who was then in the country of +Bruttium, and took his eldest with him; but wanting somebody to keep his house +and take care of his daughters, he took Marcia again, who was now a rich widow, +Hortensius being dead, and having left her all his estate. Caesar afterward +made use of this action also, to reproach him with covetousness, and a +mercenary design in his marriage. “For,” said he, “if he had need of wife, why +did he part with her? And if he had not, why did he take her again? Unless he +gave her only as a bait to Hortensius; and lent her when she was young, to have +her again when she was rich.” But in answer to this, we might fairly apply the +saying of Euripides. +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +To speak of mysteries—the chief of these<br/> +Surely were cowardice in Hercules. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For it is much the same thing to reproach Hercules for cowardice, and to accuse +Cato of covetousness; though otherwise, whether he did altogether right in this +marriage, might be disputed. As soon, however, as he had again taken Marcia, he +committed his house and his daughters to her, and himself followed Pompey. And +it is said, that from that day he never cut his hair, nor shaved his beard, nor +wore a garland, but was always full of sadness, grief, and dejectedness for the +calamities of his country, and continually showed the same feeling to the last, +whatever party had misfortune or success. +</p> + +<p> +The government of Sicily being allotted to him, he passed over to Syracuse; +where understanding that Asinius Pollio was arrived at Messena, with forces +from the enemy, Cato sent to him, to know the reason of his coming thither: +Pollio, on the other side, called upon him to show reason for the present +convulsions. And being at the same time informed how Pompey had quite abandoned +Italy, and lay encamped at Dyrrhachium, he spoke of the strangeness and +incomprehensibility of the divine government of things; “Pompey, when he did +nothing wisely nor honestly, was always successful; and now that he would +preserve his country, and defend her liberty, he is altogether unfortunate.” As +for Asinius, he said, he could drive him out of Sicily, but as there were +larger forces coming to his assistance, he would not engage the island in a +war. He therefore advised the Syracusans to join the conquering party and +provide for their own safety; and so set sail from thence. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to Pompey, he uniformly gave advice to protract the war; as he +always hoped to compose matters, and was by no means desirous that they should +come to action; for the commonwealth would suffer extremely, and be the certain +cause of its own ruin, whoever were conqueror by the sword. In like manner, he +persuaded Pompey and the council to ordain, that no city should be sacked that +was subject to the people of Rome; and that no Roman should be killed, but in +the heat of battle; and hereby he got himself great honor, and brought over +many to Pompey’s party, whom his moderation and humanity attracted. Afterwards +being sent into Asia, to assist those who were raising men, and preparing ships +in those parts, he took with him his sister Servilia, and a little boy whom she +had by Lucullus. For since her widowhood, she had lived with her brother, and +much recovered her reputation, having put herself under his care, followed him +in his voyages, and complied with his severe way of living. Yet Caesar did not +fail to asperse him upon her account also. +</p> + +<p> +Pompey’s officers in Asia, it seems, had no great need of Cato; but he brought +over the people of Rhodes by his persuasions, and leaving his sister Servilia +and her child there, he returned to Pompey, who had now collected very great +forces both by sea and land. And here Pompey, more than in any other act, +betrayed his intentions. For at first he designed to give Cato the command of +the navy, which consisted of no less than five hundred ships of war, besides a +vast number of light galleys, scouts, and open boats. But presently bethinking +himself, or put in mind by his friends, that Cato’s principal and only aim +being to free his country from all usurpation, if he were master of such great +forces, as soon as ever Caesar should be conquered, he would certainly call +upon Pompey, also, to lay down his arms, and be subject to the laws, he changed +his mind, and though he had already mentioned it to Cato, nevertheless made +Bibulus admiral. Notwithstanding this, he had no reason to suppose that Cato’s +zeal in the cause was in any way diminished. For before one of the battles at +Dyrrhachium, when Pompey himself, we are told, made an address to the soldiers +and bade the officers do the like, the men listened to them but coldly, and +with silence, until Cato, last of all, came forward, and in the language of +philosophy, spoke to them, as the occasion required, concerning liberty, manly +virtue, death, and a good name; upon all which he delivered himself with strong +natural passion, and concluded with calling in the aid of the gods, to whom he +directed his speech, as if they were present to behold them fight for their +country. And at this the army gave such a shout and showed such excitement, +that their officers led them on full of hope and confidence to the danger. +Caesar’s party were routed, and put to flight; but his presiding fortune used +the advantage of Pompey’s cautiousness and diffidence, to render the victory +incomplete. But of this we have spoken in the life of Pompey. While, however, +all the rest rejoiced, and magnified their success, Cato alone bewailed his +country, and cursed that fatal ambition, which made so many brave Romans murder +one another. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Pompey following Caesar into Thessaly, left at Dyrrhachium a +quantity of munitions, money, and stores, and many of his domestics and +relations; the charge of all which he gave to Cato, with the command only of +fifteen cohorts. For though he trusted him much, yet he was afraid of him too, +knowing full well, that if he had bad success, Cato would be the last to +forsake him, but if he conquered, would never let him use his victory at his +pleasure. There were, likewise, many persons of high rank that stayed with Cato +at Dyrrhachium. When they heard of the overthrow at Pharsalia, Cato resolved +with himself, that if Pompey were slain, he would conduct those that were with +him into Italy, and then retire as far from the tyranny of Caesar as he could, +and live in exile; but if Pompey were safe, he would keep the army together for +him. With this resolution he passed over to Corcyra, where the navy lay, there +he would have resigned his command to Cicero, because he had been consul, and +himself only a praetor: but Cicero refused it, and was going for Italy. At +which Pompey’s son being incensed, would rashly and in heat have punished all +those who were going away, and in the first place have laid hands on Cicero; +but Cato spoke with him in private, and diverted him from that design. And thus +he clearly saved the life of Cicero, and rescued several others also from +ill-treatment. +</p> + +<p> +Conjecturing that Pompey the Great was fled toward Egypt or Africa, Cato +resolved to hasten after him; and having taken all his men aboard, he set sail; +but first to those who were not zealous to continue the contest, he gave free +liberty to depart. When they came to the coast of Africa, they met with Sextus, +Pompey’s younger son, who told them of the death of his father in Egypt; at +which they were all exceedingly grieved, and declared that after Pompey they +would follow no other leader but Cato. Out of compassion therefore to so many +worthy persons, who had given such testimonies of their fidelity, and whom he +could not for shame leave in a desert country, amidst so many difficulties, he +took upon him the command, and marched toward the city of Cyrene, which +presently received him, though not long before they had shut their gates +against Labienus. Here he was informed that Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, was +received by king Juba, and that Attius Varus, whom Pompey had made governor of +Africa, had joined them with his forces. Cato therefore resolved to march +toward them by land, it being now winter; and got together a number of asses to +carry water, and furnished himself likewise with plenty of all other provision, +and a number of carriages. He took also with him some of those they call +Psylli, who cure the biting of serpents, by sucking out the poison with their +mouths, and have likewise certain charms, by which they stupefy and lay asleep +the serpents. +</p> + +<p> +Thus they marched seven days together, Cato all the time going on foot at the +head of his men, and never making use of any horse or chariot. Ever since the +battle of Pharsalia, he used to sit at table, and added this to his other ways +of mourning, that he never lay down but to sleep. +</p> + +<p> +Having passed the winter in Africa, Cato drew out his army, which amounted to +little less than ten thousand. The affairs of Scipio and Varus went very ill, +by reason of their dissensions and quarrels among themselves, and their +submissions and flatteries to king Juba, who was insupportable for his vanity, +and the pride he took in his strength and riches. The first time he came to a +conference with Cato, he had ordered his own seat to be placed in the middle, +between Scipio and Cato; which Cato observing, took up his chair, and set +himself on the other side of Scipio, to whom he thus gave the honor of sitting +in the middle, though he were his enemy, and had formerly published some +scandalous writing against him. There are people who speak as if this were +quite an insignificant matter, and who nevertheless find fault with Cato, +because in Sicily, walking one day with Philostratus, he gave him the middle +place, to show his respect for philosophy. However, he now succeeded both in +humbling the pride of Juba, who was treating Scipio and Varus much like a pair +of satraps under his orders, and also in reconciling them to each other. All +the troops desired him to be their leader; Scipio, likewise, and Varus gave way +to it, and offered him the command; but he said, he would not break those laws, +which he sought to defend, and he, being, but propraetor, ought not to command +in the presence of a proconsul, (for Scipio had been created proconsul,) +besides that people took it as a good omen; to see a Scipio command in Africa, +and the very name inspired the soldiers with hopes of success. +</p> + +<p> +Scipio, having taken upon him the command, presently resolved, at the +instigation of Juba, to put all the inhabitants of Utica to the sword, and to +raze the city, for having, as they professed, taken part with Caesar. Cato +would by no means suffer this; but invoking the gods, exclaiming and protesting +against it in the council of war, he with much difficulty delivered the poor +people from this cruelty. And afterwards, upon the entreaty of the inhabitants, +and at the instance of Scipio, Cato took upon himself the government of Utica, +lest, one way or other, it should fall into Caesar’s hands; for it was a strong +place, and very advantageous for either party. And it was yet better provided +and more strongly fortified by Cato, who brought in great store of corn, +repaired the walls, erected towers, and made deep trenches and palisades around +the town. The young men of Utica he lodged among these works, having first +taken their arms from them; the rest of the inhabitants he kept within the +town, and took the greatest care, that no injury should be done nor affront +offered them by the Romans. From hence he sent great quantity of arms, money, +and provision to the camp, and made this city their chief magazine. +</p> + +<p> +He advised Scipio, as he had before done Pompey, by no means to hazard a battle +against a man experienced in war, and formidable in the field, but to use +delay; for time would gradually abate the violence of the crisis, which is the +strength of usurpation. But Scipio out of pride rejected this counsel, and +wrote a letter to Cato, in which he reproached him with cowardice; and that he +could not be content to lie secure himself within walls and trenches, but he +must hinder others from boldly using their own good-sense to seize the right +opportunity. In answer to this, Cato wrote word again, that he would take the +horse and foot which he had brought into Africa, and go over into Italy, to +make a diversion there, and draw Caesar off from them. But Scipio derided this +proposition also. Then Cato openly let it be seen that he was sorry he had +yielded the command to Scipio, who he saw would not carry on the war with any +wisdom, and if, contrary to all appearance, he should succeed, he would use his +success as unjustly at home. For Cato had then made up his mind, and so he told +his friends, that he could have but slender hopes in those generals that had so +much boldness, and so little conduct; yet if anything should happen beyond +expectation, and Caesar should be overthrown, for his part he would not stay at +Rome, but would retire from the cruelty and inhumanity of Scipio, who had +already uttered fierce and proud threats against many. +</p> + +<p> +But what Cato had looked for, fell out sooner than he expected. Late in the +evening came one from the army, whence he had been three days coming, who +brought word there had been a great battle near Thapsus; that all was utterly +lost; Caesar had taken the camps, Scipio and Juba were fled with a few only, +and all the rest of the army was lost. This news arriving in time of war, and +in the night, so alarmed the people, that they were almost out of their wits, +and could scarce keep themselves within the walls of the city. But Cato came +forward, and meeting the people in this hurry and clamor, did all he could to +comfort and encourage them, and somewhat appeased the fear and amazement they +were in, telling them that very likely things were not so bad in truth, but +much exaggerated in the report. And so he pacified the tumult for the present. +The next morning, he sent for the three hundred, whom he used as his council; +these were Romans, who were in Africa upon business, in commerce and +money-lending; there were also several senators and their sons. They were +summoned to meet in the temple of Jupiter. While they were coming together, +Cato walked about very quietly and unconcerned, as if nothing new had happened. +He had a book in his hand, which he was reading; in this book was an account of +what provision he had for war, armor, corn, ammunition and soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +When they were assembled, he began his discourse; first, as regarded the three +hundred themselves, and very much commended the courage and fidelity they had +shown, and their having very well served their country with their persons, +money, and counsel. Then he entreated them by no means to separate, as if each +single man could hope for any safety in forsaking his companions; on the +contrary, while they kept together, Caesar would have less reason to despise +them, if they fought against him, and be more forward to pardon them, if they +submitted to him. Therefore, he advised them to consult among themselves, nor +should he find fault, whichever course they adopted. If they thought fit to +submit to fortune, he would impute their change to necessity; but if they +resolved to stand firm, and undertake the danger for the sake of liberty, he +should not only commend, but admire their courage, and would himself be their +leader and companion too, till they had put to the proof the utmost fortune of +their country; which was not Utica or Adrumetum, but Rome, and she had often, +by her own greatness, raised herself after worse disasters. Besides, as there +were many things that would conduce to their safety, so chiefly this, that they +were to fight against one whose affairs urgently claimed his presence in +various quarters. Spain was already revolted to the younger Pompey; Rome was +unaccustomed to the bridle, and impatient of it, and would therefore be ready +to rise in insurrection upon any turn of affairs. As for themselves, they ought +not to shrink from the danger; and in this might take example from their enemy, +who so freely exposes his life to effect the most unrighteous designs, yet +never can hope for so happy a conclusion, as they may promise themselves; for +notwithstanding the uncertainty of war, they will be sure of a most happy life, +if they succeed, or a most glorious death, if they miscarry. However, he said, +they ought to deliberate among themselves, and he joined with them in praying +the gods that in recompense of their former courage and goodwill, they would +prosper their present determinations. When Cato had thus spoken, many were +moved and encouraged by his arguments, but the greatest part were so animated +by the sense of his intrepidity, generosity, and goodness, that they forgot the +present danger, and as if he were the only invincible leader, and above all +fortune, they entreated him to employ their persons, arms, and estates, as he +thought fit; for they esteemed it far better to meet death in following his +counsel, than to find their safety in betraying one of so great virtue. One of +the assembly proposed the making a decree, to set the slaves at liberty; and +most of the rest approved the motion. Cato said, that it ought not to be done, +for it was neither just nor lawful; but if any of their masters would willingly +set them free, those that were fit for service should be received. Many +promised so to do; whose names he ordered to be enrolled, and then withdrew. +</p> + +<p> +Presently after this, he received letters from Juba and Scipio. Juba, with some +few of his men, was retired to a mountain, where he waited to hear what Cato +would resolve upon; and intended to stay there for him, if he thought fit to +leave Utica, or to come to his aid with his troops, if he were besieged. Scipio +was on shipboard, near a certain promontory, not far from Utica, expecting an +answer upon the same account. But Cato thought fit to retain the messengers, +till the three hundred should come to some resolution, +</p> + +<p> +As for the senators that were there, they showed great forwardness, and at once +set free their slaves, and furnished them with arms. But the three hundred +being men occupied in merchandise and money-lending, much of their substance +also consisting in slaves, the enthusiasm that Cato’s speech had raised in +them, did not long continue. As there are substances that easily admit heat, +and as suddenly lose it, when the fire is removed, so these men were heated and +inflamed, while Cato was present; but when they began to reason among +themselves, the fear they had of Caesar, soon overcame their reverence for Cato +and for virtue. “For who are we,” said they, “and who is it we refuse to obey? +Is it not that Caesar, who is now invested with all the power of Rome? and +which of us is a Scipio, a Pompey, or a Cato? But now that all men make their +honor give way to their fear, shall we alone engage for the liberty of Rome, +and in Utica declare war against him, before whom Cato and Pompey the Great +fled out of Italy? Shall we set free our slaves against Caesar, who have +ourselves no more liberty than he is pleased to allow? No, let us, poor +creatures, know ourselves, submit to the victor, and send deputies to implore +his mercy.” Thus said the most moderate of them; but the greatest part were for +seizing the senators, that by securing them, they might appease Caesar’s anger. +Cato, though he perceived the change, took no notice of it; but wrote to Juba +and Scipio to keep away from Utica, because he mistrusted the three hundred. +</p> + +<p> +A considerable body of horse, which had escaped from the late fight, riding up +towards Utica, sent three men before to Cato, who yet did not all bring the +same message; for one party was for going to Juba, another for joining with +Cato, and some again were afraid to go into Utica. When Cato heard this, he +ordered Marcus Rubrius to attend upon the three hundred, and quietly take the +names of those who of their own accord set their slaves at liberty, but by no +means to force anybody. Then, taking with him the senators, he went out of the +town, and met the principal officers of these horsemen, whom he entreated not +to abandon so many Roman senators, nor to prefer Juba for their commander +before Cato, but consult the common safety, and to come into the city, which +was impregnable, and well furnished with corn and other provision, sufficient +for many years. The senators, likewise, with tears besought them to stay. +Hereupon the officers went to consult their soldiers, and Cato with the +senators sat down upon an embankment, expecting their resolution. In the +meantime comes Rubrius in great disorder, crying out, the three hundred were +all in commotion, and exciting revolt and tumult in the city. At this all the +rest fell into despair, lamenting and bewailing their condition. Cato +endeavored to comfort them, and sent to the three hundred, desiring them to +have patience. Then the officers of the horse returned with no very reasonable +demands. They said, they did not desire to serve Juba, for his pay, nor should +they fear Caesar, while they followed Cato, but they dreaded to be shut up with +the Uticans, men of traitorous temper, and Carthaginian blood; for though they +were quiet at present, yet as soon as Caesar should appear, without doubt they +would conspire together, and betray the Romans. Therefore, if he expected they +should join with him, he must drive out of the town or destroy all the Uticans, +that he might receive them into a place clear both of enemies and barbarians. +This Cato thought utterly cruel and barbarous; but he mildly answered, he would +consult the three hundred. +</p> + +<p> +Then he returned to the city, where he found the men, not framing excuses, or +dissembling out of reverence to him, but openly declaring that no one should +compel them to make war against Caesar; which, they said, they were neither +able nor willing to do. And some there were who muttered words about retaining +the senators till Caesar’s coming; but Cato seemed not to hear this, as indeed +he had the excuse of being a little deaf. At the same time came one to him, and +told him the horse were going away. And now, fearing lest the three hundred +should take some desperate resolution concerning the senators, he presently +went out with some of his friends, and seeing they were gone some way, he took +horse, and rode after them. They, when they saw him coming, were very glad, and +received him very kindly, entreating him to save himself with them. At this +time, it is said, Cato shed tears, while entreating them on behalf of the +senators, and stretching out his hands in supplication. He turned some of their +horses’ heads, and laid hold of the men by their armor, till in fine he +prevailed with them, out of compassion, to stay only that one day, to procure a +safe retreat for the senators. Having thus persuaded them to go along with him, +some he placed at the gates of the town, and to others gave the charge of the +citadel. The three hundred began to fear they should suffer for their +inconstancy, and sent to Cato, entreating him by all means to come to them; but +the senators flocking about him, would not suffer him to go, and said they +would not trust their guardian and savior to the hands of perfidious traitors. +</p> + +<p> +For there had never, perhaps, been a time when Cato’s virtue appeared more +manifestly; and every class of men in Utica could clearly see, with sorrow and +admiration, how entirely free was everything that he was doing from any secret +motives or any mixture of self-regard; he, namely, who had long before resolved +on his own death, was taking such extreme pains, toil, and care, only for the +sake of others, that when he had secured their lives, he might put an end to +his own. For it was easily perceived, that he had determined to die, though he +did not let it appear. +</p> + +<p> +Therefore, having pacified the senators, he complied with the request of the +three hundred, and went to them alone without any attendance. They gave him +many thanks, and entreated him to employ and trust them for the future; and if +they were not Catos, and could not aspire to his greatness of mind, they begged +he would pity their weakness; and told him, they had determined to send to +Caesar and entreat him, chiefly and in the first place, for Cato, and if they +could not prevail for him, they would not accept of pardon for themselves, but +as long as they had breath, would fight in his defense. Cato commended their +good intentions, and advised them to send speedily, for their own safety, but +by no means to ask anything in his behalf; for those who are conquered, +entreat, and those who have done wrong, beg pardon; for himself, he did not +confess to any defeat in all his life, but rather, so far as he had thought +fit, he had got the victory, and had conquered Caesar in all points of justice +and honesty. It was Caesar that ought to be looked upon as one surprised and +vanquished; for he was now convicted and found guilty of those designs against +his country, which he had so long practiced and so constantly denied. When he +had thus spoken, he went out of the assembly, and being informed that Caesar +was coming with his whole army, “Ah,” said he, “he expects to find us brave +men.” Then he went to the senators, and urged them to make no delay, but hasten +to be gone, while the horsemen were yet in the city. So ordering all the gates +to be shut, except one towards the sea, he assigned their several ships to +those that were to depart, and gave money and provision to those that wanted; +all which he did with great order and exactness, taking care to suppress all +tumults, and that no wrong should be done to the people. +</p> + +<p> +Marcus Octavius, coming with two legions, now encamped near Utica, and sent to +Cato, to arrange about the chief command. Cato returned him no answer; but said +to his friends, “Can we wonder all has gone ill with us, when our love of +office survives even in our very ruin?” In the meantime, word was brought him, +that the horse were going away, and were beginning to spoil and plunder the +citizens. Cato ran to them, and from the first he met, snatched what they had +taken; the rest threw down all they had gotten, and went away silent, and +ashamed of what they had done. Then he called together all the people of Utica, +and requested them upon the behalf of the three hundred, not to exasperate +Caesar against them, but all to seek their common safety together with them. +After that, he went again to the port, to see those who were about to embark; +and there he embraced and dismissed those of his friends and acquaintance whom +he had persuaded to go. As for his son, he did not counsel him to be gone, nor +did he think fit to persuade him to forsake his father. But there was one +Statyllius, a young man, in the flower of his age, of a brave spirit, and very +desirous to imitate the constancy of Cato. Cato entreated him to go away, as he +was a noted enemy to Caesar, but without success. Then Cato looked at +Apollonides, the stoic philosopher, and Demetrius, the peripatetic; “It belongs +to you,” said he, “to cool the fever of this young man’s spirit, and to make +him know what is good for him.” And thus, in setting his friends upon their +way, and in dispatching the business of any that applied to him, he spent that +night, and the greatest part of the next day. +</p> + +<p> +Lucius Caesar, a kinsman of Caesar’s, being appointed to go deputy for the +three hundred, came to Cato, and desired he would assist him to prepare a +persuasive speech for them; “And as to you yourself,” said he, “it will be an +honor for me to kiss the hands and fall at the knees of Caesar, in your +behalf.” But Cato would by no means permit him to do any such thing; “For as to +myself,” said he, “if I would be preserved by Caesar’s favor, I should myself +go to him; but I would not be beholden to a tyrant, for his acts of tyranny. +For it is but usurpation in him to save, as their rightful lord, the lives of +men over whom he has no title to reign. But if you please, let us consider what +you had best say for the three hundred.” And when they had continued some time +together, as Lucius was going away, Cato recommended to him his son, and the +rest of his friends; and taking him by the hand, bade him farewell. +</p> + +<p> +Then he retired to his house again, and called together his son and his +friends, to whom he conversed on various subjects; among the rest, he forbade +his son to engage himself in the affairs of state. For to act therein as became +him, was now impossible; and to do otherwise, would be dishonorable. Toward +evening he went into his bath. As he was bathing, he remembered Statyllius, and +called out aloud, “Apollonides, have you tamed the high spirit of Statyllius, +and is he gone without bidding us farewell?” “No,” said Apollonides, “I have +said much to him, but to little purpose; he is still resolute and unalterable, +and declares he is determined to follow your example.” At this, it is said, +Cato smiled, and answered, “That will soon be tried.” +</p> + +<p> +After he had bathed, he went to supper, with a great deal of company; at which +he sat up, as he had always used to do ever since the battle of Pharsalia; for +since that time he never lay down, but when he went to sleep. There supped with +him all his own friends and the magistrates of Utica. +</p> + +<p> +After supper, the wine produced a great deal of lively and agreeable discourse, +and a whole series of philosophical questions was discussed. At length they +came to the strange dogmas of the stoics, called their Paradoxes; and to this +in particular, That the good man only is free, and that all wicked men are +slaves. The peripatetic, as was to be expected, opposing this, Cato fell upon +him very warmly; and somewhat raising his voice, he argued the matter at great +length, and urged the point with such vehemence, that it was apparent to +everybody, he was resolved to put an end to his life, and set himself at +liberty. And so, when he had done speaking, there was a great silence, and +evident dejection. Cato, therefore, to divert them from any suspicion of his +design, turned the conversation, and began again to talk of matters of present +interest and expectation, showing great concern for those that were at sea, as +also for the others, who, traveling by land, were to pass through a dry and +barbarous desert. +</p> + +<p> +When the company was broke up, he walked with his friends, as he used to do +after supper, gave the necessary orders to the officers of the watch, and going +into his chamber, he embraced his son and every one of his friends with more +than usual warmth, which again renewed their suspicion of his design. Then +laying himself down, he took into his hand Plato’s dialogue concerning the +soul. Having read more than half the book, he looked up, and missing his sword, +which his son had taken away while he was at supper, he called his servant, and +asked, who had taken away his sword. The servant making no answer, he fell to +reading again; and a little after, not seeming importunate, or hasty for it, +but as if he would only know what was become of it, he bade it be brought. But +having waited some time, when he had read through the book, and still nobody +brought the sword, he called up all his servants, and in a louder tone demanded +his sword. To one of them he gave such a blow in the mouth, that he hurt his +own hand; and now grew more angry, exclaiming that he was betrayed and +delivered naked to the enemy by his son and his servants. Then his son, with +the rest of his friends, came running, into the room, and falling at his feet, +began to lament and beseech him. But Cato raising up himself, and looking +fiercely, “When,” said he, “and how did I become deranged, and out of my +senses, that thus no one tries to persuade me by reason, or show me what is +better, if I am supposed to be ill-advised? Must I be disarmed, and hindered +from using my own reason? And you, young man, why do not you bind your father’s +hands behind him, that when Caesar comes, he may find me unable to defend +myself? To dispatch myself I want no sword; I need but hold my breath awhile, +or strike my head against the wall.” +</p> + +<p> +When he had thus spoken, his son went weeping out of the chamber, and with him +all the rest, except Demetrius and Apollollides, to whom, being left alone with +him, he began to speak more calmly. “And you,” said he, “do you also think to +keep a man of my age alive by force, and to sit here and silently watch me? Or +do you bring me some reasons to prove, that it will not be base and unworthy +for Cato, when he can find his safety no other way, to seek it from his enemy? +If so, adduce your arguments, and show cause why we should now unlearn what we +formerly were taught, in order that rejecting all the convictions in which we +lived, we may now by Caesar’s help grow wiser, and be yet more obliged to him, +than for life only. Not that I have determined aught concerning myself, but I +would have it in my power to perform what I shall think fit to resolve; and I +shall not fail to take you as my advisers, in holding counsel, as I shall do, +with the doctrines which your philosophy teaches; in the meantime, do not +trouble yourselves; but go tell my son, that he should not compel his father to +what he cannot persuade him to.” They made him no answer, but went weeping out +of the chamber. Then the sword being brought in by a little boy, Cato took it, +drew it out, and looked at it; and when he saw the point was good, “Now,” said +he, “I am master of myself;” and laying down the sword, he took his book again, +which, it is related, he read twice over. After this he slept so soundly, that +he was heard to snore by those that were without. +</p> + +<p> +About midnight, he called up two of his freedmen, Cleanthes, his physician, and +Butas, whom he chiefly employed in public business. Him he sent to the port, to +see if all his friends had sailed; to the physician he gave his hand to be +dressed, as it was swollen with the blow he had struck one of his servants. At +this they all rejoiced, hoping that now he designed to live. +</p> + +<p> +Butas, after a while, returned, and brought word they were all gone except +Crassus, who had stayed about some business, but was just ready to depart; he +said, also, that the wind was high, and the sea very rough. Cato, on hearing +this, sighed, out of compassion to those who were at sea, and sent Butas again, +to see if any of them should happen to return for anything they wanted, and to +acquaint him therewith. +</p> + +<p> +Now the birds began to sing, and he again fell into a little slumber. At length +Butas came back, and told him, all was quiet in the port. Then Cato, laying +himself down, as if he would sleep out the rest of the night, bade him shut the +door after him. But as soon as Butas was gone out, he took his sword, and +stabbed it into his breast; yet not being able to use his hand so well, on +account of the swelling, he did not immediately die of the wound; but +struggling, fell off the bed, and throwing down a little mathematical table +that stood by, made such a noise, that the servants, hearing it, cried out. And +immediately his son and all his friends came into the chamber, where seeing him +lie weltering in his blood, great part of his bowels out of his body, but +himself still alive and able to look at them, they all stood in horror. The +physician went to him, and would have put in his bowels, which were not +pierced, and sewed up the wound; but Cato, recovering himself, and +understanding the intention, thrust away the physician, plucked out his own +bowels, and tearing open the wound, immediately expired. +</p> + +<p> +In less time than one would think his own family could have known this +accident, all the three hundred were at the door. And a little after, the +people of Utica flocked thither, crying out with one voice, he was their +benefactor and their savior, the only free and only undefeated man. At the very +same time, they had news that Caesar was coming; yet neither fear of the +present danger, nor desire to flatter the conqueror, nor the commotions and +discord among themselves, could divert them from doing honor to Cato. For they +sumptuously set out his body, made him a magnificent funeral, and buried him by +the seaside, where now stands his statue, holding a sword. And only when this +had been done, they returned to consider of preserving themselves and their +city. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar had been informed that Cato stayed at Utica, and did not seek to fly; +that he had sent away the rest of the Romans, but himself, with his son and a +few of his friends, continued there very unconcernedly, so that he could not +imagine what might be his design. But having a great consideration for the man, +he hastened thither with his army. When he heard of his death, it is related he +said these words, “Cato, I grudge you your death, as you have grudged me the +preservation of your life.” And, indeed, if Cato would have suffered himself to +owe his life to Caesar, he would not so much have impaired his own honor, as +augmented the other’s glory. What would have been done, of course we cannot +know, but from Caesar’s usual clemency, we may guess what was most likely. +</p> + +<p> +Cato was forty-eight years old when he died. His son suffered no injury from +Caesar; but, it is said, he grew idle, and was thought to be dissipated among +women. In Cappadocia, he stayed at the house of Marphadates, one of the royal +family there, who had a very handsome wife; and continuing his visit longer +than was suitable, he made himself the subject of various epigrams; such as, +for example, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Tomorrow, (being the thirtieth day),<br/> +Cato, ’t is thought, will go away;<br/> +<br/> +Porcius and Marphadates, friends so true,<br/> +One Soul, they say, suffices for the two, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +that being the name of the woman, and so again, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +To Cato’s greatness every one confesses,<br/> +A royal Soul he certainly possesses. +</p> + +<p> +But all these stains were entirely wiped off by the bravery of his death. For +in the battle of Philippi, where he fought for his country’s liberty against +Caesar and Antony, when the ranks were breaking, he, scorning to fly, or to +escape unknown, called out to the enemy, showed himself to them in the front, +and encouraged those of his party who stayed; and at length fell, and left his +enemies full of admiration of his valor. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was the daughter of Cato inferior to the rest of her family, for +sober-living and greatness of spirit. She was married to Brutus, who killed +Caesar; was acquainted with the conspiracy, and ended her life as became one of +her birth and virtue. All which is related in the life of Brutus. +</p> + +<p> +Statyllius, who said he would imitate Cato, was at that time hindered by the +philosophers, when he would have put an end to his life. He afterward followed +Brutus, to whom he was very faithful and very serviceable, and died in the +field of Philippi. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap51"></a>AGIS</h2> + +<p> +The fable of Ixion, who, embracing a cloud instead of Juno, begot the Centaurs, +has been ingeniously enough supposed to have been invented to represent to us +ambitious men, whose minds, doting on glory, which is a mere image of virtue, +produce nothing that is genuine or uniform, but only, as might be expected of +such a conjunction, misshapen and unnatural actions. Running after their +emulations and passions, and carried away by the impulses of the moment, they +may say with the herdsmen, in the tragedy of Sophocles, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +We follow these, though born their rightful lords,<br/> +And they command us, though they speak no words. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For this is indeed the true condition of men in public life, who, to gain the +vain title of being the people’s leaders and governors, are content to make +themselves the slaves and followers of all the people’s humors and caprices. +For as the look-out men at the ship’s prow, though they see what is ahead +before the men at the helm, yet constantly look back to the pilots there, and +obey the orders they give; so these men steered, as I may say, by popular +applause, though they bear the name of governors, are in reality the mere +underlings of the multitude. The man who is completely wise and virtuous, has +no need at all of glory, except so far as it disposes and eases his way to +action by the greater trust that it procures him. A young man, I grant, may be +permitted, while yet eager for distinction, to pride himself a little in his +good deeds; for (as Theophrastus says) his virtues, which are yet tender and, +as it were, in the blade, cherished and supported by praises, grow stronger, +and take the deeper root. But when this passion is exorbitant, it is dangerous +in all men, and in those who govern a commonwealth, utterly destructive. For in +the possession of large power and authority, it transports men to a degree of +madness; so that now they no more think what is good, glorious, but will have +those actions only esteemed good that are glorious. As Phocion, therefore, +answered king Antipater, who sought his approbation of some unworthy action, “I +cannot be your flatterer, and your friend,” so these men should answer the +people, “I cannot govern, and obey you.” For it may happen to the commonwealth, +as to the serpent in the fable, whose tail, rising in rebellion against the +head, complained, as of a great grievance, that it was always forced to follow, +and required that it should be permitted by turns to lead the way. And taking +the command accordingly, it soon indicted by its senseless courses mischiefs in +abundance upon itself, while the head was torn and lacerated with following, +contrary to nature, a guide that was deaf and blind. And such we see to have +been the lot of many, who, submitting to be guided by the inclinations of an +uninformed and unreasoning multitude, could neither stop, nor recover +themselves out of the confusion. +</p> + +<p> +This is what has occurred to us to say, of that glory which depends on the +voice of large numbers, considering the sad effects of it in the misfortunes of +Caius and Tiberius Gracchus, men of noble nature, and whose generous natural +dispositions were improved by the best of educations, and who came to the +administration of affairs with the most laudable intentions; yet they were +ruined, I cannot say by an immoderate desire of glory, but by a more excusable +fear of disgrace. For being excessively beloved and favored by the people, they +thought it a discredit to them not to make full repayment, endeavoring by new +public acts to outdo the honors they had received, and again, because of these +new kindnesses, incurring yet further distinctions; till the people and they, +mutually inflamed, and vieing thus with each other in honors and benefits, +brought things at last to such a pass, that they might say that to engage so +far was indeed a folly, but to retreat would now be a shame. +</p> + +<p> +This the reader will easily gather from the story. I will now compare with them +two Lacedaemonian popular leaders, the kings Agis and Cleomenes. For they, +being desirous also to raise the people, and to restore the noble and just form +of government, now long fallen into disuse, incurred the hatred of the rich and +powerful, who could not endure to be deprived of the selfish enjoyments to +which they were accustomed. These were not indeed brothers by nature, as the +two Romans, but they had a kind of brotherly resemblance in their actions and +designs, which took a rise from such beginnings and occasions as I am now about +to relate. +</p> + +<p> +When the love of gold and silver had once gained admittance into the +Lacedaemonian commonwealth, it was quickly followed by avarice and baseness of +spirit in the pursuit of it, and by luxury, effeminacy, and prodigality in the +use. Then Sparta fell from almost all her former virtue and repute, and so +continued till the days of Agis and Leonidas, who both together were kings of +the Lacedaemonians. +</p> + +<p> +Agis was of the royal family of Eurypon, son of Eudamidas, and the sixth in +descent from Agesilaus, who made the expedition into Asia, and was the greatest +man of his time in Greece. Agesilaus left behind him a son called Archidamus, +the same who was slain at Mandonium, in Italy, by the Messapians, and who was +then succeeded by his eldest son Agis. He being killed by Antipater near +Megalopolis, and leaving no issue, was succeeded by his brother Eudamidas; he, +by a son called Archidamus; and Archidamus, by another Eudamidas, the father of +this Agis of whom we now treat. +</p> + +<p> +Leonidas, son of Cleonymus, was of the other royal house of the Agiadae, and +the eighth in descent from Pausanias, who defeated Mardonius in the battle of +Plataea. Pausanias was succeeded by a son called Plistoanax; and he, by another +Pausanias, who was banished, and lived as a private man at Tegea; while his +eldest son Agesipolis reigned in his place. He, dying without issue, was +succeeded by a younger brother, called Cleombrotus, who left two sons; the +elder was Agesipolis, who reigned but a short time, and died without issue; the +younger, who then became king, was called Cleomenes, and had also two sons, +Acrotatus and Cleonymus. The first died before his father, but left a son +called Areus, who succeeded, and being slain at Corinth, left the kingdom to +his son Acrotatus. This Acrotatus was defeated, and slain near Megalopolis, in +a battle against the tyrant Aristodemus; he left his wife big with child, and +on her being delivered of a son, Leonidas, son of the above-named Cleonymus, +was made his guardian, and as the young king died before becoming a man, he +succeeded in the kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +Leonidas was a king not particularly suitable to his people. For though there +were at that time at Sparta a general decline in manners, yet a greater revolt +from the old habits appeared in him than in others. For having lived a long +time among the great lords of Persia, and been a follower of king Seleucus, he +unadvisedly thought to imitate, among Greek institutions and in a lawful +government, the pride and assumption usual in those courts. Agis, on the +contrary, in fineness of nature and elevation of mind, not only far excelled +Leonidas, but in a manner all the kings that had reigned since the great +Agesilaus. For though he had been bred very tenderly, in abundance and even in +luxury, by his mother Agesistrata and his grandmother Archidamia, who were the +wealthiest of the Lacedaemonians, yet before the age of twenty, he renounced +all indulgence in pleasures. Withdrawing himself as far as possible from the +gaiety and ornament which seemed becoming to the grace of his person, he made +it his pride to appear in the coarse Spartan coat. In his meals, his bathings, +and in all his exercises, he followed the old Laconian usage, and was often +heard to say, he had no desire for the place of king, if he did not hope by +means of that authority to restore their ancient laws and discipline. +</p> + +<p> +The Lacedaemonians might date the beginning of their corruption from their +conquest of Athens, and the influx of gold and silver among them that thence +ensued. Yet, nevertheless, the number of houses which Lycurgus appointed being +still maintained, and the law remaining in force by which everyone was obliged +to leave his lot or portion of land entirely to his son, a kind of order and +equality was thereby preserved, which still in some degree sustained the state +amidst its errors in other respects. But one Epitadeus happening to be ephor, a +man of great influence, and of a willful, violent spirit, on some occasion of a +quarrel with his son, proposed a decree, that all men should have liberty to +dispose of their land by gift in their lifetime, or by their last will and +testament. This being promoted by him to satisfy a passion of revenge, and +through covetousness consented to by others, and thus enacted for a law, was +the ruin of the best state of the commonwealth. For the rich men without +scruple drew the estates into their own hands, excluding the rightful heirs +from their succession; and all the wealth being centered upon a few, the +generality were poor and miserable. Honorable pursuits, for which there was no +longer leisure, were neglected; and the state was filled with sordid business, +and with hatred and envy of the rich. There did not remain above seven hundred +of the old Spartan families, of which perhaps one hundred might have estates in +land, the rest were destitute alike of wealth and of honor, were tardy and +unperforming in the defense of their country against its enemies abroad, and +eagerly watched the opportunity for change and revolution at home. +</p> + +<p> +Agis, therefore, believing it a glorious action, as in truth it was, to +equalize and repeople the state, began to sound the inclinations of the +citizens. He found the young men disposed beyond his expectation; they were +eager to enter with him upon the contest in the cause of virtue, and to fling +aside, for freedom’s sake, their old manner of life, as readily as the wrestler +does his garment. But the old men, habituated and more confirmed in their +vices, were most of them as alarmed at the very name of Lycurgus, as a fugitive +slave to be brought back before his offended master. These men could not endure +to hear Agis continually deploring the present state of Sparta, and wishing she +might be restored to her ancient glory. But on the other side, Lysander, the +son of Libys, Mandroclidas, the son of Ecphanes, together with Agesilaus, not +only approved his design, but assisted and confirmed him in it. Lysander had a +great authority and credit with the people; Mandroclidas was esteemed the +ablest Greek of his time to manage an affair and put it in train, and, joined +with skill and cunning, had a great degree of boldness. Agesilaus was the +king’s uncle, by the mother’s side; an eloquent man, but covetous and +voluptuous, who was not moved by considerations of public good, but rather +seemed to be persuaded to it by his son Hippomedon, whose courage and signal +actions in war had gained him a high esteem and great influence among the young +men of Sparta, though indeed the true motive was, that he had many debts, and +hoped by this means to be freed from them. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Agis had prevailed with his uncle, he endeavored by his mediation to +gain his mother also, who had many friends and followers, and a number of +persons in her debt in the city, and took a considerable part in public +affairs. At the first proposal, she was very averse, and strongly advised her +son not to engage in so difficult and so unprofitable an enterprise. But +Agesilaus endeavored to possess her, that the thing was not so difficult as she +imagined, and that it might, in all likelihood, redound to the advantage of her +family; while the king, her son, besought her not for money’s sake to decline +assisting his hopes of glory. He told her, he could not pretend to equal other +kings in riches, the very followers and menials of the satraps and stewards of +Seleucus or Ptolemy abounding more in wealth than all the Spartan kings put +together; but if by contempt of wealth and pleasure, by simplicity and +magnanimity, he could surpass their luxury and abundance, if he could restore +their former equality to the Spartans, then he should be a great king indeed. +In conclusion, the mother and the grandmother also were so taken, so carried +away with the inspiration, as it were, of the young man’s noble and generous +ambition, that they not only consented, but were ready on an occasions to spur +him on to a perseverance, and not only sent to speak on his behalf with the men +with whom they had an interest, but addressed the other women also, knowing +well that the Lacedaemonian wives had always a great power with their husbands, +who used to impart to them their state affairs with greater freedom than the +women would communicate with the men in the private business of their families. +Which was indeed one of the greatest obstacles to this design; for the money of +Sparta being most of it in the women’s hands, it was their interest to oppose +it, not only as depriving them of those superfluous trifles, in which through +want of better knowledge and experience, they placed their chief felicity, but +also because they knew their riches were the main support of their power and +credit. +</p> + +<p> +Those, therefore, who were of this faction, had recourse to Leonidas, +representing to him, how it was his part, as the elder and more experienced, to +put a stop to the ill-advised projects of a rash young man. Leonidas, though of +himself sufficiently inclined to oppose Agis, durst not openly, for fear of the +people, who were manifestly desirous of this change; but underhand he did all +he could to discredit and thwart the project, and to prejudice the chief +magistrates against him, and on all occasions craftily insinuated, that it was +as the price of letting him usurp arbitrary power, that Agis thus proposed to +divide the property of the rich among the poor, and that the object of these +measures for canceling debts, and dividing the lands, was, not to furnish +Sparta with citizens, but purchase him a tyrant’s body-guard. +</p> + +<p> +Agis, nevertheless, little regarding these rumors, procured Lysander’s election +as ephor; and then took the first occasion of proposing through him his Rhetra +to the council, the chief articles of which were these: That every one should +be free from their debts; all the lands to be divided into equal portions, +those that lay betwixt the watercourse near Pellene and Mount Taygetus, and as +far as the cities of Malea and Sellasia, into four thousand five hundred lots, +the remainder into fifteen thousand; these last to be shared out among those of +the country people who were fit for service as heavy-armed soldiers, the first +among the natural born Spartans; and their number also should be supplied from +any among the country people or strangers who had received the proper breeding +of freemen, and were of vigorous, body and of age for military service. All +these were to be divided into fifteen companies, some of four hundred, and some +of two, with a diet and discipline agreeable to the laws of Lycurgus. +</p> + +<p> +This decree being proposed in the council of Elders, met there with opposition; +so that Lysander immediately convoked the great assembly of the people, to whom +he, Mandroclidas, and Agesilaus made orations, exhorting them that they would +not suffer the majesty of Sparta to remain abandoned to contempt, to gratify a +few rich men, who lorded it over them; but that they should call to mind the +oracles in old time which had forewarned them to beware of the love of money, +as the great danger and probable ruin of Sparta, and, moreover, those recently +brought from the temple of Pasiphae. This was a famous temple and oracle at +Thalamae; and this Pasiphae, some say, was one of the daughters of Atlas, who +had by Jupiter a son called Ammon; others are of opinion it was Cassandra, the +daughter of king Priam, who, dying in this place, was called Pasiphae, as the +revealer of oracles to all men. Phylarchus says, that this was Daphne, the +daughter of Amyclas, who, flying from Apollo, was transformed into a laurel, +and honored by that god with the gift of prophecy. But be it as it will, it is +certain the people were made to apprehend, that this oracle had commanded them +to return to their former state of equality settled by Lycurgus. As soon as +these had done speaking, Agis stood up, and after a few words, told them he +would make the best contribution in his power to the new legislation, which was +proposed for their advantage. In the first place, he would divide among them +all his patrimony, which was of large extent in tillage and pasture; he would +also give six hundred talents in ready money, and his mother, grandmother, and +his other friends and relations, who were the richest of the Lacedaemonians, +were ready to follow his example. +</p> + +<p> +The people were transported with admiration of the young man’s generosity, and +with joy, that after three hundred years’ interval, at last there had appeared +a king worthy of Sparta. But, on the other side, Leonidas was now more than +ever averse, being sensible that he and his friends would be obliged to +contribute with their riches, and yet all the honor and obligation would +redound to Agis. He asked him then before them all, whether Lycurgus were not +in his opinion a wise man, and a lover of his country. Agis answering he was, +“And when did Lycurgus,” replied Leonidas, “cancel debts, or admit strangers to +citizenship, — he who thought the commonwealth not secure unless from time to +time the city was cleared of all strangers?” To this Agis replied, “It is no +wonder that Leonidas, who was brought up and married abroad, and has children +by a wife taken out of a Persian court, should know little of Lycurgus or his +laws. Lycurgus took away both debts and loans, by taking away money; and +objected indeed to the presence of men who were foreign to the manners and +customs of the country, not in any case from an ill-will to their persons, but +lest the example of their lives and conduct should infect the city with the +love of riches, and of delicate and luxurious habits. For it is well known that +he himself gladly kept Terpander, Thales, and Pherecycles, though they were +strangers, because he perceived they were in their poems and in their +philosophy of the same mind with him. And you that are wont to praise Ecprepes, +who, being ephor, cut with his hatchet two of the nine strings from the +instrument of Phrynis, the musician, and to commend those who afterwards +imitated him, in cutting the strings of Timotheus’s harp, with what face can +you blame us, for designing to cut off superfluity and luxury and display from +the commonwealth? Do you think those men were so concerned only about a +lute-string, or intended anything else than to check in music that same excess +and extravagance which rule in our present lives and manners, and have +disturbed and destroyed all the harmony and order of our city?” +</p> + +<p> +From this time forward, as the common people followed Agis, so the rich men +adhered to Leonidas. They be sought him not to forsake their cause; and with +persuasions and entreaties so far prevailed with the council of Elders, whose +power consisted in preparing all laws before they were proposed to the people, +that the designed Rhetra was rejected, though but by only one vote. Whereupon +Lysander, who was still ephor, resolving to be revenged on Leonidas, drew up an +information against him, grounded on two old laws: the one forbids any of the +blood of Hercules to raise up children by a foreign woman, and the other makes +it capital for a Lacedaemonian to leave his country to settle among foreigners. +Whilst he set others on to manage this accusation, he with his colleagues went +to observe the sign, which was a custom they had, and performed in this manner. +Every ninth year, the ephors, choosing a starlight night, when there is neither +cloud nor moon, sit down together in quiet and silence, and watch the sky. And +if they chance to see the shooting of a star, they presently pronounce their +king guilty of some offense against the gods, and thereupon he is immediately +suspended from all exercise of regal power, till he is relieved by an oracle +from Delphi or Olympia. +</p> + +<p> +Lysander, therefore, assured the people, he had seen a star shoot, and at the +same time Leonidas was cited to answer for himself. Witnesses were produced to +testify he had married an Asian woman, bestowed on him by one of king +Seleucus’s lieutenants; that he had two children by her, but she so disliked +and hated him, that, against his wishes, flying from her, he was in a manner +forced to return to Sparta, where, his predecessor dying without issue, he took +upon him the government. Lysander, not content with this, persuaded also +Cleombrotus to lay claim to the kingdom. He was of the royal family, and +son-in-law to Leonidas; who, fearing now the event of this process, fled as a +suppliant to the temple of Minerva of the Brazen House, together with his +daughter, the wife of Cleombrotus; for she in this occasion resolved to leave +her husband, and to follow her father. Leonidas being again cited, and not +appearing, they pronounced a sentence of deposition against him, and made +Cleombrotus king in his place. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after this revolution, Lysander, his year expiring, went out of his +office, and new ephors were chosen, who gave Leonidas assurance of safety, and +cited Lysander and Mandroclidas to answer for having, contrary to law, canceled +debts, and designed a new division of lands. They, seeing themselves in danger, +had recourse to the two kings, and represented to them, how necessary it was +for their interest and safety to act with united authority and bid defiance to +the ephors. For, indeed, the power of the ephors, they said, was only grounded +on the dissensions of the kings, it being their privilege, when the kings +differed in opinion, to add their suffrage to whichever they judged to have +given the best advice; but when the two kings were unanimous, none ought or +durst resist their authority, the magistrate, whose office it was to stand as +umpire when they were at variance, had no call to interfere when they were of +one mind. Agis and Cleombrotus, thus persuaded, went together with their +friends into the market-place, where, removing the ephors from their seats, +they placed others in their room of whom Agesilaus was one; proceeding then to +arm a company of young men, and releasing many out of prison; so that those of +the contrary faction began to be in great fear of their lives; but there was no +blood spilt. On the contrary, Agis, having notice that Agesilaus had ordered a +company of soldiers to lie in wait for Leonidas, to kill him as he fled to +Tegea, immediately sent some of his followers to defend him, and to convey him +safely into that city. +</p> + +<p> +Thus far all things proceeded prosperously, none daring to oppose; but through +the sordid weakness of one man these promising beginnings were blasted, and a +most noble and truly Spartan purpose overthrown and ruined, by the love of +money. Agesilaus, as we said, was much in debt, though in possession of one of +the largest and best estates in land; and while he gladly joined in this design +to be quit of his debts, he was not at all willing to part with his land. +Therefore he persuaded Agis, that if both these things should be put in +execution at the same time, so great and so sudden an alteration might cause +some dangerous commotion; but if debts were in the first place canceled, the +rich men would afterwards more easily be prevailed with to part with their +land. Lysander, also, was of the same opinion, being deceived in like manner by +the craft of Agesilaus; so that all men were presently commanded to bring in +their bonds, or deeds of obligation, by the Lacedaemonians called Claria, into +the market-place, where being laid together in a heap, they set fire to them. +The wealthy, money-lending people, one may easily imagine, beheld it with a +heavy heart; but Agesilaus told them scoffingly, his eyes had never seen so +bright and so pure a flame. +</p> + +<p> +And now the people pressed earnestly for an immediate division of lands; the +kings also had ordered it should be done; but Agesilaus, sometimes pretending +one difficulty, and sometimes another, delayed the execution, till an occasion +happened to call Agis to the wars. The Achaeans, in virtue of a defensive +treaty of alliance, sent to demand succors, as they expected every day that the +Aetolians would attempt to enter Peloponnesus, from the territory of Megara. +They had sent Aratus, their general, to collect forces to hinder this +incursion. Aratus wrote to the ephors, who immediately gave order that Agis +should hasten to their assistance with the Lacedaemonian auxiliaries. Agis was +extremely pleased to see the zeal and bravery of those who went with him upon +this expedition. They were for the most part young men, and poor; and being +just released from their debts and set at liberty, and hoping on their return +to receive each man his lot of land, they followed their king with wonderful +alacrity. The cities through which they passed, were in admiration to see how +they marched from one end of Peloponnesus to the other, without the least +disorder, and, in a manner, without being heard. It gave the Greeks occasion to +discourse with one another, how great might be the temperance and modesty of a +Laconian army in old time, under their famous captains Agesilaus, Lysander, or +Leonidas, since they saw such discipline and exact obedience under a leader who +perhaps was the youngest man all the army. They saw also how he was himself +content to fare hardly, ready to undergo any labors, and not to be +distinguished by pomp or richness of habit or arms from the meanest of his +soldiers; and to people in general it was an object of regard and admiration. +But rich men viewed the innovation with dislike and alarm, lest haply the +example might spread, and work changes to their prejudice in their own +countries as well. +</p> + +<p> +Agis joined Aratus near the city of Corinth, where it was still a matter of +debate whether or no it were expedient to give the enemy battle. Agis, on this +occasion, showed great forwardness and resolution, yet without temerity or +presumption. He declared it was his opinion they ought to fight, thereby to +hinder the enemy from passing the gates of Peloponnesus, but, nevertheless, he +would submit to the judgment of Aratus, not only as the elder and more +experienced captain, but as he was general of the Achaeans, whose forces he +would not pretend to command, but was only come thither to assist them. I am +not ignorant that Baton of Sinope, relates it in another manner; he says, +Aratus would have fought, and that Agis was against it; but it is certain he +was mistaken, not having read what Aratus himself wrote in his own +justification, that knowing the people had wellnigh got in their harvest, he +thought it much better to let the enemy pass, than put all to the hazard of a +battle. And therefore, giving thanks to the confederates for their readiness, +he dismissed them. And Agis, not without having gained a great deal of honor, +returned to Sparta, where he found the people in disorder, and a new revolution +imminent, owing to the ill government of Agesilaus. +</p> + +<p> +For he, being now one of the ephors, and freed from the fear which formerly +kept him in some restraint, forbore no kind of oppression which might bring in +gain. Among other things, he exacted a thirteenth month’s tax, whereas the +usual cycle required at this time no such addition to the year. For these and +other reasons fearing those whom he injured, and knowing how he was hated by +the people, he thought it necessary to maintain a guard, which always +accompanied him to the magistrate’s office. And presuming now on his power, he +was grown so insolent, that of the two kings, the one he openly contemned, and +if he showed any respect towards Agis, would have it thought rather an effect +of his near relationship, than any duty or submission to the royal authority. +He gave it out also, that he was to continue ephor the ensuing year. +</p> + +<p> +His enemies, therefore, alarmed by this report, lost no time in risking an +attempt against him; and openly bringing hack Leonidas from Tegea, +reestablished him in the kingdom, to which even the people, highly incensed for +having been defrauded in the promised division of lands, willingly consented. +Agesilaus himself would hardly have escaped their fury, if his son, Hippomedon, +whose manly virtues made him dear to all, had not saved him out of their hands, +and then privately conveyed him from the city. +</p> + +<p> +During this commotion, the two kings fled, Agis to the temple of the Brazen +House, and Cleombrotus to that of Neptune. For Leonidas was more incensed +against his son-in-law; and leaving Agis alone, went with his soldiers to +Cleombrotus’s sanctuary, and there with great passion reproached him for +having, though he was his son-in-law, conspired with his enemies, usurped his +throne, and forced him from his country. Cleombrotus, having little to say for +himself, sat silent. His wife, Chilonis, the daughter of Leonidas, had chosen +to follow her father in his sufferings; for when Cleombrotus usurped the +kingdom, she forsook him, and wholly devoted herself to comfort her father in +his affliction; whilst he still remained in Sparta, she remained also, as a +suppliant, with him, and when he fled, she fled with him, bewailing his +misfortune, and extremely displeased with Cleombrotus. But now, upon this turn +of fortune, she changed in like manner, and was seen sitting now, as a +suppliant, with her husband, embracing him with her arms, and having her two +little children beside her. All men were full of wonder at the piety and tender +affection of the young woman, who, pointing to her robes and her hair, both +alike neglected and unattended to, said to Leonidas, “I am not brought, my +father, to this condition you see me in, on account of the present misfortunes +of Cleombrotus; my mourning habit is long since familiar to me. It was put on +to condole with you in your banishment; and now you are restored to your +country, and to your kingdom, must I still remain in grief and misery? Or would +you have me attired in my royal ornaments, that I may rejoice with you, when +you have killed, within my arms, the man to whom you gave me for a wife? Either +Cleombrotus must appease you by mine and my children’s tears, or he must suffer +a punishment greater than you propose for his faults, and shall see me, whom he +loves so well, die before him. To what end should I live, or how shall I appear +among the Spartan women, when it shall so manifestly be seen, that I have not +been able to move to compassion either a husband or a father? I was born, it +seems, to participate in the ill fortune and in the disgrace, both as a wife +and a daughter, of those nearest and dearest to me. As for Cleombrotus, I +sufficiently surrendered any honorable plea on his behalf, when I forsook him +to follow you; but you yourself offer the fairest excuse for his proceedings, +by showing to the world that for the sake of a kingdom, it is just to kill a +son-in-law, and be regardless of a daughter.” Chilonis, having ended this +lamentation, rested her face on her husband’s head, and looked round with her +weeping and woebegone eyes upon those who stood be fore her. +</p> + +<p> +Leonidas, touched with compassion, withdrew a while to advise with his friends; +then returning, bade Cleombrotus leave the sanctuary and go into banishment; +Chilonis, he said, ought to stay with him, it not being just she should forsake +a father whose affection had granted to her intercession the life of her +husband. But all he could say would not prevail. She rose up immediately, and +taking one of her children in her arms, gave the other to her husband; and +making her reverence to the altar of the goddess, went out and followed him. So +that, in a word, if Cleombrotus were not utterly blinded by ambition, he must +surely choose to be banished with so excellent a woman rather than without her +to possess a kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +Cleombrotus thus removed, Leonidas proceeded also to displace the ephors, and +to choose others in their room; then he began to consider how he might entrap +Agis. At first, he endeavored by fair means to persuade him to leave the +sanctuary, and partake with him in the kingdom. The people, he said, would +easily pardon the errors of a young man, ambitious of glory, and deceived by +the craft of Agesilaus. But finding Agis was suspicious, and not to be +prevailed with to quit his sanctuary, he gave up that design; yet what could +not then be effected by the dissimulation of an enemy, was soon after brought +to pass by the treachery of friends. +</p> + +<p> +Amphares, Damochares, and Arcesilaus often visited Agis, and he was so +confident of their fidelity that after a while he was prevailed with to +accompany them to the baths, which were not far distant, they constantly +returning to see him safe again in the temple. They were all three his +familiars; and Amphares had borrowed a great deal of plate and rich household +stuff from Agesistrata, and hoped if he could destroy her and the whole family, +he might peaceably enjoy those goods. And he, it is said, was the readiest of +all to serve the purposes of Leonidas, and being one of the ephors, did all he +could to incense the rest of his colleagues against Agis. These men, therefore, +finding that Agis would not quit his sanctuary, but on occasion would venture +from it to go to the bath, resolved to seize him on the opportunity thus given +them. And one day as he was returning, they met and saluted him as formerly, +conversing pleasantly by the way, and jesting, as youthful friends might, till +coming to the turning of a street which led to the prison, Amphares, by virtue +of his office, laid his hand on Agis, and told him, “You must go with me, Agis, +before the other ephors, to answer for your misdemeanors.” At the same time, +Damochares, who was a tall, strong man, drew his cloak tight round his neck, +and dragged him after by it, whilst the others went behind to thrust him on. So +that none of Agis’s friends being near to assist him, nor anyone by, they +easily got him into the prison, where Leonidas was already arrived, with a +company of soldiers, who strongly guarded all the avenues; the ephors also came +in, with as many of the Elders as they knew to be true to their party, being +desirous to proceed with some resemblance of justice. And thus they bade him +give an account of his actions. To which Agis, smiling at their dissimulation, +answered not a word. Amphares told him, it was more seasonable to weep, for now +the time was come in which he should be punished for his presumption. Another +of the ephors, as though he would be more favorable, and offering as it were an +excuse, asked him whether he was not forced to what he did by Agesilaus and +Lysander. But Agis answered, he had not been constrained by any man, nor had +any other intent in what he did, but only to follow the example of Lycurgus, +and to govern conformably to his laws. The same ephor asked him, whether now at +least he did not repent his rashness. To which the young man answered, that +though he were to suffer the extremest penalty for it, yet he could never +repent of so just and so glorious a design. Upon this they passed sentence of +death on him, and bade the officers carry him to the Dechas, as it is called, a +place in the prison where they strangle malefactors. And when the officers +would not venture to lay hands on him, and the very mercenary soldiers declined +it, believing it an illegal and a wicked act to lay violent hands on a king, +Damochares, threatening and reviling them for it, himself thrust him into the +room. +</p> + +<p> +For by this time the news of his being seized had reached many parts of the +city, and there was a concourse of people with lights and torches about the +prison gates, and in the midst of them the mother and the grandmother of Agis, +crying out with a loud voice, that their king ought to appear, and to be heard +and judged by the people. But this clamor, instead of preventing, hastened his +death; his enemies fearing, if the tumult should increase, he might be rescued +during the night out of their hands. +</p> + +<p> +Agis, being now at the point to die, perceived one of the officers bitterly +bewailing his misfortune; “Weep not, friend,” said he, “for me, who die +innocent, by the lawless act of wicked men. My condition is much better than +theirs.” As soon as he had spoken these words, not showing the least sign of +fear, he offered his neck to the noose. +</p> + +<p> +Immediately after he was dead, Amphares went out of the prison gate, where he +found Agesistrata, who, believing him still the same friend as before, threw +herself at his feet. He gently raised her up, and assured her, she need not +fear any further violence or danger of death for her son, and that if she +pleased, she might go in and see him. She begged her mother might also have the +favor to be admitted, and he replied, nobody should hinder it. When they were +entered, he commanded the gate should again be locked, and Archidamia, the +grandmother, to be first introduced; she was now grown very old, and had lived +all her days in the highest repute among her fellows. As soon as Amphares +thought she was dispatched, he told Agesistrata she might now go in if she +pleased. She entered, and beholding her son’s body stretched on the ground, and +her mother hanging by the neck, the first thing she did was, with her own +hands, to assist the officers in taking down the body; then covering it +decently, she laid it out by her son’s, whom then embracing, and kissing his +cheeks, “O my son,” said she, “it was thy too great mercy and goodness which +brought thee and us to ruin.” Amphares, who stood watching behind the door, on +hearing this, broke in, and said angrily to her, “ Since you approve so well of +your son’s actions, it is fit you should partake in his reward.” She, rising up +to offer herself to the noose, said only, “I pray that it may redound to the +good of Sparta.” +</p> + +<p> +And now the three bodies being exposed to view, and the fact divulged, no fear +was strong enough to hinder the people from expressing their abhorrence of what +was done, and their detestation of Leonidas and Amphares, the contrivers of it. +So wicked and barbarous an act had never been committed in Sparta, since first +the Dorians inhabited Peloponnesus; the very enemies in war, they said, were +always cautious of spilling the blood of a Lacedaemonian king, insomuch that in +any combat they would decline, and endeavor to avoid them, from feelings of +respect and reverence for their station. And certainly we see that in the many +battles fought betwixt the Lacedaemonians and the other Greeks, up to the time +of Philip of Macedon, not one of their kings was ever killed, except +Cleombrotus, by a javelin-wound, at the battle of Leuctra. I am not ignorant +that the Messenians affirm, Theopompus was also slain by their Aristomenes; but +the Lacedaemonians deny it, and say he was only wounded. +</p> + +<p> +Be it as it will, it is certain at least that Agis was the first king put to +death in Lacedaemon by the ephors, for having undertaken a design noble in +itself and worthy of his country, at a time of life when men’s errors usually +meet with an easy pardon. And if errors he did commit, his enemies certainly +had less reason to blame him, than had his friends for that gentle and +compassionate temper which made him save the life of Leonidas, and believe in +other men’s professions. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap52"></a>CLEOMENES</h2> + +<p> +Thus fell Agis. His brother Archidamus was too quick for Leonidas, and saved +himself by a timely retreat. But his wife, then mother of a young child, he +forced from her own house, and compelled Agiatis, for that was her name, to +marry his son Cleomenes, though at that time too young for a wife, because he +was unwilling that anyone else should have her, being heiress to her father +Glylippus’s great estate; in person the most youthful and beautiful woman in +all Greece, and well-conducted in her habits of life. And therefore, they say, +she did all she could that she might not be compelled to this new marriage. But +being thus united to Cleomenes, she indeed hated Leonidas, but to the youth +showed herself a kind and obliging wife. He, as soon as they came together, +began to love her very much, and the constant kindness that she still retained +for the memory of Agis, wrought somewhat of the like feeling in the young man +for him, so that he would often inquire of her concerning what had passed, and +attentively listen to the story of Agis’s purpose and design. Now Cleomenes had +a generous and great soul; he was as temperate and moderate in his pleasures as +Agis, but not so scrupulous, circumspect, and gentle. There was something of +heat and passion always goading him on, and an impetuosity and violence in his +eagerness to pursue anything which he thought good and just. To have men obey +him of their own freewill, he conceived to be the best discipline; but, +likewise, to subdue resistance, and force them to the better course, was, in +his opinion, commendable and brave. +</p> + +<p> +This disposition made him dislike the management of the city. The citizens lay +dissolved in supine idleness and pleasures; the king let everything take its +own way, thankful if nobody gave him any disturbance, nor called him away from +the enjoyment of his wealth and luxury. The public interest was neglected, and +each man intent upon his private gain. It was dangerous, now Agis was killed, +so much as to name such a thing as the exercising and training of their youth; +and to speak of the ancient temperance, endurance, and equality, was a sort of +treason against the state. It is said also that Cleomenes, whilst a boy, +studied philosophy under Sphaerus, the Borysthenite, who crossed over to +Sparta, and spent some time and trouble in instructing the youth. Sphaerus was +one of the first of Zeno the Citiean’s scholars, and it is likely enough that +he admired the manly temper of Cleomenes and inflamed his generous ambition. +The ancient Leonidas, as story tells, being asked what manner of poet he +thought Tyrtaeus, replied, “Good to whet young men’s courage;” for being filled +with a divine fury by his poems, they rushed into any danger. And so the stoic +philosophy is a dangerous incentive to strong and fiery dispositions, but where +it combines with a grave and gentle temper, is most successful in leading it to +its proper good. +</p> + +<p> +Upon the death of his father Leonidas, he succeeded, and observing the citizens +of all sorts to be debauched, the rich neglecting the public good, and intent +on their private gain and pleasure, and the poor distressed in their own homes, +and therefore without either spirit for war or ambition to be trained up as +Spartans, that he had only the name of king, and the ephors all the power, he +was resolved to change the present posture of affairs. He had a friend whose +name was Xenares, his lover, (such an affection the Spartans express by the +term, being inspired, or imbreathed with); him he sounded, and of him he would +commonly inquire what manner of king Agis was, by what means and by what +assistance he began and pursued his designs. Xenares, at first, willingly +compiled with his request, and told him the whole story, with all the +particular circumstances of the actions. But when he observed Cleomenes to be +extremely affected at the relation, and more than ordinarily taken with Agis’s +new model of the government, and begging a repetition of the story, he at first +severely chid him, told him he was frantic, and at last left off all sort of +familiarity and intercourse with him, yet he never told any man the cause of +their disagreement, but would only say, Cleomenes knew very well. Cleomenes, +finding Xenares averse to his designs, and thinking all others to be of the +same disposition, consulted with none, but contrived the whole business by +himself. And considering that it would be easier to bring about an alteration +when the city was at war, than when in peace, he engaged the commonwealth in a +quarrel with the Achaeans, who had given them fair occasions to complain. For +Aratus, a man of the greatest power amongst all the Achaeans, designed from the +very beginning to bring all the Peloponnesians into one common body. And to +effect this was the one object of all his many commanderships and his long +political course; as he thought this the only means to make them a match for +their foreign enemies. Pretty nearly all the rest agreed to his proposals, only +the Lacedaemonians, the Eleans, and as many of the Arcadians as inclined to the +Spartan interest, remained unpersuaded. And so as soon as Leonidas was dead, he +began to attack the Arcadians, and wasted those especially that bordered on +Achaea, by this means designing to try the inclinations of the Spartans, and +despising Cleomenes as a youth, and of no experience in affairs of state or +war. Upon this, the ephors sent Cleomenes to surprise the Athenaeum, near +Belbina, which is a pass commanding an entrance into Laconia and was then the +subject of litigation with the Megalopolitans. Cleomenes possessed himself of +the place, and fortified it, at which action Aratus showed no public +resentment, but marched by night to surprise Tegea and Orchormenus. The design +failed, for those that were to betray the cities into his hands, turned afraid; +so Aratus retreated, imagining that his design had been undiscovered. But +Cleomenes wrote a sarcastic letter to him, and desired to know, as from a +friend, whither he intended to march at night; and Aratus answering, that +having heard of his design to fortify Belbina, he meant to march thither to +oppose him, Cleomenes rejoined, that he did not dispute it, but begged to be +informed, if he might be allowed to ask the question, why he carried those +torches and ladders with him. +</p> + +<p> +Aratus laughing at the jest, and asking what manner of youth this was, +Damocrates, a Spartan exile, replied, “If you have any designs upon the +Lacedaemonians, begin before this young eagle’s talons are grown.” Presently +after this, Cleomenes, encamping in Arcadia with a few horse and three hundred +foot, received orders from the ephors, who feared to engage in the war, +commanding him home; but when upon his retreat Aratus took Caphyae, they +commissioned him again. In this expedition he took Methydrium, and overran the +country of the Argives; and the Achaeans, to oppose him, came out with an army +of twenty thousand foot and one thousand horse, under the command of +Aristomachus. Cleomenes faced them at Pallantium, and offered battle, but +Aratus, being cowed by his bravery, would not suffer the general to engage, but +retreated, amidst the reproaches of the Achaeans, and the derision and scorn of +the Spartans, who were not above five thousand. Cleomenes, encouraged by this +success, began to speak boldly among the citizens, and reminding them of a +sentence of one of their ancient kings, said, it was in vain now that the +Spartans asked, not how many their enemies were, but where they were. After +this, marching to the assistance of the Eleans, whom the Achaeans were +attacking, falling upon the enemy in their retreat near the Lycaeum, he put +their whole army to flight, taking a great number of captives, and leaving many +dead upon the place; so that it was commonly reported amongst the Greeks that +Aratus was slain. But Aratus, making the best advantage of the opportunity, +immediately after the defeat marched to Mantinea, and before anybody suspected +it, took the city, and put a garrison into it. Upon this, the Lacedaemonians +being quite discouraged, and opposing Cleomenes’s designs of carrying on the +war, he now exerted himself to have Archidamus, the brother of Agis, sent for +from Messene, as he, of the other family, had a right to the kingdom ; and +besides, Cleomenes thought that the power of the ephors would be reduced, when +the kingly state was thus filled up, and raised to its proper position. But +those that were concerned in the murder of Agis, perceiving the design, and +fearing that upon Archidamus’s return they should be called to an account, +received him on his coming privately into town, and joined in bringing him +home, and presently after murdered him. Whether Cleomenes was against it, as +Phylarchus thinks, or whether he was persuaded by his friends, or let him fall +into their hands, is uncertain; however, they were most blamed, as having +forced his consent. +</p> + +<p> +He, still resolving to new model the state, bribed the ephors to send him out +to war; and won the affections of many others by means of his mother +Cratesiclea, who spared no cost and was very zealous to promote her son’s +ambition; and though of herself she had no inclination to marry, yet for his +sake, she accepted, as her husband, one of the chiefest citizens for wealth and +power. Cleomenes, marching forth with the army now under his commend, took +Leuctra, a place belonging to Megalopolis; and the Achaeans quickly coming up +to resist him with a good body of men commanded by Aratus, in a battle under +the very walls of the city some part of his army was routed. But whereas Aratus +had commanded the Achaeans not to pass a deep watercourse, and thus put a stop +to the pursuit, Lydiadas, the Megalopolitan, fretting at the orders, and +encouraging the horse which he led, and following the routed enemy, got into a +place full of vines, hedges, and ditches; and being forced to break his ranks, +began to retire in disorder. Cleomenes, observing the advantage, commanded the +Tarentines and Cretans to engage him, by whom, after a brave defense, he was +routed and slain. The Lacedaemonians, thus encouraged, fell with a great shout +upon the Achaeans, and routed their whole army. Of the slain, who were very +many, the rest Cleomenes delivered up, when the enemy petitioned for them; but +the body of Lydiadas he commanded to be brought to him; and then putting on it +a purple robe, and a crown upon its head, sent a convoy with it to the gates of +Megalopolis. This is that Lydiadas who resigned his power as tyrant, restored +liberty to the citizens, and joined the city to the Achaean interest. +</p> + +<p> +Cleomenes, being very much elated by this success, and persuaded that if +matters were wholly at his disposal, he should soon be too hard for the +Achaeans, persuaded Megistonus, his mother’s husband, that it was expedient for +the state to shake off the power of the ephors, and to put all their wealth +into one common stock for the whole body; thus Sparta, being restored to its +old equality, might aspire again to the command of all Greece. Megistonus liked +the design, and engaged two or three more of his friends. About that time, one +of the ephors, sleeping in Pasiphae’s temple, dreamed a very surprising dream; +for he thought he saw the four chairs removed out of the place where the ephors +used to sit and do the business of their office, and one only set there; and +whilst he wondered, he heard a voice out of the temple, saying, “This is best +for Sparta.” The person telling Cleomenes this dream, he was a little troubled +at first, fearing that he used this as a trick to sift him, upon some suspicion +of his design, but when he was satisfied that the relater spoke truth, he took +heart again. And carrying with him those whom he thought would be most against +his project, he took Heraea and Alsaea, two towns in league with the Achaeans, +furnished Orchomenus with provisions, encamped before Mantinea, and with long +marches up and down so harassed the Lacedaemonians, that many of them at their +own request were left behind in Arcadia, while he with the mercenaries went on +toward Sparta, and by the way communicated his design to those whom he thought +fittest for his purpose, and marched slowly, that he might catch the ephors at +supper. +</p> + +<p> +When he was come near the city, he sent Euryclidas to the public table, where +the ephors supped, under pretense of carrying some message from him from the +army; Therycion, Phoebis, and two of those who had been bred up with Cleomenes, +whom they call mothaces, followed with a few soldiers; and whilst Euryclidas +was delivering his message to the ephors, they ran upon them with their drawn +swords, and slew them. The first of them, Agylaeus, on receiving the blow, fell +and lay as dead; but in a little time quietly raising himself, and drawing +himself out of the room, he crept, without being discovered, into a little +building which was dedicated to Fear, and which always used to be shut, but +then by chance was open; and being got in, he shut the door, and lay close. The +other four were killed, and above ten more that came to their assistance; to +those that were quiet they did no harm, stopped none that fled from the city, +and spared Agylaeus, when he came out of the temple the next day. +</p> + +<p> +The Lacedaemonians have not only sacred places dedicated to Fear, but also to +Death, Laughter, and the like Passions. Now they worship Fear, not as they do +supernatural powers which they dread, esteeming it hurtful, but thinking their +polity is chiefly kept up by fear. And therefore, the ephors, Aristotle is my +author, when they entered upon their government, made proclamation to the +people, that they should shave their mustaches, and be obedient to the laws, +that the laws might not be hard upon them, making, I suppose, this trivial +injunction, to accustom their youth to obedience even in the smallest matters. +And the ancients, I think, did not imagine bravery to be plain fearlessness, +but a cautious fear of blame and disgrace. For those that show most timidity +towards the laws, are most bold against their enemies; and those are least +afraid of any danger who are most afraid of a just reproach. Therefore it was +well said that +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +A reverence still attends on fear; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and by Homer, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Feared you shall be, dear father, and revered; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +and again, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In silence fearing those that bore the sway; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +for the generality of men are most ready to reverence those whom they fear. +And, therefore, the Lacedaemonians placed the temple of Fear by the Syssitium +of the ephors, having raised that magistracy to almost royal authority. +</p> + +<p> +The next day, Cleomenes proscribed eighty of the citizens, whom he thought +necessary to banish, and removed all the seats of the ephors, except one, in +which he himself designed to sit and give audience; and calling the citizens +together, he made an apology for his proceedings, saying, that by Lycurgus the +council of Elders was joined to the kings, and that that model of government +had continued a long time, and no other sort of magistrates had been wanted. +But afterwards, in the long war with the Messenians, when the kings, having to +command the army, found no time to administer justice, they chose some of their +friends, and left them to determine the suits of the citizens in their stead. +These were called ephors, and at first behaved themselves as servants to the +kings; but afterwards, by degrees, they appropriated the power to themselves +and erected a distinct magistracy. An evidence of the truth of this was the +custom still observed by the kings, who, when the ephors send for them, refuse, +upon the first and the second summons, to go, but upon the third, rise up and +attend them. And Asteropus, the first that raised the ephors to that height of +power, lived a great many years after their institution. So long, therefore, he +continued, as they contained themselves within their own proper sphere, it had +been better to bear with them than to make a disturbance. But that an upstart, +introduced power should so far subvert the ancient form of government as to +banish some kings, murder others, without hearing their defense, and threaten +those who desired to see the best and most divine constitution restored in +Sparta, was not to be borne. Therefore, if it had been possible for him, +without bloodshed, to free Lacedaemon from those foreign plagues, luxury, +sumptuosity, debts, and usury, and from those yet more ancient evils, poverty +and riches, he should have thought himself the happiest king in the world, to +have succeeded, like an expert physician, in curing the diseases of his country +without pain. But now, in this necessity, Lycurgus’s example favored his +proceedings, who being neither king nor magistrate, but a private man, and +aiming at the kingdom, came armed into the market-place, so that king Charillus +fled in alarm to the altar. He, being a good man, and a lover of his country, +readily concurred in Lycurgus’s designs, and admitted the revolution in the +state. But, by his own actions, Lycurgus had nevertheless borne witness that it +was difficult to change the government without force and fear, in the use of +which he himself, he said, had been so moderate as to do no more than put out +of the way those who opposed themselves to Sparta’s happiness and safety. For +the rest of the nation, he told them, the whole land was now their common +property; debtors should be cleared of their debts, and examination made of +those who were not citizens, that the bravest men might thus be made free +Spartans, and give aid in arms to save the city, and “We” he said, “may no +longer see Laconia, for want of men to defend it, wasted by the Aetolians and +Illyrians.” +</p> + +<p> +Then he himself first, with his step-father, Megistonus, and his friends, gave +up all their wealth into one public stock, and all the other citizens followed +the example. The land was divided, and everyone that he had banished, had a +share assigned him; for he promised to restore all, as soon as things were +settled and in quiet. And completing the number of citizens out of the best and +most promising of the country people, he raised a body of four thousand men; +and instead of a spear, taught them to use a surissu, with both hands, and to +carry their shields by a band, and not by a handle, as before. After this, he +began to consult about the education of the youth, and the Discipline, as they +call it; most of the particulars of which, Sphaerus, being then at Sparta, +assisted in arranging; and, in a short time, the schools of exercise and the +common tables recovered their ancient decency and order, a few out of +necessity, but the most voluntarily, returning to that generous and Laconic way +of living. And, that the name of monarch might give them no jealousy, he made +Euclidas, his brother, partner in the throne; and that was the only time that +Sparta had two kings of the same family. +</p> + +<p> +Then, understanding that the Achaeans and Aratus imagined that this change had +disturbed and shaken his affairs, and that he would not venture out of Sparta +and leave the city now unsettled in the midst of so great an alteration, he +thought it great and serviceable to his designs, to show his enemies the zeal +and forwardness of his troops. And, therefore, making an incursion into the +territories of Megalopolis, he wasted the country far and wide, and collected a +considerable booty. And, at last, taking a company of actors, as they were +traveling from Messene, and building a theater in the enemy’s country, and +offering a prize of forty minae in value, he sat spectator a whole day; not +that he either desired or needed such amusement, but wishing to show his +disregard for his enemies, and by a display of his contempt, to prove the +extent of his superiority to them. For his alone, of all the Greek or royal +armies, had no stage-players, no jugglers, no dancing or singing women +attending it, but was free from all sorts of looseness, wantonness, and +festivity; the young men being for the most part at their exercises, and the +old men giving them lessons, or, at leisure times, diverting themselves with +their native jests, and quick Laconian answers; the good results of which we +have noticed in the life of Lycurgus. +</p> + +<p> +He himself instructed all by his example; he was a living pattern of temperance +before every man’s eyes; and his course of living was neither more stately, nor +more expensive, nor in any way more pretentious, than that of any of his +people. And this was a considerable advantage to him in his designs on Greece. +For men when they waited upon other kings, did not so much admire their wealth, +costly furniture, and numerous attendance, as they hated their pride and state, +their difficulty of access, and imperious answers to their addresses. But when +they came to Cleomenes, who was both really a king, and bore that title, and +saw no purple, no robes of state upon him, no couches and litters about him for +his ease, and that he did not receive requests and return answers after a long +delay and difficulty, through a number of messengers and doorkeepers, or by +memorials, but that he rose and came forward in any dress he might happen to be +wearing, to meet those that came to wait upon him, stayed, talked freely and +affably with all that had business, they were extremely taken, and won to his +service, and professed that he alone was the true son of Hercules. His common +every day’s meal was in an ordinary room, very sparing, and after the Laconic +manner; and when he entertained ambassadors or strangers, two more couches were +added, and a little better dinner provided by his servants, but no savoring +sauces or sweetmeats; only the dishes were larger, and the wine more plentiful. +For he reproved one of his friends for entertaining some strangers with nothing +but barley bread and black broth, such diet as they usually had in their +phiditia; saying, that upon such occasions, and when they entertained +strangers, it was not well to be too exact Laconians. After the table was +removed, a stand was brought in, with a brass vessel full of wine, two silver +bowls which held about a pint apiece, a few silver cups, of which he that +pleased might drink, but wine was not urged on any of the guests. There was no +music, nor was any required; for he entertained the company himself, sometimes +asking questions, sometimes telling stories; and his conversation was neither +too grave or disagreeably serious, nor yet in any way rude or ungraceful in its +pleasantry. For he thought those ways of entrapping men by gifts and presents, +which other kings use, dishonest and inartificial; and it seemed to him to be +the most noble method, and most suitable to a king, to win the affections of +those that came near him, by personal intercourse and agreeable conversation, +since between a friend and a mercenary the only distinction is, that we gain +the one by one’s character and conversation, the other by one’s money. +</p> + +<p> +The Mantineans were the first that requested his aid; and when he entered their +city by night, they aided him to expel the Achaean garrison, and put themselves +under his protection. He restored them their polity and laws, and the same day +marched to Tegea; and a little while after, fetching a compass through Arcadia, +he made a descent upon Pherae, in Achaea, intending to force Aratus to a +battle, or bring him into disrepute, for refusing to engage, and suffering him +to waste the country. Hyperbatas at that time was general, but Aratus had all +the power amongst the Achaeans. The Achaeans, marching forth with their whole +strength, and encamping in Dymae, near the Hecatombaeum, Cleomenes came up, and +thinking it not advisable to pitch between Dymae, a city of the enemies, and +the camp of the Achaeans, he boldly dared the Achaeans, and forced them to a +battle, and routing their phalanx, slew a great many in the fight, and took +many prisoners, and thence marching to Langon, and driving out the Achaean +garrison, he restored the city to the Eleans. +</p> + +<p> +The affairs of the Achaeans being in this unfortunate condition, Aratus, who +was wont to take office every other year, refused the command, though they +entreated and urged him to accept it. And this was ill done, when the storm was +high, to put the power out of his own hands, and set another to the helm. +Cleomenes at first proposed fair and easy conditions by his ambassadors to the +Achaeans, but afterward he sent others, and required the chief command to be +settled upon him; in other matters offering to agree to reasonable terms, and +to restore their captives and their country. The Achaeans were willing to come +to an agreement upon those terms, and invited Cleomenes to Lerna, where an +assembly was to be held; but it happened that Cleomenes, hastily marching on, +and drinking water at a wrong time, brought up a quantity of blood, and lost +his voice; therefore being unable to continue his journey, he sent the chiefest +of the captives to the Achaeans, and, putting off the meeting for some time, +retired to Lacedaemon. +</p> + +<p> +This ruined the affairs of Greece, which was just beginning in some sort to +recover from its disasters, and to show some capability of delivering itself +from the insolence and rapacity of the Macedonians. For Aratus, (whether +fearing or distrusting Cleomenes, or envying his unlooked-for success, or +thinking it a disgrace for him who had commanded thirty-three years, to have a +young man succeed to all his glory and his power, and be head of that +government which he had been raising and settling so many years,) first +endeavored to keep the Achaeans from closing with Cleomenes; but when they +would not hearken to him, fearing Cleomenes’s daring spirit, and thinking the +Lacedaemonians’ proposals to be very reasonable, who designed only to reduce +Peloponnesus to its old model, upon this he took his last refuge in an action +which was unbecoming any of the Greeks, most dishonorable to him, and most +unworthy his former bravery and exploits. For he called Antigonus into Greece, +and filled Peloponnesus with Macedonians, whom he himself, when a youth, having +beaten their garrison out of the castle of Corinth, had driven from the same +country. And there had been constant suspicion and variance between him and all +the kings, and of Antigonus, in particular, he has said a thousand dishonorable +things in the commentaries he has left behind him. And though he declares +himself how he suffered considerable losses, and underwent great dangers, that +he might free Athens from the garrison of the Macedonians, yet, afterwards, he +brought the very same men armed into his own country, and his own house, even +to the women’s apartment. He would not endure that one of the family of +Hercules, and king of Sparta, and one that had reformed the polity of his +country, as it were, from a disordered harmony, and retuned it to the plain +Doric measure and rule of life of Lycurgus, should be styled head of the +Tritaeans and Sicyonians; and whilst he fled the barley-cake and coarse coat, +and which were his chief accusations against Cleomenes, the extirpation of +wealth and reformation of poverty, he basely subjected himself, together with +Achaea, to the diadem and purple, to the imperious commands of the Macedonians +and their satraps. That he might not seem to be under Cleomenes, he offered +sacrificers, called Antigonea, in honor of Antigonus, and sang paeans himself, +with a garland on his head, to the praise of a wasted, consumptive Macedonian. +I write this not out of any design to disgrace Aratus, for in many things he +showed himself a true lover of Greece, and a great man, but out of pity to the +weakness of human nature, which in characters like this, so worthy and in so +many ways disposed to virtue, cannot maintain its honors unblemished by some +envious fault. +</p> + +<p> +The Achaeans meeting again in assembly at Argos, and Cleomenes having come from +Tegea, there were great hopes that all differences would be composed. But +Aratus, Antigonus and he having already agreed upon the chief articles of their +league, fearing that Cleomenes would carry all before him, and either win or +force the multitude to comply with his demands, proposed, that having three +hundred hostages put into his hands, he should come alone into the town, or +bring his army to the place of exercise, called the Cyllarabium, outside the +city, and treat there. +</p> + +<p> +Cleomenes, hearing this, said, that he was unjustly dealt with; for they ought +to have told him so plainly at first, and not now he was come even to their +doors, show their jealousy, and deny him admission. And writing a letter to the +Achaeans about the same subject, the greatest part of which was an accusation +of Aratus, while Aratus, on the other side, spoke violently against him to the +assembly, he hastily dislodged, and sent a trumpeter to denounce war against +the Achaeans, not to Argos, but to Aegium, as Aratus writes, that he might not +give them notice enough to make provision for their defense. There had also +been a movement among the Achaeans themselves, and the cities were eager for +revolt; the common people expecting a division of the land, and a release from +their debts, and the chief men being in many places ill-disposed to Aratus, and +some of them angry and indignant with him, for having brought the Macedonians +into Peloponnesus. Encouraged by these misunderstandings, Cleomenes invaded +Achaea, and first took Pellene by surprise, and beat out the Achaean garrison, +and afterwards brought over Pheneus and Penteleum to his side. Now the +Achaeans, suspecting some treacherous designs at Corinth and Sicyon, sent their +horse and mercenaries out of Argos, to have an eye upon those cities, and they +themselves went to Argos, to celebrate the Nemean games. Cleomenes, advertised +of this march, and hoping, as it afterward fell out, that upon an unexpected +advance to the city, now busied in the solemnity of the games, and thronged +with numerous spectators, he should raise a considerable terror and confusion +amongst them, by night marched with his army to the walls, and taking the +quarter of the town called Aspis, which lies above the theater, well fortified, +and hard to be approached, he so terrified them that none offered to resist, +but they agreed to accept a garrison, to give twenty citizens for hostages, and +to assist the Lacedaemonians, and that he should have the chief command. +</p> + +<p> +This action considerably increased his reputation and his power; for the +ancient Spartan kings, though they many ways endeavored to effect it, could +never bring Argos to be permanently theirs. And Pyrrhus, the most experienced +captain, though he entered the city by force, could not keep possession, but +was slain himself, with a considerable part of his army. Therefore they admired +the dispatch and contrivance of Cleomenes; and those that before derided him, +for imitating, as they said, Solon and Lycurgus, in releasing the people from +their debts, and in equalizing the property of the citizens, were now fain to +admit that this was the cause of the change in the Spartans. For before they +were very low in the world, and so unable to secure their own, that the +Aetolians, invading Laconia, brought away fifty thousand slaves; so that one of +the elder Spartans is reported to have said, that they had done Laconia a +kindness by unburdening it; and yet a little while after, by merely recurring +once again to their native customs, and reentering the track of the ancient +discipline, they were able to give, as though it had been under the eyes and +conduct of Lycurgus himself, the most signal instances of courage and +obedience, raising Sparta to her ancient place as the commanding state of +Greece, and recovering all Peloponnesus. +</p> + +<p> +When Argos was captured, and Cleonae and Phlius came over, as they did at once, +to Cleomenes, Aratus was at Corinth, searching after some who were reported to +favor the Spartan interest. The news, being brought to him, disturbed him very +much; for he perceived the city inclining to Cleomenes, and willing to be rid +of the Achaeans. Therefore he summoned the citizens to meet in the Council +Hall, and slipping away without being observed to the gate, he mounted his +horse that had been brought for him thither, and fled to Sicyon. And the +Corinthians made such haste to Cleomenes at Argos, that, as Aratus says, +striving who should be first there, they spoiled all their horses; he adds that +Cleomenes was very angry with the Corinthians for letting him escape; and that +Megistonus came from Cleomenes to him, desiring him to deliver up the castle at +Corinth, which was then garrisoned by the Achaeans, and offered him a +considerable sum of money, and that he answered, that matters were not now in +his power, but he in theirs. Thus Aratus himself writes. But Cleomenes, +marching from Argos, and taking in the Troezenians, Epidaurians, and +Hermioneans, came to Corinth, and blocked up the castle, which the Achaeans +would not surrender; and sending for Aratus’s friends and stewards, committed +his house and estate to their care and management; and sent Tritymallus, the +Messenian, to him a second time, desiring that the castle might be equally +garrisoned by the Spartans and Achaeans, and promising to Aratus himself double +the pension that he received from king Ptolemy. But Aratus, refusing the +conditions, and sending his own son with the other hostages to Antigonus, and +persuading the Achaeans to make a decree for delivering the castle into +Antigonus’s hands, upon this Cleomenes invaded the territory of the Sicyonians, +and by a decree of the Corinthians, accepted Aratus’s estate as a gift. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, Antigonus, with a great army, was passing Geranea; and +Cleomenes, thinking it more advisable to fortify and garrison, not the isthmus, +but the mountains called Onea, and by a war of posts and positions to weary the +Macedonians, rather than to venture a set battle with the highly disciplined +phalanx, put his design in execution, and very much distressed Antigonus. For +he had not brought victuals sufficient for his army; nor was it easy to force a +way through, whilst Cleomenes guarded the pass. He attempted by night to pass +through Lechaeum, but failed, and lost some men; so that Cleomenes and his army +were mightily encouraged, and so flushed with the victory, that they went +merrily to supper; and Antigonus was very much dejected, being driven, by the +necessity he was in, to most unpromising attempts. He was proposing to march to +the promontory of Heraeum, and thence transport his army in boats to Sicyon, +which would take up a great deal of time, and require much preparation and +means. But when it was now evening, some of Aratus’s friends came from Argos by +sea, and invited him to return, for the Argives would revolt from Cleomenes. +Aristoteles was the man that wrought the revolt, and he had no hard task to +persuade the common people; for they were all angry with Cleomenes for not +releasing them from their debts as they expected. Accordingly, obtaining +fifteen hundred of Antigonus’s soldiers, Aratus sailed to Epidaurus; but +Aristoteles, not staying for his coming, drew out the citizens, and fought +against the garrison of the castle; and Timoxenus, with the Achaeans from +Sicyon, came to his assistance. +</p> + +<p> +Cleomenes heard the news about the second watch of the night, and sending for +Megistonus, angrily commanded him to go and set things right at Argos. +Megistonus had passed his word for the Argives’ loyalty, and had persuaded him +not to banish the suspected. Therefore, dispatching him with two thousand +soldiers, he himself kept watch upon Antigonus, and encouraged the Corinthians, +pretending that there was no great matter in the commotions at Argos, but only +a little disturbance raised by a few inconsiderable persons. But when +Megistonus, entering Argos, was slain, and the garrison could scarce hold out, +and frequent messengers came to Cleomenes for succors, he, fearing least the +enemy, having taken Argos, should shut up the passes, and securely waste +Laconia, and besiege Sparta itself, which he had left without forces, dislodged +from Corinth, and immediately lost that city; for Antigonus entered it, and +garrisoned the town. He turned aside from his direct march, and assaulting the +walls of Argos, endeavored to carry it by a sudden attack and then, having +collected his forces from their march, breaking into the Aspis, he joined the +garrison, which still held out against the Achaeans; some parts of the city he +scaled and took, and his Cretan archers cleared the streets. But when he saw +Antigonus with his phalanx descending from the mountains into the plain, and +the horse on all sides entering the city, he thought it impossible to maintain +his post, and, gathering together all his men, came safely down, and made his +retreat under the walls, having in so short a time possessed himself of great +power, and in one journey, so to say, having made himself master of almost all +Peloponnesus, and now lost all again in as short a time. For some of his allies +at once withdrew and forsook him, and others not long after put their cities +under Antigonus’s protection. His hopes thus defeated, as he was leading back +the relics of his forces, messengers from Lacedaemon met him in the evening at +Tegea, and brought him, news of as great a misfortune as that which he had +lately suffered, and this was the death of his wife, to whom he was so +attached, and thought so much of her, that even in his most successful +expeditions, when he was most prosperous, he could not refrain, but would ever +now and then come home to Sparta, to visit Agiatis. +</p> + +<p> +This news afflicted him extremely, and he grieved, as a young man would do, for +the loss of a very beautiful and excellent wife; yet he did not let his passion +disgrace him, or impair the greatness of his mind, but keeping his usual voice, +his countenance, and his habit, he gave necessary orders to his captains, and +took the precautions required for the safety of Tegea. Next morning he came to +Sparta, and having at home with his mother and children bewailed the loss, and +finished his mourning, he at once devoted himself to the public affairs of the +state. +</p> + +<p> +Now Ptolemy, the king of Egypt, promised him assistance, but demanded his +mother and children for hostages. This, for some considerable time, he was +ashamed to discover to his mother; and though he often went to her on purpose, +and was just upon the discourse, yet he still refrained, and kept it to +himself; so that she began to suspect, and asked his friends, whether Cleomenes +had something to say to her, which he was afraid to speak. At last, Cleomenes +venturing to tell her, she laughed aloud, and said, “Was this the thing that +you had so often a mind to tell me, and were afraid? Make haste and put me on +shipboard, and send this carcass where it may be most serviceable to Sparta, +before age destroys it unprofitably here.” Therefore, all things being provided +for the voyage, they went by land to Taenarus, and the army waited on them. +Cratesiclea, when she was ready to go on board, took Cleomenes aside into +Neptune’s temple, and embracing him, who was much dejected, and extremely +discomposed, she said, “Go to, king of Sparta; when we come forth at the door, +let none see us weep, or show any passion that is unworthy of Sparta, for that +alone is in our own power; as for success or disappointment, those wait on us +as the deity decrees.” Having thus said, and composed her countenance, she went +to the ship with her little grandson, and bade the pilot put at once out to +sea. When she came to Egypt, and understood that Ptolemy entertained proposals +and overtures of peace from Antigonus, and that Cleomenes, though the Achaeans +invited and urged him to an agreement, was afraid, for her sake, to come to +any, without Ptolemy’s consent, she wrote to him, advising him to do that which +was most becoming and most profitable for Sparta, and not, for the sake of an +old woman and a little child, stand always in fear of Ptolemy. This character +she maintained in her misfortunes. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus, having taken Tegea, and plundered Orchomenus and Mantinea, Cleomenes +was shut up within the narrow bounds of Laconia; and making such of the helots +as could pay five Attic pounds, free of Sparta, and, by that means, getting +together five hundred talents, and arming two thousand after the Macedonian +fashion, that he might make a body fit to oppose Antigonus’s Leucaspides he +undertook a great and unexpected enterprise. Megalopolis was at that time a +city of itself as great and as powerful as Sparta, and had the forces of the +Achaeans and of Antigonus encamping beside it; and it was chiefly the +Megalopolitans’ doing, that Antigonus had been called in to assist the +Achaeans. Cleomenes, resolving to snatch the city (no other word so well suits +so rapid and so surprising an action), ordered his men to take five days’ +provision, and marched to Sellasia, as if he intended to ravage the country of +the Argives; but from thence making a descent into the territories of +Megalopolis, and refreshing his army about Rhoeteum, he suddenly took the road +by Helicus, and advanced directly upon the city. When he was not far off the +town, he sent Panteus, with two regiments, to surprise a portion of the wall +between two towers, which he learnt to be the most unguarded quarter of the +Megalopolitans’ fortifications, and with the rest of his forces he followed +leisurely. Panteus not only succeeded at that point, but finding a great part +of the wall without guards, he at once proceeded to pull it down in some +places, and make openings through it in others, and killed all the defenders +that he found. Whilst he was thus busied, Cleomenes came up to him, and was got +with his army within the city, before the Megalopolitans knew of the surprise. +When, after some time, they learned their misfortune, some left the town +immediately, taking with them what property they could; others armed, and +engaged the enemy; and through they were not able to beat them out, yet they +gave their citizens time and opportunity safely to retire, so that there were +not above one thousand persons taken in the town, all the rest flying, with +their wives and children, and escaping to Messene. The greater number, also, of +those that armed and fought the enemy, were saved, and very few taken, amongst +whom were Lysandridas and Thearidas, two men of great power and reputation +amongst the Megalopolitans; and therefore the soldiers, as soon as they were +taken, brought them to Cleomenes. And Lysandridas, as soon as he saw Cleomenes +afar off, cried out, “Now, king of Sparta, it is in your power, by doing a most +kingly and a nobler action than you have already performed, to purchase the +greatest glory.” And Cleomenes, guessing at his meaning, replied, “What, +Lysandridas, you will not surely advise me to restore your city to you again?” +“It is that which I mean,” Lysandridas replied, “and I advise you not to ruin +so brave a city, but to fill it with faithful and steadfast friends and allies, +by restoring their country to the Megalopolitans, and being the savior of so +considerable a people.” Cleomenes paused a while, and then said, “It is very +hard to trust so far in these matters; but with us let profit always yield to +glory.” Having said this, he sent the two men to Messene with a herald from +himself, offering the Megalopolitans their city again, if they would forsake +the Achaean interest, and be on his side. But though Cleomenes made these +generous and humane proposals, Philopoemen would not suffer them to break their +league with the Achaeans; and accusing Cleomenes to the people, as if his +design was not to restore the city, but to take the citizens too, he forced +Thearidas and Lysandridas to leave Messene. +</p> + +<p> +This was that Philopoemen who was afterward chief of the Achaeans and a man of +the greatest reputation amongst the Greeks, as I have refuted in his own life. +This news coming to Cleomenes, though he had before taken strict care that the +city should not be plundered, yet then, being in anger, and out of all +patience, he despoiled the place of all the valuables, and sent the statues and +pictures to Sparta; and demolishing a great part of the city, he marched away +for fear of Antigonus and the Achaeans; but they never stirred, for they were +at Aegium, at a council of war. There Aratus mounted the speaker’s place, and +wept a long while, holding his mantle before his face; and at last, the company +being amazed, and commanding him to speak, he said, “Megalopolis is destroyed +by Cleomenes.” The assembly instantly dissolved, the Achaeans being astounded +at the suddenness and greatness of the loss; and Antigonus, intending to send +speedy succors, when he found his forces gather very slowly out of their +winter-quarters, sent them orders to continue there still; and he himself +marched to Argos with a small body of men. And now the second enterprise of +Cleomenes, though it had the look of a desperate and frantic adventure, yet in +Polybius’s opinion, was done with mature deliberation and great foresight. For +knowing very well that the Macedonians were dispersed into their +winter-quarters, and that Antigonus with his friends and a few mercenaries +about him wintered in Argos, upon these considerations he invaded the country +of the Argives, hoping to shame Antigonus to a battle upon unequal terms, or +else, if he did not dare to fight, to bring him into disrepute with the +Achaeans. And this accordingly happened. For Cleomenes wasting, plundering, and +spoiling the whole country, the Argives, in grief and anger at the loss, +gathered in crowds at the king’s gates, crying out that he should either fight, +or surrender his command to better and braver men. But Antigonus, as became an +experienced captain, accounting it rather dishonorable foolishly to hazard his +army and quit his security, than merely to be railed at by other people, would +not march out against Cleomenes, but stood firm to his convictions. Cleomenes, +in the meantime, brought his army up to the very walls, and having without +opposition spoiled the country, and insulted over his enemies, drew off again. +</p> + +<p> +A little while after, being informed that Antigonus designed a new advance to +Tegea, and thence to invade Laconia, he rapidly took his soldiers, and marching +by a side road, appeared early in the morning before Argos, and wasted the +fields about it. The corn he did not cut down, as is usual, with reaping hooks +and knives, but beat it down with great wooden staves made like broadswords, as +if, in mere contempt and wanton scorn, while traveling on his way, without any +effort or trouble, he spoiled and destroyed their harvest. Yet when his +soldiers would have set Cyllabaris, the exercise ground, on fire, he stopped +the attempt, as if he felt, that the mischief he had done at Megalopolis had +been the effects of his passion rather than his wisdom. And when Antigonus, +first of all, came hastily back to Argos, and then occupied the mountains and +passes with his posts, he professed to disregard and despise it all; and sent +heralds to ask for the keys of the temple of Juno, as though he proposed to +offer sacrifice there and then return. And with this scornful pleasantry upon +Antigonus, having sacrificed to the goddess under the walls of the temple, +which was shut, he went to Phlius; and from thence driving out those that +garrisoned Oligyrtus, he marched down to Orchomenus. And these enterprises not +only encouraged the citizens, but made him appear to the very enemies to be a +man worthy of high command, and capable of great things. For with the strength +of one city, not only to fight the power of the Macedonians and all the +Peloponnesians, supported by all the royal treasures, not only to preserve +Laconia from being spoiled, but to waste the enemy’s country, and to take so +many and such considerable cities, was an argument of no common skill and +genius for command. +</p> + +<p> +But he that first said that money was the sinews of affairs, seems especially +in that saying to refer to war. Demades, when the Athenians had voted that +their galleys should be launched and equipped for action, but could produce no +money, told them, “The baker was wanted first, and the pilot after.” And the +old Archidamus, in the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, when the allies +desired that the amount of their contributions should be determined, is +reported to have answered, that war cannot be fed upon so much a day. For as +wrestlers, who have thoroughly trained and disciplined their bodies, in time +tire down and exhaust the most agile and most skillful combatant, so Antigonus, +coming to the war with great resources to spend from, wore out Cleomenes, whose +poverty made it difficult for him to provide the merest sufficiency of pay for +the mercenaries, or of provisions for the citizens. For, in all other respects, +time favored Cleomenes; for Antigonus’s affairs at home began to be disturbed. +For the barbarians wasted and overran Macedonia whilst he was absent, and at +that particular time a vast army of Illyrians had entered the country; to be +freed from whose devastations, the Macedonians sent for Antigonus, and the +letters had almost been brought to him before the battle was fought; upon the +receipt of which he would at once have marched away home, and left the Achaeans +to look to themselves. But Fortune, that loves to determine the greatest +affairs by a minute, in this conjuncture showed such an exact niceness of time, +that immediately after the battle in Sellasia was over, and Cleomenes had lost +his army and his city, the messengers came up and called for Antigonus. And +this above everything made Cleomenes’s misfortune to be pitied; for if he had +gone on retreating and had forborne fighting two days longer, there had been no +need of hazarding a battle; since upon the departure of the Macedonians, he +might have had what conditions he pleased from the Achaeans. But now, as was +said before, for want of money, being necessitated to trust everything to arms, +he was forced with twenty thousand (such is Polybius’s account) to engage +thirty thousand. And approving himself an admirable commander in this +difficulty, his citizens showing an extraordinary courage, and his mercenaries +bravery enough, he was overborne by the different way of fighting, and the +weight of the heavy-armed phalanx. Phylarchus also affirms, that the treachery +of some about him was the chief cause of Cleomenes’s ruin. +</p> + +<p> +For Antigonus gave orders, that the Illyrians and Acarnanians should march +round by a secret way, and encompass the other wing, which Euclidas, +Cleomenes’s brother, commanded; and then drew out the rest of his forces to the +battle. And Cleomenes, from a convenient rising, viewing his order, and not +seeing any of the Illyrians and Acarnanians, began to suspect that Antigonus +had sent them upon some such design, and calling for Damoteles, who was at the +head of those specially appointed to such ambush duty, he bade him carefully to +look after and discover the enemy’s designs upon his rear. But Damoteles, for +some say Antigonus had bribed him, telling him that he should not be solicitous +about that matter, for all was well enough, but mind and fight those that met +him in the front, he was satisfied, and advanced against Antigonus; and by the +vigorous charge of his Spartans, made the Macedonian phalanx give ground, and +pressed upon them with great advantage about half a mile; but then making a +stand, and seeing the danger which the surrounded wing, commanded by his +brother Euclidas, was in, he cried out, “Thou art lost, dear brother, thou art +lost, thou brave example to our Spartan youth, and theme of our matrons’ +songs.” And Euclidas’s wing being cut in pieces, and the conquerors from that +part falling upon him, he perceived his soldiers to be disordered, and unable +to maintain the fight, and therefore provided for his own safety. There fell, +we are told, in the battle, besides many of the mercenary soldiers, all the +Spartans, six thousand in number, except two hundred. +</p> + +<p> +When Cleomenes came into the city, he advised those citizens that he met to +receive Antigonus; and as for himself, he said, which should appear most +advantageous to Sparta, whether his life or death, that he would choose. Seeing +the women running out to those that had fled with him, taking their arms, and +bringing drink to them, he entered into his own house, and his servant, who was +a freeborn woman, taken from Megalopolis after his wife’s death, offering, as +usual, to do the service he needed on returning from war, though he was very +thirsty, he refused to drink, and though very weary, to sit down; but in his +corselet as he was, he laid his arm sideways against a pillar, and leaning his +forehead upon his elbow, he rested his body a little while, and ran over in his +thoughts all the courses he could take; and then with his friends set on at +once for Gythium; where finding ships which had been got ready for this very +purpose, they embarked. Antigonus, taking the city, treated the Lacedaemonians +courteously, and in no way offering any insult or offense to the dignity of +Sparta, but permitting them to enjoy their own laws and polity, and sacrificing +to the gods, dislodged the third day. For he heard that there was a great war +in Macedonia, and that the country was devastated by the barbarians. Besides, +his malady had now thoroughly settled into a consumption and continual catarrh. +Yet he still kept up, and managed to return and deliver his country, and meet +there a more glorious death in a great defeat and vast slaughter of the +barbarians. As Phylarchus says, and as is probable in itself, he broke a blood +vessel by shouting in the battle itself. In the schools we used to be told, +that after the victory was won, he cried out for joy, “O glorious day!” and +presently bringing up a quantity of blood, fell into a fever, which never left +him till his death. And thus much concerning Antigonus. +</p> + +<p> +Cleomenes, sailing from Cythera, touched at another island called Aegialia, +whence as he was about to depart for Cyrene, one of his friends, Therycion by +name, a man of a noble spirit in all enterprises, and bold and lofty in his +talk, came privately to him, and said thus: “Sir, death in battle, which is the +most glorious, we have let go; though all heard us say that Antigonus should +never tread over the king of Sparta, unless dead. And now that course which is +next in honor and virtue, is presented to us. Whither do we madly sail, flying +the evil which is near, to seek that which is at a distance? For if it is not +dishonorable for the race of Hercules to serve the successors of Philip and +Alexander, we shall save a long voyage by delivering ourselves up to Antigonus, +who, probably, is as much better than Ptolemy, as the Macedonians are better +than the Egyptians; but if we think it mean to submit to those whose arms have +conquered us, why should we choose him for our master, by whom we have not yet +been beaten? Is it to acknowledge two superiors instead of one, whilst we run +away from Antigonus, and flatter Ptolemy? Or, is it for your mother’s sake that +you retreat to Egypt? It will indeed be a very fine and very desirable sight +for her, to show her son to Ptolemy’s women, now changed from a prince into an +exile and a slave. Are we not still masters of our own swords? And whilst we +have Laconia in view, shall we not here free ourselves from this disgraceful +misery, and clear ourselves to those who at Sellasia died for the honor and +defense of Sparta? Or, shall we sit lazily in Egypt, inquiring what news from +Sparta, and whom Antigonus hath been pleased to make governor of Lacedaemon?” +Thus spoke Therycion; and this was Cleomenes’s reply: “By seeking death, you +coward, the most easy and most ready refuge, you fancy that you shall appear +courageous and brave, though this flight is baser than the former. Better men +than we have given way to their enemies, having been betrayed by fortune, or +oppressed by multitude; but he that gives way under labor or distresses, under +the ill opinions or reports of men, yields the victory to his own effeminacy. +For a voluntary death ought not to be chosen as a relief from action, but as an +exemplary action itself; and it is base either to live or to die only to +ourselves. That death to which you now invite us, is proposed only as a release +from our present miseries, but carries nothing of nobleness or profit in it. +And I think it becomes both me and you not to despair of our country; but when +there are no hopes of that left, those that have an inclination may quickly +die.” To this Therycion returned no answer but as soon as he had an opportunity +of leaving Cleomenes’s company, went aside on the sea-shore, and ran himself +through. +</p> + +<p> +But Cleomenes sailed from Aegialia, landed in Libya, and being honorably +conducted through the king’s country, came to Alexandria. When he was first +brought to Ptolemy, no more than common civilities and usual attentions were +paid him; but when, upon trial, he found him a man of deep sense and great +reason, and that his plain Laconic way of conversation carried with it a noble +and becoming grace, that he did nothing unbecoming his birth, nor bent under +fortune, and was evidently a more faithful counselor than those who made it +their business to please and flatter, he was ashamed, and repented that he had +neglected so great a man, and suffered Antigonus to get so much power and +reputation by ruining him. He now offered him many marks of respect and +kindness, and gave him hopes that he would furnish him with ships and money to +return to Greece, and would reinstate him in his kingdom. He granted him a +yearly pension of four and twenty talents; a little part of which sum supplied +his and his friends’ thrifty temperance; and the rest was employed in doing +good offices to, and in relieving the necessities of the refugees that had fled +from Greece, and retired into Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +But the elder Ptolemy dying before Cleomenes’s affairs had received a full +dispatch, and the successor being a loose, voluptuous, and effeminate prince, +under the power of his pleasures and his women, his business was neglected. For +the king was so besotted with his women and his wine, that the employments of +his most busy and serious hours consisted at the utmost in celebrating +religious feasts in his palace, carrying a timbrel, and taking part in the +show; while the greatest affairs of state were managed by Agathoclea, the +king’s mistress, her mother, and the pimp Oenanthes. At the first, indeed, they +seemed to stand in need of Cleomenes; for Ptolemy, being afraid of his brother +Magas, who by his mother’s means had a great interest amongst the soldiers, +gave Cleomenes a place in his secret councils, and acquainted him with the +design of taking off his brother. He, though all were for it, declared his +opinion to the contrary, saying, “The king, if it were possible, should have +more brothers for the better security and stability of his affairs.” And +Sosibius, the greatest favorite, replying, that they were not secure of the +mercenaries whilst Magas was alive, Cleomenes returned, that he need not +trouble himself about that matter; for amongst the mercenaries there were above +three thousand Peloponnesians, who were his fast friends, and whom he could +command at any time with a nod. This discourse made Cleomenes for the present +to be looked upon as a man of great influence and assured fidelity; but +afterwards, Ptolemy’s weakness increasing his fear, and he, as it usually +happens, where there is no judgment and wisdom, placing his security in general +distrust and suspicion, it rendered Cleomenes suspected to the courtiers, as +having too much interest with the mercenaries; and many had this saying in +their mouths, that he was a lion amidst a flock of sheep. For, in fact, such he +seemed to be in the court, quietly watching, and keeping his eye upon all that +went on. +</p> + +<p> +He, therefore, gave up all thought of asking for ships and soldiers from the +king. But receiving news that Antigonus was dead, that the Achaeans were +engaged in a war with the Aetolians, and that the affairs of Peloponnesus, +being now in very great distraction and disorder, required and invited his +assistance, he desired leave to depart only with his friends, but could not +obtain that, the king not so much as hearing his petition, being shut up +amongst his women, and wasting his hours in bacchanalian rites and drinking +parties. But Sosibius, the chief minister and counselor of state, thought that +Cleomenes, being detained against his will, would grow ungovernable and +dangerous, and yet that it was not safe to let him go, being an aspiring, +daring man, and well acquainted with the diseases and weakness of the kingdom. +For neither could presents and gifts conciliate or content him; but even as +Apis, while living in all possible plenty and apparent delight, yet desires to +live as nature would provide for him, to range at liberty, and bound about the +fields, and can scarce endure to be under the priests’ keeping, so he could not +brook their courtship and soft entertainment, but sat like Achilles, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +and languished far,<br/> +Desiring battle and the shout of war. +</p> + +<p> +His affairs standing in this condition, Nicagoras, the Messenian, came to +Alexandria, a man that deeply hated Cleomenes, yet pretended to be his friend; +for he had formerly sold Cleomenes a fair estate, but never received the money, +because Cleomenes was either unable, as it may be, or else, by reason of his +engagement in the wars and other distractions, had no opportunity to pay him. +Cleomenes, seeing him landing, for he was then walking upon the quay, kindly +saluted him, and asked what business brought him to Egypt. Nicagoras returned +his compliment, and told him, that he came to bring some excellent war-horses +to the king. And Cleomenes, with a smile, subjoined, “I could wish you had +rather brought young boys and music-girls; for those now are the king’s chief +occupation.” Nicagoras at the moment smiled at the conceit; but a few days +after, he put Cleomenes in mind of the estate that he had bought of him, and +desired his money, protesting, that he would not have troubled him, if his +merchandise had turned out as profitable as he had thought it would. Cleomenes +replied, that he had nothing left of all that had been given him. At which +answer, Nicagoras, being nettled, told Sosibius Cleomenes’s scoff upon the +king. He was delighted to receive the information; but desiring to have some +greater reason to excite the king against Cleomenes, persuaded Nicagoras to +leave a letter written against Cleomenes, importing that he had a design, if he +could have gotten ships and soldiers, to surprise Cyrene. Nicagoras wrote such +a letter and left Egypt. Four days after, Sosibius brought the letter to +Ptolemy, pretending it was just then delivered him, and excited the young man’s +fear and anger; upon which it was agreed, that Cleomenes should be invited into +a large house, and treated as formerly, but not suffered to go out again. +</p> + +<p> +This usage was grievous to Cleomenes, and another incident that occurred, made +him feel his hopes to be yet more entirely overcast. Ptolemy, the son of +Chrysermas, a favorite of the king’s, had always shown civility to Cleomenes; +there was a considerable intimacy between them, and they had been used to talk +freely together about the state. He, upon Cleomenes’s desire, came to him, and +spoke to him in fair terms, softening down his suspicions and excusing the +king’s conduct. But as he went out again, not knowing that Cleomenes followed +him to the door, he severely reprimanded the keepers for their carelessness in +looking after “so great and so furious a wild beast.” This Cleomenes himself +heard, and retiring before Ptolemy perceived it, told his friends what had been +said. Upon this they cast off all their former hopes, and determined for +violent proceedings, resolving to be revenged on Ptolemy for his base and +unjust dealing, to have satisfaction for the affronts, to die as it became +Spartans, and not stay till, like fatted sacrifices, they were butchered. For +it was both grievous and dishonorable for Cleomenes, who had scorned to come to +terms with Antigonus, a brave warrior, and a man of action, to wait an +effeminate king’s leisure, till he should lay aside his timbrel and end his +dance, and then kill him. +</p> + +<p> +These courses being resolved on, and Ptolemy happening at the same time to make +a progress to Canopus, they first spread abroad a report, that his freedom was +ordered by the king, and, it being the custom for the king to send presents and +an entertainment to those whom he would free, Cleomenes’s friends made that +provision, and sent it into the prison, thus imposing upon the keepers, who +thought it had been sent by the king. For he sacrificed, and gave them large +portions, and with a garland upon his head, feasted and made merry with his +friends. It is said that he began the action sooner than he designed, having +understood that a servant who was privy to the plot, had gone out to visit a +mistress that he loved. This made him afraid of a discovery; and therefore, as +soon as it was full noon, and all the keepers sleeping off their wine, he put +on his coat, and opening the seam to bare his right shoulder, with his drawn +sword in his hand, he issued forth, together with his friends, provided in the +same manner, making thirteen in all. One of them, by name Hippitas, was lame, +and followed the first onset very well, but when he presently perceived that +they were more slow in their advances for his sake, he desired them to run him +through, and not ruin their enterprise by staying for an useless, unprofitable +man. By chance an Alexandrian was then riding by the door; him they threw off, +and setting Hippitas on horseback, ran through the streets, and proclaimed +liberty to the people. But they, it seems, had courage enough to praise and +admire Cleomenes’s daring, but not one had the heart to follow and assist him. +Three of them fell on Ptolemy, the son of Chrysermas, as he was coming out of +the palace, and killed him. Another Ptolemy, the officer in charge of the city, +advancing against them in a chariot, they set upon, dispersed his guards and +attendants, and pulling him out of the chariot, killed him upon the place. Then +they made toward the castle, designing to break open the prison, release those +who were confined, and avail themselves of their numbers; but the keepers were +too quick for them, and secured the passages. Being baffled in this attempt, +Cleomenes with his company roamed about the city, none joining with him, but +all retreating from and flying his approach. Therefore, despairing of success, +and saying to his friends, that it was no wonder that women ruled over men that +were afraid of liberty, he bade them all die as bravely as became his followers +and their own past actions. This said, Hippitas was first, as he desired, run +through by one of the younger men, and then each of them readily and resolutely +fell upon his own sword, except Panteus, the same who first surprised +Megalopolis. This man, being; of a very handsome person, and a great lover of +the Spartan discipline, the king had made his dearest friend; and he now bade +him, when he had seen him and the rest fallen, die by their example. Panteus +walked over them as they lay, and pricked everyone with his dagger, to try +whether any was alive, when he pricked Cleomenes in the ankle, and saw him turn +upon his back, he kissed him, sat down by him, and when he was quite dead, +covered up the body, and then killed himself over it. +</p> + +<p> +Thus fell Cleomenes, after the life which we have narrated, having been king of +Sparta sixteen years. The news of their fall being noised through the city, +Cratesiclea, though a woman of a great spirit, could not bear up against the +weight of this affliction; but embracing Cleomenes’s children, broke out into +lamentations. But the eldest boy, none suspecting such a spirit in a child, +threw himself headlong from the top of the house. He was bruised very much, but +not killed by the fall, and was taken up crying, and expressing his resentment +for not being permitted to destroy himself. Ptolemy, as soon as an account of +the action was brought him, gave order that Cleomenes’s body should be flayed +and hung up, and that his children, mother, and the women that were with her, +should be killed. Amongst these was Panteus’s wife, a beautiful and +noble-looking woman, who had been but lately married, and suffered these +disasters in the height of her love. Her parents would not have her embark with +Panteus, so shortly after they were married, though she eagerly desired it, but +shut her up, and kept her forcibly at home. But a few days after, she procured +a horse and a little money, and escaping by night, made speed to Taenarus, +where she embarked for Egypt, came to her husband, and with him cheerfully +endured to live in a foreign country. She gave her hand to Cratesiclea, as she +was going with the soldiers to execution, held up her robe, and begged her to +be courageous; who of herself was not in the least afraid of death, and desired +nothing else but only to be killed before the children. When they were come to +the place of execution, the children were first killed before Cratesiclea’s +eyes, and afterward she herself, with only these words in her mouth, “O +children, whither are you gone?” But Panteus’s wife, fastening her dress close +about her, and being a strong woman, in silence and perfect composure, looked +after every one that was slain, and laid them decently out as far as +circumstances would permit; and after all were killed, rearraying her dress, +and drawing her clothes close about her, and suffering none to come near or be +an eyewitness of her fall, besides the executioner, she courageously submitted +to the stroke, and wanted nobody to look after her or wind her up after she was +dead. Thus in her death the modesty of her mind appeared, and set that guard +upon her body which she always kept when alive. And she, in the declining age +of the Spartans, showed that women were no unequal rivals of the men, and was +an instance of a courage superior to the affronts of fortune. +</p> + +<p> +A few days after, those that watched the hanging body of Cleomenes, saw a large +snake winding about his head, and covering his face, so that no bird of prey +would fly at it. This made the king superstitiously afraid, and set the women +upon several expiations, as if he had been some extraordinary being, and one +beloved by the gods, that had been slain. And the Alexandrians made processions +to the place, and gave Cleomenes the title of hero, and son of the gods, till +the philosophers satisfied them by saying, that as oxen breed bees, putrefying +horses breed wasps, and beetles rise from the carcasses of dead asses, so the +humors and juices of the marrow of a man’s body, coagulating, produce serpents. +And this the ancients observing, appropriated a serpent, rather than any other +creature to heroes. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap53"></a>TIBERIUS GRACCHUS</h2> + +<p> +Having completed the first two narratives, we now may proceed to take a view of +misfortunes, not less remarkable, in the Roman couple, and with the lives of +Agis and Cleomenes, compare these of Tiberius and Caius. They were the sons of +Tiberius Gracchus, who, though he had been once censor, twice consul, and twice +had triumphed, yet was more renowned and esteemed for his virtue than his +honors. Upon this account, after the death of Scipio who overthrew Hannibal, he +was thought worthy to match with his daughter Cornelia, though there had been +no friendship or familiarity between Scipio and him, but rather the contrary. +There is a story told, that he once found in his bedchamber a couple of snakes, +and that the soothsayers, being consulted concerning the prodigy, advised, that +he should neither kill them both nor let them both escape; adding, that if the +male serpent was killed, Tiberius should die, and if the female, Cornelia. And +that, therefore, Tiberius, who extremely loved his wife, and thought, besides, +that it was much more his part, who was an old man, to die, than it was hers, +who as yet was but a young woman, killed the male serpent, and let the female +escape; and soon after himself died, leaving behind him twelve children borne +to him by Cornelia. +</p> + +<p> +Cornelia, taking upon herself all the care of the household and the education +of her children, approved herself so discreet a matron, so affectionate a +mother, and so constant and noble-spirited a widow, that Tiberius seemed to all +men to have done nothing unreasonable, in choosing to die for such a woman; +who, when king Ptolemy himself proffered her his crown, and would have married +her, refused it, and chose rather to live a widow. In this state she continued, +and lost all her children, except one daughter, who was married to Scipio the +younger, and two sons, Tiberius and Caius, whose lives we are now writing. +</p> + +<p> +These she brought up with such care, that though they were without dispute in +natural endowments and dispositions the first among the Romans of their time, +yet they seemed to owe their virtues even more to their education than to their +birth. And as, in the statues and pictures made of Castor and Pollux, though +the brothers resemble one another, yet there is a difference to be perceived in +their countenances, between the one, who delighted in the cestus, and the +other, that was famous in the course, so between these two noble youths, though +there was a strong general likeness in their common love of fortitude and +temperance, in their liberality, their eloquence, and their greatness of mind, +yet in their actions and administrations of public affairs, a considerable +variation showed itself. It will not be amiss, before we proceed, to mark the +difference between them. +</p> + +<p> +Tiberius, in the form and expression of his countenance, and in his gesture and +motion, was gentle and composed; but Caius, earnest and vehement. And so, in +their public speeches to the people, the one spoke in a quiet orderly manner, +standing throughout on the same spot; the other would walk about on the +hustings, and in the heat of his orations, pull his gown off his shoulders, and +was the first of all the Romans that used such gestures; as Cleon is said to +have been the first orator among the Athenians that pulled off his cloak and +smote his thigh, when addressing the people. Caius’s oratory was impetuous and +passionate, making everything tell to the utmost, whereas Tiberius was gentle, +rather, and persuasive, awakening emotions of pity. His diction was pure, and +carefully correct, while that of Caius was vehement and rich. So likewise in +their way of living, and at their tables, Tiberius was frugal and plain, Caius, +compared with other men temperate and even austere, but contrasting with his +brother in a fondness for new fashions and rarities, as appears in Drusus’s +charge against him, that he had bought some silver dolphins, to the value of +twelve hundred and fifty drachmas for every pound weight. +</p> + +<p> +The same difference that appeared in their diction, was observable also in +their tempers. The one was mild and reasonable, the other rough and passionate, +and to that degree, that often, in the midst of speaking, he was so hurried +away by his passion, against his judgment, that his voice lost its tone, and he +began to pass into mere abusive talking, spoiling his whole speech. As a remedy +to this excess, he made use of an ingenious servant of his, one Licinius, who +stood constantly behind him with a sort of pitch-pipe, or instrument to +regulate the voice by, and whenever he perceived his master’s tone alter, and +break with anger, he struck a soft note with his pipe, on hearing which, Caius +immediately checked the vehemence of his passion and his voice, grew quieter, +and allowed himself to be recalled to temper. Such are the differences between +the two brothers; but their valor in war against their country’s enemies, their +justice in the government of its subjects, their care and industry in office, +and their self-command in all that regarded their pleasures were equally +remarkable in both. +</p> + +<p> +Tiberius was the elder by nine years; owing to which their actions as public +men were divided by the difference of the times in which those of the one and +those of the other were performed. And one of the principal causes of the +failure of their enterprises was this interval between their careers, and the +want of combination of their efforts. The power they would have exercised, had +they flourished both together, could scarcely have failed to overcome all +resistance. We must therefore give an account of each of them singly, and first +of the eldest. +</p> + +<p> +Tiberius, immediately on his attaining manhood, had such a reputation, that he +was admitted into the college of the augurs, and that in consideration more of +his early virtue than of his noble birth. This appeared by what Appius Claudius +did, who, though he had been consul and censor, and was now the head of the +Roman senate, and had the highest sense of his own place and merit, at a public +feast of the augurs, addressed himself openly to Tiberius, and with great +expressions of kindness, offered him his daughter in marriage. And when +Tiberius gladly accepted, and the agreement had thus been completed, Appius, +returning home, no sooner had reached his door, but he called to his wife and +cried out in a loud voice, “O Antistia, I have contracted our daughter Claudia +to a husband.” She, being amazed, answered, “But why so suddenly, or what means +this haste? Unless you have provided Tiberius Gracchus for her husband.” I am +not ignorant that some apply this story to Tiberius, the father of the Gracchi, +and Scipio Africanus; but most relate it as we have done. And Polybius writes, +that after the death of Scipio Africanus, the nearest relations of Cornelia, +preferring Tiberius to all other competitors, gave her to him in marriage, not +having been engaged or promised to anyone by her father. +</p> + +<p> +This young Tiberius, accordingly, serving in Africa under the younger Scipio, +who had married his sister, and living there under the same tent with him, soon +learned to estimate the noble spirit of his commander, which was so fit to +inspire strong feelings of emulation in virtue and desire to prove merit in +action, and in a short time he excelled all the young men of the army in +obedience and courage; and he was the first that mounted the enemy’s wall, as +Fannius says, who writes, that he himself climbed up with him, and was partaker +in the achievement. He was regarded, while he continued with the army, with +great affection; and left behind him on his departure a strong desire for his +return. +</p> + +<p> +After that expedition, being chosen paymaster, it was his fortune to serve in +the war against the Numantines, under the command of Caius Mancinus, the +consul, a person of no bad character, but the most unfortunate of all the Roman +generals. Notwithstanding, amidst the greatest misfortunes, and in the most +unsuccessful enterprises, not only the discretion and valor of Tiberius, but +also, which was still more to be admired, the great respect and honor which he +showed for his general, were most eminently remarkable; though the general +himself, when reduced to straits, forgot his own dignity and office. For being +beaten in various great battles, he endeavored to dislodge by night, and leave +his camp; which the Numantines perceiving, immediately possessed themselves of +his camp, and pursuing that part of the forces which was in flight, slew those +that were in the rear, hedged the whole army in on every side, and forced them +into difficult ground, whence there could be no possibility of an escape. +Mancinus, despairing to make his way through by force, sent a messenger to +desire a truce, and conditions of peace. But they refused to give their +confidence to any one except Tiberius, and required that he should be sent to +treat with them. This was not only in regard to the young man’s own character, +for he had a great reputation amongst the soldiers, but also in remembrance of +his father Tiberius, who, in his command against the Spaniards, had reduced +great numbers of them to subjection, but granted a peace to the Numantines, and +prevailed upon the Romans to keep it punctually and inviolably. +</p> + +<p> +Tiberius was accordingly dispatched to the enemy, whom he persuaded to accept +of several conditions, and he himself complied with others; and by this means +it is beyond a question, that he saved twenty thousand of the Roman citizens, +besides attendants and camp followers. However, the Numantines retained +possession of all the property they had found and plundered in the encampment; +and amongst other things were Tiberius’s books of accounts, containing the +whole transactions of his quaestorship, which he was extremely anxious to +recover. And therefore, when the army were already upon their march, he +returned to Numantia, accompanied with only three or four of his friends; and +making his application to the officers of the Numantines, he entreated that +they would return him his books, lest his enemies should have it in their power +to reproach him with not being able to give an account of the monies entrusted +to him. The Numantines joyfully embraced this opportunity of obliging him, and +invited him into the city; as he stood hesitating, they came up and took him by +the hands, and begged that he would no longer look upon them as enemies, but +believe them to be his friends, and treat them as such. Tiberius thought it +well to consent, desirous as he was to have his books returned, and was afraid +lest he should disoblige them by showing any distrust. As soon as he entered +into the city, they first offered him food, and made every kind of entreaty +that he would sit down and eat something in their company. Afterwards they +returned his books, and gave him the liberty to take whatever he wished for in +the remaining spoils. He, on the other hand, would accept of nothing but some +frankincense, which he used in his public sacrifices, and, bidding them +farewell with every expression of kindness, departed. +</p> + +<p> +When he returned to Rome, he found the whole transaction censured and +reproached, as a proceeding that was base, and scandalous to the Romans. But +the relations and friends of the soldiers, forming a large body among the +people, came flocking to Tiberius, whom they acknowledged as the preserver of +so many citizens, imputing to the general all the miscarriages which had +happened. Those who cried out against what had been done, urged for imitation +the example of their ancestors, who stripped and handed over to the Samnites +not only the generals who had consented to the terms of release, but also all +the quaestors, for example, and tribunes, who had in any way implicated +themselves in the agreement, laying the guilt of perjury and breach of +conditions on their heads. But, in this affair, the populace, showing an +extraordinary kindness and affection for Tiberius, indeed voted that the consul +should be stripped and put in irons, and so delivered to the Numantines; but +for the sake of Tiberius, spared all the other officers. It may be probable, +also, that Scipio, who at that time was the greatest and most powerful man +among the Romans, contributed to save him, though indeed he was also censured +for not protecting Mancinus too, and that he did not exert himself to maintain +the observance of the articles of peace which had been agreed upon by his +kinsman and friend Tiberius. But it may be presumed that the difference between +them was for the most part due to ambitious feelings, and to the friends and +reasoners who urged on Tiberius, and, as it was, it never amounted to any thing +that might not have been remedied, or that was really bad. Nor can I think that +Tiberius would ever have met with his misfortunes, if Scipio had been concerned +in dealing with his measures; but he was away fighting at Numantia, when +Tiberius, upon the following occasion, first came forward as a legislator. +</p> + +<p> +Of the land which the Romans gained by conquest from their neighbors, part they +sold publicly, and turned the remainder into common; this common land they +assigned to such of the citizens as were poor and indigent, for which they were +to pay only a small acknowledgment into the public treasury. But when the +wealthy men began to offer larger rents, and drive the poorer people out, it +was enacted by law, that no person whatever should enjoy more than five hundred +acres of ground. This act for some time checked the avarice of the richer, and +was of great assistance to the poorer people, who retained under it their +respective proportions of ground, as they had been formerly rented by them. +Afterwards the rich men of the neighborhood contrived to get these lands again +into their possession, under other people’s names, and at last would not stick +to claim most of them publicly in their own. The poor, who were thus deprived +of their farms, were no longer either ready, as they had formerly been, to +serve in war, or careful in the education of their children; insomuch that in a +short time there were comparatively few freemen remaining in all Italy, which +swarmed with workhouses full of foreign-born slaves. These the rich men +employed in cultivating their ground, of which they dispossessed the citizens. +Caius Laelius, the intimate friend of Scipio, undertook to reform this abuse; +but meeting with opposition from men of authority, and fearing a disturbance, +he soon desisted, and received the name of the Wise or the Prudent, both which +meanings belong to the Latin word Sapiens. +</p> + +<p> +But Tiberius, being elected tribune of the people, entered upon that design +without delay, at the instigation, as is most commonly stated, of Diophanes, +the rhetorician, and Blossius, the philosopher. Diophanes was a refugee from +Mitylene, the other was an Italian, of the city of Cuma, and was educated there +under Antipater of Tarsus, who afterwards did him the honor to dedicate some of +his philosophical lectures to him. Some have also charged Cornelia, the mother +of Tiberius, with contributing towards it, because she frequently upbraided her +sons, that the Romans as yet rather called her the daughter of Scipio, than the +mother of the Gracchi. Others again say Spurius Postumius was the chief +occasion. He was a man of the same age with Tiberius, and his rival for +reputation as a public speaker; and when Tiberius, at his return from the +campaign, found him to have got far beyond him in fame and influence, and to be +much looked up to, he thought to outdo him, by attempting a popular enterprise +of this difficulty, and of such great consequence. But his brother Caius has +left it us in writing, that when Tiberius went through Tuscany to Numantia, and +found the country almost depopulated, there being hardly any free husbandmen or +shepherds, but for the most part only barbarian, imported slaves, he then first +conceived the course of policy which in the sequel proved so fatal to his +family. Though it is also most certain that the people themselves chiefly +excited his zeal and determination in the prosecution of it, by setting up +writings upon the porches, walls, and monuments, calling upon him to reinstate +the poor citizens in their former possessions. +</p> + +<p> +However, he did not draw up his law without the advice and assistance of those +citizens that were then most eminent for their virtue and authority; amongst +whom were Crassus, the high-priest, Mucius Scaevola, the lawyer, who at that +time was consul, and Claudius Appius, his father-in-law. Never did any law +appear more moderate and gentle, especially being enacted against such great +oppression and avarice. For they who ought to have been severely punished for +transgressing the former laws, and should at least have lost all their titles +to such lands which they had unjustly usurped, were notwithstanding to receive +a price for quitting their unlawful claims, and giving up their lands to those +fit owners who stood in need of help. But though this reformation was managed +with so much tenderness, that, all the former transactions being passed over, +the people were only thankful to prevent abuses of the like nature for the +future, yet, on the other hand, the moneyed men, and those of great estates +were exasperated, through their covetous feelings against the law itself, and +against the law giver, through anger and party spirit. They therefore +endeavored to seduce the people, declaring that Tiberius was designing a +general redivision of lands, to overthrow the government, and put all things +into confusion. +</p> + +<p> +But they had no success. For Tiberius, maintaining an honorable and just cause, +and possessed of eloquence sufficient to have made a less creditable action +appear plausible, was no safe or easy antagonist, when, with the people +crowding around the hustings, he took his place, and spoke in behalf of the +poor. “The savage beasts,” said he, “in Italy, have their particular dens, they +have their places of repose and refuge; but the men who bear arms, and expose +their lives for the safety of their country, enjoy in the meantime nothing more +in it but the air and light; and having no houses or settlements of their own, +are constrained to wander from place to place with their wives and children.” +He told them that the commanders were guilty of a ridiculous error, when, at +the head of their armies, they exhorted the common soldiers to fight for their +sepulchres and altars; when not any amongst so many Romans is possessed of +either altar or monument, neither have they any houses of their own, or hearths +of their ancestors to defend. They fought indeed, and were slain, but it was to +maintain the luxury and the wealth of other men. They were styled the masters +of the world, but in the meantime had not one foot of ground which they could +call their own. A harangue of this nature, spoken to an enthusiastic and +sympathizing audience, by a person of commanding spirit and genuine feeling, no +adversaries at that time were competent to oppose. Forbearing, therefore, all +discussion and debate, they addressed themselves to Marcus Octavius, his +fellow-tribune, who, being a young man of a steady, orderly character, and an +intimate friend of Tiberius, upon this account declined at first the task of +opposing him; but at length, over-persuaded with the repeated importunities of +numerous considerable persons, he was prevailed upon to do so, and hindered the +passing of the law; it being the rule that any tribune has a power to hinder an +act, and that all the rest can effect nothing, if only one of them dissents. +Tiberius, irritated at these proceedings, presently laid aside this milder +bill, but at the same time preferred another; which, as it was more grateful to +the common people, so it was much more severe against the wrongdoers, +commanding them to make an immediate surrender of all lands which, contrary to +former laws, had come into their possession. Hence there arose daily +contentions between him and Octavius in their orations. However, though they +expressed themselves with the utmost heat and determination, they yet were +never known to descend to any personal reproaches, or in their passion to let +slip any indecent expressions, so as to derogate from one another. +</p> + +<p> +For not alone +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In revellings and Bacchic play, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +but also in contentions and political animosities, a noble nature and a +temperate education stay and compose the mind. Observing, however, that +Octavius himself was an offender against this law, and detained a great +quantity of ground from the commonalty, Tiberius desired him to forbear +opposing him any further, and proffered, for the public good, though he himself +had but an indifferent estate, to pay a price for Octavius’s share at his own +cost and charges. But upon the refusal of this proffer by Octavius, he then +interposed an edict, prohibiting all magistrates to exercise their respective +functions, till such time as the law was either ratified or rejected by public +votes. He further sealed up the gates of Saturn’s temple, so that the +treasurers could neither take any money out from thence, or put any in. He +threatened to impose a severe fine upon those of the praetors who presumed to +disobey his commands, insomuch that all the officers, for fear of this penalty, +intermitted the exercise of their several jurisdictions. Upon this, the rich +proprietors put themselves into mourning, went up and down melancholy and +dejected; they entered also into a conspiracy against Tiberius, and procured +men to murder him; so that he also, with all men’s knowledge, whenever he went +abroad, took with him a sword-staff, such as robbers use, called in Latin a +dolo. +</p> + +<p> +When the day appointed was come, and the people summoned to give their votes, +the rich men seized upon the voting urns, and carried them away by force; thus +all things were in confusion. But when Tiberius’s party appeared strong enough +to oppose the contrary faction, and drew together in a body, with the +resolution to do so, Manlius and Fulvius, two of the consular quality, threw +themselves before Tiberius, took him by the hand, and with tears in their eyes, +begged of him to desist. Tiberius, considering the mischiefs that were all but +now occurring, and having a great respect for two such eminent persons, +demanded of them what they would advise him to do. They acknowledged themselves +unfit to advise in a matter of so great importance, but earnestly entreated him +to leave it to the determination of the senate. But when the senate assembled, +and could not bring the business to any result, through the prevalence of the +rich faction, he then was driven to a course neither legal nor fair, and +proposed to deprive Octavius of his tribuneship, it being impossible for him in +any other way to get the law brought to the vote. At first he addressed him +publicly, with entreaties couched in the kindest terms, and taking him by his +hands, besought him, that now, in the presence of all the people, he would take +this opportunity to oblige them, in granting only that request which was in +itself so just and reasonable, being but a small recompense in regard of those +many dangers and hardships which they had undergone for the public safety. +Octavius, however, would by no means be persuaded to compliance; upon which +Tiberius declared openly, that seeing they two were united in the same office, +and of equal authority, it would be a difficult matter to compose their +difference on so weighty a matter without a civil war; and that the only remedy +which he knew, must be the deposing one of them from their office. He desired, +therefore, that Octavius would summon the people to pass their verdict upon him +first, averring that he would willingly relinquish his authority if the +citizens desired it. Octavius refused; and Tiberius then said he would himself +put to the people the question of Octavius’s deposition, if upon mature +deliberation he did not alter his mind; and after this declaration, he +adjourned the assembly till the next day. +</p> + +<p> +When the people were met together again, Tiberius placed himself in the rostra, +and endeavored a second time to persuade Octavius. But all being to no purpose, +he referred the whole matter to the people, calling on them to vote at once, +whether Octavius should be deposed or not; and when seventeen of the +thirty-five tribes had already voted against him, and there wanted only the +votes of one tribe more for his final deprivation, Tiberius put a short stop to +the proceedings, and once more renewed his importunities; he embraced and +kissed him before all the assembly, begging, with all the earnestness +imaginable, that he would neither suffer himself to incur the dishonor, nor him +to be reputed the author and promoter of so odious a measure. Octavius, we are +told, did seem a little softened and moved with these entreaties; his eyes +filled with tears, and he continued silent for a considerable time. But +presently looking towards the rich men and proprietors of estates, who stood +gathered in a body together, partly for shame, and partly for fear of +disgracing himself with them, he boldly bade Tiberius use any severity he +pleased. The law for his deprivation being thus voted, Tiberius ordered one of +his servants, whom he had made a freeman, to remove Octavius from the rostra, +employing his own domestic freed servants in the stead of the public officers. +And it made the action seem all the sadder, that Octavius was dragged out in +such an ignominious manner. The people immediately assaulted him, whilst the +rich men ran in to his assistance. Octavius, with some difficulty, was snatched +away, and safely conveyed out of the crowd; though a trusty servant of his, who +had placed himself in front of his master that he might assist his escape, in +keeping off the multitude, had his eyes struck out, much to the displeasure of +Tiberius, who ran with all haste, when he perceived the disturbance, to appease +the rioters. +</p> + +<p> +This being done, the law concerning the lands was ratified and confirmed, and +three commissioners were appointed, to make a survey of the grounds and see the +same equally divided. These were Tiberius himself, Claudius Appius, his +father-in-law, and his brother, Caius Gracchus, who at this time was not at +Rome, but in the army under the command of Scipio Africanus before Numantia. +These things were transacted by Tiberius without any disturbance, none daring +to offer any resistance to him, besides which, he gave the appointment as +tribune in Octavius’s place, not to any person of distinction, but to a certain +Mucius, one of his own clients. The great men of the city were therefore +utterly offended, and, fearing lest he should grow yet more popular, they took +all opportunities of affronting him publicly in the senate house. For when he +requested, as was usual, to have a tent provided at the public charge for his +use, while dividing the lands, though it was a favor commonly granted to +persons employed in business of much less importance, it was peremptorily +refused to him; and the allowance made him for his daily expenses was fixed to +nine obols only. The chief promoter of these affronts was Publius Nasica, who +openly abandoned himself to his feelings of hatred against Tiberius, being a +large holder of the public lands, and not a little resenting now to be turned +out of them by force. The people, on the other hand, were still more and more +excited, insomuch that a little after this, it happening that one of Tiberius’s +friends died suddenly, and his body being marked with malignant-looking spots, +they ran, in tumultuous manner, to his funeral, crying aloud that the man was +poisoned. They took the bier upon their shoulders, and stood over it, while it +was placed on the pile, and really seemed to have fair grounds for their +suspicion of foul play. For the body burst open, and such a quantity of corrupt +humors issued out, that the funeral fire was extinguished, and when it was +again kindled, the wood still would not burn; insomuch that they were +constrained to carry the corpse to another place, where with much difficulty it +took fire. Besides this, Tiberius, that he might incense the people yet more, +put himself into mourning, brought his children amongst the crowd, and +entreated the people to provide for them and their mother, as if he now +despaired of his own security. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, king Attalus, surnamed Philometor, died, and Eudemus, a +Pergamenian, brought his last will to Rome, by which he had made the Roman +people his heirs. Tiberius, to please the people, immediately proposed making a +law, that all the money which Attalus left, should be distributed amongst such +poor citizens as were to be sharers of the public lands, for the better +enabling them to proceed in stocking and cultivating their ground; and as for +the cities that were in the territories of Attalus, he declared that the +disposal of them did not at all belong to the senate, but to the people, and +that he himself would ask their pleasure herein. By this he offended the senate +more than ever he had done before, and Pompeius stood up, and acquainted them +that he was the next neighbor to Tiberius, and so had the opportunity of +knowing that Eudemus, the Pergamenian, had presented Tiberius with a royal +diadem and a purple robe, as before long he was to be king of Rome. Quintus +Metellus also upbraided him, saying, that when his father was censor, the +Romans, whenever he happened to be going home from a supper, used to put out +all their lights, lest they should be seen to have indulged themselves in +feastings and drinking at unseasonable hours, whereas, now, the most indigent +and audacious of the people were found with their torches at night, following +Tiberius home. Titus Annius, a man of no great repute for either justice or +temperance, but famous for his skill in putting and answering questions, +challenged Tiberius to the proof by wager, declaring him to have deposed a +magistrate who by law was sacred and inviolable. Loud clamor ensued, and +Tiberius, quitting the senate hastily, called together the people, and +summoning Annius to appear, was proceeding to accuse him. But Annius, being no +great speaker, nor of any repute compared to him, sheltered himself in his own +particular art, and desired that he might propose one or two questions to +Tiberius, before he entered upon the chief argument. This liberty being +granted, and silence proclaimed, Annius proposed his question. “If you,” said +he, “had a design to disgrace and defame me, and I should apply myself to one +of your colleagues for redress, and he should come forward to my assistance, +would you for that reason fall into a passion, and depose him?” Tiberius, they +say, was so much disconcerted at this question, that, though at other times his +assurance as well as his readiness of speech was always remarkable, yet now he +was silent and made no reply. +</p> + +<p> +For the present he dismissed the assembly. But beginning to understand that the +course he had taken with Octavius had created offense even among the populace +as well as the nobility, because the dignity of the tribunes seemed to be +violated, which had always continued till that day sacred and honorable, he +made a speech to the people in justification of himself; out of which it may +not be improper to collect some particulars, to give an impression of his force +and persuasiveness in speaking. “A tribune,” he said, “of the people, is sacred +indeed, and ought to be inviolable, because in a manner consecrated to be the +guardian and protector of them; but if he degenerate so far as to oppress the +people, abridge their powers, and take away their liberty of voting, he stands +deprived by his own act of his honors and immunities, by the neglect of the +duty, for which the honor was bestowed upon him. Otherwise we should be under +the obligation to let a tribune do his pleasure, though he should proceed to +destroy the capitol or set fire to the arsenal. He who should make these +attempts, would be a bad tribune. He who assails the power of the people, is no +longer a tribune at all. Is it not inconceivable, that a tribune should have +power to imprison a consul, and the people have no authority to degrade him +when he uses that honor which he received from them, to their detriment? For +the tribunes, as well as the consuls, hold office by the people’s votes. The +kingly government, which comprehends all sorts of authority in itself alone, is +morever elevated by the greatest and most religious solemnity imaginable into a +condition of sanctity. But the citizens, notwithstanding this, deposed Tarquin, +when he acted wrongfully; and for the crime of one single man, the ancient +government under which Rome was built, was abolished forever. What is there in +all Rome so sacred and venerable as the vestal virgins, to whose care alone the +preservation of the eternal fire is committed? yet if one of these transgress, +she is buried alive; the sanctity which for the gods’ sakes is allowed them, is +forfeited when they offend against the gods. So likewise a tribune retains not +his inviolability, which for the people’s sake was accorded to him, when he +offends against the people, and attacks the foundations of that authority from +whence he derived his own. We esteem him to be legally chosen tribune who is +elected only by the majority of votes; and is not therefore the same person +much more lawfully degraded, when by a general consent of them all, they agree +to depose him? Nothing is so sacred as religious offerings; yet the people were +never prohibited to make use of them, but suffered to remove and carry them +wherever they pleased; so likewise, as it were some sacred present, they have +lawful power to transfer the tribuneship from one man’s hands to another’s. Nor +can that authority be thought inviolable and irremovable which many of those +who have held it, have of their own act surrendered, and desired to be +discharged from.” +</p> + +<p> +These were the principal heads of Tiberius’s apology. But his friends, +apprehending the dangers which seemed to threaten him, and the conspiracy that +was gathering head against him, were of opinion, that the safest way would be +for him to petition that he might be continued tribune for the year ensuing. +Upon this consideration, he again endeavored to secure the people’s good-will +with fresh laws, making the years of serving in the war fewer than formerly, +granting liberty of appeal from the judges to the people, and joining to the +senators, who were judges at that time, an equal number of citizens of the +horsemen’s degree, endeavoring as much as in him lay to lessen the power of the +senate, rather from passion and partisanship than from any rational regard to +equity and the public good. And when it came to the question, whether these +laws should be passed, and they perceived that the opposite party were +strongest, the people as yet being not got together in a full body, they began +first of all to gain time by speeches in accusation of some of their +fellow-magistrates, and at length adjourned the assembly till the day +following. +</p> + +<p> +Tiberius then went down into the marketplace amongst the people, and made his +addresses to them humbly and with tears in his eyes; and told them, he had just +reason to suspect, that his adversaries would attempt in the night time to +break open his house, and murder him. This worked so strongly with the +multitude, that several of them pitched tents round about his house, and kept +guard all night for the security of his person. By break of day came one of the +soothsayers, who prognosticate good or bad success by the pecking of fowls, and +threw them something to eat. The soothsayer used his utmost endeavors to fright +the fowls out of their coop; but none of them except one would venture out, +which fluttered with its left wing, and stretched out its leg, and ran back +again into the coop, without eating anything. This put Tiberius in mind of +another ill omen which had formerly happened to him. He had a very costly +headpiece, which he made use of when he engaged in any battle, and into this +piece of armor two serpents crawled, laid eggs, and brought forth young ones. +The remembrance of which made Tiberius more concerned now, than otherwise he +would have been. However, he went towards the capitol, as soon as he understood +that the people were assembled there; but before he got out of the house, he +stumbled upon the threshold with such violence, that he broke the nail of his +great toe, insomuch that blood gushed out of his shoe. He was not gone very far +before he saw two ravens fighting on the top of a house which stood on his left +hand as he passed along; and though he was surrounded with a number of people, +a stone, struck from its place by one of the ravens, fell just at his foot. +This even the boldest men about him felt as a check. But Blossius of Cuma, who +was present, told him, that it would be a shame, and an ignominious thing, for +Tiberius, who was the son of Gracchus, the grandson of Scipio Africanus, and +the protector of the Roman people, to refuse, for fear of a silly bird, to +answer, when his countrymen called to him; and that his adversaries would +represent it not as a mere matter for their ridicule, but would declaim about +it to the people as the mark of a tyrannical temper, which felt a pride in +taking liberties with the people. At the same time several messengers came also +from his friends, to desire his presence at the capitol, saying that all things +went there according to expectation. And indeed Tiberius’s first entrance there +was in every way successful; as soon as ever he appeared, the people welcomed +him with loud acclamations, and as he went up to his place, they repeated their +expressions of joy, and gathered in a body around him, so that no one who was +not well known to be his friend, might approach. Mucius then began to put the +business again to the vote; but nothing could be performed in the usual course +and order, because of the disturbance caused by those who were on the outside +of the crowd, where there was a struggle going on with those of the opposite +party, who were pushing on and trying to force their way in and establish +themselves among them. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst things were in this confusion, Flavius Flaccus, a senator, standing in a +place where he could be seen, but at such a distance from Tiberius that he +could not make him hear, signified to him by motions of his hand, that he +wished to impart something of consequence to him in private. Tiberius ordered +the multitude to make way for him, by which means, though not without some +difficulty, Flavius got to him, and informed him, that the rich men, in a +sitting of the senate, seeing they could not prevail upon the consul to espouse +their quarrel, had come to a final determination amongst themselves, that he +should be assassinated, and to that purpose had a great number of their friends +and servants ready armed to accomplish it. Tiberius no sooner communicated this +confederacy to those about him, but they immediately tucked up their gowns, +broke the halberts which the officers used to keep the crowd off into pieces, +and distributed them among themselves, resolving to resist the attack with +these. Those who stood at a distance wondered, and asked what was the occasion; +Tiberius, knowing that they could not hear him at that distance, lifted his +hand to his head, wishing to intimate the great danger which he apprehended +himself to be in. His adversaries, taking notice of that action, ran off at +once to the senate house, and declared, that Tiberius desired the people to +bestow a crown upon him, as if this were the meaning of his touching his head. +This news created general confusion in the senators, and Nasica at once called +upon the consul to punish this tyrant, and defend the government. The consul +mildly replied, that he would not be the first to do any violence; and as he +would not suffer any freeman to be put to death, before sentence had lawfully +passed upon him, so neither would he allow any measure to be carried into +effect, if by persuasion or compulsion on the part of Tiberius the people had +been induced to pass any unlawful vote. But Nasica, rising from his seat, +“Since the consul,” said he, “regards not the safety of the commonwealth, let +everyone who will defend the laws, follow me.” He, then, casting the skirt of +his gown over his head, hastened to the capitol; those who bore him company, +wrapped their gowns also about their arms. and forced their way after him. And +as they were persons of the greatest authority in the city, the common people +did not venture to obstruct their passing, but were rather so eager to clear +the way for them, that they tumbled over one another in haste. The attendants +they brought with them, had furnished themselves with clubs and staves from +their houses, and they themselves picked up the feet and other fragments of +stools and chairs, which were broken by the hasty flight of the common people. +Thus armed, they made towards Tiberius, knocking down those whom they found in +front of him, and those were soon wholly dispersed, and many of them slain. +Tiberius tried to save himself by flight. As he was running, he was stopped by +one who caught hold of him by the gown; but he threw it off, and fled in his +under-garments only. And stumbling over those who before had been knocked down, +as he was endeavoring to get up again, Publius Satureius, a tribune, one of his +colleagues, was observed to give him the first fatal stroke, by hitting him +upon the head with the foot of a stool. The second blow was claimed, as though +it had been a deed to be proud of, by Lucius Rufus. And of the rest there fell +above three hundred, killed by clubs and staves only, none by an iron weapon. +</p> + +<p> +This, we are told, was the first sedition amongst the Romans, since the +abrogation of kingly government, that ended in the effusion of blood. All +former quarrels which were neither small nor about trivial matters, were always +amicably composed, by mutual concessions on either side, the senate yielding +for fear of the commons, and the commons out of respect to the senate. And it +is probable indeed that Tiberius himself might then have been easily induced, +by mere persuasion, to give way, and certainly, if attacked at all, must have +yielded without any recourse to violence and bloodshed, as he had not at that +time above three thousand men to support him. But it is evident, that this +conspiracy was fomented against him, more out of the hatred and malice which +the rich men had to his person, than for the reasons which they commonly +pretended against him. In testimony of which, we may adduce the cruelty and +unnatural insults which they used to his dead body. For they would not suffer +his own brother, though he earnestly begged the favor, to bury him in the +night, but threw him, together with the other corpses, into the river. Neither +did their animosity stop here; for they banished some of his friends without +legal process, and slew as many of the others us they could lay their hands on; +amongst whom Diophanes, the orator, was slain, and one Caius Villius cruelly +murdered by being shut up in a large tun with vipers and serpents. Blossius of +Cuma, indeed, was carried before the consuls, and examined touching what had +happened, and freely confessed, that he had done, without scruple, whatever +Tiberius bade him. “What,” replied Nasica, “then if Tiberius had bidden you +burn the capitol, would you have burnt it?” His first answer was, that Tiberius +never would have ordered any such thing; but being pressed with the same +question by several others, he declared, “If Tiberius had commanded it, it +would have been right for me to do it; for he never would have commanded it, if +it had not been for the people’s good.” Blossius at this time was pardoned, and +afterwards went away to Aristonicus in Asia, and when Aristonicus was +overthrown and ruined, killed himself. +</p> + +<p> +The senate, to soothe the people after these transactions, did not oppose the +division of the public lands, and permitted them to choose another commissioner +in the room of Tiberius. So they elected Publius Crassus, who was Gracchus’s +near connection, as his daughter Licinia was married to Caius Gracchus; +although Cornelius Nepos says, that it was not Crassus’s daughter whom Caius +married, but Brutus’s, who triumphed for his victories over the Lusitanians; +but most writers state it as we have done. The people, however, showed evident +marks of their anger at Tiberius’s death; and were clearly waiting only for the +opportunity to be revenged, and Nasica was already threatened with an +impeachment. The senate, therefore, fearing lest some mischief should befall +him, sent him ambassador into Asia, though there was no occasion for his going +thither. For the people did not conceal their indignation, even in the open +streets, but railed at him, whenever they met him abroad, calling him a +murderer and a tyrant, one who had polluted the most holy and religious spot in +Rome with the blood of a sacred and inviolable magistrate. And so Nasica left +Italy, although be was bound, being the chief priest, to officiate in all +principal sacrifices. Thus wandering wretchedly and ignominiously from one +place to another, he died in a short time after, not far from Pergamus. It is +no wonder that the people had such an aversion to Nasica, when even Scipio +Africanus, though so much and so deservedly beloved by the Romans, was in +danger of quite losing the good opinion which the people had of him, only for +repeating, when the news of Tiberius’s death was first brought to Numantia, the +verse out of Homer +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Even so perish all who do the same. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And afterwards, being asked by Caius and Fulvius, in a great assembly, what he +thought of Tiberius’s death, he gave an answer adverse to Tiberius’s public +actions. Upon which account, the people thenceforth used to interrupt him when +he spoke, which, until that time, they had never done, and he, on the other +hand, was induced to speak ill of the people. But of this the particulars are +given in the life of Scipio. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap54"></a>CAIUS GRACCHUS</h2> + +<p> +Caius Gracchus, at first, either for fear of his brother’s enemies, or +designing to render them more odious to the people, absented himself from the +public assemblies, and lived quietly in his own house, as if he were not only +reduced for the present to live unambitiously, but was disposed in general to +pass his life in inaction. And some, indeed, went so far as to say that he +disliked his brother’s measures, and had wholly abandoned the defense of them. +However, he was now but very young, being not so old as Tiberius by nine years; +and he was not yet thirty when he was slain. +</p> + +<p> +In some little time, however, he quietly let his temper appear, which was one +of an utter antipathy to a lazy retirement and effeminacy, and not the least +likely to be contented with a life of eating, drinking, and money getting. He +gave great pains to the study of eloquence, as wings upon which he might aspire +to public business; and it was very apparent that he did not intend to pass his +days in obscurity. When Vettius, a friend of his, was on his trial, he defended +his cause, and the people were in an ecstasy, and transported with joy, finding +him master of such eloquence that the other orators seemed like children in +comparison, and jealousies and fears on the other hand began to be felt by the +powerful citizens; and it was generally spoken of amongst them that they must +hinder Caius from being made tribune. +</p> + +<p> +But soon after, it happened that he was elected quaestor, and obliged to attend +Orestes, the consul, into Sardinia. This, as it pleased his enemies, so it was +not ungrateful to him, being naturally of a warlike character, and as well +trained in the art of war as in that of pleading. And, besides, as yet he very +much dreaded meddling with state affairs, and appearing publicly in the rostra, +which, because of the importunity of the people and his friends, he could no +otherwise avoid, than by taking this journey. He was therefore most thankful +for the opportunity of absenting himself. Notwithstanding which, it is the +prevailing opinion that Caius was a far more thorough demagogue, and more +ambitious than ever Tiberius had been, of popular applause; yet it is certain +that he was borne rather by a sort of necessity than by any purpose of his own +into public business. And Cicero, the orator, relates, that when he declined +all such concerns, and would have lived privately, his brother appeared to him +in a dream, and calling him by his name, said, “why do you tarry, Caius? There +is no escape; one life and one death is appointed for us both, to spend the one +and to meet the other, in the service of the people.” +</p> + +<p> +Caius was no sooner arrived in Sardinia, but he gave exemplary proofs of his +high merit; he not only excelled all the young men of his age in his actions +against his enemies, in doing justice to his inferiors, and in showing all +obedience and respect to his superior officer; but likewise in temperance, +frugality, and industry, he surpassed even those who were much older than +himself. It happened to be a sharp and sickly winter in Sardinia, insomuch that +the general was forced to lay an imposition upon several towns to supply the +soldiers with necessary clothes. The cities sent to Rome, petitioning to be +excused from that burden; the senate found their request reasonable, and +ordered the general to find some other way of new clothing the army. While he +was at a loss what course to take in this affair, the soldiers were reduced to +great distress; but Caius went from one city to another, and by his mere +representations, he prevailed with them, that of their own accord they clothed +the Roman army. This again being reported to Rome, and seeming to be only an +intimation of what was to be expected of him as a popular leader hereafter, +raised new jealousies amongst the senators. And, besides, there came +ambassadors out of Africa from king Micipsa, to acquaint the senate, that their +master, out of respect to Caius Gracchus, had sent a considerable quantity of +corn to the general in Sardinia; at which the senators were so much offended, +that they turned the ambassadors out of the senate house, and made an order +that the soldiers should be relieved by sending others in their room; but that +Orestes should continue at his post, with whom Caius, also, as they presumed, +being his quaestor, would remain. But he, finding how things were carried, +immediately in anger took ship for Rome, where his unexpected appearance +obtained him the censure not only of his enemies, but also of the people; who +thought it strange that a quaestor should leave before his commander. +Nevertheless, when some accusation upon this ground was made against him to the +censors, he desired leave to defend himself, and did it so effectually, that, +when he ended, he was regarded as one who had been very much injured. He made +it then appear, that he had served twelve years in the army, whereas others are +obliged to serve only ten; that he had continued quaestor to the general three +years, whereas he might by law have returned at the end of one year; and alone +of all who went on the expedition, he had carried out a full, and had brought +home an empty purse, while others, after drinking up the wine they had carried +out with them, brought back the wine-jars filled again with gold and silver +from the war. +</p> + +<p> +After this, they brought other accusations and writs against him, for exciting +insurrection amongst the allies, and being engaged in the conspiracy that was +discovered about Fregellae. But having cleared himself of every suspicion, and +proved his entire innocence, he now at once came forward to ask for the +tribuneship; in which, though he was universally opposed by all persons of +distinction, yet there came such infinite numbers of people from all parts of +Italy to vote for Caius, that lodgings for them could not be supplied in the +city; and the Field being not large enough to contain the assembly, there were +numbers who climbed upon the roofs and the tilings of the houses to use their +voices in his favor. However, the nobility so far forced the people to their +pleasure and disappointed Caius’s hope, that he was not returned the first, as +was expected, but the fourth tribune. But when he came to the execution of his +office, it was seen presently who was really first tribune, as he was a better +orator than any of his contemporaries, and the passion with which he still +lamented his brother’s death, made him the bolder in speaking. He used on all +occasions to remind the people of what had happened in that tumult, and laid +before them the examples of their ancestors, how they declared war against the +Faliscans, only for giving scurrilous language to one Genucius, a tribune of +the people; and sentenced Caius Veturius to death, for refusing to give way in +the forum to a tribune; “Whereas,” said he, “these men did, in the presence of +you all, murder Tiberius with clubs, and dragged the slaughtered body through +the middle of the city, to be cast into the river. Even his friends, as many as +could be taken, were put to death immediately, without any trial, +notwithstanding that just and ancient custom, which has always been observed in +our city, that whenever anyone is accused of a capital crime, and does not make +his personal appearance in court, a trumpeter is sent in the morning to his +lodging, to summon him by sound of trumpet to appear; and before this ceremony +is performed, the judges do not proceed to the vote; so cautious and reserved +were our ancestors about business of life and death.” +</p> + +<p> +Having moved the people’s passion with such addresses (and his voice was of the +loudest and strongest), he proposed two laws. The first was, that whoever was +turned out of any public office by the people, should be thereby rendered +incapable of bearing any office afterwards; the second, that if any magistrate +condemn a Roman to be banished, without a legal trial, the people be authorized +to take cognizance thereof. +</p> + +<p> +One of these laws was manifestly leveled at Marcus Octavius, who, at the +instigation of Tiberius, had been deprived of his tribuneship. The other +touched Popilius, who, in his praetorship, had banished all Tiberius’s friends; +whereupon Popilius, being unwilling to stand the hazard of a trial, fled out of +Italy. As for the former law, it was withdrawn by Caius himself, who said he +yielded in the case of Octavius, at the request of his mother Cornelia. This +was very acceptable and pleasing to the people, who had a great veneration for +Cornelia, not more for the sake of her father than for that of her children; +and they afterwards erected a statue of brass in honor of her, with this +inscription, Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. There are several expressions +recorded, in which he used her name perhaps with too much rhetoric, and too +little self-respect, in his attacks upon his adversaries. “How,” said he, “dare +you presume to reflect upon Cornelia, the mother of Tiberius?” And because the +person who made the redactions had been suspected of effeminate courses, “With +what face,” said he, “can you compare Cornelia with yourself? Have you brought +forth children as she has done? And yet all Rome knows, that she has refrained +from the conversation of men longer than you yourself have done.” Such was the +bitterness he used in his language; and numerous similar expressions might be +adduced from his written remains. +</p> + +<p> +Of the laws which he now proposed, with the object of gratifying the people and +abridging the power of the senate, the first was concerning the public lands, +which were to be divided amongst the poor citizens; another was concerning the +common soldiers, that they should be clothed at the public charge, without any +diminution of their pay, and that none should be obliged to serve in the army +who was not full seventeen years old; another gave the same right to all the +Italians in general, of voting at elections, as was enjoyed by the citizens of +Rome; a fourth related to the price of corn, which was to be sold at a lower +rate than formerly to the poor; and a fifth regulated the courts of justice, +greatly reducing the power of the senators. For hitherto, in all causes +senators only sat as judges, and were therefore much dreaded by the Roman +knights and the people. But Caius joined three hundred ordinary citizens of +equestrian rank with the senators, who were three hundred likewise in number, +and ordained that the judicial authority should be equally invested in the six +hundred. While he was arguing for the ratification of this law, his behavior +was observed to show in many respects unusual earnestness, and whereas other +popular leaders had always hitherto, when speaking, turned their faces towards +the senate house, and the place called the comitium, he, on the contrary, was +the first man that in his harangue to the people turned himself the other way, +towards them, and continued after that time to do so. An insignificant movement +and change of posture, yet it marked no small revolution in state affairs, the +conversion, in a manner, of the whole government from an aristocracy to a +democracy; his action intimating that public speakers should address themselves +to the people, not the senate. +</p> + +<p> +When the commonalty ratified this law, and gave him power to select those of +the knights whom he approved of, to be judges, he was invested with a sort of +kingly power, and the senate itself submitted to receive his advice in matters +of difficulty; nor did he advise anything that might derogate from the honor of +that body. As, for example, his resolution about the corn which Fabius the +propraetor sent from Spain, was very just and honorable; for he persuaded the +senate to sell the corn, and return the money to the same provinces which had +furnished them with it; and also that Fabius should be censured for rendering +the Roman government odious and insupportable. This got him extraordinary +respect and favor among the provinces. Besides all this, he proposed measures +for the colonization of several cities, for making roads, and for building +public granaries; of all which works he himself undertook the management and +superintendence, and was never wanting to give necessary orders for the +dispatch of all these different and great undertakings; and that with such +wonderful expedition and diligence, as if he had been but engaged upon one of +them; insomuch that all persons, even those who hated or feared him, stood +amazed to see what a capacity he had for effecting and completing all he +undertook. As for the people themselves, they were transported at the very +sight, when they saw him surrounded with a crowd of contractors, artificers, +public deputies, military officers, soldiers, and scholars. All these he +treated with an easy familiarity, yet without abandoning his dignity in his +gentleness; and so accommodated his nature to the wants and occasions of +everyone who addressed him, that those were looked upon as no better than +envious detractors, who had represented him as a terrible, assuming, and +violent character. He was even a greater master of the popular leader’s art in +his common talk and his actions, than he was in his public addresses. +</p> + +<p> +His most especial exertions were given to constructing the roads, which he was +careful to make beautiful and pleasant, as well as convenient. They were drawn +by his directions through the fields, exactly in a straight line, partly paved +with hewn stone, and partly laid with solid masses of gravel. When he met with +any valleys or deep watercourses crossing the line, he either caused them to be +filled up with rubbish, or bridges to be built over them, so well leveled, that +all being of an equal height on both sides, the work presented one uniform and +beautiful prospect. Besides this, he caused the roads to be all divided into +miles (each mile containing little less than eight furlongs, and erected +pillars of stone to signify the distance from one place to another. He likewise +placed other stones at small distances from one another, on both sides of the +way, by the help of which travelers might get easily on horseback without +wanting a groom. +</p> + +<p> +For these reasons, the people highly extolled him, and were ready upon all +occasions to express their affection towards him. One day, in an oration to +them, he declared that he had only one favor to request, which if they granted, +he should think the greatest obligation in the world; yet if it were denied, he +would never blame them for the refusal. This expression made the world believe +that his ambition was to be consul; and it was generally expected that he +wished to be both consul and tribune at the same time. When the day for +election of consuls was at hand, and all in great expectation, he appeared in +the Field with Caius Fannius, canvassing together with his friends for his +election. This was of great effect in Fannius’s favor. He was chosen consul, +and Caius elected tribune the second time, without his own seeking or +petitioning for it, but at the voluntary motion of the people. But when he +understood that the senators were his declared enemies, and that Fannius +himself was none of the most zealous of friends, he began again to rouse the +people with other new laws. He proposed that a colony of Roman citizens might +be sent to re-people Tarentum and Capua, and that the Latins should enjoy the +same privileges with the citizens of Rome. But the senate, apprehending that he +would at last grow too powerful and dangerous, took a new and unusual course to +alienate the people’s affections from him, by playing the demagogue in +opposition to him, and offering favors contrary to all good policy. Livius +Drusus was fellow-tribune with Caius, a person of as good a family and as well +educated as any amongst the Romans, and noways inferior to those who for their +eloquence and riches were the most honored and most powerful men of that time. +To him, therefore, the chief senators made their application, exhorting him to +attack Caius, and join in their confederacy against him; which they designed to +carry on, not by using any force, or opposing the common people, but by +gratifying and obliging them with such unreasonable things as otherwise they +would have felt it honorable for them to incur the greatest unpopularity in +resisting. +</p> + +<p> +Livius offered to serve the senate with his authority in this business; and +proceeded accordingly to bring forward such laws as were in reality neither +honorable nor advantageous for the public; his whole design being to outdo +Caius in pleasing and cajoling the populace (as if it had been in some comedy), +with obsequious flattery and every kind of gratifications; the senate thus +letting it be seen plainly, that they were not angry with Caius’s public +measures, but only desirous to ruin him utterly, or at least to lessen his +reputation. For when Caius proposed the settlement of only two colonies, and +mentioned the better class of citizens for that purpose, they accused him of +abusing the people; and yet, on the contrary, were pleased with Drusus, when he +proposed the sending out of twelve colonies, each to consist of three thousand +persons, and those, too, the most needy that he could find. When Caius divided +the public land amongst the poor citizens, and charged them with a small rent, +annually, to be paid into the exchequer, they were angry at him, as one who +sought to gratify the people only for his own interest; yet afterwards they +commended Livius, though he exempted them from paying even that little +acknowledgment. They were displeased with Caius, for offering the Latins an +equal right with the Romans of voting at the election of magistrates; but when +Livius proposed that it might not be lawful for a Roman captain to scourge a +Latin soldier, they promoted the passing of that law. And Livius, in all his +speeches to the people, always told them, that he proposed no laws but such as +were agreeable to the senate, who had a particular regard to the people’s +advantage. And this truly was the only point in all his proceedings which was +of any real service, as it created more kindly feelings towards the senate in +the people; and whereas they formerly suspected and hated the principal +senators, Livius appeased and mitigated this perverseness and animosity, by his +profession that he had done nothing in favor and for the benefit of the +commons, without their advice and approbation. +</p> + +<p> +But the greatest credit which Drusus got for kindness and justice towards the +people was, that he never seemed to propose any law for his own sake, or his +own advantage; he committed the charge of seeing the colonies rightly settled +to other commissioners; neither did he ever concern himself with the +distribution of the moneys; whereas Caius always took the principal part in any +important transactions of this kind. Rubrius, another tribune of the people, +had proposed to have Carthage again inhabited, which had been demolished by +Scipio, and it fell to Caius’s lot to see this performed, and for that purpose +he sailed to Africa. Drusus took this opportunity of his absence to insinuate +himself still more into the peoples’ affections, which he did chiefly by +accusing Fulvius, who was a particular friend to Caius, and was appointed a +commissioner with him for the division of the lands. Fulvius was a man of a +turbulent spirit, and notoriously hated by the senate; and besides, he was +suspected by others to have fomented the differences between the citizens and +their confederates, and underhand to be inciting the Italians to rebel; though +there was little other evidence of the truth of these accusations, than his +being an unsettled character, and of a well-known seditious temper. This was +one principal cause of Caius’s ruin; for part of the envy which fell upon +Fulvius, was extended to him. And when Scipio Africanus died suddenly, and no +cause of such an unexpected death could be assigned, only some marks of blows +upon his body seemed to intimate that he had suffered violence, as is related +in the history of his life, the greatest part of the odium attached to Fulvius, +because he was his enemy, and that very day had reflected upon Scipio in a +public address to the people. Nor was Caius himself clear from suspicion. +However, this great outrage, committed too upon the person of the greatest and +most considerable man in Rome, was never either punished or inquired into +thoroughly, for the populace opposed and hindered any judicial investigation, +for fear that Caius should be implicated in the charge if proceedings were +carried on. This, however, had happened some time before. +</p> + +<p> +But in Africa, where at present Caius was engaged in the repeopling of +Carthage, which he named Junonia, many ominous appearances, which presaged +mischief, are reported to have been sent from the gods. For a sudden gust of +wind falling upon the first standard, and the standard-bearer holding it fast, +the staff broke; another sudden storm blew away the sacrifices, which were laid +upon the altars, and carried them beyond the bounds laid out for the city; and +the wolves came and carried away the very marks that were set up to show the +boundary. Caius, notwithstanding all this, ordered and dispatched the whole +business in the space of seventy days, and then returned to Rome, understanding +how Fulvius was prosecuted by Drusus, and that the present juncture of affairs +would not suffer him to be absent. For Lucius Opimius, one who sided with the +nobility, and was of no small authority in the senate, who had formerly sued to +be consul, but was repulsed by Caius’s interest, at the time when Fannius was +elected, was in a fair way now of being chosen consul, having a numerous +company of supporters. And it was generally believed, if he did obtain it, that +he would wholly ruin Caius, whose power was already in a declining condition; +and the people were not so apt to admire his actions as formerly, because there +were so many others who every day contrived new ways to please them, with which +the senate readily complied. +</p> + +<p> +After his return to Rome, he quitted his house on the Palatine Mount, and went +to live near the market-place, endeavoring to make himself more popular in +those parts, where most of the humbler and poorer citizens lived. He then +brought forward the remainder of his proposed laws, as intending to have them +ratified by the popular vote; to support which a vast number of people +collected from all quarters. But the senate persuaded Fannius, the consul, to +command all persons who were not born Romans, to depart the city. A new and +unusual proclamation was thereupon made, prohibiting any of the Allies or +Confederates to appear at Rome during that time. Caius, on the contrary, +published an edict, accusing the consul for what he had done, and setting forth +to the Confederates, that if they would continue upon the place, they might be +assured of his assistance and protection. However, he was not so good as his +word; for though he saw one of his own familiar friends and companions dragged +to prison by Fannius’s officers, he notwithstanding passed by, without +assisting him; either because he was afraid to stand the test of his power, +which was already decreased, or because, as he himself reported, he was +unwilling to give his enemies an opportunity, which they very much desired, of +coming to actual violence and fighting. About that time there happened likewise +a difference between him and his fellow-officers upon this occasion. A show of +gladiators was to be exhibited before the people in the marketplace, and most +of the magistrates erected scaffolds round about, with an intention of letting +them for advantage. Caius commanded them to take down their scaffolds, that the +poor people might see the sport without paying anything. But nobody obeying +these orders of his, he gathered together a body of laborers, who worked for +him, and overthrew all the scaffolds, the very night before the contest was to +take place. So that by the next morning the market-place was cleared, and the +common people had an opportunity of seeing the pastime. In this, the populace +thought he had acted the part of a man; but he much disobliged the tribunes, +his colleagues, who regarded it as a piece of violent and presumptuous +interference. +</p> + +<p> +This was thought to be the chief reason that he failed of being a third time +elected tribune; not but that he had the most votes, but because his colleagues +out of revenge caused false returns to be made. But as to this matter there was +a controversy. Certain it is, he very much resented this repulse, and behaved +with unusual arrogance towards some of his adversaries who were joyful at his +defeat, telling them, that all this was but a false, sardonic mirth, as they +little knew how much his actions threw them into obscurity. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Opimius also was chosen consul, they presently canceled several of +Caius’s laws, and especially called in question his proceedings at Carthage, +omitting nothing that was likely to irritate him, that from some effect of his +passion they might find out a colorable pretense to put him to death. Caius at +first bore these things very patiently; but afterwards, at the instigation of +his friends, especially Fulvius, he resolved to put himself at the head of a +body of supporters, to oppose the consul by force. They say also that on this +occasion his mother, Cornelia, joined in the sedition, and assisted him by +sending privately several strangers into Rome, under pretense as if they came +to be hired there for harvestmen; for that intimations of this are given in her +letters to him. However, it is confidently affirmed by others, that Cornelia +did not in the least approve of these actions. +</p> + +<p> +When the day came in which Opimius designed to abrogate the laws of Caius, both +parties met very early at the capitol; and the consul having performed all the +rites usual in their sacrifices, one Quintus Antyllius, an attendant on the +consul, carrying out the entrails of the victim, spoke to Fulvius, and his +friends who stood about him, “Ye factious citizens, make way for honest men.” +Some report, that besides this provoking language, he extended his naked arm +towards them, as a piece of scorn and contempt. Upon this he was presently +killed with the strong stiles which are commonly used in writing, though some +say that on this occasion they had been manufactured for this purpose only. +This murder caused a sudden consternation in the whole assembly, and the heads +of each faction had their different sentiments about it. As for Caius he was +much grieved, and severely reprimanded his own party, because they had given +their adversaries a reasonable pretense to proceed against them, which they had +so long hoped for. Opimius, immediately seizing the occasion thus offered, was +in great delight, and urged the people to revenge; but there happening a great +shower of rain on a sudden, it put an end to the business of that day. +</p> + +<p> +Early the next morning, the consul summoned the senate, and whilst he advised +with the senators in the senate-house, the corpse of Antyllius was laid upon a +bier, and brought through the market-place, being there exposed to open view, +just before the senate-house, with a great deal of crying and lamentation. +Opimius was not at all ignorant that this was designed to be done; however, he +seemed to be surprised, and wondered what the meaning of it should be; the +senators, therefore, presently went out to know the occasion of it and, +standing about the corpse, uttered exclamations against the inhuman and +barbarous act. The people meantime could not but feel resentment and hatred for +the senators, remembering how they themselves had not only assassinated +Tiberius Gracchus, as he was executing his office in the very capitol, but had +also thrown his mangled body into the river; yet now they could honor with +their presence and their public lamentations in the forum the corpse of an +ordinary hired attendant, (who, though he might perhaps die wrongfully, was, +however, in a great measure the occasion of it himself,) by these means hoping +to undermine him who was the only remaining defender and safeguard of the +people. +</p> + +<p> +The senators, after some time, withdrew, and presently ordered that Opimius, +the consul, should be invested with extraordinary power to protect the +commonwealth and suppress all tyrants. This being decreed, he presently +commanded the senators to arm themselves, and the Roman knights to be in +readiness very early the next morning, and every one of them to be attended +with two servants well armed. Fulvius, on the other side, made his preparations +and collected the populace. Caius at that time returning from the market-place, +made a stop just before his father’s statue, and fixing his eyes for some time +upon it, remained in a deep contemplation; at length he sighed, shed tears, and +departed. This made no small impression upon those who saw it, and they began +to upbraid themselves, that they should desert and betray so worthy a man as +Caius. They therefore went directly to his house, remaining there as a guard +about it all night, though in a different manner from those who were a guard to +Fulvius; for they passed away the night with shouting and drinking, and Fulvius +himself, being the first to get drunk, spoke and acted many things very +unbecoming a man of his age and character. On the other side, the party which +guarded Caius, were quiet and diligent, relieving one another by turns, and +forecasting, as in a public calamity, what the issue of things might be. As +soon as daylight appeared, they roused Fulvius, who had not yet slept off the +effects of his drinking; and having armed themselves with the weapons hung up +in his house, that were formerly taken from the Gauls, whom he conquered in the +time of his consulship, they presently, with threats and loud acclamations, +made their way towards the Aventine Mount. +</p> + +<p> +Caius could not be persuaded to arm himself, but put on his gown, as if he had +been going to the assembly of the people, only with this difference, that under +it he had then a short dagger by his side. As he was going out, his wife came +running to him at the gate, holding him with one hand, and with her other a +young child of his. She thus bespoke him: “Alas, Caius, I do not now part with +you to let you address the people, either as a tribune or a lawgiver, nor as if +you were going to some honorable war, when though you might perhaps have +encountered that fate which all must sometime or other submit to, yet you had +left me this mitigation of my sorrow, that my mourning was respected and +honored. You go now to expose your person to the murderers of Tiberius, +unarmed, indeed, and rightly so, choosing rather to suffer the worst of +injuries, than do the least yourself. But even your very death at this time +will not be serviceable to the public good. Faction prevails; power and arms +are now the only measures of justice. Had your brother fallen before Numantia, +the enemy would have given back what then had remained of Tiberius; but such is +my hard fate, that I probably must be an humble suppliant to the floods or the +waves, that they would somewhere restore to me your relics; for since Tiberius +was not spared, what trust can we place either on the laws, or in the gods?” +Licinia, thus bewailing, Caius, by degrees getting loose from her embraces, +silently withdrew himself, being accompanied by his friends; she, endeavoring +to catch him by the gown, fell prostrate upon the earth, lying there for some +time speechless. Her servants took her up for dead, and conveyed her to her +brother Crassus. +</p> + +<p> +Fulvius, when the people were gathered together in a full body, by the advice +of Caius, sent his youngest son into the market-place, with a herald’s rod in +his hand. He, being a very handsome youth, and modestly addressing himself, +with tears in his eyes and a becoming bashfulness, offered proposals of +agreement to the consul and the whole senate. The greatest part of the assembly +were inclinable to accept of the proposals; but Opimius said, that it did not +become them to send messengers and capitulate with the senate, but to surrender +at discretion to the laws, like loyal citizens, and endeavor to merit their +pardon by submission. He commanded the youth not to return, unless they would +comply with these conditions. Caius, as it is reported, was very forward to go +and clear himself before the senate; but none of his friends consenting to it, +Fulvius sent his son a second time to intercede for them, as before. But +Opimius, who was resolved that a battle should ensue, caused the youth to be +apprehended, and committed into custody; and then, with a company of his +foot-soldiers and some Cretan archers, set upon the party under Fulvius. These +archers did such execution, and inflicted so many wounds, that a rout and +flight quickly ensued. Fulvius fled into an obscure bathing-house; but shortly +after being discovered, he and his eldest son were slain together. Caius was +not observed to use any violence against anyone; but, extremely disliking all +these outrages, retired to Diana’s temple. There he attempted to kill himself, +but was hindered by his faithful friends, Pomponius and Licinius, they took his +sword away from him, and were very urgent that he would endeavor to make his +escape. It is reported, that falling upon his knee and lifting up his hands, he +prayed the goddess that the Roman people, as a punishment for their ingratitude +and treachery, might always remain in slavery. For as soon as a proclamation +was made of a pardon, the greater part openly deserted him. +</p> + +<p> +Caius, therefore, endeavored now to make his escape, but was pursued so close +by his enemies, as far as the wooden bridge, that from thence he narrowly +escaped. There his two trusty friends begged of him to preserve his own person +by flight, whilst they in the meantime would keep their post, and maintain the +passage; neither could their enemies, until they were both slain, pass the +bridge. Caius had no other companion in his flight but one Philocrates, a +servant of his. As he ran along, everybody encouraged him, and wished him +success, as standers-by may do to those who are engaged in a race, but nobody +either lent him any assistance, or would furnish him with a horse, though he +asked for one; for his enemies had gained ground, and got very near him. +However, he had still time enough to hide himself in a little grove, +consecrated to the Furies. In that place, his servant Philocrates having first +slain him, presently afterwards killed himself also, and fell dead upon his +master. Though some affirm it for a truth, that they were both taken alive by +their enemies, and that Philocrates embraced his master so close, that they +could not wound Caius until his servant was slain. +</p> + +<p> +They say that when Caius’s head was cut off, and carried away by one of his +murderers, Septimuleius, Opimius’s friend met him, and forced it from him; +because, before the battle began, they had made proclamation, that whoever +should bring the head either of Caius or Fulvius, should, as a reward, receive +its weight in gold. Septimuleius, therefore, having fixed Caius’s head upon the +top of his spear, came and presented it to Opimius. They presently brought the +scales, and it was found to weigh above seventeen pounds. But in this affair, +Septimuleius gave as great signs of his knavery, as he had done before of his +cruelty; for having taken out the brains, he had filled the skull with lead. +There were others who brought the head of Fulvius too, but, being mean, +inconsiderable persons, were turned away without the promised reward. The +bodies of these two persons, as well as of the rest who were slain, to the +number of three thousand men, were all thrown into the river; their goods were +confiscated, and their widows forbidden to put themselves into mourning. They +dealt even more severely with Licinia, Caius’s wife, and deprived her even of +her jointure; and as an addition still to all their inhumanity, they +barbarously murdered Fulvius’s youngest son; his only crime being, not that he +took up arms against them, or that he was present in the battle, but merely +that he had come with articles of agreement; for this he was first imprisoned, +then slain. +</p> + +<p> +But that which angered the common people beyond all these things was, because +at this time, in memory of his success, Opimius built the temple of Concord, as +if he gloried and triumphed in the slaughter of so many citizens. Somebody in +the night time, under the inscription of the temple, added this verse:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Folly and Discord Concord’s temple built. +</p> + +<p> +Yet this Opimius, the first who, being consul, presumed to usurp the power of a +dictator, condemning, without any trial, with three thousand other citizens, +Caius Gracchus and Fulvius Flaccus, one of whom had triumphed, and been consul, +the other far excelled all his contemporaries in virtue and honor, afterwards +was found incapable of keeping his hands from thieving; and when he was sent +ambassador to Jugurtha, king of Numidia, he was there corrupted by presents, +and at his return being shamefully convicted of it, lost all his honors, and +grew old amidst the hatred and the insults of the people, who, though humbled, +and affrighted at the time, did not fail before long to let everybody see what +respect and veneration they had for the memory of the Gracchi. They ordered +their statues to be made and set up in public view; they consecrated the places +where they were slain, and thither brought the first-fruits of everything, +according to the season of the year, to make their offerings. Many came +likewise thither to their devotions, and daily worshipped there, as at the +temples of the gods. +</p> + +<p> +It is reported, that as Cornelia, their mother, bore the loss of her two sons +with a noble and undaunted spirit, so, in reference to the holy places in which +they were slain, she said, their dead bodies were well worthy of such +sepulchres. She removed afterwards, and dwelt near the place called Misenum, +not at all altering her former way of living. She had many friends, and +hospitably received many strangers at her house; many Greeks and learned men +were continually about her; nor was there any foreign prince but received gifts +from her and presented her again. Those who were conversant with her, were much +interested, when she pleased to entertain them with her recollections of her +father Scipio Africanus, and of his habits and way of living. But it was most +admirable to hear her make mention of her sons, without any tears or sign of +grief, and give the full account of all their deeds and misfortunes, as if she +had been relating the history of some ancient heroes. This made some imagine, +that age, or the greatness of her afflictions, had made her senseless and +devoid of natural feelings. But they who so thought, were themselves more truly +insensible, not to see how much a noble nature and education avail to conquer +any affliction; and though fortune may often be more successful, and may defeat +the efforts of virtue to avert misfortunes, it cannot, when we incur them, +prevent our bearing them reasonably. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap55"></a>COMPARISON OF TIBERIUS AND CAIUS GRACCHUS WITH AGIS +AND CLEOMENES</h2> + +<p> +Having given an account severally of these persons, it remains only that we +should take a view of them in comparison with one another. +</p> + +<p> +As for the Gracchi, the greatest detractors and their worst enemies could not +but allow, that they had a genius to virtue beyond all other Romans, which was +improved also by a generous education. Agis and Cleomenes may be supposed to +have had stronger natural gifts, since, though they wanted all the advantages +of good education, and were bred up in those very customs, manners, and habits +of living, which had for a long time corrupted others, yet they were public +examples of temperance and frugality. Besides, the Gracchi, happening to live +when Rome had her greatest repute for honor and virtuous actions, might justly +have been ashamed, if they had not also left to the next generation the noble +inheritance of the virtues of their ancestors. Whereas the other two had +parents of different morals; and though they found their country in a sinking +condition, and debauched, yet that did not quench their forward zeal to what +was just and honorable. +</p> + +<p> +The integrity of the two Romans, and their superiority to money, was chiefly +remarkable in this; that in office and the administration of public affairs, +they kept themselves from the imputation of unjust gain; whereas Agis might +justly be offended, if he had only that mean commendation given him, that he +took nothing wrongfully from any man, seeing he distributed his own fortunes, +which, in ready money only, amounted to the value of six hundred talents, +amongst his fellow-citizens. Extortion would have appeared a crime of a strange +nature to him, who esteemed it a piece of covetousness to possess, though never +so justly gotten, greater riches than his neighbors. +</p> + +<p> +Their political actions, also, and the state revolutions they attempted, were +very different in magnitude. The chief things in general that the two Romans +commonly aimed at, were the settlement of cities and mending of highways; and, +in particular, the boldest design which Tiberius is famed for, was the recovery +of the public lands; and Caius gained his greatest reputation by the addition, +for the exercise of judicial powers, of three hundred of the order of knights +to the same number of senators. Whereas the alteration which Agis and Cleomenes +made, was in a quite different kind. They did not set about removing partial +evils and curing petty incidents of disease, which would have been (as Plato +says), like cutting off one of the Hydra’s heads, the very means to increase +the number; but they instituted a thorough reformation, such as would free the +country at once from all its grievances, or rather, to speak more truly, they +reversed that former change which had been the cause of all their calamities, +and so restored their city to its ancient state. +</p> + +<p> +However, this must be confessed in the behalf of the Gracchi, that their +undertakings were always opposed by men of the greatest influence. On the other +side, those things which were first attempted by Agis, and afterwards +consummated by Cleomenes, were supported by the great and glorious precedent of +those ancient laws concerning frugality and leveling which they had themselves +received upon the authority of Lycurgus, and he had instituted on that of +Apollo. It is also further observable, that from the actions of the Gracchi, +Rome received no additions to her former greatness; whereas, under the conduct +of Cleomenes, Greece presently saw Sparta exert her sovereign power over all +Peloponnesus, and contest the supreme command with the most powerful princes of +the time; success in which would have freed Greece from Illyrian and Gaulish +violence, and placed her once again under the orderly rule of the sons of +Hercules. +</p> + +<p> +From the circumstances of their deaths, also, we may infer some difference in +the quality of their courage. The Gracchi, fighting with their fellow-citizens, +were both slain, as they endeavored to make their escape; Agis willingly +submitted to his fate, rather than any citizen should be in danger of his life. +Cleomenes, being shamefully and unjustly treated, made an effort toward +revenge, but failing of that, generously fell by his own hand. +</p> + +<p> +On the other side it must be said, that Agis never did a great action worthy a +commander, being prevented by an untimely death. And as for those heroic +actions of Cleomenes, we may justly compare with them that of Tiberius, when he +was the first who attempted to scale the walls of Carthage, which was no mean +exploit. We may add the peace which he concluded with the Numantines, by which +he saved the lives of twenty thousand Romans, who otherwise had certainly been +cut off. And Caius, not only at home, but in war in Sardinia, displayed +distinguished courage. So that their early actions were no small argument, that +afterwards they might have rivaled the best of the Roman commanders, if they +had not died so young. +</p> + +<p> +In civil life, Agis showed a lack of determination; he let himself be baffled +by the craft of Agesilaus; disappointed the expectations of the citizens as to +the division of the lands, and generally left all the designs which he had +deliberately formed and publicly announced, unperformed and unfulfilled, +through a young man’s want of resolution. Cleomenes, on the other hand, +proceeded to effect the revolution with only too much boldness and violence, +and unjustly slew the Ephors, whom he might, by superiority in arms, have +gained over to his party, or else might easily have banished, as he did several +others of the city. For to use the knife, unless in the extremest necessity, is +neither good surgery nor wise policy, but in both cases mere unskillfulness; +and in the latter, unjust as well as unfeeling. Of the Gracchi, neither the one +nor the other was the first to shed the blood of his fellow-citizens; and Caius +is reported to have avoided all manner of resistance, even when his life was +aimed at, showing himself always valiant against a foreign enemy, but wholly +inactive in a sedition. This was the reason that he went from his own house +unarmed, and withdrew when the battle began, and in all respects showed himself +anxious rather not to do any harm to others, than not to suffer any himself. +Even the very flight of the Gracchi must not be looked upon as an argument of +their mean spirit, but an honorable retreat from endangering of others. For if +they had stayed, they must either have yielded to those who assailed them, or +else have fought them in their own defense. +</p> + +<p> +The greatest crime that can be laid to Tiberius’s charge, was the deposing of +his fellow tribune, and seeking afterwards a second tribuneship for himself. As +for the death of Antyllius, it is falsely and unjustly attributed to Caius, for +he was slain unknown to him, and much to his grief. On the contrary, Cleomenes +(not to mention the murder of the Ephors) set all the slaves at liberty, and +governed by himself alone in reality, having a partner only for show; having +made choice of his brother Euclidas, who was one of the same family. He +prevailed upon Archidamus, who was the right heir to the kingdom of the other +line, to venture to return home from Messene; but after his being slain, by not +doing anything to revenge his death, confirmed the suspicion that he was privy +to it himself. Lycurgus, whose example he professed to imitate, after he had +voluntarily settled his kingdom upon Charillus, his brother’s son, fearing +lest, if the youth should chance to die by accident, he might be suspected for +it, traveled a long time, and would not return again to Sparta until Charillus +had a son, and an heir to his kingdom. But we have indeed no other Grecian who +is worthy to be compared with Lycurgus, and it is clear enough that in the +public measures of Cleomenes various acts of considerable audacity and +lawlessness may be found. +</p> + +<p> +Those, therefore, who incline to blame their characters, may observe, that the +two Grecians were disturbers even from their youth, lovers of contest, and +aspirants to despotic power; that Tiberius and Caius by nature had an excessive +desire after glory and honors. Beyond this, their enemies could find nothing to +bring against them; but as soon as the contention began with their adversaries, +their heat and passions would so far prevail beyond their natural temper, that +by them, as by ill winds, they were driven afterwards to all their rash +undertakings. What could be more just and honorable than their first design, +had not the power and the faction of the rich, by endeavoring to abrogate that +law, engaged them both in those fatal quarrels, the one, for his own +preservation, the other, to revenge his brother’s death, who was murdered +without any law or justice? +</p> + +<p> +From the account, therefore, which has been given, you yourself may perceive +the difference; which if it were to be pronounced of every one singly, I should +affirm Tiberius to have excelled them all in virtue; that young Agis had been +guilty of the fewest misdeeds; and that in action and boldness Caius came far +short of Cleomenes. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap56"></a>DEMOSTHENES</h2> + +<p> +Whoever it was, Sosius, that wrote the poem in honor of Alcibiades, upon his +winning the chariot race at the Olympian Games, whether it were Euripides, as +is most commonly thought, or some other person, he tells us, that to a man’s +being happy it is in the first place requisite he should be born in “some +famous city.” But for him that would attain to true happiness, which for the +most part is placed in the qualities and disposition of the mind, it is, in my +opinion, of no other disadvantage to be of a mean, obscure country, than to be +born of a small or plain-looking woman. For it were ridiculous to think that +Iulis, a little part of Ceos, which itself is no great island, and Aegina, +which an Athenian once said ought to be removed, like a small eye-sore, from +the port of Piraeus, should breed good actors and poets, and yet should never +be able to produce a just, temperate, wise, and high-minded man. Other arts, +whose end it is to acquire riches or honor, are likely enough to wither and +decay in poor and undistinguished towns; but virtue, like a strong and durable +plant, may take root and thrive in any place where it can lay hold of an +ingenuous nature, and a mind that is industrious. I, for my part, shall desire +that for any deficiency of mine in right judgment or action, I myself may be, +as in fairness, held accountable, and shall not attribute it to the obscurity +of my birthplace. +</p> + +<p> +But if any man undertake to write a history, that has to be collected from +materials gathered by observation and the reading of works not easy to be got +in all places, nor written always in his own language, but many of them foreign +and dispersed in other hands, for him, undoubtedly, it is in the first place +and above all things most necessary, to reside in some city of good note, +addicted to liberal arts, and populous; where he may have plenty of all sorts +of books, and upon inquiry may hear and inform himself of such particulars as, +having escaped the pens of writers, are more faithfully preserved in the +memories of men, lest his work be deficient in many things, even those which it +can least dispense with. +</p> + +<p> +But for me, I live in a little town, where I am willing to continue, lest it +should grow less; and having had no leisure, while I was in Rome and other +parts of Italy, to exercise myself in the Roman language, on account of public +business and of those who came to be instructed by me in philosophy, it was +very late, and in the decline of my age, before I applied myself to the reading +of Latin authors. Upon which that which happened to me, may seem strange, +though it be true; for it was not so much by the knowledge of words, that I +came to the understanding of things, as by my experience of things I was +enabled to follow the meaning of words. But to appreciate the graceful and +ready pronunciation of the Roman tongue, to understand the various figures and +connection of words, and such other ornaments, in which the beauty of speaking +consists, is, I doubt not, an admirable and delightful accomplishment; but it +requires a degree of practice and study, which is not easy, and will better +suit those who have more leisure, and time enough yet before them for the +occupation. +</p> + +<p> +And so in this fifth book of my Parallel Lives, in giving an account of +Demosthenes and Cicero, my comparison of their natural dispositions and their +characters will be formed upon their actions and their lives as statesmen, and +I shall not pretend to criticize their orations one against the other, to show +which of the two was the more charming or the more powerful speaker. For there, +as Ion says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +We are but like a fish upon dry land; +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +a proverb which Caecilius perhaps forgot, when he employed his always +adventurous talents in so ambitious an attempt as a comparison of Demosthenes +and Cicero: and, possibly, if it were a thing obvious and easy for every man to +know himself, the precept had not passed for an oracle. +</p> + +<p> +The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and Cicero upon +the same plan, giving them many similarities in their natural characters, as +their passion for distinction and their love of liberty in civil life, and +their want of courage in dangers and war, and at the same time also to have +added many accidental resemblances. I think there can hardly be found two other +orators, who, from small and obscure beginnings, became so great and mighty; +who both contested with kings and tyrants; both lost their daughters, were +driven out of their country, and returned with honor; who, flying from thence +again, were both seized upon by their enemies, and at last ended their lives +with the liberty of their countrymen. So that if we were to suppose there had +been a trial of skill between nature and fortune, as there is sometimes between +artists, it would be hard to judge, whether that succeeded best in making them +alike in their dispositions and manners, or this, in the coincidences of their +lives. We will speak of the eldest first. +</p> + +<p> +Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of good rank and quality, +as Theopompus informs us, surnamed the Sword-maker, because he had a large +workhouse, and kept servants skillful in that art at work. But of that which +Aeschines, the orator, said of his mother, that she was descended of one Gylon, +who fled his country upon an accusation of treason, and of a barbarian woman, I +can affirm nothing, whether he spoke true, or slandered and maligned her. This +is certain, that Demosthenes, being as yet but seven years old, was left by his +father in affluent circumstances, the whole value of his estate being little +short of fifteen talents, and that he was wronged by his guardians, part of his +fortune being embezzled by them, and the rest neglected; insomuch that even his +teachers were defrauded of their salaries. This was the reason that he did not +obtain the liberal education that he should have had; besides that on account +of weakness and delicate health, his mother would not let him exert himself, +and his teachers forbore to urge him. He was meager and sickly from the first, +and hence had his nickname of Batalus, given him, it is said, by the boys, in +derision of his appearance; Batalus being, as some tell us, a certain enervated +flute-player, in ridicule of whom Antiphanes wrote a play. Others speak of +Batalus as a writer of wanton verses and drinking songs. And it would seem that +some part of the body, not decent to be named, was at that time called batalus +by the Athenians. But the name of Argas, which also they say was a nickname of +Demosthenes, was given him for his behavior, as being savage and spiteful, +argas being one of the poetical words for a snake; or for his disagreeable way +of speaking, Argas being the name of a poet, who composed very harshly and +disagreeably. So much, as Plato says, for such matters. +</p> + +<p> +The first occasion of his eager inclination to oratory they say, was this. +Callistratus, the orator, being to plead in open court for Oropus, the +expectation of the issue of that cause was very great, as well for the ability +of the orator, who was then at the height of his reputation, as also for the +fame of the action itself. Therefore, Demosthenes, having heard the tutors and +schoolmasters agreeing among themselves to be present at this trial, with much +importunity persuades his tutor to take him along with him to the hearing; who, +having some acquaintance with the doorkeepers, procured a place where the boy +might sit unseen, and hear what was said. Callistratus having got the day, and +being much admired, the boy began to look upon his glory with a kind of +emulation, observing how he was courted on all hands, and attended on his way +by the multitude; but his wonder was more than all excited by the power of his +eloquence, which seemed able to subdue and win over anything. From this time, +therefore, bidding farewell to other sorts of learning and study, he now began +to exercise himself, and to take pains in declaiming, as one that meant to be +himself also an orator. He made use of Isaeus as his guide to the art of +speaking, though Isocrates at that time was giving lessons; whether, as some +say, because he was an orphan, and was not able to pay Isocrates his appointed +fee of ten minae, or because he preferred Isaeus’s speaking, as being more +business-like and effective in actual use. Hermippus says, that he met with +certain memoirs without any author’s name, in which it was written that +Demosthenes was a scholar to Plato, and learnt much of his eloquence from him; +and he also mentions Ctesibius, as reporting from Callias of Syracuse and some +others, that Demosthenes secretly obtained a knowledge of the systems of +Isocrates and Alcidamas, and mastered them thoroughly. +</p> + +<p> +As soon, therefore, as he was grown up to man’s estate, he began to go to law +with his guardians, and to write orations against them; who, in the meantime, +had recourse to various subterfuges and pleas for new trials, and Demosthenes, +though he was thus, as Thucydides says, taught his business in dangers, and by +his own exertions was successful in his suit, was yet unable for all this to +recover so much as a small fraction of his patrimony. He only attained some +degree of confidence in speaking, and some competent experience in it. And +having got a taste of the honor and power which are acquired by pleadings, he +now ventured to come forth, and to undertake public business. And, as it is +said of Laomedon, the Orchomenian, that by advice of his physician, he used to +run long distances to keep off some disease of his spleen, and by that means +having, through labor and exercise, framed the habit of his body, he betook +himself to the great garland games, and became one of the best runners at the +long race; so it happened to Demosthenes, who, first venturing upon oratory for +the recovery of his own private property, by this acquired ability in speaking, +and at length, in public business, as it were in the great games, came to have +the preeminence of all competitors in the assembly. But when he first addressed +himself to the people, he met with great discouragements, and was derided for +his strange and uncouth style, which was cumbered with long sentences and +tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess. +Besides, he had, it seems, a weakness in his voice, a perplexed and indistinct +utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing his +sentences much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke. So that in the +end, being quite disheartened, he forsook the assembly; and as he was walking +carelessly and sauntering about the Piraeus, Eunomus, the Thriasian, then a +very old man, seeing him, upbraided him, saying that his diction was very much +like that of Pericles, and that he was wanting to himself through cowardice and +meanness of spirit, neither bearing up with courage against popular outcry, nor +fitting his body for action, but suffering it to languish through mere sloth +and negligence. +</p> + +<p> +Another time, when the assembly had refused to hear him, and he was going home +with his head muffled up, taking it very heavily, they relate that Satyrus, the +actor, followed him, and being his familiar acquaintance, entered into +conversation with him. To whom, when Demosthenes bemoaned himself, that having +been the most industrious of all the pleaders, and having almost spent the +whole strength and vigor of his body in that employment, he could not yet find +any acceptance with the people, that drunken sots, mariners, and illiterate +fellows were heard, and had the hustings for their own, while he himself was +despised, “You say true, Demosthenes,” replied Satyrus, “but I will quickly +remedy the cause of all this, if you will repeat to me some passage out of +Euripides or Sophocles.” Which when Demosthenes had pronounced, Satyrus +presently taking it up after him gave the same passage, in his rendering of it, +such a new form, by accompanying it with the proper mien and gesture, that to +Demosthenes it seemed quite another thing. By this being convinced how much +grace and ornament language acquires from action, he began to esteem it a small +matter, and as good as nothing for a man to exercise himself in declaiming, if +he neglected enunciation and delivery. Hereupon he built himself a place to +study in underground, (which was still remaining in our time,) and hither he +would come constantly every day to form his action, and to exercise his voice; +and here he would continue, oftentimes without intermission, two or three +months together, shaving one half of his head, that so for shame he might not +go abroad, though he desired it ever so much. +</p> + +<p> +Nor was this all, but he also made his conversation with people abroad, his +common speech, and his business, subservient to his studies, taking from hence +occasions and arguments as matter to work upon. For as soon as he was parted +from his company, down he would go at once into his study, and run over +everything in order that had passed, and the reasons that might be alleged for +and against it. Any speeches, also, that he was present at, he would go over +again with himself, and reduce into periods; and whatever others spoke to him, +or he to them, he would correct, transform, and vary several ways. Hence it +was, that he was looked upon as a person of no great natural genius, but one +who owed all the power and ability he had in speaking to labor and industry. Of +the truth of which it was thought to be no small sign, that he was very rarely +heard to speak upon the occasion, but though he were by name frequently called +upon by the people, as he sat in the assembly, yet he would not rise unless he +had previously considered the subject, and came prepared for it. So that many +of the popular pleaders used to make it a jest against him; and Pytheas once, +scoffing at him, said that his arguments smelt of the lamp. To which +Demosthenes gave the sharp answer, “It is true, indeed, Pytheas, that your lamp +and mine are not conscious of the same things.” To others, however, he would +not much deny it, but would admit frankly enough, that he neither entirely +wrote his speeches beforehand, nor yet spoke wholly extempore. And he would +affirm, that it was the more truly popular act to use premeditation, such +preparation being a kind of respect to the people; whereas, to slight and take +no care how what is said is likely to be received by the audience, shows +something of an oligarchical temper, and is the course of one that intends +force rather than persuasion. Of his want of courage and assurance to speak +off-hand, they make it also another argument, that when he was at a loss, and +discomposed, Demades would often rise up on the sudden to support him, but he +was never observed to do the same for Demades. +</p> + +<p> +Whence then, may some say, was it, that Aeschines speaks of him as a person so +much to be wondered at for his boldness in speaking? Or, how could it be, when +Python, the Byzantine, “with so much confidence and such a torrent of words +inveighed against” the Athenians, that Demosthenes alone stood up to oppose +him? Or, when Lamachus, the Myrinaean, had written a panegyric upon king Philip +and Alexander, in which he uttered many things in reproach of the Thebans and +Olynthians, and at the Olympic Games recited it publicly, how was it, that he, +rising up, and recounting historically and demonstratively what benefits and +advantages all Greece had received from the Thebans and Chalcidians, and on the +contrary, what mischiefs the flatterers of the Macedonians had brought upon it, +so turned the minds of all that were present that the sophist, in alarm at the +outcry against him, secretly made his way out of the assembly? But Demosthenes, +it should seem, regarded other points in the character of Pericles to be +unsuited to him; but his reserve and his sustained manner, and his forbearing +to speak on the sudden, or upon every occasion, as being the things to which +principally he owed his greatness, these he followed, and endeavored to +imitate, neither wholly neglecting the glory which present occasion offered, +nor yet willing too often to expose his faculty to the mercy of chance. For, in +fact, the orations which were spoken by him had much more of boldness and +confidence in them than those that he wrote, if we may believe Eratosthenes, +Demetrius the Phalerian, and the Comedians. Eratosthenes says that often in his +speaking he would be transported into a kind of ecstasy, and Demetrius, that he +uttered the famous metrical adjuration to the people, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +By the earth, the springs, the rivers, and the streams, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +as a man inspired, and beside himself. One of the comedians calls him a +<i>rhopoperperethras</i>, and another scoffs at him for his use of antithesis: +— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +And what he took, took back; a phrase to please<br/> +The very fancy of Demosthenes. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Unless, indeed, this also is meant by Antiphanes for a jest upon the speech on +Halonesus, which Demosthenes advised the Athenians not to take at Philip’s +hands, but to take back. +</p> + +<p> +All, however, used to consider Demades, in the mere use of his natural gifts, +an orator impossible to surpass, and that in what he spoke on the sudden, he +excelled all the study and preparation of Demosthenes. And Ariston the Chian, +has recorded a judgment which Theophrastus passed upon the orators; for being +asked what kind of orator he accounted Demosthenes, he answered, “Worthy of the +city of Athens;” and then, what he thought of Demades, he answered, “Above it.” +And the same philosopher reports, that Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, one of the +Athenian politicians about that time, was wont to say that Demosthenes was the +greatest orator, but Phocion the ablest, as he expressed the most sense in the +fewest words. And, indeed, it is related, that Demosthenes himself, as often as +Phocion stood up to plead against him, would say to his acquaintance, “Here +comes the knife to my speech.” Yet it does not appear whether he had this +feeling for his powers of speaking, or for his life and character, and meant to +say that one word or nod from a man who was really trusted, would go further +than a thousand lengthy periods from others. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, the Phalerian, tells us, that he was informed by Demosthenes +himself, now grown old, that the ways he made use of to remedy his natural +bodily infirmities and defects were such as these; his inarticulate and +stammering pronunciation he overcame and rendered more distinct by speaking +with pebbles in his mouth; his voice he disciplined by declaiming and reciting +speeches or verses when he was out of breath, while running or going up steep +places; and that in his house he had a large looking-glass, before which he +would stand and go through his exercises. It is told that someone once came to +request his assistance as a pleader, and related how he had been assaulted and +beaten. “Certainly,” said Demosthenes, “nothing of the kind can have happened +to you.” Upon which the other, raising his voice, exclaimed loudly, “What, +Demosthenes, nothing has been done to me?” “Ah,” replied Demosthenes, “now I +hear the voice of one that has been injured and beaten.” Of so great +consequence towards the gaining of belief did he esteem the tone and action of +the speaker. The action which he used himself was wonderfully pleasing to the +common people; but by well-educated people, as, for example, by Demetrius, the +Phalerian, it was looked upon as mean, humiliating, and unmanly. And Hermippus +says of Aesion, that, being asked his opinion concerning the ancient orators +and those of his own time, he answered that it was admirable to see with what +composure and in what high style they addressed themselves to the people; but +that the orations of Demosthenes, when they are read, certainly appear to be +superior in point of construction, and more effective. His written speeches, +beyond all question, are characterized by austere tone and by their severity. +In his extempore retorts and rejoinders, he allowed himself the use of jest and +mockery. When Demades said, “Demosthenes teach me! So might the sow teach +Minerva!” he replied, “Was it this Minerva, that was lately found playing the +harlot in Collytus?” When a thief, who had the nickname of the Brazen, was +attempting to upbraid him for sitting up late, and writing by candlelight, “I +know very well,” said he, “that you had rather have all lights out; and wonder +not, O ye men of Athens, at the many robberies which are committed, since we +have thieves of brass and walls of clay.” But on these points, though we have +much more to mention, we will add nothing at present. We will proceed to take +an estimate of his character from his actions and his life as a statesman. +</p> + +<p> +His first entering into public business was much about the time of the Phocian +war, as himself affirms, and may be collected from his Philippic orations. For +of these, some were made after that action was over, and the earliest of them +refer to its concluding events. It is certain that he engaged in the accusation +of Midias when he was but two and thirty years old, having as yet no interest +or reputation as a politician. And this it was, I consider, that induced him to +withdraw the action, and accept a sum of money as a compromise. For of himself +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He was no easy or good-natured man, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +but of a determined disposition, and resolute to see himself righted; however, +finding it a hard matter and above his strength to deal with Midias, a man so +well secured on all sides with money, eloquence, and friends, he yielded to the +entreaties of those who interceded for him. But had he seen any hopes or +possibility of prevailing, I cannot believe that three thousand drachmas could +have taken off the edge of his revenge. The object which he chose for himself +in the commonwealth was noble and just, the defense of the Grecians against +Philip; and in this he behaved himself so worthily that he soon grew famous, +and excited attention everywhere for his eloquence and courage in speaking. He +was admired through all Greece, the king of Persia courted him, and by Philip +himself he was more esteemed than all the other orators. His very enemies were +forced to confess that they had to do with a man of mark; for such a character +even Aeschines and Hyperides give him, where they accuse and speak against him. +</p> + +<p> +So that I cannot imagine what ground Theopompus had to say, that Demosthenes +was of a fickle, unsettled disposition, and could not long continue firm either +to the same men or the same affairs; whereas the contrary is most apparent, for +the same party and post in politics which he held from the beginning, to these +he kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, +that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose. He was never heard +to apologize for shifting sides like Demades, who would say, he often spoke +against himself, but never against the city; nor as Melanopus, who, being +generally against Callistratus, but being often bribed off with money, was wont +to tell the people, “The man indeed is my enemy, but we must submit for the +good of our country;” nor again as Nicodemus, the Messenian, who having first +appeared on Cassander’s side, and afterwards taken part with Demetrius, said +the two things were not in themselves contrary, it being always most advisable +to obey the conqueror. We have nothing of this kind to say against Demosthenes, +as one who would turn aside or prevaricate, either in word or deed. There could +not have been less variation in his public acts if they had all been played, so +to say, from first to last, from the same score. Panaetius, the philosopher, +said, that most of his orations are so written, as if they were to prove this +one conclusion, that what is honest and virtuous is for itself only to be +chosen; as that of the Crown, that against Aristocrates, that for the +Immunities, and the Philippics; in all which he persuades his fellow-citizens +to pursue not that which seems most pleasant, easy, or profitable; but declares +over and over again, that they ought in the first place to prefer that which is +just and honorable, before their own safety and preservation. So that if he had +kept his hands clean, if his courage for the wars had been answerable to the +generosity of his principles, and the dignity of his orations, he might +deservedly have his name placed, not in the number of such orators as +Moerocles, Polyeuctus, and Hyperides, but in the highest rank with Cimon, +Thucydides, and Pericles. +</p> + +<p> +Certainly amongst those who were contemporary with him, Phocion, though he +appeared on the less commendable side in the commonwealth, and was counted as +one of the Macedonian party, nevertheless, by his courage and his honesty, +procured himself a name not inferior to those of Ephialtes, Aristides, and +Cimon. But Demosthenes, being neither fit to be relied on for courage in arms, +as Demetrius says, nor on all sides inaccessible to bribery (for how invincible +soever he was against the gifts of Philip and the Macedonians, yet elsewhere he +lay open to assault, and was overpowered by the gold which came down from Susa +and Ecbatana), was therefore esteemed better able to recommend than to imitate +the virtues of past times. And yet (excepting only Phocion), even in his life +and manners, he far surpassed the other orators of his time. None of them +addressed the people so boldly; he attacked the faults, and opposed himself to +the unreasonable desires of the multitude, as may be seen in his orations. +Theopompus writes, that the Athenians having by name selected Demosthenes, and +called upon him to accuse a certain person, he refused to do it; upon which the +assembly being all in an uproar, he rose up and said, “Your counselor, whether +you will or no, O ye men of Athens, you shall always have me; but a sycophant +or false accuser, though you would have me, I shall never be.” And his conduct +in the case of Antiphon was perfectly aristocratical; whom, after he had been +acquitted in the assembly, he took and brought before the court of Areopagus, +and, setting at naught the displeasure of the people, convicted him there of +having promised Philip to burn the arsenal; whereupon the man was condemned by +that court, and suffered for it. He accused, also, Theoris, the priestess, +amongst other misdemeanors, of having instructed and taught the slaves to +deceive and cheat their masters, for which the sentence of death passed upon +her, and she was executed. +</p> + +<p> +The oration which Apollodorus made use of, and by it carried the cause against +Timotheus, the general, in an action of debt, it is said was written for him by +Demosthenes; as also those against Phormion and Stephanus, in which latter case +he was thought to have acted dishonorably, for the speech which Phormion used +against Apollodorus was also of his making; he, as it were, having simply +furnished two adversaries out of the same shop with weapons to wound one +another. Of his orations addressed to the public assemblies, that against +Androtion, and those against Timocrates and Aristocrates, were written for +others, before he had come forward himself as a politician. They were composed, +it seems, when he was but seven or eight and twenty years old. That against +Aristogiton, and that for the Immunities, he spoke himself, at the request, as +he says, of Ctesippus, the son of Chabrias, but, as some say, out of courtship +to the young man’s mother. Though, in fact, he did not marry her, for his wife +was a woman of Samos, as Demetrius, the Magnesian, writes, in his book on +Persons of the same Name. It is not certain whether his oration against +Aeschines, for Misconduct as Ambassador, was ever spoken; although Idomeneus +says that Aeschines wanted only thirty voices to condemn him. But this seems +not to be correct, at least so far as may be conjectured from both their +orations concerning the Crown; for in these, neither of them speaks clearly or +directly of it, as a cause that ever came to trial. But let others decide this +controversy. +</p> + +<p> +It was evident, even in time of peace, what course Demosthenes would steer in +the commonwealth; for whatever was done by the Macedonian, he criticized and +found fault with, and upon all occasions was stirring up the people of Athens, +and inflaming them against him. Therefore, in the court of Philip, no man was +so much talked of, or of so great account as he; and when he came thither, one +of the ten ambassadors who were sent into Macedonia, though all had audience +given them, yet his speech was answered with most care and exactness. But in +other respects, Philip entertained him not so honorably as the rest, neither +did he show him the same kindness and civility with which he applied himself to +the party of Aeschines and Philocrates. So that, when the others commended +Philip for his able speaking, his beautiful person, nay, and also for his good +companionship in drinking, Demosthenes could not refrain from caviling at these +praises; the first, he said, was a quality which might well enough become a +rhetorician, the second a woman, and the last was only the property of a +sponge; no one of them was the proper commendation of a prince. +</p> + +<p> +But when things came at last to war, Philip on the one side being not able to +live in peace, and the Athenians, on the other side, being stirred up by +Demosthenes, the first action he put them upon was the reducing of Euboea, +which, by the treachery of the tyrants, was brought under subjection to Philip. +And on his proposition, the decree was voted, and they crossed over thither and +chased the Macedonians out of the island. The next, was the relief of the +Byzantines and Perinthians, whom the Macedonians at that time were attacking. +He persuaded the people to lay aside their enmity against these cities, to +forget the offenses committed by them in the Confederate War, and to send them +such succors as eventually saved and secured them. Not long after, he undertook +an embassy through the States of Greece, which he solicited and so far incensed +against Philip, that, a few only excepted, he brought them all into a general +league. So that, besides the forces composed of the citizens themselves, there +was an army consisting of fifteen thousand foot and two thousand horse, and the +money to pay these strangers was levied and brought in with great cheerfulness. +On which occasion it was, says Theophrastus, on the allies requesting that +their contributions for the war might be ascertained and stated, Crobylus, the +orator, made use of the saying, “War can’t be fed at so much a day.” Now was +all Greece up in arms, and in great expectation what would be the event. The +Euboeans, the Achaeans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, the Leucadians, and +Corcyraeans, their people and their cities, were all joined together in a +league. But the hardest task was yet behind, left for Demosthenes, to draw the +Thebans into this confederacy with the rest. Their country bordered next upon +Attica, they had great forces for the war, and at that time they were accounted +the best soldiers of all Greece, but it was no easy matter to make them break +with Philip, who, by many good offices, had so lately obliged them in the +Phocian war; especially considering how the subjects of dispute and variance +between the two cities were continually renewed and exasperated by petty +quarrels, arising out of the proximity of their frontiers. +</p> + +<p> +But after Philip, being now grown high and puffed up with his good success at +Amphissa, on a sudden surprised Elatea and possessed himself of Phocis, and the +Athenians were in a great consternation, none durst venture to rise up to +speak, no one knew what to say, all were at a loss, and the whole assembly in +silence and perplexity, in this extremity of affairs, Demosthenes was the only +man who appeared, his counsel to them being alliance with the Thebans. And +having in other ways encouraged the people, and, as his manner was, raised +their spirits up with hopes, he, with some others, was sent ambassador to +Thebes. To oppose him, as Marsyas says, Philip also sent thither his envoys, +Amyntas and Clearellus, two Macedonians, besides Daochus, a Thessalian, and +Thrasydaeus. Now the Thebans, in their consultations, were well enough aware +what suited best with their own interest, but everyone had before his eyes the +terrors of war, and their losses in the Phocian troubles were still recent: but +such was the force and power of the orator, fanning up, as Theopompus says, +their courage, and firing their emulation, that casting away every thought of +prudence, fear, or obligation, in a sort of divine possession, they chose the +path of honor, to which his words invited them. And this success, thus +accomplished by an orator, was thought to be so glorious and of such +consequence, that Philip immediately sent heralds to treat and petition for a +peace: all Greece was aroused, and up in arms to help. And the +commanders-in-chief, not only of Attica, but of Boeotia, applied themselves to +Demosthenes, and observed his directions. He managed all the assemblies of the +Thebans, no less than those of the Athenians; he was beloved both by the one +and by the other, and exercised the same supreme authority with both; and that +not by unfair means, or without just cause, as Theopompus professes, but indeed +it was no more than was due to his merit. +</p> + +<p> +But there was, it should seem, some divinely-ordered fortune, commissioned, in +the revolution of things, to put a period at this time to the liberty of +Greece, which opposed and thwarted all their actions, and by many signs +foretold what should happen. Such were the sad predictions uttered by the +Pythian priestess, and this old oracle cited out of the Sibyl’s verses, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The battle on Thermodon that shall be<br/> +Safe at a distance I desire to see,<br/> +Far, like an eagle, watching in the air.<br/> +Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. +</p> + +<p> +This Thermodon, they say, is a little rivulet here in our country in Chaeronea, +running into the Cephisus. But we know of none that is so called at the present +time; and can only conjecture that the streamlet which is now called Haemon, +and runs by the Temple of Hercules, where the Grecians were encamped, might +perhaps in those days be called Thermodon, and after the fight, being filled +with blood and dead bodies, upon this occasion, as we guess, might change its +old name for that which it now bears. Yet Duris says that this Thermodon was no +river, but that some of the soldiers, as they were pitching their tents and +digging trenches about them, found a small stone statue, which, by the +inscription, appeared to be the figure of Thermodon, carrying a wounded Amazon +in his arms; and that there was another oracle current about it, as follows: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The battle on Thermodon that shall be,<br/> +Fail not, black raven, to attend and see;<br/> +The flesh of men shall there abound for thee. +</p> + +<p> +In fine, it is not easy to determine what is the truth. But of Demosthenes it +is said, that he had such great confidence in the Grecian forces, and was so +excited by the sight of the courage and resolution of so many brave men ready +to engage the enemy, that he would by no means endure they should give any heed +to oracles, or hearken to prophecies, but gave out that he suspected even the +prophetess herself, as if she had been tampered with to speak in favor of +Philip. The Thebans he put in mind of Epaminondas, the Athenians, of Pericles, +who always took their own measures and governed their actions by reason, +looking upon things of this kind as mere pretexts for cowardice. Thus far, +therefore, Demosthenes acquitted himself like a brave man. But in the fight he +did nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable to his speeches. For +he fled, deserting his place disgracefully, and throwing away his arms, not +ashamed, as Pytheas observed, to belie the inscription written on his shield, +in letters of gold, “With good fortune.” +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime Philip, in the first moment of victory, was so transported with +joy, that he grew extravagant, and going out, after he had drunk largely, to +visit the dead bodies, he chanted the first words of the decree that had been +passed on the motion of Demosthenes, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The motion of Demosthenes, Demosthenes’s son, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +dividing it metrically into feet, and marking the beats. +</p> + +<p> +But when he came to himself, and had well considered the danger he was lately +under, he could not forbear from shuddering at the wonderful ability and power +of an orator who had made him hazard his life and empire on the issue of a few +brief hours. The fame of it also reached even to the court of Persia, and the +king sent letters to his lieutenants, commanding them to supply Demosthenes +with money, and to pay every attention to him, as the only man of all the +Grecians who was able to give Philip occupation and find employment for his +forces near home, in the troubles of Greece. This afterwards came to the +knowledge of Alexander, by certain letters of Demosthenes which he found at +Sardis, and by other papers of the Persian officers, stating the large sums +which had been given him. +</p> + +<p> +At this time, however, upon the ill success which now happened to the Grecians, +those of the contrary faction in the commonwealth fell foul upon Demosthenes, +and took the opportunity to frame several informations and indictments against +him. But the people not only acquitted him of these accusations, but continued +towards him their former respect, and still invited him, as a man that meant +well, to take a part in public affairs. Insomuch that when the bones of those +who had been slain at Chaeronea were brought home to be solemnly interred, +Demosthenes was the man they chose to make the funeral oration. They did not +show, under the misfortunes which befell them, a base or ignoble mind, as +Theopompus writes in his exaggerated style, but, on the contrary, by the honor +and respect paid to their counselor, they made it appear that they were noway +dissatisfied with the counsels he had given them. The speech, therefore, was +spoken by Demosthenes. But the subsequent decrees he would not allow to be +passed in his own name, but made use of those of his friends, one after +another, looking upon his own as unfortunate and inauspicious; till at length +he took courage again after the death of Philip, who did not long outlive his +victory at Chaeronea. And this, it seems, was that which was foretold in the +last verse of the oracle, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Demosthenes had secret intelligence of the death of Philip, and laying hold of +this opportunity to prepossess the people with courage and better hopes for the +future, he came into the assembly with a cheerful countenance, pretending to +have had a dream that presaged some great good fortune for Athens; and, not +long after, arrived the messengers who brought the news of Philip’s death. No +sooner had the people received it but immediately they offered sacrifice to the +gods, and decreed that Pausanias should be presented with a crown. Demosthenes +appeared publicly in a rich dress, with a chaplet on his head, though it were +but the seventh day since the death of his daughter, as is said by Aeschines, +who upbraids him upon this account, and rails at him as one void of natural +affection towards his children. Whereas, indeed, he rather betrays himself to +be of a poor, low spirit, and effeminate mind, if he really means to make +wailings and lamentation the only signs of a gentle and affectionate nature, +and to condemn those who bear such accidents with more temper and less passion. +For my own part, I cannot say that the behavior of the Athenians on this +occasion was wise or honorable, to crown themselves with garlands and to +sacrifice to the Gods for the death of a Prince who, in the midst of his +success and victories, when they were a conquered people, had used them with so +much clemency and humanity. For besides provoking fortune, it was a base thing, +and unworthy in itself, to make him a citizen of Athens, and pay him honors +while he lived, and yet as soon as he fell by another’s hand, to set no bounds +to their jollity, to insult over him dead, and to sing triumphant songs of +victory, as if by their own valor they had vanquished him. I must at the same +time commend the behavior of Demosthenes, who, leaving tears and lamentations +and domestic sorrows to the women, made it his business to attend to the +interests of the commonwealth. And I think it the duty of him who would be +accounted to have a soul truly valiant, and fit for government, that, standing +always firm to the common good, and letting private griefs and troubles find +their compensation in public blessings, he should maintain the dignity of his +character and station, much more than actors who represent the persons of kings +and tyrants, who, we see, when they either laugh or weep on the stage, follow, +not their own private inclinations, but the course consistent with the subject +and with their position. And if, moreover, when our neighbor is in misfortune, +it is not our duty to forbear offering any consolation, but rather to say +whatever may tend to cheer him, and to invite his attention to any agreeable +objects, just as we tell people who are troubled with sore eyes, to withdraw +their sight from bright and offensive colors to green, and those of a softer +mixture, from whence can a man seek, in his own case, better arguments of +consolation for afflictions in his family, than from the prosperity of his +country, by making public and domestic chances count, so to say, together, and +the better fortune of the state obscure and conceal the less happy +circumstances of the individual. I have been induced to say so much, because I +have known many readers melted by Aeschines’s language into a soft and unmanly +tenderness. +</p> + +<p> +But now to return to my narrative. The cities of Greece were inspirited once +more by the efforts of Demosthenes to form a league together. The Thebans, whom +he had provided with arms, set upon their garrison, and slew many of them; the +Athenians made preparations to join their forces with them; Demosthenes ruled +supreme in the popular assembly, and wrote letters to the Persian officers who +commanded under the king in Asia, inciting them to make war upon the +Macedonian, calling him child and simpleton. But as soon as Alexander had +settled matters in his own country, and came in person with his army into +Boeotia, down fell the courage of the Athenians, and Demosthenes was hushed; +the Thebans, deserted by them, fought by themselves, and lost their city. After +which, the people of Athens, all in distress and great perplexity, resolved to +send ambassadors to Alexander, and amongst others, made choice of Demosthenes +for one; but his heart failing him for fear of the king’s anger, he returned +back from Cithaeron, and left the embassy. In the meantime, Alexander sent to +Athens, requiring ten of their orators to be delivered up to him, as Idomeneus +and Duris have reported, but as the most and best historians say, he demanded +these eight only: Demosthenes, Polyeuctus, Ephialtes, Lycurgus, Moerocles, +Demon, Callisthenes, and Charidemus. It was upon this occasion that Demosthenes +related to them the fable in which the sheep are said to deliver up their dogs +to the wolves; himself and those who with him contended for the people’s +safety, being, in his comparison, the dogs that defended the flock, and +Alexander “the Macedonian arch wolf.” He further told them, “As we see +corn-masters sell their whole stock by a few grains of wheat which they carry +about with them in a dish, as a sample of the rest, so you, by delivering up +us, who are but a few, do at the same time unawares surrender up yourselves all +together with us;” so we find it related in the history of Aristobulus, the +Cassandrian. The Athenians were deliberating, and at a loss what to do, when +Demades, having agreed with the persons whom Alexander had demanded, for five +talents, undertook to go ambassador, and to intercede with the king for them; +and, whether it was that he relied on his friendship and kindness, or that he +hoped to find him satiated, as a lion glutted with slaughter, he certainly +went, and prevailed with him both to pardon the men, and to be reconciled to +the city. +</p> + +<p> +So he and his friends, when Alexander went away, were great men, and +Demosthenes was quite put aside. Yet when Agis, the Spartan, made his +insurrection, he also for a short time attempted a movement in his favor; but +he soon shrunk back again, as the Athenians would not take any part in it, and, +Agis being slain, the Lacedaemonians were vanquished. During this time it was +that the indictment against Ctesiphon, concerning the Crown, was brought to +trial. The action was commenced a little before the battle in Chaeronea, when +Chaerondas was archon, but it was not proceeded with till about ten years +after, Aristophon being then archon. Never was any public cause more celebrated +than this, alike for the fame of the orators, and for the generous courage of +the judges, who, though at that time the accusers of Demosthenes were in the +height of power, and supported by all the favor of the Macedonians, yet would +not give judgment against him, but acquitted him so honorably, that Aeschines +did not obtain the fifth part of their suffrages on his side, so that, +immediately after, he left the city, and spent the rest of his life in teaching +rhetoric about the island of Rhodes, and upon the continent in Ionia. +</p> + +<p> +It was not long after that Harpalus fled from Alexander, and came to Athens out +of Asia; knowing himself guilty of many misdeeds into which his love of luxury +had led him, and fearing the king, who was now grown terrible even to his best +friends. Yet this man had no sooner addressed himself to the people, and +delivered up his goods, his ships, and himself to their disposal, but the other +orators of the town had their eyes quickly fixed upon his money, and came in to +his assistance, persuading the Athenians to receive and protect their +suppliant. Demosthenes at first gave advice to chase him out of the country, +and to beware lest they involved their city in a war upon an unnecessary and +unjust occasion. But some few days after, as they were taking an account of the +treasure, Harpalus, perceiving how much he was pleased with a cup of Persian +manufacture, and how curiously he surveyed the sculpture and fashion of it, +desired him to poise it in his hand, and consider the weight of the gold. +Demosthenes, being amazed to feel how heavy it was, asked him what weight it +came to. “To you,” said Harpalus, smiling, “it shall come with twenty talents.” +And presently after, when night drew on, he sent him the cup with so many +talents. Harpalus, it seems, was a person of singular skill to discern a man’s +covetousness by the air of his countenance, and the look and movements of his +eyes. For Demosthenes could not resist the temptation, but admitting the +present, like an armed garrison, into the citadel of his house, he surrendered +himself up to the interest of Harpalus. The next day, he came into the assembly +with his neck swathed about with wool and rollers, and when they called on him +to rise up and speak, he made signs as if he had lost his voice. But the wits, +turning the matter to ridicule, said that certainly the orator had been seized +that night with no other than a silver quinsy. And soon after, the people, +becoming aware of the bribery, grew angry, and would not suffer him to speak, +or make any apology for himself, but ran him down with noise; and one man stood +up, and cried out, “What, ye men of Athens, will you not hear the cup-bearer?” +So at length they banished Harpalus out of the city; and fearing lest they +should be called to account for the treasure which the orators had purloined, +they made a strict inquiry, going from house to house; only Callicles, the son +of Arrhenidas, who was newly married, they would not suffer to be searched, out +of respect, as Theopompus writes, to the bride, who was within. +</p> + +<p> +Demosthenes resisted the inquisition, and proposed a decree to refer the +business to the court of Areopagus, and to punish those whom that court should +find guilty. But being himself one of the first whom the court condemned, when +he came to the bar, he was fined fifty talents, and committed to prison; where, +out of shame of the crime for which he was condemned, and through the weakness +of his body, growing incapable of supporting the confinement, he made his +escape, by the carelessness of some and by the connivance of others of the +citizens. We are told, at least, that he had not fled far from the city, when, +finding that he was pursued by some of those who had been his adversaries, he +endeavored to hide himself. But when they called him by his name, and coming up +nearer to him, desired he would accept from them some money which they had +brought from home as a provision for his journey, and to that purpose only had +followed him, when they entreated him to take courage, and to bear up against +his misfortune, he burst out into much greater lamentation, saying, “But how is +it possible to support myself under so heavy an affliction, since I leave a +city in which I have such enemies, as in any other it is not easy to find +friends.” He did not show much fortitude in his banishment, spending his time +for the most part in Aegina and Troezen, and, with tears in his eyes, looking +towards the country of Attica. And there remain upon record some sayings of +his, little resembling those sentiments of generosity and bravery which he used +to express when he had the management of the commonwealth. For, as he was +departing out of the city, it is reported, he lifted up his hands towards the +Acropolis, and said, “O Lady Minerva, how is it that thou takest delight in +three such fierce untractable beast, the owl, the snake, and the people?” The +young men that came to visit and converse with him, he deterred from meddling +with state affairs, telling them, that if at first two ways had been proposed +to him, the one leading to the speaker’s stand and the assembly, the other +going direct to destruction, and he could have foreseen the many evils which +attend those who deal in public business, such as fears, envies, calumnies, and +contentions, he would certainly have taken that which led straight on to his +death. +</p> + +<p> +But now happened the death of Alexander, while Demosthenes was in this +banishment which we have been speaking of. And the Grecians were once again up +in arms, encouraged by the brave attempts of Leosthenes, who was then drawing a +circumvallation about Antipater, whom he held close besieged in Lamia. Pytheas, +therefore, the orator, and Callimedon, called the Crab, fled from Athens, and +taking sides with Antipater, went about with his friends and ambassadors to +keep the Grecians from revolting and taking part with the Athenians. But, on +the other side, Demosthenes, associating himself with the ambassadors that came +from Athens, used his utmost endeavors and gave them his best assistance in +persuading the cities to fall unanimously upon the Macedonians, and to drive +them out of Greece. Phylarchus says that in Arcadia there happened a rencounter +between Pytheas and Demosthenes, which came at last to downright railing, while +the one pleaded for the Macedonians, and the other for the Grecians. Pytheas +said, that as we always suppose there is some disease in the family to which +they bring asses’ milk, so wherever there comes an embassy from Athens, that +city must needs be indisposed. And Demosthenes answered him, retorting the +comparison: “Asses’ milk is brought to restore health, and the Athenians come +for the safety and recovery of the sick.” With this conduct the people of +Athens were so well pleased, that they decreed the recall of Demosthenes from +banishment. The decree was brought in by Demon the Paeanian, cousin to +Demosthenes. So they sent him a ship to Aegina, and he landed at the port of +Piraeus, where he was met and joyfully received by all the citizens, not so +much as an Archon or a priest staying behind. And Demetrius, the Magnesian, +says, that he lifted up his hands towards heaven, and blessed this day of his +happy return, as far more honorable than that of Alcibiades; since he was +recalled by his countrymen, not through any force or constraint put upon them, +but by their own good-will and free inclinations. There remained only his +pecuniary fine, which, according to law, could not be remitted by the people. +But they found out a way to elude the law. It was a custom with them to allow a +certain quantity of silver to those who were to furnish and adorn the altar for +the sacrifice of Jupiter Soter. This office, for that turn, they bestowed on +Demosthenes, and for the performance of it ordered him fifty talents, the very +sum in which he was condemned. +</p> + +<p> +Yet it was no long time that he enjoyed his country after his return, the +attempts of the Greeks being soon all utterly defeated. For the battle at +Cranon happened in Metagitnion, in Boedromion the garrison entered into +Munychia, and in the Pyanepsion following died Demosthenes after this manner. +</p> + +<p> +Upon the report that Antipater and Craterus were coming to Athens, Demosthenes +with his party took their opportunity to escape privily out of the city; but +sentence of death was, upon the motion of Demades, passed upon them by the +people. They dispersed themselves, flying some to one place, some to another; +and Antipater sent about his soldiers into all quarters to apprehend them. +Archias was their captain, and was thence called the exile-hunter. He was a +Thurian born, and is reported to have been an actor of tragedies, and they say +that Polus, of Aegina, the best actor of his time, was his scholar; but +Hermippus reckons Archias among the disciples of Lacritus, the orator, and +Demetrius says, he spent some time with Anaximenes. This Archias finding +Hyperides the orator, Aristonicus of Marathon, and Himeraeus, the brother of +Demetrius the Phalerian, in Aegina, took them by force out of the temple of +Aeacus, whither they were fled for safety, and sent them to Antipater, then at +Cleonae, where they were all put to death; and Hyperides, they say, had his +tongue cut out. +</p> + +<p> +Demosthenes, he heard, had taken sanctuary at the temple of Neptune in +Calauria, and, crossing over thither in some light vessels, as soon as he had +landed himself, and the Thracian spear-men that came with him, he endeavored to +persuade Demosthenes to accompany him to Antipater, as if he should meet with +no hard usage from him. But Demosthenes, in his sleep the night before, had a +strange dream. It seemed to him that he was acting a tragedy, and contended +with Archias for the victory; and though he acquitted himself well, and gave +good satisfaction to the spectators, yet for want of better furniture and +provision for the stage, he lost the day. And so, while Archias was discoursing +to him with many expressions of kindness, he sat still in the same posture, and +looking up steadfastly upon him, “O Archias,” said he, “I am as little affected +by your promises now as I used formerly to be by your acting.” Archias at this +beginning to grow angry and to threaten him, “Now,” said Demosthenes, “you +speak like the genuine Macedonian oracle; before you were but acting a part. +Therefore forbear only a little, while I write a word or two home to my +family.” Having thus spoken, he withdrew into the temple, and taking a scroll, +as if he meant to write, he put the reed into his mouth, and biting it, as he +was wont to do when he was thoughtful or writing, he held it there for some +time. Then he bowed down his head and covered it. The soldiers that stood at +the door, supposing all this to proceed from want of courage and fear of death, +in derision called him effeminate, and faint-hearted, and coward. And Archias, +drawing near, desired him to rise up, and repeating the same kind things he had +spoken before, he once more promised him to make his peace with Antipater. But +Demosthenes, perceiving that now the poison had pierced and seized his vitals, +uncovered his head, and fixing his eyes upon Archias, “Now,” said he, “as soon +as you please you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out +this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am +yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and +the Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted.” After he had +thus spoken and desired to be held up, because already he began to tremble and +stagger, as he was going forward, and passing by the altar, he fell down, and +with a groan gave up the ghost. +</p> + +<p> +Ariston says that he took the poison out of a reed, as we have shown before. +But Pappus, a certain historian whose history was recovered by Hermippus, says, +that as he fell near the altar, there was found in his scroll this beginning +only of a letter, and nothing more, “Demosthenes to Antipater.” And that when +his sudden death was much wondered at, the Thracians who guarded the doors +reported that he took the poison into his hand out of a rag, and put it in his +mouth, and that they imagined it had been gold which he swallowed; but the maid +that served him, being examined by the followers of Archias, affirmed that he +had worn it in a bracelet for a long time, as an amulet. And Eratosthenes also +says that he kept the poison in a hollow ring, and that that ring was the +bracelet which he wore about his arm. There are various other statements made +by the many authors who have related the story, but there is no need to enter +into their discrepancies; yet I must not omit what is said by Demochares, the +relation of Demosthenes, who is of opinion, it was not by the help of poison +that he met with so sudden and so easy a death, but that by the singular favor +and providence of the gods he was thus rescued from the cruelty of the +Macedonians. He died on the sixteenth of Pyanepsion, the most sad and solemn +day of the Thesmophoria, which the women observe by fasting in the temple of +the goddess. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after his death, the people of Athens bestowed on him such honors as he +had deserved. They erected his statue of brass; they decreed that the eldest of +his family should be maintained in the Prytaneum; and on the base of his statue +was engraven the famous inscription, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were,<br/> +The Macedonian had not conquered her. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For it is simply ridiculous to say, as some have related, that Demosthenes made +these verses himself in Calauria, as he was about to take the poison. +</p> + +<p> +A little before we went to Athens, the following incident was said to have +happened. A soldier, being summoned to appear before his superior officer, and +answer to an accusation brought against him, put that little gold which he had +into the hands of Demosthenes’s statue. The fingers of this statue were folded +one within another, and near it grew a small plane-tree, from which many +leaves, either accidentally blown thither by the wind, or placed so on purpose +by the man himself falling together, and lying round about the gold, concealed +it for a long time. In the end, the soldier returned, and found his treasure +entire, and the fame of this incident was spread abroad. And many ingenious +persons of the city competed with each other, on this occasion, to vindicate +the integrity of Demosthenes, in several epigrams which they made on the +subject. +</p> + +<p> +As for Demades, he did not long enjoy the new honors he now came in for, divine +vengeance for the death of Demosthenes pursuing him into Macedonia, where he +was justly put to death by those whom he had basely flattered. They were weary +of him before, but at this time the guilt he lay under was manifest and +undeniable. For some of his letters were intercepted, in which he had +encouraged Perdiccas to fall upon Macedonia, and to save the Grecians, who, he +said, hung only by an old rotten thread, meaning Antipater. Of this he was +accused by Dinarchus, the Corinthian, and Cassander was so enraged, that he +first slew his son in his bosom, and then gave orders to execute him; who +might-now at last, by his own extreme misfortunes, learn the lesson, that +traitors, who make sale of their country, sell themselves first; a truth which +Demosthenes had often foretold him, and he would never believe. Thus, Sosius, +you have the life of Demosthenes, from such accounts as we have either read or +heard concerning him. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap57"></a>CICERO</h2> + +<p> +It is generally said, that Helvia, the mother of Cicero, was both well born and +lived a fair life; but of his father nothing is reported but in extremes. For +whilst some would have him the son of a fuller, and educated in that trade, +others carry back the origin of his family to Tullus Attius, an illustrious +king of the Volscians, who waged war not without honor against the Romans. +However, he who first of that house was surnamed Cicero seems to have been a +person worthy to be remembered; since those who succeeded him not only did not +reject, but were fond of that name, though vulgarly made a matter of reproach. +For the Latins call a vetch Cicer, and a nick or dent at the tip of his nose, +which resembled the opening in a vetch, gave him the surname of Cicero. +</p> + +<p> +Cicero, whose story I am writing, is said to have replied with spirit to some +of his friends, who recommended him to lay aside or change the name when he +first stood for office and engaged in politics, that he would make it his +endeavor to render the name of Cicero more glorious than that of the Scauri and +Catuli. And when he was quaestor in Sicily, and was making an offering of +silver plate to the gods, and had inscribed his two names, Marcus and Tullius, +instead of the third he jestingly told the artificer to engrave the figure of a +vetch by them. Thus much is told us about his name. +</p> + +<p> +Of his birth it is reported, that his mother was delivered without pain or +labor, on the third of the new Calends, the same day on which now the +magistrates of Rome pray and sacrifice for the emperor. It is said, also, that +a vision appeared to his nurse, and foretold the child she then suckled should +afterwards become a great benefit to the Roman States. To such presages, which +might in general be thought mere fancies and idle talk, he himself erelong gave +the credit of true prophecies. For as soon as he was of an age to begin to have +lessons, he became so distinguished for his talent, and got such a name and +reputation amongst the boys, that their fathers would often visit the school, +that they might see young Cicero, and might be able to say that they themselves +had witnessed the quickness and readiness in learning for which he was +renowned. And the more rude among them used to be angry with their children, to +see them, as they walked together, receiving Cicero with respect into the +middle place. And being, as Plato would have, the scholar-like and +philosophical temper, eager for every kind of learning, and indisposed to no +description of knowledge or instruction, he showed, however, a more peculiar +propensity to poetry; and there is a poem now extant, made by him when a boy, +in tetrameter verse, called Pontius Glaucus. And afterwards, when he applied +himself more curiously to these accomplishments, he had the name of being not +only the best orator, but also the best poet of Rome. And the glory of his +rhetoric still remains, notwithstanding the many new modes in speaking since +his time; but his verses are forgotten and out of all repute, so many ingenious +poets having followed him. +</p> + +<p> +Leaving his juvenile studies, he became an auditor of Philo the Academic, whom +the Romans, above all the other scholars of Clitomachus, admired for his +eloquence and loved for his character. He also sought the company of the Mucii, +who were eminent statesmen and leaders in the senate, and acquired from them a +knowledge of the laws. For some short time he served in arms under Sylla, in +the Marsian war. But perceiving the commonwealth running into factions, and +from faction all things tending to an absolute monarchy, he betook himself to a +retired and contemplative life, and conversing with the learned Greeks, devoted +himself to study, till Sylla had obtained the government, and the commonwealth +was in some kind of settlement. +</p> + +<p> +At this time, Chrysogonus, Sylla’s emancipated slave, having laid an +information about an estate belonging to one who was said to have been put to +death by proscription, had bought it himself for two thousand drachmas. And +when Roscius, the son and heir of the dead, complained, and demonstrated the +estate to be worth two hundred and fifty talents, Sylla took it angrily to have +his actions questioned, and preferred a process against Roscius for the murder +of his father, Chrysogonus managing the evidence. None of the advocates durst +assist him, but fearing the cruelty of Sylla, avoided the cause. The young man, +being thus deserted, came for refuge to Cicero. Cicero’s friends encouraged +him, saying he was not likely ever to have a fairer and more honorable +introduction to public life; he therefore undertook the defense, carried the +cause, and got much renown for it. +</p> + +<p> +But fearing Sylla, he traveled into Greece, and gave it out that he did so for +the benefit of his health. And indeed he was lean and meager, and had such a +weakness in his stomach, that he could take nothing but a spare and thin diet, +and that not till late in the evening. His voice was loud and good, but so +harsh and unmanaged that in vehemence and heat of speaking he always raised it +to so high a tone, that there seemed to be reason to fear about his health. +</p> + +<p> +When he came to Athens, he was a hearer of Antiochus of Ascalon, with whose +fluency and elegance of diction he was much taken, although he did not approve +of his innovations in doctrine. For Antiochus had now fallen off from the New +Academy, as they call it, and forsaken the sect of Carneades, whether that he +was moved by the argument of manifestness and the senses, or, as some say, had +been led by feelings of rivalry and opposition to the followers of Clitomachus +and Philo to change his opinions, and in most things to embrace the doctrine of +the Stoics. But Cicero rather affected and adhered to the doctrines of the New +Academy; and purposed with himself, if he should be disappointed of any +employment in the commonwealth, to retire hither from pleading and political +affairs, and to pass his life with quiet in the study of philosophy. +</p> + +<p> +But after he had received the news of Sylla’s death, and his body, strengthened +again by exercise, was come to a vigorous habit, his voice managed and rendered +sweet and full to the ear and pretty well brought into keeping with his general +constitution, his friends at Rome earnestly soliciting him by letters, and +Antiochus also urging him to return to public affairs, he again prepared for +use his orator’s instrument of rhetoric, and summoned into action his political +faculties, diligently exercising himself in declamations, and attending the +most celebrated rhetoricians of the time. He sailed from Athens for Asia and +Rhodes. Amongst the Asian masters, he conversed with Xenocles of Adramyttium, +Dionysius of Magnesia, and Menippus of Caria; at Rhodes, he studied oratory +with Apollonius, the son of Molon, and philosophy with Posidonius. Apollonius, +we are told, not understanding Latin, requested Cicero to declaim in Greek. He +complied willingly, thinking that his faults would thus be better pointed out +to him. And after he finished, all his other hearers were astonished, and +contended who should praise him most, but Apollonius, who had shown no signs of +excitement whilst he was hearing him, so also now, when it was over, sat musing +for some considerable time, without any remark. And when Cicero was discomposed +at this, he said, “You have my praise and admiration, Cicero, and Greece my +pity and commiseration, since those arts and that eloquence which are the only +glories that remain to her, will now be transferred by you to Rome.” +</p> + +<p> +And now when Cicero, full of expectation, was again bent upon political +affairs, a certain oracle blunted the edge of his inclination; for consulting +the god of Delphi how he should attain most glory, the Pythoness answered, by +making his own genius and not the opinion of the people the guide of his life; +and therefore at first he passed his time in Rome cautiously, and was very +backward in pretending to public offices, so that he was at that time in little +esteem, and had got the names, so readily given by low and ignorant people in +Rome, of Greek and Scholar. But when his own desire of fame and the eagerness +of his father and relations had made him take in earnest to pleading, he made +no slow or gentle advance to the first place, but shone out in full luster at +once, and far surpassed all the advocates of the bar. At first, it is said, he, +as well as Demosthenes, was defective in his delivery, and on that account paid +much attention to the instructions, sometimes of Roscius the comedian, and +sometimes of Aesop the tragedian. They tell of this Aesop, that whilst he was +representing on the theater Atreus deliberating the revenge of Thyestes, he was +so transported beyond himself in the heat of action, that he struck with his +scepter one of the servants, who was running across the stage, so violently, +that he laid him dead upon the place. And such afterwards was Cicero’s +delivery, that it did not a little contribute to render his eloquence +persuasive. He used to ridicule loud speakers, saying that they shouted because +they could not speak, like lame men who get on horseback because they cannot +walk. And his readiness and address in sarcasm, and generally in witty sayings, +was thought to suit a pleader very well, and to be highly attractive, but his +using it to excess offended many, and gave him the repute of ill nature. +</p> + +<p> +He was appointed quaestor in a great scarcity of corn, and had Sicily for his +province, where, though at first he displeased many, by compelling them to send +in their provisions to Rome, yet after they had had experience of his care, +justice, and clemency, they honored him more than ever they did any of their +governors before. It happened, also, that some young Romans of good and noble +families, charged with neglect of discipline and misconduct in military +service, were brought before the praetor in Sicily. Cicero undertook their +defense, which he conducted admirably, and got them acquitted. So returning to +Rome with a great opinion of himself for these things, a ludicrous incident +befell him, as he tells us himself. Meeting an eminent citizen in Campania, +whom he accounted his friend, he asked him what the Romans said and thought of +his actions, as if the whole city had been filled with the glory of what he had +done. His friend asked him in reply, “Where is it you have been, Cicero?” This +for the time utterly mortified and cast him down, to perceive that the report +of his actions had sunk into the city of Rome as into an immense ocean, without +any visible effect or result in reputation. And afterwards considering with +himself that the glory he contended for was an infinite thing, and that there +was no fixed end nor measure in its pursuit, he abated much of his ambitious +thoughts. Nevertheless, he was always excessively pleased with his own praise, +and continued to the very last to be passionately fond of glory; which often +interfered with the prosecution of his wisest resolutions. +</p> + +<p> +On beginning to apply himself more resolutely to public business, he remarked +it as an unreasonable and absurd thing that artificers, using vessels and +instruments inanimate, should know the name, place, and use of every one of +them, and yet the statesman, whose instruments for carrying out public measures +are men, should be negligent and careless in the knowledge of persons. And so +he not only acquainted himself with the names, but also knew the particular +place where every one of the more eminent citizens dwelt, what lands he +possessed, the friends he made use of, and those that were of his neighborhood, +and when he traveled on any road in Italy, he could readily name and show the +estates and seats of his friends and acquaintance. Having so small an estate, +though a sufficient competency for his own expenses, it was much wondered at +that he took neither fees nor gifts from his clients, and more especially, that +he did not do so when he undertook the prosecution of Verres. This Verres, who +had been praetor of Sicily, and stood charged by the Sicilians of many evil +practices during his government there, Cicero succeeded in getting condemned, +not by speaking, but in a manner by holding his tongue. For the praetors, +favoring Verres, had deferred the trial by several adjournments to the last +day, in which it was evident there could not be sufficient time for the +advocates to be heard, and the cause brought to an issue. Cicero, therefore, +came forward, and said there was no need of speeches; and after producing and +examining witnesses, he required the judges to proceed to sentence. However, +many witty sayings are on record, as having been used by Cicero on the +occasion. When a man named Caecilius, one of the freed slaves, who was said to +be given to Jewish practices, would have put by the Sicilians, and undertaken +the prosecution of Verres himself, Cicero asked, “What has a Jew to do with +swine?” verres being the Roman word for a boar. And when Verres began to +reproach Cicero with effeminate living, “You ought,” replied he, “to use this +language at home, to your sons;” Verres having a son who had fallen into +disgraceful courses. Hortensius the orator, not daring directly to undertake +the defense of Verres, was yet persuaded to appear for him at the laying on of +the fine, and received an ivory sphinx for his reward; and when Cicero, in some +passage of his speech, obliquely reflected on him, and Hortensius told him he +was not skillful in solving riddles, “No,” said Cicero, “and yet you have the +Sphinx in your house!” +</p> + +<p> +Verres was thus convicted; though Cicero, who set the fine at seventy-five +myriads, lay under the suspicion of being corrupted by bribery to lessen the +sum. But the Sicilians, in testimony of their gratitude, came and brought him +all sorts of presents from the island, when he was aedile; of which he made no +private profit himself, but used their generosity only to reduce the public +price of provisions. +</p> + +<p> +He had a very pleasant seat at Arpi, he had also a farm near Naples, and +another about Pompeii, but neither of any great value. The portion of his wife, +Terentia, amounted to ten myriads, and he had a bequest valued at nine myriads +of denarii; upon these he lived in a liberal but temperate style, with the +learned Greeks and Romans that were his familiars. He rarely, if at any time, +sat down to meat till sunset, and that not so much on account of business, as +for his health and the weakness of his stomach. He was otherwise in the care of +his body nice and delicate, appointing himself, for example, a set number of +walks and rubbings. And after this manner managing the habit of his body, he +brought it in time to be healthful, and capable of supporting many great +fatigues and trials. His father’s house he made over to his brother, living +himself near the Palatine hill, that he might not give the trouble of long +journeys to those that made suit to him. And, indeed, there were not fewer +daily appearing at his door, to do their court to him, than there were that +came to Crassus for his riches, or to Pompey for his power amongst the +soldiers, these being at that time the two men of the greatest repute and +influence in Rome. Nay, even Pompey himself used to pay court to Cicero, and +Cicero’s public actions did much to establish Pompey’s authority and reputation +in the state. +</p> + +<p> +Numerous distinguished competitors stood with him for the praetor’s office; but +he was chosen before them all, and managed the decision of causes with justice +and integrity. It is related that Licinius Macer, a man himself of great power +in the city, and supported also by the assistance of Crassus, was accused +before him of extortion, and that, in confidence on his own interest and the +diligence of his friends, whilst the judges were debating about the sentence, +he went to his house, where hastily trimming his hair and putting on a clean +gown, as already acquitted, he was setting off again to go to the Forum; but at +his hall door meeting Crassus, who told him that he was condemned by all the +votes, he went in again, threw himself upon his bed, and died immediately. This +verdict was considered very creditable to Cicero, as showing his careful +management of the courts of justice. On another occasion, Vatinius, a man of +rude manners and often insolent in court to the magistrates, who had large +swellings on his neck, came before his tribunal and made some request, and on +Cicero’s desiring further time to consider it, told him that he himself would +have made no question about it, had he been praetor. Cicero, turning quickly +upon him, answered, “But I, you see, have not the neck that you have.” +</p> + +<p> +When there were but two or three days remaining in his office, Manilius was +brought before him, and charged with peculation. Manilius had the good opinion +and favor of the common people, and was thought to be prosecuted only for +Pompey’s sake, whose particular friend he was. And therefore, when he asked a +space of time before his trial, and Cicero allowed him but one day, and that +the next only, the common people grew highly offended, because it had been the +custom of the praetors to allow ten days at least to the accused: and the +tribunes of the people having called him before the people, and accused him, +he, desiring to be heard, said, that as he had always treated the accused with +equity and humanity, as far as the law allowed, so he thought it hard to deny +the same to Manilius, and that he had studiously appointed that day of which +alone, as praetor, he was master, and that it was not the part of those that +were desirous to help him, to cast the judgment of his cause upon another +praetor. These things being said made a wonderful change in the people, and, +commending him much for it, they desired that he himself would undertake the +defense of Manilius; which he willingly consented to, and that principally for +the sake of Pompey, who was absent. And, accordingly, taking his place before +the people again, he delivered a bold invective upon the oligarchical party and +on those who were jealous of Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +Yet he was preferred to the consulship no less by the nobles than the common +people, for the good of the city; and both parties jointly assisted his +promotion, upon the following reasons. The change of government made by Sylla, +which at first seemed a senseless one, by time and usage had now come to be +considered by the people no unsatisfactory settlement. But there were some that +endeavored to alter and subvert the whole present state of affairs not from any +good motives, but for their own private gain; and Pompey being at this time +employed in the wars with the kings of Pontus and Armenia, there was no +sufficient force at Rome to suppress any attempts at a revolution. These people +had for their head a man of bold, daring, and restless character, Lucius +Catiline, who was accused, besides other great offenses, of deflowering his +virgin daughter, and killing his own brother; for which latter crime, fearing +to be prosecuted at law, he persuaded Sylla to set him down, as though he were +yet alive, amongst those that were to be put to death by proscription. This man +the profligate citizens choosing for their captain, gave faith to one another, +amongst other pledges, by sacrificing a man and eating of his flesh; and a +great part of the young men of the city were corrupted by him, he providing for +everyone pleasures, drink, and women, and profusely supplying the expense of +these debauches. Etruria, moreover, had all been excited to revolt, as well as +a great part of Gaul within the Alps. But Rome itself was in the most dangerous +inclination to change, on account of the unequal distribution of wealth and +property, those of highest rank and greatest spirit having impoverished +themselves by shows, entertainments, ambition of offices, and sumptuous +buildings, and the riches of the city having thus fallen into the hands of mean +and low-born persons. So that there wanted but a slight impetus to set all in +motion, it being in the power of every daring man to overturn a sickly +commonwealth. +</p> + +<p> +Catiline, however, being desirous of procuring a strong position to carry out +his designs, stood for the consulship, and had great hopes of success, thinking +he should be appointed, with Caius Antonius as his colleague, who was a man fit +to lead neither in a good cause nor in a bad one, but might be a valuable +accession to another’s power. These things the greatest part of the good and +honest citizens apprehending, put Cicero upon standing for the consulship; whom +the people readily receiving, Catiline was put by, so that he and Caius +Antonius were chosen, although amongst the competitors he was the only man +descended from a father of the equestrian, and not of the senatorial order. +</p> + +<p> +Though the designs of Catiline were not yet publicly known, yet considerable +preliminary troubles immediately followed upon Cicero’s entrance upon the +consulship. For, on the one side, those who were disqualified by the laws of +Sylla from holding any public offices, being neither inconsiderable in power +nor in number, came forward as candidates and caressed the people for them; +speaking many things truly and justly against the tyranny of Sylla, only that +they disturbed the government at an improper and unseasonable time; on the +other hand, the tribunes of the people proposed laws to the same purpose, +constituting a commission of ten persons, with unlimited powers, in whom as +supreme governors should be vested the right of selling the public lands of all +Italy and Syria and Pompey’s new conquests, of judging and banishing whom they +pleased, of planting colonies, of taking moneys out of the treasury, and of +levying and paying what soldiers should be thought needful. And several of the +nobility favored this law, but especially Caius Antonius, Cicero’s colleague, +in hopes of being one of the ten. But what gave the greatest fear to the nobles +was, that he was thought privy to the conspiracy of Catiline, and not to +dislike it, because of his great debts. +</p> + +<p> +Cicero, endeavoring in the first place to provide a remedy against this danger, +procured a decree assigning to him the province of Macedonia, he himself +declining that of Gaul, which was offered to him. And this piece of favor so +completely won over Antonius, that he was ready to second and respond to, like +a hired player, whatever Cicero said for the good of the country. And now, +having made his colleague thus tame and tractable, he could with greater +courage attack the conspirators. And, therefore, in the senate, making an +oration against the law of the ten commissioners, he so confounded those who +proposed it, that they had nothing to reply. And when they again endeavored, +and, having prepared things beforehand, had called the consuls before the +assembly of the people, Cicero, fearing nothing, went first out, and commanded +the senate to follow him, and not only succeeded in throwing out the law, but +so entirely overpowered the tribunes by his oratory, that they abandoned all +thought of their other projects. +</p> + +<p> +For Cicero, it may be said, was the one man, above all others, who made the +Romans feel how great a charm eloquence lends to what is good, and how +invincible justice is, if it be well spoken; and that it is necessary for him +who would dexterously govern a commonwealth, in action, always to prefer that +which is honest before that which is popular, and in speaking, to free the +right and useful measure from everything that may occasion offense. An incident +occurred in the theater, during his consulship, which showed what his speaking +could do. For whereas formerly the knights of Rome were mingled in the theater +with the common people, and took their places amongst them as it happened, +Marcus Otho, when he was praetor, was the first who distinguished them from the +other citizens, and appointed them a proper seat, which they still enjoy as +their special place in the theater. This the common people took as an indignity +done to them, and, therefore, when Otho appeared in the theater, they hissed +him; the knights, on the contrary, received him with loud clapping. The people +repeated and increased their hissing; the knights continued their clapping. +Upon this, turning upon one another, they broke out into insulting words, so +that the theater was in great disorder. Cicero, being informed of it, came +himself to the theater, and summoning the people into the temple of Bellona, he +so effectually chid and chastised them for it, that, again returning into the +theater, they received Otho with loud applause, contending with the knights who +should give him the greatest demonstrations of honor and respect. +</p> + +<p> +The conspirators with Catiline, at first cowed and disheartened, began +presently to take courage again. And assembling themselves together, they +exhorted one another boldly to undertake the design before Pompey’s return, +who, as it was said, was now on his march with his forces for Rome. But the old +soldiers of Sylla were Catiline’s chief stimulus to action. They had been +disbanded all about Italy, but the greatest number and the fiercest of them lay +scattered among the cities of Etruria, entertaining themselves with dreams of +new plunder and rapine amongst the hoarded riches of Italy. These, having for +their leader Manlius, who had served with distinction in the wars under Sylla, +joined themselves to Catiline, and came to Rome to assist him with their +suffrages at the election. For he again pretended to the consulship, having +resolved to kill Cicero in a tumult at the elections. Also, the divine powers +seemed to give intimation of the coming troubles, by earthquakes, thunderbolts, +and strange appearances. Nor was human evidence wanting, certain enough in +itself, though not sufficient for the conviction of the noble and powerful +Catiline. Therefore Cicero, deferring the day of election, summoned Catiline +into the senate, and questioned him as to the charges made against him. +Catiline, believing there were many in the senate desirous of change, and to +give a specimen of himself to the conspirators present, returned an audacious +answer, “What harm,” said he, “when I see two bodies, the one lean and +consumptive with a head, the other great and strong without one, if I put a +head to that body which wants one?” This covert representation of the senate +and the people excited yet greater apprehensions in Cicero. He put on armor, +and was attended from his house by the noble citizens in a body; and a number +of the young men went with him into the Plain. Here, designedly letting his +tunic slip partly off from his shoulders, he showed his armor underneath, and +discovered his danger to the spectators; who, being much moved at it, gathered +round about him for his defense. At length, Catiline was by a general suffrage +again put by, and Silanus and Murena chosen consuls. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after this, Catiline’s soldiers got together in a body in Etruria, and +began to form themselves into companies, the day appointed for the design being +near at hand. About midnight, some of the principal and most powerful citizens +of Rome, Marcus Crassus, Marcus Marcellus, and Scipio Metellus went to Cicero’s +house, where, knocking at the gate, and calling up the porter, they commended +him to awake Cicero, and tell him they were there. The business was this: +Crassus’s porter after supper had delivered to him letters brought by an +unknown person. Some of them were directed to others, but one to Crassus, +without a name; this only Crassus read, which informed him that there was a +great slaughter intended by Catiline, and advised him to leave the city. The +others he did not open, but went with them immediately to Cicero, being +affrighted at the danger, and to free himself of the suspicion he lay under for +his familiarity with Catiline. Cicero, considering the matter, summoned the +senate at break of day. The letters he brought with him, and delivered them to +those to whom they were directed, commanding them to read them publicly; they +all alike contained an account of the conspiracy. And when Quintus Arrius, a +man of praetorian dignity, recounted to them, how soldiers were collecting in +companies in Etruria, and Manlius stated to be in motion with a large force, +hovering about those cities, in expectation of intelligence from Rome, the +senate made a decree, to place all in the hands of the consuls, who should +undertake the conduct of everything, and do their best to save the state. This +was not a common thing, but only done by the senate in case of imminent danger. +</p> + +<p> +After Cicero had received this power, he committed all affairs outside to +Quintus Metellus, but the management of the city he kept in his own hands. Such +a numerous attendance guarded him every day when he went abroad, that the +greatest part of the market-place was filled with his train when he entered it. +Catiline, impatient of further delay, resolved himself to break forth and go to +Manlius, but he commanded Marcius and Cethegus to take their swords, and go +early in the morning to Cicero’s gates, as if only intending to salute him, and +then to fall upon him and slay him. This a noble lady, Fulvia, coming by night, +discovered to Cicero, bidding him beware of Cethegus and Marcius. They came by +break of day, and being denied entrance, made an outcry and disturbance at the +gates, which excited all the more suspicion. But Cicero, going forth, summoned +the senate into the temple of Jupiter Stator, which stands at the end of the +Sacred Street, going up to the Palatine. And when Catiline with others of his +party also came, as intending to make his defense, none of the senators would +sit by him, but all of them left the bench where he had placed himself. And +when he began to speak, they interrupted him with outcries. At length Cicero, +standing up, commanded him to leave the city, for since one governed the +commonwealth with words, the other with arms, it was necessary there should be +a wall betwixt them. Catiline, therefore, immediately left the town, with three +hundred armed men; and assuming, as if he had been a magistrate, the rods, +axes, and military ensigns, he went to Manlius, and having got together a body +of near twenty thousand men, with these he marched to the several cities, +endeavoring to persuade or force them to revolt. So it being now come to open +war, Antonius was sent forth to fight him. +</p> + +<p> +The remainder of those in the city whom he had corrupted, Cornelius Lentulus +kept together and encouraged. He had the surname Sura, and was a man of a noble +family, but a dissolute liver, who for his debauchery was formerly turned out +of the senate, and was now holding the office of praetor for the second time, +as the custom is with those who desire to regain the dignity of senator. It is +said that he got the surname Sura upon this occasion; being quaestor in the +time of Sylla, he had lavished away and consumed a great quantity of the public +moneys, at which Sylla being provoked, called him to give an account in the +senate; he appeared with great coolness and contempt, and said he had no +account to give, but they might take this, holding up the calf of his leg, as +boys do at ball, when they have missed. Upon which he was surnamed Sura, sura +being the Roman word for the calf of the leg. Being at another time prosecuted +at law, and having bribed some of the judges, he escaped only by two votes, and +complained of the needless expense he had gone to in paying for a second, as +one would have sufficed to acquit him. This man, such in his own nature, and +now inflamed by Catiline, false prophets and fortune-tellers had also corrupted +with vain hopes, quoting to him fictitious verses and oracles, and proving from +the Sibylline prophecies that there were three of the name Cornelius designed +by fate to be monarchs of Rome; two of whom, Cinna and Sylla, had already +fulfilled the decree, and that divine fortune was now advancing with the gift +of monarchy for the remaining third Cornelius; and that therefore he ought by +all means to accept it, and not lose opportunity by delay, as Catiline had +done. +</p> + +<p> +Lentulus, therefore, designed no mean or trivial matter, for he had resolved to +kill the whole senate, and as many other citizens as he could, to fire the +city, and spare nobody, except only Pompey’s children, intending to seize and +keep them as pledges of his reconciliation with Pompey. For there was then a +common and strong report that Pompey was on his way homeward from his great +expedition. The night appointed for the design was one of the Saturnalia; +swords, flax, and sulfur they carried and hid in the house of Cethegus; and +providing one hundred men, and dividing the city into as many parts, they had +allotted to every one singly his proper place, so that in a moment many +kindling the fire, the city might be in a flame all together. Others were +appointed to stop up the aqueducts, and to kill those who should endeavor to +carry water to put it out. Whilst these plans were preparing, it happened there +were two ambassadors from the Allobroges staying in Rome; a nation at that time +in a distressed condition, and very uneasy under the Roman government. These +Lentulus and his party judging useful instruments to move and seduce Gaul to +revolt, admitted into the conspiracy, and they gave them letters to their own +magistrates, and letters to Catiline; in those they promised liberty, in these +they exhorted Catiline to set all slaves free, and to bring them along with him +to Rome. They sent also to accompany them to Catiline, one Titus, a native of +Croton, who was to carry those letters to him. +</p> + +<p> +These counsels of inconsidering men, who conversed together over wine and with +women, Cicero watched with sober industry and forethought, and with most +admirable sagacity, having several emissaries abroad, who observed and traced +with him all that was done, and keeping also a secret correspondence with many +who pretended to join in the conspiracy. He thus knew all the discourse which +passed betwixt them and the strangers; and lying in wait for them by night, he +took the Crotonian with his letters, the ambassadors of the Allobroges acting +secretly in concert with him. +</p> + +<p> +By break of day, he summoned the senate into the temple of Concord, where he +read the letters and examined the informers. Junius Silanus further stated, +that several persons had heard Cethegus say, that three consuls and four +praetors were to be slain; Piso, also, a person of consular dignity, testified +other matters of the like nature; and Caius Sulpicius, one of the praetors, +being sent to Cethegus’s house, found there a quantity of darts and of armor, +and a still greater number of swords and daggers, all recently whetted. At +length, the senate decreeing indemnity to the Crotonian upon his confession of +the whole matter, Lentulus was convicted, abjured his office (for he was then +praetor), and put off his robe edged with purple in the senate, changing it for +another garment more agreeable to his present circumstances. He, thereupon, +with the rest of his confederates present, was committed to the charge of the +praetors in free custody. +</p> + +<p> +It being evening, and the common people in crowds expecting without, Cicero +went forth to them, and told them what was done, and then, attended by them, +went to the house of a friend and near neighbor; for his own was taken up by +the women, who were celebrating with secret rites the feast of the goddess whom +the Romans call the Good, and the Greeks, the Women’s goddess. For a sacrifice +is annually performed to her in the consul’s house, either by his wife or +mother, in the presence of the vestal virgins. And having got into his friend’s +house privately, a few only being present, he began to deliberate how he should +treat these men. The severest, and the only punishment fit for such heinous +crimes, he was somewhat shy and fearful of inflicting, as well from the +clemency of his nature, as also lest he should be thought to exercise his +authority too insolently, and to treat too harshly men of the noblest birth and +most powerful friendships in the city; and yet, if he should use them more +mildly, he had a dreadful prospect of danger from them. For there was no +likelihood, if they suffered less than death, they would be reconciled, but +rather, adding new rage to their former wickedness, they would rush into every +kind of audacity, while he himself, whose character for courage already did not +stand very high with the multitude, would be thought guilty of the greatest +cowardice and want of manliness. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst Cicero was doubting what course to take, a portent happened to the women +in their sacrificing. For on the altar, where the fire seemed wholly +extinguished, a great and bright flame issued forth from the ashes of the burnt +wood; at which others were affrighted, but the holy virgins called to Terentia, +Cicero’s wife, and bade her haste to her husband, and command him to execute +what he had resolved for the good of his country, for the goddess had sent a +great light to the increase of his safety and glory. Terentia, therefore, as +she was otherwise in her own nature neither tender-hearted nor timorous, but a +woman eager for distinction (who, as Cicero himself says, would rather thrust +herself into his public affairs, than communicate her domestic matters to him), +told him these things, and excited him against the conspirators. So also did +Quintus his brother, and Publius Nigidius, one of his philosophical friends, +whom he often made use of in his greatest and most weighty affairs of state. +</p> + +<p> +The next day, a debate arising in the senate about the punishment of the men, +Silanus, being the first who was asked his opinion, said, it was fit they +should be all sent to the prison, and there suffer the utmost penalty. To him +all consented in order till it came to Caius Caesar, who was afterwards +dictator. He was then but a young man, and only at the outset of his career, +but had already directed his hopes and policy to that course by which he +afterwards changed the Roman state into a monarchy. Of this others foresaw +nothing; but Cicero had seen reason for strong suspicion, though without +obtaining any sufficient means of proof. And there were some indeed that said +that he was very near being discovered, and only just escaped him; others are +of opinion that Cicero voluntarily overlooked and neglected the evidence +against him, for fear of his friends and power; for it was very evident to +everybody, that if Caesar was to be accused with the conspirators, they were +more likely to be saved with him, than he to be punished with them. +</p> + +<p> +When, therefore, it came to Caesar’s turn to give his opinion, he stood up and +proposed that the conspirators should not be put to death, but their estates +confiscated, and their persons confined in such cities in Italy as Cicero +should approve, there to be kept in custody till Catiline was conquered. To +this sentence, as it was the most moderate, and he that delivered it a most +powerful speaker, Cicero himself gave no small weight, for he stood up and, +turning the scale on either side, spoke in favor partly of the former, partly +of Caesar’s sentence. And all Cicero’s friends, judging Caesar’s sentence most +expedient for Cicero, because he would incur the less blame if the conspirators +were not put to death, chose rather the latter; so that Silanus, also, changing +his mind, retracted his opinion, and said he had not declared for capital, but +only the utmost punishment, which to a Roman senator is imprisonment. The first +man who spoke against Caesar’s motion was Catulus Lutatius. Cato followed, and +so vehemently urged in his speech the strong suspicion about Caesar himself, +and so filled the senate with anger and resolution, that a decree was passed +for the execution of the conspirators. But Caesar opposed the confiscation of +their goods, not thinking it fair that those who had rejected the mildest part +of his sentence should avail themselves of the severest. And when many insisted +upon it, he appealed to the tribunes, but they would do nothing; till Cicero +himself yielding, remitted that part of the sentence. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Cicero went out with the senate to the conspirators; they were not +all together in one place, but the several praetors had them, some one, some +another, in custody. And first he took Lentulus from the Palatine, and brought +him by the Sacred Street, through the middle of the marketplace, a circle of +the most eminent citizens encompassing and protecting him. The people, +affrighted at what was doing, passed along in silence, especially the young +men; as if, with fear and trembling; they were undergoing a rite of initiation +into some ancient, sacred mysteries of aristocratic power. Thus passing from +the market-place, and coming to the gaol, he delivered Lentulus to the officer, +and commanded him to execute him; and after him Cethegus, and so all the rest +in order, he brought and delivered up to execution. And when he saw many of the +conspirators in the market-place, still standing together in companies, +ignorant of what was done, and waiting for the night, supposing the men were +still alive and in a possibility of being rescued, he called out in a loud +voice, and said, “They did live;” for so the Romans, to avoid inauspicious +language, name those that are dead. +</p> + +<p> +It was now evening, when he returned from the market-place to his own house, +the citizens no longer attending him with silence, nor in order, but receiving +him, as he passed, with acclamations and applauses, and saluting him as the +savior and founder of his country. A bright light shone through the streets +from the lamps and torches set up at the doors, and the women showed lights +from the tops of the houses, to honor Cicero, and to behold him returning home +with a splendid train of the most principal citizens; amongst whom were many +who had conducted great wars, celebrated triumphs, and added to the possessions +of the Roman empire, both by sea and land. These, as they passed along with +him, acknowledged to one another, that though the Roman people were indebted to +several officers and commanders of that age for riches, spoils, and power, yet +to Cicero alone they owed the safety and security of all these, for delivering +them from so great and imminent a danger. For though it might seem no wonderful +thing to prevent the design, and punish the conspirators, yet to defeat the +greatest of all conspiracies with so little disturbance, trouble, and +commotion, was very extraordinary. For the greater part of those who had +flocked in to Catiline, as soon as they heard the fate of Lentulus and +Cethegus, left and forsook him, and he himself, with his remaining forces, +joining battle with Antonius, was destroyed with his army. +</p> + +<p> +And yet there were some who were very ready both to speak ill of Cicero, and to +do him hurt for these actions; and they had for their leaders some of the +magistrates of the ensuing year, as Caesar, who was one of the praetors, and +Metellus and Bestia, the tribunes. These, entering upon their office some few +days before Cicero’s consulate expired, would not permit him to make any +address to the people, but, throwing the benches before the Rostra, hindered +his speaking, telling him he might, if he pleased, make the oath of withdrawal +from office, and then come down again. Cicero, accordingly, accepting the +conditions, came forward to make his withdrawal; and silence being made, he +recited his oath, not in the usual, but in a new and peculiar form, namely, +that he had saved his country, and preserved the empire; the truth of which +oath all the people confirmed with theirs. Caesar and the tribunes, all the +more exasperated by this, endeavored to create him further trouble, and for +this purpose proposed a law for calling Pompey home with his army, to put an +end to Cicero’s usurpation. But it was a very great advantage for Cicero and +the whole commonwealth that Cato was at that time one of the tribunes. For he, +being of equal power with the rest, and of greater reputation, could oppose +their designs. He easily defeated their other projects, and, in an oration to +the people, so highly extolled Cicero’s consulate, that the greatest honors +were decreed him, and he was publicly declared the Father of his Country, which +title he seems to have obtained, the first man who did so, when Cato gave it +him in this address to the people. +</p> + +<p> +At this time, therefore, his authority was very great in the city; but he +created himself much envy, and offended very many, not by any evil action, but +because he was always lauding and magnifying himself. For neither senate, nor +assembly of the people, nor court of judicature could meet, in which he was not +heard to talk of Catiline and Lentulus. Indeed, he also filled his books and +writings with his own praises, to such an excess as to render a style, in +itself most pleasant and delightful, nauseous and irksome to his hearers; this +ungrateful humor, like a disease, always cleaving to him. Nevertheless, though +he was intemperately fond of his own glory, he was very free from envying +others, and was, on the contrary, most liberally profuse in commending both the +ancients and his contemporaries, as anyone may see in his writings. And many +such sayings of his are also remembered; as that he called Aristotle a river of +flowing gold, and said of Plato’s Dialogues, that if Jupiter were to speak, it +would be in language like theirs. He used to call Theophrastus his special +luxury. And being asked which of Demosthenes’s orations he liked best, he +answered, the longest. And yet some affected imitators of Demosthenes have +complained of some words that occur in one of his letters, to the effect that +Demosthenes sometimes falls asleep in his speeches; forgetting the many high +encomiums he continually passes upon him, and the compliment he paid him when +he named the most elaborate of all his orations, those he wrote against Antony, +Philippics. And as for the eminent men of his own time, either in eloquence or +philosophy, there was not one of them whom he did not, by writing or speaking +favorably of him, render more illustrious. He obtained of Caesar, when in +power, the Roman citizenship for Cratippus, the Peripatetic, and got the court +of Areopagus, by public decree, to request his stay at Athens, for the +instruction of their youth, and the honor of their city. There are letters +extant from Cicero to Herodes, and others to his son, in which he recommends +the study of philosophy under Cratippus. There is one in which he blames +Gorgias, the rhetorician, for enticing his son into luxury and drinking, and, +therefore, forbids him his company. And this, and one other to Pelops, the +Byzantine, are the only two of his Greek epistles which seem to be written in +anger. In the first, he justly reflects on Gorgias, if he were what he was +thought to be, a dissolute and profligate character; but in the other, he +rather meanly expostulates and complains with Pelops, for neglecting to procure +him a decree of certain honors from the Byzantines. +</p> + +<p> +Another illustration of his love of praise is the way in which sometimes, to +make his orations more striking, he neglected decorum and dignity. When +Munatius, who had escaped conviction by his advocacy, immediately prosecuted +his friend Sabinus, he said in the warmth of his resentment, “Do you suppose +you were acquitted for your own meets, Munatius, and was it not that I so +darkened the case, that the court could not see your guilt?” When from the +Rostra he had made an eulogy on Marcus Crassus, with much applause, and within +a few days after again as publicly reproached him, Crassus called to him, and +said, “Did not you yourself two days ago, in this same place, commend me?” +“Yes,” said Cicero, “I exercised my eloquence in declaiming upon a bad +subject.” At another time, Crassus had said that no one of his family had ever +lived beyond sixty years of age, and afterwards denied it, and asked, “What +should put it into my head to say so?” “It was to gain the people’s favor,” +answered Cicero; “you knew how glad they would be to hear it.” When Crassus +expressed admiration of the Stoic doctrine, that the good man is always rich, +“Do you not mean,” said Cicero, “their doctrine that all things belong to the +wise?” Crassus being generally accused of covetousness. One of Crassus’s sons, +who was thought so exceedingly like a man of the name of Axius as to throw some +suspicion on his mother’s honor, made a successful speech in the senate. Cicero +on being asked how he liked it, replied with the Greek words, Axios Crassou. +</p> + +<p> +When Crassus was about to go into Syria, he desired to leave Cicero rather his +friend than his enemy, and, therefore, one day saluting him, told him he would +come and sup with him, which the other as courteously received. Within a few +days after, on some of Cicero’s acquaintances interceding for Vatinius, as +desirous of reconciliation and friendship, for he was then his enemy, “What,” +he replied, “does Vatinius also wish to come and sup with me?” Such was his way +with Crassus. When Vatinius, who had swellings in his neck, was pleading a +cause, he called him the tumid orator; and having been told by someone that +Vatinius was dead, on hearing presently after that he was alive, “May the +rascal perish,” said he, “for his news not being true.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon Caesar’s bringing forward a law for the division of the lands in Campania +amongst the soldiers, many in the senate opposed it; amongst the rest, Lucius +Gellius, one of the oldest men in the house, said it should never pass whilst +he lived. “Let us postpone it,” said Cicero, “Gellius does not ask us to wait +long.” There was a man of the name of Octavius, suspected to be of African +descent. He once said, when Cicero was pleading, that he could not hear him; +“Yet there are holes,” said Cicero, “in your ears.” When Metellus Nepos told +him, that he had ruined more as a witness, than he had saved as an advocate, “I +admit,” said Cicero, “that I have more truth than eloquence.” To a young man +who was suspected of having given a poisoned cake to his father, and who talked +largely of the invectives he meant to deliver against Cicero, “Better these,” +replied he, “than your cakes.” Publius Sextius, having amongst others retained +Cicero as his advocate in a certain cause, was yet desirous to say all for +himself, and would not allow anybody to speak for him; when he was about to +receive his acquittal from the judges, and the ballots were passing, Cicero +called to him, “Make haste, Sextius, and use your time; tomorrow you will be +nobody.” He cited Publius Cotta to bear testimony in a certain cause, one who +affected to be thought a lawyer, though ignorant and unlearned; to whom, when +he had said, “I know nothing of the matter,” he answered, “You think, perhaps, +we ask you about a point of law.” To Metellus Nepos, who, in a dispute between +them, repeated several times, “Who was your father, Cicero?” he replied, “Your +mother has made the answer to such a question in your case more difficult;” +Nepos’s mother having been of ill repute. The son, also, was of a giddy, +uncertain temper. At one time, he suddenly threw up his office of tribune, and +sailed off into Syria to Pompey; and immediately after, with as little reason, +came back again. He gave his tutor, Philagrus, a funeral with more than +necessary attention, and then set up the stone figure of a crow over his tomb. +“This,” said Cicero, “is really appropriate; as he did not teach you to speak, +but to fly about.” When Marcus Appius, in the opening of some speech in a court +of justice, said that his friend had desired him to employ industry, eloquence, +and fidelity in that cause, Cicero answered, “And how have you had the heart +not to accede to any one of his requests?” +</p> + +<p> +To use this sharp raillery against opponents and antagonists in judicial +pleading seems allowable rhetoric. But he excited much ill feeling by his +readiness to attack anyone for the sake of a jest. A few anecdotes of this kind +may be added. Marcus Aquinius, who had two sons-in-law in exile, received from +him the name of king Adrastus. Lucius Cotta, an intemperate lover of wine, was +censor when Cicero stood for the consulship. Cicero, being thirsty at the +election, his friends stood round about him while he was drinking. “You have +reason to be afraid,” he said, “lest the censor should be angry with me for +drinking water.” Meeting one day Voconius with his three very ugly daughters, +he quoted the verse, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He reared a race without Apollo’s leave. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +When Marcus Gellius, who was reputed the son of a slave, had read several +letters in the senate with a very shrill, and loud voice, “Wonder not,” said +Cicero, “he comes of the criers.” When Faustus Sylla, the son of Sylla the +dictator, who had, during his dictatorship, by public bills proscribed and +condemned so many citizens, had so far wasted his estate, and got into debt, +that he was forced to publish his bills of sale, Cicero told him that he liked +these bills much better than those of his father. By this habit he made himself +odious with many people. +</p> + +<p> +But Clodius’s faction conspired against him upon the following occasion. +Clodius was a member of a noble family, in the flower of his youth, and of a +bold and resolute temper. He, being in love with Pompeia, Caesar’s wife, got +privately into his house in the dress and attire of a music-girl; the women +being at that time offering there the sacrifice which must not be seen by men, +and there was no man present. Clodius, being a youth and beardless, hoped to +get to Pompeia among the women without being taken notice of. But coming into a +great house by night, he missed his way in the passages, and a servant +belonging to Aurelia, Caesar’s mother, spying him wandering up and down, +inquired his name. Thus being necessitated to speak, he told her he was seeking +for one of Pompeia’s maids, Abra by name; and she, perceiving it not to be a +woman’s voice, shrieked out, and called in the women; who, shutting the gates, +and searching every place, at length found Clodius hidden in the chamber of the +maid with whom he had come in. This matter being much talked about, Caesar put +away his wife, Pompeia, and Clodius was prosecuted for profaning the holy +rites. +</p> + +<p> +Cicero was at this time his friend, for he had been useful to him in the +conspiracy of Catiline, as one of his forwardest assistants and protectors. But +when Clodius rested his defense upon this point, that he was not then at Rome, +but at a distance in the country, Cicero testified that he had come to his +house that day, and conversed with him on several matters; which thing was +indeed true, although Cicero was thought to testify it not so much for the +truth’s sake as to preserve his quiet with Terentia his wife. For she bore a +grudge against Clodius on account of his sister Clodia’s wishing, as it was +alleged, to marry Cicero, and having employed for this purpose the intervention +of Tullus, a very intimate friend of Cicero’s; and his frequent visits to +Clodia, who lived in their neighborhood, and the attentions he paid to her had +excited Terentia’s suspicions, and, being a woman of a violent temper, and +having the ascendant over Cicero, she urged him on to taking a part against +Clodius, and delivering his testimony. Many other good and honest citizens also +gave evidence against him, for perjuries, disorders, bribing the people, and +debauching women. Lucullus proved, by his women-servants, that he had debauched +his youngest sister when she was Lucullus’s wife; and there was a general +belief that he had done the same with his two other sisters, Tertia, whom +Marcius Rex, and Clodia, whom Metellus Celer had married; the latter of whom +was called Quadrantia, because one of her lovers had deceived her with a purse +of small copper money instead of silver, the smallest copper coin being called +a quadrant. Upon this sister’s account, in particular, Clodius’s character was +attacked. Notwithstanding all this, when the common people united against the +accusers and witnesses and the whole party, the judges were affrighted, and a +guard was placed about them for their defense; and most of them wrote their +sentences on the tablets in such a way, that they could not well be read. It +was decided, however, that there was a majority for his acquittal, and bribery +was reported to have been employed; in reference to which Catulus remarked, +when he next met the judges, “You were very right to ask for a guard, to +prevent your money being taken from you.” And when Clodius upbraided Cicero +that the judges had not believed his testimony, “Yes,” said he, “five and +twenty of them trusted me, and condemned you, and the other thirty did not +trust you, for they did not acquit you till they had got your money.” +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, though cited, did not give his testimony against Clodius, and declared +himself not convinced of his wife’s adultery, but that he had put her away +because it was fit that Caesar’s house should not be only free of the evil +fact, but of the fame too. +</p> + +<p> +Clodius, having escaped this danger, and having got himself chosen one of the +tribunes, immediately attacked Cicero, heaping up all matters and inciting all +persons against him. The common people he gained over with popular laws; to +each of the consuls he decreed large provinces, to Piso, Macedonia, and to +Gabinius, Syria; he made a strong party among the indigent citizens, to support +him in his proceedings, and had always a body of armed slaves about him. Of the +three men then in greatest power, Crassus was Cicero’s open enemy, Pompey +indifferently made advances to both, and Caesar was going with an army into +Gaul. To him, though not his friend (what had occurred in the time of the +conspiracy having created suspicions between them), Cicero applied, requesting +an appointment as one of his lieutenants in the province. Caesar accepted him, +and Clodius, perceiving that Cicero would thus escape his tribunician +authority, professed to be inclinable to a reconciliation, laid the greatest +fault upon Terentia, made always a favorable mention of him, and addressed him +with kind expressions, as one who felt no hatred or ill-will, but who merely +wished to urge his complaints in a moderate and friendly way. By these +artifices, he so freed Cicero of all his fears, that he resigned his +appointment to Caesar, and betook himself again to political affairs. At which +Caesar being exasperated, joined the party of Clodius against him, and wholly +alienated Pompey from him; he also himself declared in a public assembly of the +people, that he did not think Lentulus and Cethegus, with their accomplices, +were fairly and legally put to death without being brought to trial. And this, +indeed, was the crime charged upon Cicero, and this impeachment he was summoned +to answer. And so, as an accused man, and in danger for the result, he changes +his dress, and went round with his hair untrimmed, in the attire of a +suppliant, to beg the people’s grace. But Clodius met him in every corner, +having a band of abusive and daring fellows about him, who derided Cicero for +his change of dress and his humiliation, and often, by throwing dirt and stones +at him, interrupted his supplication to the people. +</p> + +<p> +However, first of all, almost the whole equestrian order changed their dress +with him, and no less than twenty thousand young gentlemen followed him with +their hair untrimmed, and supplicating with him to the people. And then the +senate met, to pass a decree that the people should change their dress as in +time of public sorrow. But the consuls opposing it, and Clodius with armed men +besetting the senate-house, many of the senators ran out, crying out and +tearing their clothes. But this sight moved neither shame nor pity; Cicero must +either fly or determine it by the sword with Clodius. He entreated Pompey to +aid him, who was on purpose gone out of the way, and was staying at his +country-house in the Alban hills; and first he sent his son-in-law Piso to +intercede with him, and afterwards set out to go himself. Of which Pompey being +informed, would not stay to see him, being ashamed at the remembrance of the +many conflicts in the commonwealth which Cicero had undergone in his behalf, +and how much of his policy he had directed for his advantage. But being now +Caesar’s son-in-law, at his instance he had set aside all former kindness, and, +slipping out at another door, avoided the interview. Thus being forsaken by +Pompey, and left alone to himself, he fled to the consuls. Gabinius was rough +with him, as usual, but Piso spoke more courteously, desiring him to yield and +give place for a while to the fury of Clodius, and to await a change of times, +and to be now, as before, his country’s savior from the peril of these troubles +and commotions which Clodius was exciting. +</p> + +<p> +Cicero, receiving this answer, consulted with his friends. Lucullus advised him +to stay, as being sure to prevail at last; others to fly, because the people +would soon desire him again, when they should have enough of the rage and +madness of Clodius. This last Cicero approved. But first he took a statue of +Minerva, which had been long set up and greatly honored in his house, and +carrying it to the capitol, there dedicated it, with the inscription, “To +Minerva, Patroness of Rome.” And receiving an escort from his friends, about +the middle of the night he left the city, and went by land through Lucania, +intending to reach Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +But as soon as it was publicly known that he was fled, Clodius proposed to the +people a decree of exile, and by his own order interdicted him fire and water, +prohibiting any within five hundred miles in Italy to receive him into their +houses. Most people, out of respect for Cicero, paid no regard to this edict, +offering him every attention and escorting him on his way. But at Hipponium, a +city of Lucania, now called Vibo, one Vibius, a Sicilian by birth, who, amongst +many other instances of Cicero’s friendship, had been made head of the state +engineers when he was consul, would not receive him into his house, sending him +word he would appoint a place in the country for his reception. Caius +Vergilius, the praetor of Sicily, who had been on the most intimate terms with +him, wrote to him to forbear coming into Sicily. At these things Cicero being +disheartened, went to Brundusium, whence putting forth with a prosperous wind, +a contrary gale blowing from the sea carried him back to Italy- the next day. +He put again to sea, and having reached Dyrrachium, on his coming to shore +there, it is reported that an earthquake and a convulsion in the sea happened +at the same time, signs which the diviners said intimated that his exile would +not be long, for these were prognostics of change. Although many visited him +with respect, and the cities of Greece contended which should honor him most, +he yet continued disheartened and disconsolate, like an unfortunate lover, +often casting his looks back upon Italy; and, indeed, he was become so +poor-spirited, so humiliated and dejected by his misfortunes, as none could +have expected in a man who had devoted so much of his life to study and +learning. And yet he often desired his friends not to call him orator, but +philosopher, because he had made philosophy his business, and had only used +rhetoric as an instrument for attaining his objects in public life. But the +desire of glory has great power in washing the tinctures of philosophy out of +the souls of men, and in imprinting the passions of the common people, by +custom and conversation, in the minds of those that take a part in governing +them, unless the politician be very careful so to engage in public affairs as +to interest himself only in the affairs themselves, but not participate in the +passions that are consequent to them. +</p> + +<p> +Clodius, having thus driven away Cicero, fell to burning his farms and villas, +and afterwards his city house, and built on the site of it a temple to Liberty. +The rest of his property he exposed to sale by daily proclamation, but nobody +came to buy. By these courses he became formidable to the noble citizens, and, +being followed by the commonalty, whom he had filled with insolence and +licentiousness, he began at last to try his strength against Pompey, some of +whose arrangements in the countries he conquered, he attacked. The disgrace of +this made Pompey begin to reproach himself for his cowardice in deserting +Cicero, and, changing his mind, he now wholly set himself with his friends to +contrive his return. And when Clodius opposed it, the senate made a vote that +no public measure should be ratified or passed by them till Cicero was +recalled. But when Lentulus was consul, the commotions grew so high upon this +matter, that the tribunes were wounded in the Forum, and Quintus, Cicero’s +brother, was left as dead, lying unobserved amongst the slain. The people began +to change in their feelings; and Annius Milo, one of their tribunes, was the +first who took confidence to summon Clodius to trial for acts of violence. Many +of the common people and out of the neighboring cities formed a party with +Pompey, and he went with them, and drove Clodius out of the Forum, and summoned +the people to pass their vote. And, it is said, the people never passed any +suffrage more unanimously than this. The senate, also, striving to outdo the +people, sent letters of thanks to those cities which had received Cicero with +respect in his exile, and decreed that his house and his country-places, which +Clodius had destroyed, should be rebuilt at the public charge. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Cicero returned sixteen months after his exile, and the cities were so +glad, and people so zealous to meet him, that what he boasted of afterwards, +that Italy had brought him on her shoulders home to Rome, was rather less than +the truth. And Crassus himself, who had been his enemy before his exile, went +then voluntarily to meet him, and was reconciled, to please his son Publius, as +he said, who was Cicero’s affectionate admirer. +</p> + +<p> +Cicero had not been long at Rome, when, taking the opportunity of Clodius’s +absence, he went, with a great company, to the capitol, and there tore and +defaced the tribunician tables, in which were recorded the acts done in the +time of Clodius. And on Clodius calling him in question for this, he answered, +that he, being of the patrician order, had obtained the office of tribune +against law, and, therefore, nothing done by him was valid. Cato was displeased +at this, and opposed Cicero, not that he commended Clodius, but rather +disapproved of his whole administration; yet, he contended, it was an irregular +and violent course for the senate to vote the illegality of so many decrees and +acts, including those of Cato’s own government in Cyprus and at Byzantium. This +occasioned a breach between Cato and Cicero, which, though it came not to open +enmity, yet made a more reserved friendship between them. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Milo killed Clodius, and, being arraigned for the murder, he +procured Cicero as his advocate. The senate, fearing lest the questioning of so +eminent and high-spirited a citizen as Milo might disturb the peace of the +city, committed the superintendence of this and of the other trials to Pompey, +who should undertake to maintain the security alike of the city and of the +courts of justice. Pompey, therefore, went in the night, and occupying the high +grounds about it, surrounded the Forum with soldiers. Milo, fearing lest +Cicero, being disturbed by such an unusual sight, should conduct his cause the +less successfully, persuaded him to come in a litter into the Forum, and there +repose himself till the judges were set, and the court filled. For Cicero, it +seems, not only wanted courage in arms, but, in his speaking also, began with +timidity, and in many cases scarcely left off trembling and shaking when he had +got thoroughly into the current and the substance of his speech. Being to +defend Licinius Murena against the prosecution of Cato, and being eager to +outdo Hortensius, who had made his plea with great applause, he took so little +rest that night, and was so disordered with thought and over-watching, that he +spoke much worse than usual. And so now, on quitting his litter to commence the +cause of Milo, at the sight of Pompey, posted, as it were, and encamped with +his troops above, and seeing arms shining round about the Forum, he was so +confounded, that he could hardly begin his speech, for the trembling of his +body, and hesitance of his tongue; whereas Milo, meantime, was bold and +intrepid in his demeanor, disdaining either to let his hair grow, or to put on +the mourning habit. And this, indeed, seems to have been one principal cause of +his condemnation. Cicero, however, was thought not so much to have shown +timidity for himself, as anxiety about his friend. +</p> + +<p> +He was made one of the priests, whom the Romans call Augurs, in the room of +Crassus the younger, dead in Parthia. Then he was appointed, by lot, to the +province of Cilicia, and set sail thither with twelve thousand foot and two +thousand six hundred horse. He had orders to bring back Cappadocia to its +allegiance to Ariobarzanes, its king; which settlement he effected very +completely without recourse to arms. And perceiving the Cilicians, by the great +loss the Romans had suffered in Parthia, and the commotions in Syria, to have +become disposed to attempt a revolt, by a gentle course of government he +soothed them back into fidelity. He would accept none of the presents that were +offered him by the kings; he remitted the charge of public entertainments, but +daily, at his own house, received the ingenious and accomplished persons of the +province, not sumptuously, but liberally. His house had no porter, nor was he +ever found in bed by any man, but early in the morning, standing or walking +before his door, he received those who came to offer their salutations. He is +said never once to have ordered any of those under his command to be beaten +with rods, or to have their garments rent. He never gave contumelious language +in his anger, nor inflicted punishment with reproach. He detected an +embezzlement, to a large amount, in the public money, and thus relieved the +cities from their burdens, at the same time that he allowed those who made +restitution, to retain without further punishment their rights as citizens. He +engaged too, in war, so far as to give a defeat to the banditti who infested +Mount Amanus, for which he was saluted by his army Imperator. To Caecilius, the +orator, who asked him to send him some panthers from Cilicia, to be exhibited +on the theater at Rome, he wrote, in commendation of his own actions, that +there were no panthers in Cilicia, for they were all fled to Caria, in anger +that in so general a peace they had become the sole objects of attack. On +leaving his province, he touched at Rhodes, and tarried for some length of time +at Athens, longing much to renew his old studies. He visited the eminent men of +learning, and saw his former friends and companions; and after receiving in +Greece the honors that were due to him, returned to the city, where everything +was now just as it were in a flame, breaking out into a civil war. +</p> + +<p> +When the senate would have decreed him a triumph, he told them he had rather, +so differences were accommodated, follow the triumphal chariot of Caesar. In +private, he gave advice to both, writing many letters to Caesar, and personally +entreating Pompey; doing his best to soothe and bring to reason both the one +and the other. But when matters became incurable, and Caesar was approaching +Rome, and Pompey durst not abide it, but, with many honest citizens, left the +city, Cicero, as yet, did not join in the flight, and was reputed to adhere to +Caesar. And it is very evident he was in his thoughts much divided, and wavered +painfully between both, for he writes in his epistles, “To which side should I +turn? Pompey has the fair and honorable plea for war; and Caesar, on the other +hand, has managed his affairs better, and is more able to secure himself and +his friends. So that I know whom I should fly, not whom I should fly to.” But +when Trebatius, one of Caesar’s friends, by letter signified to him that Caesar +thought it was his most desirable course to join his party, and partake his +hopes, but if he considered himself too old a man for this, then he should +retire into Greece, and stay quietly there, out of the way of either party, +Cicero, wondering that Caesar had not written himself, gave an angry reply, +that he should not do anything unbecoming his past life. Such is the account to +be collected from his letters. +</p> + +<p> +But as soon as Caesar was marched into Spain, he immediately sailed away to +join Pompey. And he was welcomed by all but Cato; who, taking him privately, +chid him for coming to Pompey. As for himself, he said, it had been indecent to +forsake that part in the commonwealth which he had chosen from the beginning; +but Cicero might have been more useful to his country and friends, if, +remaining neuter, he had attended and used his influence to moderate the +result, instead of coming hither to make himself, without reason or necessity, +an enemy to Caesar, and a partner in such great dangers. By this language, +partly, Cicero’s feelings were altered, and partly, also, because Pompey made +no great use of him. Although, indeed, he was himself the cause of it, by his +not denying that he was sorry he had come, by his depreciating Pompey’s +resources, finding fault underhand with his counsels, and continually indulging +in jests and sarcastic remarks on his fellow-soldiers. Though he went about in +the camp with a gloomy and melancholy face himself, he was always trying to +raise a laugh in others, whether they wished it or not. It may not be amiss to +mention a few instances. To Domitius, on his preferring to a command one who +was no soldier, and saying, in his defense, that he was a modest and prudent +person, he replied, “Why did not you keep him for a tutor for your children?” +On hearing Theophanes, the Lesbian, who was master of the engineers in the +army, praised for the admirable way in which he had consoled the Rhodians for +the loss of their fleet, “What a thing it is,” he said, “to have a Greek in +command!” When Caesar had been acting successfully, and in a manner blockading +Pompey, Lentulus was saying it was reported that Caesar’s friends were out of +heart; “Because,” said Cicero, “they do not wish Caesar well.” To one Marcius, +who had just come from Italy, and told them that there was a strong report at +Rome that Pompey was blocked up, he said, “And you sailed hither to see it with +your own eyes.” To Nonius, encouraging them after a defeat to be of good hope, +because there were seven eagles still left in Pompey’s camp, “Good reason for +encouragement,” said Cicero, “if we were going to fight with jack-daws.” +Labienus insisted on some prophecies to the effect that Pompey would gain the +victory; “Yes,” said Cicero, “and the first step in the campaign has been +losing our camp.” +</p> + +<p> +After the battle of Pharsalia was over, at which he was not present for want of +health, and Pompey was fled, Cato, having considerable forces and a great fleet +at Dyrrachium, would have had Cicero commander-in-chief, according to law, and +the precedence of his consular dignity. And on his refusing the command, and +wholly declining to take part in their plans for continuing the war, he was in +the greatest danger of being killed, young Pompey and his friends calling him +traitor, and drawing their swords upon him; only that Cato interposed, and +hardly rescued and brought him out of the camp. +</p> + +<p> +Afterwards, arriving at Brundusium, he tarried there sometime in expectation of +Caesar, who was delayed by his affairs in Asia and Egypt. And when it was told +him that he was arrived at Tarentum, and was coming thence by land to +Brundusium, he hastened towards him, not altogether without hope, and yet in +some fear of making experiment of the temper of an enemy and conqueror in the +presence of many witnesses. But there was no necessity for him either to speak +or do anything unworthy of himself; for Caesar, as soon as he saw him coming a +good way before the rest of the company, came down to meet him, saluted him, +and, leading the way, conversed with him alone for some furlongs. And from that +time forward he continued to treat him with honor and respect; so that, when +Cicero wrote an oration in praise of Cato, Caesar, in writing an answer to it, +took occasion to commend Cicero’s own life and eloquence, comparing him to +Pericles and Theramenes. Cicero’s oration was called Cato; Caesar’s, anti-Cato. +</p> + +<p> +So also, it is related that when Quintus Ligarius was prosecuted for having +been in arms against Caesar, and Cicero had undertaken his defense, Caesar said +to his friends, “Why might we not as well once more hear a speech from Cicero? +Ligarius, there is no question, is a wicked man and an enemy.” But when Cicero +began to speak, he wonderfully moved him, and proceeded in his speech with such +varied pathos, and such a charm of language, that the color of Caesar’s +countenance often changed, and it was evident that all the passions of his soul +were in commotion. At length, the orator touching upon the Pharsalian battle, +he was so affected that his body trembled, and some of the papers he held +dropped out of his hands. And thus he was overpowered, and acquitted Ligarius. +</p> + +<p> +Henceforth, the commonwealth being changed into a monarchy, Cicero withdrew +himself from public affairs, and employed his leisure in instructing those +young men that would, in philosophy; and by the near intercourse he thus had +with some of the noblest and highest in rank, he again began to possess great +influence in the city. The work and object which he set himself was to compose +and translate philosophical dialogues and to render logical and physical terms +into the Roman idiom. For he it was, as it is said, who first or principally +gave Latin names to phantasia, syncatathesis, epokhe, catalepsis, atomon, +ameres, kenon, and other such technical terms, which, either by metaphors or +other means of accommodation, he succeeded in making intelligible and +expressible to the Romans. For his recreation, he exercised his dexterity in +poetry, and when he was set to it, would make five hundred verses in a night. +He spent the greatest part of his time at his country-house near Tusculum. He +wrote to his friends that he led the life of Laertes, either jestingly, as his +custom was, or rather from a feeling of ambition for public employment, which +made him impatient under the present state of affairs. He rarely went to the +city, unless to pay his court to Caesar. He was commonly the first amongst +those who voted him honors, and sought out new terms of praise for himself and +for his actions. As, for example, what he said of the statues of Pompey, which +had been thrown down, and were afterwards by Caesar’s orders set up again: that +Caesar, by this act of humanity, had indeed set up Pompey’s statues, but he had +fixed and established his own. +</p> + +<p> +He had a design, it is said, of writing the history of his country, combining +with it much of that of Greece, and incorporating in it all the stories and +legends of the past that he had collected. But his purposes were interfered +with by various public and various private unhappy occurrences and misfortunes; +for most of which he was himself in fault. For first of all, he put away his +wife Terentia, by whom he had been neglected in the time of the war, and sent +away destitute of necessaries for his journey; neither did he find her kind +when he returned into Italy, for she did not join him at Brundusium, where he +stayed a long time, nor would allow her young daughter, who undertook so long a +journey, decent attendance, or the requisite expenses; besides, she left him a +naked and empty house, and yet had involved him in many and great debts. These +were alleged as the fairest reasons for the divorce. But Terentia, who denied +them all, had the most unmistakable defense furnished her by her husband +himself, who not long after married a young maiden for the love of her beauty, +as Terentia upbraided him; or as Tiro, his emancipated slave, has written, for +her riches, to discharge his debts. For the young woman was very rich, and +Cicero had the custody of her estate, being left guardian in trust; and being +indebted many myriads of money, he was persuaded by his friends and relations +to marry her, notwithstanding his disparity of age, and to use her money to +satisfy his creditors. Antony, who mentions this marriage in his answer to the +Philippics, reproaches him for putting away a wife with whom he had lived to +old age; adding some happy strokes of sarcasm on Cicero’s domestic, inactive, +unsoldier-like habits. Not long after this marriage, his daughter died in +child-bed at Lentulus’s house, to whom she had been married after the death of +Piso, her former husband. The philosophers from all parts came to comfort +Cicero; for his grief was so excessive, that he put away his new-married wife, +because she seemed to be pleased at the death of Tullia. And thus stood +Cicero’s domestic affairs at this time. +</p> + +<p> +He had no concern in the design that was now forming against Caesar, although, +in general, he was Brutus’s most principal confidant, and one who was as +aggrieved at the present, and as desirous of the former state of public +affairs, as any other whatsoever. But they feared his temper, as wanting +courage, and his old age, in which the most daring dispositions are apt to be +timorous. +</p> + +<p> +As soon, therefore, as the act was committed by Brutus and Cassius, and the +friends of Caesar were got together, so that there was fear the city would +again be involved in a civil war, Antony, being consul, convened the senate, +and made a short address recommending concord. And Cicero, following with +various remarks such as the occasion called for, persuaded the senate to +imitate the Athenians, and decree an amnesty for what had been done in Caesar’s +case, and to bestow provinces on Brutus and Cassius. But neither of these +things took effect. For as soon as the common people, of themselves inclined to +pity, saw the dead body of Caesar borne through the marketplace, and Antony +showing his clothes filled with blood, and pierced through in every part with +swords, enraged to a degree of frenzy, they made a search for the murderers, +and with firebrands in their hands ran to their houses to burn them. They, +however, being forewarned, avoided this danger; and expecting many more and +greater to come, they left the city. +</p> + +<p> +Antony on this was at once in exultation, and everyone was in alarm with the +prospect that he would make himself sole ruler, and Cicero in more alarm than +anyone. For Antony, seeing his influence reviving in the commonwealth, and +knowing how closely he was connected with Brutus, was ill-pleased to have him +in the city. Besides, there had been some former jealousy between them, +occasioned by the difference of their manners. Cicero, fearing the event, was +inclined to go as lieutenant with Dolabella into Syria. But Hirtius and Pansa, +consuls elect as successors of Antony, good men and lovers of Cicero, entreated +him not to leave them, undertaking to put down Antony if he would stay in Rome. +And he, neither distrusting wholly, nor trusting them, let Dolabella go without +him, promising Hirtius that he would go and spend his summer at Athens, and +return again when he entered upon his office. So he set out on his journey; but +some delay occurring in his passage, new intelligence, as often happens, came +suddenly from Rome, that Antony had made an astonishing change, and was doing +all things and managing all public affairs at the will of the senate, and that +there wanted nothing but his presence to bring things to a happy settlement. +And therefore, blaming himself for his cowardice, he returned again to Rome, +and was not deceived in his hopes at the beginning. For such multitudes flocked +out to meet him, that the compliments and civilities which were paid him at the +gates, and at his entrance into the city, took up almost one whole day’s time. +</p> + +<p> +On the morrow, Antony convened the senate, and summoned Cicero thither. He came +not, but kept is bed, pretending to be ill with his journey; but the true +reason seemed the fear of some design against him, upon a suspicion and +intimation given him on his way to Rome. Antony, however, showed great offense +at the affront, and sent soldiers, commanding them to bring him or burn his +house; but many interceding and supplicating for him, he was contented to +accept sureties. Ever after, when they met, they passed one another with +silence, and continued on their guard, till Caesar, the younger, coming from +Apollonia, entered on the first Caesar’s inheritance, and was engaged in a +dispute with Antony about two thousand five hundred myriads of money, which +Antony detained from the estate. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this, Philippus, who married the mother, and Marcellus, who married the +sister of young Caesar, came with the young man to Cicero, and agreed with him +that Cicero should give them the aid of his eloquence and political influence +with the senate and people, and Caesar give Cicero the defense of his riches +and arms. For the young man had already a great party of the soldiers of Caesar +about him. And Cicero’s readiness to join him was founded, it is said, on some +yet stronger motives; for it seems, while Pompey and Caesar were yet alive, +Cicero, in his sleep, had fancied himself engaged in calling some of the sons +of the senators into the capitol, Jupiter being about, according to the dream, +to declare one of them the chief ruler of Rome. The citizens, running up with +curiosity, stood about the temple, and the youths, sitting in their +purple-bordered robes, kept silence. On a sudden the doors opened, and the +youths, arising one by one in order, passed round the god, who reviewed them +all, and, to their sorrow, dismissed them; but when this one was passing by, +the god stretched forth his right hand and said, “O ye Romans, this young man, +when he shall be lord of Rome, shall put an end to all your civil wars.” It is +said that Cicero formed from his dream a distinct image of the youth, and +retained it afterwards perfectly, but did not know who it was. The next day, +going down into the Campus Martius, he met the boys resuming from their +gymnastic exercises, and the first was he, just as he had appeared to him in +his dream. Being astonished at it, he asked him who were his parents. And it +proved to be this young Caesar, whose father was a man of no great eminence, +Octavius, and his mother, Attia, Caesar’s sister’s daughter; for which reason, +Caesar, who had no children, made him by will the heir of his house and +property. From that time, it is said that Cicero studiously noticed the youth +whenever he met him, and he as kindly received the civility; and by fortune he +happened to be born when Cicero was consul. +</p> + +<p> +These were the reasons spoken of; but it was principally Cicero’s hatred of +Antony, and a temper unable to resist honor, which fastened him to Caesar, with +the purpose of getting the support of Caesar’s power for his own public +designs. For the young man went so far in his court to him, that he called him +Father; at which Brutus was so highly displeased, that, in his epistles to +Atticus he reflected on Cicero saying, it was manifest, by his courting Caesar +for fear of Antony, he did not intend liberty to his country, but an indulgent +master to himself. Notwithstanding, Brutus took Cicero’s son, then studying +philosophy at Athens, gave him a command, and employed him in various ways, +with a good result. Cicero’s own power at this time was at the greatest height +in the city, and he did whatsoever he pleased; he completely overpowered and +drove out Antony, and sent the two consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, with an army, to +reduce him; and, on the other hand, persuaded the senate to allow Caesar the +lictors and ensigns of a praetor, as though he were his country’s defender. But +after Antony was defeated in battle, and the two consuls slain, the armies +united, and ranged themselves with Caesar. And the senate, fearing the young +man, and his extraordinary fortune, endeavored, by honors and gifts, to call +off the soldiers from him, and to lessen his power; professing there was no +further need of arms, now Antony was put to flight. +</p> + +<p> +This giving Caesar an affright, he privately sends some friends to entreat and +persuade Cicero to procure the consular dignity for them both together; saying +he should manage the affairs as he pleased, should have the supreme power, and +govern the young man who was only desirous of name and glory. And Caesar +himself confessed, that in fear of ruin, and in danger of being deserted, he +had seasonably made use of Cicero’s ambition, persuading him to stand with him, +and to accept the offer of his aid and interest for the consulship. +</p> + +<p> +And now, more than at any other time, Cicero let himself be carried away and +deceived, though an old man, by the persuasions of a boy. He joined him in +soliciting votes, and procured the good-will of the senate, not without blame +at the time on the part of his friends; and he, too, soon enough after, saw +that he had ruined himself, and betrayed the liberty of his country. For the +young man, once established, and possessed of the office of consul, bade Cicero +farewell; and, reconciling himself to Antony and Lepidus, joined his power with +theirs, and divided the government, like a piece of property, with them. Thus +united, they made a schedule of above two hundred persons who were to be put to +death. But the greatest contention in all their debates was on the question of +Cicero’s case. Antony would come to no conditions, unless he should be the +first man to be killed. Lepidus held with Antony, and Caesar opposed them both. +They met secretly and by themselves, for three days together, near the town of +Bononia. The spot was not far from the camp, with a river surrounding it. +Caesar, it is said, contended earnestly for Cicero the first two days; but on +the third day he yielded, and gave him up. +</p> + +<p> +The terms of their mutual concessions were these; that Caesar should desert +Cicero, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Antony, Lucius Caesar, his uncle by his +mother’s side. Thus they let their anger and fury take from them the sense of +humanity, and demonstrated that no beast is more savage than man, when +possessed with power answerable to his rage. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst these things were contriving, Cicero was with his brother at his +country-house near Tusculum; whence, hearing of the proscriptions, they +determined to pass to Astura, a villa of Cicero’s near the sea, and to take +shipping from thence for Macedonia to Brutus, of whose strength in that +province news had already been heard. They traveled together in their separate +litters, overwhelmed with sorrow; and often stopping on the way till their +litters came together, condoled with one another. But Quintus was the more +disheartened, when he reflected on his want of means for his journey; for, as +he said, he had brought nothing with him from home. And even Cicero himself had +but a slender provision. It was judged, therefore, most expedient that Cicero +should make what haste he could to fly, and Quintus return home to provide +necessaries, and thus resolved, they mutually embraced, and parted with many +tears. +</p> + +<p> +Quintus, within a few days after, betrayed by his servants to those who came to +search for him, was slain, together with his young son. But Cicero was carried +to Astura, where, finding a vessel, he immediately went on board her, and +sailed as far as Circaeum with a prosperous gale; but when the pilots resolved +immediately to set sail from thence, whether fearing the sea, or not wholly +distrusting the faith of Caesar, he went on shore, and passed by land a hundred +furlongs, as if he was going for Rome. But losing resolution and changing his +mind, he again returned to the sea, and there spent the night in fearful and +perplexed thoughts. Sometimes he resolved to go into Caesar’s house privately, +and there kill himself upon the altar of his household gods, to bring divine +vengeance upon him; but the fear of torture put him off this course. And after +passing through a variety of confused and uncertain counsels, at last he let +his servants carry him by sea to Capitae, where he had a house, an agreeable +place to retire to in the heat of summer, when the Etesian winds are so +pleasant. +</p> + +<p> +There was at that place a chapel of Apollo, not far from the sea-side, from +which a flight of crows rose with a great noise, and made towards Cicero’s +vessel as it rowed to land, and lighting on both sides of the yard, some +croaked, others pecked the ends of the ropes. This was looked upon by all as an +ill omen; and, therefore, Cicero went again ashore, and entering his house, lay +down upon his bed to compose himself to rest. Many of the crows settled about +the window, making a dismal cawing; but one of them alighted upon the bed where +Cicero lay covered up, and with its bill by little and little pecked off the +clothes from his face. His servants, seeing this, blamed themselves that they +should stay to be spectators of their master’s murder, and do nothing in his +defense, whilst the brute creatures came to assist and take care of him in his +undeserved affliction; and, therefore, partly by entreaty, partly by force, +they took him up, and carried him in his litter towards the sea-side. +</p> + +<p> +But in the meantime the assassins were come with a band of soldiers, Herennius, +a centurion, and Popillius, a tribune, whom Cicero had formerly defended when +prosecuted for the murder of his father. Finding the doors shut, they broke +them open, and Cicero not appearing and those within saying they knew not where +he was, it is stated that a youth, who had been educated by Cicero in the +liberal arts and sciences, an emancipated slave of his brother Quintus, +Philologus by name, informed the tribune that the litter was on its way to the +sea through the close and shady walks. The tribune, taking a few with him, ran +to the place where he was to come out. And Cicero, perceiving Herennius running +in the walks, commanded his servants to set down the litter; and stroking his +chin, as he used to do, with his left hand, he looked steadfastly upon his +murderers, his person covered with dust, his beard and hair untrimmed, and his +face worn with his troubles. So that the greatest part of those that stood by +covered their faces whilst Herennius slew him. And thus was he murdered, +stretching forth his neck out of the litter, being now in his sixty-fourth +year. Herennius cut off his head, and, by Antony’s command, his hands also, by +which his Philippics were written; for so Cicero styled those orations he wrote +against Antony, and so they are called to this day. +</p> + +<p> +When these members of Cicero were brought to Rome, Antony was holding an +assembly for the choice of public officers; and when he heard it, and saw them, +he cried out, “Now let there be an end of our proscriptions.” He commanded his +head and hands to be fastened up over the Rostra, where the orators spoke; a +sight which the Roman people shuddered to behold, and they believed they saw +there not the face of Cicero, but the image of Antony’s own soul. And yet +amidst these actions he did justice in one thing, by delivering up Philologus +to Pomponia, the wife of Quintus; who, having got his body into her power, +besides other grievous punishments, made him cut off his own flesh by pieces, +and roast and eat it; for so some writers have related. But Tiro, Cicero’s +emancipated slave, has not so much as mentioned the treachery of Philologus. +</p> + +<p> +Some long time after, Caesar, I have been told, visiting one of his daughter’s +sons, found him with a book of Cicero’s in his hand. The boy for fear +endeavored to hide it under his gown; which Caesar perceiving, took it from +him, and turning over a great part of the book standing, gave it him again, and +said, “My child, this was a learned man, and a lover of his country.” And +immediately after he had vanquished Antony, being then consul, he made Cicero’s +son his colleague in the office; and under that consulship, the senate took +down all the statues of Antony, and abolished all the other honors that had +been given him, and decreed that none of that family should thereafter bear the +name of Marcus; and thus the final acts of the punishment of Antony were, by +the divine powers, devolved upon the family of Cicero. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap58"></a>COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO</h2> + +<p> +These are the most memorable circumstances recorded in history of Demosthenes +and Cicero which have come to our knowledge. But omitting an exact comparison +of their respective faculties in speaking, yet thus much seems fit to be said; +that Demosthenes, to make himself a master in rhetoric, applied all the +faculties he had, natural or acquired, wholly that way; that he far surpassed +in force and strength of eloquence all his contemporaries in political and +judicial speaking, in grandeur and majesty all the panegyrical orators, and in +accuracy and science all the logicians and rhetoricians of his day; that Cicero +was highly educated, and by his diligent study became a most accomplished +general scholar in all these branches, having left behind him numerous +philosophical treatises of his own on Academic principles; as, indeed, even in +his written speeches, both political and judicial, we see him continually +trying to show his learning by the way. And one may discover the different +temper of each of them in their speeches. For Demosthenes’s oratory was without +all embellishment and jesting, wholly composed for real effect and seriousness; +not smelling of the lamp, as Pytheas scoffingly said, but of the temperance, +thoughtfulness, austerity, and grave earnestness of his temper. Whereas +Cicero’s love of mockery often ran him into scurrility; and in his love of +laughing away serious arguments in judicial cases by jests and facetious +remarks, with a view to the advantage of his clients, he paid too little regard +to what was decent: saying, for example, in his defense of Caelius, that he had +done no absurd thing in such plenty and affluence to indulge himself in +pleasures, it being a kind of madness not to enjoy the things we possess, +especially since the most eminent philosophers have asserted pleasure to be the +chiefest good. So also we are told, that when Cicero, being consul, undertook +the defense of Murena against Cato’s prosecution, by way of bantering Cato, he +made a long series of jokes upon the absurd paradoxes, as they are called, of +the Stoic sect; so that a loud laughter passing from the crowd to the judges, +Cato, with a quiet smile, said to those that sat next him, “My friends, what an +amusing consul we have.” +</p> + +<p> +And, indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very much disposed to mirth and +pleasantry, and always appeared with a smiling and serene countenance. But +Demosthenes had constant care and thoughtfulness in his look, and a serious +anxiety, which he seldom, if ever, laid aside; and, therefore, was accounted by +his enemies, as he himself confessed, morose and ill-mannered. +</p> + +<p> +Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, that Demosthenes never +touched upon his own praises but decently and without offense when there was +need of it, and for some weightier end; but, upon other occasions modestly and +sparingly. But Cicero’s immeasurable boasting of himself in his orations argues +him guilty of an uncontrollable appetite for distinction, his cry being +evermore that arms should give place to the gown, and the soldier’s laurel to +the tongue. And at last we find him extolling not only his deeds and actions, +but his orations also, as well those that were only spoken, as those that were +published; as if he were engaged in a boyish trial of skill, who should speak +best, with the rhetoricians, Isocrates and Anaximenes, not as one who could +claim the task to guide and instruct the Roman nation, the +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Soldier full-armed, terrific to the foe. +</p> + +<p> +It is necessary, indeed, for a political leader to be an able speaker; but it +is an ignoble thing for any man to admire and relish the glory of his own +eloquence. And, in this matter, Demosthenes had a more than ordinary gravity +and magnificence of mind, accounting his talent in speaking nothing more than a +mere accomplishment and matter of practice, the success of which must depend +greatly on the good-will and candor of his hearers, and regarding those who +pride themselves on such accounts to be men of a low and petty disposition. +</p> + +<p> +The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, equally belong to +both, so that those who had armies and camps at command stood in need of their +assistance; as Chares, Diopithes, and Leosthenes of Demosthenes’s, Pompey and +young Caesar of Cicero’s, as the latter himself admits in his Memoirs addressed +to Agrippa and Maecenas. But what are thought and commonly said most to +demonstrate and try the tempers of men, namely, authority and place, by moving +every passion, and discovering every frailty, these are things which +Demosthenes never received; nor was he ever in a position to give such proof of +himself, having never obtained any eminent office, nor led any of those armies +into the field against Philip which he raised by his eloquence. Cicero, on the +other hand, was sent quaestor into Sicily, and proconsul into Cilicia and +Cappadocia, at a time when avarice was at the height, and the commanders and +governors who were employed abroad, as though they thought it a mean thing to +steal, set themselves to seize by open force; so that it seemed no heinous +matter to take bribes, but he that did it most moderately was in good esteem. +And yet he, at this time, gave the most abundant proofs alike of his contempt +of riches and of his humanity and good-nature. And at Rome, when he was created +consul in name, but indeed received sovereign and dictatorial authority against +Catiline and his conspirators, he attested the truth of Plato’s prediction, +that then the miseries of states would be at an end, when by a happy fortune +supreme power, wisdom, and justice should be united in one. +</p> + +<p> +It is said, to the reproach of Demosthenes, that his eloquence was mercenary; +that he privately made orations for Phormion and Apollodorus, though +adversaries in the same cause; that he was charged with moneys received from +the king of Persia, and condemned for bribes from Harpalus. And should we grant +that all those (and they are not few) who have made these statements against +him have spoken what is untrue, yet that Demosthenes was not the character to +look without desire on the presents offered him out of respect and gratitude by +royal persons, and that one who lent money on maritime usury was likely to be +thus indifferent, is what we cannot assert. But that Cicero refused, from the +Sicilians when he was quaestor, from the king of Cappadocia when he was +proconsul, and from his friends at Rome when he was in exile, many presents, +though urged to receive them, has been said already. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, Demosthenes’s banishment was infamous, upon conviction for bribery; +Cicero’s very honorable, for ridding his country of a set of villains. +Therefore, when Demosthenes fled his country, no man regarded it; for Cicero’s +sake the senate changed their habit, and put on mourning, and would not be +persuaded to make any act before Cicero’s return was decreed. Cicero, however, +passed his exile idly in Macedonia. But the very exile of Demosthenes made up a +great part of the services he did for his country; for he went through the +cities of Greece, and everywhere, as we have said, joined in the conflict on +behalf of the Grecians, driving out the Macedonian ambassadors, and approving +himself a much better citizen than Themistocles and Alcibiades did in the like +fortune. And, after his return, he again devoted himself to the same public +service, and continued firm to his opposition to Antipater and the Macedonians. +Whereas Laelius reproached Cicero in the senate for sitting silent when Caesar, +a beardless youth, asked leave to come forward, contrary to the law, as a +candidate for the consulship; and Brutus, in his epistles, charges him with +nursing and rearing a greater and more heavy tyranny than that they had +removed. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, Cicero’s death excites our pity; for an old man to be miserably +carried up and down by his servants, flying and hiding himself from that death +which was, in the course of nature, so near at hand; and yet at last to be +murdered. Demosthenes, though he seemed at first a little to supplicate, yet, +by his preparing and keeping the poison by him, demands our admiration; and +still more admirable was his using it. When the temple of the god no longer +afforded him a sanctuary, he took refuge, as it were, at a mightier altar, +freeing himself from arms and soldiers, and laughing to scorn the cruelty of +Antipater. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap59"></a>DEMETRIUS</h2> + +<p> +Ingenious men have long observed a resemblance between the arts and the bodily +senses. And they were first led to do so, I think, by noticing the way in +which, both in the arts and with our senses, we examine opposites. Judgment +once obtained, the use to which we put it differs in the two cases. Our senses +are not meant to pick out black rather than white, to prefer sweet to bitter, +or soft and yielding to hard and resisting objects; all they have to do is to +receive impressions as they occur, and report to the understanding the +impressions as received. The arts, on the other hand, which reason institutes +expressly to choose and obtain some suitable, and to refuse and get rid of some +unsuitable object, have their proper concern in the consideration of the +former; though, in a casual and contingent way, they must also, for the very +rejection of them, pay attention to the latter. Medicine, to produce health, +has to examine disease, and music, to create harmony, must investigate discord; +and the supreme arts, of temperance, of justice, and of wisdom, as they are +acts of judgment and selection, exercised not on good and just and expedient +only, but also on wicked, unjust, and inexpedient objects, do not give their +commendations to the mere innocence whose boast is its inexperience of evil, +and whose truer name is, by their award, suppleness and ignorance of what all +men who live aright should know. The ancient Spartans, at their festivals, used +to force their Helots to swallow large quantities of raw wine, and then to +expose them at the public tables, to let the young men see what it is to be +drunk. And, though I do not think it consistent with humanity or with civil +justice to correct one man’s morals by corrupting those of another, yet we may, +I think, avail ourselves of the cases of those who have fallen into +indiscretions, and have, in high stations, made themselves conspicuous for +misconduct; and I shall not do ill to introduce a pair or two of such examples +among these biographies, not, assuredly, to amuse and divert my readers, or +give variety to my theme, but, as Ismenias, the Theban, used to show his +scholars good and bad performers on the flute, and to tell them, “You should +play like this man,” and “You should not play like that,” and as Antigenidas +used to say, Young people would take greater pleasure in hearing good playing, +if first they were set to hear bad, so, and in the same manner, it seems to me +likely enough that we shall be all the more zealous and more emulous to read, +observe, and imitate the better lives, if we are not left in ignorance of the +blameworthy and the bad. +</p> + +<p> +For this reason, the following book contains the lives of Demetrius +Poliorcetes, and Antonius the Triumvir; two persons who have abundantly +justified the words of Plato, that great natures produce great vices as well as +virtues. Both alike were amorous and intemperate, warlike and munificent, +sumptuous in their way of living, and overbearing in their manners. And the +likeness of their fortunes carried out the resemblance in their characters. Not +only were their lives each a series of great successes and great disasters, +mighty acquisitions and tremendous losses of power, sudden overthrows, followed +by unexpected recoveries, but they died, also, Demetrius in actual captivity to +his enemies, and Antony on the verge of it. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus had by his wife, Stratonice, the daughter of Corrhaeus, two sons; the +one of whom, after the name of his uncle, he called Demetrius, the other had +that of his grandfather Philip, and died young. This is the most general +account, although some have related, that Demetrius was not the son of +Antigonus, but of his brother; and that his own father dying young, and his +mother being afterwards married to Antigonus, he was accounted to be his son. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius had not the height of his father Antigonus, though he was a tall man. +But his countenance was one of such singular beauty and expression, that no +painter or sculptor ever produced a good likeness of him. It combined grace and +strength, dignity with boyish bloom, and, in the midst of youthful heat and +passion, what was hardest of all to represent was a certain heroic look and air +of kingly greatness. Nor did his character belie his looks, as no one was +better able to render himself both loved and feared. For as he was the most +easy and agreeable of companions, and the most luxurious and delicate of +princes in his drinking and banqueting and daily pleasures, so in action there +was never anyone that showed a more vehement persistence, or a more passionate +energy. Bacchus, skilled in the conduct of war, and after war in giving peace +its pleasures and joys, seems to have been his pattern among the gods. +</p> + +<p> +He was wonderfully fond of his father Antigonus; and the tenderness he had for +his mother led him, for her sake, to redouble attentions, which it was evident +were not so much owing to fear or duty as to the more powerful motives of +inclination. It is reported, that, returning one day from hunting, he went +immediately into the apartment of Antigonus, who was conversing with some +ambassadors, and after stepping up and kissing his father, he sat down by him, +just as he was, still holding in his hand the javelins which he had brought +with him. Whereupon Antigonus, who had just dismissed the ambassadors with +their answer, called out in a loud voice to them, as they were going, “Mention, +also, that this is the way in which we two live together;” as if to imply to +them that it was no slender mark of the power and security of his government +that there was so perfect a good understanding between himself and his son. +Such an unsociable, solitary thing is power, and so much of jealousy and +distrust in it, that the first and greatest of the successors of Alexander +could make it a thing to glory in that he was not so afraid of his son as to +forbid his standing beside him with a weapon in his hand. And, in fact, among +all the successors of Alexander, that of Antigonus was the only house which, +for many descents, was exempted from crime of this kind; or, to state it +exactly, Philip was the only one of this family who was guilty of a son’s +death. All the other families, we may fairly say, afforded frequent examples of +fathers who brought their children, husbands their wives, children their +mothers, to untimely ends; and that brothers should put brothers to death was +assumed, like the postulates of mathematicians, as the common and recognized +royal first principle of safety. +</p> + +<p> +Let us here record an example in the early life of Demetrius, showing his +natural humane and kindly disposition. It was an adventure which passed betwixt +him and Mithridates, the son of Ariobarzanes, who was about the same age with +Demetrius, and lived with him, in attendance on Antigonus; and although nothing +was said or could be said to his reproach, he fell under suspicion, in +consequence of a dream which Antigonus had. Antigonus thought himself in a fair +and spacious field, where he sowed golden seed, and saw presently a golden crop +come up; of which, however, looking presently again, he saw nothing remain but +the stubble, without the ears. And as he stood by in anger and vexation, he +heard some voices saying, Mithridates had cut the golden harvest and carried it +off into Pontus. Antigonus, much discomposed with his dream, first bound his +son by an oath not to speak, and then related it to him, adding, that he had +resolved, in consequence, to lose no time in ridding himself of Mithridates, +and making away with him. Demetrius was extremely distressed; and when the +young man came, as usual, to pass his time with him, to keep his oath he +forbore from saying a word, but, drawing him aside little by little from the +company, as soon as they were by themselves, without opening his lips, with the +point of his javelin he traced before him the words, “Fly, Mithridates.” +Mithridates took the hint, and fled by night into Cappadocia, where Antigonus’s +dream about him was quickly brought to its due fulfillment; for he got +possession of a large and fertile territory; and from him descended the line of +the kings of Pontus, which, in the eighth generation, was reduced by the +Romans. This may serve for a specimen of the early goodness and love of justice +that was part of Demetrius’s natural character. +</p> + +<p> +But as in the elements of the world, Empedocles tells us, out of liking and +dislike, there spring up contention and warfare, and all the more, the closer +the contact, or the nearer the approach of the objects, even so the perpetual +hostilities among the successors of Alexander were aggravated and inflamed, in +particular cases, by juxtaposition of interests and of territories; as, for +example, in the case of Antigonus and Ptolemy. News came to Antigonus that +Ptolemy had crossed from Cyprus and invaded Syria, and was ravaging the country +and reducing the cities. Remaining, therefore, himself in Phrygia, he sent +Demetrius, now twenty-two years old, to make his first essay as sole commander +in an important charge. He, whose youthful heat outran his experience, +advancing against an adversary trained in Alexander’s school, and practiced in +many encounters, incurred a great defeat near the town of Gaza, in which eight +thousand of his men were taken, and five thousand killed. His own tent, also, +his money, and all his private effects and furniture, were captured. These, +however, Ptolemy sent back, together with his friends, accompanying them with +the humane and courteous message, that they were not fighting for anything else +but honor and dominion. Demetrius accepted the gift, praying only to the gods +not to leave him long in Ptolemy’s debt, but to let him have an early chance of +doing the like to him. He took his disaster, also, with the temper not of a boy +defeated in his attempt, but of an old and long-tried general, familiar with +reverse of fortune; he busied himself in collecting his men, replenishing his +magazines, watching the allegiance of the cities, and drilling his new +recruits. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus received the news of the battle with the remark, that Ptolemy had +beaten boys, and would now have to fight with men. But not to humble the spirit +of his son, he acceded to his request, and left him to command on the next +occasion. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after, Cilles, Ptolemy’s lieutenant, with a powerful army, took the +field, and, looking upon Demetrius as already defeated by the previous battle, +he had in his imagination driven him out of Syria before he saw him. But he +quickly found himself deceived; for Demetrius came so unexpectedly upon him +that he surprised both the general and his army, making him and seven thousand +of the soldiers prisoners of war, and possessing himself of a large amount of +treasure. But his joy in the victory was not so much for the prizes he should +keep, as for those he could restore; and his thankfulness was less for the +wealth and glory than for the means it gave him of requiting his enemy’s former +generosity. He did not, however, take it into his own hands, but wrote to his +father. And on receiving leave to do as he liked, he sent back to Ptolemy +Cilles and his friends, loaded with presents. This defeat drove Ptolemy out of +Syria, and brought Antigonus from Celaenae, to enjoy the victory, and the sight +of the son who had gained it. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after, Demetrius was sent to bring the Nabathaean Arabs into obedience. +And here he got into a district without water, and incurred considerable +danger, but by his resolute and composed demeanor he overawed the barbarians, +and returned after receiving from them a large amount of booty, and seven +hundred camels. Not long after, Seleucus, whom Antigonus had formerly chased +out of Babylon, but who had afterwards recovered his dominion by his own +efforts and maintained himself in it, went with large forces on an expedition +to reduce the tribes on the confines of India and the provinces near Mount +Caucasus. And Demetrius, conjecturing that he had left Mesopotamia but +slenderly guarded in his absence, suddenly passed the Euphrates with his army, +and made his way into Babylonia unexpectedly; where he succeeded in capturing +one of the two citadels, out of which he expelled the garrison of Seleucus, and +placed in it seven thousand men of his own. And after allowing his soldiers to +enrich themselves with all the spoil they could carry with them out of the +country, he retired to the sea, leaving Seleucus more securely master of his +dominions than before, as he seemed by this conduct to abandon every claim to a +country which he treated like an enemy’s. However, by a rapid advance, he +rescued Halicarnassus from Ptolemy, who was besieging it. The glory which this +act obtained them inspired both the father and son with a wonderful desire for +freeing Greece, which Cassander and Ptolemy had everywhere reduced to slavery. +No nobler or juster war was undertaken by any of the kings; the wealth they had +gained while humbling, with Greek assistance, the barbarians being thus +employed, for honor’s sake and good repute, in helping the Greeks. When the +resolution was taken to begin their attempt with Athens, one of his friends +told Antigonus, if they captured Athens, they must keep it safe in their own +hands, as by this gangway they might step out from their ships into Greece when +they pleased. But Antigonus would not hear of it; he did not want a better or a +steadier gangway than people’s good-will; and from Athens, the beacon of the +world, the news of their conduct would soon be handed on to all the world’s +inhabitants. So Demetrius, with a sum of five thousand talents, and a fleet of +two hundred and fifty ships, set sail for Athens, where Demetrius the Phalerian +was governing the city for Cassander, with a garrison lodged in the port of +Munychia. By good fortune and skillful management he appeared before Piraeus, +on the twenty-sixth of Thargelion, before anything had been heard of him. +Indeed, when his ships were seen, they were taken for Ptolemy’s, and +preparations were commenced for receiving them; till at last, the generals +discovering their mistake, hurried down, and all was alarm and confusion, and +attempts to push forward preparations to oppose the landing of this hostile +force. For Demetrius, having found the entrances of the port undefended, stood +in directly, and was by this time safely inside, before the eyes of everybody, +and made signals from his ship, requesting a peaceable hearing. And on leave +being given, he caused a herald with a loud voice to make proclamation that he +was come thither by the command of his father, with no other design than what +he prayed the gods to prosper with success, to give the Athenians their +liberty, to expel the garrison, and to restore the ancient laws and +constitution of the country. +</p> + +<p> +The people, hearing this, at once threw down their shields, and, clapping their +hands, with loud acclamations entreated Demetrius to land, calling him their +deliverer and benefactor. And the Phalerian and his party, who saw that there +was nothing for it but to receive the conqueror, whether he should perform his +promises or not, sent, however, messengers to beg for his protection; to whom +Demetrius gave a kind reception, and sent back with them Aristodemus of +Miletus, one of his father’s friends. The Phalerian, under the change of +government, was more afraid of his fellow-citizens than of the enemy; but +Demetrius took precautions for him, and, out of respect for his reputation and +character, sent him with a safe conduct to Thebes, whither he desired to go. +For himself, he declared he would not, in spite of all his curiosity, put his +foot in the city, till he had completed its deliverance by driving out the +garrison. So, blockading Munychia with a palisade and trench, he sailed off to +attack Megara, where also there was one of Cassander’s garrisons. But, hearing +that Cratesipolis, the wife of Alexander son of Polysperchon, who was famous +for her beauty, was well disposed to see him, he left his troops near Megara, +and set out with a few light-armed attendants for Patrae, where she was now +staying. And, quitting these also, he pitched his tent apart from everybody, +that the woman might pay her visit without being seen. This some of the enemy +perceived, and suddenly attacked him; and, in his alarm, he was obliged to +disguise himself in a shabby cloak, and run for it, narrowly escaping the shame +of being made a prisoner, in reward for his foolish passion. And as it was, his +tent and money were taken. Megara, however, surrendered, and would have been +pillaged by the soldiers, but for the urgent intercession of the Athenians. The +garrison was driven out, and the city restored to independence. While he was +occupied in this, he remembered that Stilpo, the philosopher, famous for his +choice of a life of tranquillity, was residing here. He, therefore, sent for +him, and begged to know whether anything belonging to him had been taken. “No,” +replied Stilpo, “I have not met with anyone to take away knowledge.” Pretty +nearly all the servants in the city had been stolen away; and so, when +Demetrius, renewing his courtesies to Stilpo, on taking leave of him, said, “I +leave your city, Stilpo, a city of freemen,” “certainly,” replied Stilpo, +“there is not one serving man left among us all.” +</p> + +<p> +Returning from Megara, he sat down before the citadel of Munychia, which in a +few days he took by assault, and caused the fortifications to be demolished; +and thus having accomplished his design, upon the request and invitation of the +Athenians he made his entrance into the upper city, where, causing the people +to be summoned, he publicly announced to them that their ancient constitution +was restored, and that they should receive from his father, Antigonus, a +present of one hundred and fifty thousand measures of wheat, and such a supply +of timber as would enable them to build a hundred galleys. In this manner did +the Athenians recover their popular institutions, after the space of fifteen +years from the time of the war of Lamia and the battle before Cranon, during +which interval of time the government had been administered nominally as an +oligarchy, but really by a single man, Demetrius the Phalerian being so +powerful. But the excessive honors which the Athenians bestowed, for these +noble and generous acts, upon Demetrius, created offense and disgust. The +Athenians were the first who gave Antigonus and Demetrius the title of kings, +which hitherto they had made it a point of piety to decline, as the one +remaining royal honor still reserved for the lineal descendants of Philip and +Alexander, in which none but they could venture to participate. Another name +which they received from no people but the Athenians was that of the Tutelar +Deities and Deliverers. And to enhance this flattery, by a common vote it was +decreed to change the style of the city, and not to have the years named any +longer from the annual archon; a priest of the two Tutelary Divinities, who was +to be yearly chosen, was to have this honor, and all public acts and +instruments were to bear their date by his name. They decreed, also, that the +figures of Antigonus and Demetrius should be woven, with those of the gods, +into the pattern of the great robe. They consecrated the spot where Demetrius +first alighted from his chariot, and built an altar there, with the name of the +Altar of the Descent of Demetrius. They created two new tribes, calling them +after the names of these princes, the Antigonid and the Demetriad; and to the +Council, which consisted of five hundred persons, fifty being chosen out of +every tribe, they added one hundred more to represent these new tribes. But the +wildest proposal was one made by Stratocles, the great inventor of all these +ingenious and exquisite compliments, enacting that the members of any +deputation that the city should send to Demetrius or Antigonus should have the +same title as those sent to Delphi or Olympia for the performance of the +national sacrifices in behalf of the state, at the great Greek festivals. This +Stratocles was, in all respects, an audacious and abandoned character, and +seemed to have made it his object to copy, by his buffoonery and impertinence, +Cleon’s old familiarity with the people. His mistress, Phylacion, one day +bringing him a dish of brains and neckbones for his dinner, “Oh,” said he, “I +am to dine upon the things which we statesmen play at ball with.” At another +time, when the Athenians received their naval defeat near Amorgos, he hastened +home before the news could reach the city, and, having a chaplet on his head, +came riding through the Ceramicus, announcing that they had won a victory, and +moved a vote for thanksgivings to the gods, and a distribution of meat among +the people in their tribes. Presently after came those who brought home the +wrecks from the battle; and when the people exclaimed at what he had done, he +came boldly to face the outcry, and asked what harm there had been in giving +them two days’ pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +Such was Stratocles. And, “adding flame to fire,” as Aristophanes says, there +was one who, to outdo Stratocles, proposed, that it should be decreed, that +whensoever Demetrius should honor their city with his presence, they should +treat him with the same show of hospitable entertainment, with which Ceres and +Bacchus are received; and the citizen who exceeded the rest in the splendor and +costliness of his reception should have a sum of money granted him from the +public purse to make a sacred offering. Finally, they changed the name of the +month of Munychion, and called it Demetrion; they gave the name of the +Demetrian to the odd day between the end of the old and the beginning of the +new month; and turned the feast of Bacchus, the Dionysia, into the Demetria, or +feast of Demetrius. Most of these changes were marked by the divine +displeasure. The sacred robe, in which, according to their decree, the figures +of Demetrius and Antigonus had been woven with those of Jupiter and Minerva, +was caught by a violent gust of wind, while the procession was conveying it +through the Ceramicus, and was torn from the top to the bottom. A crop of +hemlock, a plant which scarcely grew anywhere, even in the country thereabout, +sprang up in abundance round the altars which they had erected to these new +divinities. They had to omit the solemn procession at the feast of Bacchus, as +upon the very day of its celebration there was such a severe and rigorous +frost, coming quite out of its time, that not only the vines and fig-trees were +killed, but almost all the wheat was destroyed in the blade. Accordingly, +Philippides, an enemy to Stratocles, attacked him in a comedy, in the following +verses: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He for whom frosts that nipped your vines were sent,<br/> +And for whose sins the holy robe was rent,<br/> +Who grants to men the gods’ own honors, he,<br/> +Not the poor stage, is now the people’s enemy. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Philippides was a great favorite with king Lysimachus, from whom the Athenians +received, for his sake, a variety of kindnesses. Lysimachus went so far as to +think it a happy omen to meet or see Philippides at the outset of any +enterprise or expedition. And, in general, he was well thought of for his own +character, as a plain, uninterfering person, with none of the officious, +self-important habits of a court. Once, when Lysimachus was solicitous to show +him kindness, and asked what he had that he could make him a present of, +“Anything,” replied Philippides, “but your state secrets.” The stage-player, we +thought, deserved a place in our narrative quite as well as the public speaker. +</p> + +<p> +But that which exceeded all the former follies and flatteries, was the proposal +of Dromoclides of Sphettus; who, when there was a debate about sending to the +Delphic Oracle to inquire the proper course for the consecration of certain +bucklers, moved in the assembly that they should rather send to receive an +oracle from Demetrius. I will transcribe the very words of the order, which was +in these terms: “May it be happy and propitious. The people of Athens have +decreed, that a fit person shall be chosen among the Athenian citizens, who +shall be deputed to be sent to the Deliverer; and after he hath duly performed +the sacrifices, shall inquire of the Deliverer, in what most religious and +decent manner he will please to direct, at the earliest possible time, the +consecration of the bucklers; and according to the answer the people shall +act.” With this befooling they completed the perversion of a mind which even +before was not so strong or sound as it should have been. +</p> + +<p> +During his present leisure in Athens, he took to wife Eurydice, a descendant of +the ancient Miltiades, who had been married to Opheltas, the ruler of Cyrene, +and after his death had come back to Athens. The Athenians took the marriage as +a compliment and favor to the city. But Demetrius was very free in these +matters, and was the husband of several wives at once; the highest place and +honor among all being retained by Phila, who was Antipater’s daughter, and had +been the wife of Craterus, the one of all the successors of Alexander who left +behind him the strongest feelings of attachment among the Macedonians. And for +these reasons Antigonus had obliged him to marry her, notwithstanding the +disparity of their years, Demetrius being quite a youth, and she much older; +and when upon that account he made some difficulty in complying, Antigonus +whispered in his ear the maxim from Euripides, broadly substituting a new word +for the original, serve, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Natural or not,<br/> +A man must wed where profit will be got. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Any respect, however, which he showed either to Phila or to his other wives did +not go so far as to prevent him from consorting with any number of mistresses, +and bearing, in this respect, the worst character of all the princes of his +time. +</p> + +<p> +A summons now arrived from his father, ordering him to go and fight with +Ptolemy in Cyprus, which he was obliged to obey, sorry as he was to abandon +Greece. And in quitting this nobler and more glorious enterprise, he sent to +Cleonides, Ptolemy’s general, who was holding garrisons in Sicyon and Corinth, +offering him money to let the cities be independent. But on his refusal, he set +sail hastily, taking additional forces with him, and made for Cyprus; where, +immediately upon his arrival, he fell upon Menelaus, the brother of Ptolemy, +and gave him a defeat. But when Ptolemy himself came in person, with large +forces both on land and sea, for some little time nothing took place beyond an +interchange of menaces and lofty talk. Ptolemy bade Demetrius sail off before +the whole armament came up, if he did not wish to be trampled under foot; and +Demetrius offered to let him retire, on condition of his withdrawing his +garrisons from Sicyon and Corinth. And not they alone, but all the other +potentates and princes of the time, were in anxiety for the uncertain impending +issue of the conflict; as it seemed evident, that the conqueror’s prize would +be, not Cyprus or Syria, but the absolute supremacy. +</p> + +<p> +Ptolemy had brought a hundred and fifty galleys with him, and gave orders to +Menelaus to sally, in the heat of the battle, out of the harbor of Salamis, and +attack with sixty ships the rear of Demetrius. Demetrius, however, opposing to +these sixty ten of his galleys, which were a sufficient number to block up the +narrow entrance of the harbor, and drawing out his land forces along all the +headlands running out into the sea, went into action with a hundred and eighty +galleys, and, attacking with the utmost boldness and impetuosity, utterly +routed Ptolemy, who fled with eight ships, the sole remnant of his fleet, +seventy having been taken with all their men, and the rest destroyed in the +battle; while the whole multitude of attendants, friends, and women, that had +followed in the ships of burden, all the arms, treasure, and military engines +fell, without exception, into the hands of Demetrius, and were by him collected +and brought into the camp. Among the prisoners was the celebrated Lamia, famed +at one time for her skill on the flute, and afterwards renowned as a mistress. +And although now upon the wane of her youthful beauty, and though Demetrius was +much her junior, she exercised over him so great a charm, that all other women +seemed to be amorous of Demetrius, but Demetrius amorous only of Lamia. After +this signal victory, Demetrius came before Salamis; and Menelaus, unable to +make any resistance, surrendered himself and all his fleet, twelve hundred +horse, and twelve thousand foot, together with the place. But that which added +more than all to the glory and splendor of the success was the humane and +generous conduct of Demetrius to the vanquished. For, after he had given +honorable funerals to the dead, he bestowed liberty upon the living; and that +he might not forget the Athenians, he sent them, as a present, complete arms +for twelve hundred men. +</p> + +<p> +To carry this happy news, Aristodemus of Miletus, the most perfect flatterer +belonging to the court, was dispatched to Antigonus; and he, to enhance the +welcome message, was resolved, it would appear, to make his most successful +effort. When he crossed from Cyprus, he bade the galley which conveyed him come +to anchor off the land; and, having ordered all the ship’s crew to remain +aboard, he took the boat, and was set ashore alone. Thus he proceeded to +Antigonus, who, one may well imagine, was in suspense enough about the issue, +and suffered all the anxieties natural to men engaged in so perilous a +struggle. And when he heard that Aristodemus was coming alone, it put him into +yet greater trouble; he could scarcely forbear from going out to meet him +himself; he sent messenger on messenger, and friend after friend, to inquire +what news. But Aristodemus, walking gravely and with a settled countenance, +without making any answer, still proceeded quietly onward; until Antigonus, +quite alarmed and no longer able to refrain, got up and met him at the gate, +whither he came with a crowd of anxious followers now collected and running +after him. As soon as he saw Antigonus within hearing, stretching out his +hands, he accosted him with the loud exclamation, “Hail, king Antigonus! we +have defeated Ptolemy by sea, and have taken Cyprus and sixteen thousand eight +hundred prisoners.” “Welcome, Aristodemus,” replied Antigonus, “but, as you +chose to torture us so long for your good news, you may wait awhile for the +reward of it.” +</p> + +<p> +Upon this the people around gave Antigonus and Demetrius, for the first time, +the title of kings. His friends at once set a diadem on the head of Antigonus; +and he sent one presently to his son, with a letter addressed to him as King +Demetrius. And when this news was told in Egypt, that they might not seem to be +dejected with the late defeat, Ptolemy’s followers also took occasion to bestow +the style of king upon him; and the rest of the successors of Alexander were +quick to follow the example. Lysimachus began to wear the diadem; and Seleucus, +who had before received the name in all addresses from the barbarians, now also +took it upon him in all business with the Greeks. Cassander still retained his +usual superscription in his letters, but others, both in writing and speaking, +gave him the royal title. Nor was this the mere accession of a name, or +introduction of a new fashion. The men’s own sentiments about themselves were +disturbed, and their feelings elevated; a spirit of pomp and arrogance passed +into their habits of life and conversation, as a tragic actor on the stage +modifies, with a change of dress, his step, his voice, his motions in sitting +down, his manner in addressing another. The punishments they inflicted were +more violent after they had thus laid aside that modest style under which they +formerly dissembled their power, and the influence of which had often made them +gentler and less exacting to their subjects. A single pattering voice effected +a revolution in the world. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus, extremely elevated with the success of his arms in Cyprus under the +conduct of Demetrius, resolved to push on his good fortune, and to lead his +forces in person against Ptolemy by land, whilst Demetrius should coast with a +great fleet along the shore, to assist him by sea. The issue of the contest was +intimated in a dream which Medius, a friend to Antigonus, had at this time in +his sleep. He thought he saw Antigonus and his whole army running, as if it had +been a race; that, in the first part of the course, he went off showing great +strength and speed; gradually, however, his pace slackened; and at the end he +saw him come lagging up, tired and almost breathless and quite spent. Antigonus +himself met with many difficulties by land; and Demetrius, encountering a great +storm at sea, was driven, with the loss of many or his ships, upon a dangerous +coast without a harbor. So the expedition returned without effecting anything. +Antigonus, now nearly eighty years old, was no longer well able to go through +the fatigues of a marching campaign, though rather on account of his great size +and corpulence than from loss of strength; and for this reason he left things +to his son, whose fortune and experience appeared sufficient for all +undertakings, and whose luxury and expense and revelry gave him no concern. For +though in peace he vented himself in his pleasures, and, when there was nothing +to do, ran headlong into any excesses, in war he was as sober and abstemious as +the most temperate character. The story is told, that once, after Lamia had +gained open supremacy over him, the old man, when Demetrius coming home from +abroad began to kiss him with unusual warmth, asked him if he took him for +Lamia. At another time, Demetrius, after spending several days in a debauch, +excused himself for his absence, by saying he had had a violent flux. “So I +heard,” replied Antigonus; “was it of Thasian wine, or Chian?” Once he was told +his son was ill, and went to see him. At the door he met some young beauty. +Going in, he sat down by the bed and took his pulse. “The fever,” said +Demetrius, “has just left me.” “O yes,” replied the father, “I met it going out +at the door.” Demetrius’s great actions made Antigonus treat him thus easily. +The Scythians in their drinking-bouts twang their bows, to keep their courage +awake amidst the dreams of indulgence; but he would resign his whole being, +now, to pleasure, and now to action; and though he never let thoughts of the +one intrude upon the pursuit of the other, yet, when the time came for +preparing for war, he showed as much capacity as any man. +</p> + +<p> +And indeed his ability displayed itself even more in preparing for, than in +conducting a war. He thought he could never be too well supplied for every +possible occasion, and took a pleasure, not to be satiated, in great +improvements in ship-building and machines. He did not waste his natural genius +and power of mechanical research on toys and idle fancies, turning, painting, +and playing on the flute, like some kings, Aeropus, for example, king of +Macedon, who spent his days in making small lamps and tables; or Attalus +Philometor, whose amusement was to cultivate poisons, henbane and hellebore, +and even hemlock, aconite, and dorycnium, which he used to sow himself in the +royal gardens, and made it his business to gather the fruits and collect the +juices in their season. The Parthian kings took a pride in whetting and +sharpening with their own hands the points of their arrows and javelins. But +when Demetrius played the workman, it was like a king, and there was +magnificence in his handicraft. The articles he produced bore marks upon the +face of them not of ingenuity only, but of a great mind and a lofty purpose. +They were such as a king might not only design and pay for, but use his own +hands to make; and while friends might be terrified with their greatness, +enemies could be charmed with their beauty; a phrase which is not so pretty to +the ear as it is true to the fact. The very people against whom they were to be +employed could not forbear running to gaze with admiration upon his galleys of +five and six ranges of oars, as they passed along their coasts; and the +inhabitants of besieged cities came on their walls to see the spectacle of his +famous City-takers. Even Lysimachus, of all the kings of his time the greatest +enemy of Demetrius, coming to raise the siege of Soli in Cilicia, sent first to +desire permission to see his galleys and engines, and, having had his curiosity +gratified by a view of them, expressed his admiration and quitted the place. +The Rhodians, also, whom he long besieged, begged him, when they concluded a +peace, to let them have some of his engines, which they might preserve as a +memorial at once of his power and of their own brave resistance. +</p> + +<p> +The quarrel between him and the Rhodians was on account of their being allies +to Ptolemy, and in the siege the greatest of all the engines was planted +against their walls. The base of it was exactly square, each side containing +twenty-four cubits; it rose to a height of thirty-three cubits, growing +narrower from the base to the top. Within were several apartments or chambers, +which were to be filled with armed men, and in every story the front towards +the enemy had windows for discharging missiles of all sorts, the whole being +filled with soldiers for every description of fighting. And what was most +wonderful was that, notwithstanding its size, when it was moved it never +tottered or inclined to one side, but went forward on its base in perfect +equilibrium, with a loud noise and great impetus, astounding the minds, and yet +at the same time charming the eyes of all the beholders. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst Demetrius was at this same siege, there were brought to him two iron +cuirasses from Cyprus, weighing each of them no more than forty pounds, and +Zoilus, who had forged them, to show the excellence of their temper, desired +that one of them might be tried with a catapult missile, shot out of one of the +engines at no greater distance than six and twenty paces; and, upon the +experiment, it was found, that though the dart exactly hit the cuirass, yet it +made no greater impression than such a slight scratch as might be made with the +point of a style or graver. Demetrius took this for his own wearing, and gave +the other to Alcimus the Epirot, the best soldier and strongest man of all his +captains, the only one who used to wear armor to the weight of two talents, one +talent being the weight which others thought sufficient. He fell during this +siege in a battle near the theater. +</p> + +<p> +The Rhodians made a brave defense, insomuch that Demetrius saw he was making +but little progress, and only persisted out of obstinacy and passion; and the +rather because the Rhodians, having captured a ship in which some clothes and +furniture, with letters from herself; were coming to him from Phila his wife, +had sent on everything to Ptolemy, and had not copied the honorable example of +the Athenians, who, having surprised an express sent from king Philip, their +enemy, opened all the letters he was charged with, excepting only those +directed to queen Olympias, which they returned with the seal unbroken. Yet, +although greatly provoked, Demetrius, into whose power it shortly after came to +repay the affront, would not suffer himself to retaliate. Protogenes the +Caunian had been making them a painting of the story of Ialysus, which was all +but completed, when it was taken by Demetrius in one of the suburbs. The +Rhodians sent a herald begging him to be pleased to spare the work and not let +it be destroyed; Demetrius’s answer to which was that he would rather burn the +pictures of his father than a piece of art which had cost so much labor. It is +said to have taken Protogenes seven years to paint, and they tell us that +Apelles, when he first saw it, was struck dumb with wonder, and called it, on +recovering his speech, “a great labor and a wonderful success,” adding, +however, that it had not the graces which carried his own paintings as it were +up to the heavens. This picture, which came with the rest in the general mass +to Rome, there perished by fire. +</p> + +<p> +While the Rhodians were thus defending their city to the uttermost, Demetrius, +who was not sorry for an excuse to retire, found one in the arrival of +ambassadors from Athens, by whose mediation terms were made that the Rhodians +should bind themselves to aid Antigonus and Demetrius against all enemies, +Ptolemy excepted. +</p> + +<p> +The Athenians entreated his help against Cassander, who was besieging the city. +So he went thither with a fleet of three hundred and thirty ships, and many +soldiers; and not only drove Cassander out of Attica, but pursued him as far as +Thermopylae, routed him, and became master of Heraclea, which came over to him +voluntarily, and of a body of six thousand Macedonians, which also joined him. +Returning hence, he gave their liberty to all the Greeks on this side +Thermopylae, and made alliance with the Boeotians, took Cenchreae, and reducing +the fortresses of Phyle and Panactum, in which were garrisons of Cassander, +restored them to the Athenians. They, in requital, though they had before been +so profuse in bestowing honors upon him, that one would have thought they had +exhausted all the capacities of invention, showed they had still new +refinements of adulation to devise for him. They gave him, as his lodging, the +back temple in the Parthenon, and here he lived, under the immediate roof, as +they meant it to imply, of his hostess, Minerva; no reputable or well-conducted +guest to be quartered upon a maiden goddess. When his brother Philip was once +put into a house where three young women were living, Antigonus saying nothing +to him, sent for his quartermaster, and told him, in the young man’s presence, +to find some less crowded lodgings for him. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, however, who should, to say the least, have paid the goddess the +respect due to an elder sister, for that was the purport of the city’s +compliment, filled the temple with such pollutions that the place seemed least +profaned when his license confined itself to common women like Chrysis, Lamia, +Demo, and Anticyra. +</p> + +<p> +The fair name of the city forbids any further plain particulars; let us only +record the severe virtue of the young Damocles, surnamed, and by that surname +pointed out to Demetrius, the beautiful; who, to escape importunities, avoided +every place of resort, and when at last followed into a private bathing room by +Demetrius, seeing none at hand to help or deliver, seized the lid from the +cauldron, and, plunging into the boiling water, sought a death untimely and +unmerited, but worthy of the country and of the beauty that occasioned it. Not +so Cleaenetus, the son of Cleomedon, who, to obtain from Demetrius a letter of +intercession to the people in behalf of his father, lately condemned in a fine +of fifty talents, disgraced himself, and got the city into trouble. In +deference to the letter, they remitted the fine, yet they made an edict +prohibiting any citizen for the future to bring letters from Demetrius. But +being informed that Demetrius resented this as a great indignity, they not only +rescinded in alarm the former order, but put some of the proposers and advisers +of it to death and banished others, and furthermore enacted and decreed, that +whatsoever king Demetrius should in time to come ordain, should be accounted +right towards the gods and just towards men; and when one of the better class +of citizens said Stratocles must be mad to use such words, Demochares of +Leuconoe observed, he would be a fool not to be mad. For Stratocles was well +rewarded for his flatteries; and the saying was remembered against Demochares, +who was soon after sent into banishment. So fared the Athenians, after being +relieved of the foreign garrison, and recovering what was called their liberty. +</p> + +<p> +After this Demetrius marched with his forces into Peloponnesus, where he met +with none to oppose him, his enemies flying before him, and allowing the cities +to join him. He received into friendship all Acte, as it is called, and all +Arcadia except Mantinea. He bought the liberty of Argos, Corinth, and Sicyon, +by paying a hundred talents to their garrisons to evacuate them. At Argos, +during the feast of Juno, which happened at the time, he presided at the games, +and, joining in the festivities with the multitude of the Greeks assembled +there, he celebrated his marriage with Deidamia, daughter of Aeacides, king of +the Molossians, and sister of Pyrrhus. At Sicyon he told the people they had +put the city just outside of the city, and, persuading them to remove to where +they now live, gave their town not only a new site but a new name, Demetrias, +after himself. A general assembly met on the Isthmus, where he was proclaimed, +by a great concourse of people, the Commander of Greece, like Philip and +Alexander of old; whose superior he, in the present height of his prosperity +and power, was willing enough to consider himself; and, certainly, in one +respect he outdid Alexander, who never refused their title to other kings, or +took on himself the style of king of kings, though many kings received both +their title and their authority as such from him; whereas Demetrius used to +ridicule those who gave the name of king to any except himself and his father; +and in his entertainments was well pleased when his followers, after drinking +to him and his father as kings, went on to drink the health of Seleucus, with +the title of Master of the Elephants; of Ptolemy, by the name of High Admiral; +of Lysimachus, with the addition of Treasurer; and of Agathocles, with the +style of Governor of the Island of Sicily. The other kings merely laughed when +they were told of this vanity; Lysimachus alone expressed some indignation at +being considered a eunuch; such being usually then selected for the office of +treasurer. And, in general, there was a more bitter enmity between him and +Lysimachus than with any of the others. Once, as a scoff at his passion for +Lamia, Lysimachus said he had never before seen a courtesan act a queen’s part; +to which Demetrius rejoined that his mistress was quite as honest us +Lysimachus’s own Penelope. +</p> + +<p> +But to proceed. Demetrius being about to return to Athens, signified by letter +to the city that he desired immediate admission to the rites of initiation into +the Mysteries, and wished to go through all the stages of the ceremony, from +first to last, without delay. This was absolutely contrary to the rules, and a +thing which had never been allowed before; for the lesser mysteries were +celebrated in the month of Anthesterion, and the great solemnity in Boedromion, +and none of the novices were finally admitted till they had completed a year +after this latter. Yet all this notwithstanding, when in the public assembly +these letters of Demetrius were produced and read, there was not one single +person who had the courage to oppose them, except Pythodorus, the torch-bearer. +But it signified nothing, for Stratocles at once proposed that the month of +Munychion, then current, should by edict be reputed to be the month of +Anthesterion; which being voted and done, and Demetrius thereby admitted to the +lesser ceremonies, by another vote they turned the same month of Munychion into +the other month of Boedromion; the celebration of the greater mysteries ensued, +and Demetrius was fully admitted. These proceedings gave the comedian, +Philippides, a new occasion to exercise his wit upon Stratocles, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +whose flattering fear<br/> +Into one month hath crowded all the year. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And on the vote that Demetrius should lodge in the Parthenon, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Who turns the temple to a common inn,<br/> +And makes the Virgin’s house a house of sin. +</p> + +<p> +Of all the disreputable and flagitious acts of which he was guilty in this +visit, one that particularly hurt the feelings of the Athenians was that, +having given comment that they should forthwith raise for his service two +hundred and fifty talents, and they to comply with his demands being forced to +levy it upon the people with the utmost rigor and severity, when they presented +him with the money, which they had with such difficulty raised, as if it were a +trifling sum, he ordered it to be given to Lamia and the rest of his women, to +buy soap. The loss, which was bad enough, was less galling than the shame, and +the words more intolerable than the act which they accompanied. Though, indeed, +the story is variously reported; and some say it was the Thessalians, and not +the Athenians, who were thus treated. Lamia, however, exacted contributions +herself to pay for an entertainment she gave to the king, and her banquet was +so renowned for its sumptuosity, that a description of it was drawn up by the +Samian writer, Lynceus. Upon this occasion, one of the comic writers gave Lamia +the name of the real Helepolis; and Demochares of Soli called Demetrius Mythus, +because the fable always has its Lamia, and so had he. +</p> + +<p> +And, in truth, his passion for this woman and the prosperity in which she lived +were such as to draw upon him not only the envy and jealousy of all his wives, +but the animosity even of his friends. For example, on Lysimachus’s showing to +some ambassadors from Demetrius the scars of the wounds which he had received +upon his thighs and arms by the paws of the lion with which Alexander had shut +him up, after hearing his account of the combat, they smiled and answered, that +their king, also, was not without his scars, but could show upon his neck the +marks of a Lamia, a no less dangerous beast. It was also matter of wonder that, +though he had objected so much to Phila on account of her age, he was yet such +a slave to Lamia, who was so long past her prime. One evening at supper, when +she played the flute, Demetrius asked Demo, whom the men called Madness, what +she thought of her. Demo answered she thought her an old woman. And when a +quantity of sweetmeats were brought in, and the king said again, “See what +presents I get from Lamia!” “My old mother,” answered Demo, “will send you +more, if you will make her your mistress.” Another story is told of a criticism +passed by Lamia or the famous judgment of Bocchoris. A young Egyptian had long +made suit to Thonis, the courtesan, offering a sum of gold for her favor. But +before it came to pass, he dreamed one night that he had obtained it, and, +satisfied with the shadow, felt no more desire for the substance. Thonis upon +this brought an action for the sum. Bocchoris, the judge, on hearing the case, +ordered the defendant to bring into court the full amount in a vessel, which he +was to move to and fro in his hand, and the shadow of it was to be adjudged to +Thonis. The fairness of this sentence Lamia contested, saying the young man’s +desire might have been satisfied with the dream, but Thonis’s desire for the +money could not be relieved by the shadow. Thus much for Lamia. +</p> + +<p> +And now the story passes from the comic to the tragic stage in pursuit of the +acts and fortunes of its subject. A general league of the kings, who were now +gathering and combining their forces to attack Antigonus, recalled Demetrius +from Greece. He was encouraged by finding his father full of a spirit and +resolution for the combat that belied his years. Yet it would seem to be true, +that if Antigonus could only have borne to make some trifling concessions, and +if he had shown any moderation in his passion for empire, he might have +maintained for himself till his death, and left to his son behind him, the +first place among the kings. But he was of a violent and haughty spirit; and +the insulting words as well as actions in which he allowed himself could not be +borne by young and powerful princes, and provoked them into combining against +him. Though now when he was told of the confederacy, he could not forbear from +saying that this flock of birds would soon be scattered by one stone and a +single shout. He took the field at the head of more than seventy thousand foot, +and of ten thousand horse, and seventy-five elephants. His enemies had +sixty-four thousand foot, five hundred more horse than he, elephants to the +number of four hundred, and a hundred and twenty chariots. On their near +approach to each other, an alteration began to be observable, not in the +purposes, but in the presentiments of Antigonus. For whereas in all former +campaigns he had ever shown himself lofty and confident, loud in voice and +scornful in speech, often by some joke or mockery on the eve of battle +expressing his contempt and displaying his composure, he was now remarked to be +thoughtful, silent, and retired. He presented Demetrius to the army, and +declared him his successor; and what everyone thought stranger than all was +that he now conferred alone in his tent with Demetrius, whereas in former time +he had never entered into any secret consultations even with him; but had +always followed his own advice, made his resolutions, and then given out his +commands. Once when Demetrius was a boy and asked him how soon the army would +move, he is said to have answered him sharply, “Are you afraid lest you, of all +the army, should not hear the trumpet?” +</p> + +<p> +There were now, however, inauspicious signs, which affected his spirits. +Demetrius, in a dream, had seen Alexander, completely armed, appear and demand +of him what word they intended to give in the time of the battle; and Demetrius +answering that he intended the word should be “Jupiter and Victory.” “Then,” +said Alexander, “I will go to your adversaries and find my welcome with them.” +And on the morning of the combat, as the armies were drawing up, Antigonus, +going out of the door of his tent, by some accident or other, stumbled and fell +flat upon the ground, hurting himself a good deal. And on recovering his feet, +lifting up his hands to heaven, he prayed the gods to grant him “either +victory, or death without knowledge of defeat.” When the armies engaged, +Demetrius, who commanded the greatest and best part of the cavalry, made a +charge on Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, and, gloriously routing the enemy, +followed the pursuit, in the pride and exultation of success, so eagerly, and +so unwisely far, that it fatally lost him the day, for when, perceiving his +error, he would have come in to the assistance of his own infantry, he was not +able, the enemy with their elephants having cut off his retreat. And on the +other hand, Seleucus, observing the main battle of Antigonus left naked of +their horse, did not charge, but made a show of charging; and keeping them in +alarm and wheeling about and still threatening an attack, he gave opportunity +for those who wished it to separate and come over to him; which a large body of +them did, the rest taking to flight. But the old king Antigonus still kept his +post, and when a strong body of the enemies drew up to charge him, and one of +those about him cried out to him, “Sir, they are coming upon you,” he only +replied, “What else should they do? but Demetrius will come to my rescue.” And +in this hope he persisted to the last, looking out on every side for his son’s +approach, until he was borne down by a whole multitude of darts, and fell. His +other followers and friends fled, and Thorax of Larissa remained alone by the +body. +</p> + +<p> +The battle having been thus decided, the kings who had gained the victory, +carving up the whole vast empire that had belonged to Demetrius and Antigonus, +like a carcass, into so many portions, added these new gains to their former +possessions. As for Demetrius, with five thousand foot and four thousand horse, +he fled at his utmost speed to Ephesus, where it was the common opinion he +would seize the treasures of the temple to relieve his wants; but he, on the +contrary, fearing such an attempt on the part of his soldiers, hastened away, +and sailed for Greece, his chief remaining hopes being placed in the fidelity +of the Athenians, with whom he had left part of his navy and of his treasure +and his wife Deidamia. And in their attachment he had not the least doubt but +he should in this his extremity find a safe resource. Accordingly when, upon +reaching the Cyclades, he was met by ambassadors from Athens, requesting him +not to proceed to the city, as the people had passed a vote to admit no king +whatever within their walls, and had conveyed Deidamia with honorable +attendance to Megara, his anger and surprise overpowered him, and the constancy +quite failed him which he had hitherto shown in a wonderful degree under his +reverses, nothing humiliating or mean-spirited having as yet been seen in him +under all his misfortunes. But to be thus disappointed in the Athenians, and to +find the friendship he had trusted prove, upon trial, thus empty and unreal, +was a great pang to him. And, in truth, an excessive display of outward honor +would seem to be the most uncertain attestation of the real affection of a +people for any king or potentate. Such shows lose their whole credit as tokens +of affection (which has its virtue in the feelings and moral choice), when we +reflect that they may equally proceed from fear. The same decrees are voted +upon the latter motive as upon the former. And therefore judicious men do not +look so much to statues, paintings, or divine honors that are paid them, as to +their own actions and conduct, judging hence whether they shall trust these as +a genuine, or discredit them as a forced homage. As in fact nothing is less +unusual than for a people, even while offering compliments, to be disgusted +with those who accept them greedily, or arrogantly, or without respect to the +freewill of the givers. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, shamefully used as he thought himself, was in no condition to +revenge the affront. He returned a message of gentle expostulation, saying, +however, that he expected to have his galleys sent to him, among which was that +of thirteen banks of oars. And this being accorded him, he sailed to the +Isthmus, and, finding his affairs in very ill condition, his garrisons +expelled, and a general secession going on to the enemy, he left Pyrrhus to +attend to Greece, and took his course to the Chersonesus, where he ravaged the +territories of Lysimachus, and, by the booty which he took, maintained and kept +together his troops, which were now once more beginning to recover and to show +some considerable front. Nor did any of the other princes care to meddle with +him on that side; for Lysimachus had quite as little claim to be loved, and was +more to be feared for his power. But, not long after, Seleucus sent to treat +with Demetrius for a marriage betwixt himself and Stratonice, daughter of +Demetrius by Phila. Seleucus, indeed, had already, by Apama the Persian, a son +named Antiochus, but he was possessed of territories that might well satisfy +more than one successor, and he was the rather induced to this alliance with +Demetrius, because Lysimachus had just married himself to one daughter of king +Ptolemy, and his son Agathocles to another. Demetrius, who looked upon the +offer as an unexpected piece of good fortune, presently embarked with his +daughter, and with his whole fleet sailed for Syria. Having during his voyage +to touch several times on the coast, among other places he landed in part of +Cilicia, which, by the apportionment of the kings after the defeat of +Antigonus, was allotted to Plistarchus, the brother of Cassander. Plistarchus, +who took this descent of Demetrius upon his coasts as an infraction of his +rights, and was not sorry to have something to complain of hastened away to +expostulate in person with Seleucus for entering separately into relations with +Demetrius, the common enemy, without consulting the other kings. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, receiving information of this, seized the opportunity, and fell upon +the city of Quinda, which he surprised, and took in it twelve hundred talents, +still remaining of the treasure. With this prize, he hastened back to his +galleys, embarked, and set sail. At Rhosus, where his wife Phila was now with +him, he was met by Seleucus, and their communications with each other at once +were put on a frank, unsuspecting, and kingly footing. First, Seleucus gave a +banquet to Demetrius in his tent in the camp; then Demetrius received him in +the ship of thirteen banks of oars. Meetings for amusements, conferences, and +long visits for general intercourse succeeded, all without attendants or arms; +until at length Seleucus took his leave, and in great state conducted +Stratonice to Antioch. Demetrius meantime possessed himself of Cilicia, and +sent Phila to her brother Cassander, to answer the complaints of Plistarchus. +And here his wife Deidamia came by sea out of Greece to meet him, but not long +after contracted an illness, of which she died. After her death, Demetrius, by +the mediation of Seleucus, became reconciled to Ptolemy, and an agreement was +made that he should marry his daughter Ptolemais. Thus far all was handsomely +done on the part of Seleucus. But, shortly after, desiring to have the province +of Cilicia from Demetrius for a sum of money, and being refused it, he then +angrily demanded of him the cities of Tyre and Sidon, which seemed a mere piece +of arbitrary dealing, and, indeed, an outrageous thing, that he, who was +possessed of all the vast provinces between India and the Syrian sea, should +think himself so poorly off as for the sake of two cities, which he coveted, to +disturb the peace of his near connection, already a sufferer under a severe +reverse of fortune. However, he did but justify the saying of Plato, that the +only certain way to be truly rich is not to have more property, but fewer +desires. For whoever is always grasping at more avows that he is still in want, +and must be poor in the midst of affluence. +</p> + +<p> +But Demetrius, whose courage did not sink, resolutely sent him answer, that, +though he were to lose ten thousand battles like that of Ipsus, he would pay no +price for the good-will of such a son-in-law as Seleucus. He reinforced these +cities with sufficient garrisons to enable them to make a defense against +Seleucus; and, receiving information that Lachares, taking the opportunity of +their civil dissensions, had set up himself as an usurper over the Athenians, +he imagined that if he made a sudden attempt upon the city, he might now +without difficulty get possession of it. He crossed the sea in safety, with a +large fleet; but, passing along the coast of Attica, was met by a violent +storm, and lost the greater number of his ships, and a very considerable body +of men on board of them. As for him, he escaped, and began to make war in a +petty manner with the Athenians, but finding himself unable to effect his +design, he sent back orders for raising another fleet, and, with the troops +which he had, marched into Peloponnesus, and laid siege to the city of Messena. +In attacking which place, he was in danger of death; for a missile from an +engine struck him in the face, and passed through the cheek into his mouth. He +recovered, however, and, as soon as he was in a condition to take the field, +won over divers cities which had revolted from him, and made an incursion into +Attica, where he took Eleusis and Rhamnus and wasted the country thereabout. +And that he might straighten the Athenians by cutting off all manner of +provision, a vessel laden with corn bound thither falling into his hands, he +ordered the master and the supercargo to be immediately hanged, thereby to +strike a terror into others, that so they might not venture to supply the city +with provisions. By which means they were reduced to such extremities, that a +bushel of salt sold for forty drachmas, and a peck of wheat for three hundred. +Ptolemy had sent to their relief a hundred and fifty galleys, which came so +near as to be seen off Aegina; but this brief hope was soon extinguished by the +arrival of three hundred ships, which came to reinforce Demetrius from Cyprus, +Peloponnesus, and other places; upon which Ptolemy’s fleet took to flight, and +Lachares, the tyrant, ran away, leaving the city to its fate. +</p> + +<p> +And now the Athenians, who before had made it capital for any person to propose +a treaty or accommodation with Demetrius, immediately opened the nearest gates +to send ambassadors to him, not so much out of hopes of obtaining any honorable +conditions from his clemency as out of necessity, to avoid death by famine. For +among many frightful instances of the distress they were reduced to, it is said +that a father and son were sitting in a room together, having abandoned every +hope, when a dead mouse fell from the ceiling; and for this prize they leaped +up and came to blows. In this famine, it is also related, the philosopher +Epicurus saved his own life, and the lives of his scholars, by a small quantity +of beans, which he distributed to them daily by number. +</p> + +<p> +In this condition was the city when Demetrius made his entrance and issued a +proclamation that all the inhabitants should assemble in the theater; which +being done, he drew up his soldiers at the back of the stage, occupied the +stage itself with his guards, and, presently coming in himself by the actor’s +passages, when the people’s consternation had risen to its height, with his +first words he put an end to it. Without any harshness of tone or bitterness of +words, he reprehended them in a gentle and friendly way, and declared himself +reconciled, adding a present of a hundred thousand bushels of wheat, and +appointing as magistrates persons acceptable to the people. So Dromoclides the +orator, seeing the people at a loss how to express their gratitude by any words +or acclamations, and ready for anything that would outdo the verbal encomiums +of the public speakers, came forward, and moved a decree for delivering Piraeus +and Munychia into the hands of king Demetrius. This was passed accordingly, and +Demetrius, of his own motion, added a third garrison, which he placed in the +Museum, as a precaution against any new restiveness on the part of the people, +which might give him the trouble of quitting his other enterprises. +</p> + +<p> +He had not long been master of Athens before he had formed designs against +Lacedaemon; of which Archidamus, the king, being advertised, came out and met +him, but he was overthrown in a battle near Mantinea; after which Demetrius +entered Laconia, and, in a second battle near Sparta itself, defeated him again +with the loss of two hundred Lacedaemonians slain, and five hundred taken +prisoners. And now it was almost impossible for the city, which hitherto had +never been captured, to escape his arms. But certainly there never was any king +upon whom fortune made such short turns, nor any other life or story so filled +with her swift and surprising changes, over and over again, from small things +to great, from splendor back to humiliation, and from utter weakness once more +to power and might. They say in his sadder vicissitudes he used sometimes to +apostrophize fortune in the words of Aeschylus — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Thou liftest up, to cast us down again. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And so at this moment, when all things seemed to conspire together to give him +his heart’s desire of dominion and power, news arrived that Lysimachus had +taken all his cities in Asia, that Ptolemy had reduced all Cyprus with the +exception of Salamis, and that in Salamis his mother and children were shut up +and close besieged: and yet like the woman in Archilochus, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Water in one deceitful hand she shows,<br/> +While burning fire within her other glows. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +The same fortune that drew him off with these disastrous tidings from Sparta, +in a moment after opened upon him a new and wonderful prospect, of the +following kind. Cassander, king of Macedon, dying, and his eldest son, Philip, +who succeeded him, not long surviving his father, the two younger brothers fell +at variance concerning the succession. And Antipater having murdered his mother +Thessalonica, Alexander, the younger brother, called in to his assistance +Pyrrhus out of Epirus, and Demetrius out of the Peloponnese. Pyrrhus arrived +first, and, taking in recompense for his succor a large slice of Macedonia, had +made Alexander begin to be aware that he had brought upon himself a dangerous +neighbor. And, that he might not run a yet worse hazard from Demetrius, whose +power and reputation were so great, the young man hurried away to meet him at +Dium, whither he, who on receiving his letter had set out on his march, was now +come. And, offering his greetings and grateful acknowledgments, he at the same +time informed him that his affairs no longer required the presence of his ally, +and thereupon he invited him to supper. There were not wanting some feelings of +suspicion on either side already; and when Demetrius was now on his way to the +banquet, someone came and told him that in the midst of the drinking he would +be killed. Demetrius showed little concern, but, making only a little less +haste, he sent to the principal officers of his army, commanding them to draw +out the soldiers, and make them stand to their arms, and ordered his retinue +(more numerous a good deal than that of Alexander) to attend him into the very +room of the entertainment, and not to stir from thence till they saw him rise +from the table. Thus Alexander’s servants, finding themselves overpowered, had +not courage to attempt anything. And, indeed, Demetrius gave them no +opportunity, for he made a very short visit, and, pretending to Alexander that +he was not at present in health for drinking wine, left early. And the next day +he occupied himself in preparations for departing, telling Alexander he had +received intelligence that obliged him to leave, and begging him to excuse so +sudden a parting; he would hope to see him further when his affairs allowed him +leisure. Alexander was only too glad, not only that he was going, but that he +was doing so of his own motion, without any offense, and proposed to accompany +him into Thessaly. But when they came to Larissa, new invitations passed +between them, new professions of good-will, covering new conspiracies; by which +Alexander put himself into the power of Demetrius. For as he did not like to +use precautions on his own part, for fear Demetrius should take the hint to use +them on his, the very thing he meant to do was first done to him. He accepted +an invitation, and came to Demetrius’s quarters; and when Demetrius, while they +were still supping, rose from the table and went forth, the young man rose +also, and followed him to the door, where Demetrius, as he passed through, only +said to the guards, “Kill him that follows me,” and went on; and Alexander was +at once dispatched by them, together with such of his friends as endeavored to +come to his rescue, one of whom, before he died, said, “You have been one day +too quick for us.” +</p> + +<p> +The night following was one, as may be supposed, of disorder and confusion. And +with the morning, the Macedonians, still in alarm, and fearful of the forces of +Demetrius, on finding no violence offered, but only a message sent from +Demetrius desiring an interview and opportunity for explanation of his actions, +at last began to feel pretty confident again, and prepared to receive him +favorably. And when he came, there was no need of much being said; their hatred +of Antipater for his murder of his mother, and the absence of anyone better to +govern them, soon decided them to proclaim Demetrius king of Macedon. And into +Macedonia they at once started and took him. And the Macedonians at home, who +had not forgotten or forgiven the wicked deeds committed by Cassander on the +family of Alexander, were far from sorry at the change. Any kind recollections +that still might subsist, of the plain and simple rule of the first Antipater, +went also to the benefit of Demetrius, whose wife was Phila, his daughter, and +his son by her, a boy already old enough to be serving in the army with his +father, was the natural successor to the government. +</p> + +<p> +To add to this unexpected good fortune, news arrived that Ptolemy had dismissed +his mother and children, bestowing upon them presents and honors; and also that +his daughter Stratonice, whom he had married to Seleucus, was remarried to +Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, and proclaimed queen of Upper Asia. +</p> + +<p> +For Antiochus, it appears, had fallen passionately in love with Stratonice, the +young queen, who had already made Seleucus the father of a son. He struggled +very hard with the beginnings of this passion, and at last, resolving with +himself that his desires were wholly unlawful, his malady past all cure, and +his powers of reason too feeble to act, he determined on death, and thought to +bring his life slowly to extinction by neglecting his person and refusing +nourishment, under the pretense of being ill. Erasistratus, the physician who +attended him, quickly perceived that love was his distemper, but the difficulty +was to discover the object. He therefore waited continually in his chamber, and +when any of the beauties of the court made their visits to the sick prince, he +observed the emotions and alterations in the countenance of Antiochus, and +watched for the changes which he knew to be indicative of the inward passions +and inclinations of the soul. He took notice that the presence of other women +produced no effect upon him; but when Stratonice came, as she often did, alone, +or in company with Seleucus, to see him, he observed in him all Sappho’s famous +symptoms, his voice faltered, his face flushed up, his eyes glanced stealthily, +a sudden sweat broke out on his skin, the beatings of his heart were irregular +and violent, and, unable to support the excess of his passion, he would sink +into a state of faintness, prostration, and pallor. +</p> + +<p> +Erasistratus, reasoning upon these symptoms, and, upon the probability of +things, considering that the king’s son would hardly, if the object of his +passion had been any other, have persisted to death rather than reveal it, +felt, however, the difficulty of making a discovery of this nature to Seleucus. +But, trusting to the tenderness of Seleucus for the young man, he put on all +the assurance he could, and at last, on some opportunity, spoke out, and told +him the malady was love, a love impossible to gratify or relieve. The king was +extremely surprised, and asked, “Why impossible to relieve?” “The fact is,” +replied Erasistratus, “he is in love with my wife.” “How!” said Seleucus, “and +will our friend Erasistratus refuse to bestow his wife upon my son and only +successor, when there is no other way to save his life?” “You,” replied +Erasistratus, “who are his father, would not do so, if he were in love with +Stratonice.” “Ah, my friend,” answered Seleucus, “would to heaven any means, +human or divine, could but convert his present passion to that; it would be +well for me to part not only with Stratonice, but with my empire, to save +Antiochus.” This he said with the greatest passion, shedding tears as he spoke; +upon which Erasistratus, taking him by the hand, replied, “In that case, you +have no need of Erasistratus; for you, who are the husband, the father, and the +king, are the proper physician for your own family.” Seleucus, accordingly, +summoning a general assembly of his people, declared to them, that he had +resolved to make Antiochus king, and Stratonice queen, of all the provinces of +Upper Asia, uniting them in marriage; telling them, that he thought he had +sufficient power over the prince’s will, that he should find in him no +repugnance to obey his commands; and for Stratonice, he hoped all his friends +would endeavor to make her sensible, if she should manifest any reluctance to +such a marriage, that she ought to esteem those things just and honorable which +had been determined upon by the king as necessary to the general good. In this +manner, we are told, was brought about the marriage of Antiochus and +Stratonice. +</p> + +<p> +To return to the affairs of Demetrius. Having obtained the crown of Macedon, he +presently became master of Thessaly also. And, holding the greatest part of +Peloponnesus, and, on this side the Isthmus, the cities of Megara and Athens, +he now turned his arms against the Boeotians. They at first made overtures for +an accommodation; but Cleonymus of Sparta having ventured with some troops to +their assistance, and having made his way into Thebes, and Pisis, the Thespian, +who was their first man in power and reputation, animating them to make a brave +resistance, they broke off the treaty. No sooner, however, had Demetrius begun +to approach the walls with his engines, but Cleonymus in affright secretly +withdrew; and the Boeotians, finding themselves abandoned, made their +submission. Demetrius placed a garrison in charge of their towns, and, having +raised a large sum of money from them, he placed Hieronymus, the historian, in +the office of governor and military commander over them, and was thought on the +whole to have shown great clemency, more particularly to Pisis, to whom he did +no hurt, but spoke with him courteously and kindly, and made him chief +magistrate of Thespiae. Not long after, Lysimachus was taken prisoner by +Dromichaetes, and Demetrius went off instantly in the hopes of possessing +himself of Thrace, thus left without a king. Upon this, the Boeotians revolted +again, and news also came that Lysimachus had regained his liberty. So +Demetrius, turning back quickly and in anger, found on coming up that his son +Antigonus had already defeated the Boeotians in battle, and therefore proceeded +to lay siege again to Thebes. +</p> + +<p> +But, understanding that Pyrrhus had made an incursion into Thessaly, and that +he was advanced as far as Thermopylae, leaving Antigonus to continue the siege, +he marched with the rest of his army to oppose this enemy. Pyrrhus, however, +made a quick retreat. So, leaving ten thousand foot and a thousand horse for +the protection of Thessaly, he returned to the siege of Thebes, and there +brought up his famous City-taker to the attack, which, however, was so +laboriously and so slowly moved on account of its bulk and heaviness, that in +two months it did not advance two furlongs. In the meantime the citizens made a +stout defense, and Demetrius, out of heat and contentiousness very often, more +than upon any necessity, sent his soldiers into danger; until at last +Antigonus, observing how many men were losing their lives, said to him, “Why, +my father, do we go on letting the men be wasted in this way, without any need +of it?” But Demetrius, in a great passion, interrupted him: “And you, good sir, +why do you afflict yourself for the matter? will dead men come to you for +rations?” But that the soldiers might see he valued his own life at no dearer +rate than theirs, he exposed himself freely, and was wounded with a javelin +through his neck, which put him into great hazard of his life. But, +notwithstanding, he continued the siege, and in conclusion took the town again. +And after his entrance, when the citizens were in fear and trembling, and +expected all the severities which an incensed conqueror could indict, he only +put to death thirteen, and banished some few others, pardoning all the rest. +Thus the city of Thebes, which had not yet been ten years restored, in that +short space was twice besieged and taken. +</p> + +<p> +Shortly after, the festival of the Pythian Apollo was to be celebrated, and the +Aetolians having blocked up all the passages to Delphi, Demetrius held the +games and celebrated the feast at Athens, alleging it was great reason those +honors should be paid in that place, Apollo being the paternal god of the +Athenian people, and the reputed first founder of their race. +</p> + +<p> +From thence Demetrius returned to Macedon, and as he not only was of a restless +temper himself, but saw also that the Macedonians were ever the best subjects +when employed in military expeditions, but turbulent and desirous of change in +the idleness of peace, he led them against the Aetolians, and, having wasted +their country, he left Pantauchus with a great part of his army to complete the +conquest, and with the rest he marched in person to find out Pyrrhus, who in +like manner was advancing to encounter him. But so it fell out, that by taking +different ways the two armies did not meet; but whilst Demetrius entered +Epirus, and laid all waste before him, Pyrrhus fell upon Pantauchus, and, in a +battle in which the two commanders met in person and wounded each other, he +gained the victory, and took five thousand prisoners, besides great numbers +slain on the field. The worst thing, however, for Demetrius was that Pyrrhus +had excited less animosity as an enemy than admiration as a brave man. His +taking so large a part with his own hand in the battle had gained him the +greatest name and glory among the Macedonians. Many among them began to say +that this was the only king in whom there was any likeness to be seen of the +great Alexander’s courage; the other kings, and particularly Demetrius, did +nothing but personate him, like actors on a stage, in his pomp and outward +majesty. And Demetrius truly was a perfect play and pageant, with his robes and +diadems, his gold-edged purple and his hats with double streamers, his very +shoes being of the richest purple felt, embroidered over in gold. One robe in +particular, a most superb piece of work, was long in the loom in preparation +for him, in which was to be wrought the representation of the universe and the +celestial bodies. This, left unfinished when his reverses overtook him, not any +one of the kings of Macedon, his successors, though divers of them haughty +enough, ever presumed to use. +</p> + +<p> +But it was not this theatric pomp alone which disgusted the Macedonians, but +his profuse and luxurious way of living; and, above all, the difficulty of +speaking with him or of obtaining access to his presence. For either he would +not be seen at all, or, if he did give audience, he was violent and +overbearing. Thus he made the envoys of the Athenians, to whom yet he was more +attentive than to all the other Grecians, wait two whole years before they +could obtain a hearing. And when the Lacedaemonians sent a single person on an +embassy to him, he held himself insulted, and asked angrily whether it was the +fact that the Lacedaemonians had sent but one ambassador. “Yes,” was the happy +reply he received, “one ambassador to one king.” +</p> + +<p> +Once when in some apparent fit of a more popular and acceptable temper he was +riding abroad, a number of people came up and presented their written +petitions. He courteously received all these, and put them up in the skirt of +his cloak, while the poor people were overjoyed, and followed him close. But +when he came upon the bridge of the river Axius, shaking out his cloak, he +threw all into the river. This excited very bitter resentment among the +Macedonians, who felt themselves to be not governed, but insulted. They called +to mind what some of them had seen, and others had heard related of King +Philip’s unambitious and open, accessible manners. One day when an old woman +had assailed him several times in the road and importuned him to hear her, +after he had told her he had no time, “If so,” cried she, “you have no time to +be a king.” And this reprimand so stung the king that after thinking of it a +while he went back into the house, and, setting all other matters apart, for +several days together he did nothing else but receive, beginning with the old +woman, the complaints of all that would come. And to do justice, truly enough, +might well be called a king’s first business. “Mars,” as says Timotheus, “is +the tyrant;” but Law, in Pindar’s words, the king of all. Homer does not say +that kings received at the hands of Jove besieging engines or ships of war, but +sentences of justice, to keep and observe; nor is it the most warlike, unjust, +and murderous, but the most righteous of kings, that has from him the name of +Jupiter’s “familiar friend” and scholar. Demetrius’s delight was the title most +unlike the choices of the king of gods. The divine names were those of the +Defender and Keeper, his was that of the Besieger of Cities. The place of +virtue was given by him to that which, had he not been as ignorant as he was +powerful, he would have known to be vice, and honor by his act was associated +with crime. While he lay dangerously ill at Pella, Pyrrhus pretty nearly +overran all Macedon, and advanced as far as the city of Edessa. On recovering +his health, he quickly drove him out, and came to terms with him, being +desirous not to employ his time in a string of petty local conflicts with a +neighbor, when all his thoughts were fixed upon another design. This was no +less than to endeavor the recovery of the whole empire which his father had +possessed; and his preparations were suitable to his hopes, and the greatness +of the enterprise. He had arranged for the levying of ninety-eight thousand +foot, and nearly twelve thousand horse; and he had a fleet of five hundred +galleys on the stocks, some building at Athens, others at Corinth and Chalcis, +and in the neighborhood of Pella. And he himself was passing evermore from one +to another of these places, to give his directions and his assistance to the +plans, while all that saw were amazed, not so much at the number, as at the +magnitude of the works. Hitherto, there had never been seen a galley with +fifteen or sixteen ranges of oars. At a later time, Ptolemy Philopator built +one of forty rows, which was two hundred and eighty cubits in length, and the +height of her to the top of her stern forty eight cubits; she had four hundred +sailors and four thousand rowers, and afforded room besides for very near three +thousand soldiers to fight on her decks. But this, after all, was for show, and +not for service, scarcely differing from a fixed edifice ashore, and was not to +be moved without extreme toil and peril; whereas these galleys of Demetrius +were meant quite as much for fighting as for looking at, were not the less +serviceable for their magnificence, and were as wonderful for their speed and +general performance as for their size. +</p> + +<p> +These mighty preparations against Asia, the like of which had not been made +since Alexander first invaded it, united Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus in a +confederacy for their defense. They also dispatched ambassadors to Pyrrhus, to +persuade him to make a diversion by attacking Macedonia; he need not think +there was any validity in a treaty which Demetrius had concluded, not as an +engagement to be at peace with him, but as a means for enabling himself to make +war first upon the enemy of his choice. So when Pyrrhus accepted their +proposals, Demetrius, still in the midst of his preparations, was encompassed +with war on all sides. Ptolemy, with a mighty navy, invaded Greece; Lysimachus +entered Macedonia upon the side of Thrace, and Pyrrhus, from the Epirot border, +both of them spoiling and wasting the country. Demetrius, leaving his son to +look after Greece, marched to the relief of Macedon, and first of all to oppose +Lysimachus. On his way, he received the news that Pyrrhus had taken the city +Beroea; and the report quickly getting out among the soldiers, all discipline +at once was lost, and the camp was filled with lamentations and tears, anger +and execrations on Demetrius; they would stay no longer, they would march off, +as they said, to take care of their country, friends, and families; but in +reality the intention was to revolt to Lysimachus. Demetrius, therefore, +thought it his business to keep them as far away as he could from Lysimachus, +who was their own countryman, and for Alexander’s sake kindly looked upon by +many; they would be ready to fight with Pyrrhus, a new-comer and a foreigner, +whom they could hardly prefer to himself. But he found himself under a great +mistake in these conjectures. For when he advanced and pitched his camp near, +the old admiration for Pyrrhus’s gallantry in arms revived again; and as they +had been used from time immemorial to suppose that the best king was he that +was the bravest soldier, so now they were also told of his generous usage of +his prisoners, and, in short, they were eager to have anyone in the place of +Demetrius, and well pleased that the man should be Pyrrhus. At first, some +straggling parties only deserted, but in a little time the whole army broke out +into an universal mutiny, insomuch that at last some of them went up, and told +him openly that if he consulted his own safety he were best to make haste to be +gone, for that the Macedonians were resolved no longer to hazard their lives +for the satisfaction of his luxury and pleasure. And this was thought fair and +moderate language, compared with the fierceness of the rest. So, withdrawing +into his tent, and, like an actor rather than a real king, laying aside his +stage-robes of royalty, he put on some common clothes and stole away. He was no +sooner gone but the mutinous army were fighting and quarreling for the plunder +of his tent, but Pyrrhus, coming immediately, took possession of the camp +without a blow, after which he, with Lysimachus, parted the realm of Macedon +betwixt them, after Demetrius had securely held it just seven years. +</p> + +<p> +As for Demetrius, being thus suddenly despoiled of everything, he retired to +Cassandrea. His wife Phila, in the passion of her grief, could not endure to +see her hapless husband reduced to the condition of a private and banished man. +She refused to entertain any further hope, and, resolving to quit a fortune +which was never permanent except for calamity, took poison and died. Demetrius, +determining still to hold on by the wreck, went off to Greece, and collected +his friends and officers there. Menelaus, in the play of Sophocles, to give an +image of his vicissitudes of estate, says, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For me, my destiny, alas, is found<br/> +Whirling upon the gods’ swift wheel around,<br/> +And changing still, and as the moon’s fair frame<br/> +Cannot continue for two nights the same,<br/> +But out of shadow first a crescent shows,<br/> +Thence into beauty and perfection grows,<br/> +And when the form of plenitude it wears,<br/> +Dwindles again, and wholly disappears. +</p> + +<p> +The simile is yet truer of Demetrius and the phases of his fortunes, now on the +increase, presently on the wane, now filling up and now falling away. And so, +at this time of apparent entire obscuration and extinction, his light again +shone out, and accessions of strength, little by little, came in to fulfill +once more the measure of his hope. At first he showed himself in the garb of a +private man, and went about the cities without any of the badges of a king. One +who saw him thus at Thebes applied to him not inaptly, the lines of Euripides, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Humbled to man, laid by the godhead’s pride,<br/> +He comes to Dirce and Ismenus’ side. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But erelong his expectations had reentered the royal track, and he began once +more to have about him the body and form of empire. The Thebans received back, +as his gift, their ancient constitution. The Athenians had deserted him. They +displaced Diphilus, who was that year the priest of the two Tutelar Deities, +and restored the archons, as of old, to mark the year; and on hearing that +Demetrius was not so weak as they had expected, they sent into Macedonia to beg +the protection of Pyrrhus. Demetrius, in anger, marched to Athens, and laid +close siege to the city. In this distress, they sent out to him Crates the +philosopher, a person of authority and reputation, who succeeded so far, that +what with his entreaties and the solid reasons which he offered, Demetrius was +persuaded to raise the siege; and, collecting all his ships, he embarked a +force of eleven thousand men with cavalry, and sailed away to Asia, to Caria +and Lydia, to take those provinces from Lysimachus. Arriving at Miletus, he was +met there by Eurydice, the sister of Phila, who brought along with her +Ptolemais, one of her daughters by king Ptolemy, who had before been affianced +to Demetrius, and with whom he now consummated his marriage. Immediately after, +he proceeded to carry out his project, and was so fortunate in the beginning, +that many cities revolted to him; others, as particularly Sardis, he took by +force; and some generals of Lysimachus, also, came over to him with troops and +money. But when Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus, arrived with an army, he +retreated into Phrygia, with an intention to pass into Armenia, believing that, +if he could once plant his foot in Armenia, he might set Media in revolt, and +gain a position in Upper Asia, where a fugitive commander might find a hundred +ways of evasion and escape. Agathocles pressed hard upon him, and many +skirmishes and conflicts occurred, in which Demetrius had still the advantage; +but Agathocles straitened him much in his forage, and his men showed a great +dislike to his purpose, which they suspected, of carrying them far away into +Armenia and Media. Famine also pressed upon them, and some mistake occurred in +their passage of the river Lycus, in consequence of which a large number were +swept away and drowned. Still, however, they could pass their jests, and one of +them fixed upon Demetrius’s tent-door a paper with the first verse, slightly +altered of the Oedipus; — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Child of the blind old man, Antigonus,<br/> +Into what country are you bringing us? +</p> + +<p> +But at last, pestilence, as is usual, when armies are driven to such +necessities as to subsist upon any food they can get, began to assail them as +well as famine. So that, having lost eight thousand of his men, with the rest +he retreated and came to Tarsus, and because that city was within the dominions +of Seleucus, he was anxious to prevent any plundering, and wished to give no +sort of offense to Seleucus. But when he perceived it was impossible to +restrain the soldiers in their extreme necessity, Agathocles also having +blocked up all the avenues of Mount Taurus, he wrote a letter to Seleucus, +bewailing first all his own sad fortunes, and proceeding with entreaties and +supplications for some compassion on his part towards one nearly connected with +him, who was fallen into such calamities as might extort tenderness and pity +from his very enemies. +</p> + +<p> +These letters so far moved Seleucus, that he gave orders to the governors of +those provinces that they should furnish Demetrius with all things suitable to +his royal rank, and with sufficient provisions for his troops. But Patrocles, a +person whose judgment was greatly valued, and who was a friend highly trusted +by Seleucus, pointed out to him, that the expense of maintaining such a body of +soldiers was the least important consideration, but that it was contrary to all +policy to let Demetrius stay in the country, since he, of all the kings of his +time, was the most violent, and most addicted to daring enterprises; and he was +now in a condition which might tempt persons of the greatest temper and +moderation to unlawful and desperate attempts. Seleucus, excited by this +advice, moved with a powerful army towards Cilicia; and Demetrius, astonished +at this sudden alteration, betook himself for safety to the most inaccessible +places of Mount Taurus; from whence he sent envoys to Seleucus, to request from +him that he would permit him the liberty to settle with his army somewhere +among the independent barbarian tribes, where he might be able to make himself +a petty king, and end his life without further travel and hardship; or, if he +refused him this, at any rate to give his troops food during the winter, and +not expose him in this distressed and naked condition to the fury of his +enemies. +</p> + +<p> +But Seleucus, whose jealousy made him put an ill construction on all he said, +sent him answer, that he would permit him to stay two months and no longer in +Cataonia, provided he presently sent him the principal of his friends as +hostages for his departure then; and, in the meantime, he fortified all the +passages into Syria. So that Demetrius, who saw himself thus, like a wild +beast, in the way to be encompassed on all sides in the toils, was driven in +desperation to his defense, overran the country, and in several engagements in +which Seleucus attacked him, had the advantage of him. Particularly, when he +was once assailed by the scythed chariots, he successfully avoided the charge +and routed his assailants, and then, expelling the troops that were in guard of +the passes, made himself master of the roads leading into Syria. And now, +elated himself, and finding his soldiers also animated by these successes, he +was resolved to push at all, and to have one deciding blow for the empire with +Seleucus; who, indeed, was in considerable anxiety and distress, being averse +to any assistance from Lysimachus, whom he both mistrusted and feared, and +shrinking from a battle with Demetrius, whose desperation he knew, and whose +fortune he had so often seen suddenly pass from the lowest to the highest. +</p> + +<p> +But Demetrius, in the meanwhile, was taken with a violent sickness, from which +he suffered extremely himself, and which ruined all his prospects. His men +deserted to the enemy, or dispersed. At last, after forty days, he began to be +so far recovered as to be able to rally his remaining forces, and marched as if +he directly designed for Cilicia; but in the night, raising his camp without +sound of trumpet, he took a countermarch, and, passing the mountain Amanus, he +ravaged an the lower country as far as Cyrrhestica. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this, Seleucus advancing towards him and encamping at no great distance, +Demetrius set his troops in motion to surprise him by night. And almost to the +last moment Seleucus knew nothing, and was lying asleep. Some deserter came +with the tidings just so soon that he had time to leap, in great consternation, +out of bed, and give the alarm to his men. And as he was putting on his boots +to mount his horse, he bade the officers about him look well to it, for they +had to meet a furious and terrible wild beast. But Demetrius, by the noise he +heard in the camp, finding they had taken the alarm, drew off his troops in +haste. With the morning’s return he found Seleucus pressing hard upon him; so, +sending one of his officers against the other wing, he defeated those that were +opposed to himself. But Seleucus, lighting from his horse, pulling off his +helmet, and taking a target, advanced to the foremost ranks of the mercenary +soldiers, and, showing them who he was, bade them come over and join him, +telling them that it was for their sakes only that he had so long forborne +coming to extremities. And thereupon, without a blow more, they saluted +Seleucus as their king, and passed over. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, who felt that this was his last change of fortune, and that he had +no more vicissitudes to expect, fled to the passes of Amanus, where, with a +very few friends and followers, he threw himself into a dense forest, and there +waited for the night, purposing, if possible, to make his escape towards +Caunus, where he hoped to find his shipping ready to transport him. But upon +inquiry, finding that they had not provisions even for that one day, he began +to think of some other project. Whilst he was yet in doubt, his friend +Sosigenes arrived, who had four hundred pieces of gold about him, and, with +this relief, he again entertained hopes of being able to reach the coast, and, +as soon as it began to be dark, set forward towards the passes. But, perceiving +by the fires that the enemies had occupied them, he gave up all thought of that +road, and retreated to his old station in the wood, but not with all his men; +for some had deserted, nor were those that remained as willing as they had +been. One of them, in fine, ventured to speak out, and say that Demetrius had +better give himself up to Seleucus; which Demetrius overhearing, drew out his +sword, and would have passed it through his body, but that some of his friends +interposed and prevented the attempt, persuading him to do as had been said. So +at last he gave way, and sent to Seleucus, to surrender himself at discretion. +</p> + +<p> +Seleucus, when he was told of it, said it was not Demetrius’s good fortune that +had found out this means for his safety, but his own, which had added to his +other honors the opportunity of showing his clemency and generosity. And +forthwith he gave order to his domestic officers to prepare a royal pavilion, +and all things suitable to give him a splendid reception and entertainment. +There was in the attendance of Seleucus one Apollonides, who formerly had been +intimate with Demetrius. He was, therefore, as the fittest person, dispatched +from the king to meet Demetrius, that he might feel himself more at his ease, +and might come with the confidence of being received as a friend and relative. +No sooner was this message known, but the courtiers and officers, some few at +first, and afterwards almost the whole of them, thinking, Demetrius would +presently become of great power with the king, hurried off, vying who should be +foremost to pay him their respects. The effect of which was that compassion was +converted into jealousy, and ill-natured, malicious people could the more +easily insinuate to Seleucus that he was giving way to an unwise humanity, the +very first sight of Demetrius having been the occasion of a dangerous +excitement in the army. So, whilst Apollonides, in great delight, and after him +many others, were relating to Demetrius the kind expressions of Seleucus, and +he, after so many troubles and calamities, if indeed he had still any sense of +his surrender of himself being a disgrace, had now, in confidence on the good +hopes held out to him, entirely forgotten all such thoughts, Pausanias, with a +guard of a thousand horse and foot, came and surrounded him; and, dispersing +the rest that were with him, carried him, not to the presence of Seleucus, but +to the Syrian Chersonese, where he was committed to the safe custody of a +strong guard. Sufficient attendance and liberal provision were here allowed +him, space for riding and walking, a park with game for hunting, those of his +friends and companions in exile who wished it had permission to see him, and +messages of kindness, also, from time to time, were brought him from Seleucus, +bidding him fear nothing, and intimating, that, so soon as Antiochus and +Stratonice should arrive, he would receive his liberty. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, however, finding himself in this condition, sent letters to those +who were with his son, and to his captains and friends at Athens and Corinth, +that they should give no manner of credit to any letters written to them in his +name, though they were sealed with his own signet, but that, looking upon him +as if he were already dead, they should maintain the cities and whatever was +left of his power, for Antigonus, as his successor. Antigonus received the news +of his father’s captivity with great sorrow; he put himself into mourning, and +wrote letters to the rest of the kings, and to Seleucus himself, making +entreaties, and offering not only to surrender whatever they had left, but +himself to be a hostage for his father. Many cities, also, and princes joined +in interceding for him; only Lysimachus sent and offered a large sum of money +to Seleucus to take away his life. But he, who had always shown his aversion to +Lysimachus before, thought him only the greater barbarian and monster for it. +Nevertheless, he still protracted the time, reserving the favor, as he +professed, for the intercession of Antiochus and Stratonice. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius, who had sustained the first stroke of his misfortune, in time grew +so familiar with it, that, by continuance, it became easy. At first he +persevered one way or other in taking exercise, in hunting, so far as he had +means, and in riding. Little by little, however, after a while, he let himself +grow indolent and indisposed for them, and took to dice and drinking, in which +he passed most of his time, whether it were to escape the thoughts of his +present condition, with which he was haunted when sober, and to drown +reflection in drunkenness, or that he acknowledged to himself that this was the +real happy life he had long desired and wished for, and had foolishly let +himself be seduced away from it by a senseless and vain ambition, which had +only brought trouble to himself and others; that highest good which he had +thought to obtain by arms and fleets and soldiers, he had now discovered +unexpectedly in idleness, leisure, and repose. As, indeed, what other end or +period is there of all the wars and dangers which hapless princes run into, +whose misery and folly it is, not merely that they make luxury and pleasure, +instead of virtue and excellence, the object of their lives, but that they do +not so much as know where this luxury and pleasure are to be found? +</p> + +<p> +Having thus continued three years a prisoner in Chersonesus, for want of +exercise, and by indulging himself in eating and drinking, he fell into a +disease, of which he died at the age of fifty-four. Seleucus was ill-spoken of, +and was himself greatly grieved, that he had yielded so far to his suspicions, +and had let himself be so much outdone by the barbarian Dromichaetes of Thrace, +who had shown so much humanity and such a kingly temper in his treatment of his +prisoner Lysimachus. +</p> + +<p> +There was something dramatic and theatrical in the very funeral ceremonies with +which Demetrius was honored. For his son Antigonus, understanding that his +remains were coming over from Syria, went with all his fleet to the islands to +meet them. They were there presented to him in a golden urn, which he placed in +his largest admiral galley. All the cities where they touched in their passage +sent chaplets to adorn the urn, and deputed certain of their citizens to follow +in mourning, to assist at the funeral solemnity. When the fleet approached the +harbor of Corinth, the urn, covered with purple, and a royal diadem upon it, +was visible upon the poop, and a troop of young men attended in arms to receive +it at landing Xenophantus, the most famous musician of the day, played on the +flute his most solemn measure, to which the rowers, as the ship came in, made +loud response, their oars, like the funeral beating of the breast, keeping time +with the cadences of the music. But Antigonus, in tears and mourning attire, +excited among the spectators gathered on the shore the greatest sorrow and +compassion. After crowns and other honors had been offered at Corinth, the +remains were conveyed to Demetrias, a city to which Demetrius had given his +name, peopled from the inhabitants of the small villages of Iolcus. +</p> + +<p> +Demetrius left no other children by his wife Phila but Antigonus and +Stratonice, but he had two other sons, both of his own name, one surnamed the +Thin, by an Illyrian mother, and one who ruled in Cyrene, by Ptolemais. He had +also, by Deidamia, a son, Alexander, who lived and died in Egypt; and there are +some who say that he had a son by Eurydice, named Corrhabus. His family was +continued in a succession of kings down to Perseus, the last, from whom the +Romans took Macedonia. +</p> + +<p> +And now, the Macedonian drama being ended, let us prepare to see the Roman. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap60"></a>ANTONY</h2> + +<p> +The grandfather of Antony was the famous pleader, whom Marius put to death for +having taken part with Sylla. His father was Antony, surnamed of Crete, not +very famous or distinguished in public life, but a worthy, good man, and +particularly remarkable for his liberality, as may appear from a single +example. He was not very rich, and was for that reason checked in the exercise +of his good-nature by his wife. A friend that stood in need of money came to +borrow of him. Money he had none, but he bade a servant bring him water in a +silver basin, with which, when it was brought, he wetted his face, as if he +meant to shave; and, sending away the servant upon another errand, gave his +friend the basin, desiring him to turn it to his purpose. And when there was, +afterwards, a great inquiry for it in the house, and his wife was in a very ill +humor, and was going to put the servants one by one to the search, he +acknowledged what he had done, and begged her pardon. +</p> + +<p> +His wife was Julia, of the family of the Caesars, who, for her discretion and +fair behavior, was not inferior to any of her time. Under her, Antony received +his education, she being, after the death of his father, remarried to Cornelius +Lentulus. who was put to death by Cicero for having been of Catiline’s +conspiracy. This, probably, was the first ground and occasion of that mortal +grudge that Antony bore Cicero. He says, even, that the body of Lentulus was +denied burial, till, by application made to Cicero’s wife, it was granted to +Julia. But this seems to be a manifest error, for none of those that suffered +in the consulate of Cicero had the right of burial denied them. Antony grew up +a very beautiful youth, but, by the worst of misfortunes, he fell into the +acquaintance and friendship of Curio, a man abandoned to his pleasures; who, to +make Antony’s dependence upon him a matter of greater necessity, plunged him +into a life of drinking and dissipation, and led him through a course of such +extravagance, that he ran, at that early age, into debt to the amount of two +hundred and fifty talents. For this sum, Curio became his surety; on hearing +which, the elder Curio, his father, drove Antony out of his house. After this, +for some short time, he took part with Clodius, the most insolent and +outrageous demagogue of the time, in his course of violence and disorder; but, +getting weary, before long, of his madness, and apprehensive of the powerful +party forming against him, he left Italy, and traveled into Greece, where he +spent his time in military exercises and in the study of eloquence. He took +most to what was called the Asiatic taste in speaking, which was then at its +height, and was, in many ways, suitable to his ostentatious, vaunting temper, +full of empty flourishes and unsteady efforts for glory. +</p> + +<p> +After some stay in Greece, he was invited by Gabinius, who had been consul, to +make a campaign with him in Syria, which at first he refused, not being willing +to serve in a private character, but, receiving a commission to command the +horse, he went along with him. His first service was against Aristobulus, who +had prevailed with the Jews to rebel. Here he was himself the first man to +scale the largest of the works, and beat Aristobulus out of all of them; after +which he routed, in a pitched battle, an army many times over the number of +his, killed almost all of them, and took Aristobulus and his son prisoners. +This war ended, Gabinius was solicited by Ptolemy to restore him to his kingdom +of Egypt, and a promise made of ten thousand talents reward. Most of the +officers were against this enterprise, and Gabinius himself did not much like +it, though sorely tempted by the ten thousand talents. But Antony, desirous of +brave actions, and willing to please Ptolemy, joined in persuading Gabinius to +go. And whereas all were of opinion that the most dangerous thing before them +was the march to Pelusium, in which they would have to pass over a deep sand, +where no fresh water was to be hoped for, along the Ecregma and the Serbonian +marsh (which the Egyptians call Typhon’s breathing-hole, and which is, in +probability, water left behind by, or making its way through from, the Red Sea, +which is here divided from the Mediterranean by a narrow isthmus), Antony, +being ordered thither with the horse, not only made himself master of the +passes, but won Pelusium itself, a great city, took the garrison prisoners, +and, by this means, rendered the march secure to the army, and the way to +victory not difficult for the general to pursue. The enemy, also, reaped some +benefit of his eagerness for honor. For when Ptolemy, after he had entered +Pelusium, in his rage and spite against the Egyptians, designed to put them to +the sword, Antony withstood him, and hindered the execution. In all the great +and frequent skirmishes and battles, he gave continual proofs of his personal +valor and military conduct; and once in particular, by wheeling about and +attacking the rear of the enemy, he gave the victory to the assailants in the +front, and received for this service signal marks of distinction. Nor was his +humanity towards the deceased Archelaus less taken notice of. He had been +formerly his guest and acquaintance, and, as he was now compelled, he fought +him bravely while alive, but, on his death, sought out his body and buried it +with royal honors. The consequence was that he left behind him a great name +among the Alexandrians, and all who were serving in the Roman army looked upon +him as a most gallant soldier. +</p> + +<p> +He had also a very good and noble appearance; his beard was well grown, his +forehead large, and his nose aquiline, giving him altogether a bold, masculine +look, that reminded people of the faces of Hercules in paintings and +sculptures. It was, moreover, an ancient tradition, that the Antonys were +descended from Hercules, by a son of his called Anton; and this opinion he +thought to give credit to, by the similarity of his person just mentioned, and +also by the fashion of his dress. For, whenever he had to appear before large +numbers, he wore his tunic girt low about the hips, a broadsword on his side, +and over all a large, coarse mantle. What might seem to some very +insupportable, his vaunting, his raillery, his drinking in public, sitting down +by the men as they were taking their food, and eating, as he stood, off the +common soldiers’ tables, made him the delight and pleasure of the army. In love +affairs, also, he was very agreeable; he gained many friends by the assistance +he gave them in theirs, and took other people’s raillery upon his own with +good-humor. And his generous ways, his open and lavish hand in gifts and favors +to his friends and fellow-soldiers, did a great deal for him in his first +advance to power, and, after he had become great, long maintained his fortunes, +when a thousand follies were hastening their overthrow. One instance of his +liberality I must relate. He had ordered payment to one of his friends of +twenty-five myriads of money, or decies, as the Romans call it, and his +steward, wondering at the extravagance of the sum, laid all the silver in a +heap, as he should pass by. Antony, seeing the heap, asked what it meant; his +steward replied, “The money you have ordered to be given to your friend.” So, +perceiving the man’s malice, said he, “I thought the decies had been much more; +’t is too little; let it be doubled.” This, however, was at a later time. +</p> + +<p> +When the Roman state finally broke up into two hostile factions, the +aristocratical party joining Pompey, who was in the city, and the popular side +seeking help from Caesar, who was at the head of an army in Gaul, Curio, the +friend of Antony, having changed his party and devoted himself to Caesar, +brought over Antony also to his service. And the influence which he gained with +the people by his eloquence and by the money which was supplied by Caesar +enabled him to make Antony, first, tribune of the people, and then, augur. And +Antony’s accession to office was at once of the greatest advantage to Caesar. +In the first place, he resisted the consul Marcellus, who was putting under +Pompey’s orders the troops who were already collected, and was giving him power +to raise new levies; he, on the other hand, making an order that they should be +sent into Syria to reinforce Bibulus, who was making war with the Parthians, +and that no one should give in his name to serve under Pompey. Next, when the +senators would not suffer Caesar’s letters to be received or read in the +senate, by virtue of his office he read them publicly, and succeeded so well, +that many were brought to change their mind; Caesar’s demands, as they appeared +in what he wrote, being but just and reasonable. At length, two questions being +put in the senate, the one, whether Pompey should dismiss his army, the other, +if Caesar his, some were for the former, for the latter all, except some few, +when Antony stood up and put the question, if it would be agreeable to them +that both Pompey and Caesar should dismiss their armies. This proposal met with +the greatest approval, they gave him loud acclamations, and called for it to be +put to the vote. But when the consuls would not have it so, Caesar’s friends +again made some new offers, very fair and equitable, but were strongly opposed +by Cato, and Antony himself was commanded to leave the senate by the consul +Lentulus. So, leaving them with execrations, and disguising himself in a +servant’s dress, hiring a carriage with Quintus Cassius, he went straight away +to Caesar, declaring at once, when they reached the camp, that affairs at Rome +were conducted without any order or justice, that the privilege of speaking in +the senate was denied the tribunes, and that he who spoke for common fair +dealing was driven out and in danger of his life. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this, Caesar set his army in motion, and marched into Italy; and for this +reason it is that Cicero writes in his Philippics, that Antony was as much the +cause of the civil war, as Helen was of the Trojan. But this is but a calumny. +For Caesar was not of so slight or weak a temper as to suffer himself to be +carried away, by the indignation of the moment, into a civil war with his +country, upon the sight of Antony and Cassius seeking refuge in his camp, +meanly dressed and in a hired carriage, without ever having thought of it or +taken any such resolution long before. This was to him, who wanted a pretense +of declaring war, a fair and plausible occasion; but the true motive that led +him was the same that formerly led Alexander and Cyrus against all mankind, the +unquenchable thirst of empire, and the distracted ambition of being the +greatest man in the world, which was impracticable for him, unless Pompey were +put down. So soon, then, as he had advanced and occupied Rome, and driven +Pompey out of Italy, he purposed first to go against the legions that Pompey +had in Spain, and then cross over and follow him with the fleet that should be +prepared during his absence, in the meantime leaving the government of Rome to +Lepidus, as praetor, and the command of the troops and of Italy to Antony, as +tribune of the people. Antony was not long in getting the hearts of the +soldiers, joining with them in their exercises, and for the most part living +amongst them, and making them presents to the utmost of his abilities; but with +all others he was unpopular enough. He was too lazy to pay attention to the +complaints of persons who were injured; he listened impatiently to petitions; +and he had an ill name for familiarity with other people’s wives. In short, the +government of Caesar (which, so far as he was concerned himself, had the +appearance of anything rather than a tyranny), got a bad repute through his +friends. And of these friends, Antony, as he had the largest trust, and +committed the greatest errors, was thought the most deeply in fault. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, however, at his return from Spain, overlooked the charges against him, +and had no reason ever to complain, in the employments he gave him in the war, +of any want of courage, energy, or military skill. He himself, going aboard at +Brundusium, sailed over the Ionian Sea with a few troops, and sent back the +vessels with orders to Antony and Gabinius to embark the army, and come over +with all speed into Macedonia. Gabinius, having no mind to put to sea in the +rough, dangerous weather of the winter season, was for marching the army round +by the long land route; but Antony, being more afraid lest Caesar might suffer +from the number of his enemies, who pressed him hard, beat back Libo, who was +watching with a fleet at the mouth of the haven of Brundusium, by attacking his +galleys with a number of small boats, and, gaining thus an opportunity, put on +board twenty thousand foot and eight hundred horse, and so set out to sea. And, +being espied by the enemy and pursued, from this danger he was rescued by a +strong south wind, which sprang up and raised so high a sea, that the enemy’s +galleys could make little way. But his own ships were driving before it upon a +lee shore of cliffs and rocks running sheer to the water, where there was no +hope of escape, when all of a sudden the wind turned about to south-west, and +blew from land to the main sea, where Antony, now sailing in security, saw the +coast all covered with the wreck of the enemy’s fleet. For hither the galleys +in pursuit had been carried by the gale, and not a few of them dashed to +pieces. Many men and much property fell into Antony’s hands; he took also the +town of Lissus, and, by the seasonable arrival of so large a reinforcement, +gave Caesar great encouragement. +</p> + +<p> +There was not one of the many engagements that now took place one after another +in which he did not signalize himself; twice he stopped the army in its full +flight, led them back to a charge, and gained the victory. So that not without +reason his reputation, next to Caesar’s, was greatest in the army. And what +opinion Caesar himself had of him well appeared when for the final battle in +Pharsalia, which was to determine everything, he himself chose to lead the +right wing, committing the charge of the left to Antony, as to the best officer +of all that served under him. After the battle, Caesar, being created dictator, +went in pursuit of Pompey, and sent Antony to Rome, with the character of +Master of the Horse, who is in office and power next to the dictator, when +present, and in his absence is the first, and pretty nearly indeed the sole +magistrate. For on the appointment of a dictator, with the one exception of the +tribunes, all other magistrates cease to exercise any authority in Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Dolabella, however, who was tribune, being a young man and eager for change, +was now for bringing in a general measure for canceling debts, and wanted +Antony, who was his friend, and forward enough to promote any popular project, +to take part with him in this step. Asinius and Trebellius were of the contrary +opinion, and it so happened, at the same time, Antony was crossed by a terrible +suspicion that Dolabella was too familiar with his wife; and in great trouble +at this, he parted with her (she being his cousin, and daughter to Caius +Antonius, the colleague of Cicero), and, taking part with Asinius, came to open +hostilities with Dolabella, who had seized on the forum, intending to pass his +law by force. Antony, backed by a vote of the senate that Dolabella should be +put down by force of arms, went down and attacked him, killing some of his, and +losing some of his own men; and by this action lost his favor with the +commonalty, while with the better class and with all well conducted people his +general course of life made him, as Cicero says, absolutely odious, utter +disgust being excited by his drinking bouts at all hours, his wild expenses, +his gross amours, the day spent in sleeping or walking off his debauches, and +the night in banquets and at theaters, and in celebrating the nuptials of some +comedian or buffoon. It is related that, drinking all night at the wedding of +Hippias, the comedian, on the morning, having to harangue the people, he came +forward, overcharged as he was, and vomited before them all, one of his friends +holding his gown for him. Sergius, the player, was one of the friends who could +do most with him; also Cytheris, a woman of the same trade, whom he made much +of, and who, when he went his progress, accompanied him in a litter, and had +her equipage, not in anything inferior to his mother’s; while every one, +moreover, was scandalized at the sight of the golden cups that he took with +him, fitter for the ornaments of a procession than the uses of a journey, at +his having pavilions set up, and sumptuous morning repasts laid out by +river-sides and in groves, at his having chariots drawn by lions, and common +women and singing girls quartered upon the houses of serious fathers and +mothers of families. And it seemed very unreasonable that Caesar, out of Italy, +should lodge in the open field, and, with great fatigue and danger, pursue the +remainder of a hazardous war, whilst others, by favor of his authority, should +insult the citizens with their impudent luxury. +</p> + +<p> +All this appears to have aggravated party quarrels in Rome, and to have +encouraged the soldiers in acts of license and rapacity. And, accordingly, when +Caesar came home, he acquitted Dolabella, and, being created the third time +consul, took, not Antony, but Lepidus, for his colleague. Pompey’s house being +offered for sale, Antony bought it, and, when the price was demanded of him, +loudly complained. This, he tells us himself, and because he thought his former +services had not been recompensed as they deserved, made him not follow Caesar +with the army into Libya. However, Caesar, by dealing gently with his errors, +seems to have succeeded in curing him of a good deal of his folly and +extravagance. He gave up his former courses, and took a wife, Fulvia, the widow +of Clodius the demagogue, a woman not born for spinning or housewifery, nor one +that could be content with ruling a private husband, but prepared to govern a +first magistrate, or give orders to a commander-in-chief. So that Cleopatra had +great obligations to her for having taught Antony to be so good a servant, he +coming to her hands tame and broken into entire obedience to the commands of a +mistress. He used to play all sorts of sportive, boyish tricks, to keep Fulvia +in good-humor. As, for example, when Caesar, after his victory in Spain, was on +his return, Antony, among the rest, went out to meet him; and, a rumor being +spread that Caesar was killed and the enemy marching into Italy, he resumed to +Rome, and, disguising himself, came to her by night muffled up as a servant +that brought letters from Antony. She, with great impatience, before she +received the letter, asks if Antony were well, and instead of an answer he +gives her the letter; and, as she was opening it, took her about the neck and +kissed her. This little story of many of the same nature, I give as a specimen. +</p> + +<p> +There was nobody of any rank in Rome that did not go some days’ journey to meet +Caesar on his return from Spain; but Antony was the best received of any, +admitted to ride the whole journey with him in his carriage, while behind came +Brutus Albinus, and Octavian, his niece’s son, who afterwards bore his name and +reigned so long over the Romans. Caesar being created, the fifth time, consul, +without delay chose Antony for his colleague, but, designing himself to give up +his own consulate to Dolabella, he acquainted the senate with his resolution. +But Antony opposed it with all his might, saying much that was bad against +Dolabella, and receiving the like language in return, till Caesar could bear +with the indecency no longer, and deferred the matter to another time. +Afterwards, when he came before the people to proclaim Dolabella, Antony cried +out that the auspices were unfavorable, so that at last Caesar, much to +Dolabella’s vexation, yielded and gave it up. And it is credible that Caesar +was about as much disgusted with the one as the other. When someone was +accusing them both to him, “It is not,” said he, “these well fed, long-haired +men that I fear, but the pale and the hungry looking;” meaning Brutus and +Cassius, by whose conspiracy he afterwards fell. +</p> + +<p> +And the fairest pretext for that conspiracy was furnished, without his meaning +it, by Antony himself. The Romans were celebrating their festival, called the +Lupercalia, when Caesar, in his triumphal habit, and seated above the Rostra in +the market-place, was a spectator of the sports. The custom is, that many young +noblemen and of the magistracy, anointed with oil and having straps of hide in +their hands, run about and strike, in sport, at everyone they meet. Antony was +running with the rest; but, omitting the old ceremony, twining a garland of bay +round a diadem, he ran up to the Rostra, and, being lifted up by his +companions, would have put it upon the head of Caesar, as if by that ceremony +he were declared king. Caesar seemingly refused, and drew aside to avoid it, +and was applauded by the people with great shouts. Again Antony pressed it, and +again he declined its acceptance. And so the dispute between them went on for +some time, Antony’s solicitations receiving but little encouragement from the +shouts of a few friends, and Caesar’s refusal being accompanied with the +general applause of the people; a curious thing enough, that they should submit +with patience to the fact, and yet at the same time dread the name as the +destruction of their liberty. Caesar, very much discomposed at what had past, +got up from his seat, and, laying bare his neck, said, he was ready to receive +the stroke, if any one of them desired to give it. The crown was at last put on +one of his statues, but was taken down by some of the tribunes, who were +followed home by the people with shouts of applause. Caesar, however, resented +it, and deposed them. +</p> + +<p> +These passages gave great encouragement to Brutus and Cassius, who, in making +choice of trusty friends for such an enterprise, were thinking to engage +Antony. The rest approved, except Trebonius, who told them that Antony and he +had lodged and traveled together in the last journey they took to meet Caesar, +and that he had let fall several words, in a cautious way, on purpose to sound +him; that Antony very well understood him, but did not encourage it; however, +he had said nothing of it to Caesar, but had kept the secret faithfully. The +conspirators then proposed that Antony should die with him, which Brutus would +not consent to, insisting that an action undertaken in defense of right and the +laws must be maintained unsullied, and pure of injustice. It was settled that +Antony, whose bodily strength and high office made him formidable, should, at +Caesar’s entrance into the senate, when the deed was to be done, be amused +outside by some of the party in a conversation about some pretended business. +</p> + +<p> +So when all was proceeded with, according to their plan, and Caesar had fallen +in the senate-house, Antony, at the first moment, took a servant’s dress, and +hid himself. But, understanding that the conspirators had assembled in the +Capitol, and had no further design upon anyone, he persuaded them to come down, +giving them his son as a hostage. That night Cassius supped at Antony’s house, +and Brutus with Lepidus. Antony then convened the senate, and spoke in favor of +an act of oblivion, and the appointment of Brutus and Cassius to provinces. +These measures the senate passed; and resolved that all Caesar’s acts should +remain in force. Thus Antony went out of the senate with the highest possible +reputation and esteem; for it was apparent that he had prevented a civil war, +and had composed, in the wisest and most statesman-like way, questions of the +greatest difficulty and embarrassment. But these temperate counsels were soon +swept away by the tide of popular applause, and the prospects, if Brutus were +overthrown, of being without doubt the ruler-in-chief. As Caesar’s body was +conveying to the tomb, Antony, according to the custom, was making his funeral +oration in the market; place, and, perceiving the people to be infinitely +affected with what he had said, he began to mingle with his praises language of +commiseration, and horror at what had happened, and, as he was ending his +speech, he took the under-clothes of the dead, and held them up, showing them +stains of blood and the holes of the many stabs, calling those that had done +this act villains and bloody murderers. All which excited the people to such +indignation, that they would not defer the funeral, but, making a pile of +tables and forms in the very market-place, set fire to it; and everyone, taking +a brand, ran to the conspirators’ houses, to attack them. +</p> + +<p> +Upon this, Brutus and his whole party left the city, and Caesar’s friends +joined themselves to Antony. Calpurnia, Caesar’s wife, lodged with him the best +part of the property, to the value of four thousand talents; he got also into +his hands all Caesar’s papers, wherein were contained journals of all he had +done, and draughts of what he designed to do, which Antony made good use of; +for by this means he appointed what magistrates he pleased, brought whom he +would into the senate, recalled some from exile, freed others out of prison, +and all this as ordered so by Caesar. The Romans, in mockery, gave those who +were thus benefited the name of Charonites, since, if put to prove their +patents, they must have recourse to the papers of the dead. In short, Antony’s +behavior in Rome was very absolute, he himself being consul, and his two +brothers in great place; Caius, the one, being praetor, and Lucius, the other, +tribune of the people. +</p> + +<p> +While matters went thus in Rome, the young Caesar, Caesar’s niece’s son, and by +testament left his heir, arrived at Rome from Apollonia, where he was when his +uncle was killed. The first thing he did was to visit Antony, as his father’s +friend. He spoke to him concerning the money that was in his hands, and +reminded him of the legacy Caesar had made of seventy-five drachmas to every +Roman citizen. Antony, at first, laughing at such discourse from so young a +man, told him he wished he were in his health, and that he wanted good counsel +and good friends, to tell him the burden of being executor to Caesar would sit +very uneasily upon his young shoulders. This was no answer to him; and, when he +persisted in demanding the property, Antony went on treating him injuriously +both in word and deed, opposed him when he stood for the tribune’s office, and, +when he was taking steps for the dedication of his father’s golden chair, as +had been enacted, he threatened to send him to prison if he did not give over +soliciting the people. This made the young Caesar apply himself to Cicero, and +all those that hated Antony; by them he was recommended to the senate, while he +himself courted the people, and drew together the soldiers from their +settlements, till Antony got alarmed, and gave him a meeting in the Capitol, +where, after some words, they came to an accommodation. +</p> + +<p> +That night Antony had a very unlucky dream, fancying that his right hand was +thunderstruck. And, some few days after, he was informed that Caesar was +plotting to take his life. Caesar explained, but was not believed, so that the +breach was now made as wide as ever; each of them hurried about all through +Italy to engage, by great offers, the old soldiers that lay scattered in their +settlements, and to be the first to secure the troops that still remained +undischarged. Cicero was at this time the man of greatest influence in Rome. He +made use of all his art to exasperate people against Antony, and at length +persuaded the senate to declare him a public enemy, to send Caesar the rods and +axes and other marks of honor usually given to praetors, and to issue orders to +Hirtius and Pansa, who were the consuls, to drive Antony out of Italy. The +armies engaged near Modena, and Caesar himself was present and took part in the +battle. Antony was defeated, but both the consuls were slain. Antony, in his +flight, was overtaken by distresses of every kind, and the worst of all of them +was famine. But it was his character in calamities to be better than at any +other time. Antony, in misfortune, was most nearly a virtuous man. It is common +enough for people, when they fall into great disasters, to discern what is +right, and what they ought to do; but there are but few who in such extremities +have the strength to obey their judgment, either in doing what it approves or +avoiding what it condemns; and a good many are so weak as to give way to their +habits all the more, and are incapable of using their minds. Antony, on this +occasion, was a most wonderful example to his soldiers. He, who had just +quitted so much luxury and sumptuous living, made no difficulty now of drinking +foul water and feeding on wild fruits and roots. Nay, it is related they ate +the very bark of trees, and, in passing over the Alps, lived upon creatures +that no one before had ever been willing to touch. +</p> + +<p> +The design was to join the army on the other side the Alps, commanded by +Lepidus, who he imagined would stand his friend, he having done him many good +offices with Caesar. On coming up and encamping near at hand, finding he had no +sort of encouragement offered him, he resolved to push his fortune and venture +all. His hair was long and disordered, nor had he shaved his beard since his +defeat; in this guise, and with a dark colored cloak flung over him, he came +into the trenches of Lepidus, and began to address the army. Some were moved at +his habit, others at his words, so that Lepidus, not liking it, ordered the +trumpets to sound, that he might be heard no longer. This raised in the +soldiers yet a greater pity, so that they resolved to confer secretly with him, +and dressed Laelius and Clodius in women’s clothes, and sent them to see him. +They advised him without delay to attack Lepidus’s trenches, assuring him that +a strong party would receive him, and, if he wished it, would kill Lepidus. +Antony, however, had no wish for this, but next morning marched his army to +pass over the river that parted the two camps. He was himself the first man +that stepped in, and, as he went through towards the other bank, he saw +Lepidus’s soldiers in great numbers reaching out their hands to help him, and +beating down the works to make him way. Being entered into the camp, and +finding himself absolute master, he nevertheless treated Lepidus with the +greatest civility, and gave him the title of Father, when he spoke to him, and, +though he had everything at his own command, he left him the honor of being +called the general. This fair usage brought over to him Munatius Plancus, who +was not far off with a considerable force. Thus in great strength he repassed +the Alps, leading with him into Italy seventeen legions and ten thousand horse, +besides six legions which he left in garrison under the command of Varius, one +of his familiar friends and boon companions, whom they used to call by the +nickname of Cotylon. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, perceiving that Cicero’s wishes were for liberty, had ceased to pay any +further regard to him, and was now employing the mediation of his friends to +come to a good understanding with Antony. They both met together with Lepidus +in a small island, where the conference lasted three days. The empire was soon +determined of, it being divided amongst them as if it had been their paternal +inheritance. That which gave them all the trouble was to agree who should be +put to death, each of them desiring to destroy his enemies and to save his +friends. But, in the end, animosity to those they hated carried the day against +respect for relations and affection for friends; and Caesar sacrificed Cicero +to Antony, Antony gave up his uncle Lucius Caesar, and Lepidus received +permission to murder his brother Paulus, or, as others say, yielded his brother +to them. I do not believe anything ever took place more truly savage or +barbarous than this composition, for, in this exchange of blood for blood, they +were equally guilty of the lives they surrendered and of those they took; or, +indeed, more guilty in the case of their friends, for whose deaths they had not +even the justification of hatred. To complete the reconciliation, the soldiery, +coming about them, demanded that confirmation should be given to it by some +alliance of marriage; Caesar should marry Clodia, the daughter of Fulvia, wife +to Antony. This also being agreed to, three hundred persons were put to death +by proscription. Antony gave orders to those that were to kill Cicero, to cut +off his head and right hand, with which he had written his invectives against +him; and, when they were brought before him, he regarded them joyfully, +actually bursting out more than once into laughter, and when he had satiated +himself with the sight of them, ordered them to be hung up above the speaker’s +place in the forum, thinking thus to insult the dead, while in fact he only +exposed his own wanton arrogance, and his unworthiness to hold the power that +fortune had given him. His uncle Lucius Caesar, being closely pursued, took +refuge with his sister, who, when the murderers had broken into her house and +were pressing into her chamber, met them at the door, and, spreading out her +hands, cried out several times, “You shall not kill Lucius Caesar till you +first dispatch me, who gave your general his birth;” and in this manner she +succeeded in getting her brother out of the way, and saving his life. +</p> + +<p> +This triumvirate was very hateful to the Romans, and Antony most of all bore +the blame, because he was older than Caesar, and had greater authority than +Lepidus, and withal he was no sooner settled in his affairs, but he returned to +his luxurious and dissolute way of living. Besides the ill reputation he gained +by his general behavior, it was some considerable disadvantage to him his +living in the house of Pompey the Great, who had been as much admired for his +temperance and his sober, citizen-like habits of life, as ever he was for +having triumphed three times. They could not without anger see the doors of +that house shut against magistrates, officers, and envoys, who were shamefully +refused admittance, while it was filled inside with players, jugglers, and +drunken flatterers, upon whom were spent the greatest part of the wealth which +violence and cruelty procured. For they did not limit themselves to the +forfeiture of the estates of such as were proscribed, defrauding the widows and +families, nor were they contented with laying on every possible kind of tax and +imposition; but, hearing that several sums of money were, as well by strangers +as citizens of Rome, deposited in the hands of the vestal virgins, they went +and took the money away by force. When it was manifest that nothing would ever +be enough for Antony, Caesar at last called for a division of property. The +army was also divided between them, upon their march into Macedonia to make war +with Brutus and Cassius, Lepidus being left with the command of the city. +</p> + +<p> +However, after they had crossed the sea and engaged in operations of war, +encamping in front of the enemy, Antony opposite Cassius, and Caesar opposite +Brutus, Caesar did nothing worth relating, and all the success and victory were +Antony’s. In the first battle, Caesar was completely routed by Brutus, his camp +taken, he himself very narrowly escaping by flight. As he himself writes in his +Memoirs, he retired before the battle, on account of a dream which one of his +friends had. But Antony, on the other hand, defeated Cassius; though some have +written that he was not actually present in the engagement, and only joined +afterwards in the pursuit. Cassius was killed, at his own entreaty and order, +by one of his most trusted freedmen, Pindarus, not being aware of Brutus’s +victory. After a few days’ interval, they fought another battle, in which +Brutus lost the day, and slew himself; and Caesar being sick, Antony had almost +all the honor of the victory. Standing over Brutus’s dead body, he uttered a +few words of reproach upon him for the death of his brother Caius, who had been +executed by Brutus’s order in Macedonia in revenge of Cicero; but, saying +presently that Hortensius was most to blame for it, he gave order for his being +slain upon his brother’s tomb, and, throwing his own scarlet mantle, which was +of great value, upon the body of Brutus, he gave charge to one of his own +freedmen to take care of his funeral. This man, as Antony came to understand, +did not leave the mantle with the corpse, but kept both it and a good part of +the money that should have been spent in the funeral for himself; for which he +had him put to death. +</p> + +<p> +But Caesar was conveyed to Rome, no one expecting that he would long survive. +Antony, proposing to go to the eastern provinces to lay them under +contribution, entered Greece with a large force. The promise had been made that +every common soldier should receive for his pay five thousand drachmas; so it +was likely there would be need of pretty severe taxing and levying to raise +money. However, to the Greeks he showed at first reason and moderation enough; +he gratified his love of amusement by hearing the learned men dispute, by +seeing the games, and undergoing initiation; and in judicial matters he was +equitable, taking pleasure in being styled a lover of Greece, but, above all, +in being called a lover of Athens, to which city he made very considerable +presents. The people of Megara wished to let him know that they also had +something to show him, and invited him to come and see their senate-house. So +he went and examined it, and on their asking him how he liked it, told them it +was “not very large, but extremely ruinous.” At the same time, he had a survey +made of the temple of the Pythian Apollo, as if he had designed to repair it, +and indeed he had declared to the senate his intention so to do. +</p> + +<p> +However, leaving Lucius Censorinus in Greece, he crossed over into Asia, and +there laid his hands on the stores of accumulated wealth, while kings waited at +his door, and queens were rivaling one another, who should make him the +greatest presents or appear most charming in his eyes. Thus, whilst Caesar in +Rome was wearing out his strength amidst seditions and wars, Antony, with +nothing to do amidst the enjoyments of peace, let his passions carry him easily +back to the old course of life that was familiar to him. A set of harpers and +pipers, Anaxenor and Xuthus, the dancing-man Metrodorus, and a whole Bacchic +rout of the like Asiatic exhibitors, far outdoing in license and buffoonery the +pests that had followed out of Italy, came in and possessed the court; the +thing was past patience, wealth of all kinds being wasted on objects like +these. The whole of Asia was like the city in Sophocles, loaded, at one time, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +with incense in the air,<br/> +Jubilant songs, and outcries of despair. +</p> + +<p> +When he made his entry into Ephesus, the women met him dressed up like +Bacchantes, and the men and boys like Satyrs and Fauns, and throughout the town +nothing was to be seen but spears wreathed about with ivy, harps, flutes, and +psaltries, while Antony in their songs was Bacchus the Giver of Joy and the +Gentle. And so indeed he was to some, but to far more the Devourer and the +Savage; for he would deprive persons of worth and quality of their fortunes to +gratify villains and flatterers, who would sometimes beg the estates of men yet +living, pretending they were dead, and, obtaining a grant, take possession. He +gave his cook the house of a Magnesian citizen, as a reward for a single highly +successful supper, and, at last, when he was proceeding to lay a second whole +tribute on Asia, Hybreas, speaking on behalf of the cities, took courage, and +told him broadly, but aptly enough for Antony’s taste, “If you can take two +yearly tributes, you can doubtless give us a couple of summers, and a double +harvest time;” and put it to him in the plainest and boldest way, that Asia had +raised two hundred thousand talents for his service: “If this has not been paid +to you, ask your collectors for it; if it has, and is all gone, we are ruined +men.” These words touched Antony to the quick, who was simply ignorant of most +things that were done in his name; not that he was so indolent, as he was prone +to trust frankly in all about him. For there was much simplicity in his +character; he was slow to see his faults, but, when he did see them, was +extremely repentant, and ready to ask pardon of those he had injured; prodigal +in his acts of reparation, and severe in his punishments, but his generosity +was much more extravagant than his severity; his raillery was sharp and +insulting, but the edge of it was taken off by his readiness to submit to any +kind of repartee; for he was as well contented to be rallied, as he was pleased +to rally others. And this freedom of speech was, indeed, the cause of many of +his disasters. He never imagined that those who used so much liberty in their +mirth would flatter or deceive him in business of consequence, not knowing how +common it is with parasites to mix their flattery with boldness, as +confectioners do their sweetmeats with something biting, to prevent the sense +of satiety. Their freedoms and impertinences at table were designed expressly +to give to their obsequiousness in council the air of being not complaisance, +but conviction. +</p> + +<p> +Such being his temper, the last and crowning mischief that could befall him +came in the love of Cleopatra, to awaken and kindle to fury passions that as +yet lay still and dormant in his nature, and to stifle and finally corrupt any +elements that yet made resistance in him, of goodness and a sound judgment. He +fell into the snare thus. When making preparation for the Parthian war, he sent +to command her to make her personal appearance in Cilicia, to answer an +accusation, that she had given great assistance, in the late wars, to Cassius. +Dellius, who was sent on this message, had no sooner seen her face, and +remarked her adroitness and subtlety in speech, but he felt convinced that +Antony would not so much as think of giving any molestation to a woman like +this; on the contrary, she would be the first in favor with him. So he set +himself at once to pay his court to the Egyptian, and gave her his advice, “to +go,” in the Homeric style, to Cilicia, “in her best attire,” and bade her fear +nothing from Antony, the gentlest and kindest of soldiers. She had some faith +in the words of Dellius, but more in her own attractions, which, having +formerly recommended her to Caesar and the young Cnaeus Pompey, she did not +doubt might prove yet more successful with Antony. Their acquaintance was with +her when a girl, young, and ignorant of the world, but she was to meet Antony +in the time of life when women’s beauty is most splendid, and their intellects +are in full maturity. She made great preparation for her journey, of money, +gifts, and ornaments of value, such as so wealthy a kingdom might afford, but +she brought with her her surest hopes in her own magic arts and charms. +</p> + +<p> +She received several letters, both from Antony and from his friends, to summon +her, but she took no account of these orders; and at last, as if in mockery of +them, she came sailing up the river Cydnus, in a barge with gilded stern and +outspread sails of purple, while oars of silver beat time to the music of +flutes and fifes and harps. She herself lay all along, under a canopy of cloth +of gold, dressed as Venus in a picture, and beautiful young boys, like painted +Cupids, stood on each side to fan her. Her maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs +and Graces, some steering at the rudder, some working at the ropes. The +perfumes diffused themselves from the vessel to the shore, which was covered +with multitudes, part following the galley up the river on either bank, part +running out of the city to see the sight. The market-place was quite emptied, +and Antony at last was left alone sitting upon the tribunal; while the word +went through all the multitude, that Venus was come to feast with Bacchus, for +the common good of Asia. On her arrival, Antony sent to invite her to supper. +She thought it fitter he should come to her; so, willing to show his good-humor +and courtesy, he complied, and went. He found the preparations to receive him +magnificent beyond expression, but nothing so admirable as the great number of +lights; for on a sudden there was let down altogether so great a number of +branches with lights in them so ingeniously disposed, some in squares, and some +in circles, that the whole thing was a spectacle that has seldom been equaled +for beauty. +</p> + +<p> +The next day, Antony invited her to supper, and was very desirous to outdo her +as well in magnificence as contrivance; but he found he was altogether beaten +in both, and was so well convinced of it, that he was himself the first to jest +and mock at his poverty of wit, and his rustic awkwardness. She, perceiving +that his raillery was broad and gross, and savored more of the soldier than the +courtier, rejoined in the same taste, and fell into it at once, without any +sort of reluctance or reserve. For her actual beauty, it is said, was not in +itself so remarkable that none could be compared with her, or that no one could +see her without being struck by it, but the contact of her presence, if you +lived with her, was irresistible; the attraction of her person, joining with +the charm of her conversation, and the character that attended all she said or +did, was something bewitching. It was a pleasure merely to hear the sound of +her voice, with which, like an instrument of many strings, she could pass from +one language to another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations that +she answered by an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as to the +Ethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, Parthians, and many +others, whose language she had learnt; which was all the more surprising, +because most of the kings her predecessors scarcely gave themselves the trouble +to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of them quite abandoned the +Macedonian. +</p> + +<p> +Antony was so captivated by her, that, while Fulvia his wife maintained his +quarrels in Rome against Caesar by actual force of arms, and the Parthian +troops, commanded by Labienus (the king’s generals having made him +commander-in-chief), were assembled in Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, +he could yet suffer himself to be carried away by her to Alexandria, there to +keep holiday, like a boy, in play and diversion, squandering and fooling away +in enjoyments that most costly, as Antiphon says, of all valuables, time. They +had a sort of company, to which they gave a particular name, calling it that of +the Inimitable Livers. The members entertained one another daily in turn, with +an extravagance of expenditure beyond measure or belief. Philotas, a physician +of Amphissa, who was at that time a student of medicine in Alexandria, used to +tell my grandfather Lamprias, that, having some acquaintance with one of the +royal cooks, he was invited by him, being a young man, to come and see the +sumptuous preparations for supper. So he was taken into the kitchen, where he +admired the prodigious variety of all things; but particularly, seeing eight +wild boars roasting whole, says he, “Surely you have a great number of guests.” +The cook laughed at his simplicity, and told him there were not above twelve to +sup, but that every dish was to be served up just roasted to a turn, and if +anything was but one minute ill-timed, it was spoiled; “And,” said he, “maybe +Antony will sup just now, maybe not this hour, maybe he will call for wine, or +begin to talk, and will put it off. So that,” he continued, “it is not one, but +many suppers must be had in readiness, as it is impossible to guess at his +hour.” This was Philotas’s story; who related besides, that he afterwards came +to be one of the medical attendants of Antony’s eldest son by Fulvia, and used +to be invited pretty often, among other companions, to his table, when he was +not supping with his father. One day another physician had talked loudly, and +given great disturbance to the company, whose mouth Philotas stopped with this +sophistical syllogism: “In some states of fever the patient should take cold +water; everyone who has a fever is in some state of fever; therefore in a fever +cold water should always be taken.” The man was quite struck dumb, and Antony’s +son, very much pleased, laughed aloud, and said, Philotas, “I make you a +present of all you see there,” pointing to a sideboard covered with plate. +Philotas thanked him much, but was far enough from ever imagining that a boy of +his age could dispose of things of that value. Soon after, however, the plate +was all brought to him, and he was desired to set his mark upon it; and when he +put it away from him, and was afraid to accept the present, “What ails the +man?” said he that brought it; “do you know that he who gives you this is +Antony’s son, who is free to give it, if it were all gold? but if you will be +advised by me, I would counsel you to accept of the value in money from us; for +there may be amongst the rest some antique or famous piece of workmanship, +which Antony would be sorry to part with.” These anecdotes my grandfather told +us Philotas used frequently to relate. +</p> + +<p> +To return to Cleopatra; Plato admits four sorts of flattery, but she had a +thousand. Were Antony serious or disposed to mirth, she had at any moment some +new delight or charm to meet his wishes; at every turn she was upon him, and +let him escape her neither by day nor by night. She played at dice with him, +drank with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised in arms, she was there +to see. At night she would go rambling with him to disturb and torment people +at their doors and windows, dressed like a servant-woman, for Antony also went +in servant’s disguise, and from these expeditions he often came home very +scurvily answered, and sometimes even beaten severely, though most people +guessed who it was. However, the Alexandrians in general liked it all well +enough, and joined good humoredly and kindly in his frolic and play, saying +they were much obliged to Antony for acting his tragic parts at Rome, and +keeping his comedy for them. It would be trifling without end to be particular +in his follies, but his fishing must not be forgotten. He went out one day to +angle with Cleopatra, and, being so unfortunate as to catch nothing in the +presence of his mistress, he gave secret orders to the fishermen to dive under +water, and put fishes that had been already taken upon his hooks; and these he +drew so fast that the Egyptian perceived it. But, feigning great admiration, +she told everybody how dexterous Antony was, and invited them next day to come +and see him again. So, when a number of them had come on board the fishing +boats, as soon as he had let down his hook, one of her servants was beforehand +with his divers, and fixed upon his hook a salted fish from Pontus. Antony, +feeling his line give, drew up the prey, and when, as may be imagined, great +laughter ensued, “Leave,” said Cleopatra, “the fishing-rod, general, to us poor +sovereigns of Pharos and Canopus; your game is cities, provinces, and +kingdoms.” +</p> + +<p> +Whilst he was thus diverting himself and engaged in this boys’ play, two +dispatches arrived; one from Rome, that his brother Lucius and his wife Fulvia, +after many quarrels among themselves, had joined in war against Caesar, and, +having lost all, had fled out of Italy; the other bringing little better news, +that Labienus, at the head of the Parthians, was overrunning Asia, from +Euphrates and Syria as far as Lydia and Ionia. So, scarcely at last rousing +himself from sleep, and shaking off the fumes of wine, he set out to attack the +Parthians, and went as far as Phoenicia; but, upon the receipt of lamentable +letters from Fulvia, turned his course with two hundred ships to Italy. And, in +his way, receiving, such of his friends as fled from Italy, he was given to +understand that Fulvia was the sole cause of the war, a woman of a restless +spirit and very bold, and withal her hopes were that commotions in Italy would +force Antony from Cleopatra. But it happened that Fulvia, as she was coming to +meet her husband, fell sick by the way, and died at Sicyon, so that an +accommodation was the more easily made. For when he reached Italy, and Caesar +showed no intention of laying anything to his charge, and he on his part +shifted the blame of everything on Fulvia, those that were friends to them +would not suffer that the time should be spent in looking narrowly into the +plea, but made a reconciliation first, and then a partition of the empire +between them, taking as their boundary the Ionian Sea, the eastern provinces +falling to Antony, to Caesar the western, and Africa being left to Lepidus. And +an agreement was made, that everyone in their turn, as he thought fit, should +make their friends consuls, when they did not choose to take the offices +themselves. +</p> + +<p> +These terms were well approved of, but yet it was thought some closer tie would +be desirable; and for this, fortune offered occasion. Caesar had an elder +sister, not of the whole blood, for Attia was his mother’s name, hers Ancharia. +This sister, Octavia, he was extremely attached to, as, indeed, she was, it is +said, quite a wonder of a woman. Her husband, Caius Marcellus, had died not +long before, and Antony was now a widower by the death of Fulvia; for, though +he did not disavow the passion he had for Cleopatra, yet he disowned anything +of marriage, reason, as yet, upon this point, still maintaining the debate +against the charms of the Egyptian. Everybody concurred in promoting this new +alliance, fully expecting that with the beauty, honor, and prudence of Octavia, +when her company should, as it was certain it would, have engaged his +affections, all would be kept in the safe and happy course of friendship. So, +both parties being agreed, they went to Rome to celebrate the nuptials, the +senate dispensing with the law by which a widow was not permitted to marry till +ten months after the death of her husband. +</p> + +<p> +Sextus Pompeius was in possession of Sicily, and with his ships, under the +command of Menas, the pirate, and Menecrates, so infested the Italian coast, +that no vessels durst venture into those seas. Sextus had behaved with much +humanity towards Antony, having received his mother when she fled with Fulvia, +and it was therefore judged fit that he also should be received into the peace. +They met near the promontory of Misenum, by the mole of the port, Pompey having +his fleet at anchor close by, and Antony and Caesar their troops drawn up all +along the shore. There it was concluded that Sextus should quietly enjoy the +government of Sicily and Sardinia, he conditioning to scour the seas of all +pirates, and to send so much corn every year to Rome. +</p> + +<p> +This agreed on, they invited one another to supper, and by lot it fell to +Pompey’s turn to give the first entertainment, and Antony, asking where it was +to be, “There,” said he, pointing to the admiral-galley, a ship of six banks of +oars, “that is the only house that Pompey is heir to of his father’s.” And this +he said, reflecting upon Antony, who was then in possession of his father’s +house. Having fixed the ship on her anchors, and formed a bridgeway from the +promontory to conduct on board of her, he gave them a cordial welcome. And when +they began to grow warm, and jests were passing freely on Antony and +Cleopatra’s loves, Menas, the pirate, whispered Pompey in the ear, “Shall I,” +said he, “cut the cables, and make you master not of Sicily only and Sardinia, +but of the whole Roman empire?” Pompey, having considered a little while, +returned him answer, “Menas, this might have been done without acquainting me; +now we must rest content; I do not break my word.” And so, having been +entertained by the other two in their turns, he set sail for Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +After the treaty was completed, Antony dispatched Ventidius into Asia, to check +the advance of the Parthians, while he, as a compliment to Caesar, accepted the +office of priest to the deceased Caesar. And in any state affair and matter of +consequence, they both behaved themselves with much consideration and +friendliness for each other. But it annoyed Antony, that in all their +amusements, on any trial of skill or fortune, Caesar should be constantly +victorious. He had with him an Egyptian diviner, one of those who calculate +nativities, who, either to make his court to Cleopatra, or that by the rules of +his art he found it to be so, openly declared to him, that though the fortune +that attended him was bright and glorious, yet it was overshadowed by Caesar’s; +and advised him to keep himself as far distant as he could from that young man; +“for your Genius,” said he, “dreads his; when absent from him yours is proud +and brave, but in his presence unmanly and dejected;” and incidents that +occurred appeared to show that the Egyptian spoke truth. For whenever they cast +lots for any playful purpose, or threw dice, Antony was still the loser; and +repeatedly, when they fought game-cocks or quails, Caesar’s had the victory. +This gave Antony a secret displeasure, and made him put the more confidence in +the skill of his Egyptian. So, leaving the management of his home affairs to +Caesar, he left Italy, and took Octavia, who had lately borne him a daughter, +along with him into Greece. +</p> + +<p> +Here, whilst he wintered in Athens, he received the first news of Ventidius’s +successes over the Parthians, of his having defeated them in a battle, having +slain Labienus and Pharnapates, the best general their king, Hyrodes, +possessed. For the celebrating of which he made a public feast through Greece, +and for the prizes which were contested at Athens he himself acted as steward, +and, leaving at home the ensigns that are carried before the general, he made +his public appearance in a gown and white shoes, with the steward’s wands +marching before; and he performed his duty in taking the combatants by the +neck, to part them, when they had fought enough. +</p> + +<p> +When the time came for him to set out for the war, he took a garland from the +sacred olive, and, in obedience to some oracle, he filled a vessel with the +water of the Clepsydra, to carry along with him. In this interval, Pacorus, the +Parthian king’s son, who was marching into Syria with a large army, was met by +Ventidius, who gave him battle in the country of Cyrrhestica, slew a large +number of his men, and Pacorus among the first. This victory was one of the +most renowned achievements of the Romans, and fully avenged their defeats under +Crassus, the Parthians being obliged, after the loss of three battles +successively, to keep themselves within the bounds of Media and Mesopotamia. +Ventidius was not willing to push his good fortune further, for fear of raising +some jealousy in Antony, but, turning his arms against those that had quitted +the Roman interest, he reduced them to their former obedience. Among the rest, +he besieged Antiochus, king of Commagene, in the city of Samosata, who made an +offer of a thousand talents for his pardon, and a promise of submission to +Antony’s commands. But Ventidius told him that he must send to Antony, who was +already on his march, and had sent word to Ventidius to make no terms with +Antiochus, wishing that at any rate this one exploit might be ascribed to him, +and that people might not think that all his successes were won by his +lieutenants. The siege, however, was long protracted; for when those within +found their offers refused, they defended themselves stoutly, till, at last, +Antony, finding he was doing nothing, in shame and regret for having refused +the first offer, was glad to make an accommodation with Antiochus for three +hundred talents. And, having given some orders for the affairs of Syria, he +returned to Athens; and, paying Ventidius the honors he well deserved, +dismissed him to receive his triumph. He is the only man that has ever yet +triumphed for victories obtained over the Parthians; he was of obscure birth, +but, by means of Antony’s friendship, obtained an opportunity of showing his +capacity, and doing great things; and his making such glorious use of it gave +new credit to the current observation about Caesar and Antony, that they were +more fortunate in what they did by their lieutenants than in their own persons. +For Sossius, also, had great success, and Canidius, whom he left in Armenia, +defeated the people there, and also the kings of the Albanians and Iberians, +and marched victorious as far as Caucasus, by which means the fame of Antony’s +arms had become great among the barbarous nations. +</p> + +<p> +He, however, once more, upon some unfavorable stories, taking offense against +Caesar, set sail with three hundred ships for Italy, and, being refused +admittance to the port of Brundusium, made for Tarentum. There his wife +Octavia, who came from Greece with him, obtained leave to visit her brother, +she being then great with child, having already borne her husband a second +daughter; and as she was on her way, she met Caesar, with his two friends +Agrippa and Maecenas, and, taking these two aside, with great entreaties and +lamentations she told them, that of the most fortunate woman upon earth, she +was in danger of becoming the most unhappy; for as yet everyone’s eyes were +fixed upon her as the wife and sister of the two great commanders, but, if rash +counsels should prevail, and war ensue, “I shall be miserable,” said she, +“without redress; for on what side soever victory falls, I shall be sure to be +a loser.” Caesar was overcome by these entreaties, and advanced in a peaceable +temper to Tarentum, where those that were present beheld a most stately +spectacle; a vast army drawn up by the shore, and as great a fleet in the +harbor, all without the occurrence of any act of hostility; nothing but the +salutations of friends, and other expressions of joy and kindness, passing from +one armament to the other. Antony first entertained Caesar this also being a +concession on Caesar’s part to his sister; and when at length an agreement was +made between them, that Caesar should give Antony two of his legions to serve +him in the Parthian war, and that Antony should in return leave with him a +hundred armed galleys, Octavia further obtained of her husband, besides this, +twenty light ships for her brother, and of her brother, a thousand foot for her +husband. So, having parted good friends, Caesar went immediately to make war +with Pompey to conquer Sicily. And Antony, leaving in Caesar’s charge his wife +and children, and his children by his former wife Fulvia, set sail for Asia. +</p> + +<p> +But the mischief that thus long had lain still, the passion for Cleopatra, +which better thoughts had seemed to have lulled and charmed into oblivion, upon +his approach to Syria, gathered strength again, and broke out into a flame. +And, in fine, like Plato’s restive and rebellious horse of the human soul, +flinging off all good and wholesome counsel, and breaking fairly loose, he +sends Fonteius Capito to bring Cleopatra into Syria. To whom at her arrival he +made no small or trifling present, Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Cyprus, great part +of Cilicia, that side of Judaea which produces balm, that part of Arabia where +the Nabathaeans extend to the outer sea; profuse gifts, which much displeased +the Romans. For, although he had invested several private persons in great +governments and kingdoms, and bereaved many kings of theirs, as Antigonus of +Judaea, whose head he caused to be struck off (the first example of that +punishment being inflicted on a king), yet nothing stung the Romans like the +shame of these honors paid to Cleopatra. Their dissatisfaction was augmented +also by his acknowledging as his own the twin children he had by her, giving +them the name of Alexander and Cleopatra, and adding, as their surnames, the +titles of Sun and Moon. But he, who knew how to put a good color on the most +dishonest action, would say, that the greatness of the Roman empire consisted +more in giving than in taking kingdoms, and that the way to carry noble blood +through the world was by begetting in every place a new line and series of +kings; his own ancestor had thus been born of Hercules; Hercules had not +limited his hopes of progeny to a single womb, nor feared any law like Solon’s, +or any audit of procreation, but had freely let nature take her will in the +foundation and first commencement of many families. +</p> + +<p> +After Phraates had killed his father Hyrodes, and taken possession of his +kingdom, many of the Parthians left their country; among the rest, Monaeses, a +man of great distinction and authority, sought refuge with Antony, who, looking +on his case as similar to that of Themistocles, and likening his own opulence +and magnanimity to those of the former Persian kings, gave him three cities, +Larissa, Arethusa, and Hierapolis, which was formerly called Bambyce. But when +the king of Parthia soon recalled him, giving him his word and honor for his +safety, Antony was not unwilling to give him leave to return, hoping thereby to +surprise Phraates, who would believe that peace would continue; for he only +made the demand of him, that he should send back the Roman ensigns which were +taken when Crassus was slain, and the prisoners that remained yet alive. This +done, he sent Cleopatra into Egypt, and marched through Arabia and Armenia; +and, when his forces came together, and were joined by those of his confederate +kings (of whom there were very many, and the most considerable, Artavasdes, +king of Armenia, who came at the head of six thousand horse and seven thousand +foot), he made a general muster. There appeared sixty thousand Roman foot, ten +thousand horse, Spaniards and Gauls, who counted as Romans; and, of other +nations, horse and foot, thirty thousand. And these great preparations, that +put the Indians beyond Bactria into alarm, and made all Asia shake, were all, +we are told, rendered useless to him because of Cleopatra. For, in order to +pass the winter with her, the war was pushed on before its due time; and all he +did was done without perfect consideration, as by a man who had no proper +control over his faculties, who, under the effects of some drug or magic, was +still looking back elsewhere, and whose object was much more to hasten his +return than to conquer his enemies. +</p> + +<p> +For, first of all, when he should have taken up his winter-quarters in Armenia, +to refresh his men, who were tired with long marches, having come at least +eight thousand furlongs, and then have taken the advantage in the beginning of +the spring to invade Media, before the Parthians were out of winter-quarters, +he had not patience to expect his time, but marched into the province of +Atropatene, leaving Armenia on the left hand, and laid waste all that country. +Secondly, his haste was so great, that he left behind the engines absolutely +required for any siege, which followed the camp in three hundred wagons, and, +among the rest, a ram eighty feet long; none of which was it possible, if lost +or damaged, to repair or to make the like, as the provinces of the upper Asia +produce no trees long or hard enough for such uses. Nevertheless, he left them +all behind, as a mere impediment to his speed, in the charge of a detachment +under the command of Statianus, the wagon-officer. He himself laid siege to +Phraata, a principal city of the king of Media, wherein were that king’s wife +and children. And when actual need proved the greatness of his error in leaving +the siege train behind him, he had nothing for it but to come up and raise a +mound against the walls, with infinite labor and great loss of time. Meantime +Phraates, coming down with a large army, and hearing that the wagons were left +behind with the battering engines, sent a strong party of horse, by which +Statianus was surprised, he himself and ten thousand of his men slain, the +engines all broken in pieces, many taken prisoners, and, among the rest, king +Polemon. +</p> + +<p> +This great miscarriage in the opening of the campaign much discouraged Antony’s +army, and Artavasdes, king of Armenia, deciding that the Roman prospects were +bad, withdrew with all his forces from the camp, although he had been the chief +promoter of the war. The Parthians, encouraged by their success, came up to the +Romans at the siege, and gave them many affronts; upon which Antony, fearing +that the despondency and alarm of his soldiers would only grow worse if he let +them lie idle, taking all the horse, ten legions, and three praetorian cohorts +of heavy infantry, resolved to go out and forage, designing by this means to +draw the enemy with more advantage to a battle. To effect this, he marched a +day’s journey from his camp, and, finding the Parthians hovering about, in +readiness to attack him while he was in motion, he gave orders for the signal +of battle to be hung out in the encampment, but, at the same time, pulled down +the tents, as if he meant not to fight, but to lead his men home again; and so +he proceeded to lead them past the enemy, who were drawn up in a half-moon, his +orders being that the horse should charge as soon as the legions were come up +near enough to second them. The Parthians, standing still while the Romans +marched by them, were in great admiration of their army, and of the exact +discipline it observed, rank after rank passing on at equal distances in +perfect order and silence, their pikes all ready in their hands. But when the +signal was given, and the horse turned short upon the Parthians, and with loud +cries charged them, they bravely received them, though they were at once too +near for bowshot; but the legions, coming up with loud shouts and rattling of +their arms, so frightened their horses and indeed the men themselves, that they +kept their ground no longer. Antony pressed them hard, in great hopes that this +victory should put an end to the war; the foot had them in pursuit for fifty +furlongs, and the horse for thrice that distance, and yet, the advantage summed +up, they had but thirty prisoners, and there were but fourscore slain. So that +they were all filled with dejection and discouragement, to consider, that when +they were victorious, their advantage was so small, and that when they were +beaten, they lost so great a number of men as they had done when the carriages +were taken. +</p> + +<p> +The next day, having put the baggage in order, they marched back to the camp +before Phraata, in the way meeting with some scattering troops of the enemy, +and, as they marched further, with greater parties, at length with the body of +the enemy’s army, fresh and in good order, who called them to battle, and +charged them on every side, and it was not without great difficulty that they +reached the camp. There Antony, finding that his men had in a panic deserted +the defense of the mound, upon a sally of the Medes, resolved to proceed +against them by decimation, as it is called, which is done by dividing the +soldiers into tens, and, out of every ten, putting one to death, as it happens +by lot. The rest he gave orders should have, instead of wheat, their rations of +corn in barley. +</p> + +<p> +The war was now become grievous to both parties, and the prospect of its +continuance yet more fearful to Antony, in respect that he was threatened with +famine; for he could no longer forage without wounds and slaughter. And +Phraates, on the other side, was full of apprehension that, if the Romans were +to persist in carrying on the siege, the autumnal equinox being past and the +air already closing in for cold, he should be deserted by his soldiers, who +would suffer anything rather than wintering in open field. To prevent which, he +had recourse to the following deceit: he gave order to those of his men who had +made most acquaintance among the Roman soldiers, not to pursue too close when +they met them foraging, but to suffer them to carry off some provision; +moreover, that they should praise their valor, and declare that it was not +without just reason that their king looked upon the Romans as the bravest men +in the world. This done, upon further opportunity they rode nearer in, and, +drawing up their horses by the men, began to revile Antony for his obstinacy; +that whereas Phraates desired nothing more than peace, and an occasion to show +how ready he was to save the lives of so many brave soldiers, he, on the +contrary, gave no opening to any friendly offers, but sat awaiting the arrival +of the two fiercest and worst enemies, winter and famine, from whom it would be +hard for them to make their escape, even with all the good-will of the +Parthians to help them. Antony, having these reports from many hands, began to +indulge the hope; nevertheless, he would not send any message to the Parthian +till he had put the question to these friendly talkers, whether what they said +was said by order of their king. Receiving answer that it was, together with +new encouragement to believe them, he sent some of his friends to demand once +more the standards and prisoners, lest, if he should ask nothing, he might be +supposed to be too thankful to have leave to retreat in quiet. The Parthian +king made answer, that as for the standards and prisoners, he need not trouble +himself; but if he thought fit to retreat, he might do it when he pleased, in +peace and safety. Some few days, therefore, being spent in collecting the +baggage, he set out upon his march. On which occasion, though there was no man +of his time like him for addressing a multitude, or for carrying soldiers with +him by the force of words, out of shame and sadness he could not find in his +heart to speak himself, but employed Domitius Aenobarbus. And some of the +soldiers resented it, as an undervaluing of them; but the greater number saw +the true cause, and pitied it, and thought it rather a reason why they on their +side should treat their general with more respect and obedience than ordinary. +</p> + +<p> +Antony had resolved to return by the same way he came, which was through a +level country clear of all trees, but a certain Mardian came to him (one that +was very conversant with the manners of the Parthians, and whose fidelity to +the Romans had been tried at the battle where the machines were lost), and +advised him to keep the mountains close on his right hand, and not to expose +his men, heavily armed, in a broad, open, riding country, to the attacks of a +numerous army of light-horse and archers; that Phraates with fair promises had +persuaded him from the siege on purpose that he might with more ease cut him +off in his retreat; but, if so he pleased, he would conduct him by a nearer +route, on which moreover he should find the necessaries for his army in greater +abundance. Antony upon this began to consider what was best to be done; he was +unwilling to seem to have any mistrust of the Parthians after their treaty; +but, holding it to be really best to march his army the shorter and more +inhabited way, he demanded of the Mardian some assurance of his faith, who +offered himself to be bound until the army came safe into Armenia. Two days he +conducted the army bound, and, on the third, when Antony had given up all +thought of the enemy, and was marching at his ease in no very good order, the +Mardian, perceiving the bank of a river broken down, and the water let out and +overflowing the road by which they were to pass, saw at once that this was the +handiwork of the Parthians, done out of mischief, and to hinder their march; so +he advised Antony to be upon his guard, for that the enemy was nigh at hand. +And no sooner had he begun to put his men in order, disposing the slingers and +dart men in convenient intervals for sallying out, but the Parthians came +pouring in on all sides, fully expecting to encompass them, and throw the whole +army into disorder. They were at once attacked by the light troops, whom they +galled a good deal with their arrows; but, being themselves as warmly +entertained with the slings and darts, and many wounded, they made their +retreat. Soon after, rallying up afresh, they were beat back by a battalion of +Gallic horse, and appeared no more that day. +</p> + +<p> +By their manner of attack Antony seeing what to do, not only placed the slings +and darts as a rear guard, but also lined both flanks with them, and so marched +in a square battle, giving order to the horse to charge and beat off the enemy, +but not to follow them far as they retired. So that the Parthians, not doing +more mischief for the four ensuing days than they received, began to abate in +their zeal, and, complaining that the winter season was much advanced, pressed +for returning home. +</p> + +<p> +But, on the fifth day, Flavius Gallus, a brave and active officer, who had a +considerable command in the army, came to Antony, desiring of him some +light-infantry out of the rear, and some horse out of the front, with which he +would undertake to do some considerable service. Which when he had obtained, he +beat the enemy back, not withdrawing, as was usual, at the same time, and +retreating upon the mass of the heavy infantry, but maintaining his own ground, +and engaging boldly. The officers who commanded in the rear, perceiving how far +he was getting from the body of the army, sent to warn him back, but he took no +notice of them. It is said that Titius the quaestor snatched the standards and +turned them round, upbraiding Gallus with thus leading so many brave men to +destruction. But when he on the other side reviled him again, and commanded the +men that were about him to stand firm, Titius made his retreat, and Gallus, +charging the enemies in the front, was encompassed by a party that fell upon +his rear, which at length perceiving, he sent a messenger to demand succor. But +the commanders of the heavy infantry, Canidius amongst others, a particular +favorite of Antony’s, seem here to have committed a great oversight. For, +instead of facing about with the whole body, they sent small parties, and, when +they were defeated, they still sent out small parties, so that by their bad +management the rout would have spread through the whole army, if Antony himself +had not marched from the van at the head of the third legion, and, passing this +through among the fugitives, faced the enemies, and hindered them from any +further pursuit. +</p> + +<p> +In this engagement were killed three thousand, five thousand were carried back +to the camp wounded, amongst the rest Gallus, shot through the body with four +arrows, of which wounds he died. Antony went from tent to tent to visit and +comfort the rest of them, and was not able to see his men without tears and a +passion of grief. They, however, seized his hand with joyful faces, bidding him +go and see to himself and not be concerned about them, calling him their +emperor and their general, and saying that if he did well they were safe. For +in short, never in all these times can history make mention of a general at the +head of a more splendid army; whether you consider strength and youth, or +patience and sufferance in labors and fatigues; but as for the obedience and +affectionate respect they bore their general, and the unanimous feeling amongst +small and great alike, officers and common soldiers, to prefer his good opinion +of them to their very lives and being, in this part of military excellence it +was not possible that they could have been surpassed by the very Romans of old. +For this devotion, as I have said before, there were many reasons, as the +nobility of his family, his eloquence, his frank and open manners, his liberal +and magnificent habits, his familiarity in talking with everybody, and, at this +time particularly, his kindness in assisting and pitying the sick, joining in +all their pains, and furnishing them with all things necessary, so that the +sick and wounded were even more eager to serve than those that were whole and +strong. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless, this last victory had so encouraged the enemy, that, instead of +their former impatience and weariness, they began soon to feel contempt for the +Romans, staying all night near the camp, in expectation of plundering their +tents and baggage, which they concluded they must abandon; and in the morning +new forces arrived in large masses, so that their number was grown to be not +less, it is said, than forty thousand horse; and the king had sent the very +guards that attended upon his own person, as to a sure and unquestioned +victory. For he himself was never present in any fight. Antony, designing to +harangue the soldiers, called for a mourning habit, that he might move them the +more, but was dissuaded by his friends; so he came forward in the general’s +scarlet cloak, and addressed them, praising those that had gained the victory, +and reproaching those that had fled, the former answering him with promises of +success, and the latter excusing themselves, and telling him they were ready to +undergo decimation, or any other punishment he should please to inflict upon +them, only entreating that he would forget and not discompose himself with +their faults. At which he lifted up his hands to heaven, and prayed the gods, +that if to balance the great favors he had received of them any judgment lay in +store, they would pour it upon his head alone, and grant his soldiers victory. +</p> + +<p> +The next day they took better order for their march, and the Parthians, who +thought they were marching rather to plunder than to fight, were much taken +aback, when they came up and were received with a shower of missiles, to find +the enemy not disheartened, but fresh and resolute. So that they themselves +began to lose courage. But at the descent of a hill where the Romans were +obliged to pass, they got together, and let fly their arrows upon them as they +moved slowly down. But the full-armed infantry, facing round, received the +light troops within; and those in the first rank knelt on one knee, holding +their shields before them, the next rank holding theirs over the first, and so +again others over these, much like the tiling of a house, or the rows of seats +in a theater, the whole affording sure defense against arrows, which glance +upon them without doing any harm. The Parthians, seeing the Romans down upon +their knees, could not imagine but that it must proceed from weariness; so that +they laid down their bows, and, taking their spears, made a fierce onset, when +the Romans, with a great cry, leapt upon their feet, striking hand to hand with +their javelins, slew the foremost, and put the rest to flight. After this rate +it was every day, and the trouble they gave made the marches short; in addition +to which famine began to be felt in the camp, for they could get but little +corn, and that which they got they were forced to fight for; and, besides this, +they were in want of implements to grind it and make bread. For they had left +almost all behind, the baggage horses being dead or otherwise employed in +carrying the sick and wounded. Provision was so scarce in the army that an +Attic quart of wheat sold for fifty drachmas, and barley loaves for their +weight in silver. And when they tried vegetables and roots, they found such as +are commonly eaten very scarce, so that they were constrained to venture upon +any they could get, and, among others, they chanced upon an herb that was +mortal, first taking away all sense and understanding. He that had eaten of it +remembered nothing in the world, and employed himself only in moving great +stones from one place to another, which he did with as much earnestness and +industry as if it had been a business of the greatest consequence. Through all +the camp there was nothing to be seen but men grubbing upon the ground at +stones, which they carried from place to place. But in the end they threw up +bile and died, as wine, moreover, which was the one antidote, failed. When +Antony saw them die so fast, and the Parthian still in pursuit, he was heard to +exclaim several times over, “O, the Ten Thousand!” as if in admiration of the +retreat of the Greeks with Xenophon, who, when they had a longer journey to +make from Babylonia, and a more powerful enemy to deal with, nevertheless came +home safe. +</p> + +<p> +The Parthians, finding that they could not divide the Roman army, nor break the +order of their battle, and that withal they had been so often worsted, once +more began to treat the foragers with professions of humanity; they came up to +them with their bows unbended, telling them that they were going home to their +houses; that this was the end of their retaliation, and that only some Median +troops would follow for two or three days, not with any design to annoy them, +but for the defense of some of the villages further on. And, saying this, they +saluted them and embraced them with a great show of friendship. This made the +Romans full of confidence again, and Antony, on hearing of it, was more +disposed to take the road through the level country, being told that no water +was to be hoped for on that through the mountains. But while he was preparing +thus to do, Mithridates came into the camp, a cousin to Monaeses, of whom we +related that he sought refuge with the Romans, and received in gift from Antony +the three cities. Upon his arrival, he desired somebody might be brought to him +that could speak Syriac or Parthian. One Alexander, of Antioch, a friend of +Antony’s, was brought to him, to whom the stranger, giving his name, and +mentioning Monaeses as the person who desired to do the kindness, put the +question, did he see that high range of hills, pointing at some distance. He +told him, yes. “It is there,” said he, “the whole Parthian army lie in wait for +your passage; for the great plains come immediately up to them, and they expect +that, confiding in their promises, you will leave the way of the mountains, and +take the level route. It is true that in passing over the mountains you will +suffer the want of water, and the fatigue to which you have become familiar, +but if you pass through the plains, Antony must expect the fortune of Crassus.” +</p> + +<p> +This said, he departed. Antony, in alarm, calling his friends in council, sent +for the Mardian guide, who was of the same opinion. He told them that, with or +without enemies, the want of any certain track in the plain, and the likelihood +of their losing their way, were quite objection enough; the other route was +rough and without water, but then it was but for a day. Antony, therefore, +changing his mind, marched away upon this road that night, commanding that +everyone should carry water sufficient for his own use; but most of them being +unprovided with vessels, they made shift with their helmets, and some with +skins. As soon as they started, the news of it was carried to the Parthians, +who followed them, contrary to their custom, through the night, and at sunrise +attacked the rear, which was tired with marching and want of sleep, and not in +condition to make any considerable defense. For they had got through two +hundred and forty furlongs that night, and at the end of such a march to find +the enemy at their heels, put them out of heart. Besides, having to fight for +every step of the way increased their distress from thirst. Those that were in +the van came up to a river, the water of which was extremely cool and clear, +but brackish and medicinal, and, on being drunk, produced immediate pains in +the bowels and a renewed thirst. Of this the Mardian had forewarned them, but +they could not forbear, and, beating back those that opposed them, they drank +of it. Antony ran from one place to another, begging they would have a little +patience, that not far off there was a river of wholesome water, and that the +rest of the way was so difficult for the horse, that the enemy could pursue +them no further; and, saying this, he ordered to sound a retreat to call those +back that were engaged, and commanded the tents should be set up, that the +soldiers might at any rate refresh themselves in the shade. +</p> + +<p> +But the tents were scarce well put up, and the Parthians beginning, according +to their custom, to withdraw, when Mithridates came again to them, and informed +Alexander, with whom he had before spoken, that he would do well to advise +Antony to stay where he was no longer than needs he must, that, after having +refreshed his troops, he should endeavor with all diligence to gain the next +river, that the Parthians would not cross it, but so far they were resolved to +follow them. Alexander made his report to Antony, who ordered a quantity of +gold plate to be carried to Mithridates, who, taking as much as be could well +hide under his clothes, went his way. And, upon this advice, Antony, while it +was yet day, broke up his camp, and the whole army marched forward without +receiving any molestation from the Parthians, though that night by their own +doing was in effect the most wretched and terrible that they passed. For some +of the men began to kill and plunder those whom they suspected to have any +money, ransacked the baggage, and seized the money there. In the end, they laid +hands on Antony’s own equipage, and broke all his rich tables and cups, +dividing the fragments amongst them. Antony, hearing such a noise and such a +stirring to and fro all through the army, the belief prevailing that the enemy +had routed and cut off a portion of the troops, called for one of his freedmen, +then serving as one of his guards, Rhamnus by name, and made him take an oath +that, whenever he should give him orders, he would run his sword through his +body and cut off his head, that he might not fall alive into the hands of the +Parthians, nor, when dead, be recognized as the general. While he was in this +consternation, and all his friends about him in tears, the Mardian came up, and +gave them all new life. He convinced them, by the coolness and humidity of the +air, which they could feel in breathing it, that the river which he had spoken +of was now not far off, and the calculation of the time that had been required +to reach it came, he said, to the same result, for the night was almost spent. +And, at the same time, others came with information that all the confusion in +the camp proceeded only from their own violence and robbery among themselves. +To compose this tumult, and bring them again into some order after their +distraction, he commanded the signal to be given for a halt. +</p> + +<p> +Day began to break, and quiet and regularity were just reappearing, when the +Parthian arrows began to fly among the rear, and the light armed troops were +ordered out to battle. And, being seconded by the heavy infantry, who covered +one another as before described with their shields, they bravely received the +enemy, who did not think convenient to advance any further, while the van of +the army, marching forward leisurely in this manner came in sight of the river, +and Antony, drawing up the cavalry on the banks to confront the enemy, first +passed over the sick and wounded. And, by this time, even those who were +engaged with the enemy had opportunity to drink at their ease; for the +Parthians, on seeing the river, unbent their bows, and told the Romans they +might pass over freely, and made them great compliments in praise of their +valor. Having crossed without molestation, they rested themselves awhile, and +presently went forward, not giving perfect credit to the fair words of their +enemies. Six days after this last battle, they arrived at the river Araxes, +which divides Media and Armenia, and seemed, both by its deepness and the +violence of the current, to be very dangerous to pass. A report, also, had +crept in amongst them, that the enemy was in ambush, ready to set upon them as +soon as they should be occupied with their passage. But when they were got over +on the other side, and found themselves in Armenia, just as if land was now +sighted after a storm at sea, they kissed the ground for joy, shedding tears +and embracing each other in their delight. But taking their journey through a +land that abounded in all sorts of plenty, they ate, after their long want, +with that excess of everything they met with, that they suffered from dropsies +and dysenteries. +</p> + +<p> +Here Antony, making a review of his army, found that he had lost twenty +thousand foot and four thousand horse, of which the better half perished, not +by the enemy, but by diseases. Their march was of twenty-seven days from +Phraata, during which they had beaten the Parthians in eighteen battles, though +with little effect or lasting result, because of their being so unable to +pursue. By which it is manifest that it was Artavasdes who lost Antony the +benefit of the expedition. For had the sixteen thousand horsemen whom he led +away out of Media, armed in the same style as the Parthians and accustomed to +their manner of fight, been there to follow the pursuit when the Romans put +them to flight, it is impossible they could have rallied so often after their +defeats, and reappeared again as they did to renew their attacks. For this +reason, the whole army was very earnest with Antony to march into Armenia to +take revenge. But he, with more reflection, forbore to notice the desertion, +and continued all his former courtesies, feeling that the army was wearied out, +and in want of all manner of necessaries. Afterwards, however, entering +Armenia, with invitations and fair promises he prevailed upon Artavasdes to +meet him, when he seized him, bound him, and carried him to Alexandria, and +there led him in a triumph; one of the things which most offended the Romans, +who felt as if all the honors and solemn observances of their country were, for +Cleopatra’s sake, handed over to the Egyptians. +</p> + +<p> +This, however, was at an after time. For the present, marching his army in +great haste in the depth of winter through continual storms of snow, he lost +eight thousand of his men, and came with much diminished numbers to a place +called the White Village, between Sidon and Berytus, on the seacoast, where he +waited for the arrival of Cleopatra. And, being impatient of the delay she +made, he bethought himself of shortening the time in wine and drunkenness, and +yet could not endure the tediousness of a meal, but would start from table and +run to see if she were coming. Till at last she came into port, and brought +with her clothes and money for the soldiers. Though some say that Antony only +received the clothes from her, and distributed his own money in her name. +</p> + +<p> +A quarrel presently happened between the king of Media and Phraates of Parthia, +beginning, it is said, about the division of the booty that was taken from the +Romans, and creating great apprehension in the Median lest he should lose his +kingdom. He sent, therefore, ambassadors to Antony, with offers of entering +into a confederate war against Phraates. And Antony, full of hopes at being +thus asked, as a favor, to accept that one thing, horse and archers, the want +of which had hindered his beating the Parthians before, began at once to +prepare for a return to Armenia, there to join the Medes on the Araxes, and +begin the war afresh. But Octavia, in Rome, being desirous to see Antony, asked +Caesar’s leave to go to him; which he gave her, not so much, say most authors, +to gratify his sister, as to obtain a fair pretense to begin the war upon her +dishonorable reception. She no sooner arrived at Athens, but by letters from +Antony she was informed of his new expedition, and his will that she should +await him there. And, though she were much displeased, not being ignorant of +the real reason of this usage, yet she wrote to him to know to what place he +would be pleased she should send the things she had brought with her for his +use; for she had brought clothes for his soldiers, baggage, cattle, money, and +presents for his friends and officers, and two thousand chosen soldiers +sumptuously armed, to form praetorian cohorts. This message was brought from +Octavia to Antony by Niger, one of his friends, who added to it the praises she +deserved so well. Cleopatra, feeling her rival already, as it were, at hand, +was seized with fear, lest if to her noble life and her high alliance, she once +could add the charm of daily habit and affectionate intercourse, she should +become irresistible, and be his absolute mistress for ever. So she feigned to +be dying for love of Antony, bringing her body down by slender diet; when he +entered the room, she fixed her eyes upon him in a rapture, and when he left, +seemed to languish and half faint away. She took great pains that he should see +her in tears, and, as soon as he noticed it, hastily dried them up and turned +away, as if it were her wish that he should know nothing of it. All this was +acting while he prepared for Media; and Cleopatra’s creatures were not slow to +forward the design, upbraiding Antony with his unfeeling, hard-hearted temper, +thus letting a woman perish whose soul depended upon him and him alone. +Octavia, it was true, was his wife, and had been married to him because it was +found convenient for the affairs of her brother that it should be so, and she +had the honor of the title; but Cleopatra, the sovereign queen of many nations, +had been contented with the name of his mistress, nor did she shun or despise +the character whilst she might see him, might live with him, and enjoy him; if +she were bereaved of this, she would not survive the loss. In fine, they so +melted and unmanned him, that, fully believing she would die if he forsook her, +he put off the war and returned to Alexandria, deferring his Median expedition +until next summer, though news came of the Parthians being all in confusion +with intestine disputes. Nevertheless, he did some time after go into that +country, and made an alliance with the king of Media, by marriage of a son of +his by Cleopatra to the king’s daughter, who was yet very young; and so +returned, with his thoughts taken up about the civil war. +</p> + +<p> +When Octavia returned from Athens, Caesar, who considered she had been +injuriously treated, commanded her to live in a separate house; but she refused +to leave the house of her husband, and entreated him, unless he had already +resolved, upon other motives, to make war with Antony, that he would on her +account let it alone; it would be intolerable to have it said of the two +greatest commanders in the world, that they had involved the Roman people in a +civil war, the one out of passion for; the other out of resentment about, a +woman. And her behavior proved her words to be sincere. She remained in +Antony’s house as if he were at home in it, and took the noblest and most +generous care, not only of his children by her, but of those by Fulvia also. +She received all the friends of Antony that came to Rome to seek office or upon +any business, and did her utmost to prefer their requests to Caesar; yet this +her honorable deportment did but, without her meaning it, damage the reputation +of Antony; the wrong he did to such a woman made him hated. Nor was the +division he made among his sons at Alexandria less unpopular; it seemed a +theatrical piece of insolence and contempt of his country. For, assembling the +people in the exercise ground, and causing two golden thrones to be placed on a +platform of silver, the one for him and the other for Cleopatra, and at their +feet lower thrones for their children, he proclaimed Cleopatra queen of Egypt, +Cyprus, Libya, and Coele-Syria, and with her conjointly Caesarion, the reputed +son of the former Caesar, who left Cleopatra with child. His own sons by +Cleopatra were to have the style of kings of kings; to Alexander he gave +Armenia and Media, with Parthia, so soon as it should be overcome; to Ptolemy, +Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Alexander was brought out before the people in +the Median costume, the tiara and upright peak, and Ptolemy, in boots and +mantle and Macedonian cap done about with the diadem; for this was the habit of +the successors of Alexander, as the other was of the Medes and Armenians. And, +as soon as they had saluted their parents, the one was received by a guard of +Macedonians, the other by one of Armenians. Cleopatra was then, as at other +times when she appeared in public, dressed in the habit of the goddess Isis, +and gave audience to the people under the name of the New Isis. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, relating these things in the senate, and often complaining to the +people, excited men’s minds against Antony. And Antony also sent messages of +accusation against Caesar. The principal of his charges were these: first, that +he had not made any division with him of Sicily, which was lately taken from +Pompey; secondly, that he had retained the ships he had lent him for the war; +thirdly, that after deposing Lepidus, their colleague, he had taken for himself +the army, governments, and revenues formerly appropriated to him; and, lastly, +that he had parceled out almost all Italy amongst his own soldiers, and left +nothing for his. Caesar’s answer was as follows: that he had put Lepidus out of +government because of his own misconduct; that what he had got in war he would +divide with Antony, so soon as Antony gave him a share of Armenia; that +Antony’s soldiers had no claims in Italy, being in possession of Media and +Parthia, the acquisitions which their brave actions under their general had +added to the Roman empire. +</p> + +<p> +Antony was in Armenia when this answer came to him, and immediately sent +Canidius with sixteen legions towards the sea; but he, in the company of +Cleopatra, went to Ephesus, whither ships were coming in from all quarters to +form the navy, consisting, vessels of burden included, of eight hundred +vessels, of which Cleopatra furnished two hundred, together with twenty +thousand talents, and provision for the whole army during the war. Antony, on +the advice of Domitius and some others, bade Cleopatra return into Egypt, there +to expect the event of the war; but she, dreading some new reconciliation by +Octavia’s means, prevailed with Canidius, by a large sum of money, to speak in +her favor with Antony, pointing out to him that it was not just that one that +bore so great a part in the charge of the war should be robbed of her share of +glory in the carrying it on: nor would it be politic to disoblige the +Egyptians, who were so considerable a part of his naval forces; nor did he see +how she was inferior in prudence to any one of the kings that were serving with +him; she had long governed a great kingdom by herself alone, and long lived +with him, and gained experience in public affairs. These arguments (so the fate +that destined all to Caesar would have it), prevailed; and when all their +forces had met, they sailed together to Samos, and held high festivities. For, +as it was ordered that all kings, princes, and governors, all nations and +cities within the limits of Syria, the Maeotid Lake, Armenia, and Illyria, +should bring or cause to be brought all munitions necessary for war, so was it +also proclaimed that all stage-players should make their appearance at Samos; +so that, while pretty nearly the whole world was filled with groans and +lamentations, this one island for some days resounded with piping and harping, +theaters filling, and choruses playing. Every city sent an ox as its +contribution to the sacrifice, and the kings that accompanied Antony competed +who should make the most magnificent feasts and the greatest presents; and men +began to ask themselves, what would be done to celebrate the victory, when they +went to such an expense of festivity at the opening of the war. +</p> + +<p> +This over, he gave Priene to his players for a habitation, and set sail for +Athens, where fresh sports and play-acting employed him. Cleopatra, jealous of +the honors Octavia had received at Athens (for Octavia was much beloved by the +Athenians), courted the favor of the people with all sorts of attentions. The +Athenians, in requital, having decreed her public honors, deputed several of +the citizens to wait upon her at her house; amongst whom went Antony as one, he +being an Athenian citizen, and he it was that made the speech. He sent orders +to Rome to have Octavia removed out of his house. She left it, we are told, +accompanied by all his children, except the eldest by Fulvia, who was then with +his father, weeping and grieving that she must be looked upon as one of the +causes of the war. But the Romans pitied, not so much her, as Antony himself, +and more particularly those who had seen Cleopatra, whom they could report to +have no way the advantage of Octavia either in youth or in beauty. +</p> + +<p> +The speed and extent of Antony’s preparations alarmed Caesar, who feared he +might be forced to fight the decisive battle that summer. For he wanted many +necessaries, and the people grudged very much to pay the taxes; freemen being +called upon to pay a fourth part of their incomes, and freed slaves an eighth +of their property, so that there were loud outcries against him, and +disturbances throughout all Italy. And this is looked upon as one of the +greatest of Antony’s oversights, that he did not then press the war. For he +allowed time at once for Caesar to make his preparations, and for the +commotions to pass over. For while people were having their money called for, +they were mutinous and violent; but, having paid it, they held their peace. +Titius and Plancus, men of consular dignity and friends to Antony, having been +ill used by Cleopatra, whom they had most resisted in her design of being +present in the war, came over to Caesar, and gave information of the contents +of Antony’s will, with which they were acquainted. It was deposited in the +hands of the vestal virgins, who refused to deliver it up, and sent Caesar +word, if he pleased, he should come and seize it himself, which he did. And, +reading it over to himself, he noted those places that were most for his +purpose, and, having summoned the senate, read them publicly. Many were +scandalized at the proceeding, thinking it out of reason and equity to call a +man to account for what was not to be until after his death. Caesar specially +pressed what Antony said in his will about his burial; for he had ordered that +even if he died in the city of Rome, his body, after being carried in state +through the forum, should be sent to Cleopatra at Alexandria. Calvisius, a +dependent of Caesar’s, urged other charges in connection with Cleopatra against +Antony; that he had given her the library of Pergamus, containing two hundred +thousand distinct volumes; that at a great banquet, in the presence of many +guests, he had risen up and rubbed her feet, to fulfill some wager or promise; +that he had suffered the Ephesians to salute her as their queen; that he had +frequently at the public audience of kings and princes received amorous +messages written in tablets made of onyx and crystal, and read them openly on +the tribunal; that when Furnius, a man of great authority and eloquence among +the Romans, was pleading, Cleopatra happening to pass by in her chair, Antony +started up and left them in the middle of their cause, to follow at her side +and attend her home. +</p> + +<p> +Calvisius, however, was looked upon as the inventor of most of these stories. +Antony’s friends went up and down the city to gain him credit, and sent one of +themselves, Geminius, to him, to beg him to take heed and not allow himself to +be deprived by vote of his authority, and proclaimed a public enemy to the +Roman state. But Geminius no sooner arrived in Greece but he was looked upon as +one of Octavia’s spies; at their suppers he was made a continual butt for +mockery, and was put to sit in the least honorable places; all which he bore +very well, seeking only an occasion of speaking with Antony. So, at supper, +being told to say what business he came about, he answered he would keep the +rest for a soberer hour, but one thing he had to say, whether full or fasting, +that all would go well if Cleopatra would return to Egypt. And on Antony +showing his anger at it, “You have done well, Geminius,” said Cleopatra, “to +tell your secret without being put to the rack.” So Geminius, after a few days, +took occasion to make his escape and go to Rome. Many more of Antony’s friends +were driven from him by the insolent usage they had from Cleopatra’s +flatterers, amongst whom were Marcus Silanus and Dellius the historian. And +Dellius says he was afraid of his life, and that Glaucus, the physician, +informed him of Cleopatra’s design against him. She was angry with him for +having said that Antony’s friends were served with sour wine, while at Rome +Sarmentus, Caesar’s little page (his delicia, as the Romans call it), drank +Falernian. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Caesar had completed his preparations, he had a decree made, +declaring war on Cleopatra, and depriving Antony of the authority which he had +let a woman exercise in his place. Caesar added that he had drunk potions that +had bereaved him of his senses, and that the generals they would have to fight +with would be Mardion the eunuch, Pothinus, Iras, Cleopatra’s hairdressing +girl, and Charmion, who were Antony’s chief state-councillors. +</p> + +<p> +These prodigies are said to have announced the war. Pisaurum, where Antony had +settled a colony, on the Adriatic sea, was swallowed up by an earthquake; sweat +ran from one of the marble statues of Antony at Alba for many days together, +and, though frequently wiped off, did not stop. When he himself was in the city +of Patrae, the temple of Hercules was struck by lightning, and, at Athens, the +figure of Bacchus was torn by a violent wind out of the Battle of the Giants, +and laid flat upon the theater; with both which deities Antony claimed +connection, professing to be descended from Hercules, and from his imitating +Bacchus in his way of living having received the name of Young Bacchus. The +same whirlwind at Athens also brought down, from amongst many others which were +not disturbed, the colossal statues of Eumenes and Attalus, which were +inscribed with Antony’s name. And in Cleopatra’s admiral-galley, which was +called the Antonias, a most inauspicious omen occurred. Some swallows had built +in the stern of the galley, but other swallows came, beat the first away, and +destroyed their nests. +</p> + +<p> +When the armaments gathered for the war, Antony had no less than five hundred +ships of war, including numerous galleys of eight and ten banks of oars, as +richly ornamented as if they were meant for a triumph. He had a hundred +thousand foot and twelve thousand horse. He had vassal kings attending, Bocchus +of Libya, Tarcondemus of the Upper Cilicia, Archelaus of Cappadocia, +Philadelphus of Paphlagonia, Mithridates of Commagene, and Sadalas of Thrace; +all these were with him in person. Out of Pontus Polemon sent him considerable +forces, as did also Malchus from Arabia, Herod the Jew, and Amyntas, king of +Lycaonia and Galatia; also the Median king sent some troops to join him. Caesar +had two hundred and fifty galleys of war, eighty thousand foot, and horse about +equal to the enemy. Antony’s empire extended from Euphrates and Armenia to the +Ionian sea and the Illyrians; Caesar’s, from Illyria to the westward ocean, and +from the ocean all along the Tuscan and Sicilian sea. Of Africa, Caesar had all +the coast opposite to Italy, Gaul, and Spain, as far as the Pillars of +Hercules, and Antony the provinces from Cyrene to Ethiopia. +</p> + +<p> +But so wholly was he now the mere appendage to the person of Cleopatra, that, +although he was much superior to the enemy in land-forces, yet, out of +complaisance to his mistress, he wished the victory to be gained by sea, and +that, too, when he could not but see how, for want of sailors, his captains, +all through unhappy Greece, were pressing every description of men, common +travelers and ass-drivers, harvest laborers and boys, and for all this the +vessels had not their complements, but remained, most of them, ill-manned and +badly rowed. Caesar, on the other side, had ships that were built not for size +or show, but for service, not pompous galleys, but light, swift, and perfectly +manned; and from his head-quarters at Tarentum and Brundusium he sent messages +to Antony not to protract the war, but come out with his forces; he would give +him secure roadsteads and ports for his fleet, and, for his land army to +disembark and pitch their camp, he would leave him as much ground in Italy, +inland from the sea, as a horse could traverse in a single course. Antony, on +the other side, with the like bold language, challenged him to a single combat, +though he were much the older; and, that being refused, proposed to meet him in +the Pharsalian fields, where Caesar and Pompey had fought before. But whilst +Antony lay with his fleet near Actium, where now stands Nicopolis, Caesar +seized his opportunity, and crossed the Ionian sea, securing himself at a place +in Epirus called the Ladle. And when those about Antony were much disturbed, +their land-forces being a good way off, “Indeed,” said Cleopatra, in mockery, +“we may well be frightened if Caesar has got hold of the Ladle!” +</p> + +<p> +On the morrow, Antony, seeing the enemy sailing up, and fearing lest his ships +might be taken for want of the soldiers to go on board of them, armed all the +rowers, and made a show upon the decks of being in readiness to fight; the oars +were mounted as if waiting to be put in motion, and the vessels themselves +drawn up to face the enemy on either side of the channel of Actium, as though +they were properly manned, and ready for an engagement And Caesar, deceived by +this stratagem, retired. He was also thought to have shown considerable skill +in cutting off the water from the enemy by some lines of trenches and forts, +water not being plentiful anywhere else, nor very good. And again, his conduct +to Domitius was generous, much against the will of Cleopatra. For when he had +made his escape in a little boat to Caesar, having then a fever upon him, +although Antony could not but resent it highly, yet he sent after him his whole +equipage, with his friends and servants; and Domitius, as if he would give a +testimony to the world how repentant he had become on his desertion and +treachery being thus manifest, died soon after. Among the kings, also, Amyntas +and Deiotarus went over to Caesar. And the fleet was so unfortunate in +everything that was undertaken, and so unready on every occasion, that Antony +was driven again to put his confidence in the land-forces. Canidius, too, who +commanded the legions, when he saw how things stood, changed his opinion, and +now was of advice that Cleopatra should be sent back, and that, retiring into +Thrace or Macedonia, the quarrel should be decided in a land fight. For +Dicomes, also, the king of the Getae, promised to come and join him with a +great army, and it would not be any kind of disparagement to him to yield the +sea to Caesar, who, in the Sicilian wars, had had such long practice in +ship-fighting; on the contrary, it would be simply ridiculous for Antony, who +was by land the most experienced commander living, to make no use of his +well-disciplined and numerous infantry, scattering and wasting his forces by +parceling them out in the ships. But for all this, Cleopatra prevailed that a +sea-fight should determine all, having already an eye to flight, and ordering +all her affairs, not so as to assist in gaining a victory, but to escape with +the greatest safety from the first commencement of a defeat. +</p> + +<p> +There were two long walls, extending from the camp to the station of the ships, +between which Antony used to pass to and fro without suspecting any danger. But +Caesar, upon the suggestion of a servant that it would not be difficult to +surprise him, laid an ambush, which, rising up somewhat too hastily, seized the +man that came just before him, he himself escaping narrowly by flight. +</p> + +<p> +When it was resolved to stand to a fight at sea, they set fire to all the +Egyptian ships except sixty; and of these the best and largest, from ten banks +down to three, he manned with twenty thousand full-armed men, and two thousand +archers. Here it is related that a foot captain, one that had fought often +under Antony, and had his body all mangled with wounds, exclaimed, “O, my +general, what have our wounds and swords done to displease you, that you should +give your confidence to rotten timbers? Let Egyptians and Phoenicians contend +at sea, give us the land, where we know well how to die upon the spot or gain +the victory.” To which he answered nothing, but, by his look and motion of his +hand seeming to bid him be of good courage, passed forwards, having already, it +would seem, no very sure hopes, since when the masters proposed leaving the +sails behind them, he commanded they should be put aboard, “For we must not,” +said he, “let one enemy escape.” +</p> + +<p> +That day and the three following the sea was so rough they could not engage. +But on the fifth there was a calm, and they fought; Antony commanding with +Publicola the right, and Coelius the left squadron, Marcus Octavius and Marcus +Insteius the center. Caesar gave the charge of the left to Agrippa, commanding +in person on the right. As for the land-forces, Canidius was general for +Antony, Taurus for Caesar; both armies remaining drawn up in order along the +shore. Antony in a small boat went from one ship to another, encouraging his +soldiers, and bidding them stand firm, and fight as steadily on their large +ships as if they were on land. The masters he ordered that they should receive +the enemy lying still as if they were at anchor, and maintain the entrance of +the port, which was a narrow and difficult passage. Of Caesar they relate, +that, leaving his tent and going round, while it was yet dark, to visit the +ships, he met a man driving an ass, and asked him his name. He answered him +that his own name was “Fortunate, and my ass,” says he, “is called Conqueror.” +And afterwards, when he disposed the beaks of the ships in that place in token +of his victory, the statue of this man and his ass in bronze were placed +amongst them. After examining the rest of his fleet, he went in a boat to the +right wing, and looked with much admiration at the enemy lying perfectly still +in the straits, in all appearance as if they had been at anchor. For some +considerable length of time he actually thought they were so, and kept his own +ships at rest, at a distance of about eight furlongs from them. But about noon +a breeze sprang up from the sea, and Antony’s men, weary of expecting the enemy +so long, and trusting to their large tall vessels, as if they had been +invincible, began to advance the left squadron. Caesar was overjoyed to see +them move, and ordered his own right squadron to retire, that he might entice +them out to sea as far as he could, his design being to sail round and round, +and so with his light and well-manned galleys to attack these huge vessels, +which their size and their want of men made slow to move and difficult to +manage. +</p> + +<p> +When they engaged, there was no charging or striking of one ship by another, +because Antony’s, by reason of their great bulk, were incapable of the rapidity +required to make the stroke effectual, and, on the other side, Caesar’s durst +not charge head to head on Antony’s, which were all armed with solid masses and +spikes of brass; nor did they like even to run in on their sides, which were so +strongly built with great squared pieces of timber, fastened together with iron +bolts, that their vessels’ beaks would easily have been shattered upon them. So +that the engagement resembled a land fight, or, to speak yet more properly, the +attack and defense of a fortified place; for there were always three or four +vessels of Caesar’s about one of Antony’s, pressing them with spears, javelins, +poles, and several inventions of fire, which they flung among them, Antony’s +men using catapults also, to pour down missiles from wooden towers. Agrippa +drawing out the squadron under his command to outflank the enemy, Publicola was +obliged to observe his motions, and gradually to break off from the middle +squadron, where some confusion and alarm ensued, while Arruntius engaged them. +But the fortune of the day was still undecided, and the battle equal, when on a +sudden Cleopatra’s sixty ships were seen hoisting sail and making out to sea in +full flight, right through the ships that were engaged. For they were placed +behind the great ships, which, in breaking through, they put into disorder. The +enemy was astonished to see them sailing off with a fair wind towards +Peloponnesus. Here it was that Antony showed to all the world that he was no +longer actuated by the thoughts and motives of a commander or a man, or indeed +by his own judgment at all, and what was once said as a jest, that the soul of +a lover lives in some one else’s body, he proved to be a serious truth. For, as +if he had been born part of her, and must move with her wheresoever she went, +as soon as he saw her ship sailing away, he abandoned all that were fighting +and spending their lives for him, and put himself aboard a galley of five ranks +of oars, taking with him only Alexander of Syria and Scellias, to follow her +that had so well begun his ruin and would hereafter accomplish it. +</p> + +<p> +She, perceiving him to follow, gave the signal to come aboard. So, as soon as +he came up with them, he was taken into the ship. But without seeing her or +letting himself be seen by her, he went forward by himself, and sat alone, +without a word, in the ship’s prow, covering his face with his two hands. In +the meanwhile, some of Caesar’s light Liburnian ships, that were in pursuit, +came in sight. But on Antony’s commanding to face about, they all gave back +except Eurycles the Laconian, who pressed on, shaking a lance from the deck, as +if he meant to hurl it at him. Antony, standing at the prow, demanded of him, +“Who is this that pursues Antony?” “I am,” said he, “Eurycles, the son of +Lachares, armed with Caesar’s fortune to revenge my father’s death.” Lachares +had been condemned for a robbery, and beheaded by Antony’s orders. However, +Eurycles did not attack Antony, but ran with his full force upon the other +admiral-galley (for there were two of them), and with the blow turned her +round, and took both her and another ship, in which was a quantity of rich +plate and furniture. So soon as Eurycles was gone, Antony returned to his +posture, and sat silent, and thus he remained for three days, either in anger +with Cleopatra, or wishing not to upbraid her, at the end of which they touched +at Taenarus. Here the women of their company succeeded first in bringing them +to speak, and afterwards to eat and sleep together. And, by this time, several +of the ships of burden and some of his friends began to come in to him from the +rout, bringing news of his fleet’s being quite destroyed, but that the +land-forces, they thought, still stood firm. So that he sent messengers to +Canidius to march the army with all speed through Macedonia into Asia. And, +designing himself to go from Taenarus into Africa, he gave one of the merchant +ships, laden with a large sum of money, and vessels of silver and gold of great +value, belonging to the royal collections, to his friends, desiring them to +share it amongst them, and provide for their own safety. They refusing his +kindness with tears in their eyes, he comforted them with all the goodness and +humanity imaginable, entreating them to leave him, and wrote letters in their +behalf to Theophilus, his steward, at Corinth, that he would provide for their +security, and keep them concealed till such time as they could make their peace +with Caesar. This Theophilus was the father of Hipparchus, who had such +interest with Antony, who was the first of all his freedmen that went over to +Caesar, and who settled afterwards at Corinth. In this posture were affairs +with Antony. +</p> + +<p> +But at Actium, his fleet, after a long resistance to Caesar, and suffering the +most damage from a heavy sea that set in right ahead, scarcely, at four in the +afternoon, gave up the contest, with the loss of not more than five thousand +men killed, but of three hundred ships taken, as Caesar himself has recorded. +Only few had known of Antony’s flight; and those who were told of it could not +at first give any belief to so incredible a thing, as that a general who had +nineteen entire legions and twelve thousand horse upon the sea-shore, could +abandon all and fly away; and he, above all, who had so often experienced both +good and evil fortune, and had in a thousand wars and battles been inured to +changes. His soldiers, howsoever would not give up their desires and +expectations, still fancying he would appear from some part or other, and +showed such a generous fidelity to his service, that, when they were thoroughly +assured that he was fled in earnest, they kept themselves in a body seven days, +making no account of the messages that Caesar sent to them. But at last, seeing +that Canidius himself, who commanded them, was fled from the camp by night, and +that all their officers had quite abandoned them, they gave way, and made their +submission to the conqueror. After this, Caesar set sail for Athens, where he +made a settlement with Greece, and distributed what remained of the provision +of corn that Antony had made for his army among the cities, which were in a +miserable condition, despoiled of their money, their slaves, their horses, and +beasts of service. My great-grandfather Nicarchus used to relate, that the +whole body of the people of our city were put in requisition to carry each one +a certain measure of corn upon their shoulders to the sea-side near Anticyra, +men standing by to quicken them with the lash. They had made one journey of the +kind, but when they had just measured out the corn and were putting it on their +backs for a second, news came of Antony’s defeat, and so saved Chaeronea, for +all Antony’s purveyors and soldiers fled upon the news, and left them to divide +the corn among themselves. +</p> + +<p> +When Antony came into Africa, he sent on Cleopatra from Paraetonium into Egypt, +and stayed himself in the most entire solitude that he could desire, roaming +and wandering about with only two friends, one a Greek, Aristocrates, a +rhetorician, and the other a Roman, Lucilius, of whom we have elsewhere spoken, +how, at Philippi, to give Brutus time to escape, he suffered himself to be +taken by the pursuers, pretending he was Brutus. Antony gave him his life, and +on this account he remained true and faithful to him to the last. +</p> + +<p> +But when also the officer who commanded for him in Africa, to whose care he had +committed all his forces there, took them over to Caesar, he resolved to kill +himself, but was hindered by his friends. And coming to Alexandria, he found +Cleopatra busied in a most bold and wonderful enterprise. Over the small space +of land which divides the Red Sea from the sea near Egypt, which may be +considered also the boundary between Asia and Africa, and in the narrowest +place is not much above three hundred furlongs across, over this neck of land +Cleopatra had formed a project of dragging her fleet, and setting it afloat in +the Arabian Gulf, thus with her soldiers and her treasure to secure herself a +home on the other side, where she might live in peace, far away from war and +slavery. But the first galleys which were carried over being burnt by the +Arabians of Petra, and Antony not knowing but that the army before Actium still +held together, she desisted from her enterprise, and gave orders for the +fortifying all the approaches to Egypt. But Antony, leaving the city and the +conversation of his friends, built him a dwelling-place in the water, near +Pharos, upon a little mole which he cast up in the sea, and there, secluding +himself from the company of mankind, said he desired nothing but to live the +life of Timon; as, indeed, his case was the same, and the ingratitude and +injuries which he suffered from those he had esteemed his friends, made him +hate and mistrust all mankind. +</p> + +<p> +This Timon was a citizen of Athens, and lived much about the Peloponnesian war, +as may be seen by the comedies of Aristophanes and Plato, in which he is +ridiculed as the hater and enemy of mankind. He avoided and repelled the +approaches of everyone, but embraced with kisses and the greatest show of +affection Alcibiades, then in his hot youth. And when Apemantus was astonished, +and demanded the reason, he replied that he knew this young man would one day +do infinite mischief to the Athenians. He never admitted anyone into his +company, except at times this Apemantus, who was of the same sort of temper, +and was an imitator of his way of life. At the celebration of the festival of +flagons, these two kept the feast together, and Apemantus saying to him, “What +a pleasant party, Timon!” “It would be,” he answered, “if you were away.” One +day he got up in a full assembly on the speaker’s place, and when there was a +dead silence and great wonder at so unusual a sight, he said, “Ye men of +Athens, I have a little plot of ground, and in it grows a fig-tree, on which +many citizens have been pleased to hang themselves; and now, having resolved to +build in that place, I wished to announce it publicly that any of you who may +be desirous may go and hang yourselves before I cut it down.” He died and was +buried at Halae, near the sea, where it so happened that, after his burial, a +land-slip took place on the point of the shore, and the sea, flowing in, +surrounded his tomb, and made it inaccessible to the foot of man. It bore this +inscription: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Here am I laid, my life of misery done.<br/> +Ask not my name, I curse you every one. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And this epitaph was made by himself while yet alive; that which is more +generally known is by Callimachus: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Timon, the misanthrope, am I below.<br/> +Go, and revile me, traveler, only go. +</p> + +<p> +Thus much of Timon, of whom much more might be said. Canidius now came, +bringing word in person of the loss of the army before Actium. Then he received +news that Herod of Judaea was gone over to Caesar with some legions and +cohorts, and that the other kings and princes were in like manner deserting +him, and that, out of Egypt, nothing stood by him. All this, however, seemed +not to disturb him, but, as if he were glad to put away all hope, that with it +he might be rid of all care, and leaving his habitation by the sea, which he +called the Timoneum, he was received by Cleopatra in the palace, and set the +whole city into a course of feasting, drinking, and presents. The son of Caesar +and Cleopatra was registered among the youths, and Antyllus, his own son by +Fulvia, received the gown without the purple border, given to those that are +come of age; in honor of which the citizens of Alexandria did nothing but feast +and revel for many days. They themselves broke up the Order of the Inimitable +Livers, and constituted another in its place, not inferior in splendor, luxury, +and sumptuosity, calling it that of the Diers together. For all those that said +they would die with Antony and Cleopatra gave in their names, for the present +passing their time in all manner of pleasures and a regular succession of +banquets. But Cleopatra was busied in making a collection of all varieties of +poisonous drugs, and, in order to see which of them were the least painful in +the operation, she had them tried upon prisoners condemned to die. But, finding +that the quick poisons always worked with sharp pains, and that the less +painful were slow, she next tried venomous animals, and watched with her own +eyes whilst they were applied, one creature to the body of another. This was +her daily practice, and she pretty well satisfied herself that nothing was +comparable to the bite of the asp, which, without convulsion or groaning, +brought on a heavy drowsiness and lethargy, with a gentle sweat on the face, +the senses being stupefied by degrees; the patient, in appearance, being +sensible of no pain, but rather troubled to be disturbed or awakened, like +those that are in a profound natural sleep. +</p> + +<p> +At the same time, they sent ambassadors to Caesar into Asia, Cleopatra asking +for the kingdom of Egypt for her children, and Antony, that he might have leave +to live as a private man in Egypt, or, if that were thought too much, that he +might retire to Athens. In lack of friends, so many having deserted, and others +not being trusted, Euphronius, his son’s tutor, was sent on this embassy. For +Alexas of Laodicea, who, by the recommendation of Timagenes, became acquainted +with Antony at Rome, and had been more powerful with him than any Greek, and +was, of all the instruments which Cleopatra made use of to persuade Antony, the +most violent, and the chief subverter of any good thoughts that, from time to +time, might rise in his mind in Octavia’s favor, had been sent before to +dissuade Herod from desertion; but, betraying his master, stayed with him, and, +confiding in Herod’s interest, had the boldness to come into Caesar’s presence. +Herod, however, was not able to help him, for he was immediately put in chains, +and sent into his own country, where, by Caesar’s order, he was put to death. +This reward of his treason Alexas received while Antony was yet alive. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar would not listen to any proposals for Antony, but he made answer to +Cleopatra, that there was no reasonable favor which she might not expect, if +she put Antony to death, or expelled him from Egypt. He sent back with the +ambassadors his own freedman Thyrsus, a man of understanding, and not at all +ill-qualified for conveying the messages of a youthful general to a woman so +proud of her charms and possessed with the opinion of the power of her beauty. +But by the long audiences he received from her, and the special honors which +she paid him, Antony’s jealousy began to be awakened; he had him seized, +whipped, and sent back; writing Caesar word that the man’s busy, impertinent +ways had provoked him; in his circumstances he could not be expected to be very +patient: “But if it offend you,” he added, “you have got my freedman, +Hipparchus, with you; hang him up and scourge him to make us even.” But +Cleopatra, after this, to clear herself, and to allay his jealousies, paid him +all the attentions imaginable. When her own birthday came, she kept it as was +suitable to their fallen fortunes; but his was observed with the utmost +prodigality of splendor and magnificence, so that many of the guests sat down +in want, and went home wealthy men. Meantime, continual letters came to Caesar +from Agrippa, telling him his presence was extremely required at Rome. +</p> + +<p> +And so the war was deferred for a season. But, the winter being over, he began +his march; he himself by Syria, and his captains through Africa. Pelusium being +taken, there went a report as if it had been delivered up to Caesar by Seleucus +not without the consent of Cleopatra; but she, to justify herself, gave up into +Antony’s hands the wife and children of Seleucus to be put to death. She had +caused to be built, joining to the temple of Isis, several tombs and monuments +of wonderful height, and very remarkable for the workmanship; thither she +removed her treasure, her gold, silver, emeralds, pearls, ebony, ivory, +cinnamon, and, after all, a great quantity of torchwood and tow. Upon which +Caesar began to fear lest she should, in a desperate fit, set all these riches +on fire; and, therefore, while he was marching towards the city with his army, +he omitted no occasion of giving her new assurances of his good intentions. He +took up his position in the Hippodrome, where Antony made a fierce sally upon +him, routed the horse, and beat them back into their trenches, and so returned +with great satisfaction to the palace, where, meeting Cleopatra, armed as he +was, he kissed her, and commended to her favor one of his men, who had most +signalized himself in the fight, to whom she made a present of a breastplate +and helmet of gold; which he having received, went that very night and deserted +to Caesar. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Antony sent a new challenge to Caesar, to fight him hand to hand; +who made him answer that he might find several other ways to end his life; and +he, considering with himself that he could not die more honorably than in +battle, resolved to make an effort both by land and sea. At supper, it is said, +he bade his servants help him freely, and pour him out wine plentifully, since +tomorrow, perhaps, they should not do the same, but be servants to a new +master, whilst he should lie on the ground, a dead corpse, and nothing. His +friends that were about him wept to hear him talk so; which he perceiving, told +them he would not lead them to a battle in which he expected rather an +honorable death than either safety or victory. That night, it is related, about +the middle of it, when the whole city was in a deep silence and general +sadness, expecting the event of the next day, on a sudden was heard the sound +of all sorts of instruments, and voices singing in tune, and the cry of a crowd +of people shouting and dancing, like a troop of bacchanals on its way. This +tumultuous procession seemed to take its course right through the middle of the +city to the gate nearest the enemy; here it became loudest, and suddenly passed +out. People who reflected considered this to signify that Bacchus, the god whom +Antony had always made it his study to copy and imitate, had now forsaken him. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as it was light, he marched his infantry out of the city, and posted +them upon a rising ground, from whence he saw his fleet make up to the enemy. +There he stood in expectation of the event; but, as soon as the fleets came +near to one another, his men saluted Caesar’s with their oars; and, on their +responding, the whole body of the ships, forming into a single fleet, rowed up +direct to the city. Antony had no sooner seen this, but the horse deserted him, +and went over to Caesar; and his foot being defeated, he retired into the city, +crying out that Cleopatra had betrayed him to the enemies he had made for her +sake. She, being afraid lest in his fury and despair he might do her a +mischief, fled to her monument, and letting down the falling doors, which were +strong with bars and bolts, she sent messengers who should tell Antony she was +dead. He, believing it, cried out, “Now, Antony, why delay longer? Fate has +snatched away the only pretext for which you could say you desired yet to +live.” Going into his chamber, and there loosening and opening his coat of +armor, “I am not,” said he, “troubled, Cleopatra, to be at present bereaved of +you, for I shall soon be with you; but it distresses me that so great a general +should be found of a tardier courage than a woman.” He had a faithful servant, +whose name was Eros; he had engaged him formerly to kill him when he should +think it necessary, and now he put him to his promise. Eros drew his sword, as +designing to kill him, but, suddenly turning round, he slew himself. And as he +fell dead at his feet, “It is well done, Eros,” said Antony; “you show your +master how to do what you had not the heart to do yourself;” and so he ran +himself into the belly, and laid himself upon the couch. The wound, however, +was not immediately mortal; and the flow of blood ceasing when he lay down, +presently he came to himself, and entreated those that were about him to put +him out of his pain; but they all fled out of the chamber, and left him crying +out and struggling, until Diomede, Cleopatra’s secretary, came to him, having +orders from her to bring him into the monument. +</p> + +<p> +When he understood she was alive, he eagerly gave order to the servants to take +him up, and in their arms was carried to the door of the building. Cleopatra +would not open the door, but, looking from a sort of window, she let down ropes +and cords, to which Antony was fastened; and she and her two women, the only +persons she had allowed to enter the monument, drew him up. Those that were +present say that nothing was ever more sad than this spectacle, to see Antony, +covered all over with blood and just expiring, thus drawn up, still holding up +his hands to her, and lifting up his body with the little force he had left. +As, indeed, it was no easy task for the women; and Cleopatra, with all her +force, clinging to the rope, and straining with her head to the ground, with +difficulty pulled him up, while those below encouraged her with their cries, +and joined in all her effort and anxiety. When she had got him up, she laid him +on the bed, tearing all her clothes, which she spread upon him; and, beating +her breasts with her hands, lacerating herself, and disfiguring her own face +with the blood from his wounds, she called him her lord, her husband, her +emperor, and seemed to have pretty nearly forgotten all her own evils, she was +so intent upon his misfortunes. Antony, stopping her lamentations as well as he +could, called for wine to drink, either that he was thirsty; or that he +imagined that it might put him the sooner out of pain. When he had drunk, he +advised her to bring her own affairs, so far as might be honorably done, to a +safe conclusion, and that, among all the friends of Caesar, she should rely on +Proculeius; that she should not pity him in this last turn of fate, but rather +rejoice for him in remembrance of his past happiness, who had been of all men +the most illustrious and powerful, and, in the end, had fallen not ignobly, a +Roman by a Roman overcome. +</p> + +<p> +Just as he breathed his last, Proculeius arrived from Caesar; for when Antony +gave himself his wound, and was carried in to Cleopatra, one of his guards, +Dercetaeus, took up Antony’s sword and hid it; and, when he saw his +opportunity, stole away to Caesar, and brought him the first news of Antony’s +death, and withal showed him the bloody sword. Caesar, upon this, retired into +the inner part of his tent, and, giving some tears to the death of one that had +been nearly allied to him in marriage, his colleague in empire, and companion +in so many wars and dangers, he came out to his friends, and, bringing with him +many letters, he read to them with how much reason and moderation he had always +addressed himself to Antony, and in return what overbearing and arrogant +answers he received. Then he sent Proculeius to use his utmost endeavors to get +Cleopatra alive into his power; for he was afraid of losing a great treasure, +and, besides, she would be no small addition to the glory of his triumph. She, +however, was careful not to put herself in Proculeius’s power; but from within +her monument, he standing on the outside of a door, on the level of the ground, +which was strongly barred, but so that they might well enough hear one +another’s voice, she held a conference with him; she demanding that her kingdom +might be given to her children, and he bidding her be of good courage, and +trust Caesar for everything. +</p> + +<p> +Having taken particular notice of the place, he returned to Caesar, and Gallus +was sent to parley with her the second time; who, being come to the door, on +purpose prolonged the conference, while Proculeius fixed his scaling-ladders in +the window through which the women had pulled up Antony. And so entering, with +two men to follow him, he went straight down to the door where Cleopatra was +discoursing with Gallus. One of the two women who were shut up in the monument +with her cried out, “Miserable Cleopatra, you are taken prisoner!” Upon which +she turned quick, and, looking at Proculeius, drew out her dagger, which she +had with her to stab herself. But Proculeius ran up quickly, and, seizing her +with both his hands, “For shame,” said he, “Cleopatra; you wrong yourself and +Caesar much, who would rob him of so fair an occasion of showing his clemency, +and would make the world believe the most gentle of commanders to be a +faithless and implacable enemy.” And so, taking the dagger out of her hand, he +also shook her dress to see if there were any poison hid in it. After this, +Caesar sent Epaphroditus, one of his freedmen, with orders to treat her with +all the gentleness and civility possible, but to take the strictest precautions +to keep her alive. +</p> + +<p> +In the meanwhile, Caesar made his entry into Alexandria, with Areius the +philosopher at his side, holding him by the hand and talking with him; desiring +that all his fellow-citizens should see what honor was paid to him, and should +look up to him accordingly from the very first moment. Then, entering the +exercise-ground, he mounted a platform erected for the purpose, and from thence +commanded the citizens (who, in great fear and consternation, fell prostrate at +his feet) to stand up, and told them, that he freely acquitted the people of +all blame, first, for the sake of Alexander, who built their city; then, for +the city’s sake itself, which was so large and beautiful; and, thirdly, to +gratify his friend Areius. +</p> + +<p> +Such great honor did Areius receive from Caesar; and by his intercession many +lives were saved, amongst the rest that of Philostratus, a man, of all the +professors of logic that ever were, the most ready in extempore speaking, but +quite destitute of any right to call himself one of the philosophers of the +Academy. Caesar, out of disgust at his character, refused all attention to his +entreaties. So, growing a long, white beard, and dressing himself in black, he +followed behind Areius, shouting out the verse, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The wise, if they are wise, will save the wise. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Which Caesar hearing, gave him his pardon, to prevent rather any odium that +might attach to Areius, than any harm that Philostratus might suffer. +</p> + +<p> +Of Antony’s children, Antyllus, his son by Fulvia, being betrayed by his tutor, +Theodorus, was put to death; and while the soldiers were cutting off his head, +his tutor contrived to steal a precious jewel which he wore about his neck, and +put it into his pocket, and afterwards denied the fact, but was convicted and +crucified. Cleopatra’s children, with their attendants, had a guard set on +them, and were treated very honorably. Caesarion, who was reputed to be the son +of Caesar the Dictator, was sent by his mother, with a great sum of money, +through Ethiopia, to pass into India; but his tutor, a man named Rhodon, about +as honest as Theodorus, persuaded him to turn back, for that Caesar designed to +make him king. Caesar consulting what was best to be done with him, Areius, we +are told, said, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Too many <i>Caesars</i> are not well. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +So, afterwards, when Cleopatra was dead, he was killed. +</p> + +<p> +Many kings and great commanders made petition to Caesar for the body of Antony, +to give him his funeral rites; but he would not take away his corpse from +Cleopatra, by whose hands he was buried with royal splendor and magnificence, +it being granted to her to employ what she pleased on his funeral. In this +extremity of grief and sorrow, and having inflamed and ulcerated her breasts +with beating them, she fell into a high fever, and was very glad of the +occasion, hoping, under this pretext, to abstain from food, and so to die in +quiet without interference. She had her own physician, Olympus, to whom she +told the truth, and asked his advice and help to put an end to herself, as +Olympus himself has told us, in a narrative which he wrote of these events. But +Caesar, suspecting her purpose, took to menacing language about her children, +and excited her fears for them, before which engines her purpose shook and gave +way, so that she suffered those about her to give her what meat or medicine +they pleased. +</p> + +<p> +Some few days after, Caesar himself came to make her a visit and comfort her. +She lay then upon her pallet-bed in undress, and, on his entering in, sprang up +from off her bed, having nothing on but the one garment next her body, and +flung herself at his feet, her hair and face looking wild and disfigured, her +voice quivering, and her eyes sunk in her head. The marks of the blows she had +given herself were visible about her bosom, and altogether her whole person +seemed no less afflicted than her soul. But, for all this, her old charm, and +the boldness of her youthful beauty had not wholly left her, and, in spite of +her present condition, still sparkled from within, and let itself appear in all +the movements of her countenance. Caesar, desiring her to repose herself, sat +down by her; and, on this opportunity, she said something to justify her +actions, attributing what she had done to the necessity she was under, and to +her fear of Antony; and when Caesar, on each point, made his objections, and +she found herself confuted, she broke off at once into language of entreaty and +deprecation, as if she desired nothing more than to prolong her life. And at +last, having by her a list of her treasure, she gave it into his hands; and +when Seleucus, one of her stewards, who was by, pointed out that various +articles were omitted, and charged her with secreting them, she flew up and +caught him by the hair, and struck him several blows on the face. Caesar +smiling and withholding her, “Is it not very hard, Caesar,” said she, “when you +do me the honor to visit me in this condition I am in, that I should be accused +by one of my own servants of laying by some women’s toys, not meant to adorn, +be sure, my unhappy self, but that I might have some little present by me to +make your Octavia and your Livia, that by their intercession I might hope to +find you in some measure disposed to mercy?” Caesar was pleased to hear her +talk thus, being now assured that she was desirous to live. And, therefore, +letting her know that the things she had laid by she might dispose of as she +pleased, and his usage of her should be honorable above her expectation, he +went away, well satisfied that he had overreached her, but, in fact, was +himself deceived. +</p> + +<p> +There was a young man of distinction among Caesar’s companions, named Cornelius +Dolabella. He was not without a certain tenderness for Cleopatra, and sent her +word privately, as she had besought him to do, that Caesar was about to return +through Syria, and that she and her children were to be sent on within three +days. When she understood this, she made her request to Caesar that he would be +pleased to permit her to make oblations to the departed Antony; which being +granted, she ordered herself to be carried to the place where he was buried, +and there, accompanied by her women, she embraced his tomb with tears in her +eyes, and spoke in this manner: “O, dearest Antony,” said she, “it is not long +since that with these hands I buried you; then they were free, now I am a +captive, and pay these last duties to you with a guard upon me, for fear that +my just griefs and sorrows should impair my servile body, and make it less fit +to appear in their triumph over you. No further offerings or libations expect +from me; these are the last honors that Cleopatra can pay your memory, for she +is to be hurried away far from you. Nothing could part us whilst we lived, but +death seems to threaten to divide us. You, a Roman born, have found a grave in +Egypt; I, an Egyptian, am to seek that favor, and none but that, in your +country. But if the gods below, with whom you now are, either can or will do +anything (since those above have betrayed us), suffer not your living wife to +be abandoned; let me not be led in triumph to your shame, but hide me and bury +me here with you, since, amongst all my bitter misfortunes, nothing has +afflicted me like this brief time that I have lived away from you.” +</p> + +<p> +Having made these lamentations, crowning the tomb with garlands and kissing it, +she gave orders to prepare her a bath, and, coming out of the bath, she lay +down and made a sumptuous meal. And a country fellow brought her a little +basket, which the guards intercepting and asking what it was, the fellow put +the leaves which lay uppermost aside, and showed them it was full of figs; and +on their admiring the largeness and beauty of the figs, he laughed, and invited +them to take some, which they refused, and, suspecting nothing, bade him carry +them in. After her repast, Cleopatra sent to Caesar a letter which she had +written and sealed; and, putting everybody out of the monument but her two +women, she shut the doors. Caesar, opening her letter, and finding pathetic +prayers and entreaties that she might be buried in the same tomb with Antony, +soon guessed what was doing. At first he was going himself in all haste, but, +changing his mind, he sent others to see. The thing had been quickly done. The +messengers came at full speed, and found the guards apprehensive of nothing; +but on opening the doors, they saw her stone-dead, lying upon a bed of gold, +set out in all her royal ornaments. Iras, one of her women, lay dying at her +feet, and Charmion, just ready to fall, scarce able to hold up her head, was +adjusting her mistress’s diadem. And when one that came in said angrily, “Was +this well done of your lady, Charmion?” “Extremely well,” she answered, “and as +became the descendant of so many kings”; and as she said this, she fell down +dead by the bedside. +</p> + +<p> +Some relate that an asp was brought in amongst those figs and covered with the +leaves, and that Cleopatra had arranged that it might settle on her before she +knew, but, when she took away some of the figs and saw it, she said, “So here +it is,” and held out her bare arm to be bitten. Others say that it was kept in +a vase, and that she vexed and pricked it with a golden spindle till it seized +her arm. But what really took place is known to no one. Since it was also said +that she carried poison in a hollow bodkin, about which she wound her hair; yet +there was not so much as a spot found, or any symptom of poison upon her body, +nor was the asp seen within the monument; only something like the trail of it +was said to have been noticed on the sand by the sea, on the part towards which +the building faced and where the windows were. Some relate that two faint +puncture-marks were found on Cleopatra’s arm, and to this account Caesar seems +to have given credit; for in his triumph there was carried a figure of +Cleopatra, with an asp clinging to her. Such are the various accounts. But +Caesar, though much disappointed by her death, yet could not but admire the +greatness of her spirit, and gave order that her body should he buried by +Antony with royal splendor and magnificence. Her women, also, received +honorable burial by his directions. Cleopatra had lived nine and thirty years, +during twenty-two of which she had reigned as queen, and for fourteen had been +Antony’s partner in his empire. Antony, according to some authorities, was +fifty-three, according to others, fifty-six years old. His statues were all +thrown down, but those of Cleopatra were left untouched; for Archibius, one of +her friends, gave Caesar two thousand talents to save them from the fate of +Antony’s. +</p> + +<p> +Antony left by his three wives seven children, of whom only Antyllus, the +eldest, was put to death by Caesar; Octavia took the rest, and brought them up +with her own. Cleopatra, his daughter by Cleopatra, was given in marriage to +Juba, the most accomplished of kings; and Antony, his son by Fulvia, attained +such high favor, that whereas Agrippa was considered to hold the first place +with Caesar, and the sons of Livia the second, the third, without dispute, was +possessed by Antony. Octavia, also, having had by her first husband, Marcellus, +two daughters, and one son named Marcellus, this son Caesar adopted, and gave +him his daughter in marriage; as did Octavia one of the daughters to Agrippa. +But Marcellus dying almost immediately after his marriage, she, perceiving that +her brother was at a loss to find elsewhere any sure friend to be his +son-in-law, was the first to recommend that Agrippa should put away her +daughter and marry Julia. To this Caesar first, and then Agrippa himself, gave +assent; so Agrippa married Julia, and Octavia, receiving her daughter, married +her to the young Antony. Of the two daughters whom Octavia had borne to Antony, +the one was married to Domitius Ahenobarbus; and the other, Antonia, famous for +her beauty and discretion, was married to Drusus, the son of Livia, and +step-son to Caesar. Of these parents were born Germanicus and Claudius. +Claudius reigned later; and of the children of Germanicus, Caius, after a reign +of distinction, was killed with his wife and child; Agrippina, after bearing a +son, Lucius Domitius, to Ahenobarbus, was married to Claudius Caesar, who +adopted Domitius, giving him the name of Nero Germanicus. He was emperor in our +time, and put his mother to death, and with his madness and folly came not far +from ruining the Roman empire, being Antony’s descendant in the fifth +generation. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap61"></a>COMPARISON OF DEMETRIUS AND ANTONY</h2> + +<p> +As both are great examples of the vicissitudes of fortune, let us first +consider in what way they attained their power and glory. Demetrius heired a +kingdom already won for him by Antigonus, the most powerful of the Successors, +who, before Demetrius grew to be a man, traversed with his armies and subdued +the greater part of Asia. Antony’s father was well enough in other respects, +but was no warrior, and could bequeath no great legacy of reputation to his +son, who had the boldness, nevertheless, to take upon him the government, to +which birth gave him no claim, which had been held by Caesar, and became the +inheritor of his great labors. And such power did he attain, with only himself +to thank for it, that, in a division of the whole empire into two portions, he +took and received the nobler one; and, absent himself, by his mere subalterns +and lieutenants often defeated the Parthians, and drove the barbarous nations +of the Caucasus back to the Caspian Sea. Those very things that procured him +ill-repute bear witness to his greatness. Antigonus considered Antipater’s +daughter Phila, in spite of the disparity of her years, an advantageous match +for Demetrius. Antony was thought disgraced by his marriage with Cleopatra, a +queen superior in power and glory to all, except Arsaces, who were kings in her +time. Antony was so great as to be thought by others worthy of higher things +than his own desires. +</p> + +<p> +As regards the right and justice of their aims at empire, Demetrius need not be +blamed for seeking to rule a people that had always had a king to rule them. +Antony, who enslaved the Roman people, just liberated from the rule of Caesar, +followed a cruel and tyrannical object. His greatest and most illustrious work, +his successful war with Brutus and Cassius, was done to crush the liberties of +his country and of his fellow-citizens. Demetrius, till he was driven to +extremity, went on, without intermission, maintaining liberty in Greece, and +expelling the foreign garrisons from the cities; not like Antony, whose boast +was to have slain in Macedonia those who had set up liberty in Rome. As for the +profusion and magnificence of his gifts, one point for which Antony is lauded, +Demetrius so far outdid them, that what he gave to his enemies was far more +than Antony ever gave to his friends. Antony was renowned for giving Brutus +honorable burial; Demetrius did so to all the enemy’s dead, and sent the +prisoners back to Ptolemy with money and presents. +</p> + +<p> +Both were insolent in prosperity, and abandoned themselves to luxuries and +enjoyments. Yet it cannot be said that Demetrius, in his revelings and +dissipations, ever let slip the time for action; pleasures with him attended +only the superabundance of his ease, and his Lamia, like that of the fable, +belonged only to his playful, half-waking, half-sleeping hours. When war +demanded his attention, his spear was not wreathed with ivy, nor his helmet +redolent of unguents; he did not come out to battle from the women’s chamber, +but, hushing the bacchanal shouts and putting an end to the orgies, he became +at once, as Euripides calls it, “the minister of the unpriestly Mars;” and, in +short, he never once incurred disaster through indolence or self-indulgence. +Whereas Antony, like Hercules in the picture where Omphale is seen removing his +club and stripping him of his lion’s skin, was over and over again disarmed by +Cleopatra, and beguiled away, while great actions and enterprises of the first +necessity fell, as it were, from his hands, to go with her to the seashore of +Canopus and Taphosiris, and play about. And in the end, like another Paris, he +left the battle to fly to her arms; or rather, to say the truth, Paris fled +when he was already beaten; Antony fled first, and, to follow Cleopatra, +abandoned his victory. +</p> + +<p> +There was no law to prevent Demetrius from marrying several wives; from the +time of Philip and Alexander, it had become usual with Macedonian kings, and he +did no more than was done by Lysimachus and Ptolemy. And those he married he +treated honorably. But Antony, first of all, in marrying two wives at once, did +a thing which no Roman had ever allowed himself; and then he drove away his +lawful Roman wife to please the foreign and unlawful woman. And so Demetrius +incurred no harm at all; Antony procured his ruin by his marriage. On the other +hand, no licentious act of Antony’s can be charged with that impiety which +marks those of Demetrius. Historical writers tell us that the very dogs are +excluded from the whole Acropolis, because of their gross, uncleanly habits. +The very Parthenon itself saw Demetrius consorting with harlots and debauching +free women of Athens. The vice of cruelty, also, remote as it seems from the +indulgence of voluptuous desires, must be attributed to him, who, in the +pursuit of his pleasures, allowed, or to say more truly, compelled the death of +the most beautiful and most chaste of the Athenians, who found no way but this +to escape his violence. In one word, Antony himself suffered by his excesses, +and other people by those of Demetrius. +</p> + +<p> +In his conduct to his parents, Demetrius was irreproachable. Antony gave up his +mother’s brother, in order that he might have leave to kill Cicero, this itself +being so cruel and shocking an act, that Antony would hardly be forgiven if +Cicero’s death had been the price of this uncle’s safety. In respect of +breaches of oaths and treaties, the seizure of Artabazes, and the assassination +of Alexander, Antony may urge the plea which no one denies to be true, that +Artabazes first abandoned and betrayed him in Media; Demetrius is alleged by +many to have invented false pretexts for his act, and not to have retaliated +for injuries, but to have accused one whom he injured himself. +</p> + +<p> +The achievements of Demetrius are all his own work. Antony’s noblest and +greatest victories were won in his absence by his lieutenants. For their final +disasters they have both only to thank themselves; not, however, in an equal +degree. Demetrius was deserted, the Macedonians revolted from him: Antony +deserted others, and ran away while men were fighting for him at the risk of +their lives. The fault to be found with the one is that he had thus entirely +alienated the affections of his soldiers; the other’s condemnation is that he +abandoned so much love and faith as he still possessed. We cannot admire the +death of either, but that of Demetrius excites our greater contempt. He let +himself become a prisoner, and was thankful to gain a three years’ accession of +life in captivity. He was tamed like a wild beast by his belly, and by wine; +Antony took himself out of the world in a cowardly, pitiful, and ignoble +manner, but, still in time to prevent the enemy having his person in their +power. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap62"></a>DION</h2> + +<p> +If it be true, Sosius Senecio, that, as Simonides tells us, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Of the Corinthians Troy does not complain” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +for having taken part with the Achaeans in the siege, because the Trojans also +had Corinthians (Glaucus, who sprang from Corinth,) fighting bravely on their +side, so also it may be fairly said that neither Romans nor Greeks can quarrel +with the Academy, each nation being equally represented in the following pair +of lives, which will give an account of Brutus and of Dion, — Dion, who was +Plato’s own hearer, and Brutus, who was brought up in his philosophy. They came +from one and the selfsame school, where they had been trained alike, to run the +race of honor; nor need we wonder that in the performance of actions often most +nearly allied and akin, they both bore evidence to the truth of what their +guide and teacher had said, that, without the concurrence of power and success +with justice and prudence, public actions do not attain their proper, great, +and noble character. For as Hippomachus the wrestling-master affirmed, he could +distinguish his scholars at a distance. though they were but carrying meat from +the shambles, so it is very probable that the principles of those who have had +the same good education should appear with a resemblance in all their actions, +creating in them a certain harmony and proportion, at once agreeable and +becoming. +</p> + +<p> +We may also draw a close parallel of the lives of the two men from their +fortunes, wherein chance, even more than their own designs, made them nearly +alike. For they were both cut off by an untimely death, not being able to +accomplish those ends which through many risks and difficulties they aimed at. +But, above all, this is most wonderful; that by preternatural interposition +both of them had notice given of their approaching death by an unpropitious +form, which visibly appeared to them. Although there are people who utterly +deny any such thing, and say that no man in his right senses ever yet saw any +supernatural phantom or apparition, but that children only, and silly women, or +men disordered by sickness, in some aberration of the mind or distemperature of +the body, have had empty and extravagant imaginations, whilst the real evil +genius, superstition, was in themselves. Yet if Dion and Brutus, men of solid +understanding, and philosophers, not to be easily deluded by fancy or +discomposed by any sudden apprehension, were thus affected by visions, that +they forthwith declared to their friends what they had seen, I know not how we +can avoid admitting again the utterly exploded opinion of the oldest times, +that evil and beguiling spirits, out of an envy to good men, and a desire of +impeding their good deeds, make efforts to excite in them feelings of terror +and distraction, to make them shake and totter in their virtue, lest by a +steady and unbiased perseverance they should obtain a happier condition than +these beings after death. But I shall leave these things for another +opportunity, and, in this twelfth book of the lives of great men compared one +with another, begin with his who was the elder. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius the First, having possessed himself of the government, at once took +to wife the daughter of Hermocrates, the Syracusan. She, in an outbreak which +the citizens made before the new power was well settled, was abused in such a +barbarous and outrageous manner, that for shame she put an end to her own life. +But Dionysius, when he was reestablished and confirmed in his supremacy, +married two wives together, one named Doris, of Locri, the other, Aristomache, +a native of Sicily, and daughter of Hipparinus, a man of the first quality in +Syracuse, and colleague with Dionysius when he was first chosen general with +unlimited powers for the war. It is said he married them both in one day, and +no one ever knew which of the two he first made his wife; and ever after he +divided his kindness equally between them, both accompanying him together at +his table, and in his bed by turns. Indeed, the Syracusans were urgent that +their own countrywoman might be preferred before the stranger; but Doris, to +compensate for her foreign extraction; had the good fortune to be the mother of +the son and heir of the family, whilst Aristomache continued a long time +without issue, though Dionysius was very desirous to have children by her, and, +indeed, caused Doris’s mother to be put to death, laying to her charge that she +had given drugs to Aristomache, to prevent her being with child. +</p> + +<p> +Dion, Aristomache’s brother, at first found an honorable reception for his +sister’s sake; but his own worth and parts soon procured him a nearer place in +his brother-in-law’s affection, who, among other favors, gave special command +to his treasurers to furnish Dion with whatever money he demanded, only telling +him on the same day what they had delivered out. Now, though Dion was before +reputed a person of lofty character; of a noble mind, and daring courage, yet +these excellent qualifications all received a great development from the happy +chance which conducted Plato into Sicily; not assuredly by any human device or +calculation, but some supernatural power, designing that this remote cause +should hereafter occasion the recovery of the Sicilians’ lost liberty and the +subversion of the tyrannical government, brought the philosopher out of Italy +to Syracuse, and made acquaintance between him and Dion. Dion was, indeed, at +this time extremely young in years, but of all the scholars that attended Plato +he was the quickest and aptest to learn, and the most prompt and eager to +practice, the lessons of virtue, as Plato himself reports of him, and his own +actions sufficiently testify. For though he had been bred up under a tyrant in +habits of submission, accustomed to a life, on the one hand of servility and +intimidation, and yet on the other of vulgar display and luxury, the mistaken +happiness of people that knew no better thing than pleasure and +self-indulgence, yet, at the first taste of reason and a philosophy that +demands obedience to virtue, his soul was set in a flame, and in the simple +innocence of youth, concluding, from his own disposition, that the same reasons +would work the same effects upon Dionysius, he made it his business, and at +length obtained the favor of him, at a leisure hour, to hear Plato. +</p> + +<p> +At this their meeting, the subject-matter of their discourse in general was +human virtue, but, more particularly, they disputed concerning fortitude, which +Plato proved tyrants, of all men, had the least pretense to; and thence +proceeding to treat of justice, asserted the happy estate of the just, and the +miserable condition of the unjust; arguments which Dionysius would not hear +out, but, feeling himself, as it were, convicted by his words, and much +displeased to see the rest of the auditors full of admiration for the speaker +and captivated with his doctrine, at last, exceedingly exasperated, he asked +the philosopher in a rage, what business he had in Sicily. To which Plato +answered, “I came to seek a virtuous man.” “It seems then,” replied Dionysius, +“you have lost your labor.” Dion, supposing, that this was all, and that +nothing further could come of his anger, at Plato’s request, conveyed him +aboard a galley, which was conveying Pollis, the Spartan, into Greece. But +Dionysius privately dealt with Pollis, by all means to kill Plato in the +voyage; if not, to be sure to sell him for a slave: he would, of course, take +no harm of it, being the same just man as before; he would enjoy that +happiness, though he lost his liberty. Pollis, therefore, it is stated, carried +Plato to Aegina, and there sold him; the Aeginetans, then at war with Athens, +having made a decree that whatever Athenian was taken on their coasts should +forthwith be exposed to sale. Notwithstanding, Dion was not in less favor and +credit with Dionysius than formerly, but was entrusted with the most +considerable employments, and sent on important embassies to Carthage, in the +management of which he gained very great reputation. Besides, the usurper bore +with the liberty he took to speak his mind freely, he being the only man who +upon any occasion durst boldly say what he thought, as, for example, in the +rebuke he gave him about Gelon. Dionysius was ridiculing Gelon’s government, +and, alluding to his name, said, he had been the laughing-stock of Sicily. +While others seemed to admire and applaud the quibble, Dion very warmly +replied, “Nevertheless, it is certain that you are sole governor here, because +you were trusted for Gelon’s sake; but for your sake no man will ever hereafter +be trusted again.” For, indeed, Gelon had made a monarchy appear the best, +whereas Dionysius had convinced men that it was the worst, of governments. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius had three children by Doris, and by Aristomache four, two of which +were daughters, Sophrosyne and Arete. Sophrosyne was married to his son +Dionysius; Arete, to his brother Thearides, after whose death, Dion received +his niece Arete to wife. Now when Dionysius was sick and like to die, Dion +endeavored to speak with him in behalf of the children he had by Aristomache, +but was still prevented by the physicians, who wanted to ingratiate themselves +with the next successor, who also, as Timaeus reports, gave him a sleeping +potion which he asked for, which produced an insensibility only followed by his +death. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless, at the first council which the young Dionysius held with his +friends, Dion discoursed so well of the present state of affairs, that he made +all the rest appear in their politics but children, and in their votes rather +slaves than counselors, who timorously and disingenuously advised what would +please the young man, rather than what would advance his interest. But that +which startled them most was the proposal he made to avert the imminent danger +they feared of a war with the Carthaginians, undertaking, if Dionysius wanted +peace, to sail immediately over into Africa, and conclude it there upon +honorable terms; but, if he rather preferred war, then he would fit out and +maintain at his own cost and charges fifty galleys ready for the service. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius wondered much at his greatness of mind, and received his offer with +satisfaction. But the other courtiers, thinking his generosity reflected upon +them, and jealous of being lessened by his greatness, from hence took all +occasions by private slanders to render him obnoxious to the young man’s +displeasure; as if he designed by his power at sea to surprise the government, +and by the help of those naval forces confer the supreme authority upon his +sister Aristomache’s children. But, indeed, the most apparent and the strongest +grounds for dislike and hostility existed already in the difference of his +habits, and his reserved and separate way of living. For they, who, from the +beginning, by flatteries and all unworthy artifices, courted the favor and +familiarity of the prince, youthful and voluptuously bred, ministered to his +pleasures, and sought how to find him daily some new amours and occupy him in +vain amusements, with wine or with women, and in other dissipations; by which +means, the tyranny, like iron softened in the fire, seemed, indeed, to the +subject to be more moderate and gentle, and to abate somewhat of its extreme +severity; the edge of it being blunted, not by the clemency, but rather the +sloth and degeneracy of the sovereign, whose dissoluteness, gaining ground +daily, and growing upon him, soon weakened and broke those “adamantine chains,” +with which his father, Dionysius, said he had left the monarchy fastened and +secured. It is reported of him, that, having begun a drunken debauch, he +continued it ninety days without intermission; in all which time no person on +business was allowed to appear, nor was any serious conversation heard at +court, but drinking, singing, dancing. and buffoonery reigned there without +control. +</p> + +<p> +It is likely then they had little kindness for Dion, who never indulged himself +in any youthful pleasure or diversion. And so his very virtues were the matter +of their calumnies, and were represented under one or other plausible name as +vices; they called his gravity pride, his plain-dealing self-will, the good +advice he gave was all construed into reprimand, and he was censured for +neglecting and scorning those in whose misdemeanors he declined to participate. +And to say the truth, there was in his natural character something stately, +austere, reserved, and unsociable in conversation, which made his company +unpleasant and disagreeable not only to the young tyrant, whose ears had been +corrupted by flatteries; many also of Dion’s own intimate friends, though they +loved the integrity and generosity of his temper, yet blamed his manner, and +thought he treated those with whom he had to do, less courteously and affably +than became a man engaged in civil business. Of which Plato also afterwards +wrote to him; and, as it were, prophetically advised him carefully to avoid an +arbitrary temper, whose proper helpmate was a solitary life. And, indeed, at +this very time, though circumstances made him so important, and, in the danger +of the tottering government, he was recognized as the only or the ablest +support of it, yet he well understood that he owed not his high position to any +good-will or kindness, but to the mere necessities of the usurper. +</p> + +<p> +And, supposing the cause of this to be ignorance and want of education, he +endeavored to induce the young man into a course of liberal studies, and to +give him some knowledge of moral truths and reasonings, hoping he might thus +lose his fear of virtuous living, and learn to take pleasure in laudable +actions. Dionysius, in his own nature, was not one of the worst kind of +tyrants, but his father, fearing that if he should come to understand himself +better, and converse with wise and reasonable men, he might enter into some +design against him, and dispossess him of his power, kept him closely shut up +at home; where, for want of other company, and ignorant how to spend his time +better, he busied himself in making little chariots, candlesticks, stools, +tables, and other things of wood. For the elder Dionysius was so diffident and +suspicious, and so continually on his guard against all men, that he would not +so much as let his hair be trimmed with any barber’s or hair-cutter’s +instruments, but made one of his artificers singe him with a live coal. Neither +were his brother or his son allowed to come into his apartment in the dress +they wore, but they, as all others, were stripped to their skins by some of the +guard, and, after being seen naked, put on other clothes before they were +admitted into the presence. When his brother Leptines was once describing the +situation of a place, and took a javelin from one of the guard to draw the plan +of it, he was extremely angry with him, and had the soldier who gave him the +weapon put to death. He declared, the more judicious his friends were, the more +he suspected them; because he knew, that were it in their choice, they would +rather be tyrants themselves than the subjects of a tyrant. He slew Marsyas, +one of his captains whom he had preferred to a considerable command, for +dreaming that he killed him: without some previous waking thought and purpose +of the kind, he could not, he supposed, have had that fancy in his sleep. So +timorous was he, and so miserable a slave to his fears, yet very angry with +Plato, because he would not allow him to be the valiantest man alive. +</p> + +<p> +Dion, as we said before, seeing the son thus deformed and spoilt in character +for want of teaching, exhorted him to study, and to use all his entreaties to +persuade Plato, the first of philosophers, to visit him in Sicily, and; when he +came, to submit himself to his direction and advice: by whose instructions he +might conform his nature to the truths of virtue, and, living after the +likeness of the Divine and glorious Model of Being, out of obedience to whose +control the general confusion is changed into the beautiful order of the +universe, so he in like manner might be the cause of great happiness to himself +and to all his subjects, who, obliged by his justice and moderation, would then +willingly pay him obedience as their father, which now grudgingly, and upon +necessity, they are forced to yield him as their master. Their usurping tyrant +he would then no longer be, but their lawful king. For fear and force, a great +navy and standing army of ten thousand hired barbarians are not, as his father +had said, the adamantine chains which secure the regal power, but the love, +zeal, and affection inspired by clemency and justice; which, though they seem +more pliant than the stiff and hard bonds of severity, are nevertheless the +strongest and most durable ties to sustain a lasting government. Moreover, it +is mean and dishonorable that a ruler, while careful to be splendid in his +dress, and luxurious and magnificent in his habitation, should, in reason and +power of speech, make no better show than the commonest of his subjects, nor +have the princely palace of his mind adorned according to his royal dignity. +</p> + +<p> +Dion frequently entertaining the king upon this subject, and, as occasion +offered, repeating some of the philosopher’s sayings, Dionysius grew +impatiently desirous to have Plato’s company, and to hear him discourse. +Forthwith, therefore, he sent letter upon letter to him to Athens, to which +Dion added his entreaties; also several philosophers of the Pythagorean sect +from Italy sent their recommendations, urging him to come and obtain a hold +upon this pliant, youthful soul, which his solid and weighty reasonings might +steady, as it were, upon the seas of absolute power and authority. Plato, as he +tells us himself, out of shame more than any other feeling, lest it should seem +that he was all mere theory, and that of his own good-will he would never +venture into action, hoping withal, that if he could work a cure upon one man, +the head and guide of the rest, he might remedy the distempers of the whole +island of Sicily, yielded to their requests. +</p> + +<p> +But Dion’s enemies, fearing an alteration in Dionysius, persuaded him to recall +from banishment Philistus, a man of learned education, and at the same time of +great experience in the ways of tyrants, and who might serve as a counterpoise +to Plato and his philosophy. For Philistus from the beginning had been a great +instrument in establishing the tyranny, and for a long time had held the office +of captain of the citadel. There was a report, that he had been intimate with +the mother of Dionysius the first, and not without his privity. And when +Leptines, having two daughters by a married woman whom he had debauched, gave +one of them in marriage to Philistus, without acquainting Dionysius, he, in +great anger, put Leptines’s mistress in prison, and banished Philistus from +Sicily. Whereupon, he fled to some of his friends on the Adriatic coast, in +which retirement and leisure it is probable he wrote the greatest part of his +history; for he returned not into his country during the reign of that +Dionysius. +</p> + +<p> +But after his death, as is just related, Dion’s enemies occasioned him to be +recalled home, as fitter for their purpose, and a firm friend to the arbitrary +government. And this, indeed, immediately upon his return he set himself to +maintain; and at the same time various calumnies and accusations against Dion +were by others brought to the king: as that he held correspondence with +Theodotes and Heraclides, to subvert the government; as, doubtless, it is +likely enough, that Dion had entertained hopes, by the coming of Plato, to +mitigate the rigid and despotic severity of the tyranny, and to give Dionysius +the character of a fair and lawful governor; and had determined, if he should +continue averse to that, and were not to be reclaimed, to depose him, and +restore the commonwealth to the Syracusans; not that he approved a democratic +government, but thought it altogether preferable to a tyranny, when a sound and +good aristocracy could not be procured. +</p> + +<p> +This was the state of affairs when Plato came into Sicily, who, at his first +arrival, was received with wonderful demonstration of kindness and respect. For +one of the royal chariots, richly ornamented, was in attendance to receive him +when he came on shore; Dionysius himself sacrificed to the gods in thankful +acknowledgment for the great happiness which had befallen his government. The +citizens, also, began to entertain marvelous hopes of a speedy reformation, +when they observed the modesty which now ruled in the banquets, and the general +decorum which prevailed in all the court, their tyrant himself also behaving +with gentleness and humanity in all their matters of business that came before +him. There was a general passion for reasoning: and philosophy, insomuch that +the very palace, it is reported, was filled with dust by the concourse of the +students in mathematics who were working their problems there. Some few days +after, it was the time of one of the Syracusan sacrifices, and when the priest, +as he was wont, prayed for the long and safe continuance of the tyranny, +Dionysius, it is said, as he stood by, cried out, “Leave off praying for evil +upon us.” This sensibly vexed Philistus and his party, who conjectured, that if +Plato, upon such brief acquaintance, had so far transformed and altered the +young man’s mind, longer converse and greater intimacy would give him such +influence and authority, that it would he impossible to withstand him. +</p> + +<p> +Therefore, no longer privately and apart, but jointly and in public, all of +them, they began to slander Dion, noising it about that he had charmed and +bewitched Dionysius by Plato’s sophistry, to the end that when he was persuaded +voluntarily to part with his power, and lay down his authority, Dion might take +it up, and settle it upon his sister Aristomache’s children. Others professed +to be indignant that the Athenians, who formerly had come to Sicily with a +great fleet and a numerous land-army, and perished miserably without being able +to take the city of Syracuse, should now, by means of one sophister, overturn +the sovereignty of Dionysius; inveigling him to cashier his guard of ten +thousand lances, dismiss a navy of four hundred galleys, disband an army of ten +thousand horse and many times over that number of foot, and go seek in the +schools an unknown and imaginary bliss, and learn by the mathematics how to be +happy; while, in the meantime, the substantial enjoyments of absolute power, +riches, and pleasure would be handed over to Dion and his sister’s children. +</p> + +<p> +By these means, Dion began to incur at first suspicion, and by degrees more +apparent displeasure and hostility. A letter, also, was intercepted and brought +to the young prince, which Dion had written to the Carthaginian agents, +advising them, that, when they treated with Dionysius concerning the peace, +they should not come to their audience without communicating with him: they +would not fail to obtain by this means all that they wanted. When Dionysius had +shown this to Philistus, and consulted with him, as Timaeus relates, about it, +he overreached Dion by a feigned reconciliation, professing, after some fair +and reasonable expression of his feelings, that he was at friends with him, and +thus, leading him alone to the sea-side, under the castle wall, he showed him +the letter, and taxed him with conspiring with the Carthaginians against him. +And when Dion essayed to speak in his own defense, Dionysius suffered him not; +but immediately forced him aboard a boat, which lay there for that purpose, and +commanded the sailors to set him ashore on the coast of Italy. +</p> + +<p> +When this was publicly known, and was thought very hard usage, there was much +lamentation in the tyrant’s own household on account of the women, but the +citizens of Syracuse encouraged themselves, expecting that for his sake some +disturbance would ensue; which, together with the mistrust others would now +feel, might occasion a general change and revolution in the state. Dionysius, +seeing this, took alarm, and endeavored to pacify the women and others of +Dion’s kindred and friends; assuring them that he had not banished, but only +sent him out of the way for a time, for fear of his own passion, which might be +provoked some day by Dion’s self-will into some act which he should be sorry +for. He gave also two ships to his relations, with liberty to send into +Peloponnesus for him whatever of his property or servants they thought fit. +</p> + +<p> +Dion was very rich, and had his house furnished with little less than royal +splendor and magnificence. These valuables his friends packed up and conveyed +to him, besides many rich presents which were sent him by the women and his +adherents. So that, so far as wealth and riches went, he made a noble +appearance among the Greeks, and they might judge, by the affluence of the +exile, what was the power of the tyrant. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius immediately removed Plato into the castle, designing, under color of +an honorable and kind reception, to set a guard upon him, lest he should follow +Dion, and declare to the world in his behalf, how injuriously he had been dealt +with. And, moreover, time and conversation (as wild beasts by use grow tame and +tractable) had brought Dionysius to endure Plato’s company and discourse, so +that he began to love the philosopher, but with such an affection as had +something of the tyrant in it, requiring of Plato that he should, in return of +his kindness, love him only, and attend to him above all other men; being ready +to permit to his care the chief management of affairs, and even the government, +too, upon condition that he would not prefer Dion’s friendship before his. This +extravagant affection was a great trouble to Plato, for it was accompanied with +petulant and jealous humors, like the fond passions of those that are +desperately in love; frequently he was angry and fell out with him, and +presently begged and entreated to be friends again. He was beyond measure +desirous to be Plato’s scholar, and to proceed in the study of philosophy, and +yet he was ashamed of it with those who spoke against it and professed to think +it would ruin him. +</p> + +<p> +But a war about this time breaking out, he sent Plato away, promising him in +the summer to recall Dion, though in this he broke his word at once; +nevertheless, he remitted to him his revenues, desiring Plato to excuse him as +to the time appointed, because of the war, but, as soon as he had settled a +peace, he would immediately send for Dion, requiring him in the interim to be +quiet, and not raise any disturbance, nor speak ill of him among the Grecians. +This Plato endeavored to effect, by keeping Dion with him in the Academy, and +busying him in philosophical studies. +</p> + +<p> +Dion sojourned in the Upper Town of Athens, with Callippus, one of his +acquaintance; but for his pleasure he bought a seat in the country, which +afterwards, when he went into Sicily, he gave to Speusippus, who had been his +most frequent companion while he was at Athens, Plato so arranging it, with the +hope that Dion’s austere temper might be softened by agreeable company, with an +occasional mixture of seasonable mirth. For Speusippus was of the character to +afford him this; we find him spoken of in Timon’s Silli, as “good at a jest.” +And Plato himself, as it happened, being called upon to furnish a chorus of +boys, Dion took upon him the ordering and management of it, and defrayed the +whole expense, Plato giving him this opportunity to oblige the Athenians, which +was likely to procure his friend more kindness than himself credit. Dion went +also to see several other cities, visiting the noblest and most statemanlike +persons in Greece, and joining in their recreations and entertainments in their +times of festival. In all which, no sort of vulgar ignorance, or tyrannic +assumption, or luxuriousness was remarked in him; but, on the contrary, a great +deal of temperance, generosity, and courage, and a well-becoming taste for +reasoning and philosophic discourses. By which means he gained the love and +admiration of all men, and in many cities had public honors decreed him; the +Lacedaemonians making him a citizen of Sparta, without regard to the +displeasure of Dionysius, though at that time he was aiding them in their wars +against the Thebans. +</p> + +<p> +It is related that once, upon invitation, he went to pay a visit to Ptoeodorus +the Megarian, a man, it would seem, of wealth and importance; and when, on +account of the concourse of people about his doors, and the press of business, +it was very troublesome and difficult to get access to him, turning about to +his friends who seemed concerned and angry at it, “What reason,” said he, “have +we to blame Ptoeodorus, when we ourselves used to do no better when we were at +Syracuse?” +</p> + +<p> +After some little time, Dionysius, envying Dion, and jealous of the favor and +interest he had among the Grecians, put a stop upon his incomes, and no longer +sent him his revenues, making his own commissioners trustees of the estate. +But, endeavoring to obviate the ill-will and discredit which, upon Plato’s +account, might accrue to him among the philosophers, he collected in his court +many reputed learned men; and, ambitiously desiring to surpass them in their +debates he was forced to make use, often incorrectly, of arguments he had +picked up from Plato. And now he wished for his company again, repenting he had +not made better use of it when he had it, and had given no greater heed to his +admirable lessons. Like a tyrant, therefore, inconsiderate in his desires, +headstrong and violent in whatever he took a will to, on a sudden he was +eagerly set on the design of recalling him, and left no stone unturned, but +addressed himself to Archytas the Pythagorean (his acquaintance and friendly +relations with whom owed their origin to Plato), and persuaded him to stand as +surety for his engagements, and to request Plato to revisit Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +Archytas therefore sent Archedemus, and Dionysius some galleys, with divers +friends, to entreat his return; moreover, he wrote to him himself expressly and +in plain terms, that Dion must never look for any favor or kindness, if Plato +would not be prevailed with to come into Sicily; but if Plato did come, Dion +should be assured of whatever he desired. Dion also received letters full of +solicitations from his sister and his wife, urging him to beg Plato to gratify +Dionysius in this request, and not give him an excuse for further ill-doing. So +that, as Plato says of himself, the third time he set sail for the Strait of +Scylla, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Venturing again Charybdis’s dangerous gulf.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +This arrival brought great joy to Dionysius, and no less hopes to the +Sicilians, who were earnest in their prayers and good wishes that Plato might +get the better of Philistus, and philosophy triumph over tyranny. Neither was +he unbefriended by the women, who studied to oblige him; and he had with +Dionysius that peculiar credit which no man else ever obtained, namely, liberty +to come into his presence without being examined or searched. When he would +have given him a considerable sum of money, and, on several repeated occasions, +made fresh offers, which Plato as often declined, Aristippus the Cyrenaean, +then present, said that Dionysius was very safe in his munificence, he gave +little to those who were ready to take all they could get, and a great deal to +Plato, who would accept of nothing. +</p> + +<p> +After the first compliments of kindness were over, when Plato began to +discourse of Dion, he was at first diverted by excuses for delay, followed soon +after by complaints and disgusts, though not as yet observable to others, +Dionysius endeavoring to conceal them, and, by other civilities and honorable +usage, to draw him off from his affection to Dion. And for some time Plato +himself was careful not to let anything of this dishonesty and breach of +promise appear, but bore with it, and dissembled his annoyance. While matters +stood thus between them, and, as they thought, they were unobserved and +undiscovered, Helicon the Cyzicenian, one of Plato’s followers, foretold an +eclipse of the sun, which happened according to his prediction; for which he +was much admired by the tyrant, and rewarded with a talent of silver; whereupon +Aristippus, jesting with some others of the philosophers, told them, he also +could predict something extraordinary; and on their entreating him to declare +it, “I foretell,” said he, “that before long there will be a quarrel between +Dionysius and Plato.” +</p> + +<p> +At length, Dionysius made sale of Dion’s estate, and converted the money to his +own use, and removed Plato from an apartment he had in the gardens of the +palace to lodgings among the guards he kept in pay, who from the first had +hated Plato, and sought opportunity to make away with him, supposing he advised +Dionysius to lay down the government and disband his soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +When Archytas understood the danger he was in, he immediately sent a galley +with messengers to demand him of Dionysius; alleging that he stood engaged for +his safety, upon the confidence of which Plato had come to Sicily. Dionysius, +to palliate his secret hatred, before Plato came away, treated him with great +entertainments and all seeming demonstrations of kindness, but could not +forbear breaking out one day into the expression, “No doubt, Plato, when you +are at home among the philosophers, your companions, you will complain of me, +and reckon up a great many of my faults.” To which Plato answered with a smile, +“The Academy will never, I trust, be at such a loss for subjects to discuss as +to seek one in you.” Thus, they say, Plato was dismissed; but his own writings +do not altogether agree with this account. +</p> + +<p> +Dion was angry at all this, and not long after declared open enmity to +Dionysius, on hearing what had been done with his wife; on which matter Plato, +also, had had some confidential correspondence with Dionysius. Thus it was. +After Dion’s banishment, Dionysius, when he sent Plato back, had desired him to +ask Dion privately, if he would be averse to his wife’s marrying another man, +For there went a report, whether true, or raised by Dion’s enemies, that his +marriage was not pleasing to him, and that he lived with his wife on uneasy +terms. When Plato therefore came to Athens, and had mentioned the subject to +Dion, he wrote a letter to Dionysius, speaking of other matters openly, but on +this in language expressly designed to be understood by him alone, to the +effect that he had talked with Dion about the business, and that it was evident +he would highly resent the affront, if it should be put into execution. At that +time, therefore, while there were yet great hopes of an accommodation, he took +no new steps with his sister, suffering her to live with Dion’s child. But when +things were come to that pass, that no reconciliation could be expected, and +Plato, after his second visit, was again sent away in displeasure, he then +forced Arete, against her will, to marry Timocrates, one of his favorites; in +this action coming short even of his father’s justice and lenity; for he, when +Polyxenus, the husband of his sister, Theste, became his enemy, and fled in +alarm out of Sicily, sent for his sister, and taxed her, that, being privy to +her husband’s flight, she had not declared it to him. But the lady, confident +and fearless, made him this reply: “Do you believe me, brother, so bad a wife, +or so timorous a woman, that, having known my husband’s flight, I would not +have borne him company, and shared his fortunes? I knew nothing of it; since +otherwise it had been my better lot to be called the wife of the exile +Polyxenus, than the sister of the tyrant Dionysius.” It is said, he admired her +free and ready answer, as did the Syracusans, also, her courage and virtue, +insomuch that she retained her dignity and princely retinue after the +dissolution of the tyranny, and, when she died, the citizens, by public decree, +attended the solemnity of her funeral. And the story, though a digression from +the present purpose, was well worth the telling. +</p> + +<p> +From this time, Dion set his mind upon warlike measures; with which Plato, out +of respect for past hospitalities, and because of his age, would have nothing +to do. But Speusippus and the rest of his friends assisted and encouraged him, +bidding him deliver Sicily, which with lift-up hands implored his help, and +with open arms was ready to receive him. For when Plato was staying at +Syracuse, Speusippus, being oftener than he in company with the citizens, had +more thoroughly made out how they were inclined; and though at first they had +been on their guard, suspecting his bold language, as though he had been set on +by the tyrant to trepan them, yet at length they trusted him. There was but one +mind and one wish or prayer among them all, that Dion would undertake the +design, and come, though without either navy, men, horse, or arms; that he +would simply put himself aboard any ship, and lend the Sicilians his person and +name against Dionysius. This information from Speusippus encouraged Dion, who, +concealing his real purpose, employed his friends privately to raise what men +they could; and many statesmen and philosophers were assisting to him, as, for +instance, Eudemus the Cyprian, on whose death Aristotle wrote his Dialogue of +the Soul, and Timonides the Leucadian. They also engaged on his side Miltas the +Thessalian, who was a prophet, and had studied in the Academy. But of all that +were banished by Dionysius, who were not fewer than a thousand, five and twenty +only joined in the enterprise; the rest were afraid, and abandoned it. The +rendezvous was in the island Zacynthus, where a small force of not quite eight +hundred men came together, all of them, however, persons already distinguished +in plenty of previous hard service, their bodies well trained and practiced, +and their experience and courage amply sufficient to animate and embolden to +action the numbers whom Dion expected to join him in Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +Yet these men, when they first understood the expedition was against Dionysius, +were troubled and disheartened, blaming Dion, that, hurried on like a madman by +mere passion and despair, he rashly threw both himself and them into certain +ruin. Nor were they less angry with their commanders and muster-masters, that +they had not in the beginning let them know the design. But when Dion in his +address to them had set forth the unsafe and weak condition of arbitrary +government, and declared that he carried them rather for commanders than +soldiers, the citizens of Syracuse and the rest of the Sicilians having been +long ready for a revolt, and when, after him, Alcimenes, an Achaean of the +highest birth and reputation, who accompanied the expedition, harangued them to +the same effect, they were contented. +</p> + +<p> +It was now the middle of summer, and the Etesian winds blowing steadily on the +seas, the moon was at the full, when Dion prepared a magnificent sacrifice to +Apollo; and with great solemnity marched his soldiers to the temple in all +their arms and accouterments. And after the sacrifice, he feasted them all in +the race-course of the Zacynthians, where he had made provision for their +entertainment. And when here they beheld with wonder the quantity and the +richness of the gold and silver plate, and the tables laid to entertain them, +all far exceeding the fortunes of a private man, they concluded with +themselves, that a man now past the prime of life, who was master of so much +treasure, would not engage himself in so hazardous an enterprise without good +reason of hope, and certain and sufficient assurances of aid from friends over +there. Just after the libations were made, and the accompanying prayers +offered, the moon was eclipsed; which was no wonder to Dion, who understood the +revolutions of eclipses, and the way in which the moon is overshadowed and the +earth interposed between her and the sun. But because it was necessary that the +soldiers, who were surprised and troubled at it, should be satisfied and +encouraged, Miltas the diviner, standing up in the midst of the assembly, bade +them be of good cheer, and expect all happy success, for that the divine powers +foreshowed that something at present glorious and resplendent should be +eclipsed and obscured; nothing at this time being more splendid than the +sovereignty of Dionysius, their arrival in Sicily should dim this glory, and +extinguish this brightness. Thus Miltas, in public, descanted upon the +incident. But concerning a swarm of bees which settled on the poop of Dion’s +ship, he privately told him and his friends, that he feared the great actions +they were like to perform, though for a time they should thrive and flourish, +would be of short continuance, and soon suffer a decay. It is reported, also, +that many prodigies happened to Dionysius at that time. An eagle, snatching a +javelin from one of the guard, carried it aloft, and from thence let it fall +into the sea. The water of the sea that washed the castle walls was for a whole +day sweet and potable, as many that tasted it experienced. Pigs were farrowed +perfect in all their other parts, but without ears. This the diviners declared +to portend revolt and rebellion, for that the subjects would no longer give ear +to the commands of their superiors. They expounded the sweetness of the water +to signify to the Syracusans a change from hard and grievous times into easier +and more happy circumstances. The eagle being the bird of Jupiter, and the +spear an emblem of power and command, this prodigy was to denote that the chief +of the gods designed the end and dissolution of the present government. These +things Theopompus relates in his history. +</p> + +<p> +Two ships of burden carried all Dion’s men; a third vessel, of no great size, +and two galleys of thirty oars attended them. In addition to his soldiers’ own +arms, he carried two thousand shields, a very great number of darts and lances, +and abundant stores of all manner of provisions, that there might be no want of +anything in their voyage; their purpose being to keep out at sea during the +whole voyage, and use the winds, since all the land was hostile to them, and +Philistus, they had been told, was in Iapygia with a fleet, looking out for +them. Twelve days they sailed with a fresh and gentle breeze; on the +thirteenth, they made Pachynus, the Sicilian cape. There Protus, the chief +pilot, advised them to land at once and without delay, for if they were forced +again from the shore, and did not take advantage of the headland, they might +ride out at sea many nights and days, waiting for a southerly wind in the +summer season. But Dion, fearing a descent too near his enemies, and desirous +to begin at a greater distance, and further on in the country, sailed on past +Pachynus. They had not gone far, before stress of weather, the wind blowing +hard at north, drove the fleet from the coast; and it being now about the time +that Arcturus rises, a violent storm of wind and rain came on, with thunder and +lightning, the mariners were at their wits’ end, and ignorant what course they +ran, until on a sudden they found they were driving with the sea on Cercina, +the island on the coast of Africa, just where it is most craggy and dangerous +to run upon. Upon the cliffs there they escaped narrowly of being forced and +staved to pieces; but, laboring hard at their oars, with much difficulty they +kept clear until the storm ceased. Then, lighting by chance upon a vessel, they +understood they were upon the Heads, as it is called, of the Great Syrtis; and +when they were now again disheartened by a sudden calm, and beating to and fro +without making any way, a soft air began to blow from the land, when they +expected anything rather than wind from the south and scarce believed the happy +change of their fortune. The gale gradually increasing, and beginning to blow +fresh, they clapped on all their sails, and, praying to the gods, put out again +into the open sea, steering right from Africa for Sicily. And, running steady +before the wind, the fifth day they arrived at Minoa, a little town of Sicily, +in the dominion of the Carthaginians, of which Synalus, an acquaintance and +friend of Dion’s, happened at that time to be governor; who, not knowing it was +Dion and his fleet, endeavored to hinder his men from landing; but they rushed +on shore with their swords in their hands, not slaying any of their opponents +(for this Dion had forbidden, because of his friendship with the +Carthaginians), but forced them to retreat, and, following close, pressed in a +body with them into the place, and took it. As soon as the two commanders met, +they mutually saluted each other; Dion delivered up the place again to Synalus, +without the least damage done to anyone therein, and Synalus quartered and +entertained the soldiers, and supplied Dion with what he wanted. +</p> + +<p> +They were most of all encouraged by the happy accident of Dionysius’s absence +at this nick of time; for it appeared that he was lately gone with eighty sail +of ships to Italy. Therefore, when Dion was desirous that the soldiers should +refresh themselves there, after their tedious and troublesome voyage, they +would not be prevailed with, but, earnest to make the best use of that +opportunity, they urged Dion to lead them straight on to Syracuse. Leaving +therefore their baggage, and the arms they did not use, Dion desired Synalus to +convey them to him as he had occasion, and marched directly to Syracuse. +</p> + +<p> +The first that came in to him upon his march were two hundred horse of the +Agrigentines who were settled near Ecnomum, and, after them, the Geloans. But +the news soon flying to Syracuse, Timocrates, who had married Dion’s wife, the +sister of Dionysius, and was the principal man among his friends now remaining +in the city, immediately dispatched a courier to Dionysius with letters +announcing Dion’s arrival; while he himself took all possible care to prevent +any stir or tumult in the city, where all were in great excitement, but as yet +continued quiet, fearing to give too much credit to what was reported. A very +strange accident happened to the messenger who was sent with the letters; for +being arrived in Italy, as he traveled through the land of Rhegium, hastening +to Dionysius at Caulonia, he met one of his acquaintance, who was carrying home +part of a sacrifice. He accepted a piece of the flesh, which his friend offered +him, and proceeded on his journey with all speed; having traveled a good part +of the night, and being through weariness forced to take a little rest, he laid +himself down in the next convenient place he came to, which was in a wood near +the road. A wolf, scenting the flesh, came and seized it as it lay fastened to +the letter-bag, and with the flesh carried away the bag also, in which were the +letters to Dionysius. The man, awaking and missing his bag, sought for it up +and down a great while, and, not finding it, resolved not to go to the king +without his letters, but to conceal himself, and keep out of the way. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius, therefore, came to hear of the war in Sicily from other hands, and +that a good while after. In the meantime, as Dion proceeded in his march, the +Camarineans joined his forces, and the country people in the territory of +Syracuse rose and joined him in a large body. The Leontines and Campanians, +who, with Timocrates, guarded the Epipolae, receiving a false alarm which was +spread on purpose by Dion, as if he intended to attack their cities first, left +Timocrates, and hastened off to carry succor to their own homes. News of which +being brought to Dion, where he lay near Macrae, he raised his camp by night, +and came to the river Anapus, which is distant from the city about ten +furlongs; there he made a halt, and sacrificed by the river, offering vows to +the rising sun. The soothsayers declared that the gods promised him victory; +and they that were present, seeing him assisting at the sacrifice with a +garland on his head, one and all crowned themselves with garlands. There were +about five thousand that had joined his forces in their march; who, though but +ill-provided, with such weapons as came next to hand, made up by zeal and +courage for the want of better arms; and when once they were told to advance, +as if Dion were already conqueror, they ran forward with shouts and +acclamations, encouraging each other with the hopes of liberty. +</p> + +<p> +The most considerable men and better sort of the citizens of Syracuse, clad all +in white, met him at the gates. The populace set upon all that were of +Dionysius’s party, and principally searched for those they called setters or +informers, a number of wicked and hateful wretches, who made it their business +to go up and down the city, thrusting themselves into all companies, that they +might inform Dionysius what men said, and how they stood affected. These were +the first that suffered, being beaten to death by the crowd. Timocrates, not +being able to force his way to the garrison that kept the castle, took horse, +and fled out of the city, filling all the places where he came with fear and +confusion, magnifying the amount of Dion’s forces, that he might not be +supposed to have deserted his charge without good reason for it. By this time, +Dion was come up, and appeared in the sight of the people; he marched first in +a rich suit of arms, and by him on one hand his brother, Megacles, on the +other, Callippus the Athenian, crowned with garlands. Of the foreign soldiers, +a hundred followed as his guard, and their several officers led the rest in +good order; the Syracusans looking on and welcoming them, as if they believed +the whole to be a sacred and religious procession, to celebrate the solemn +entrance, after an absence of forty-eight years, of liberty and popular +government. +</p> + +<p> +Dion entered by the Menitid gate, and, having by sound of trumpet quieted the +noise of the people, he caused proclamation to be made, that Dion and Megacles, +who were come to overthrow the tyrannical government, did declare the +Syracusans and all other Sicilians to be free from the tyrant. But, being +desirous to harangue the people himself, he went up through the Achradina. The +citizens on each side the way brought victims for sacrifice, set out their +tables and goblets, and as he passed by each door threw flowers and ornaments +upon him, with vows and acclamations, honoring him as a god. There was under +the castle and the Pentapyla a lofty and conspicuous sundial, which Dionysius +had set up. Getting up upon the top of that, he made an oration to the people, +calling upon them to maintain and defend their liberty; who, with great +expressions of joy and acknowledgment, created Dion and Megacles generals, with +plenary powers, joining in commission with them, at their desire and entreaty, +twenty colleagues, of whom half were of those that had returned with them out +of banishment. It seemed also to the diviners a most happy omen, that Dion, +when he made his address to the people, had under his feet the stately monument +which Dionysius had been at such pains to erect; but because it was a sundial +on which he stood when he was made general, they expressed some fears that the +great actions he had performed might be subject to change, and admit some rapid +turn and declination of fortune. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Dion, taking the Epipolae, released the citizens who were +imprisoned there, and then raised a wall to invest the castle. Seven days +after, Dionysus arrived by sea, and got into the citadel, and about the same +time came carriages bringing the arms and ammunition which Dion had left with +Synalus. These he distributed among the citizens; and the rest that wanted +furnished themselves as well as they could, and put themselves in the condition +of zealous and serviceable men-at-arms. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius sent agents, at first privately, to Dion, to try what terms they +could make with him. But he declaring that any overtures they had to make must +be made in public to the Syracusans as a free people, envoys now went and came +between the tyrant and the people, with fair proposals, and assurances that +they should have abatements of their tributes and taxes, and freedom from the +burdens of military expeditions, all which should be made according to their +own approbation and consent with him. The Syracusans laughed at these offers, +and Dion returned answer to the envoys that Dionysius must not think to treat +with them upon any other terms but resigning the government; which if he would +actually do, he would not forget how nearly he was related to him, or be +wanting to assist him in procuring oblivion for the past, and whatever else was +reasonable and just. Dionysius seemed to consent to this, and sent his agents +again, desiring some of the Syracusans to come into the citadel and discuss +with him in person the terms to which on each side they might be willing, after +fair debate, to consent. There were therefore some deputed, such as Dion +approved of; and the general rumor from the castle was, that Dionysius would +voluntarily resign his authority, and rather do it himself as his own good +deed, than let it be the act of Dion. But this profession was a mere trick to +amuse the Syracusans. For he put the deputies that were sent to him in custody, +and by break of day, having first, to encourage his men, made them drink +plentifully of raw wine, he sent the garrison of mercenaries out to make a +sudden sally against Dion’s works. The attack was quite unexpected, and the +barbarians set to work boldly with loud cries to pull down the cross-wall, and +assailed the Syracusans so furiously that they were not able to maintain their +post. Only a party of Dion’s hired soldiers, on first taking the alarm, +advanced to the rescue; neither did they at first know what to do, or how to +employ the aid they brought, not being able to hear the commands of their +officers, amidst the noise and confusion of the Syracusans, who fled from the +enemy and ran in among them, breaking through their ranks, until Dion, seeing +none of his orders could be heard, resolved to let them see by example what +they ought to do, and charged into the thickest of the enemy. The fight about +him was fierce and bloody, he being as well known by the enemy as by his own +party, and all running with loud cries to the quarter where he fought. Though +his time of life was no longer that of the bodily strength and agility for such +a combat, still his determination and courage were sufficient to maintain him +against all that attacked him; but, while bravely driving them back, he was +wounded in the hand with a lance, his body armor also had been much battered, +and was scarcely any longer serviceable to protect him, either against missiles +or blows hand to hand. Many spears and javelins had passed into it through the +shield, and, on these being broken back, he fell to the ground, but was +immediately rescued, and carried off by his soldiers. The command-in-chief he +left to Timonides, and, mounting a horse, rode about the city, rallying the +Syracusans that fled; and, ordering up a detachment of the foreign soldiers out +of Achradina, where they were posted on guard, he brought them as a fresh +reserve, eager for battle, upon the tired and failing enemy, who were already +well inclined to give up their design. For having hopes at their first sally to +retake the whole city, when beyond their expectation they found themselves +engaged with bold and practiced fighters, they fell back towards the castle. As +soon as they gave ground, the Greek soldiers pressed the harder upon them, till +they turned and fled within the walls. There were lost in this action +seventy-four of Dion’s men, and a very great number of the enemy. This being a +signal victory, and principally obtained by the valor of the foreign soldiers, +the Syracusans rewarded them in honor of it with a hundred minae, and the +soldiers on their part presented Dion with a crown of gold. +</p> + +<p> +Soon after, there came heralds from Dionysius, bringing Dion letters from the +women of his family, and one addressed outside, “To his father, from +Hipparinus;” this was the name of Dion’s son, though Timaeus says, he was, from +his mother Arete’s name, called Aretaeus; but I think credit is rather to be +given to Timonides’s report, who was his father’s fellow-soldier and confidant. +The rest of the letters were read publicly, containing many solicitations and +humble requests of the women; that professing to be from his son, the heralds +would not have them open publicly, but Dion, putting force upon them, broke the +seal. It was from Dionysius, written in the terms of it to Dion, but in effect +to the Syracusans, and so worded that, under a plausible justification of +himself and entreaty to him, means were taken for rendering him suspected by +the people. It reminded him of the good service he had formerly done the +usurping government, it added threats to his dearest relations, his sister, +son, and wife, if he did not comply with the contents, also passionate demands +mingled with lamentations, and, most to the purpose of all, urgent +recommendations to him not to destroy the government, and put the power into +the hands of men who always hated him, and would never forget their old piques +and quarrels; let him take the sovereignty himself, and so secure the safety of +his family and his friends. +</p> + +<p> +When this letter was read, the Syracusans were not, as they should have been, +transported with admiration at the unmovable constancy and magnanimity of Dion, +who withstood all his dearest interests to be true to virtue and justice, but, +on the contrary, they saw in this their reason for fearing and suspecting that +he lay under an invincible necessity to be favorable to Dionysius; and they +began therefore to look out for other leaders, and the rather, because to their +great joy they received the news that Heraclides was on his way. This +Heraclides was one of those whom Dionysius had banished, very good soldier, and +well known for the commands he had formerly had under the tyrant; yet a man of +no constant purpose, of a fickle temper, and least of all to be relied upon +when he had to act with a colleague in any honorable command. He had had a +difference formerly with Dion in Peloponnesus, and had resolved, upon his own +means, with what ships and soldiers he had, to make an attack upon Dionysius. +When he arrived at Syracuse, with seven galleys and three small vessels, he +found Dionysius already close besieged, and the Syracusans high and proud of +their victories. Forthwith, therefore, he endeavored by all ways to make +himself popular; and, indeed, he had in him naturally something that was very +insinuating and taking with a populace that loves to be courted. He gained his +end, also, the easier, and drew the people over to his side, because of the +dislike they had taken to Dion’s grave and stately manner, which they thought +overbearing and assuming; their successes having made them so careless and +confident, that they expected popular arts and flatteries from their leaders, +before they had in reality secured a popular government. +</p> + +<p> +Getting therefore together in an irregular assembly, they chose Heraclides +their admiral; but when Dion came forward, and told them, that conferring this +trust upon Heraclides was in effect to withdraw that which they had granted +him, for he was no longer their generalissimo if another had the command of the +navy, they repealed their order, and, though much against their wills, canceled +the new appointment. When this business was over, Dion invited Heraclides to +his house, and pointed out to him, in gentle terms, that he had not acted +wisely or well to quarrel with him upon a punctilio of honor, at a time when +the least false step might be the ruin of all; and then, calling a fresh +assembly of the people, he there named Heraclides admiral, and prevailed with +the citizens to allow him a life-guard, as he himself had. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclides openly professed the highest respect for Dion, and made him great +acknowledgments for this favor, attending him with all deference, as ready to +receive his commands; but underhand he kept up his dealings with the populace +and the unrulier citizens, unsettling their minds and disturbing them with his +complaints, and putting Dion into the utmost perplexity and disquiet. For if he +advised to give Dionysius leave to quit the castle, he would be exposed to the +imputation of sparing and protecting him; if, to avoid giving offense or +suspicion, he simply continued the siege, they would say he protracted the war, +to keep his office of general the longer, and overawe the citizens. +</p> + +<p> +There was one Sosis, notorious in the city for his bad conduct and his +impudence, yet a favorite with the people, for the very reason that they liked +to see it made a part of popular privileges to carry free speech to this excess +of license. This man, out of a design against Dion, stood up one day in an +assembly, and, having sufficiently railed at the citizens as a set of fools, +that could not see how they had made an exchange of a dissolute and drunken for +a sober and watchful despotism, and thus having publicly declared himself +Dion’s enemy, took his leave. The next day, he was seen running through the +streets, as if he fled from some that pursued him, almost naked, wounded in the +head, and bloody all over. In this condition, getting people about him in the +marketplace, he told them that he had been assaulted by Dion’s men; and, to +confirm what he said, showed them the wounds he had received in his head. And a +good many took his part, exclaiming loudly against Dion for his cruel and +tyrannical conduct, stopping the mouths of the people by bloodshed and peril of +life. Just as an assembly was gathering in this unsettled and tumultuous state +of mind, Dion came before them, and made it appear how this Sosis was brother +to one of Dionysius’s guard, and that he was set on by him to embroil the city +in tumult and confusion; Dionysius having now no way left for his security but +to make his advantage of their dissensions and distractions. The surgeons, +also, having searched the wound, found it was rather razed, than cut with a +downright blow; for the wounds made with a sword are, from their mere weight, +most commonly deepest in the middle, but this was very slight, and all along of +an equal depth; and it was not one continued wound, as if cut at once, but +several incisions, in all probability made at several times, as he was able to +endure the pain. There were credible persons, also, who brought a razor, and +showed it in the assembly, stating that they met Sosis running in the street, +all bloody, who told them that he was flying from Dion’s soldiers, who had just +attacked and wounded him; they ran at once to look after them, and met no one, +but spied this razor lying under a hollow stone near the place from which they +observed he came. +</p> + +<p> +Sosis was now likely to come by the worst of it. But when, to back all this, +his own servants came in, and gave evidence that he had left his house alone +before break of day, with the razor in his hand, Dion’s accusers withdrew +themselves, and the people by a general vote condemned Sosis to die, being once +again well satisfied with Dion and his proceedings. +</p> + +<p> +Yet they were still as jealous as before of his soldiers, and the rather, +because the war was now carried on principally by sea; Philistus being come +from Iapygia with a great fleet to Dionysius’s assistance. They supposed, +therefore, that there would be no longer need of the soldiers, who were all +landsmen and armed accordingly: these were rather, indeed, they thought, in a +condition to be protected by themselves, who were seamen, and had their power +in their shipping. Their good opinion of themselves was also much enhanced by +an advantage they got in an engagement by sea, in which they took Philistus +prisoner, and used him in a barbarous and cruel manner. Ephorus relates that +when he saw his ship was taken he slew himself. But Timonides, who was with +Dion from the very first, and was present at all the events as they occurred, +writing to Speusippus the philosopher, relates the story thus: that Philistus’s +galley running aground, he was taken prisoner alive, and first disarmed, then +stripped of his corslet, and exposed naked, being now an old man, to every kind +of contumely; after which they cut off his head, and gave his body to the boys +of the town, bidding them drag it through the Achradina, and then throw it into +the Quarries. Timaeus, to increase the mockery, adds further, that the boys +tied him by his lame leg, and so drew him through the streets, while the +Syracusans stood by laughing and jesting at the sight of that very man thus +tied and dragged about by the leg, who had told Dionysius, that, so far from +flying on horseback from Syracuse, he ought to wait till he should be dragged +out by the heels. Philistus, however, has stated, that this was said to +Dionysius by another, and not by himself. +</p> + +<p> +Timaeus avails himself of this advantage, which Philistus truly enough affords +against himself in his zealous and constant adherence to the tyranny, to vent +his own spleen and malice against him. They, indeed, who were injured by him at +the time are perhaps excusable, if they carried their resentment to the length +of indignities to his dead body; but they who write history afterwards, and +were noway wronged by him in his lifetime, and have received assistance from +his writings, in honor should not with opprobrious and scurrilous language +upbraid him for those misfortunes, which may well enough befall even the best +of men. On the other side, Ephorus is as much out of the way in his encomiums. +For, however ingenious he is in supplying unjust acts and wicked conduct with +fair and worthy motives, and in selecting decorous and honorable terms, yet +when he does his best, he does not himself stand clear of the charge of being +the greatest lover of tyrants, and the fondest admirer of luxury and power and +rich estates and alliances of marriage with absolute princes. He that neither +praises Philistus for his conduct, nor insults over his misfortunes, seems to +me to take the fittest course. +</p> + +<p> +After Philistus’s death, Dionysius sent to Dion, offering to surrender the +castle, all the arms, provisions, and garrison-soldiers, with full pay for them +for five months, demanding in return that he might have safe conduct to go +unmolested into Italy, and there to continue, and also to enjoy the revenues of +Gyarta, a large and fruitful territory belonging to Syracuse, reaching from the +sea-side to the middle of the country. Dion rejected these proposals, and +referred him to the Syracusans. They, hoping in a short time to take Dionysius +alive, dismissed his ambassadors summarily. But he, leaving his eldest son, +Apollocrates, to defend the castle, and putting on board his ships the persons +and the property that he set most value upon, took the opportunity of a fair +wind, and made his escape, undiscovered by the admiral Heraclides and his +fleet. +</p> + +<p> +The citizens loudly exclaimed against Heraclides for this neglect; but he got +one of their public speakers, Hippo by name, to go among them, and make +proposals to the assembly for a redivision of lands, alleging that the first +beginning of liberty was equality, and that poverty and slavery were +inseparable companions. In support of this, Heraclides spoke, and used the +faction in favor of it to overpower Dion, who opposed it; and, in fine, he +persuaded the people to ratify it by their vote, and further to decree, that +the foreign soldiers should receive no pay, and that they would elect new +commanders, and so be rid of Dion’s oppression. The people, attempting, as it +were, after their long sickness of despotism, all at once to stand on their +legs, and to do the part, for which they were yet unfit, of freemen, stumbled +in all their actions; and yet hated Dion, who, like a good physician, +endeavored to keep the city to a strict and temperate regimen. +</p> + +<p> +When they met in the assembly to choose their commanders, about the middle of +summer, unusual and terrible thunders, with other inauspicious appearances, for +fifteen days together, dispersed the people, deterring them, on grounds of +religious fear, from creating new generals. But, at last, the popular leaders, +having found a fair and clear day, and having got their party together, were +proceeding to an election, when a draught-ox, who was used to the crowd and +noise of the streets, but for some reason or other grew unruly to his driver, +breaking from his yoke, ran furiously into the theater where they were +assembled, and set the people flying and running in all directions before him +in the greatest disorder and confusion; and from thence went on, leaping and +rushing about, over all that part of the city which the enemies afterwards made +themselves masters of. However, the Syracusans, not regarding all this, elected +five and twenty captains, and, among the rest, Heraclides; and underhand +tampered with Dion’s men, promising, if they would desert him, and enlist +themselves in their service, to make them citizens of Syracuse, with all the +privileges of natives. But they would not hear the proposals, but, to show +their fidelity and courage, with their swords in their hands, placing Dion for +his security in the midst of their battalion, conveyed him out of the city, not +offering violence to anyone, but upbraiding those they met with their baseness +and ingratitude. The citizens, seeing they were but few, and did not offer any +violence, despised them; and, supposing that with their large numbers they +might with ease overpower and cut them off before they got out of the city, +fell upon them in the rear. +</p> + +<p> +Here Dion was in a great strait, being necessitated either to fight against his +own countrymen, or tamely suffer himself and his faithful soldiers to be cut in +pieces. He used many entreaties to the Syracusans, stretching out his hands +towards the castle, that was full of their enemies, and showing them the +soldiers, who in great numbers appeared on the walls and watched what was +doing. But when no persuasions could divert the impulse of the multitude, and +the whole mass, like the sea in a storm, seemed to be driven before the breath +of the demagogues, he commanded his men, not to charge them, but to advance +with shouts and clashing of their arms; which being done, not a man of them +stood his ground; all fled at once through the streets, though none pursued +them. For Dion immediately commanded his men to face about, and led them +towards the city of the Leontines. +</p> + +<p> +The very women laughed at the new captains for this retreat; so to redeem their +credit, they bid the citizens arm themselves again, and followed after Dion, +and came up with him as he was passing a river. Some of the light-horse rode up +and began to skirmish. But when they saw Dion no more tame and calm, and no +signs in his face of any fatherly tenderness towards his countrymen, but with +an angry countenance, as resolved not to suffer their indignities any longer, +bidding his men face round and form in their ranks for the onset, they +presently turned their backs more basely than before, and fled to the city, +with the loss of some few of their men. +</p> + +<p> +The Leontines received Dion very honorably, gave money to his men, and made +them free of their city; sending envoys to the Syracusans, to require them to +do the soldiers justice, who, in return, sent back other agents to accuse Dion. +But when a general meeting of the confederates met in the town of the +Leontines, and the matter was heard and debated, the Syracusans were held to be +in fault. They, however, refused to stand to the award of their allies, +following their own conceit, and making it their pride to listen to no one, and +not to have any commanders but those who would fear and obey the people. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, Dionysius sent in a fleet, under the command of Nypsius the +Neapolitan, with provisions and pay for the garrison. The Syracusans fought +him, had the better, and took four of his ships; but they made very ill use of +their good success, and, for want of good discipline, fell in their joy to +drinking and feasting in an extravagant manner, with so little regard to their +main interest, that, when they thought themselves sure of taking the castle, +they actually lost their city. Nypsius, seeing the citizens in this general +disorder, spending day and night in their drunken singing and reveling, and +their commanders well pleased with the frolic, or at least not daring to try +and give any orders to men in their drink, took advantage of this opportunity, +made a sally, and stormed their works; and, having made his way through these, +let his barbarians loose upon the city, giving up it and all that were in it to +their pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +The Syracusans quickly saw their folly and misfortune, but could not, in the +distraction they were in, so soon redress it. The city was in actual process of +being sacked, the enemy putting the men to the sword, demolishing the +fortifications, and dragging the women and children with lamentable shrieks and +cries prisoners into the castle. The commanders, giving all for lost, were not +able to put the citizens in any tolerable posture of defense, finding them +confusedly mixed up and scattered among the enemy. While they were in this +condition, and the Achradina in danger to be taken, everyone was sensible who +he was in whom all their remaining hopes rested, but no man for shame durst +name Dion, whom they had so ungratefully and foolishly dealt with. Necessity at +last forcing them, some of the auxiliary troops and horsemen cried out, “Send +for Dion and his Peloponnesians from the Leontines.” No sooner was the venture +made and the name heard among the people, but they gave a shout for joy, and, +with tears in their eyes, wished him there, that they might once again see that +leader at the head of them, whose courage and bravery in the worst of dangers +they well remembered, calling to mind not only with what an undaunted spirit he +always behaved himself, but also with what courage and confidence he inspired +them when he led them against the enemy. They immediately, therefore, +dispatched Archonides and Telesides of the confederate troops, and of the +horsemen Hellanicus and four others. These, traversing the road between at +their horses’ full speed, reached the town of the Leontines in the evening. The +first thing they did was to leap from their horses and fall at Dion’s feet, +relating with tears the sad condition the Syracusans were in. Many of the +Leontines and Peloponnesians began to throng about them, guessing by their +speed and the manner of their address that something extraordinary had +occurred. +</p> + +<p> +Dion at once led the way to the assembly, and, the people being gathered +together in a very little time, Archonides and Hellanicus and the others came +in among them, and in short declared the misery and distress of the Syracusans, +begging the foreign soldiers to forget the injuries they had received, and +assist the afflicted, who had suffered more for the wrong they had done, than +they themselves who received it would (had it been in their power) have +inflicted upon them. When they had made an end, there was a profound silence in +the theater; Dion then stood up, and began to speak, but tears stopped his +words; his soldiers were troubled at his grief, but bade him take good courage +and proceed. When he had recovered himself a little, therefore, “Men of +Peloponnesus,” he said, “and of the confederacy, I asked for your presence +here, that you might consider your own interests. For myself, I have no +interests to consult while Syracuse is perishing, and, though I may not save it +from destruction, I will nevertheless hasten thither, and be buried in the +ruins of my country. Yet if you can find in your hearts to assist us, the most +inconsiderate and unfortunate of men, you may to your eternal honor again +retrieve this unhappy city. But if the Syracusans can obtain no more pity nor +relief from you, may the gods reward you for what you have formerly valiantly +done for them, and for your kindness to Dion, of whom speak hereafter as one +who deserted you not when you were injured and abused, nor afterwards forsook +his fellow-citizens in their afflictions and misfortunes.” +</p> + +<p> +Before he had yet ended his speech, the soldiers leapt up, and with a great +shout testified their readiness for the service, crying out, to march +immediately to the relief of the city. The Syracusan messengers hugged and +embraced them, praying the Gods to send down blessings upon Dion and the +Peloponnesians. When the noise was pretty well over, Dion gave orders that all +should go to their quarters to prepare for their march, and, having refreshed +themselves, come ready armed to their rendezvous in the place where they now +were, resolving that very night to attempt the rescue. +</p> + +<p> +Now at Syracuse, Dionysius’s soldiers, as long as day continued, ransacked the +city, and did all the mischief they could; but when night came on, they retired +into the castle, having lost some few of their number. At which the factious +ringleaders taking heart, and hoping the enemy would rest content with what +they had done and make no further attempt upon them, persuaded the people again +to reject Dion, and, if he came with the foreign soldiers, not to admit him; +advising them not to yield, as inferior to them in point of honor and courage, +but to save their city and defend their liberties and properties themselves. +The populace, therefore, and their leaders sent messengers to Dion to forbid +him to advance, while the noble citizens and the horse sent others to him to +desire him to hasten his march; for which reason he slacked his pace, yet did +not remit his advance. And in the course of the night, the faction that was +against him set a guard upon the gates of the city to hinder him from coming +in. But Nypsius made another sally out of the castle with a far greater number +of men, and those far more bold and eager than before, who quite ruined what of +the rampart was left standing, and fell in, pell-mell, to sack and ravage the +city. The slaughter was now very great, not only of the men, but of the women +also and children; for they regarded not so much the plunder, as to destroy and +kill all they met. For Dionysius, despairing to regain the kingdom, and +mortally hating the Syracusans, resolved to bury his lost sovereignty in the +ruin and desolation of Syracuse. The soldiers, therefore, to anticipate Dion’s +succors, resolved upon the most complete and ready way of destruction, to lay +the city in ashes, firing all at hand with torches and lamps, and at distance +with flaming arrows, shot from their bows. The citizens fled every way before +them; they who, to avoid the fire, forsook their houses were taken in the +streets and put to the sword; they who betook themselves for refuge into the +houses were forced out again by the flames, many buildings being now in a +blaze, and many falling in ruins upon them as they fled past. +</p> + +<p> +This fresh misfortune by general consent opened the gates for Dion. He had +given up his rapid advance, when he received advice that the enemies were +retreated into the castle; but, in the morning, some horse brought him the news +of another assault, and, soon after, some of those who before opposed his +coming fled now to him, to entreat him he would hasten his relief. The pressure +increasing, Heraclides sent his brother, and after him his uncle, Theodotes, to +beg him to help them: for that now they were not able to resist any longer; he +himself was wounded, and the greatest part of the city either in ruins or in +flames. When Dion met this sad news, he was about sixty furlongs distant from +the city. When he had acquainted the soldiers with the exigency, and exhorted +them to behave themselves like men, the army no longer marched but ran +forwards, and by the way were met by messengers upon messengers entreating them +to make haste. By the wonderful eagerness of the soldiers and their +extraordinary speed, Dion quickly came to the city and entered what is called +the Hecatompedon, sending his light-armed men at once to charge the enemy, +that, seeing them, the Syracusans might take courage. In the meantime, he drew +up in good order his full-armed men and all the citizens that came in and +joined him; forming his battalions deep, and distributing his officers in many +separate commands, that he might, be able to attack from many quarters at once, +and so he more alarming to the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +So, having made his arrangements and offered vows to the gods, when he was seen +in the streets advancing at the head of his men to engage the enemy, a confused +noise of shouts, congratulations, vows, and prayers was raised by the +Syracusans, who now called Dion their deliverer and tutelar deity, and his +soldiers their friends, brethren, and fellow-citizens. And, indeed, at that +moment, none seemed to regard themselves, or value their safeties, but to be +concerned more for Dion’s life than for all their own together, as he marched +at the head of them to meet the danger, through blood and fire and over heaps +of dead bodies that lay in his way. +</p> + +<p> +And indeed the posture of the enemy was in appearance terrible; for they were +flushed and ferocious with victory, and had posted themselves very +advantageously along the demolished works, which made the access to them very +hazardous and difficult. Yet that which disturbed Dion’s soldiers most was the +apprehension they were in of the fire, which made their march very trouble some +and difficult; for the houses being in flames on al] sides, they were met +everywhere with the blaze, and, treading upon burning ruins and every minute in +danger of being overwhelmed with falling houses, through clouds of ashes and +smoke they labored hard to keep their order and maintain their ranks. When they +came near to the enemy, the approach was so narrow and uneven that but few of +them could engage at a time; but at length, with loud cheers and much zeal on +the part of the Syracusans, encouraging them and joining with them, they beat +off Nypsius’s men, and put them to flight. Most of them escaped into the +castle, which was near at hand; all that could not get in were pursued and +picked up here and there by the soldiers, and put to the sword. The present +exigency, however, did not suffer the citizens to take immediate benefit of +their victory in such mutual congratulations and embraces as became so great a +success; for now all were busily employed to save what houses were left +standing, laboring hard all night, and scarcely so could master the fire. +</p> + +<p> +The next day, not one of the popular haranguers durst stay in the city, but all +of them, knowing their own guilt, by their flight confessed it, and secured +their lives. Only Heraclides and Theodotes went voluntarily and surrendered +themselves to Dion, acknowledging that they had wronged him, and begging he +would be kinder to them than they had been just to him; adding, how much it +would become him who was master of so many excellent accomplishments, to +moderate his anger and be generously compassionate to ungrateful men, who were +here before him, making their confession, that, in all the matter of their +former enmity and rivalry against him, they were now absolutely overcome by his +virtue. Though they thus humbly addressed him, his friends advised him not to +pardon these turbulent and ill-conditioned men, but to yield them to the +desires of his soldiers, and utterly root out of the commonwealth the ambitious +affectation of popularity, a disease as pestilent and pernicious as the passion +for tyranny itself. Dion endeavored to satisfy them, telling them that other +generals exercised and trained themselves for the most part in the practices of +war and arms; but that he had long studied in the Academy how to conquer anger, +and not let emulation and envy conquer him; that to do this it is not +sufficient that a man be obliging and kind to his friends, and those that have +deserved well of him, but rather, gentle and ready to forgive in the case of +those who do wrong; that he wished to let the world see that he valued not +himself so much upon excelling Heraclides in ability and conduct, as he did in +outdoing him in justice and clemency; herein to have the advantage is to excel +indeed; whereas the honor of success in war is never entire; fortune will be +sure to dispute it, though no man should pretend to have a claim. What if +Heraclides be perfidious, malicious, and base, must Dion therefore sully or +injure his virtue by passionate concern for it? For, though the laws determine +it juster to revenge an injury than to do an injury, yet it is evident that +both, in the nature of things, originally proceed from the same deficiency and +weakness. The malicious humor of men, though perverse and refractory, is not so +savage and invincible but it may be wrought upon by kindness, and altered by +repeated obligations. Dion, making use of these arguments, pardoned and +dismissed Heraclides and Theodotes. +</p> + +<p> +And now, resolving to repair the blockade about the castle, he commanded all +the Syracusans to cut each man a stake and bring it to the works; and then, +dismissing them to refresh themselves, and take their rest, he employed his own +men all night, and by morning had finished his line of palisade; so that both +the enemy and the citizens wondered, when day returned, to see the work so far +advanced in so short a time. Burying therefore the dead, and redeeming the +prisoners, who were near two thousand, he called a public assembly, where +Heraclides made a motion that Dion should be declared general with full powers +at land and sea. The better citizens approved well of it, and called on the +people to vote it so. But the mob of sailors and handicraftsmen would not yield +that Heraclides should lose his command of the navy; believing him, if +otherwise an ill man, at any rate to be more citizenlike than Dion, and readier +to comply with the people. Dion therefore submitted to them in this, and +consented Heraclides should continue admiral. But when they began to press the +project of the redistribution of lands and houses, he not only opposed it, but +repealed all the votes they had formerly made upon that account, which sensibly +vexed them. Heraclides, therefore, took a new advantage of him, and, being at +Messene, harangued the soldiers and ships’ crews that sailed with him, accusing +Dion that he had a design to make himself absolute. And yet at the same time he +held private correspondence for a treaty with Dionysius by means of Pharax the +Spartan. Which when the noble citizens of Syracuse had intimation of, there +arose a sedition in the army, and the city was in great distress and want of +provisions; and Dion now knew not what course to take, being also blamed by all +his friends for having thus fortified against himself such a perverse and +jealous and utterly corrupted man as Heraclides was. +</p> + +<p> +Pharax at this time lay encamped at Neapolis, in the territory of Agrigentum. +Dion, therefore, led out the Syracusans, but with an intent not to engage him +till he saw a fit opportunity. But Heraclides and his seamen exclaimed against +him, that he delayed fighting on purpose that he might the longer continue his +command; so that, much against his will, he was forced to an engagement and was +beaten, his loss however being inconsiderable, and that occasioned chiefly by +the dissension that was in the army. He rallied his men, and, having put them +in good order and encouraged them to redeem their credit, resolved upon a +second battle. But, in the evening, he received advice that Heraclides with his +fleet was on his way to Syracuse, with the purpose to possess himself of the +city and keep him and his army out. Instantly, therefore, taking with him some +of the strongest and most active of his men, he rode off in the dark, and about +nine the next morning was at the gates, having ridden seven hundred furlongs +that night. Heraclides, though he strove to make all the speed he could, yet, +coming too late, tacked and stood out again to sea; and, being unresolved what +course to steer, accidentally he met Gaesylus the Spartan, who told him he was +come from Lacedaemon to head the Sicilians, as Gylippus had formerly done. +Heraclides was only too glad to get hold of him, and fastening him as it might +be a sort of amulet to himself, he showed him to the confederates, and sent a +herald to Syracuse to summon them to accept the Spartan general. Dion returned +answer that they had generals enough, and, if they wanted a Spartan to command +them, he could supply that office, being himself a citizen of Sparta. When +Gaesylus saw this, he gave up all pretensions, and sailed in to Dion, and +reconciled Heraclides to him, making Heraclides swear the most solemn oaths to +perform what he engaged, Gaesylus himself also undertaking to maintain Dion’s +right, and inflict chastisement on Heraclides if he broke his faith. +</p> + +<p> +The Syracusans then laid up their navy, which was at present a great charge and +of little use to them, but an occasion of differences and dissensions among the +generals, and pressed on the siege, finishing the wall of blockade with which +they invested the castle. The besieged, seeing no hopes of succors and their +provisions failing, began to mutiny; so that the son of Dionysius, in despair +of holding out longer for his father, capitulated, and articled with Dion to +deliver up the castle with all the garrison soldiers and ammunition; and so, +taking his mother and sisters and manning five galleys, he set out to go to his +father, Dion seeing him safely out, and scarce a man in all the city not being +there to behold the sight, as indeed they called even on those that were not +present, out of pity that they could not be there, to see this happy day and +the sun shining on a free Syracuse. And as this expulsion of Dionysius is even +now always cited as one of the greatest and most remarkable examples of +fortune’s vicissitudes, how extraordinary may we imagine their joy to have +been, and how entire their satisfaction, who had totally subverted the most +potent tyranny that ever was by very slight and inconsiderable means! +</p> + +<p> +When Apollocrates was gone, and Dion coming to take possession of the castle, +the women could not stay while he made his entry, but ran to meet him at the +gate. Aristomache led Dion’s son, and Arete followed after weeping, fearful and +dubious how to salute or address her husband, after living with another man. +Dion first embraced his sister, then his son; when Aristomache bringing Arete +to him, “O Dion,” said she, “your banishment made us all equally miserable; +your return and victory has canceled all sorrows, excepting this poor +sufferer’s, whom I, unhappy, saw compelled to be another’s, while you were yet +alive. Fortune has now given you the sole disposal of us; how will you +determine concerning her hard fate? In what relation must she salute you as her +uncle, or as her husband?” This speech of Aristomache’s brought tears from +Dion, who with great affection embraced his wife, gave her his son, and desired +her to retire to his own house, where he continued to reside when he had +delivered up the castle to the Syracusans. +</p> + +<p> +For though all things had now succeeded to his wish, yet he desired not to +enjoy any present advantage of his good fortune, except to gratify his friends, +reward his allies, and bestow upon his companions of former time in Athens and +the soldiers that had served him some special mark of kindness and honor, +striving herein to outdo his very means in his generosity. As for himself, he +was content with a very frugal and moderate competency, and was indeed the +wonder of all men, that when not only Sicily and Carthage, but all Greece +looked to him as in the height of prosperity, and no man living greater than +he, no general more renowned for valor and success, yet in his garb, his +attendance, his table, he seemed as if he rather commoned with Plato in the +Academy than lived among hired captains and paid soldiers, whose solace of +their toils and dangers it is to eat and drink their fill, and enjoy themselves +plentifully every day. Plato indeed wrote to him that the eyes of all the world +were now upon him; but it is evident that he himself had fixed his eye upon one +place in one city, the Academy, and considered that the spectators and judges +there regarded not great actions, courage, or fortune, but watched to see how +temperately and wisely he could use his prosperity, how evenly he could behave +himself in the high condition he now was in. Neither did he remit anything of +his wonted stateliness in conversation or serious carriage to the people; he +made it rather a point to maintain it, notwithstanding that a little +condescension and obliging civility were very necessary for his present +affairs; and Plato, as we said before, rebuked him, and wrote to tell him that +self-will keeps house with solitude. But certainly his natural temperament was +one that could not bend to complaisance; and, besides, he wished to work the +Syracusans back the other way, out of their present excess of license and +caprice. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclides began again to set up against him, and, being invited by Dion to +make one of the Council, refused to come, saying he would give his opinion as a +private citizen in the public assembly. Next he complained of Dion because he +had not demolished the citadel, and because he had hindered the people from +throwing down Dionysius’s tomb and doing despite to the dead; moreover he +accused him for sending to Corinth for counselors and assistants in the +government, thereby neglecting and slighting his fellow-citizens. And indeed he +had sent messages for some Corinthians to come to him, hoping by their means +and presence the better to settle that constitution he intended; for he +designed to suppress the unlimited democratic government, which indeed is not a +government, but, as Plato calls it, a marketplace of governments, and to +introduce and establish a mixed polity, on the Spartan and Cretan model, +between a commonwealth and a monarchy, wherein an aristocratic body should +preside, and determine all matters of greatest consequence; for he saw also +that the Corinthians were chiefly governed by something like an oligarchy, and +the people but little concerned in public business. +</p> + +<p> +Now knowing that Heraclides would be his most considerable adversary, and that +in all ways he was a turbulent, fickle, and factious man, he gave way to some +whom formerly he hindered when they designed to kill him, who, breaking in, +murdered Heraclides in his own house. His death was much resented by the +citizens. Nevertheless, when Dion made him a splendid funeral, followed the +dead body with all his soldiers, and then addressed them, they understood that +it would have been impossible to have kept the city quiet, as long as Dion and +Heraclides were competitors in the government. +</p> + +<p> +Dion had a friend called Callippus, an Athenian, who, Plato says, first made +acquaintance and afterwards obtained familiarity with him, not from any +connection with his philosophic studies, but on occasion afforded by the +celebration of the mysteries, and in the way of ordinary society. This man went +with him in all his military service, and was in great honor and esteem; being +the first of his friends who marched by his side into Syracuse, wearing a +garland upon his head, having behaved himself very well in all the battles, and +made himself remarkable for his gallantry. He, finding that Dion’s principal +and most considerable friends were cut off in the war, Heraclides now dead, and +the people without a leader, and that the soldiers had a great kindness for +him, like a perfidious and wicked villain, in hopes to get the chief command of +Sicily as his reward for the ruin of his friend and benefactor, and, as some +say, being also bribed by the enemy with twenty talents to destroy Dion, +inveigled and engaged several of the soldiers in a conspiracy against him, +taking this cunning and wicked occasion for his plot. He daily informed Dion of +what he heard or what he feigned the soldiers said against him; whereby he +gained that credit and confidence, that he was allowed by Dion to consort +privately with whom he would, and talk freely against him in any company, that +he might discover who were his secret and factious maligners. By this means, +Callippus in a short time got together a cabal of all the seditious malcontents +in the city; and if anyone who would not be drawn in advised Dion that he was +tampered with, he was not troubled or concerned at it, believing Callippus did +it in compliance with his directions. +</p> + +<p> +While this conspiracy was afoot, a strange and dreadful apparition was seen by +Dion. As he sat one evening in a gallery in his house alone and thoughtful, +hearing a sudden noise he turned about, and saw at the end of the colonnade, by +clear daylight, a tall woman, in her countenance and garb like one of the +tragical Furies, with a broom in her hand, sweeping the floor. Being amazed and +extremely affrighted, he sent for some of his friends, and told them what he +had seen, entreating them to stay with him and keep him company all night; for +he was excessively discomposed and alarmed, fearing that if he were left alone +the specter would again appear to him. He saw it no more. But a few days after, +his only son, being almost grown up to man’s estate, upon some displeasure and +pet he had taken upon a childish and frivolous occasion, threw himself headlong +from the top of the house and broke his neck. +</p> + +<p> +While Dion was under this affliction, Callippus drove on his conspiracy, and +spread a rumor among the Syracusans, that Dion, being now childless, was +resolved to send for Dionysius’s son, Apollocrates, who was his wife’s nephew +and sister’s grandson, and make him his heir and successor. By this time, Dion +and his wife and sister began to suspect what was doing, and from all hands +information came to them of the plot. Dion, being troubled, it is probable, for +Heraclides’s murder, which was like to be a blot and stain upon his life and +actions, in continual weariness and vexation, declared he had rather die a +thousand times, and open his breast himself to the assassin, than live not only +in fear of his enemies but suspicion of his friends. But Callippus, seeing the +women very inquisitive to search to the bottom of the business, took alarm, and +came to them, utterly denying it with tears in his eyes, and offering to give +them whatever assurances of his fidelity they desired. They required that he +should take the Great Oath, which was after this manner. The juror went into +the sanctuary of Ceres and Proserpine, where, after the performance of some +ceremonies, he was clad in the purple vestment of the goddess, and, holding a +lighted torch in his hand, took his oath. Callippus did as they required, and +forswore the fact. And indeed he so little valued the goddesses, that he stayed +but till the very festival of Proserpine, by whom he had sworn, and on that +very day committed his intended murder; as truly he might well enough disregard +the day, since he must at any other time as impiously offend her, when he who +had acted as her initiating priest should shed the blood of her worshiper. +</p> + +<p> +There were a great many in the conspiracy; and as Dion was at home with several +of his friends in a room with tables for entertainment in it, some of the +conspirators beset the house around, others secured the doors and windows. The +actual intended murderers were some Zacynthians, who went inside in their +under-dresses without swords. Those outside shut the doors upon them and kept +them fast. The murderers fell on Dion, endeavoring to stifle and crush him; +then, finding they were doing nothing, they called for a sword, but none durst +open the door. There were a great many within with Dion, but everyone was for +securing himself, supposing that by letting him lose his life he should save +his own, and therefore no man ventured to assist him. When they had waited a +good while, at length Lycon the Syracusan reached a short sword in at the +window to one of the Zacynthians, and thus, like a victim at a sacrifice, this +long time in their power, and trembling for the blow, they killed him. His +sister, and wife big with child, they hurried to prison, who poor lady, in her +unfortunate condition was there brought to bed of a son, which, by the consent +of the keepers, they intended to bring up, the rather because Callippus began +already to be embroiled in troubles. +</p> + +<p> +After the murder of Dion, he was in great glory, and had the sole government of +Syracuse in his hands; and to that effect wrote to Athens, a place which, next +the immortal gods, being guilty of such an abominable crime, he ought to have +regarded with shame and fear. But true it is, what is said of that city, that +the good men she breeds are the most excellent, and the bad the most notorious; +as their country also produces the most delicious honey and the most deadly +hemlock. Callippus, however, did not long continue to scandalize fortune and +upbraid the gods with his prosperity, as though they connived at and bore with +the wretched man, while he purchased riches and power by heinous impieties, but +he quickly received the punishment he deserved. For, going to take Catana, he +lost Syracuse; whereupon they report he said, he had lost a city and got a +bauble. Then, attempting Messena, he had most of his men cut off, and, among +the rest, Dion’s murderers. When no city in Sicily would admit him, but all +hated and abhorred him, he went into Italy and took Rhegium; and there, being +in distress and not able to maintain his soldiers, he was killed by Leptines +and Polysperchon, and, as fortune would have it with the same sword by which +Dion was murdered, which was known by the size, being but short, as the Spartan +swords, and the workmanship of it very curious and artificial. Thus Callippus +received the reward of his villanies. +</p> + +<p> +When Aristomache and Arete were released out of prison, Hicetes, one of Dion’s +friends, took them to his house, and seemed to intend to entertain them well +and like a faithful friend. Afterwards, being persuaded by Dion’s enemies, he +provided a ship and pretended to send them into Peloponnesus, but commanded the +sailors, when they came out to sea, to kill them and throw them overboard. +Others say that they and the little boy were thrown alive into the sea. This +man also escaped not the due recompense of his wickedness, for he was taken by +Timoleon and put to death, and the Syracusans, to revenge Dion, slew his two +daughters; of all which I have given a more particular account in the life of +Timoleon. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap63"></a>MARCUS BRUTUS</h2> + +<p> +Marcus Brutus was descended from that Junius Brutus to whom the ancient Romans +erected a statue of brass in the capitol among the images of their kings with a +drawn sword in his hand, in remembrance of his courage and resolution in +expelling the Tarquins and destroying the monarchy. But that ancient Brutus was +of a severe and inflexible nature, like steel of too hard a temper, and having +never had his character softened by study and thought, he let himself be so far +transported with his rage and hatred against tyrants, that, for conspiring with +them, he proceeded to the execution even of his own sons. But this Brutus, +whose life we now write, having to the goodness of his disposition added the +improvements of learning and the study of philosophy, and having stirred up his +natural parts, of themselves grave and gentle, by applying himself to business +and public affairs, seems to have been of a temper exactly framed for virtue; +insomuch that they who were most his enemies upon account of his conspiracy +against Caesar, if in that whole affair there was any honorable or generous +part, referred it wholly to Brutus, and laid whatever was barbarous and cruel +to the charge of Cassius, Brutus’s connection and familiar friend, but not his +equal in honesty and pureness of purpose. His mother, Servilia, was of the +family of Servilius Ahala, who, when Spurius Maelius worked the people into a +rebellion and designed to make himself king, taking a dagger under his arm, +went forth into the marketplace, and, upon presence of having some private +business with him, came up close to him, and, as he bent his head to hear what +he had to say, struck him with his dagger and slew him. And thus much, as +concerns his descent by the mother’s side, is confessed by all; but as for his +father’s family, they who for Caesar’s murder bore any hatred or ill-will to +Brutus say that he came not from that Brutus who expelled the Tarquins, there +being none of his race left after the execution of his two sons; but that his +ancestor was a plebeian, son of one Brutus, a steward, and only rose in the +latest times to office or dignity in the commonwealth. But Posidonius the +philosopher writes that it is true indeed what the history relates, that two of +the sons of Brutus who were of men’s estate were put to death, but that a +third, yet an infant, was left alive, from whom the family was propagated down +to Marcus Brutus; and further, that there were several famous persons of this +house in his time whose looks very much resembled the statue of Junius Brutus. +But of this subject enough. +</p> + +<p> +Cato the philosopher was brother to Servilia, the mother of Brutus, and he it +was whom of all the Romans his nephew most admired and studied to imitate, and +he afterwards married his daughter Porcia. Of all the sects of the Greek +philosophers, though there was none of which he had not been a hearer and in +which he had not made some proficiency, yet he chiefly esteemed the Platonists; +and, not much approving of the modern and middle Academy, as it is called, he +applied himself to the study of the ancient. He was all his lifetime a great +admirer of Antiochus of the city of Ascalon, and took his brother Aristus into +his own house for his friend and companion, a man for his learning inferior +indeed to many of the philosophers, but for the evenness of his temper and +steadiness of his conduct equal to the best. As for Empylus, of whom he himself +and his friends often make mention in their epistles, as one that lived with +Brutus, he was a rhetorician, and has left behind him a short but well-written +history of the death of Caesar, entitled Brutus. +</p> + +<p> +In Latin, he had by exercise attained a sufficient skill to be able to make +public addresses and to plead a cause; but in Greek, he must be noted for +affecting the sententious and short Laconic way of speaking in sundry passages +of his epistles; as when, in the beginning of the war, he wrote thus to the +Pergamenians: “I hear you have given Dolabella money; if willingly, you must +own you have injured me; if unwillingly, show it by giving willingly to me.” +And another time to the Samians: “Your counsels are remiss and your +performances slow: what think ye will be the end?” And of the Patareans thus: +“The Xanthians, suspecting my kindness, have made their country the grave of +their despair; the Patareans, trusting themselves to me, enjoy in all points +their former liberty; it is in your power to choose the judgment of the +Patareans or the fortune of the Xanthians.” And this is the style for which +some of his letters are to be noted. +</p> + +<p> +When he was but a very young man, he accompanied his uncle Cato, to Cyprus, +when he was sent there against Ptolemy. But when Ptolemy killed himself, Cato, +being by some necessary business detained in the isle of Rhodes, had already +sent one of his friends, named Canidius, to take into his care and keeping the +treasure of the king; but presently, not feeling sure of his honesty, he wrote +to Brutus to sail immediately for Cyprus out of Pamphylia, where he then was +staying to refresh himself, being but just recovered of a fit of sickness. He +obeyed his orders, but with a great deal of unwillingness, as well out of +respect to Canidius, who was thrown out of this employment by Cato with so much +disgrace, as also because he esteemed such a commission mean, and unsuitable to +him, who was in the prime of his youth, and given to books and study. +Nevertheless, applying himself to the business, he behaved himself so well in +it that he was highly commended by Cato, and, having turned all the goods of +Ptolemy into ready money, he sailed with the greatest part of it in his own +ship to Rome. +</p> + +<p> +But upon the general separation into two factions, when, Pompey and Caesar +taking up arms against one another, the whole empire was turned into confusion, +it was commonly believed that he would take Caesar’s side; for his father in +past time had been put to death by Pompey. But he, thinking it his duty to +prefer the interest of the public to his own private feelings, and judging +Pompey’s to be the better cause, took part with him; though formerly he used +not so much as to salute or take any notice of Pompey, if he happened to meet +him, esteeming it a pollution to have the least conversation with the murderer +of his father. But now, looking upon him as the general of his country, he +placed himself under his command, and set sail for Cilicia in quality of +lieutenant to Sestius, who had the government of that province. But finding no +opportunity there of doing any great service, and hearing that Pompey and +Caesar were now near one another and preparing for the battle upon which all +depended, he came of his own accord to Macedonia to partake in the danger. At +his coming it is said that Pompey was so surprised and so pleased, that, rising +from his chair in the sight of all who were about him, he saluted and embraced +him, as one of the chiefest of his party. All the time that he was in the camp, +excepting that which he spent in Pompey’s company, he employed in reading and +in study, which he did not neglect even the day before the great battle. It was +the middle of summer, and the heat was very great, the camp having been pitched +near some marshy ground, and the people that carried Brutus’s tent were a long +while before they came. Yet though upon these accounts he was extremely +harassed and out of order, having scarcely by the middle of the day anointed +himself and eaten a sparing meal, whilst most others were either laid to sleep +or taken up with the thoughts and apprehensions of what would be the issue of +the fight, he spent his time until the evening in writing an epitome of +Polybius. +</p> + +<p> +It is said that Caesar had so great a regard for him that he ordered his +commanders by no means to kill Brutus in the battle, but to spare him, if +possible, and bring him safe to him, if he would willingly surrender himself; +but if he made any resistance, to suffer him to escape rather than do him any +violence. And this he is believed to have done out of a tenderness to Servilia, +the mother of Brutus; for Caesar had, it seems, in his youth been very intimate +with her, and she passionately in love with him; and, considering that Brutus +was born about that time in which their loves were at the highest, Caesar had a +belief that he was his own child. The story is told, that when the great +question of the conspiracy of Catiline, which had like to have been the +destruction of the commonwealth, was debated in the senate, Cato and Caesar +were both standing up, contending together on the decision to be come to; at +which time a little note was delivered to Caesar from without, which he took +and read silently to himself. Upon this, Cato cried out aloud, and accused +Caesar of holding correspondence with and receiving letters from the enemies of +the commonwealth; and when many other senators exclaimed against it, Caesar +delivered the note as he had received it to Cato, who reading it found it to be +a love-letter from his own sister Servilia, and threw it back again to Caesar +with the words, “Keep it, you drunkard,” and returned to the subject of the +debate. So public and notorious was Servilia’s love to Caesar. +</p> + +<p> +After the great overthrow at Pharsalia, Pompey himself having made his escape +to the sea, and Caesar’s army storming the camp, Brutus stole privately out by +one of the gates leading to marshy ground full of water and covered with reeds, +and, traveling through the night, got safe to Larissa. From Larissa he wrote to +Caesar, who expressed a great deal of joy to hear that he was safe, and, +bidding him come, not only forgave him freely, but honored and esteemed him +among his chiefest friends. Now when nobody could give any certain account +which way Pompey had fled, Caesar took a little journey alone with Brutus, and +tried what was his opinion herein, and after some discussion which passed +between them, believing that Brutus’s conjecture was the right one, laying +aside all other thoughts, he set out directly to pursue him towards Egypt. But +Pompey, having reached Egypt, as Brutus guessed his design was to do, there met +his fate. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus in the meantime gained Caesar’s forgiveness for his friend Cassius; and +pleading also in defense of the king of the Lybians, though he was overwhelmed +with the greatness of the crimes alleged against him, yet by his entreaties and +deprecations to Caesar in his behalf, he preserved to him a great part of his +kingdom. It is reported that Caesar, when he first heard Brutus speak in +public, said to his friends, “I know not what this young man intends, but, +whatever he intends, he intends vehemently.” For his natural firmness of mind, +not easily yielding, or complying in favor of everyone that entreated his +kindness, once set into action upon motives of right reason and deliberate +moral choice, whatever direction it thus took, it was pretty sure to take +effectively, and to work in such a way as not to fail in its object. No +flattery could ever prevail with him to listen to unjust petitions; and he held +that to be overcome by the importunities of shameless and fawning entreaties, +though some compliment it with the name of modesty and bashfulness, was the +worst disgrace a great man could suffer. And he used to say, that he always +felt as if they who could deny nothing could not have behaved well in the +flower of their youth. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar, being about to make his expedition into Africa against Cato and Scipio, +committed to Brutus the government of Cisalpine Gaul, to the great happiness +and advantage of that province. For while people in other provinces were in +distress with the violence and avarice of their governors, and suffered as much +oppression as if they had been slaves and captives of war, Brutus, by his easy +government, actually made them amends for their calamities under former rulers, +directing moreover all their gratitude for his good deeds to Caesar himself; +insomuch that it was a most welcome and pleasant spectacle to Caesar, when in +his return he passed through Italy, to see the cities that were under Brutus’s +command and Brutus himself increasing his honor and joining agreeably in his +progress. +</p> + +<p> +Now several praetorships being vacant, it was all men’s opinion, that that of +the chiefest dignity, which is called the praetorship of the city, would be +conferred either upon Brutus or Cassius; and some say that, there having been +some little difference upon former accounts between them, this competition set +them much more at variance, though they were connected in their families, +Cassius having married Junia, the sister of Brutus. Others say that the +contention was raised between them by Caesar’s doing, who had privately given +each of them such hopes of his favor as led them on, and provoked them at last +into this open competition and trial of their interest. Brutus had only the +reputation of his honor and virtue to oppose to the many and gallant actions +performed by Cassius against the Parthians. But Caesar, having heard each side, +and deliberating about the matter among his friends, said, “Cassius has the +stronger plea, but we must let Brutus be first praetor.” So another praetorship +was given to Cassius; the gaining of which could not so much oblige him, as he +was incensed for the loss of the other. And in all other things Brutus was +partaker of Caesar’s power as much as he desired; for he might, if he had +pleased, have been the chief of all his friends, and had authority and command +beyond them all, but Cassius and the company he met with him drew him off from +Caesar. Indeed, he was not yet wholly reconciled to Cassius, since that +competition which was between them; but yet he gave ear to Cassius’s friends, +who were perpetually advising him not to be so blind as to suffer himself to be +softened and won upon by Caesar, but to shun the kindness and favors of a +tyrant, which they intimated that Caesar showed him, not to express any honor +to his merit or virtue, but to unbend his strength, and undermine his vigor of +purpose. +</p> + +<p> +Neither was Caesar wholly without suspicion of him nor wanted informers that +accused Brutus to him; but he feared, indeed, the high spirit and the great +character and the friends that he had, but thought himself secure in his moral +disposition. When it was told him that Antony and Dolabella designed some +disturbance, “It is not,” said he, “the fat and the long-haired men that I +fear, but the pale and the lean,” meaning Brutus and Cassius. And when some +maligned Brutus to him, and advised him to beware of him, taking hold of his +flesh with his hand, “What,” he said, “do you think that Brutus will not wait +out the time of this little body?” as if he thought none so fit to succeed him +in his power as Brutus. And indeed it seems to be without doubt that Brutus +might have been the first man in the commonwealth, if he had had patience but a +little time to be second to Caesar, and would have suffered his power to +decline after it was come to its highest pitch, and the fame of his great +actions to die away by degrees. But Cassius, a man of a fierce disposition, and +one that out of private malice, rather than love of the public, hated Caesar, +not the tyrant, continually fired and stirred him up. Brutus felt the rule an +oppression, but Cassius hated the ruler; and, among other reasons on which he +grounded his quarrel against Caesar, the loss of his lions which he had +procured when he was aedile elect was one: for Caesar, finding these in Megara, +when that city was taken by Calenus, seized them to himself. These beasts, they +say, were a great calamity to the Megarians; for, when their city was just +taken, they broke open the lions’ dens, and pulled off their chains and let +them loose, that they might run upon the enemy that was entering the city; but +the lions turned upon them themselves, and tore to pieces a great many unarmed +persons running about, so that it was a miserable spectacle even to their +enemies to behold. +</p> + +<p> +And this, some say, was the chief provocation that stirred up Cassius to +conspire against Caesar; but they are much in the wrong. For Cassius had from +his youth a natural hatred and rancor against the whole race of tyrants, which +he showed when he was but a boy, and went to the same school with Faustus, the +son of Sylla; for, on his boasting himself amongst the boys, and extolling the +sovereign power of his father, Cassius rose up and struck him two or three +boxes on the ear; which when the guardians and relations of Faustus designed to +inquire into and to prosecute, Pompey forbade them, and, sending for both the +boys together, examined the matter himself. And Cassius then is reported to +have said thus, “Come, then, Faustus, dare to speak here those words that +provoked me, that I may strike you again as I did before.” Such was the +disposition of Cassius. +</p> + +<p> +But Brutus was roused up and pushed on to the undertaking by many persuasions +of his familiar friends, and letters and invitations from unknown citizens. For +under the statue of his ancestor Brutus, that overthrew the kingly government, +they wrote the words, “O that we had a Brutus now!” and, “O that Brutus were +alive!” And Brutus’s own tribunal, on which he sat as praetor, was filled each +morning with writings such as these: “You are asleep, Brutus,” and, “You are +not a true Brutus.” Now the flatterers of Caesar were the occasion of all this, +who, among other invidious honors which they strove to fasten upon Caesar, +crowned his statues by night with diadems, wishing to incite the people to +salute him king instead of dictator. But quite the contrary came to pass, as I +have more particularly related in the life of Caesar. +</p> + +<p> +When Cassius went about soliciting friends to engage in this design against +Caesar, all whom he tried readily consented, if Brutus would be head of it; for +their opinion was that the enterprise wanted not hands or resolution, but the +reputation and authority of a man such as he was, to give as it were the first +religious sanction, and by his presence, if by nothing else, to justify the +undertaking; that without him they should go about this action with less heart, +and should lie under greater suspicions when they had done it, for, if their +cause had been just and honorable, people would be sure that Brutus would not +have refused it. Cassius, having considered these things with himself, went to +Brutus, and made him the first visit after their falling out; and after the +compliments of reconciliation had passed, and former kindnesses were renewed +between them, he asked him if he designed to be present in the senate on the +Calends of March, for it was discoursed, he said, that Caesar’s friends +intended then to move that he might be made king. When Brutus answered, that he +would not be there, “But what,” says Cassius, “if they should send for us?” “It +will be my business then,” replied Brutus, “not to hold my peace, but to stand +up boldly, and die for the liberty of my country.” To which Cassius with some +emotion answered, “But what Roman will suffer you to die? What, do you not know +yourself, Brutus? Or do you think that those writings that you find upon your +praetor’s seat were put there by weavers and shopkeepers, and not by the first +and most powerful men of Rome? From other praetors, indeed, they expect +largesses and shows and gladiators, but from you they claim, as an hereditary +debt, the extirpation of tyranny; they are all ready to suffer anything on your +account, if you will but show yourself such as they think you are and expect +you should be.” Which said, he fell upon Brutus, and embraced him; and after +this, they parted each to try their several friends. +</p> + +<p> +Among the friends of Pompey there was one Caius Ligarius, whom Caesar had +pardoned, though accused for having been in arms against him. This man, not +feeling so thankful for having been forgiven as he felt oppressed by that power +which made him need a pardon, hated Caesar, and was one of Brutus’s most +intimate friends. Him Brutus visited, and, finding him sick, “O Ligarius,” says +he, “what a time have you found out to be sick in!” At which words Ligarius, +raising himself and leaning on his elbow, took Brutus by the hand, and said, +“But, O Brutus, if you are on any design worthy of yourself, I am well.” +</p> + +<p> +From this time, they tried the inclinations of all their acquaintance that they +durst trust, and communicated the secret to them, and took into the design not +only their familiar friends, but as many as they believed bold and brave and +despisers of death. For which reason they concealed the plot from Cicero, +though he was very much trusted and as well beloved by them all, lest, to his +own disposition, which was naturally timorous, adding now the wariness and +caution of old age, by his weighing, as he would do, every particular, that he +might not make one step without the greatest security, he should blunt the edge +of their forwardness and resolution in a business which required all the +dispatch imaginable. As indeed there were also two others that were companions +of Brutus, Statilius the Epicurean, and Favonius the admirer of Cato, whom he +left out for this reason: as he was conversing one day with them, trying them +at a distance, and proposing some such question to be disputed of as among +philosophers, to see what opinion they were of, Favonius declared his judgment +to be that a civil war was worse than the most illegal monarchy; and Statilius +held, that, to bring himself into troubles and danger upon the account of evil +or foolish men, did not become a man that had any wisdom or discretion. But +Labeo, who was present, contradicted them both; and Brutus, as if it had been +an intricate dispute, and difficult to be decided, held his peace for that +time, but afterwards discovered the whole design to Labeo, who readily +undertook it. The next thing that was thought convenient, was to gain the other +Brutus, surnamed Albinus, a man of himself of no great bravery or courage, but +considerable for the number of gladiators that he was maintaining for a public +show, and the great confidence that Caesar put in him. When Cassius and Labeo +spoke with him concerning the matter, he gave them no answer; but, seeking an +interview with Brutus himself alone, and finding that he was their captain, he +readily consented to partake in the action. And among the others, also, the +most and best were gained by the name of Brutus. And, though they neither gave +nor took any oath of secrecy, nor used any other sacred rite to assure their +fidelity to each other, yet all kept their design so close, were so wary, and +held it so silently among themselves, that, though by prophecies and +apparitions and signs in the sacrifices the gods gave warning of it, yet could +it not be believed. +</p> + +<p> +Now Brutus, feeling that the noblest spirits of Rome for virtue, birth, or +courage were depending upon him, and surveying with himself all the +circumstances of the dangers they were to encounter, strove indeed as much as +possible, when abroad, to keep his uneasiness of mind to himself, and to +compose his thoughts; but at home, and especially at night, he was not the same +man, but sometimes against his will his working care would make him start out +of his sleep, and other times he was taken up with further reflection and +consideration of his difficulties, so that his wife that lay with him could not +choose but take notice that he was full of unusual trouble, and had in +agitation some dangerous and perplexing question. Porcia, as was said before, +was the daughter of Cato, and Brutus, her cousin-german, had married her very +young, though not a maid, but after the death of her former husband, by whom +she had one son, that was named Bibulus; and there is a little book, called +Memoirs of Brutus, written by him, yet extant. This Porcia, being addicted to +philosophy, a great lover of her husband, and full of an understanding courage, +resolved not to inquire into Brutus’s secrets before she had made this trial of +herself. She turned all her attendants out of her chamber, and, taking a little +knife, such as they use to cut nails with, she gave herself a deep gash in the +thigh; upon which followed a great flow of blood, and, soon after, violent +pains and a shivering fever, occasioned by the wound. Now when Brutus was +extremely anxious and afflicted for her, she, in the height of all her pain, +spoke thus to him: “I, Brutus, being the daughter of Cato, was given to you in +marriage, not like a concubine, to partake only in the common intercourse of +bed and board, but to bear a part in all your good and all your evil fortunes; +and for your part, as regards your care for me, I find no reason to complain; +but from me, what evidence of my love, what satisfaction can you receive, if I +may not share with you in bearing your hidden griefs, nor be admitted to any of +your counsels that require secrecy and trust? I know very well that women seem +to be of too weak a nature to be trusted with secrets; but certainly, Brutus, a +virtuous birth and education, and the company of the good and honorable, are of +some force to the forming our manners; and I can boast that I am the daughter +of Cato and the wife of Brutus, in which two titles though before I put less +confidence, yet now I have tried myself, and find that I can bid defiance to +pain.” Which words having spoken, she showed him her wound, and related to him +the trial that she had made of her constancy; at which he being astonished, +lifted up his hands to heaven, and begged the assistance of the gods in his +enterprise, that he might show himself a husband worthy of such a wife as +Porcia. So then he comforted his wife. +</p> + +<p> +But a meeting of the senate being appointed, at which it was believed that +Caesar would be present, they agreed to make use of that opportunity: for then +they might appear all together without suspicion; and, besides, they hoped that +all the noblest and leading men of the commonwealth, being then assembled, as +soon as the great deed was done, would immediately stand forward, and assert +the common liberty. The very place, too, where the senate was to meet, seemed +to be by divine appointment favorable to their purpose. It was a portico, one +of those joining the theater, with a large recess, in which there stood a +statue of Pompey, erected to him by the commonwealth, when he adorned that part +of the city with the porticos and the theater. To this place it was that the +senate was summoned for the middle of March (the Ides of March is the Roman +name for the day); as if some more than human power were leading the man +thither, there to meet his punishment for the death of Pompey. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as it was day, Brutus, taking with him a dagger, which none but his +wife knew of, went out. The rest met together at Cassius’s house, and brought +forth his son, that was that day to put on the manly gown, as it is called, +into the forum; and from thence, going all to Pompey’s porch, stayed there, +expecting Caesar to come without delay to the senate. Here it was chiefly that +anyone who had known what they had purposed, would have admired the unconcerned +temper and the steady resolution of these men in their most dangerous +undertaking; for many of them, being praetors, and called upon by their office +to judge and determine causes, did not only hear calmly all that made +application to them and pleaded against each other before them, as if they were +free from all other thoughts, but decided causes with as much accuracy and +judgment as they had heard them with attention and patience. And when one +person refused to stand to the award of Brutus, and with great clamor and many +attestations appealed to Caesar, Brutus, looking round about him upon those +that were present, said, “Caesar does not hinder me, nor will he hinder me, +from doing according to the laws.” +</p> + +<p> +Yet there were many unusual accidents that disturbed them and by mere chance +were thrown in their way. The first and chiefest was the long stay of Caesar, +though the day was far spent, and his being detained at home by his wife, and +forbidden by the soothsayers to go forth, upon some defect that appeared in his +sacrifice. Another was this: There came a man up to Casca, one of the company, +and, taking him by the hand, “You concealed,” said he, “the secret from us, but +Brutus has told me all.” At which words when Casca was surprised, the other +said laughing, “How come you to be so rich of a sudden, that you should stand +to be chosen aedile?” So near was Casca to let out the secret, upon the mere +ambiguity of the other’s expression. Then Popilius Laenas, a senator, having +saluted Brutus and Cassius more earnestly than usual, whispered them softly in +the ear and said, “My wishes are with you, that you may accomplish what you +design, and I advise you to make no delay, for the thing is now no secret.” +This said, he departed, and left them in great suspicion that the design had +taken wind. In the meanwhile, there came one in all haste from Brutus’s house, +and brought him news that his wife was dying. For Porcia, being extremely +disturbed with expectation of the event, and not able to bear the greatness of +her anxiety, could scarce keep herself within doors; and at every little noise +or voice she heard, starting up suddenly, like those possessed with the bacchic +frenzy, she asked everyone that came in from the forum what Brutus was doing, +and sent one messenger after another to inquire. At last, after long +expectation, the strength of her body could hold out no longer; her mind was +overcome with her doubts and fears, and she lost the control of herself, and +began to faint away. She had not time to betake herself to her chamber, but, +sitting as she was amongst her women, a sudden swoon and a great stupor seized +her, and her color changed, and her speech was quite lost. At this sight, her +women made a loud cry, and many of the neighbors running to Brutus’s door to +know what was the matter, the report was soon spread abroad that Porcia was +dead; though with her women’s help she recovered in a little while, and came to +herself again. When Brutus received this news, he was extremely troubled, nor +without reason, yet was not so carried away by his private grief as to quit his +public purpose. +</p> + +<p> +For now news was brought that Caesar was coming, carried in a litter. For, +being discouraged by the ill omens that attended his sacrifice, he had +determined to undertake no affairs of any great importance that day, but to +defer them till another time, excusing himself that he was sick. As soon as he +came out of his litter, Popilius Laenas, he who but a little before had wished +Brutus good success in his undertaking, coming up to him, conversed a great +while with him, Caesar standing still all the while, and seeming to be very +attentive. The conspirators, (to give them this name,) not being able to hear +what he said, but guessing by what themselves were conscious of that this +conference was the discovery of their treason, were again disheartened, and, +looking upon one another, agreed from each other’s countenances that they +should not stay to be taken, but should all kill themselves. And now when +Cassius and some others were laying hands upon their daggers under their robes, +and were drawing them out, Brutus, viewing narrowly the looks and gesture of +Laenas, and finding that he was earnestly petitioning and not accusing, said +nothing, because there were many strangers to the conspiracy mingled amongst +them, but by a cheerful countenance encouraged Cassius. And after a little +while, Laenas, having kissed Caesar’s hand, went away, showing plainly that all +his discourse was about some particular business relating to himself. +</p> + +<p> +Now when the senate was gone in before to the chamber where they were to sit, +the rest of the company placed themselves close about Caesar’s chair, as if +they had some suit to make to him, and Cassius, turning his face to Pompey’s +statue, is said to have invoked it, as if it had been sensible of his prayers. +Trebonius, in the meanwhile, engaged Antony’s attention at the door, and kept +him in talk outside. When Caesar entered, the whole senate rose up to him. As +soon as he was set down, the men all crowded round about him, and set Tillius +Cimber, one of their own number, to intercede in behalf of his brother, that +was banished; they all joined their prayers with his, and took Caesar by the +hand, and kissed his head and his breast. But he putting aside at first their +supplications, and afterwards, when he saw they would not desist, violently +rising up, Tillius with both hands caught hold of his robe and pulled it off +from his shoulders, and Casca, that stood behind him, drawing his dagger, gave +him the first, but a slight wound, about the shoulder. Caesar snatching hold of +the handle of the dagger, and crying out aloud in Latin, “Villain Casca, what +do you?” he, calling in Greek to his brother, bade him come and help. And by +this time, finding himself struck by a great many hands, and looking round +about him to see if he could force his way out, when he saw Brutus with his +dagger drawn against him, he let go Casca’s hand, that he had hold of, and, +covering his head with his robe, gave up his body to their blows. And they so +eagerly pressed towards the body, and so many daggers were hacking together, +that they cut one another; Brutus, particularly, received a wound in his hand, +and all of them were besmeared with the blood. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar being thus slain, Brutus, stepping forth into the midst, intended to +have made a speech, and called back and encouraged the senators to stay; but +they all affrighted ran away in great disorder, and there was a great confusion +and press at the door, though none pursued or followed. For they had come to an +express resolution to kill nobody besides Caesar, but to call and invite all +the rest to liberty. It was indeed the opinion of all the others, when they +consulted about the execution of their design, that it was necessary to cut off +Antony with Caesar, looking upon him as an insolent man, an affecter of +monarchy, and one that, by his familiar intercourse, had gained a powerful +interest with the soldiers. And this they urged the rather, because at that +time to the natural loftiness and ambition of his temper there was added the +dignity of being consul and colleague to Caesar. But Brutus opposed this +counsel, insisting first upon the injustice of it, and afterwards giving them +hopes that a change might be worked in Antony. For he did not despair but that +so highly gifted and honorable a man, and such a lover of glory as Antony, +stirred up with emulation of their great attempt, might, if Caesar were once +removed, lay hold of the occasion to be joint restorer with them of the liberty +of his country. Thus did Brutus save Antony’s life. But he, in the general +consternation, put himself into a plebeian habit, and fled. But Brutus and his +party marched up to the capitol, in their way showing their hands all bloody, +and their naked swords, and proclaiming liberty to the people. At first all +places were filled with cries and shouts; and the wild running to and fro, +occasioned by the sudden surprise and passion that everyone was in, increased +the tumult in the city. But no other bloodshed following, and no plundering of +the goods in the streets, the senators and many of the people took courage and +went up to the men in the capitol; and, a multitude being gathered together, +Brutus made an oration to them, very popular, and proper for the state that +affairs were then in. Therefore, when they applauded his speech, and cried out +to him to come down, they all took confidence and descended into the forum; the +rest promiscuously mingled with one another, but many of the most eminent +persons, attending Brutus, conducted him in the midst of them with great honor +from the capitol, and placed him in the rostra. At the sight of Brutus, the +crowd, though consisting of a confused mixture and all disposed to make a +tumult, were struck with reverence, and expected what he would say with order +and with silence, and, when he began to speak, heard him with quiet and +attention. But that all were not pleased with this action they plainly showed +when, Cinna beginning to speak and accuse Caesar, they broke out into a sudden +rage, and railed at him in such language, that the whole party thought fit +again to withdraw to the capitol. And there Brutus, expecting to be besieged, +dismissed the most eminent of those that had accompanied them thither, not +thinking it just that they who were not partakers of the fact should share in +the danger. +</p> + +<p> +But the next day, the senate being assembled in the temple of the Earth, and +Antony and Plancus and Cicero having made orations recommending concord in +general and an act of oblivion, it was decreed, that the men should not only be +put out of all fear or danger, but that the consuls should see what honors and +dignities were proper to be conferred upon them. After which done, the senate +broke up; and, Antony having sent his son as an hostage to the capitol, Brutus +and his company came down, and mutual salutes and invitations passed amongst +them, the whole of them being gathered together. Antony invited and entertained +Cassius, Lepidus did the same to Brutus, and the rest were invited and +entertained by others, as each of them had acquaintance or friends. And as soon +as it was day, the senate met again and voted thanks to Antony for having +stifled the beginning of a civil war; afterwards Brutus and his associates that +were present received encomiums, and had provinces assigned and distributed +among them. Crete was allotted to Brutus, Africa to Cassius, Asia to Trebonius, +Bithynia to Cimber, and to the other Brutus Gaul about the Po. +</p> + +<p> +After these things, they began to consider of Caesar’s will, and the ordering +of his funeral. Antony desired that the will might be read, and that the body +should not have a private or dishonorable interment, lest that should further +exasperate the people. This Cassius violently opposed, but Brutus yielded to +it, and gave leave; in which he seems to have a second time committed a fault. +For as before in sparing the life of Antony he could not be without some blame +from his party, as thereby setting up against the conspiracy a dangerous and +difficult enemy, so now, in suffering him to have the ordering of the funeral, +he fell into a total and irrecoverable error. For first, it appearing by the +will that Caesar had bequeathed to the Roman people seventy-five drachmas a +man, and given to the public his gardens beyond Tiber (where now the temple of +Fortune stands), the whole city was fired with a wonderful affection for him, +and a passionate sense of the loss of him. And when the body was brought forth +into the forum, Antony, as the custom was, making a funeral oration in the +praise of Caesar, and finding the multitude moved with his speech, passing into +the pathetic tone, unfolded the bloody garment of Caesar, showed them in how +many places it was pierced, and the number of his wounds. Now there was nothing +to be seen but confusion; some cried out to kill the murderers, others (as was +formerly done when Clodius led the people) tore away the benches and tables out +of the shops round about, and, heaping them all together, built a great funeral +pile, and, having put the body of Caesar upon it, set it on fire, the spot +where this was done being moreover surrounded with a great many temples and +other consecrated places, so that they seemed to burn the body in a kind of +sacred solemnity. As soon as the fire flamed out, the multitude, flocking in +some from one part and some from another, snatched the brands that were half +burnt out of the pile, and ran about the city to fire the houses of the +murderers of Caesar. But they, having beforehand well fortified themselves, +repelled this danger. +</p> + +<p> +There was however a kind of poet, one Cinna, not at all concerned in the guilt +of the conspiracy, but on the contrary one of Caesar’s friends. This man +dreamed that he was invited to supper by Caesar, and that he declined to go, +but that Caesar entreated and pressed him to it very earnestly; and at last, +taking him by the hand, led him into a very deep and dark place, whither he was +forced against his will to follow in great consternation and amazement. After +this vision, he had a fever the most part of the night; nevertheless in the +morning, hearing that the body of Caesar was to be carried forth to be +interred, he was ashamed not to be present at the solemnity, and came abroad +and joined the people, when they were already infuriated by the speech of +Antony. And perceiving him, and taking him not for that Cinna who indeed he +was, but for him that a little before in a speech to the people had reproached +and inveighed against Caesar, they fell upon him and tore him to pieces. +</p> + +<p> +This action chiefly, and the alteration that Antony had wrought, so alarmed +Brutus and his party, that for their safety they retired from the city. The +first stay they made was at Antium, with a design to return again as soon as +the fury of the people had spent itself and was abated, which they expected +would soon and easily come to pass in an unsettled multitude, apt to be carried +away with any sudden and impetuous passion, especially since they had the +senate favorable to them; which, though it took no notice of those that had +torn Cinna to pieces, yet made a strict search and apprehended in order to +punishment those that had assaulted the houses of the friends of Brutus and +Cassius. By this time, also, the people began to be dissatisfied with Antony, +who they perceived was setting up a kind of monarchy for himself; they longed +for the return of Brutus, whose presence they expected and hoped for at the +games and spectacles which he, as praetor, was to exhibit to the public. But +he, having intelligence that many of the old soldiers that had borne arms under +Caesar, by whom they had had lands and cities given them, lay in wait for him, +and by small parties at a time had stolen into the city, would not venture to +come himself; however, in his absence there were most magnificent and costly +shows exhibited to the people; for, having bought up a great number of all +sorts of wild beasts, he gave order that not any of them should be returned or +saved, but that all should be spent freely at the public spectacles. He himself +made a journey to Naples to procure a considerable number of players, and +hearing of one Canutius, that was very much praised for his acting upon the +stage, he wrote to his friends to use all their entreaties to bring him to Rome +(for, being a Grecian, he could not be compelled); he wrote also to Cicero, +begging him by no means to omit being present at the shows. +</p> + +<p> +This was the posture of affairs when another sudden alteration was made upon +the young Caesar’s coming to Rome. He was son to the niece of Caesar, who +adopted him, and left him his heir by his will. At the time when Caesar was +killed, he was following his studies at Apollonia, where he was expecting also +to meet Caesar on his way to the expedition which he had determined on against +the Parthians; but, hearing of his death, he immediately came to Rome, and, to +ingratiate himself with the people, taking upon himself the name of Caesar, and +punctually distributing among the citizens the money that was left them by the +will, he soon got the better of Antony; and by money and largesses, which he +liberally dispersed amongst the soldiers, he gathered together and brought over +to his party a great number of those that had served under Caesar. Cicero +himself, out of the hatred which he bore to Antony, sided with young Caesar; +which Brutus took so ill that he treated with him very sharply in his letters, +telling him, that he perceived Cicero could well enough endure a tyrant, but +was afraid that he who hated him should be the man; that in writing and +speaking so well of Caesar, he showed that his aim was to have an easy slavery. +“But our forefathers,” said Brutus, “could not brook even gentle masters.” +Further he added, that for his own part he had not as yet fully resolved +whether he should make war or peace; but that as to one point he was fixed and +settled, which was, never to be a slave; that he wondered Cicero should fear +the dangers of a civil war, and not be much more afraid of a dishonorable and +infamous peace; that the very reward that was to be given him for subverting +Antony’s tyranny was the privilege of establishing Caesar as tyrant in his +place. This is the tone of Brutus’s first letters to Cicero. +</p> + +<p> +The city being now divided into two factions, some betaking themselves to +Caesar and others to Antony, the soldiers selling themselves, as it were, by +public outcry, and going over to him that would give them most, Brutus began to +despair of any good event of such proceedings, and, resolving to leave Italy, +passed by land through Lucania and came to Elea by the seaside. From hence it +was thought convenient that Porcia should return to Rome. She was overcome with +grief to part from Brutus, but strove as much as was possible to conceal it; +but, in spite of all her constancy, a picture which she found there +accidentally betrayed it. It was a Greek subject, Hector parting from +Andromache when he went to engage the Greeks, giving his young son Astyanax +into her arms, and she fixing her eyes upon him. When she looked at this piece, +the resemblance it bore to her own condition made her burst into tears, and +several times a day she went to see the picture, and wept before it. Upon this +occasion, when Acilius, one of Brutus’s friends, repeated out of Homer the +verses, where Andromache speaks to Hector:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But Hector, you<br/> +To me are father and are mother too,<br/> +My brother, and my loving husband true. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Brutus, smiling, replied, “But I must not answer Porcia, as Hector did +Andromache, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +‘Mind you your loom, and to your maids give law.’ +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For though the natural weakness of her body hinders her from doing what only +the strength of men can perform, yet she has a mind as valiant and as active +for the good of her country as the best of us.” This narrative is in the +memoirs of Brutus written by Bibulus, Porcia’s son. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus took ship from hence, and sailed to Athens where he was received by the +people with great demonstrations of kindness, expressed in their acclamations +and the honors that were decreed him. He lived there with a private friend, and +was a constant auditor of Theomnestus the Academic and Cratippus the +Peripatetic, with whom he so engaged in philosophical pursuits, that he seemed +to have laid aside all thoughts of public business, and to be wholly at leisure +for study. But all this while, being unsuspected, he was secretly making +preparation for war; in order to which he sent Herostratus into Macedonia to +secure the commanders there to his side, and he himself won over and kept at +his disposal all the young Romans that were then students at Athens. Of this +number was Cicero’s son, whom he everywhere highly extols, and says that +whether sleeping or waking he could not choose but admire a young man of so +great a spirit and such a hater of tyranny. +</p> + +<p> +At length he began to act openly, and to appear in public business, and, being +informed that there were several Roman ships full of treasure that in their +course from Asia were to come that way, and that they were commanded by one of +his friends, he went to meet him about Carystus. Finding him there, and having +persuaded him to deliver up the ships, he made a more than usually splendid +entertainment, for it happened also to be his birthday. Now when they came to +drink, and were filling their cups with hopes for victory to Brutus and liberty +to Rome, Brutus, to animate them the more, called for a larger bowl, and +holding it in his hand, on a sudden upon no occasion or forethought pronounced +aloud this verse: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +But fate my death and Leto’s son have wrought. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And some writers add that in the last battle which he fought at Philippi the +word that he gave to his soldiers was Apollo, and from thence conclude that +this sudden unaccountable exclamation of his was a presage of the overthrow +that he suffered there. +</p> + +<p> +Antistius, the commander of these ships, at his parting gave him fifty thousand +myriads of the money that he was conveying to Italy; and all the soldiers yet +remaining of Pompey’s army, who after their general’s defeat wandered about +Thessaly, readily and joyfully flocked together to join him. Besides this, he +took from Cinna five hundred horse that he was carrying to Dolabella into Asia. +After that, he sailed to Demetrias, and there seized a great quantity of arms, +that had been provided by the command of the deceased Caesar for the Parthian +war, and were now to be sent to Antony. Then Macedonia was put into his hands +and delivered up by Hortensius the praetor, and all the kings and potentates +round about came and offered their services. So when news was brought that +Caius, the brother of Antony, having passed over from Italy, was marching on +directly to join the forces that Vatinius commanded in Dyrrhachium and +Apollonia, Brutus resolved to anticipate him, and to seize them first, and in +all haste moved forwards with those that he had about him. His march was very +difficult, through rugged places and in a great snow, but so swift that he left +those that were to bring his provisions for the morning meal a great way +behind. And now, being very near to Dyrrhachium, with fatigue and cold he fell +into the distemper called Bulimia. This is a disease that seizes both men and +cattle after much labor, and especially in a great snow; whether it is caused +by the natural heat, when the body is seized with cold, being forced all +inwards, and consuming at once all the nourishment laid in, or whether the +sharp and subtle vapor which comes from the snow as it dissolves, cuts the +body, as it were, and destroys the heat which issues through the pores; for the +sweatings seem to arise from the heat meeting with the cold, and being quenched +by it on the surface of the body. But this I have in another place discussed +more at large. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus growing very faint, and there being none in the whole army that had +anything for him to eat, his servants were forced to have recourse to the +enemy, and, going as far as to the gates of the city, begged bread of the +sentinels that were upon duty. As soon as they heard of the condition of +Brutus, they came themselves, and brought both meat and drink along with them; +in return for which, Brutus, when he took the city, showed the greatest +kindness, not to them only, but to all the inhabitants, for their sakes. Caius +Antonius, in the meantime, coming to Apollonia, summoned all the soldiers that +were near that city to join him there; but finding that they nevertheless went +all to Brutus, and suspecting that even those of Apollonia were inclined to the +same party, he quitted that city, and came to Buthrotum, having first lost +three cohorts of his men, that in their march thither were cut to pieces by +Brutus. After this, attempting to make himself master of some strong places +about Byllis which the enemy had first seized, he was overcome in a set battle +by young Cicero, to whom Brutus gave the command, and whose conduct he made use +of often and with much success. Caius himself was surprised in a marshy place, +at a distance from his supports; and Brutus, having him in his power, would not +suffer his soldiers to attack, but maneuvering about the enemy with his horse, +gave command that none of them should be killed, for that in a little time they +would all be of his side; which accordingly came to pass, for they surrendered +both themselves and their general. So that Brutus had by this time a very great +and considerable army. He showed all marks of honor and esteem to Caius for a +long time, and left him the use of the ensigns of his office, though, as some +report, he had several letters from Rome, and particularly from Cicero, +advising him to put him to death. But at last, perceiving that he began to +corrupt his officers, and was trying to raise a mutiny amongst the soldiers, he +put him aboard a ship and kept him close prisoner. In the meantime the soldiers +that had been corrupted by Caius retired to Apollonia, and sent word to Brutus, +desiring him to come to them thither. He answered that this was not the custom +of the Romans, but that it became those who had offended to come themselves to +their general and beg forgiveness of their offences; which they did, and +accordingly received their pardon. +</p> + +<p> +As he was preparing to pass into Asia, tidings reached him of the alteration +that had happened at Rome; where the young Caesar, assisted by the senate, in +opposition to Antony, and having driven his competitor out of Italy, had begun +himself to be very formidable, suing for the consulship contrary to law, and +maintaining large bodies of troops of which the commonwealth had no manner of +need. And then, perceiving that the senate, dissatisfied with his proceedings, +began to cast their eyes abroad upon Brutus, and decreed and confirmed the +government of several provinces to him, he had taken the alarm. Therefore +dispatching messengers to Antony, he desired that there might be a +reconciliation, and a friendship between them. Then, drawing all his forces +about the city, he made himself be chosen consul, though he was but a boy, +being scarce twenty years old, as he himself writes in his memoirs. At his +first entry upon the consulship he immediately ordered a judicial process to be +issued out against Brutus and his accomplices for having murdered a principal +man of the city, holding the highest magistracies of Rome, without being heard +or condemned; and appointed Lucius Cornificius to accuse Brutus, and Marcus +Agrippa to accuse Cassius. None appearing to the accusation, the judges were +forced to pass sentence and condemn them both. It is reported, that when the +crier from the tribunal, as the custom was, with a loud voice cited Brutus to +appear, the people groaned audibly, and the noble citizens hung down their +heads for grief. Publius Silicius was seen to burst out into tears, which was +the cause that not long after he was put down in the list of those that were +proscribed. After this, the three men, Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus, being +perfectly reconciled, shared the provinces among themselves, and made up the +catalogue of proscription, wherein were set those that were designed for +slaughter, amounting to two hundred men, in which number Cicero was slain. +</p> + +<p> +This news being brought to Brutus in Macedonia, he was under a compulsion, and +sent orders to Hortensius that he should kill Caius Antonius in revenge of the +death of Cicero his friend, and Brutus his kinsman, who also was proscribed and +slain. Upon this account it was that Antony, having afterwards taken Hortensius +in the battle of Philippi, slew him upon his brother’s tomb. But Brutus +expresses himself as more ashamed for the cause of Cicero’s death than grieved +for the misfortune of it, and says he cannot help accusing his friends at Rome, +that they were slaves more through their own doing than that of those who now +were their tyrants; they could be present and see and yet suffer those things +which even to hear related ought to them to have been insufferable. +</p> + +<p> +Having made his army, that was already very considerable, pass into Asia, he +ordered a fleet to be prepared in Bithynia and about Cyzicus. But going himself +through the country by land, he made it his business to settle and confirm all +the cities, and gave audience to the princes of the parts through which he +passed. And he sent orders into Syria to Cassius to come to him, and leave his +intended journey into Egypt; letting him understand, that it was not to gain an +empire for themselves, but to free their country, that they went thus wandering +about and had got an army together whose business it was to destroy the +tyrants; that therefore, if they remembered and resolved to persevere in their +first purpose, they ought not to be too far from Italy, but make what haste +they could thither, and endeavor to relieve their fellow-citizens from +oppression. +</p> + +<p> +Cassius obeyed his summons, and returned, and Brutus went to meet him; and at +Smyrna they met, which was the first time they had seen one another since they +parted at the Piraeus in Athens, one for Syria, and the other for Macedonia. +They were both extremely joyful and had great confidence of their success at +the sight of the forces that each of them had got together, since they who had +fled from Italy, like the most despicable exiles, without money, without arms, +without a ship or a soldier or a city to rely on, in a little time after had +met together so well furnished with shipping and money, and an army both of +horse and foot, that they were in a condition to contend for the empire of +Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Cassius was desirous to show no less respect and honor to Brutus than Brutus +did to him; but Brutus was still beforehand with him, coming for the most part +to him, both because he was the elder man, and of a weaker constitution than +himself. Men generally reckoned Cassius a very expert soldier, but of a harsh +and angry nature, and one that desired to command rather by fear than love; +though, on the other side, among his familiar acquaintance he would easily give +way to jesting, and play the buffoon. But Brutus, for his virtue, was esteemed +by the people, beloved by his friends, admired by the best men, and hated not +by his enemies themselves. For he was a man of a singularly gentle nature, of a +great spirit, insensible of the passions of anger or pleasure or covetousness; +steady and inflexible to maintain his purpose for what he thought right and +honest. And that which gained him the greatest affection and reputation was the +entire faith in his intentions. For it had not ever been supposed that Pompey +the Great himself, if he had overcome Caesar, would have submitted his power to +the laws, instead of taking the management of the state upon himself, soothing +the people with the specious name of consul or dictator, or some other milder +title than king. And they were well persuaded that Cassius, being a man +governed by anger and passion and carried often, for his interest’s sake, +beyond the bounce of justice, endured all these hardships of war and travel and +danger most assuredly to obtain dominion to himself, and not liberty to the +people. And as for the former disturbers of the peace of Rome, whether a Cinna, +a Marius, or a Carbo, it is manifest that they, having set their country as a +stake for him that should win, did almost own in express terms that they fought +for empire. But even the enemies of Brutus did not, they tell us, lay this +accusation to his charge; nay, many heard Antony himself say that Brutus was +the only man that conspired against Caesar out of a sense of the glory and the +apparent justice of the action, but that all the rest rose up against the man +himself, from private envy and malice of their own. And it is plain by what he +writes himself, that Brutus did not so much rely upon his forces, as upon his +own virtue. For thus he speaks in a letter to Atticus, shortly before he was to +engage with the enemy: that his affairs were in the best state of fortune that +he could wish; for that either he should overcome, and restore liberty to the +people of Rome, or die, and be himself out of the reach of slavery; that other +things being certain and beyond all hazard, one thing was yet in doubt, whether +they should live or die free men. He adds further, that Mark Antony had +received a just punishment for his folly, who, when he might have been numbered +with Brutus and Cassius and Cato, would join himself to Octavius; that though +they should not now be both overcome, they soon would fight between them +selves. And in this he seems to have been no ill prophet. +</p> + +<p> +Now when they were at Smyrna, Brutus desired of Cassius that he might have part +of the great treasure that he had heaped up, because all his own was expended +in furnishing out such a fleet of ships as was sufficient to keep the whole +interior sea in their power. But Cassius’s friends dissuaded him from this; +“for,” said they, “it is not just that the money which you with so much +parsimony keep and with so much envy have got, should be given to him to be +disposed of in making himself popular, and gaining the favor of the soldiers.” +Notwithstanding this, Cassius gave him a third part of all that he had; and +then they parted each to their several commands. Cassius, having taken Rhodes, +behaved himself there with no clemency; though at his first entry, when some +had called him lord and king, he answered, that he was neither king nor lord, +but the destroyer and punisher of a king and lord. Brutus, on the other part, +sent to the Lycians to demand from them a supply of money and men; but +Naucrates, their popular leader, persuaded the cities to resist, and they +occupied several little mountains and hills, with a design to hinder Brutus’s +passage. Brutus at first sent out a party of horse, which, surprising them as +they were eating, killed six hundred of them; and afterwards, having taken all +their small towns and villages round about, he set all his prisoners free +without ransom, hoping to win the whole nation by good-will. But they continued +obstinate, taking in anger what they had suffered, and despising his goodness +and humanity; until, having forced the most warlike of them into the city of +Xanthus, he besieged them there. They endeavored to make their escape by +swimming and diving through the river that flows by the town, but were taken by +nets let down for that purpose in the channel, which had little bells at the +top, which gave present notice of any that were taken in them. After that, they +made a sally in the night, and seizing several of the battering engines, set +them on fire; but being perceived by the Romans, were beaten back to their +walls, and, there being a strong wind, it carried the flames to the battlements +of the city with such fierceness, that several of the adjoining houses took +fire. Brutus, fearing lest the whole city should be destroyed, commanded his +own soldiers to assist, and quench the fire. +</p> + +<p> +But the Lycians were on a sudden possessed with a strange and incredible +desperation; such a frenzy as cannot be better expressed than by calling it a +violent appetite to die, for both women and children, the bondmen and the free, +those of all ages and of all conditions strove to force away the soldiers that +came in to their assistance, from the walls; and themselves gathering together +reeds and wood, and whatever combustible matter they found, spread the fire +over the whole city, feeding it with whatever fuel they could, and by all +possible means exciting its fury, so that the flame, having dispersed itself +and encircled the whole city, blazed out in so terrible a manner, that Brutus, +being extremely afflicted at their calamity, got on horseback and rode round +the walls, earnestly desirous to preserve the city, and, stretching forth his +hands to the Xanthians, begged of them that they would spare themselves and +save their town. Yet none regarded his entreaties, but by all manner of ways +strove to destroy themselves; not only men and women, but even boys and little +children, with a hideous outcry, leaped, some into the fire, others from the +walls, others fell upon their parents’ swords, baring their throats and +desiring to be struck. After the destruction of the city, there was found a +woman who had hanged herself with her young child hanging from her neck, and +the torch in her hand, with which she had fired her own house. It was so +tragical a sight, that Brutus could not endure to see it, but wept at the very +relation of it, and proclaimed a reward to any soldier that could save a +Xanthian. And it is said that one hundred and fifty only were found, to have +their lives saved against their wills. Thus the Xanthians, after a long space +of years, the fated period of their destruction having, as it were, run its +course, repeated by their desperate deed the former calamity of their +forefathers, who after the very same manner in the Persian war had fired their +city and destroyed themselves. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus, after this, finding the Patareans resolved to make resistance and hold +out their city against him, was very unwilling to besiege it, and was in great +perplexity lest the same frenzy might seize them too. But having in his power +some of their women, who were his prisoners, he dismissed them all without any +ransom; who, returning and giving an account to their husbands and fathers, who +were of the greatest rank, what an excellent man Brutus was how temperate and +how just, persuaded them to yield themselves and put their city into his hands. +From this time all the cities round about came into his power, submitting +themselves to him, and found him good and merciful even beyond their hopes. For +though Cassius at the same time had compelled the Rhodians to bring in all the +silver and gold that each of them privately was possessed of, by which he +raised a sum of eight thousand talents, and besides this had condemned the +public to pay the sum of five hundred talents more, Brutus, not having taken +above a hundred and fifty talents from the Lycians, and having done them no +other manner of injury, parted from thence with his army to go into Ionia. +</p> + +<p> +Through the whole course of this expedition, Brutus did many memorable acts of +justice in dispensing rewards and punishments to such as had deserved either; +but one in particular I will relate, because he himself, and all the noblest +Romans, were gratified with it above all the rest. When Pompey the Great, being +overthrown from his great power by Caesar, had fled to Egypt, and landed near +Pelusium, the protectors of the young king consulted among themselves what was +fit to be done on that occasion, nor could they all agree in the same opinion, +some being for receiving him, others for driving him from Egypt. But Theodotus, +a Chian by birth, and then attending upon the king as a paid teacher of +rhetoric, and for want of better men admitted into the council, undertook to +prove to them, that both parties were in the wrong, those that counseled to +receive Pompey, and those that advised to send him away; that in their present +case one thing only was truly expedient, to seize him and to kill him; and +ended his argument with the proverb, that “dead men don’t bite.” The council +agreed to his opinion, and Pompey the Great (an example of incredible and +unforeseen events) was slain, as the sophister himself had the impudence to +boast, through the rhetoric and cleverness of Theodotus. Not long after, when +Caesar came to Egypt, some of the murderers received their just reward and +suffered the evil death they deserved. But Theodotus, though he had borrowed on +from fortune a little further time for a poor despicable and wandering life, +yet did not lie hid from Brutus as he passed through Asia; but being seized by +him and executed, had his death made more memorable than was his life. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, Brutus sent to Cassius to come to him at the city of Sardis, +and, when he was on his journey, went forth with his friends to meet him; and +the whole army in array saluted each of them with the name of Imperator. Now +(as it usually happens in business of great concern and where many friends and +many commanders are engaged), several jealousies of each other and matters of +private accusation having passed between Brutus and Cassius, they resolved, +before they entered upon any other business, immediately to withdraw into some +apartment; where, the door being shut and they two alone, they began first to +expostulate, then to dispute hotly, and accuse each other; and finally were so +transported into passion as to fall to hard words, and at last burst out into +tears. Their friends who stood without were amazed, hearing them loud and +angry, and feared lest some mischief might follow, but yet durst not interrupt +them, being commanded not to enter the room. However, Marcus Favonius, who had +been an ardent admirer of Cato, and, not so much by his learning or wisdom as +by his wild, vehement manner, maintained the character of a philosopher, was +rushing in upon them, but was hindered by the attendants. But it was a hard +matter to stop Favonius, wherever his wildness hurried him; for he was fierce +in all his behavior, and ready to do anything to get his will. And though he +was a senator, yet, thinking that one of the least of his excellences, he +valued himself more upon a sort of cynical liberty of speaking what he pleased, +which sometimes, indeed, did away with the rudeness and unseasonableness of his +addresses with those that would interpret it in jest. This Favonius, breaking +by force through those that kept the doors, entered into the chamber, and with +a set voice declaimed the verses that Homer makes Nestor use, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Be ruled, for I am older than ye both. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +At this Cassius laughed; but Brutus thrust him our, calling him impudent dog +and counterfeit Cynic; but yet for the present they let it put an end to their +dispute, and parted. Cassius made a supper that night, and Brutus invited the +guests; and when they were set down, Favonius, having bathed, came in among +them. Brutus called out aloud and told him he was not invited, and bade him go +to the upper couch; but he violently thrust himself in, and lay down on the +middle one; and the entertainment passed in sportive talk, not wanting either +wit or philosophy. +</p> + +<p> +The next day after, upon the accusation of the Sardians, Brutus publicly +disgraced and condemned Lucius Pella, one that had been censor of Rome, and +employed in offices of trust by himself, for having embezzled the public money. +This action did not a little vex Cassius; for but a few days before, two of his +own friends being accused of the same crime, he only admonished them in +private, but in public absolved them, and continued them in his service; and +upon this occasion he accused Brutus of too much rigor and severity of justice +in a time which required them to use more policy and favor. But Brutus bade him +remember the Ides of March, the day when they killed Caesar, who himself +neither plundered nor pillaged mankind, but was only the support and strength +of those that did; and bade him consider, that if there was any color for +justice to be neglected, it had been better to suffer the injustice of Caesar’s +friends than to give impunity to their own; “for then,” said he, “we could have +been accused of cowardice only; whereas now we are liable to the accusation of +injustice, after all our pain and dangers which we endure.” By which we may +perceive what was Brutus’s purpose, and the rule of his actions. +</p> + +<p> +About the time that they were going to pass out of Asia into Europe, it is said +that a wonderful sign was seen by Brutus. He was naturally given to much +watching, and by practice and moderation in his diet had reduced his allowance +of sleep to a very small amount of time. He never slept in the daytime, and in +the night then only when all his business was finished, and when, everyone else +being gone to rest, he had nobody to discourse with him. But at this time, the +war being begun, having the whole state of it to consider and being solicitous +of the event, after his first sleep, which he let himself take after his +supper, he spent all the rest of the night in settling his most urgent affairs; +which if he could dispatch early and so make a saving of any leisure, he +employed himself in reading until the third watch, at which time the centurions +and tribunes were used to come to him for orders. Thus one night before he +passed out of Asia, he was very late all alone in his tent, with a dim light +burning by him, all the rest of the camp being hushed and silent; and reasoning +about something with himself and very thoughtful, he fancied someone came in, +and, looking up towards the door, he saw a terrible and strange appearance of +an unnatural and frightful body standing by him without speaking. Brutus boldly +asked it, “What are you, of men or gods, and upon what business come to me?” +The figure answered, “I am your evil genius, Brutus; you shall see me at +Philippi.” To which Brutus, not at all disturbed, replied, “Then I shall see +you.” +</p> + +<p> +As soon as the apparition vanished, he called his servants to him, who all told +him that they had neither heard any voice nor seen any vision. So then he +continued watching till the morning, when he went to Cassius, and told him of +what he had seen. He, who followed the principles of Epicurus’s philosophy, and +often used to dispute with Brutus concerning matters of this nature, spoke to +him thus upon this occasion: “It is the opinion of our sect, Brutus, that not +all that we feel or see is real and true; but that the sense is a most slippery +and deceitful thing, and the mind yet more quick and subtle to put the sense in +motion and affect it with every kind of change upon no real occasion of fact; +just as an impression is made upon wax; and the soul of man, which has in +itself both what imprints and what is imprinted on, may most easily, by its own +operations, produce and assume every variety of shape and figure. This is +evident from the sudden changes of our dreams; in which the imaginative +principle, once started by anything matter, goes through a whole series of most +diverse emotions and appearances. It is its nature to be ever in motion, and +its motion is fantasy or conception. But besides all this, in your case, the +body, being tired and distressed with continual toil, naturally works upon the +mind, and keeps it in an excited and unusual condition. But that there should +be any such thing as supernatural beings, or, if there were, that they should +have human shape or voice or power that can reach to us, there is no reason for +believing; though I confess I could wish that there were such beings, that we +might not rely upon our arms only, and our horses and our navy, all which are +so numerous and powerful, but might be confident of the assistance of gods +also, in this our most sacred and honorable attempt.” With such discourses as +these Cassius soothed the mind of Brutus. But just as the troops were going on +board, two eagles flew and lighted on the first two ensigns, and crossed over +the water with them, and never ceased following the soldiers and being fed by +them till they came to Philippi, and there, but one day before the fight, they +both flew away. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus had already reduced most of the places and people of these parts; but +they now marched on as far as to the coast opposite Thasos, and, if there were +any city or man of power that yet stood out, brought them all to subjection. At +this point Norbanus was encamped, in a place called the Straits, near Symbolum. +Him they surrounded in such sort that they forced him to dislodge and quit the +place; and Norbanus narrowly escaped losing his whole army, Caesar by reason of +sickness being too far behind; only Antony came to his relief with such +wonderful swiftness that Brutus and those with him did not believe when they +heard he was come. Caesar came up ten days after, and encamped over against +Brutus, and Antony over against Cassius. +</p> + +<p> +The space between the two armies is called by the Romans the Campi Philippi. +Never had two such large Roman armies come together to engage each other. That +of Brutus was somewhat less in number than that of Caesar, but in the +splendidness of the men’s arms and richness of their equipage it wonderfully +exceeded; for most of their arms were of gold and silver, which Brutus had +lavishly bestowed among them. For though in other things he had accustomed his +commanders to use all frugality and self-control, yet he thought that the +riches which soldiers carried about them in their hands and on their bodies +would add something of spirit to those that were desirous of glory, and would +make those that were covetous and lovers of gain fight the more valiantly to +preserve the arms which were their estate. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar made a view and lustration of his army within his trenches, and +distributed only a little corn and but five drachmas to each soldier for the +sacrifice they were to make. But Brutus, either pitying this poverty, or +disdaining this meanness of spirit in Caesar, first, as the custom was, made a +general muster and lustration of the army in the open field, and then +distributed a great number of beasts for sacrifice to every regiment, and fifty +drachmas to every soldier; so that in the love of his soldiers and their +readiness to fight for him Brutus had much the advantage. But at the time of +lustration it is reported that an unlucky omen happened to Cassius; for his +lictor, presenting him with a garland that he was to wear at sacrifice, gave it +him the wrong way up. Further, it is said that some time before, at a certain +solemn procession, a golden image of Victory, which was carried before Cassius, +fell down by a slip of him that carried it. Besides this there appeared many +birds of prey daily about the camp, and swarms of bees were seen in a place +within the trenches, which place the soothsayers ordered to be shut out from +the camp, to remove the superstition which insensibly began to infect even +Cassius himself and shake him in his Epicurean philosophy, and had wholly +seized and subdued the soldiers; from whence it was that Cassius was reluctant +to put all to the hazard of a present battle, but advised rather to draw out +the war until further time, considering that they were stronger in money and +provisions, but in numbers of men and arms inferior. But Brutus, on the +contrary, was still, as formerly, desirous to come with all speed to the +decision of a battle; that so he might either restore his country to her +liberty, or else deliver from their misery all those numbers of people whom +they harassed with the expenses and the service and exactions of the war. And +finding also his light-horse in several skirmishes still to have had the +better, he was the more encouraged and resolved; and some of the soldiers +having deserted and gone to the enemy, and others beginning to accuse and +suspect one another, many of Cassius’s friends in the council changed their +opinions to that of Brutus. But there was one of Brutus’s party, named +Atellius, who opposed his resolution, advising rather that they should tarry +over the winter. And when Brutus asked him in how much better a condition he +hoped to be a year after, his answer was, “If I gain nothing else, yet I shall +live so much the longer.” Cassius was much displeased at this answer; and among +the rest, Atellius was had in much disesteem for it. And so it was presently +resolved to give battle the next day. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus that night at supper showed himself very cheerful and full of hope, and +reasoned on subjects of philosophy with his friends, and afterwards went to his +rest. But Messala says that Cassius supped privately with a few of his nearest +acquaintance, and appeared thoughtful and silent, contrary to his temper and +custom; that after supper he took him earnestly by the hand, and speaking to +him, as his manner was when he wished to show affection, in Greek, said, “Bear +witness for me, Messala, that I am brought into the same necessity as Pompey +the Great was before me, of hazarding the liberty of my country upon one +battle; yet ought we to be of courage, relying on our good fortune, which it +were unfair to mistrust, though we take evil counsels.” These, Messala says, +were the last words that Cassius spoke before he bade him farewell; and that he +was invited to sup with him the next night, being his birthday. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as it was morning, the signal of battle, the scarlet coat, was set out +in Brutus’s and Cassius’s camps, and they themselves met in the middle space +between their two armies. There Cassius spoke thus to Brutus: “Be it as we +hope, O Brutus, that this day we may overcome, and all the rest of our time may +live a happy life together; but since the greatest of human concerns are the +most uncertain, and since it may be difficult for us ever to see one another +again, if the battle should go against us, tell me, what is your resolution +concerning flight and death?” Brutus answered, “When I was young, Cassius, and +unskillful in affairs, I was led, I know not how, into uttering a bold sentence +in philosophy, and blamed Cato for killing himself, as thinking it an +irreligious act, and not a valiant one among men, to try to evade the divine +course of things, and not fearlessly to receive and undergo the evil that shall +happen, but run away from it. But now in my own fortunes I am of another mind; +for if Providence shall not dispose what we now undertake according to our +wishes, I resolve to put no further hopes or warlike preparations to the proof, +but will die contented with my fortune. For I already have given up my life to +my country on the Ides of March; and have lived since then a second life for +her sake, with liberty and honor.” Cassius at these words smiled, and, +embracing Brutus said, “With these resolutions let us go on upon the enemy; for +either we ourselves shall conquer, or have no cause to fear those that do.” +After this they discoursed among their friends about the ordering of the +battle; and Brutus desired of Cassius that he might command the right wing, +though it was thought that this was more fit for Cassius, in regard both of his +age and his experience. Yet even in this Cassius complied with Brutus, and +placed Messala with the valiantest of all his legions in the same wing, so +Brutus immediately drew out his horse, excellently well equipped, and was not +long in bringing up his foot after them. +</p> + +<p> +Antony’s soldiers were casting trenches from the marsh by which they were +encamped, across the plain, to cut off Cassius’s communications with the sea. +Caesar was to be at hand with his troops to support them, but he was not able +to be present himself, by reason of his sickness; and his soldiers, not much +expecting that the enemy would come to a set battle, but only make some +excursions with their darts and light arms to disturb the men at work in the +trenches, and not taking notice of the boons drawn up against them ready to +give battle, were amazed when they heard the confused and great outcry that +came from the trenches. In the meanwhile Brutus had sent his tickets, in which +was the word of battle, to the officers; and himself riding about to all the +troops, encouraged the soldiers; but there were but few of them that understood +the word before they engaged; the most of them, not staying to have it +delivered to them, with one impulse and cry ran upon the enemy. This disorder +caused an unevenness in the line, and the legions got severed and divided one +from another; that of Messala first, and afterwards the other adjoining, went +beyond the left wing of Caesar; and having just touched the extremity, without +slaughtering any great number, passing round that wing, fell directly into +Caesar’s camp. Caesar himself, as his own memoirs tell us, had but just before +been conveyed away, Marcus Artorius, one of his friends, having had a dream +bidding Caesar be carried out of the camp. And it was believed that he was +slain; for the soldiers had pierced his litter, which was left empty, in many +places with their darts and pikes. There was a great slaughter in the camp that +was taken, and two thousand Lacedaemonians that were newly come to the +assistance of Caesar were all cut off together. +</p> + +<p> +The rest of the army, that had not gone round but had engaged the front, easily +overthrew them, finding them in great disorder, and slew upon the place three +legions; and being carried on with the stream of victory, pursuing those that +fled, fell into the camp with them, Brutus himself being there. But they that +were conquered took the advantage in their extremity of what the conquerors did +not consider. For they fell upon that part of the main body which had been left +exposed and separated, where the right wing had broke off from them and hurried +away in the pursuit; yet they could not break into the midst of their battle, +but were received with strong resistance and obstinacy. Yet they put to flight +the left wing, where Cassius commanded, being in great disorder, and ignorant +of what had passed on the other wing; and, pursuing them to their camp, they +pillaged and destroyed it, neither of their generals being present; for Antony, +they say, to avoid the fury of the first onset, had retired into the marsh that +was hard by; and Caesar was nowhere to be found after his being conveyed out of +the tents; though some of the soldiers showed Brutus their swords bloody, and +declared that they had killed him, describing his person and his age. By this +time also the center of Brutus’s battle had driven back their opponents with +great slaughter; and Brutus was everywhere plainly conqueror, as on the other +side Cassius was conquered. And this one mistake was the ruin of their affairs, +that Brutus did not come to the relief of Cassius, thinking that he, as well as +himself, was conqueror; and that Cassius did not expect the relief of Brutus, +thinking that he too was overcome. For as a proof that the victory was on +Brutus’s side, Messala urges his taking three eagles and many ensigns of the +enemy without losing any of his own. But now, returning from the pursuit after +having plundered Caesar’s camp, Brutus wondered that he could not see Cassius’s +tent standing high, as it was wont, and appearing above the rest, nor other +things appearing as they had been; for they had been immediately pulled down +and pillaged by the enemy upon their first falling into the camp. But some that +had a quicker and longer sight than the rest acquainted Brutus that they saw a +great deal of shining armor and silver targets moving to and fro in Cassius’s +camp, and that they thought, by their number and the fashion of their armor, +they could not be those that they left to guard the camp; but yet that there +did not appear so great a number of dead bodies thereabouts as it was probable +there would have been after the actual defeat of so many legions. This first +made Brutus suspect Cassius’s misfortune, and, leaving a guard in the enemy’s +camp, he called back those that were in the pursuit, and rallied them together +to lead them to the relief of Cassius, whose fortune had been as follows. +</p> + +<p> +First, he had been angry at the onset that Brutus’s soldiers made, without the +word of battle or command to charge. Then, after they had overcome, he was as +much displeased to see them rush on to the plunder and spoil, and neglect to +surround and encompass the rest of the enemy. Besides this, letting himself act +by delay and expectation, rather than command boldly and with a clear purpose, +he got hemmed in by the right wing of the enemy, and, his horse making with all +haste their escape and flying towards the sea, the foot also began to give way, +which he perceiving labored as much as ever he could to hinder their flight and +bring them back; and, snatching an ensign out of the hand of one that fled, he +stuck it at his feet, though he could hardly keep even his own personal guard +together. So that at last he was forced to fly with a few about him to a little +hill that overlooked the plain. But he himself, being weak-sighted, discovered +nothing, only the destruction of his camp, and that with difficulty. But they +that were with him saw a great body of horse moving towards him, the same whom +Brutus had sent. Cassius believed these were enemies, and in pursuit of him; +however, he sent away Titinius, one of those that were with him, to learn what +they were. As soon as Brutus’s horse saw him coming, and knew him to be a +friend and a faithful servant of Cassius, those of them that were his more +familiar acquaintance, shouting out for joy and alighting from their horses, +shook hands and embraced him, and the rest rode round about him singing and +shouting, through their excess of gladness at the sight of him. But this was +the occasion of the greatest mischief that could be. For Cassius really thought +that Titinius had been taken by the enemy, and cried out, “Through too much +fondness of life, I have lived to endure the sight of my friend taken by the +enemy before my face.” After which words he retired into an empty tent, taking +along with him only Pindarus, one of his freedmen, whom he had reserved for +such an occasion ever since the disasters in the expedition against the +Parthians, when Crassus was slain. From the Parthians he came away in safety; +but now, pulling up his mantle over his head, he made his neck bare, and held +it forth to Pindarus, commanding him to strike. The head was certainly found +lying severed from the body. But no man ever saw Pindarus after, from which +some suspected that he had killed his master without his command. Soon after +they perceived who the horsemen were, and saw Titinius, crowned with garlands, +making what haste he could towards Cassius. But as soon as he understood by the +cries and lamentations of his afflicted friends the unfortunate error and death +of his general, he drew his sword, and having very much accused and upbraided +his own long stay, that had caused it, he slew himself. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus, as soon as he was assured of the defeat of Cassius, made haste to him; +but heard nothing of his death till he came near his camp. Then having lamented +over his body, calling him “the last of the Romans,” it being impossible that +the city should ever produce another man of so great a spirit, he sent away the +body to be buried at Thasos, lest celebrating his funeral within the camp might +breed some disorder. He then gathered the soldiers together and comforted them; +and, seeing them destitute of all things necessary, he promised to every man +two thousand drachmas in recompense of what he had lost. They at these words +took courage, and were astonished at the magnificence of the gift; and waited +upon him at his parting with shouts and praises, magnifying him for the only +general of all the four who was not overcome in the battle. And indeed the +action itself testified that it was not without reason he believed he should +conquer; for with a few legions he overthrew all that resisted him; and if all +his soldiers had fought, and the most of them had not passed beyond the enemy +in pursuit of the plunder, it is very likely that he had utterly defeated every +part of them. +</p> + +<p> +There fell of his side eight thousand men, reckoning the servants of the army, +whom Brutus calls Briges; and on the other side, Messala says his opinion is +that there were slain above twice that number. For which reason they were more +out of heart than Brutus, until a servant of Cassius, named Demetrius, came in +the evening to Antony, and brought to him the garment which he had taken from +the dead body, and his sword; at the sight of which they were so encouraged, +that, as soon as it was morning, they drew out their whole force into the +field, and stood in battle array. But Brutus found both his camps wavering and +in disorder; for his own, being filled with prisoners, required a guard more +strict than ordinary over them; and that of Cassius was uneasy at the change of +general, besides some envy and rancor, which those that were conquered bore to +that part of the army which had been conquerors. Wherefore he thought it +convenient to put his army in array, but to abstain from fighting. All the +slaves that were taken prisoners, of whom there was a great number that were +mixed up, not without suspicion, among the soldiers, he commanded to be slain; +but of the freemen and citizens, some he dismissed, saying that among the enemy +they were rather prisoners than with him, for with them they were captives and +slaves, but with him freemen and citizens of Rome. But he was forced to hide +and help them to escape privately, perceiving that his friends and officers +were bent upon revenge against them. Among the captives there was one +Volumnius, a player, and Sacculio, a buffoon; of these Brutus took no manner of +notice, but his friends brought them before him, and accused them that even +then in that condition they did not refrain from their jests and scurrilous +language. Brutus, having his mind taken up with other affairs, said nothing to +their accusation; but the judgment of Messala Corvinus was, that they should be +whipped publicly upon a stage, and so sent naked to the captains of the enemy, +to show them what sort of fellow drinkers and companions they took with them on +their campaigns. At this some that were present laughed; and Publius Casca, he +that gave the first wound to Caesar, said, “We do ill to jest and make merry at +the funeral of Cassius. But you, O Brutus,” he added, “will show what esteem +you have for the memory of that general, according as you punish or preserve +alive those who will scoff and speak shamefully of him.” To this Brutus, in +great discomposure replied, “Why then, Casca, do you ask me about it, and not +do yourselves what you think fitting?” This answer of Brutus was taken for his +consent to the death of these wretched men; so they were carried away and +slain. +</p> + +<p> +After this he gave the soldiers the reward that he had promised them; and +having slightly reproved them for having fallen upon the enemy in disorder +without the word of battle or command, he promised them, that if they behaved +themselves bravely in the next engagement, he would give them up two cities to +spoil and plunder, Thessalonica and Lacedaemon. This is the one indefensible +thing of all that is found fault with in the life of Brutus; though true it may +be that Antony and Caesar were much more cruel in the rewards that they gave +their soldiers after victory; for they drove out, one might almost say, all the +old inhabitants of Italy, to put their soldiers in possession of other men’s +lands and cities. But indeed their only design and end in undertaking the war +was to obtain dominion and empire, whereas Brutus, for the reputation of his +virtue, could not be permitted either to overcome or save himself but with +justice and honor, especially after the death of Cassius, who was generally +accused of having been his adviser to some things that he had done with less +clemency. But now, as in a ship, when the rudder is broken by a storm, the +mariners fit and nail on some other piece of wood instead of it, striving +against the danger not well, but as well as in that necessity they can, so +Brutus, being at the head of so great an army, in a time of such uncertainty, +having no commander equal to his need, was forced to make use of those that he +had, and to do and to say many things according to their advice; which was, in +effect, whatever might conduce to the bringing of Cassius’s soldiers into +better order. For they were very headstrong and intractable, bold and insolent +in the camp for want of their general, but in the field cowardly and fearful, +remembering that they had been beaten. +</p> + +<p> +Neither were the affairs of Caesar and Antony in any better posture; for they +were straitened for provision, and, the camp being in a low ground, they +expected to pass a very hard winter. For being driven close upon the marshes, +and a great quantity of rain, as is usual in autumn, having fallen after the +battle, their tents were all filled with mire and water, which through the +coldness of the weather immediately froze. And while they were in this +condition, there was news brought to them of their loss at sea. For Brutus’s +fleet fell upon their ships, which were bringing a great supply of soldiers out +of Italy, and so entirely defeated them, that but very few of the men escaped +being slain, and they too were forced by famine to feed upon the sails and +tackle of the ship. As soon as they heard this, they made what haste they could +to come to the decision of a battle, before Brutus should have notice of his +good success. For it had so happened that the fight both by sea and land was on +the same day, but by some misfortune, rather than the fault of his commanders, +Brutus knew not of his victory twenty days after. For had he been informed of +this, he would not have been brought to a second battle, since he had +sufficient provisions for his army for a long time, and was very advantageously +posted, his camp being well sheltered from the cold weather, and almost +inaccessible to the enemy, and his being absolute master of the sea, and having +at land overcome on that side wherein he himself was engaged, would have made +him full of hope and confidence. But it seems, the state of Rome not enduring +any longer to be governed by many, but necessarily requiring a monarchy, the +divine power, that it might remove out of the way the only man that was able to +resist him that could control the empire, cut off his good fortune from coming +to the ears of Brutus; though it came but a very little too late, for the very +evening before the fight, Clodius, a deserter from the enemy, came and +announced that Caesar had received advice of the loss of his fleet, and for +that reason was in such haste to come to a battle. But his story met with no +credit, nor was he so much as seen by Brutus, being simply set down as one that +had had no good information, or invented lies to bring himself into favor. +</p> + +<p> +The same night, they say, the vision appeared again to Brutus, in the same +shape that it did before, but vanished without speaking. But Publius Volumnius, +a philosopher, and one that had from the beginning borne arms with Brutus, +makes no mention of this apparition, but says that the first eagle was covered +with a swarm of bees, and that there was one of the captains whose arm of +itself sweated oil of roses, and, though they often dried and wiped it, yet it +would not cease; and that immediately before the battle, two eagles falling +upon each other fought in the space between the two armies, that the whole +field kept incredible silence and all were intent upon the spectacle, until at +last that which was on Brutus’s side yielded and fled. But the story of the +Ethiopian is very famous, who meeting the standard-bearer at the opening the +gate of the camp, was cut to pieces by the soldiers, that took it for an ill +omen. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus, having brought his army into the field and set them in array against +the enemy, paused a long while before he would fight; for, as he was reviewing +the troops, suspicions were excited, and informations laid against some of +them. Besides, he saw his horse not very eager to begin the action, and waiting +to see what the foot would do. Then suddenly Camulatus, a very good soldier, +and one whom for his valor he highly esteemed, riding hard by Brutus himself, +went over to the enemy, the sight of which grieved Brutus exceedingly. So that +partly out of anger, and partly out of fear of some greater treason and +desertion, he immediately drew on his forces upon the enemy, the sun now +declining, about three of the clock in the afternoon. Brutus on his side had +the better, and pressed hard on the left wing, which gave way and retreated; +and the horse too fell in together with the foot, when they saw the enemy in +disorder. But the other wing, when the officers extended the line to avoid its +being encompassed, the numbers being inferior, got drawn out too thin in the +center, and was so weak here that they could not withstand the charge, but at +the first onset fled. After defeating these, the enemy at once took Brutus in +the rear, who all the while performed all that was possible for an expert +general and valiant soldier, doing everything in the peril, by counsel and by +hand, that might recover the victory. But that which had been his superiority +in the former fight was to his prejudice in this second. For in the first +fight, that part of the enemy which was beaten was killed on the spot; but of +Cassius’s soldiers that fled few had been slain, and those that escaped, +daunted with their defeat, infected the other and larger part of the army with +their want of spirit and their disorder. Here Marcus, the son of Cato, was +slain, fighting and behaving himself with great bravery in the midst of the +youth of the highest rank and greatest valor. He would neither fly nor give the +least ground, but, still fighting and declaring who he was and naming his +father’s name, he fell upon a heap of dead bodies of the enemy. And of the +rest, the bravest were slain in defending Brutus. +</p> + +<p> +There was in the field one Lucilius, an excellent man and a friend of Brutus, +who, seeing some barbarian horse taking no notice of any other in the pursuit, +but galloping at full speed after Brutus, resolved to stop them, though with +the hazard of his life; and, letting himself fall a little behind, he told them +that he was Brutus. They believed him the rather, because he prayed to be +carried to Antony, as if he feared Caesar, but durst trust him. They, overjoyed +with their prey, and thinking themselves wonderfully fortunate, carried him +along with them in the night, having first sent messengers to Antony of their +coming. He was much pleased, and came to meet them; and all the rest that heard +that Brutus was taken and brought alive, flocked together to see him, some +pitying his fortune, others accusing; him of a meanness unbecoming his former +glory, that out of too much love of life he would be a prey to barbarians. When +they came near together, Antony stood still, considering with himself in what +manner he should receive Brutus. But Lucilius, being brought up to him, with +great confidence said: “Be assured, Antony, that no enemy either has taken or +ever shall take Marcus Brutus alive (forbid it, heaven, that fortune should +ever so much prevail above virtue), but he shall be found, alive or dead, as +becomes himself. As for me, I am come hither by a cheat that I put upon your +soldiers, and am ready, upon this occasion, to suffer any severities you will +inflict.” All were amazed to hear Lucilius speak these words. But Antony, +turning himself to those that brought him, said: “I perceive, my +fellow-soldiers, that you are concerned and take it ill that you have been thus +deceived, and think yourselves abused and injured by it; but know that you have +met with a booty better than that you sought. For you were in search of an +enemy, but you have brought me here a friend. For indeed I am uncertain how I +should have used Brutus, if you had brought him alive; but of this I am sure, +that it is better to have such men as Lucilius our friends than our enemies.” +Having said this, he embraced Lucilius, and for the present commended him to +the care of one of his friends, and ever after found him a steady and a +faithful friend. +</p> + +<p> +Brutus had now passed a little brook, running among trees and under steep +rocks, and, it being night, would go no further, but sat down in a hollow place +with a great rock projecting before it, with a few of his officers and friends +about him. At first, looking up to heaven, that was then full of stars, he +repeated two verses, one of which, Volumnius writes, was this: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Punish, great Jove, the author of these ills. +</p> + +<p> +The other he says he has forgot. Soon after, naming severally all his friends +that had been slain before his face in the battle, he groaned heavily, +especially at the mentioning of Flavius and Labeo, the latter his lieutenant, +and the other chief officer of his engineers. In the meantime, one of his +companions, that was very thirsty and saw Brutus in the same condition, took +his helmet and ran to the brook for water, when, a noise being heard from the +other side of the river, Volumnius, taking Dardanus, Brutus’s armor-bearer, +with him, went out to see what it was. They returned in a short space, and +inquired about the water. Brutus, smiling with much meaning, said to Volumnius, +“It is all drunk; but you shall have some more fetched.” But he that had +brought the first water, being sent again, was in great danger of being taken +by the enemy, and, having received a wound, with much difficulty escaped. +</p> + +<p> +Now Brutus guessing that not many of his men were slain in the fight, +Statyllius undertook to dash through the enemy (for there was no other way), +and to see what was become of their camp; and promised, if he found all things +there safe, to hold up a torch for a signal, and then return. The torch was +held up, for Statyllius got safe to the camp; but when after a long time he did +not return, Brutus said, “If Statyllius be alive, he will come back.” But it +happened that in his return he fell into the enemy’s hands, and was slain. +</p> + +<p> +The night now being far spent, Brutus, as he was sitting, leaned his head +towards his servant Clitus and spoke to him; he answered him not, but fell a +weeping. After that, he drew aside his armor-bearer, Dardanus, and had some +discourse with him in private. At last, speaking to Volumnius in Greek, he +reminded him of their common studies and former discipline, and begged that he +would take hold of his sword with him, and help him to thrust it through him. +Volumnius put away his request, and several others did the like; and someone +saying, that there was no staying there, but they needs must fly, Brutus, +rising up, said, “Yes, indeed, we must fly, but not with our feet, but with our +hands.” Then giving each of them his right hand, with a countenance full of +pleasure, he said, that he found an infinite satisfaction in this, that none of +his friends had been false to him; that as for fortune, he was angry with that +only for his country’s sake; as for himself, he thought himself much more happy +than they who had overcome, not only as he had been a little time ago, but even +now in his present condition; since he was leaving behind him such a reputation +of his virtue as none of the conquerors with all their arms and riches should +ever be able to acquire, no more than they could hinder posterity from +believing and saying, that, being unjust and wicked men, they had destroyed the +just and the good, and usurped a power to which they had no right. After this, +having exhorted and entreated all about him to provide for their own safety, he +withdrew from them with two or three only of his peculiar friends; Strato was +one of these, with whom he had contracted an acquaintance when they studied +rhetoric together. Him he placed next to himself, and, taking hold of the hilt +of his sword and directing it with both his hands, he fell upon it, and killed +himself. But others say, that not he himself, but Strato, at the earnest +entreaty of Brutus, turning aside his head, held the sword, upon which he +violently throwing himself, it pierced his breast, and he immediately died. +This same Strato, Messala, a friend of Brutus, being, after reconciled to +Caesar, brought to him once at his leisure, and with tears in his eyes said, +“This, O Caesar, is the man that did the last friendly office to my beloved +Brutus.” Upon which Caesar received him kindly; and had good use of him in his +labors and his battles at Actium, being one of the Greeks that proved their +bravery in his service. It is reported of Messala himself, that, when Caesar +once gave him this commendation, that though he was his fiercest enemy at +Philippi in the cause of Brutus, yet he had shown himself his most entire +friend in the fight of Actium, he answered, “You have always found me, Caesar, +on the best and justest side.” +</p> + +<p> +Brutus’s dead body was found by Antony, who commanded the richest purple mantle +that he had to be thrown over it, and afterwards the mantle being stolen, he +found the thief, and had him put to death. He sent the ashes of Brutus to his +mother Servilia. As for Porcia his wife, Nicolaus the philosopher and Valerius +Maximus write, that, being desirous to die, but being hindered by her friends, +who continually watched her, she snatched some burning charcoal out of the +fire, and, shutting it close in her mouth, stifled herself, and died. Though +there is a letter current from Brutus to his friends, in which he laments the +death of Porcia, and accuses them for neglecting her so that she desired to die +rather than languish with her disease. So that it seems Nicolaus was mistaken +in the time; for this epistle (if it indeed is authentic, and truly Brutus’s) +gives us to understand the malady and love of Porcia, and the way in which her +death occurred. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap64"></a>COMPARISON OF DION AND BRUTUS</h2> + +<p> +There are noble points in abundance in the characters of these two men, and one +to be first mentioned is their attaining such a height of greatness upon such +inconsiderable means; and on this score Dion has by far the advantage. For he +had no partner to contest his glory, as Brutus had in Cassius, who was not, +indeed, his equal in proved virtue and honor, yet contributed quite as much to +the service of the war by his boldness, skill, and activity; and some there be +who impute to him the rise and beginning of the whole enterprise, saying that +it was he who roused Brutus, till then indisposed to stir, into action against +Caesar. Whereas Dion seems of himself to have provided not only arms, ships, +and soldiers, but likewise friends and partners for the enterprise. Neither did +he, as Brutus, collect money and forces from the war itself, but, on the +contrary, laid out of his own substance, and employed the very means of his +private sustenance in exile for the liberty of his country. Besides this, +Brutus and Cassius, when they fled from Rome, could not live safe or quiet, +being condemned to death and pursued, and were thus of necessity forced to take +arms and hazard their lives in their own defense, to save themselves, rather +than their country. On the other hand, Dion enjoyed more ease, was more safe, +and his life more pleasant in his banishment, than was the tyrant’s who had +banished him, when he flew to action, and ran the risk of all to save Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +Take notice, too, that it was not the same thing for the Sicilians to be freed +from Dionysius, and for the Romans to be freed from Caesar. The former owned +himself a tyrant, and vexed Sicily with a thousand oppressions; whereas +Caesar’s supremacy, certainly, in the process for attaining it, had inflicted +no little trouble on its opponents, but, once established and victorious, it +had indeed the name and appearance, but fact that was cruel or tyrannical there +was none. On the contrary, in the malady of the times and the need of a +monarchical government, he might be thought to have been sent, as the gentlest +physician, by no other than a divine intervention. And thus the common people +instantly regretted Caesar, and grew enraged and implacable against those that +killed him. Whereas Dion’s chief offense in the eyes of his fellow-citizens was +his having let Dionysius escape, and not having demolished the former tyrant’s +tomb. +</p> + +<p> +In the actual conduct of war, Dion was a commander without fault, improving to +the utmost those counsels which he himself gave, and, where others led him into +disaster, correcting and turning everything to the best. But Brutus seems to +have shown little wisdom in engaging in the final battle, which was to decide +everything, and, when he failed, not to have done his business in seeking a +remedy ; he gave all up, and abandoned his hopes, not venturing against fortune +even as far as Pompey did, when he had still means enough to rely on in his +troops, and was clearly master of all the seas with his ships. +</p> + +<p> +The greatest thing charged on Brutus is, that he, being saved by Caesar’s +kindness, having saved all the friends whom he chose to ask for, he moreover +accounted a friend, and preferred above many, did yet lay violent hands upon +his preserver. Nothing like this could be objected against Dion; quite the +contrary, whilst he was of Dionysius’s family and his friend, he did good +service, and was useful to him; but driven from his country, wronged in his +wife, and his estate lost, he openly entered upon a war just and lawful. Does +not, however, the matter turn the other way? For the chief glory of both was +their hatred of tyranny, and abhorrence of wickedness. This was unmixed and +sincere in Brutus; for he had no private quarrel with Caesar, but went into the +risk singly for the liberty of his country. The other, had he not been +privately injured, had not fought. This is plain from Plato’s epistles, where +it is shown that he was turned out, and did not forsake the court to wage war +upon Dionysius. Moreover, the public good made Brutus Pompey’s friend (instead +of his enemy as he had been) and Caesar’s enemy; since he proposed for his +hatred and his friendship no other end and standard but justice. Dion was very +serviceable to Dionysius whilst in favor; when no longer trusted, he grew angry +and fell to arms. And, for this reason, not even were his own friends all of +them satisfied with his undertaking, or quite assured that, having overcome +Dionysius, he might not settle the government on himself, deceiving his +fellow-citizens by some less obnoxious name than tyranny. But the very enemies +of Brutus would say that he had no other end or aim, from first to last, save +only to restore to the Roman people their ancient government. +</p> + +<p> +And apart from what has just been said, the adventure against Dionysius was +nothing equal with that against Caesar. For none that was familiarly conversant +with Dionysius but scorned him for his life of idle amusement with wine, women, +and dice; whereas it required an heroic soul and a truly intrepid and +unquailing spirit so much as to entertain the thought of crushing Caesar so +formidable for his ability, his power, and his fortune, whose very name +disturbed the slumbers of the Parthian and Indian kings. Dion was no sooner +seen in Sicily but thousands ran in to him and joined him against Dionysius; +whereas the renown of Caesar, even when dead, gave strength to his friends; and +his very name so heightened the person that took it, that from a simple boy he +presently became the chief of the Romans; and he could use it for a spell +against the enmity and power of Antony. If any object that it cost Dion great +trouble and difficulties to overcome the tyrant, whereas Brutus slew Caesar +naked and unprovided, yet this itself was the result of the most consummate +policy and conduct, to bring it about that a man so guarded around, and so +fortified at all points, should be taken naked and unprovided. For it was not +on the sudden, nor alone, nor with a few, that he fell upon and killed Caesar; +but after long concerting the plot, and placing confidence in a great many men, +not one of whom deceived him. For he either at once discerned the best men, or +by confiding in them made them good. But Dion, either making a wrong judgment, +trusted himself with ill men, or else by his employing them made ill men of +good; either of the two would be a reflection on a wise man. Plato also is +severe upon him, for choosing such for friends as betrayed him. +</p> + +<p> +Besides, when Dion was killed, none appeared to revenge his death. Whereas +Brutus, even amongst his enemies, had Antony that buried him splendidly; and +Caesar also took care his honors should be preserved. There stood at Milan in +Gaul, within the Alps, a brazen statue, which Caesar in after-times noticed +(being a real likeness, and a fine work of art), and passing by it, presently +stopped short, and in the hearing of many commended the magistrates to come +before him. He told them their town had broken their league, harboring an +enemy. The magistrates at first simply denied the thing, and, not knowing what +he meant, looked one upon another, when Caesar, turning towards the statue and +gathering his brows, said, “Pray, is not that our enemy who stands there?” They +were all in confusion, and had nothing to answer; but he, smiling, much +commended the Gauls, as who had been firm to their friends, though in +adversity, and ordered that the statue should remain standing as he found it. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap65"></a>ARATUS</h2> + +<p> +The philosopher Chrysippus, O Polycrates, quotes an ancient proverb, not as +really it should be, apprehending, I suppose, that it sounded too harshly, but +so as he thought it would run best, in these words, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Who praise their father but the generous sons? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But Dionysodorus the Troezenian proves him to be wrong, and restores the true +reading, which is this, — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Who praise their fathers but degenerate sons? +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +telling us that the proverb is meant to stop the mouth of those who, having no +merit of their own, take refuge in the virtues of their ancestors, and make +their advantage of praising them. But, as Pindar hath it, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +He that by nature doth inherit<br/> +From ancestors a noble spirit, +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +as you do, who make your life the copy of the fairest originals of your family, +— such, I say, may take great satisfaction in being reminded, both by hearing +others speak and speaking themselves, of the best of their progenitors. For +they assume not the glory of praises earned by others out of any want of worth +of their own, but, affiliating their own deeds to those of their ancestor, give +them honor as the authors both of their descent and manners. +</p> + +<p> +Therefore I have sent to you the life which I have written of your +fellow-citizen and forefather Aratus, to whom you are no discredit in point +either of reputation or of authority, not as though you had not been most +diligently careful to inform yourself from the beginning concerning his +actions, but that your sons, Polycrates and Pythocles, may both by hearing and +reading become familiar with those family examples which it behooves them to +follow and imitate. It is a piece of self-love, and not of the love of virtue, +to imagine one has already attained to what is best. +</p> + +<p> +The city of Sicyon, from the time that it first fell off from the pure and +Doric aristocracy (its harmony being destroyed, and a mere series of seditions +and personal contests of popular leaders ensuing), continued to be distempered +and unsettled, changing from one tyrant to another, until, Cleon being slain, +Timoclides and Clinias, men of the most repute and power amongst the citizens, +were chosen to the magistracy. And the commonwealth now seeming to be in a +pretty settled condition, Timoclides died, and Abantidas, the son of Paseas, to +possess himself of the tyranny, killed Clinias, and, of his kindred and +friends, slew some and banished others. He sought also to kill his son Aratus, +whom he left behind him, being but seven years old. This boy in the general +disorder getting out of the house with those that fled, and wandering about the +city helpless and in great fear, by chance got undiscovered into the house of a +woman who was Abantidas’s sister, but married to Prophantus, the brother of +Clinias, her name being Soso. She, being of a generous temper, and believing +the boy had by some supernatural guidance fled to her for shelter, hid him in +the house, and at night sent him away to Argos. +</p> + +<p> +Aratus, being thus delivered and secured from this danger, conceived from the +first and ever after nourished a vehement and burning hatred against tyrants, +which strengthened with his years. Being therefore bred up amongst his father’s +acquaintance and friends at Argos with a liberal education, and perceiving his +body to promise good health and stature, he addicted himself to the exercises +of the palaestra, to that degree that he competed in the five games, and gained +some crowns; and indeed in his statues one may observe a certain kind of +athletic cast, and the sagacity and majesty of his countenance does not +dissemble his full diet and the use of the hoe. Whence it came to pass that he +less studied eloquence than perhaps became a statesman, and yet he was more +accomplished in speaking than many believe, judging by the commentaries which +he left behind him, written carelessly and by the way, as fast as he could do +it, and in such words as first came to his mind. +</p> + +<p> +In the course of time, Dinias and Aristoteles the logician killed Abantidas, +who used to be present in the marketplace at their discussions, and to make one +in them; till they, taking the occasion, insensibly accustomed him to the +practice, and so had opportunity to contrive and execute a plot against him. +After him Paseas, the father of Abantidas, taking upon him the government, was +assassinated by Nicocles, who himself set up for tyrant. Of him it is related +that he was strikingly like Periander the son of Cypselus, just as it is said +that Orontes the Persian bore a great resemblance to Alcmaeon the son of +Amphiaraus, and that Lacedaemonian youth, whom Myrsilus relates to have been +trodden to pieces by the crowd of those that came to see him upon that report, +to Hector. +</p> + +<p> +This Nicocles governed four months, in which, after he had done all kinds of +mischief to the city, he very nearly let it fall into the hands of the +Aetolians. By this time Aratus, being grown a youth, was in much esteem, both +for his noble birth and his spirit and disposition, which, while neither +insignificant nor wanting in energy, were solid, and tempered with a steadiness +of judgment beyond his years. For which reason the exiles had their eyes most +upon him, nor did Nicocles less observe his motions, but secretly spied and +watched him, not out of apprehension of any such considerable or utterly +audacious attempt, but suspecting he held correspondence with the kings, who +were his father’s friends and acquaintance. And, indeed, Aratus first attempted +this way; but finding that Antigonus, who had promised fair, neglected him and +delayed the time, and that his hopes from Egypt and Ptolemy were long to wait +for, he determined to cut off the tyrant by himself. +</p> + +<p> +And first he broke his mind to Aristomachus and Ecdelus, the one an exile of +Sicyon, the other, Ecdelus, an Arcadian of Megalopolis, a philosopher, and a +man of action, having been the familiar friend of Arcesilaus the Academic at +Athens. These readily consenting, he communicated with the other exiles, +whereof some few, being ashamed to seem to despair of success, engaged in the +design; but most of them endeavored to divert him from his purpose, as one that +for want of experience was too rash and daring. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst he was consulting to seize upon some post in Sicyonia, from whence he +might make war upon the tyrant, there came to Argos a certain Sicyonian, newly +escaped out of prison, brother to Xenocles, one of the exiles, who being by him +presented to Aratus informed him, that that part of the wall over which he +escaped was, inside, almost level with the ground, adjoining a rocky and +elevated place, and that from the outside it might be scaled with ladders. +Aratus, hearing this, dispatches away Xenocles with two of his own servants, +Seuthas and Technon, to view the wall, resolving, if possible, secretly and +with one risk to hazard all on a single trial, rather than carry on a contest +as a private man against a tyrant by long war and open force. Xenocles, +therefore, with his companions, returning having taken the height of the wall, +and declaring the place not to be impossible or indeed difficult to get over, +but that it was not easy to approach it undiscovered, by reason of some small +but uncommonly savage and noisy dogs belonging to a gardener hard by, he +immediately undertook the business. +</p> + +<p> +Now the preparation of arms gave no jealousy, because robberies and petty +forays were at that time common everywhere between one set of people and +another; and for the ladders, Euphranor, the machine-maker, made them openly, +his trade rendering him unsuspected, though one of the exiles. As for men, each +of his friends in Argos furnished him with ten apiece out of those few they +had, and he armed thirty of his own servants, and hired some few soldiers of +Xenophilus, the chief of the robber captains, to whom it was given out that +they were to march into the territory of Sicyon to seize the king’s stud; most +of them were sent before, in small parties, to the tower of Polygnotus, with +orders to wait there; Caphisias also was dispatched beforehand lightly armed, +with four others, who were, as soon as it was dark, to come to the gardener’s +house, pretending to be travelers, and, procuring their lodging there, to shut +up him and his dogs; for there was no other way of getting past. And for the +ladders, they had been made to take in pieces, and were put into chests, and +sent before hidden upon wagons. In the meantime, some of the spies of Nicocles +appearing in Argos, and being said to go privately about watching Aratus, he +came early in the morning into the market-place, showing him self openly and +conversing with his friends; then he anointed himself in the exercise ground, +and, taking with him thence some of the young men that used to drink and spend +their time with him, he went home; and presently after several of his servants +were seen about the marketplace, one carrying garlands, another buying +flambeaus, and a third speaking to the women that used to sing and play at +banquets, all which things the spies observing were deceived, and said laughing +to one another, “Certainly nothing can be more timorous than a tyrant, if +Nicocles, being master of so great a city and so numerous a force, stands in +fear of a youth that spends what he has to subsist upon in his banishment in +pleasures and day-debauches;” and, being thus imposed upon, they returned home. +</p> + +<p> +But Aratus, departing immediately after his morning meal, and coming to his +soldiers at Polygnotus’s tower, led them to Nemea; where he disclosed, to most +of them for the first time; his true design, making them large promises and +fair speeches, and marched towards the city, giving for the word Apollo +victorious, proportioning his march to the motion of the moon, so as to have +the benefit of her light upon the way, and to be in the garden, which was close +to the wall, just as she was setting. Here Caphisias came to him, who had not +secured the dogs, which had run away before he could catch them, but had only +made sure of the gardener. Upon which most of the company being out of heart +and desiring to retreat, Aratus encouraged them to go on, promising to retire +in case the dogs were too troublesome; and at the same time sending forward +those that carried the ladders, conducted by Ecdelus and Mnasitheus, he +followed them himself leisurely, the dogs already barking very loud and +following, the steps of Ecdelus and his companions. However, they got to the +wall, and reared the ladders with safety. But as the foremost men were mounting +them, the captain of the watch that was to be relieved by the morning guard +passed on his way with the bell, and there were many lights, and a noise of +people coming up. Hearing which, they clapped themselves close to the ladders, +and so were unobserved; but as the other watch also was coming up to meet this, +they were in extreme danger of being discovered. But when this also went by +without observing them, immediately Mnasitheus and Ecdelus got upon the wall, +and, possessing themselves of the approaches inside and out, sent away Technon +to Aratus, desiring him to make all the haste he could. +</p> + +<p> +Now there was no great distance from the garden to the wall and to the tower, +in which latter a large hound was kept. The hound did not hear their steps of +himself, whether that he were naturally drowsy, or overwearied the day before, +but, the gardener’s curs awaking him, he first began to growl and grumble in +response, and then as they passed by to bark out aloud. And the barking was now +so great, that the sentinel opposite shouted out to the dog’s keeper to know +why the dog kept such a barking, and whether anything was the matter; who +answered, that it was nothing, but only that his dog had been set barking by +the lights of the watch and the noise of the bell. This reply much encouraged +Aratus’s soldiers, who thought the dog’s keeper was privy to their design, and +wished to conceal what was passing, and that many others in the city were of +the conspiracy. But when they came to scale the wall, the attempt then appeared +both to require time and to be full of danger, for the ladders shook and +tottered extremely unless they mounted them leisurely and one by one, and time +pressed, for the cocks began to crow, and the country people that used to bring +things to the market would be coming to the town directly. Therefore Aratus +made haste to get up himself, forty only of the company being already upon the +wall, and, staying but for a few more of those that were below, he made +straight to the tyrant’s house and the general’s office, where the mercenary +soldiers passed the night, and, coming suddenly upon them, and taking them +prisoners without killing any one of them, he immediately sent to all his +friends in their houses to desire them to come to him, which they did from all +quarters. By this time the day began to break, and the theater was filled with +a multitude that were held in suspense by uncertain reports and knew nothing +distinctly of what had happened, until a public crier came forward and +proclaimed that Aratus, the son of Clinias, invited the citizens to recover +their liberty. +</p> + +<p> +Then at last assured that what they so long looked for was come to pass, they +pressed in throngs to the tyrant’s gates to set them on fire. And such a flame +was kindled, the whole house catching fire, that it was seen as far as Corinth; +so that the Corinthians, wondering what the matter could be, were upon the +point of coming to their assistance. Nicocles fled away secretly out of the +city by means of certain underground passages, and the soldiers, helping the +Sicyonians to quench the fire, plundered the house. This Aratus hindered not, +but divided also the rest of the riches of the tyrants amongst the citizens. In +this exploit, not one of those engaged in it was slain, nor any of the contrary +party, fortune so ordering the action as to be clear and free from civil +bloodshed. He restored eighty exiles who had been expelled by Nicocles, and no +less than five hundred who had been driven out by former tyrants and had +endured a long banishment, pretty nearly, by this time, of fifty years’ +duration. These returning, most of them very poor, were impatient to enter upon +their former possessions, and, proceeding to their several farms and houses, +gave great perplexity to Aratus, who considered that the city without was +envied for its liberty and aimed at by Antigonus, and within was full of +disorder and sedition. Wherefore, as things stood, he thought it best to +associate it to the Achaean community, and so, although Dorians, they of their +own will took upon them the name and citizenship of the Achaeans, who at that +time had neither great repute nor much power. For the most of them lived in +small towns, and their territory was neither large nor fruitful, and the +neighboring sea was almost wholly without a harbor, breaking direct upon a +rocky shore. But yet these above others made it appear that the Grecian courage +was invincible, whensoever it could only have order and concord within itself +and a prudent general to direct it. For though they had scarcely been counted +as any part of the ancient Grecian power, and at this time did not equal the +strength of one ordinary city, yet by prudence and unanimity, and because they +knew how not to envy and malign, but to obey and follow him amongst them that +was most eminent for virtue, they not only preserved their own liberty in the +midst of so many great cities, military powers, and monarchies, but went on +steadily saving and delivering from slavery great numbers of the Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +As for Aratus, he was in his behavior a true statesman, high-minded, and more +intent upon the public than his private concerns, a bitter hater of tyrants, +making the common good the rule and law of his friendships and enmities. So +that indeed he seems not to have been so faithful a friend, as he was a +reasonable and gentle enemy, ready, according to the needs of the state, to +suit himself on occasion to either side; concord between nations, brotherhood +between cities, the council and the assembly unanimous in their votes, being +the objects above all other blessings to which he was passionately devoted; +backward, indeed, and diffident in the use of arms and open force, but in +effecting a purpose underhand, and outwitting cities and potentates without +observation, most politic and dexterous. Therefore, though he succeeded beyond +hope in many enterprises which he undertook, yet he seems to have left quite as +many unattempted, though feasible enough, for want of assurance. For it should +seem, that, as the sight of certain beasts is strong in the night but dim by +day, the tenderness of the humors of their eyes not bearing the contact of the +light, so there is also one kind of human skill and sagacity which is easily +daunted and disturbed in actions done in the open day and before the world, and +recovers all its self-possession in secret and covert enterprises; which +inequality is occasioned in noble minds for want of philosophy, a mere wild and +uncultivated fruit of a virtue without true knowledge coming up; as might be +made out by examples. +</p> + +<p> +Aratus, therefore, having associated himself and his city to the Achaeans, +served in the cavalry, and made himself much beloved by his commanding officers +for his exact obedience; for though he had made so large an addition to the +common strength as that of his own credit and the power of his country, yet he +was as ready as the most ordinary person to be commanded by the Achaean general +of the time being, whether he were a man of Dymae, or of Tritaea, or any yet +meaner town than these. Having also a present of five and twenty talents sent +him from the king, he took them, but gave them all to his fellow-citizens, who +wanted money, amongst other purposes, for the redemption of those who had been +taken prisoners. +</p> + +<p> +But the exiles being by no means to be satisfied, disturbing continually those +that were in possession of their estates, Sicyon was in great danger of falling +into perfect desolation; so that, having no hope left but in the kindness of +Ptolemy, he resolved to sail to him, and to beg so much money of him as might +reconcile all parties. So he set sail from Mothone beyond Malea, designing to +make the direct passage. But the pilot not being able to keep the vessel up +against a strong wind and high waves that came in from the open sea, he was +driven from his course, and with much ado got to shore in Andros, an enemy’s +land, possessed by Antigonus, who had a garrison there. To avoid which he +immediately landed, and, leaving the ship, went up into the country a good way +from the sea, having along with him only one friend, called Timanthes; and +throwing themselves into some ground thickly covered with wood, they had but an +ill night’s rest of it. Not long after, the commander of the troops came, and, +inquiring for Aratus, was deceived by his servants, who had been instructed to +say that he had fled at once over into the island of Euboea. However, he +declared the chip, the property on board of her, and the servants, to be lawful +prize, and detained them accordingly. As for Aratus, after some few days, in +his extremity by good fortune a Roman ship happened to put in just at the spot +in which he made his abode, sometimes peeping out to seek his opportunity, +sometimes keeping close. She was bound for Syria; but going aboard, he agreed +with the master to land him in Caria. In which voyage he met with no less +danger on the sea than before. From Caria being after much time arrived in +Egypt, he immediately went to the king, who had a great kindness for him, and +had received from him many presents of drawings and paintings out of Greece. +Aratus had a very good judgment in them, and always took care to collect and +send him the most curious and finished works, especially those of Pamphilus and +Melanthus. +</p> + +<p> +For the Sicyonian pieces were still in the height of their reputation, as being +the only ones whose colors were lasting; so that Apelles himself, even after he +had become well known and admired, went thither, and gave a talent to be +admitted into the society of the painters there, not so much to partake of +their skill, which he wanted not, but of their credit. And accordingly Aratus, +when he freed the city, immediately took down the representations of the rest +of the tyrants, but demurred a long time about that of Aristratus, who +flourished in the time of Philip. For this Aristratus was painted by Melanthus +and his scholars, standing by a chariot, in which a figure of Victory was +carried, Apelles himself having had a hand in it, as Polemon the geographer +reports. It was an extraordinary piece, and therefore Aratus was fain to spare +it for the workmanship, and yet, instigated by the hatred he bore the tyrants, +commanded it to be taken down. But Nealces the painter, one of Aratus’s +friends, entreated him, it is said, with tears in his eyes, to spare it, and, +finding he did not prevail with him, told him at last he should carry on his +war with the tyrants, but with the tyrants alone: “Let therefore the chariot +and the Victory stand, and I will take means for the removal of Aristratus;” to +which Aratus consenting, Nealces blotted out Aristratus, and in his place +painted a palm-tree, not daring to add anything else of his own invention. The +feet of the defaced figure of Aristratus are said to have escaped notice, and +to be hid under the chariot. By these means Aratus got favor with the king, +who, after he was more fully acquainted with him, loved him so much the more, +and gave him for the relief of his city one hundred and fifty talents; forty of +which he immediately carried away with him, when he sailed to Peloponnesus, but +the rest the king divided into installments, and sent them to him afterwards at +different times. +</p> + +<p> +Assuredly it was a great thing to procure for his fellow-citizens a sum of +money, a small portion of which had been sufficient, when presented by a king +to other captains and popular leaders, to induce them to turn dishonest, and +betray and give away their native countries to him. But it was a much greater, +that by means of this money he effected a reconciliation and good understanding +between the rich and poor, and created quiet and security for the whole people. +His moderation, also, amidst so great power was very admirable. For being +declared sole arbitrator and plenipotentiary for settling the questions of +property in the case of the exiles, he would not accept the commission alone, +but, associating with himself fifteen of the citizens, with great pains and +trouble he succeeded in adjusting matters, and established peace and good-will +in the city, for which good service, not only all the citizens in general +bestowed extraordinary honors upon him, but the exiles, apart by themselves, +erecting his statue in brass, inscribed on it these elegiac verses: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Your counsels, deeds, and skill for Greece in war<br/> +Known beyond Hercules’s pillars are;<br/> +But we this image, O Aratus, gave<br/> +Of you who saved us, to the gods who save,<br/> +By you from exile to our homes restored,<br/> +That virtue and that justice to record,<br/> +To which the blessing Sicyon owes this day<br/> +Of wealth that’s shared alike, and laws that all obey. +</p> + +<p> +By his success in effecting these things, Aratus secured himself from the envy +of his fellow-citizens, on account of the benefits they felt he had done them; +but king Antigonus being troubled in his mind about him, and designing either +wholly to bring him over to his party, or else to make him suspected by +Ptolemy, besides other marks of his favor shown to him, who had little mind to +receive them, added this too, that, sacrificing to the gods in Corinth, he sent +portions to Aratus at Sicyon, and at the feast, where were many guests, he said +openly, “I thought this Sicyonian youth had been only a lover of liberty and of +his fellow-citizens, but now I look upon him as a good judge of the manners and +actions of kings. For formerly he despised us, and, placing his hopes further +off, admired the Egyptian riches, hearing so much of their elephants, fleets, +and palaces. But after seeing all these at a nearer distance, perceiving them +to be but mere stage show and pageantry, he is now come over to us. And for my +part I willingly receive him, and, resolving to make great use of him myself, +command you to look upon him as a friend.” These words were soon taken hold of +by those that envied and maligned him, who strove which of them should, in +their letters to Ptolemy, attack him with the worst calumnies, so that Ptolemy +sent to expostulate the matter with him; so much envy and ill-will did there +always attend the so much contended for, and so ardently and passionately +aspired to, friendships of princes and great men. +</p> + +<p> +But Aratus, being now for the first time chosen general of the Achaeans, +ravaged the country of Locris and Calydon, just over against Achaea, and then +went to assist the Boeotians with ten thousand soldiers, but came not up to +them until after the battle near Chaeronea had been fought, in which they were +beaten by the Aetolians, with the loss of Aboeocritus the Boeotarch, and a +thousand men besides. A year after, being again elected general, he resolved to +attempt the capture of the Acro-Corinthus, not so much for the advantage of the +Sicyonians or Achaeans, as considering that by expelling the Macedonian +garrison he should free all Greece alike from a tyranny which oppressed every +part of her. Chares the Athenian, having the good fortune to get the better, in +a certain battle, of the king’s generals, wrote to the people of Athens that +this victory was “sister to that at Marathon.” And so may this action be very +safely termed sister to those of Pelopidas the Theban and Thrasybulus the +Athenian, in which they slew the tyrants; except, perhaps, it exceed them upon +this account, that it was not against natural Grecians, but against a foreign +and stranger domination. The Isthmus, rising like a bank between the seas, +collects into a single spot and compresses together the whole continent of +Greece; and Acro-Corinthus, being a high mountain springing up out of the very +middle of what here is Greece, whensoever it is held with a garrison, stands in +the way and cuts off all Peloponnesus from intercourse of every kind, free +passage of men and arms, and all traffic by sea and land, and makes him lord of +all, that is master of it. Wherefore the younger Philip did not jest, but said +very true, when he called the city of Corinth “the fetters of Greece.” So that +this post was always much contended for, especially by the kings and tyrants; +and so vehemently was it longed for by Antigonus, that his passion for it came +little short of that of frantic love; he was continually occupied with devising +how to take it by surprise from those that were then masters of it, since he +despaired to do it by open force. +</p> + +<p> +Therefore Alexander, who held the place, being dead, poisoned by him, as is +reported, and his wife Nicaea succeeding in the government and the possession +of Acro-Corinthus, he immediately made use of his son, Demetrius, and, giving +her pleasing hopes of a royal marriage and of a happy life with a youth, whom a +woman now growing old might well find agreeable, with this lure of his son he +succeeded in taking her; but the place itself she did not deliver up, but +continued to hold it with a very strong garrison, of which he seeming to take +no notice, celebrated the wedding in Corinth, entertaining them with shows and +banquets everyday, as one that has nothing else in his mind but to give himself +up for awhile to indulgence in pleasure and mirth. But when the moment came, +and Amoebeus began to sing in the theater, he waited himself upon Nicaea to the +play, she being carried in a royally-decorated chair, extremely pleased with +her new honor, not dreaming of what was intended. As soon, therefore, as they +were come to the turning which led up to the citadel, he desired her to go on +before him to the theater, but for himself, bidding farewell to the music, +farewell to the wedding, he went on faster than one would have thought his age +would have admitted to the Acro-Corinthus, and, finding the gate shut, knocked +with his staff, commanding them to open, which they within, being amazed, did. +And having thus made himself master of the place, he could not contain himself +for joy; but, though an old man, and one that had seen so many turns of +fortune, he must needs revel it in the open streets and the midst of the +market-place, crowned with garlands and attended with flute-women, inviting +everybody he met to partake in his festivity. So much more does joy without +discretion transport and agitate the mind than either fear or sorrow. +Antigonus, therefore, having in this manner possessed himself of +Acro-Corinthus, put a garrison into it of those he trusted most, making +Persaeus the philosopher governor. +</p> + +<p> +Now Aratus, even in the lifetime of Alexander, had made an attempt, but, a +confederacy being made between Alexander and the Achaeans, he desisted. But now +he started afresh, with a new plan of effecting the thing, which was this: +there were in Corinth four brothers, Syrians born, one of whom, called Diocles, +served as a soldier in the garrison, but the three others, having stolen some +gold of the king’s, came to Sicyon, to one Aegias, a banker, whom Aratus made +use of in his business. To him they immediately sold part of their gold, and +the rest one of them, called Erginus, coming often thither, exchanged by +parcels. Becoming, by this means, familiarly acquainted with Aegias, and being +by him led into discourses concerning the fortress, he told him that in going +up to his brother he had observed, in the face of the rock, a side-cleft, +leading to that part of the wall of the castle which was lower than the rest. +At which Aegias joking with him and saying, “So, you wise man, for the sake of +a little gold you have broken into the king’s treasure; when you might, if you +chose, get money in abundance for a single hour’s work, burglary, you know, and +treason being punished with the same death,” Erginus laughed and told him then, +he would break the thing to Diocles (for he did not altogether trust his other +brothers), and, returning within a few days, he bargained to conduct Aratus to +that part of the wall where it was no more than fifteen feet high, and to do +what else should be necessary, together with his brother Diocles. +</p> + +<p> +Aratus, therefore, agreed to give them sixty talents if he succeeded, but if he +failed in his enterprise, and yet he and they came off safe, then he would give +each of them a house and a talent. Now the threescore talents being to be +deposited in the hands of Aegias for Erginus and his partners, and Aratus +neither having so much by him, nor willing, by borrowing it from others, to +give anyone a suspicion of his design, he pawned his plate and his wife’s +golden ornaments to Aegias for the money. For so high was his temper, and so +strong his passion for noble actions, that, even as he had heard that Phocion +and Epaminondas were the best and justest of the Greeks, because they refused +the greatest presents and would not surrender their duty for money, so he now +chose to be at the expense of this enterprise privately, and to advance all the +cost out of his own property, taking the whole hazard on himself for the sake +of the rest that did not so much as know what was doing. And who indeed can +withhold, even now, his admiration for and his sympathy with the generous mind +of one, who paid so largely to purchase so great a risk, and lent out his +richest possessions to have an opportunity to expose his own life, by entering +among his enemies in the dead of the night, without desiring any other security +for them than the hope of a noble success. +</p> + +<p> +Now the enterprise, though dangerous enough in itself, was made much more so by +an error happening through mistake in the very beginning. For Technon, one of +Aratus’s servants, was sent away to Diocles, that they might together view the +wall. Now he had never seen Diocles, but made no question of knowing him by the +marks Erginus had given him of him; namely, that he had curly hair, a swarthy +complexion, and no beard. Being come, therefore, to the appointed place, he +stayed waiting for Erginus and Diocles outside the town, in front of the place +called Ornis. In the meantime, Dionysius, elder brother to Erginus and Diocles, +who knew nothing at all of the matter, but much resembled Diocles, happened to +pass by. Technon, upon this likeness, all being in accordance with what he had +been told, asked him if he knew Erginus; and on his replying that he was his +brother, taking it for granted that he was speaking with Diocles, not so much +as asking his name or staying for any other token, he gave him his hand, and +began to discourse with him and ask him questions about matters agreed upon +with Erginus. Dionysius, cunningly taking the advantage of his mistake, seemed +to understand him very well, and returning towards the city, led him on, still +talking, without any suspicion. And being now near the gate, he was just about +to seize on him, when by chance again Erginus met them, and, apprehending the +cheat and the danger, beckoned to Technon to make his escape, and immediately +both of them, betaking themselves to their heels, ran away as fast as they +could to Aratus, who for all this despaired not, but immediately sent away +Erginus to Dionysius to bribe him to hold his tongue. And he not only effected +that, but also brought him along with him to Aratus. But, when they had him, +they no longer left him at liberty, but binding him, they kept him close shut +up in a room, whilst they prepared for executing their design. +</p> + +<p> +All things being now ready, he commanded the rest of his forces to pass the +night by their arms, and taking with him four hundred chosen men, few of whom +knew what they were going about, he led them to the gates by the temple of +Juno. It was the midst of summer, and the moon was at full, and the night so +clear without any clouds, that there was danger lest the arms glistening in the +moonlight should discover them. But as the foremost of them came near the city, +a mist came off from the sea, and darkened the city itself and the outskirts +about it. Then the rest of them, sitting down, put off their shoes, because men +both make less noise and also climb surer, if they go up ladders barefooted, +but Erginus, taking with him seven young men dressed like travelers, got +unobserved to the gate, and killed the sentry with the other guards. And at the +same time the ladders were clapped to the walls, and Aratus, having in great +haste got up a hundred men, commended the rest to follow as they could, and +immediately drawing up his ladders after him, he marched through the city with +his hundred men towards the castle, being already overjoyed that he was +undiscovered, and not doubting of the success. But while still they were some +way off, a watch of four men came with a light, who did not see them, because +they were still in the shade of the moon, but were seen plainly enough +themselves as they came on directly towards them. So withdrawing a little way +amongst some walls and plots for houses, they lay in wait for them; and three +of them they killed. But the fourth, being wounded in the head with a sword, +fled, crying out that the enemy was in the city. And immediately the trumpets +sounded, and all the city was in an uproar at what had happened, and the +streets were full of people running up and down, and many lights were seen +shining both below in the town, and above in the castle, and a confused noise +was to be heard in all parts. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime, Aratus was hard at work struggling to get up the rocks, at +first slowly and with much difficulty, straying continually from the path, +which lay deep, and was overshadowed with the crags, leading to the wall with +many windings and turnings; but the moon immediately and as if by miracle, it +is said, dispersing the clouds, shone out and gave light to the most difficult +part of the way, until he got to that part of the wall he desired, and there +she overshadowed and hid him, the clouds coming together again. Those soldiers +whom Aratus had left outside the gate, near Juno’s temple, to the number of +three hundred, entering the town, now full of tumult and lights, and not +knowing the way by which the former had gone, and finding no track of them, +slunk aside, and crowded together in one body under a flank of the cliff that +cast a strong shadow, and there stood and waited in great distress and +perplexity. For, by this time, those that had gone with Aratus were attacked +with missiles from the citadel, and were busy fighting, and a sound of cries of +battle came down from above, and a loud noise, echoed back and back from the +mountain sides, and therefore confused and uncertain whence it proceeded, was +heard on all sides. They being thus in doubt which way to turn themselves, +Archelaus, the commander of Antigonus’s troops, having a great number of +soldiers with him, made up towards the castle with great shouts and noise of +trumpets to fall upon Aratus’s people, and passed by the three hundred, who, as +if they had risen out of an ambush, immediately charged him, killing the first +they encountered, and so affrighted the rest, together with Archelaus, that +they put them to flight and pursued them until they had quite broke and +dispersed them about the city. No sooner were these defeated, but Erginus came +to them from those that were fighting above, to acquaint them that Aratus was +engaged with the enemy, who defended themselves very stoutly, and there was a +fierce conflict at the very wall, and need of speedy help. They therefore +desired him to lead them on without delay, and, marching up, they by their +shouts made their friends understand who they were, and encouraged them; and +the full moon, shining on their arms, made them, in the long line by which they +advanced, appear more in number to the enemy than they were; and the echo of +the night multiplied their shouts. In short, falling on with the rest, they +made the enemy give way, and were masters of the castle and garrison, day now +beginning to be bright, and the rising sun shining out upon their success. By +this time, also, the rest of his army came up to Aratus from Sicyon, the +Corinthians joyfully receiving them at the gates and helping them to secure the +king’s party. +</p> + +<p> +And now, having put all things into a safe posture, he came down from the +castle to the theater, an infinite number of people crowding thither to see him +and to hear what he would say to the Corinthians. Therefore drawing up the +Achaeans on each side of the stage-passages, he came forward himself upon the +stage, with his corslet still on, and his face showing the effects of all his +hard work and want of sleep, so that his natural exultation and joyfulness of +mind were overborne by the weariness of his body. The people, as soon as he +came forth, breaking out into great applauses and congratulations, he took his +spear in his right hand, and, resting his body upon it with his knee a little +bent, stood a good while in that posture, silently receiving their shouts and +acclamations, while they extolled his valor and wondered at his fortune; which +being over, standing up, he began an oration in the name of the Achaeans, +suitable to the late action, persuading the Corinthians to associate themselves +to the Achaeans, and withal delivered up to them the keys of their gates, which +had never been in their power since the time of king Philip. Of the captains of +Antigonus, he dismissed Archelaus, whom he had taken prisoner, and +Theophrastus, who refused to quit his post, he put to death. As for Persaeus, +when he saw the castle was lost, he had got away to Cenchreae, where, some time +after, discoursing with one that said to him that the wise man only is a true +general, “Indeed,” he replied, “none of Zeno’s maxims once pleased me better +than this, but I have been converted to another opinion by the young man of +Sicyon.” This is told by many of Persaeus. Aratus, immediately after, made +himself master of the temple of Juno and haven of Lechaeum, seized upon five +and twenty of the king’s ships, together with five hundred horses and four +hundred Syrians; these he sold. The Achaeans kept guard in the Acro-Corinthus +with a body of four hundred soldiers, and fifty dogs with as many keepers. +</p> + +<p> +The Romans, extolling Philopoemen, called him the last of the Grecians, as if +no great man had ever since his time been bred amongst them. But I should call +this capture of the Acro-Corinthus the last of the Grecian exploits, being +comparable to the best of them, both for the daringness of it, and the success, +as was presently seen by the consequences. For the Megarians, revolting from +Antigonus, joined Aratus, and the Troezenians and Epidaurians enrolled +themselves in the Achaean community, and issuing forth for the first time, he +entered Attica, and passing over into Salamis, he plundered the island, turning +the Achaean force every way, as if it were just let loose out of prison and set +at liberty. All freemen whom he took he sent back to the Athenians without +ransom, as a sort of first invitation to them to come over to the league. He +made Ptolemy become a confederate of the Achaeans, with the privilege of +command both by sea and land. And so great was his power with them, that since +he could not by law be chosen their general every year, yet every other year he +was, and by his counsels and actions was in effect always so. For they +perceived that neither riches nor reputation, nor the friendship of kings, nor +the private interest of his own country, nor anything else was so dear to him +as the increase of the Achaean power and greatness. For he believed that the +cities, weak individually, could be preserved by nothing else but a mutual +assistance under the closest bond of the common interest; and, as the members +of the body live and breathe by the union of all in a single natural growth, +and on the dissolution of this, when once they separate, pine away and putrefy, +in the same manner are cities ruined by being dissevered, as well as preserved +when, as the members of one great body they enjoy the benefit of that +providence and counsel that govern the whole. +</p> + +<p> +Now being distressed to see that, whereas the chief neighboring cities enjoyed +their own laws and liberties, the Argives were in bondage, he took counsel for +destroying their tyrant Aristomachus, being very desirous both to pay his debt +of gratitude to the city where he had been bred up, by restoring it its +liberty, and to add so considerable a town to the Achaeans. Nor were there some +wanting who had the courage to undertake the thing, of whom Aeschylus and +Charimenes the soothsayer were the chief. But they wanted swords; for the +tyrant had prohibited the keeping of any under a great penalty. Therefore +Aratus, having provided some small daggers at Corinth and hidden them in the +pack-saddles of some pack-horses that carried ordinary ware, sent them to +Argos. But Charimenes letting another person into the design, Aeschylus and his +partners were angry at it, and henceforth would have no more to do with him, +and took their measures by themselves, and Charimenes, on finding this, went, +out of anger, and informed against them, just as they were on their way to +attack the tyrant; however, the most of them made a shift to escape out of the +marketplace, and fled to Corinth. Not long after, Aristomachus was slain by +some slaves, and Aristippus, a worse tyrant than he, seized the government. +Upon this, Aratus, mustering all the Achaeans present that were of age, hurried +away to the aid of the city, believing that he should find the people ready to +join with him. But the greater number being by this time habituated to slavery +and content to submit, and no one coming to join him, he was obliged to retire, +having moreover exposed the Achaeans to the charge of committing acts of +hostility in the midst of peace; upon which account they were sued before the +Mantineans, and, Aratus not making his appearance, Aristippus gained the cause, +and had damages allowed him to the value of thirty minae. And now hating and +fearing Aratus, he sought means to kill him, having the assistance herein of +king Antigonus; so that Aratus was perpetually dogged and watched by those that +waited for an opportunity to do this service. But there is no such safeguard of +a ruler as the sincere and steady good-will of his subjects, for, where both +the common people and the principal citizens have their fears not of but for +their governor, he sees with many eyes and hears with many ears whatsoever is +doing. Therefore I cannot but here stop short a little in the course of my +narrative, to describe the manner of life which the so much envied arbitrary +power and the so much celebrated and admired pomp and pride of absolute +government obliged Aristippus to lead. +</p> + +<p> +For though Antigonus was his friend and ally, and though he maintained numerous +soldiers to act as his body-guard, and had not left one enemy of his alive in +the city, yet he was forced to make his guards encamp in the colonnade about +his house; and for his servants, he turned them all out immediately after +supper, and then shutting the doors upon them, he crept up into a small upper +chamber, together with his mistress, through a trapdoor, upon which he placed +his bed, and there slept after: such a fashion, as one in his condition can be +supposed to sleep, that is, interruptedly and in fear. The ladder was taken +away by the woman’s mother, and locked up in another room; in the morning she +brought it again, and putting it to, called up this brave and wonderful tyrant, +who came crawling out like some creeping thing out of its hole. Whereas Aratus, +not by force of arms, but lawfully and by his virtue, lived in possession of a +firmly settled command, wearing the ordinary coat and cloak, being the common +and declared enemy of all tyrants, and has left behind him a noble race of +descendants surviving among the Grecians to this day; while those occupiers of +citadels and maintainers of bodyguards, who made all this use of arms and gates +and bolts to protect their lives, in some few cases perhaps escaped, like the +hare from the hunters; but in no instance have we either house or family, or so +much as a tomb to which any respect is shown, remaining to preserve the memory +of any one of them. +</p> + +<p> +Against this Aristippus, therefore, Aratus made many open and many secret +attempts, whilst he endeavored to take Argos, though without success; once, +particularly, clapping scaling ladders in the night to the wall, he desperately +got up upon it with a few of his soldiers, and killed the guards that opposed +him. But the day appearing, the tyrant set upon him on all hands, whilst the +Argives, as if it had not been their liberty that was contended for, but some +Nemean game going on for which it was their privilege to assign the prize, like +fair and impartial judges, sat looking on in great quietness. Aratus, fighting +bravely, was run through the thigh with a lance, yet he maintained his ground +against the enemy till night, and, had he been able to go on and hold out that +night also, he had gained his point; for the tyrant thought of nothing but +flying, and had already shipped most of his goods. But Aratus, having no +intelligence of this, and wanting water, being disabled himself by his wound, +retreated with his soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +Despairing henceforth to do any good this way, he fell openly with his army +into Argolis, and plundered it, and, in a fierce battle with Aristippus near +the river Chares, he was accused of having withdrawn out of the fight, and +thereby abandoned the victory. For whereas one part of his army had +unmistakably got the better, and was pursuing the enemy at a good distance from +him, he yet retreated in confusion into his camp, not so much because he was +overpressed by those with whom he was engaged, as out of mistrust of success +and through a panic fear. But when the other wing, returning from the pursuit, +showed themselves extremely vexed, that though they had put the enemy to flight +and killed many more of his men than they had lost, yet those that were in a +manner conquered should erect a trophy as conquerors, being much ashamed he +resolved to fight them again about the trophy, and the next day but one drew up +his army to give them battle. But, perceiving that they were reinforced with +fresh troops, and came on with better courage than before, he durst not hazard +a fight, but retired, and sent to request a truce to bury his dead. However, by +his dexterity in dealing personally with men and managing political affairs, +and by his general favor, he excused and obliterated this fault, and brought in +Cleonae to the Achaean association, and celebrated the Nemean games at Cleonae, +as the proper and more ancient place for them. The games were also celebrated +by the Argives at the same time, which gave the first occasion to the violation +of the privilege of safe conduct and immunity always granted to those that came +to compete for the prizes, the Achaeans at that time selling as enemies all +those they caught going through their country after joining in the games at +Argos. So vehement and implacable a hater was he of the tyrants. +</p> + +<p> +Not long after, having notice that Aristippus had a design upon Cleonae, but +was afraid of him, because he then was staying in Corinth, he assembled an army +by public proclamation, and, commanding them to take along with them provision +for several days, he marched to Cenchreae, hoping by this stratagem to entice +Aristippus to fall upon Cleonae, when he supposed him far enough off. And so it +happened, for he immediately brought his forces against it from Argos. But +Aratus, returning from Cenchreae to Corinth in the dusk of the evening, and +setting posts of his troops in all the roads, led on the Achaeans, who followed +him in such good order and with so much speed and alacrity, that they were +undiscovered by Aristippus, not only whilst upon their march, but even when +they got, still in the night, into Cleonae, and drew up in order of battle. As +soon as it was morning, the gates being opened and the trumpets sounding, he +fell upon the enemy with great cries and fury, routed them at once, and kept +close in pursuit, following the course which he most imagined Aristippus would +choose, there being many turns that might be taken. And so the chase lasted as +far as Mycenae, where the tyrant was slain by a certain Cretan called +Tragiscus, as Dinias reports. Of the common soldiers, there fell above fifteen +hundred. Yet though Aratus had obtained so great a victory, and that too +without the loss of a man, he could not make himself master of Argos nor set it +at liberty, because Agias and the younger Aristomachus got into the town with +some of the king’s forces, and seized upon the government. However, by this +exploit he spoiled the scoffs and jests of those that flattered the tyrants, +and in their raillery would say that the Achaean general was usually troubled +with a looseness when he was to fight a battle, that the sound of a trumpet +struck him with a drowsiness and a giddiness, and that, when he had drawn up +his army and given the word, he used to ask his lieutenants and officers +whether there was any further need of his presence now the die was cast, and +then went aloof, to await the result at a distance. For indeed these stories +were so generally listened to, that, when the philosophers disputed whether to +have one’s heart beat and to change color upon any apparent danger be an +argument of fear, or rather of some distemperature and chilliness of bodily +constitution, Aratus was always quoted as a good general, who was always thus +affected ill time of battle. +</p> + +<p> +Having thus dispatched Aristippus, he advised with himself how to overthrow +Lydiades, the Megalopolitan, who held usurped power over his country. This +person was naturally of a generous temper, and not insensible of true honor, +and had been led into this wickedness, not by the ordinary motives of other +tyrants, licentiousness and rapacity, but being young, and stimulated with the +desire of glory, he had let his mind be unwarily prepossessed with the vain and +false applauses given to tyranny, as some happy and glorious thing. But he no +sooner seized the government, than he grew weary of the pomp and burden of it. +And at once emulating the tranquillity and fearing the policy of Aratus, he +took the best of resolutions, first, to free himself from hatred and fear, from +soldiers and guards, and, secondly, to be the public benefactor of his country. +And sending for Aratus, he resigned the government, and incorporated his city +into the Achaean community. The Achaeans, applauding this generous action, +chose him their general; upon which, desiring to outdo Aratus in glory, amongst +many other uncalled-for things, he declared war against the Lacedaemonians; +which Aratus opposing was thought to do it out of envy; and Lydiades was the +second time chosen general, though Aratus acted openly against him, and labored +to have the office conferred upon another. For Aratus himself had the command +every other year, as has been said. Lydiades, however, succeeded so well in his +pretensions, that he was thrice chosen general, governing alternately, as did +Aratus; but at last, declaring himself his professed enemy, and accusing him +frequently to the Achaeans, he was rejected, and fell into contempt, people now +seeing that it was a contest between a counterfeit and a true, unadulterated +virtue, and, as Aesop tells us that the cuckoo once, asking the little birds +why they flew away from her, was answered, because they feared she would one +day prove a hawk, so Lydiades’s former tyranny still cast a doubt upon the +reality of his change. +</p> + +<p> +But Aratus gained new honor in the Aetolian war. For the Achaeans resolving to +fall upon the Aetolians on the Megarian confines, and Agis also, the +Lacedaemonian king, who came to their assistance with an army, encouraging them +to fight, Aratus opposed this determination. And patiently enduring many +reproaches, many scoffs and jeerings at his soft and cowardly temper, he would +not, for any appearance of disgrace, abandon what he judged to be the true +common advantage, and suffered the enemy to pass over Geranea into Peloponnesus +without a battle. But when, after they had passed by, news came that they had +suddenly captured Pellene, he was no longer the same man, nor would he hear of +any delay, or wait to draw together his whole force, but marched towards the +enemy with such as he had about him to fall upon them, as they were indeed now +much less formidable through the intemperances and disorders committed in their +success. For as soon as they entered the city, the common soldiers dispersed +and went hither and thither into the houses, quarreling and fighting with one +another about the plunder; and the officers and commanders were running about +after the wives and daughters of the Pellenians, on whose heads they put their +own helmets, to mark each man his prize, and prevent another from seizing it. +And in this posture were they when news came that Aratus was ready to fall upon +them. And in the midst of the consternation likely to ensue in the confusion +they were in, before all of them heard of the danger, the outmost of them, +engaging at the gates and in the suburbs with the Achaeans, were already beaten +and put to flight, and, as they came headlong back, filled with their panic +those who were collecting and advancing to their assistance. +</p> + +<p> +In this confusion, one of the captives, daughter of Epigethes, a citizen of +repute, being extremely handsome and tall, happened to be sitting in the temple +of Diana, placed there by the commander of the band of chosen men, who had +taken her and put his crested helmet upon her. She, hearing the noise, and +running out to see what was the matter, stood in the temple gates, looking down +from above upon those that fought, having the helmet upon her head; in which +posture she seemed to the citizens to be something more than human, and struck +fear and dread into the enemy, who believed it to be a divine apparition; so +that they lost all courage to defend themselves. But the Pellenians tell us +that the image of Diana stands usually untouched, and when the priestess +happens at any time to remove it to some other place, nobody dares look upon +it, but all turn their faces from it; for not only is the sight of it terrible +and hurtful to mankind, but it makes even the trees, by which it happens to be +carried, become barren and cast their fruit. This image, therefore, they say, +the priestess produced at that time, and, holding it directly in the faces of +the Aetolians, made them lose their reason and judgment. But Aratus mentions no +such thing in his commentaries, but says, that, having put to flight the +Aetolians, and falling in pell-mell with them into the city, he drove them out +by main force, and killed seven hundred of them. And the action was extolled as +one of the most famous exploits, and Timanthes the painter made a picture of +the battle, giving by his composition a most lively representation of it. +</p> + +<p> +But many great nations and potentates combining against the Achaeans, Aratus +immediately treated for friendly arrangements with the Aetolians, and, making +use of the assistance of Pantaleon, the most powerful man amongst them, he not +only made a peace, but an alliance between them and the Achaeans. But being +desirous to free the Athenians, he got into disgrace and ill-repute among the +Achaeans, because, notwithstanding the truce and suspension of arms made +between them and the Macedonians, he had attempted to take the Piraeus. He +denies this fact in his commentaries, and lays the blame on Erginus, by whose +assistance he took Acro-Corinthus, alleging that he upon his own private +account attacked the Piraeus, and, his ladders happening to break, being hotly +pursued, he called out upon Aratus as if present, by which means deceiving the +enemy, he got safely off. This excuse, however, sounds very improbable; for it +is not in any way likely that Erginus, a private man and a Syrian stranger, +should conceive in his mind so great an attempt, without Aratus at his back, to +tell him how and when to make it, and to supply him with the means. Nor was it +twice or thrice, but very often, that, like an obstinate lover, he repeated his +attempts on the Piraeus, and was so far from being discouraged by his +disappointments, that his missing his hopes but narrowly was an incentive to +him to proceed the more boldly in a new trial. One time amongst the rest, in +making his escape through the Thriasian plain, he put his leg out of joint, and +was forced to submit to many operations with the knife before he was cured, so +that for a long time he was carried in a litter to the wars. +</p> + +<p> +And when Antigonus was dead, and Demetrius succeeded him in the kingdom, he was +more bent than ever upon Athens, and in general quite despised the Macedonians. +And so, being overthrown in battle near Phylacia by Bithys, Demetrius’s +general, and there being a very strong report that he was either taken or +slain, Diogenes, the governor of the Piraeus, sent letters to Corinth, +commanding the Achaeans to quit that city, seeing Aratus was dead. When these +letters came to Corinth, Aratus happened to be there in person, so that +Diogenes’s messengers, being sufficiently mocked and derided, were forced to +return to their master. King Demetrius himself also sent a ship, wherein Aratus +was to be brought to him in chains. And the Athenians, exceeding all possible +fickleness of flattery to the Macedonians, crowned themselves with garlands +upon the first news of his death. And so in anger he went at once and invaded +Attica, and penetrated as far as the Academy, but then suffering himself to be +pacified, he did no further act of hostility. And the Athenians afterwards, +coming to a due sense of his virtue, when upon the death of Demetrius they +attempted to recover their liberty, called him in to their assistance; and +although at that time another person was general of the Achaeans, and he +himself had long kept his bed with a sickness, yet, rather than fail the city +in a time of need, he was carried thither in a litter, and helped to persuade +Diogenes the governor to deliver up the Piraeus, Munychia, Salamis, and Sunium +to the Athenians in consideration of a hundred and fifty talents, of which +Aratus himself contributed twenty to the city. Upon this, the Aeginetans and +the Hermionians immediately joined the Achaeans, and the greatest part of +Arcadia entered their confederacy; and the Macedonians being occupied with +various wars upon their own confines and with their neighbors, the Achaean +power, the Aetolians also being in alliance with them, rose to great height. +</p> + +<p> +But Aratus, still bent on effecting his old project, and impatient that tyranny +should maintain itself in so near a city as Argos, sent to Aristomachus to +persuade him to restore liberty to that city, and to associate it to the +Achaeans, and that, following Lydiades’s example, he should rather choose to be +the general of a great nation, with esteem and honor, than the tyrant of one +city, with continual hatred and danger. Aristomachus slighted not the message, +but desired Aratus to send him fifty talents, with which he might pay off the +soldiers. In the meantime, whilst the money was providing, Lydiades, being then +general, and extremely ambitious that this advantage might seem to be of his +procuring for the Achaeans, accused Aratus to Aristomachus, as one that bore an +irreconcilable hatred to the tyrants, and, persuading him to commit the affair +to his management, he presented him to the Achaeans. But there the Achaean +council gave a manifest proof of the great credit Aratus had with them and the +good-will they bore him. For when he, in anger, spoke against Aristomachus’s +being admitted into the association, they rejected the proposal, but when he +was afterwards pacified and came himself and spoke in its favor, they voted +everything cheerfully and readily, and decreed that the Argives and Phliasians +should be incorporated into their commonwealth, and the next year they chose +Aristomachus general. He, being in good credit with the Achaeans, was very +desirous to invade Laconia, and for that purpose sent for Aratus from Athens. +Aratus wrote to him to dissuade him as far as he could from that expedition, +being very unwilling the Achaeans should be engaged in a quarrel with +Cleomenes, who was a daring man, and making extraordinary advances to power. +But Aristomachus resolving to go on, he obeyed and served in person, on which +occasion he hindered Aristomachus from fighting a battle, when Cleomenes came +upon them at Pallantium; and for this act was accused by Lydiades, and, coming +to an open conflict with him in a contest for the office of general, he carried +it by the show of hands, and was chosen general the twelfth time. +</p> + +<p> +This year, being routed by Cleomenes near the Lycaeum, he fled, and, wandering +out of the way in the night, was believed to be slain; and once more it was +confidently reported so throughout all Greece. He, however, having escaped this +danger and rallied his forces, was not content to march off in safety, but, +making a happy use of the present conjuncture, when nobody dreamed any such +thing, he fell suddenly upon the Mantineans, allies of Cleomenes, and, taking +the city, put a garrison into it, and made the stranger inhabitants free of the +city; procuring, by this means, those advantages for the beaten Achaeans, +which, being conquerors, they would not easily have obtained. The +Lacedaemonians again invading the Megalopolitan territories, he marched to the +assistance of the city, but refused to give Cleomenes, who did all he could to +provoke him to it, any opportunity of engaging him in a battle, nor could be +prevailed upon by the Megalopolitans, who urged him to it extremely. For +besides that by nature he was ill-suited for set battles, he was then much +inferior in numbers, and was to deal with a daring leader, still in the heat of +youth, while he himself, now past the prime of courage and come to a chastised +ambition, felt it his business to maintain by prudence the glory, which he had +obtained, and the other was only aspiring to by forwardness and daring. +</p> + +<p> +So that though the light-armed soldiers had sallied out and driven the +Lacedaemonians as far as their camp, and had come even to their tents, yet +would not Aratus lead his men forward, but, posting himself in a hollow +watercourse in the way thither, stopped and prevented the citizens from +crossing this. Lydiades, extremely vexed at what was going on, and loading +Aratus with reproaches, entreated the horse that together with him they would +second them that had the enemy in chase, and not let a certain victory slip out +of their hands, nor forsake him that was going to venture his life for his +country. And being reinforced with many brave men that turned after him, he +charged the enemy’s right wing, and routing it, followed the pursuit without +measure or discretion, letting his eagerness and hopes of glory tempt him on +into broken ground, full of planted fruit trees and cut up with broad ditches, +where, being engaged by Cleomenes, he fell, fighting gallantly the noblest of +battles, at the gate of his country. The rest, flying back to their main body +and troubling the ranks of the full-armed infantry, put the whole army to the +rout. Aratus was extremely blamed, being suspected to have betrayed Lydiades, +and was constrained by the Achaeans, who withdrew in great anger, to accompany +them to Aegium, where they called a council, and decreed that he should no +longer be furnished with money, nor have any more soldiers hired for him, but +that, if he would make war, he should pay them himself. +</p> + +<p> +This affront he resented so far as to resolve to give up the seal and lay down +the office of general; but upon second thoughts he found it best to have +patience, and presently marched with the Achaeans to Orchomenus and fought a +battle with Megistonus, the step-father of Cleomenes, where he got the victory, +killing three hundred men and taking Megistonus prisoner. But whereas he used +to be chosen general every other year, when his turn came and he was called to +take upon him that charge, he declined it, and Timoxenus was chosen in his +stead. The true cause of which was not the pique he was alleged to have taken +at the people, but the ill circumstances of the Achaean affairs. For Cleomenes +did not now invade them gently and tenderly as hitherto, as one controlled by +the civil authorities, but having killed the Ephors, divided the lands, and +made many of the stranger residents free of the city, he was responsible to no +one in his government; and therefore fell in good earnest upon the Achaeans, +and put forward his claim to the supreme military command. Wherefore Aratus is +much blamed, that in a stormy and tempestuous time, like a cowardly pilot, he +should forsake the helm, when it was even perhaps his duty to have insisted, +whether they would or no, on saving them; or if he thought the Achaean affairs +desperate, to have yielded all up to Cleomenes, and not to have let +Peloponnesus fall once again into barbarism with Macedonian garrisons, and +Acro-Corinthus be occupied with Illyric and Gaulish soldiers, and, under the +specious name of Confederates, to have made those masters of the cities whom he +had held it his business by arms and by policy to baffle and defeat, and, in +the memoirs he left behind him, loaded with reproaches and insults. And say +that Cleomenes was arbitrary and tyrannical, yet was he descended from the +Heraclidae, and Sparta was his country, the obscurest citizen of which deserved +to be preferred to the generalship before the best of the Macedonians by those +that had any regard to the honor of Grecian birth. Besides, Cleomenes sued for +that command over the Achaeans as one that would return the honor of that title +with real kindnesses to the cities; whereas Antigonus, being declared absolute +general by sea and land, would not accept the office unless Acro-Corinthus were +by special agreement put into his hands, following the example of Aesop’s +hunter; for he would not get up and ride the Achaeans, who desired him so to +do, and offered their backs to him by embassies and popular decrees, till, by a +garrison and hostages, they had allowed him to bit and bridle them. Aratus +exhausts all his powers of speech to show the necessity that was upon him. But +Polybius writes, that long before this, and before there was any necessity, +apprehending the daring temper of Cleomenes, he communicated secretly with +Antigonus, and that he had beforehand prevailed with the Megalopolitans to +press the Achaeans to crave aid from Antigonus. For they were the most harassed +by the war, Cleomenes continually plundering and ransacking their country. And +so writes also Phylarchus, who, unless seconded by the testimony of Polybius, +would not be altogether credited; for he is seized with enthusiasm when he so +much as speaks a word of Cleomenes, and as if he were pleading, not writing a +history, goes on throughout defending the one and accusing the other. +</p> + +<p> +The Achaeans, therefore, lost Mantinea, which was recovered by Cleomenes, and +being beaten in a great fight near Hecatombaeum, so general was the +consternation, that they immediately sent to Cleomenes to desire him to come to +Argos and take the command upon him. But Aratus, as soon as he understood that +he was coming, and was got as far as Lerna with his troops, fearing the result, +sent ambassadors to him, to request him to come accompanied with three hundred +only, as to friends and confederates, and, if he mistrusted anything, he should +receive hostages. Upon which Cleomenes, saying this was mere mockery and +affront, went away, sending a letter to the Achaeans full of reproaches and +accusation against Aratus. And Aratus also wrote letters against Cleomenes; and +bitter revilings and railleries were current on both hands, not sparing even +their marriages and wives. Hereupon Cleomenes sent a herald to declare war +against the Achaeans, and in the meantime missed very narrowly of taking Sicyon +by treachery. Turning off at a little distance, he attacked and took Pellene, +which the Achaean general abandoned, and not long after took also Pheneus and +Penteleum. Then immediately the Argives voluntarily joined with him, and the +Phliasians received a garrison, and in short nothing among all their new +acquisitions held firm to the Achaeans. Aratus was encompassed on every side +with clamor and confusion; he saw the whole of Peloponnesus shaking around him, +and the cities everywhere set in revolt by men desirous of innovations. +</p> + +<p> +For indeed no place remained quiet or satisfied with the present condition; +even amongst the Sicyonians and Corinthians themselves, many were well known to +have had private conferences with Cleomenes, who long since, out of desire to +make themselves masters of their several cities, had been discontented with the +present order of things. Aratus, having absolute power given him to bring these +to condign punishment, executed as many of them as he could find at Sicyon, but +going about to find them out and punish them at Corinth also, he irritated the +people, already unsound in feeling and weary of the Achaean government. So +collecting tumultuously in the temple of Apollo, they sent for Aratus, having +determined to take or kill him before they broke out into open revolt. He came +accordingly, leading his horse in his hand, as if he suspected nothing. Then +several leaping up and accusing and reproaching him, with mild words and a +settled countenance he bade them sit down, and not stand crying out upon him in +a disorderly manner, desiring, also, that those that were about the door might +be let in, and saying so, he stepped out quietly, as if he would give his horse +to somebody. Clearing himself thus of the crowd, and speaking without +discomposure to the Corinthians that he met, commanding them to go to Apollo’s +temple, and being now, before they were aware, got near to the citadel, he +leaped upon his horse, and commanding Cleopater, the governor of the garrison, +to have a special care of his charge, he galloped to Sicyon, followed by thirty +of his soldiers, the rest leaving him and shifting for themselves. And not long +after, it being known that he was fled, the Corinthians pursued him, but not +overtaking him, they immediately sent for Cleomenes and delivered up the city +to him, who, however, thought nothing they could give was so great a gain, as +was the loss of their having let Aratus get away. Nevertheless, being +strengthened by the accession of the people of the Acte, as it is called, who +put their towns into his hands, he proceeded to carry a palisade and lines of +circumvallation around the Acro-Corinthus. +</p> + +<p> +But Aratus being arrived at Sicyon, the body of the Achaeans there flocked to +him, and, in an assembly there held, he was chosen general with absolute power, +and he took about him a guard of his own citizens, it being now three and +thirty years since he first took a part in public affairs among the Achaeans, +having in that time been the chief man in credit and power of all Greece; but +he was now deserted on all hands, helpless and overpowered, drifting about +amidst the waves and danger on the shattered hulk of his native city. For the +Aetolians, affected whom he applied to, declined to assist him in his distress, +and the Athenians, who were well affected to him, were diverted from lending +him any succor by the authority of Euclides and Micion. Now whereas he had a +house and property in Corinth, Cleomenes meddled not with it, nor suffered +anybody else to do so, but calling for his friends and agents, he bade them +hold themselves responsible to Aratus for everything, as to him they would have +to render their account; and privately he sent to him Tripylus, and afterwards +Megistonus, his own stepfather, to offer him, besides several other things, a +yearly pension of twelve talents, which was twice as much as Ptolemy allowed +him, for he gave him six; and all that he demanded was to be declared commander +of the Achaeans, and together with them to have the keeping of the citadel of +Corinth. To which Aratus returning answer that affairs were not so properly in +his power as he was in the power of them, Cleomenes, believing this a mere +evasion, immediately entered the country of Sicyon, destroying all with fire +and sword, and besieged the city three months, whilst Aratus held firm, and was +in dispute with himself whether he should call in Antigonus upon condition of +delivering up the citadel of Corinth to him; for he would not lend him +assistance upon any other terms. +</p> + +<p> +In the meantime the Achaeans assembled at Aegium, and called for Aratus; but it +was very hazardous for him to pass thither, while Cleomenes was encamped before +Sicyon; besides, the citizens endeavored to stop him by their entreaties, +protesting that they would not suffer him to expose himself to so evident +danger, the enemy being so near; the women, also, and children hung about him, +weeping and embracing him as their common father and defender. But he, having +comforted and encouraged them as well as he could, got on horseback, and being +accompanied with ten of his friends and his son, then a youth, got away to the +sea-side, and finding vessels there waiting off the shore, went on board of +them and sailed to Aegium to the assembly; in which it was decreed that +Antigonus should be called in to their aid, and should have the Acro-Corinthus +delivered to him. Aratus also sent his son to him with the other hostages. The +Corinthians, extremely angry at this proceeding, now plundered his property, +and gave his house as a present to Cleomenes. +</p> + +<p> +Antigonus being now near at hand with his army, consisting of twenty thousand +Macedonian foot and one thousand three hundred horse, Aratus, with the Members +of Council, went to meet him by sea, and got, unobserved by the enemy, to +Pegae, having no great confidence either in Antigonus or the Macedonians. For +he was very sensible that his own greatness had been made out of the losses he +had caused them, and that the first great principle of his public conduct had +been hostility to the former Antigonus. But perceiving the necessity that was +now upon him, and the pressure of the time, that lord and master of those we +call rulers, to be inexorable, he resolved to put all to the venture. So soon, +therefore, as Antigonus was told that Aratus was coming up to him, he saluted +the rest of the company after the ordinary manner, but him he received at the +very first approach with especial honor, and finding him afterwards to be both +good and wise, admitted him to his nearer familiarity. For Aratus was not only +useful to him in the management of great affairs, but singularly agreeable also +as the private companion of a king in his recreations. And therefore, though +Antigonus was young, yet as soon as he observed the temper of the man to be +proper for a prince’s friendship, he made more use of him than of any other, +not only of the Achaeans, but also of the Macedonians that were about him. So +that the thing fell out to him just as the god had foreshown in a sacrifice. +For it is related that, as Aratus was not long before offering sacrifice, there +were found in the liver two gall-bags enclosed in the same caul of fat; +whereupon the soothsayer told him that there should very soon be the strictest +friendship imaginable between him and his greatest and most mortal enemies; +which prediction he at that time slighted, having in general no great faith in +soothsayings and prognostications, but depending most upon rational +deliberation. At an after time, however, when, things succeeding well in the +war, Antigonus made a great feast at Corinth, to which he invited a great +number of guests, and placed Aratus next above himself, and presently calling +for a coverlet, asked him if he did not find it cold, and on Aratus’s answering +“Yes, extremely cold,” bade him come nearer, so that when the servants brought +the coverlet, they threw it over them both, then Aratus remembering the +sacrifice, fell a laughing, and told the king the sign which had happened to +him, and the interpretation of it. But this fell out a good while after. +</p> + +<p> +So Aratus and the king, plighting their faith to each other at Pegae, +immediately marched towards the enemy, with whom they had frequent engagements +near the city, Cleomenes maintaining a strong position, and the Corinthians +making a very brisk defense. In the meantime, Aristoteles the Argive, Aratus’s +friend, sent privately to him to let him know, that he would cause Argos to +revolt, if he would come thither in person with some soldiers. Aratus +acquainted Antigonus, and, taking fifteen hundred men with him, sailed in boats +along the shore as quickly as he could from the Isthmus to Epidaurus. But the +Argives had not patience till he could arrive, but, making a sudden +insurrection, fell upon Cleomenes’s soldiers, and drove them into the citadel. +Cleomenes having news of this, and fearing lest, if the enemy should possess +themselves of Argos, they might cut off his retreat home, leaves the +Acro-Corinthus and marches away by night to help his men. He got thither first, +and beat off the enemy, but Aratus appearing not long after, and the king +approaching with his forces, he retreated to Mantinea, upon which all the +cities again came over to the Achaeans, and Antigonus took possession of the +Acro-Corinthus. Aratus, being chosen general by the Argives, persuaded them to +make a present to Antigonus of the property of the tyrants and the traitors. As +for Aristomachus, after having put him to the rack in the town of Cenchreae, +they drowned him in the sea; for which, more than anything else, Aratus was +reproached, that he could suffer a man to be so lawlessly put to death, who was +no bad man, had been one of his long acquaintance, and at his persuasion had +abdicated his power, and annexed the city to the Achaeans. +</p> + +<p> +And already the blame of the other things that were done began to be laid to +his account; as that they so lightly gave up Corinth to Antigonus, as if it had +been an inconsiderable village; that they had suffered him, after first sacking +Orchomenus, then to put into it a Macedonian garrison; that they made a decree +that no letters nor embassy should be sent to any other king without the +consent of Antigonus, that they were forced to furnish pay and provision for +the Macedonian soldiers, and celebrated sacrifices, processions, and games in +honor of Antigonus, Aratus’s citizens setting the example and receiving +Antigonus, who was lodged and entertained at Aratus’s house. All these things +they treated as his fault, not knowing that having once put the reins into +Antigonus’s hands, and let himself be borne by the impetus of regal power, he +was no longer master of anything but one single voice, the liberty of which it +was not so very safe for him to use. For it was very plain that Aratus was much +troubled at several things, as appeared by the business about the statues. For +Antigonus replaced the statues of the tyrants of Argos that had been thrown +down, and on the contrary threw down the statues of all those that had taken +the Acro-Corinthus, except that of Aratus, nor could Aratus, by all his +entreaties, dissuade him. Also, the usage of the Mantineans by the Achaeans +seemed not in accordance with the Grecian feelings and manners. For being +masters of their city by the help of Antigonus, they put to death the chief and +most noted men amongst them; and of the rest, some they sold, others they sent, +bound in fetters, into Macedonia, and made slaves of their wives and children; +and of the money thus raised, a third part they divided among themselves, and +the other two thirds were distributed among the Macedonians. And this might +seem to have been justified by the law of retaliation; for although it be a +barbarous thing for men of the same nation and blood thus to deal with one +another in their fury, yet necessity makes it, as Simonides says, sweet and +something excusable, being the proper thing, in the mind’s painful and inflamed +condition, to give alleviation and relief. But for what was afterwards done to +that city, Aratus cannot be defended on any ground either of reason or +necessity. For the Argives having had the city bestowed on them by Antigonus, +and resolving to people it, he being then chosen as the new founder, and being +general at that time, decreed that it should no longer be called Mantinea, but +Antigonea, which name it still bears. So that he may be said to have been the +cause that the old memory of the “beautiful Mantinea” has been wholly +extinguished, and the city to this day has the name of the destroyer and slayer +of its citizens. +</p> + +<p> +After this, Cleomenes, being overthrown in a great battle near Sellasia, +forsook Sparta and fled into Egypt, and Antigonus, having shown all manner of +kindness and fair-dealing to Aratus, retired into Macedonia. There, falling +sick, he sent Philip, the heir of the kingdom, into Peloponnesus, being yet +scarce a youth, commanding him to follow above all the counsel of Aratus, to +communicate with the cities through him, and through him to make acquaintance +with the Achaeans; and Aratus, receiving him accordingly, so managed him as to +send him back to Macedon both well affected to himself and full of desire and +ambition to take an honorable part in the affairs of Greece. +</p> + +<p> +When Antigonus was dead, the Aetolians, despising the sloth and negligence of +the Achaeans, who, having learned to be defended by other men’s valor and to +shelter themselves under the Macedonian arms, lived in ease and without any +discipline, now attempted to interfere in Peloponnesus. And plundering the land +of Patrae and Dyme in their way, they invaded Messene and ravaged it; at which +Aratus being indignant, and finding that Timoxenus, then general, was +hesitating and letting the time go by, being now on the point of laying down +his office, in which he himself was chosen to succeed him, he anticipated the +proper term by five days, that he might bring relief to the Messenians. And +mustering the Achaeans, who were both in their persons unexercised in arms and +in their minds relaxed and averse to war, he met with a defeat at Caphyae. +Having thus begun the war, as it seemed, with too much heat and passion, he +then ran into the other extreme, cooling again and desponding so much, that he +let pass and overlooked many fair opportunities of advantage given by the +Aetolians, and allowed them to run riot, as it were, throughout all +Peloponnesus, with all manner of insolence and licentiousness. Wherefore, +holding forth their hands once more to the Macedonians, they invited and drew +in Philip to intermeddle in the affairs of Greece, chiefly hoping, because of +his affection and trust that he felt for Aratus, they should find him +easy-tempered, and ready to be managed as they pleased. +</p> + +<p> +But the king, being now persuaded by Apelles, Megaleas, and other courtiers, +that endeavored to ruin the credit Aratus had with him, took the side of the +contrary faction, and joined them in canvassing to have Eperatus chosen general +by the Achaeans. But he being altogether scorned by the Achaeans, and, for the +want of Aratus to help, all things going wrong, Philip saw he had quite +mistaken his part, and, turning about and reconciling himself to Aratus, he was +wholly his; and his affairs now going on favorably both for his power and +reputation, he depended upon him altogether as the author of all his gains in +both respects; Aratus hereby giving a proof to the world that he was as good a +nursing father of a kingdom as he had been of a democracy, for the actions of +the king had in them the touch and color of his judgment and character. The +moderation which the young man showed to the Lacedaemonians, who had incurred +his displeasure, and his affability to the Cretans, by which in a few days he +brought over the whole island to his obedience, and his expedition against the +Aetolians, so wonderfully successful, brought Philip reputation for hearkening +to good advice, and to Aratus for giving it; for which things the king’s +followers envying him more than ever and finding they could not prevail against +him by their secret practices, began openly to abuse and affront him at the +banquets and over their wine, with every kind of petulance and impudence; so +that once they threw stones at him as he was going back from supper to his +tent. At which Philip being much offended, immediately fined them twenty +talents; and finding afterwards that they still went on disturbing matters and +doing mischief in his affairs, he put them to death. +</p> + +<p> +But with his run of good success, prosperity began to puff him up, and various +extravagant desires began to spring and show themselves in his mind; and his +natural bad inclinations, breaking through the artificial restraints he had put +upon them, in a little time laid open and discovered his true and proper +character. And in the first place, he privately injured the younger Aratus in +his wife, which was not known of a good while, because he was lodged and +entertained at their house; then he began to be more rough and untractable in +the domestic politics of Greece, and showed plainly that he was wishing to +shake himself loose of Aratus. This the Messenian affairs first gave occasion +to suspect. For they falling into sedition, and Aratus being just too late with +his succors, Philip, who got into the city one day before him, at once blew up +the flame of contention amongst them, asking privately, on the one hand, the +Messenian generals, if they had not laws whereby to suppress the insolence of +the common people, and on the other, the leaders of the people, whether they +had not hands to help themselves against their oppressors. Upon which gathering +courage, the officers attempted to lay hands on the heads of the people, and +they on the other side, coming upon the officers with the multitude, killed +them, and very near two hundred persons with them. +</p> + +<p> +Philip having committed this wickedness, and doing his best to set the +Messenians by the ears together more than before, Aratus arrived there, and +both showed plainly that he took it ill himself, and also he suffered his son +bitterly to reproach and revile him. It should seem that the young man had an +attachment for Philip, and so at this time one of his expressions to him was, +that he no longer appeared to him the handsomest, but the most deformed of all +men, after so foul an action. To all which Philip gave him no answer, though he +seemed so angry as to make it expected he would, and though several times he +cried out aloud, while the young man was speaking. But as for the elder Aratus, +seeming to take all that he said in good part, and as if he were by nature a +politic character and had a good command of himself, he gave him his hand and +led him out of the theater, and carried him with him to the Ithomatas, to +sacrifice there to Jupiter, and take a view of the place, for it is a post as +fortifiable as the Acro-Corinthus, and, with a garrison in it, quite as strong +and as impregnable to the attacks of all around it. Philip therefore went up +hither, and having offered sacrifice, receiving the entrails of the ox with +both his hands from the priest, he showed them to Aratus and Demetrius the +Pharian, presenting them sometimes to the one and sometimes to the other, +asking them what they judged, by the tokens in the sacrifice, was to be done +with the fort; was he to keep it for himself, or restore it to the Messenians. +Demetrius laughed and answered, “If you have in you the soul of soothsayer, you +will restore it, but if of a prince, you will hold the ox by both the horns,” +meaning to refer to Peloponnesus, which would be wholly in his power and at his +disposal if he added the Ithomatas to the Acro-Corinthus. Aratus said not a +word for a good while; but Philip entreating him to declare his opinion, he +said “Many and great hills are there in Crete, and many rocks in Boeotia and +Phocis, and many remarkable strong-holds both near the sea and in the midland +in Acarnania, and yet all these people obey your orders, though you have not +possessed yourself of any one of those places. Robbers nest themselves in rocks +and precipices; but the strongest fort a king can have is confidence and +affection. These have opened to you the Cretan sea; these make you master of +Peloponnesus, and by the help of these, young as you are, are you become +captain of the one, and lord of the other.” While he was still speaking, Philip +returned the entrails to the priest, and drawing Aratus to him by the hand, +“Come, then,” said he, “let us follow the same course;” as if he felt himself +forced by him, and obliged to give up the town. +</p> + +<p> +From this time Aratus began to withdraw from court, and retired by degrees from +Philip’s company; when he was preparing to march into Epirus, and desired him +that he would accompany him thither, he excused himself and stayed at home, +apprehending that he should get nothing but discredit by having anything to do +with his actions. But when, afterwards, having shamefully lost his fleet +against the Romans and miscarried in all his designs, he returned into +Peloponnesus, where he tried once more to beguile the Messenians by his +artifices, and failing in this, began openly to attack them and to ravage their +country, then Aratus fell out with him downright, and utterly renounced his +friendship; for he had begun then to be fully aware of the injuries done to his +son in his wife, which vexed him greatly, though he concealed them from his +son, as he could but know he had been abused, without having any means to +revenge himself. For, indeed, Philip seems to have been an instance of the +greatest and strangest alteration of character; after being a mild king and +modest and chaste youth, he became a lascivious man and most cruel tyrant; +though in reality this was not a change of his nature, but a bold unmasking, +when safe opportunity came, of the evil inclinations which his fear had for a +long time made him dissemble. +</p> + +<p> +For that the respect he at the beginning bore to Aratus had a great alloy of +fear and awe appears evidently from what he did to him at last. For being +desirous to put him to death, not thinking himself, whilst he was alive, to be +properly free as a man, much less at liberty to do his pleasure as a king or +tyrant, he durst not attempt to do it by open force, but commanded Taurion, one +of his captains and familiars, to make him away secretly by poison, if +possible, in his absence. Taurion, therefore, made himself intimate with +Aratus, and gave him a dose, not of your strong and violent poisons, but such +as cause gentle, feverish heats at first, and a dull cough, and so by degrees +bring on certain death. Aratus perceived what was done to him, but, knowing +that it was in vain to make any words of it, bore it patiently and with +silence, as if it had been some common and usual distemper. Only once, a friend +of his being with him in his chamber, he spat some blood, which his friend +observing and wondering at, “These, O Cephalon,” said he, “are the wages of a +king’s love.” +</p> + +<p> +Thus died he in Aegium, in his seventeenth generalship. The Achaeans were very +desirous that he should be buried there with a funeral and monument suitable to +his life, but the Sicyonians treated it as a calamity to them if he were +interred anywhere but in their city, and prevailed with the Achaeans to grant +them the disposal of the body. +</p> + +<p> +But there being an ancient law that no person should be buried within the walls +of their city, and besides the law also a strong religious feeling about it, +they sent to Delphi to ask counsel of the Pythoness, who returned this answer: +— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Sicyon, whom oft he rescued, “Where,” you say,<br/> +“Shall we the relics of Aratus lay?”<br/> +The soil that would not lightly o’er him rest,<br/> +Or to be under him would feel oppressed,<br/> +Were in the sight of earth and seas and skies unblest. +</p> + +<p> +This oracle being brought, all the Achaeans were well pleased at it, but +especially the Sicyonians, who, changing their mourning into public joy, +immediately fetched the body from Aegium, and in a kind of solemn procession +brought it into the city, being crowned with garlands, and arrayed in white +garments, with singing and dancing, and, choosing a conspicuous place, they +buried him there, as the founder and savior of their city. The place is to this +day called Aratium, and there they yearly make two solemn sacrifices to him, +the one on the day he delivered the city from tyranny, being the fifth of the +month Daesius, which the Athenians call Anthesterion, and this sacrifice they +call Soteria; the other in the month of his birth, which is still remembered. +Now the first of these was performed by the priest of Jupiter Soter, the second +by the priest of Aratus, wearing a band around his head, not pure white, but +mingled with purple. Hymns were sung to the harp by the singers of the feasts +of Bacchus; the procession was led up by the president of the public exercises, +with the boys and young men; these were followed by the councilors wearing +garlands, and other citizens such as pleased. Of these observances, some small +traces, it is still made a point of religion not to omit, on the appointed +days; but the greatest part of the ceremonies have through time and other +intervening accidents been disused. +</p> + +<p> +And such, as history tells us, was the life and manners of the elder Aratus. +And for the younger, his son, Philip, abominably wicked by nature and a savage +abuser of his power, gave him such poisonous medicines, as though they did not +kill him indeed, yet made him lose his senses, and run into wild and absurd +attempts and desire to do actions and satisfy appetites that were ridiculous +and shameful. So that his death, which happened to him while he was yet young +and in the flower of his age, cannot be so much esteemed a misfortune as a +deliverance and end of his misery. However, Philip paid dearly, all through the +rest of his life, for these impious violations of friendship and hospitality. +For, being overcome by the Romans, he was forced to put himself wholly into +their hands, and, being deprived of his other dominions and surrendering all +his ships except five, he had also to pay a fine of a thousand talents, and to +give his son for hostage, and only out of mere pity he was suffered to keep +Macedonia and its dependences; where continually putting to death the noblest +of his subjects and the nearest relations he had, he filled the whole kingdom +with horror and hatred of him. And whereas amidst so many misfortunes he had +but one good chance, which was the having a son of great virtue and merit, him, +through jealousy and envy at the honor the Romans had for him, he caused to be +murdered, and left his kingdom to Perseus, who, as some say, was not his own +child, but supposititious, born of a seamstress called Gnathaenion. This was he +whom Paulus Aemilius led in triumph, and in whom ended the succession of +Antigonus’s line and kingdom. But the posterity of Aratus continued still in +our days at Sicyon and Pellene. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap66"></a>ARTAXERXES</h2> + +<p> +The first Artaxerxes, among all the kings of Persia the most remarkable for a +gentle and noble spirit, was surnamed the Long-handed, his right hand being +longer than his left, and was the son of Xerxes. The second, whose story I am +now writing, who had the surname of the Mindful, was the grandson of the +former, by his daughter Parysatis, who brought Darius four sons, the eldest +Artaxerxes, the next Cyrus, and two younger than these, Ostanes and Oxathres. +Cyrus took his name of the ancient Cyrus, as he, they say, had his from the +sun, which, in the Persian language, is called Cyrus. Artaxerxes was at first +called Arsicas; Dinon says Oarses; but it is utterly improbable that Ctesias +(however otherwise he may have filled his books with a perfect farrago of +incredible and senseless fables) should be ignorant of the name of the king +with whom he lived as his physician, attending upon himself, his wife, his +mother, and his children. +</p> + +<p> +Cyrus, from his earliest youth, showed something of a headstrong and vehement +character; Artaxerxes, on the other side, was gentler in everything, and of a +nature more yielding and soft in its action. He married a beautiful and +virtuous wife, at the desire of his parents, but kept her as expressly against +their wishes. For king Darius, having put her brother to death, was purposing +likewise to destroy her. But Arsicas, throwing himself at his mother’s feet, by +many tears, at last, with much ado, persuaded her that they should neither put +her to death nor divorce her from him. However, Cyrus was his mother’s +favorite, and the son whom she most desired to settle in the throne. And +therefore, his father Darius now lying ill, he, being sent for from the sea to +the court, set out thence with full hopes that by her means he was to be +declared the successor to the kingdom. For Parysatis had the specious plea in +his behalf, which Xerxes on the advice of Demaratus had of old made use of, +that she had borne him Arsicas when he was a subject, but Cyrus when a king. +Notwithstanding, she prevailed not with Darius, but the eldest son Arsicas was +proclaimed king, his name being changed into Artaxerxes; and Cyrus remained +satrap of Lydia, and commander in the maritime provinces. +</p> + +<p> +It was not long after the decease of Darius that the king, his successor, went +to Pasargadae, to have the ceremony of his inauguration consummated by the +Persian priests. There is a temple dedicated to a warlike goddess, whom one +might liken to Minerva; into which when the royal person to be initiated has +passed, he must strip himself of his own robe, and put on that which Cyrus the +first wore before he was king; then, having devoured a frail of figs, he must +eat turpentine, and drink a cup of sour milk. To which if they superadd any +other rites, it is unknown to any but those that are present at them. Now +Artaxerxes being about to address himself to this solemnity, Tisaphernes came +to him, bringing a certain priest, who, having trained up Cyrus in his youth in +the established discipline of Persia, and having taught him the Magian +philosophy, was likely to be as much disappointed as any man that his pupil did +not succeed to the throne. And for that reason his veracity was the less +questioned when he charged Cyrus as though he had been about to lie in wait for +the king in the temple, and to assault and assassinate him as he was putting +off his garment. Some affirm that he was apprehended upon this impeachment, +others that he had entered the temple and was pointed out there, as he lay +lurking, by the priest. But as he was on the point of being put to death, his +mother clasped him in her arms, and, entwining him with the tresses of her +hair, joined his neck close to her own, and by her bitter lamentation and +intercession to Artaxerxes for him, succeeded in saving his life; and sent him +away again to the sea and to his former province. This, however, could no +longer content him; nor did he so well remember his delivery as his arrest, his +resentment for which made him more eagerly desirous of the kingdom than before. +</p> + +<p> +Some say that he revolted from his brother, because he had not a revenue +allowed him sufficient for his daily meals; but this is on the face of it +absurd. For had he had nothing else, yet he had a mother ready to supply him +with whatever he could desire out of her own means. But the great number of +soldiers who were hired from all quarters and maintained, as Xenophon informs +us, for his service, by his friends and connections, is in itself a sufficient +proof of his riches. He did not assemble them together in a body, desiring as +yet to conceal his enterprise; but he had agents everywhere, enlisting foreign +soldiers upon various pretenses; and, in the meantime, Parysatis, who was with +the king, did her best to put aside all suspicions, and Cyrus himself always +wrote in a humble and dutiful manner to him, sometimes soliciting favor, +sometimes making countercharges against Tisaphernes, as if his jealousy and +contest had been wholly with him. Moreover, there was a certain natural +dilatoriness in the king, which was taken by many for clemency. And, indeed, in +the beginning of his reign, he did seem really to emulate the gentleness of the +first Artaxerxes, being very accessible in his person, and liberal to a fault +in the distribution of honors and favors. Even in his punishments, no contumely +or vindictive pleasure could be seen; and those who offered him presents were +as much pleased with his manner of accepting, as were those who received gifts +from him with his graciousness and amiability in giving them. Nor truly was +there anything, however inconsiderable, given him, which he did not deign +kindly to accept of; insomuch that when one Omises had presented him with a +very large pomegranate, “By Mithras,” said he, “this man, were he entrusted +with it, would turn a small city into a great one.” +</p> + +<p> +Once when some were offering him one thing, some another, as he was on a +progress, a certain poor laborer, having got nothing at hand to bring him, ran +to the river side, and, taking up water in his hands, offered it to him; with +which Artaxerxes was so well pleased that he sent him a goblet of gold and a +thousand darics. To Euclidas, the Lacedaemonian, who had made a number of bold +and arrogant speeches to him, he sent word by one of his officers, “You have +leave to say what you please to me, and I, you should remember, may both say +and do what I please to you.” Teribazus once, when they were hunting, came up +and pointed out to the king that his royal robe was torn; the king asked him +what he wished him to do; and when Teribazus replied “May it please you to put +on another and give me that,” the king did so, saying withal, “I give it you, +Teribazus, but I charge you not to wear it.” He, little regarding the +injunction, being not a bad, but a light-headed, thoughtless man, immediately +the king took it off, put it on, and bedecked himself further with royal golden +necklaces and women’s ornaments, to the great scandal of everybody, the thing +being quite unlawful. But the king laughed and told him, “You have my leave to +wear the trinkets as a woman, and the robe of state as a fool.” And whereas +none usually sat down to eat with the king besides his mother and his wedded +wife, the former being placed above, the other below him, Artaxerxes invited +also to his table his two younger brothers, Ostanes and Oxathres. But what was +the most popular thing of all among the Persians was the sight of his wife +Statira’s chariot, which always appeared with its curtains down, allowing her +countrywomen to salute and approach her, which made the queen a great favorite +with the people. +</p> + +<p> +Yet busy, factious men, that delighted in change, professed it to be their +opinion that the times needed Cyrus, a man of a great spirit, an excellent +warrior, and a lover of his friends, and that the largeness of their empire +absolutely required a bold and enterprising prince. Cyrus, then; not only +relying upon those of his own province near the sea, but upon many of those in +the upper countries near the king, commenced the war against him. He wrote to +the Lacedaemonians, bidding them come to his assistance and supply him with +men, assuring them that to those who came to him on foot he would give horses, +and to the horsemen chariots; that upon those who had farms he would bestow +villages, and those who were lords of villages he would make so of cities; and +that those who would be his soldiers should receive their pay, not by count, +but by weight. And among many other high praises of himself, he said he had the +stronger soul; was more a philosopher and a better Magian; and could drink and +bear more wine than his brother, who, as he averred, was such a coward and so +little like a man, that he could neither sit his horse in hunting nor his +throne in time of danger. The Lacedaemonians, his letter being read, sent a +staff to Clearchus, commanding him to obey Cyrus in all things. So Cyrus +marched towards the king, having under his conduct a numerous host of +barbarians, and but little less than thirteen thousand stipendiary Grecians; +alleging first one cause, then another, for his expedition. Yet the true reason +lay not long concealed, but Tisaphernes went to the king in person to declare +it. Thereupon, the court was all in an uproar and tumult, the queen-mother +bearing almost the whole blame of the enterprise, and her retainers being +suspected and accused. Above all, Statira angered her by bewailing the war and +passionately demanding where were now the pledges and the intercessions which +saved the life of him that conspired against his brother; “to the end,” she +said, “that he might plunge us all into war and trouble.” For which words +Parysatis hating Statira, and being naturally implacable and savage in her +anger and revenge, consulted how she might destroy her. But since Dinon tells +us that her purpose took effect in the time of the war, and Ctesias says it was +after it, I shall keep the story for the place to which the latter assigns it, +as it is very unlikely that he, who was actually present, should not know the +time when it happened, and there was no motive to induce him designedly to +misplace its date in his narrative of it, though it is not infrequent with him +in his history to make excursions from truth into mere fiction and romance. +</p> + +<p> +As Cyrus was upon the march, rumors and reports were brought him, as though the +king still deliberated, and were not minded to fight and presently to join +battle with him; but to wait in the heart of his kingdom until his forces +should have come in thither from all parts of his dominions. He had cut a +trench through the plain ten fathoms in breadth, and as many in depth, the +length of it being no less than four hundred furlongs. Yet he allowed Cyrus to +pass across it, and to advance almost to the city of Babylon. Then Teribazus, +as the report goes, was the first that had the boldness to tell the king that +he ought not to avoid the conflict, nor to abandon Media, Babylon, and even +Susa, and hide himself in Persis, when all the while he had an army many times +over more numerous than his enemies, and an infinite company of governors and +captains that were better soldiers and politicians than Cyrus. So at last he +resolved to fight, as soon as it was possible for him. Making, therefore, his +first appearance, all on a sudden, at the head of nine hundred thousand +well-marshaled men, he so startled and surprised the enemy, who with the +confidence of contempt were marching on their way in no order, and with their +arms not ready for use, that Cyrus, in the midst of much noise and tumult, was +scarce able to form them for battle. Moreover, the very manner in which he led +on his men, silently and slowly, made the Grecians stand amazed at his good +discipline; who had expected irregular shouting and leaping, much confusion and +separation between one body of men and another, in so vast a multitude of +troops. He also placed the choicest of his armed chariots in the front of his +own phalanx over against the Grecian troops, that a violent charge with these +might cut open their ranks before they closed with them. +</p> + +<p> +But as this battle is described by many historians, and Xenophon in particular +as good as shows it us by eyesight, not as a past event, but as a present +action, and by his vivid account makes his hearers feel all the passions and +join in all the dangers of it, it would be folly in me to give any larger +account of it than barely to mention any things omitted by him which yet +deserve to be recorded. The place, then, in which the two armies were drawn out +is called Cunaxa, being about five hundred furlongs distant from Babylon. And +here Clearchus beseeching Cyrus before the fight to retire behind the +combatants, and not expose himself to hazard, they say he replied, “What is +this, Clearchus? Would you have me, who aspire to empire, show myself unworthy +of it?” But if Cyrus committed a great fault in entering headlong into the +midst of danger, and not paying any regard to his own safety, Clearchus was as +much to blame, if not more, in refusing to lead the Greeks against the main +body of the enemy, where the king stood, and in keeping his right wing close to +the river, for fear of being surrounded. For if he wanted, above all other +things, to be safe, and considered it his first object to sleep in whole skin, +it had been his best way not to have stirred from home. But, after marching in +arms ten thousand furlongs from the sea-coast, simply on his own choosing, for +the purpose of placing Cyrus on the throne, to look about and select a position +which would enable him, not to preserve him under whose pay and conduct he was, +but himself to engage with more ease and security seemed much like one that +through fear of present dangers had abandoned the purpose of his actions, and +been false to the design of his expedition. For it is evident from the very +event of the battle that none of those who were in array around the king’s +person could have stood the shock of the Grecian charge; and had they been +beaten out of the field, and Artaxerxes either fled or fallen, Cyrus would have +gained by the victory, not only safety, but a crown. And, therefore, Clearchus, +by his caution, must be considered more to blame for the result in the +destruction of the life and fortune of Cyrus, than he by his heat and rashness. +For had the king made it his business to discover a place, where having posted +the Grecians, he might encounter them with the least hazard, he would never +have found out any other but that which was most remote from himself and those +near him; of his defeat in which he was insensible, and, though Clearchus had +the victory, yet Cyrus could not know of it, and could take no advantage of it +before his fall. Cyrus knew well enough what was expedient to be done, and +commanded Clearchus with his men to take their place in the center. Clearchus +replied that he would take care to have all arranged as was best, and then +spoiled all. +</p> + +<p> +For the Grecians, where they were, defeated the barbarians till they were +weary, and chased them successfully a very great way. But Cyrus being mounted +upon a noble but a headstrong and hard-mouthed horse, bearing the name, as +Ctesias tells us, of Pasacas, Artagerses, the leader of the Cadusians, galloped +up to him, crying aloud, “O most unjust and senseless of men, who are the +disgrace of the honored name of Cyrus, are you come here leading the wicked +Greeks on a wicked journey, to plunder the good things of the Persians, and +this with the intent of slaying your lord and brother, the master of ten +thousand times ten thousand servants that are better men than you? as you shall +see this instant; for you shall lose your head here, before you look upon the +face of the king.” Which when he had said, he cast his javelin at him. But the +coat of mail stoutly repelled it, and Cyrus was not wounded; yet the stroke +falling heavy upon him, he reeled under it. Then Artagerses turning his horse, +Cyrus threw his weapon, and sent the head of it through his neck near the +shoulder bone. So that it is almost universally agreed to by all the author +that Artagerses was slain by him. But as to the death of Cyrus, since Xenophon, +as being himself no eye-witness of it, has stated it simply and in few words, +it may not be amiss perhaps to run over on the one hand what Dinon, and on the +other, what Ctesias has said of it. +</p> + +<p> +Dinon then affirms, that, after the death of Artagerses, Cyrus, furiously +attacking the guard of Artaxerxes, wounded the king’s horse, and so dismounted +him, and when Teribazus had quickly lifted him up upon another, and said to +him, “O king, remember this day, which is not one to be forgotten,” Cyrus, +again spurring up his horse, struck down Artaxerxes. But at the third assault +the king being enraged, and saying to those near him that death was more +eligible, made up to Cyrus, who furiously and blindly rushed in the face of the +weapons opposed to him. So the king struck him with a javelin, as likewise did +those that were about him. And thus Cyrus falls, as some say, by the hand of +the king; as others, by the dart of a Carian, to whom Artaxerxes, for a reward +of his achievement, gave the privilege of carrying ever after a golden cock +upon his spear before the first ranks of the army in all expeditions. For the +Persians call the men of Caria cocks, because of the crests with which they +adorn their helmets. +</p> + +<p> +But the account of Ctesias, to put it shortly, omitting many details, is as +follows: Cyrus, after the death of Artagerses, rode up against the king, as he +did against him, neither exchanging a word with the other. But Ariaeus, Cyrus’s +friend, was beforehand with him, and darted first at the king, yet wounded him +not. Then the king cast his lance at his brother, but missed him, though he +both hit and slew Satiphernes, a noble man and a faithful friend to Cyrus. Then +Cyrus directed his lance against the king, and pierced his breast with it quite +through his armor, two inches deep, so that he fell from his horse with the +stroke. At which those that attended him being put to flight and disorder, he, +rising with a few, among whom was Ctesias, and making his way to a little hill +not far off, rested himself. But Cyrus, who was in the thick of the enemy, was +carried off a great way by the wildness of his horse, the darkness which was +now coming on making it hard for them to know him, and for his followers to +find him. However, being made elate with victory, and full of confidence and +force, he passed through them, crying out, and that more than once, in the +Persian language, “Clear the way, villains, clear the way;” which they indeed +did, throwing themselves down at his feet. But his tiara dropped off his head, +and a young Persian, by name Mithridates, running by, struck a dart into one of +his temples near his eye, not knowing who he was, out of which wound much blood +gushed, so that Cyrus, swooning and senseless, fell off his horse. The horse +escaped, and ran about the field; but the companion of Mithridates took the +trappings, which fell off, soaked with blood. And as Cyrus slowly began to come +to himself, some eunuchs who were there tried to put him on another horse, and +so convey him safe away. And when he was not able to ride, and desired to walk +on his feet, they led and supported him, being indeed dizzy in the head and +reeling, but convinced of his being victorious, hearing, as he went, the +fugitives saluting Cyrus as king, and praying for grace and mercy. In the +meantime, some wretched, poverty-stricken Caunians, who in some pitiful +employment as camp-followers had accompanied the king’s army, by chance joined +these attendants of Cyrus, supposing them to be of their own party. But when, +after a while, they made out that their coats over their breastplates were red, +whereas all the king’s people wore white ones, they knew that they were +enemies. One of them, therefore, not dreaming that it was Cyrus, ventured to +strike him behind with a dart. The vein under the knee was cut open, and Cyrus +fell, and at the same time struck his wounded temple against a stone, and so +died. Thus runs Ctesias’s account, tardily, with the slowness of a blunt +weapon, effecting the victim’s death. +</p> + +<p> +When he was now dead, Artasyras, the king’s eye, passed by on horseback, and, +having observed the eunuchs lamenting, he asked the most trusty of them, “Who +is this, Pariscas, whom you sit here deploring?” He replied, “Do not you see, O +Artasyras, that it is my master, Cyrus?” Then Artasyras wondering, bade the +eunuch be of good cheer, and keep the dead body safe. And going in all haste to +Artaxerxes, who had now given up all hope of his affairs, and was in great +suffering also with his thirst and his wound, he with much joy assured him that +he had seen Cyrus dead. Upon this, at first, he set out to go in person to the +place, and commanded Artasyras to conduct him where he lay. But when there was +a great noise made about the Greeks, who were said to be in full pursuit, +conquering and carrying all before them, he thought it best to send a number of +persons to see; and accordingly thirty men went with torches in their hands. +Meantime, as he seemed to be almost at the point of dying from thirst, his +eunuch Satibarzanes ran about seeking drink for him; for the place had no water +in it, and he was at a good distance from his camp. After a long search he at +last luckily met with one of those poor Caunian camp-followers, who had in a +wretched skin about four pints of foul and stinking water, which he took and +gave to the king; and when he had drunk all off, he asked him if he did not +dislike the water; but he declared by all the gods, that he never so much +relished either wine, or water out of the lightest or purest stream. “And +therefore,” said he, “if I fail myself to discover and reward him who gave it +to you, I beg of heaven to make him rich and prosperous.” +</p> + +<p> +Just after this, came back the thirty messengers, with joy and triumph in their +looks, bringing him the tidings of his unexpected fortune. And now he was also +encouraged by the number of soldiers that again began to flock in and gather +about him; so that he presently descended into the plain with many lights and +flambeaus round about him. And when he had come near the dead body, and, +according to a certain law of the Persians, the right hand and head had been +lopped off from the trunk, he gave orders that the latter should be brought to +him, and, grasping the hair of it, which was long and bushy, he showed it to +those who were still uncertain and disposed to fly. They were amazed at it, and +did him homage; so that there were presently seventy thousand of them got about +him, and entered the camp again with him. He had led out to the fight, as +Ctesias affirms, four hundred thousand men. But Dinon and Xenophon aver that +there were many more than forty myriads actually engaged. As to the number of +the slain, as the catalogue of them was given up to Artaxerxes, Ctesias says, +they were nine thousand, but that they appeared to him no fewer than twenty +thousand. Thus far there is something to be said on both sides. But it is a +flagrant untruth on the part of Ctesias to say that he was sent along with +Phalinus the Zacynthian and some others to the Grecians. For Xenophon knew well +enough that Ctesias was resident at court; for he makes mention of him, and had +evidently met with his writings. And, therefore, had he come, and been deputed +the interpreter of such momentous words, Xenophon surely would not have struck +his name out of the embassy to mention only Phalinus. But Ctesias, as is +evident, being excessively vain-glorious, and no less a favorer of the +Lacedaemonians and Clearchus, never fails to assume to himself some province in +his narrative, taking opportunity, in these situations, to introduce abundant +high praise of Clearchus and Sparta. +</p> + +<p> +When the battle was over, Artaxerxes sent goodly and magnificent gifts to the +son of Artagerses, whom Cyrus slew. He conferred likewise high honors upon +Ctesias and others, and, having found out the Caunian who gave him the bottle +of water, he made him, of a poor, obscure man, a rich and an honorable person. +As for the punishments he indicted upon delinquents, there was a kind of +harmony betwixt them and the crimes. He gave order that one Arbaces, a Mede, +that had fled in the fight to Cyrus, and again at his fall had come back, +should, as a mark that he was considered a dastardly and effeminate, not a +dangerous or treasonable man, have a common harlot set upon his back, and carry +her about for a whole day in the marketplace. Another, besides that he had +deserted to them, having falsely vaunted that he had killed two of the rebels, +he decreed that three needles should be struck through his tongue. And both +supposing that with his own hand he had cut off Cyrus, and being willing that +all men should think and say so, he sent rich presents to Mithridates, who +first wounded him, and charged those by whom he conveyed the gifts to him to +tell him, that “the king has honored you with these his favors, because you +found and brought him the horse-trappings of Cyrus.” The Carian, also, from +whose wound in the ham Cyrus died, suing for his reward, he commanded those +that brought it him to say that “the king presents you with this as a second +remuneration for the good news told him; for first Artasyras, and, next to him, +you assured him of the decease of Cyrus.” Mithridates retired without +complaint, though not without resentment. But the unfortunate Carian was fool +enough to give way to a natural infirmity. For being ravished with the sight of +the princely gifts that were before him, and being tempted thereupon to +challenge and aspire to things above him, he deigned not to accept the king’s +present as a reward for good news, but indignantly crying out and appealing to +witnesses, he protested that he, and none but he, had killed Cyrus, and that he +was unjustly deprived of the glory. These words, when they came to his ear, +much offended the king, so that forthwith he sentenced him to be beheaded. But +the queen mother, being in the king’s presence, said, “Let not the king so +lightly discharge this pernicious Carian; let him receive from me the fitting +punishment of what he dares to say.” So when the king had consigned him over to +Parysatis, she charged the executioners to take up the man, and stretch him +upon the rack for ten days, then, tearing out his eyes, to drop molten brass +into his ears till he expired. +</p> + +<p> +Mithridates, also, within a short time after, miserably perished by the like +folly; for being invited to a feast where were the eunuchs both of the king and +of the queen mother, he came arrayed in the dress and the golden ornaments +which he had received from the king. After they began to drink, the eunuch that +was the greatest in power with Parysatis thus speaks to him: A magnificent +dress, indeed, O Mithridates, is this which the king has given you; the chains +and bracelets are glorious, and your scimitar of invaluable worth; how happy +has he made you, the object of every eye!” To whom he, being a little overcome +with the wine replied, “What are these things, Sparamizes? Sure I am, I showed +myself to the king in that day of trial to be one deserving greater and +costlier gifts than these.” At which Sparamizes smiling, said, “I do not grudge +them to you, Mithridates; but since the Grecians tell us that wine and truth go +together, let me hear now, my friend, what glorious or mighty matter was it to +find some trappings that had slipped off a horse, and to bring them to the +king?” And this he spoke, not as ignorant of the truth, but desiring to unbosom +him to the company, irritating the vanity of the man, whom drink had now made +eager to talk and incapable of controlling himself. So he forbore nothing, but +said out, “Talk you what you please of horse-trappings, and such trifles; I +tell you plainly, that this hand was the death of Cyrus. For I threw not my +dart as Artagerses did, in vain and to no purpose, but only just missing his +eye, and hitting him right on the temple, and piercing him through, I brought +him to the ground; and of that wound he died.” The rest of the company, who saw +the end and the hapless fate of Mithridates as if it were already completed, +bowed their heads to the ground; and he who entertained them said, +“Mithridates, my friend, let us eat and drink now, revering the fortune of our +prince, and let us waive discourse which is too weighty for us.” +</p> + +<p> +Presently after, Sparamizes told Parysatis what he said, and she told the king, +who was greatly enraged at it, as having the lie given him, and being in danger +to forfeit the most glorious and most pleasant circumstance of his victory. For +it was his desire that everyone, whether Greek or barbarian, should believe +that in the mutual assaults and conflicts between him and his brother, he, +giving and receiving a blow, was himself indeed wounded, but that the other +lost his life. And, therefore, he decreed that Mithridates should be put to +death in boats; which execution is after the following manner: Taking two boats +framed exactly to fit and answer each other, they lay down in one of them the +malefactor that suffers, upon his back; then, covering it with the other, and +so setting them together that the head, hands, and feet of him are left +outside, and the rest of his body lies shut up within, they offer him food, and +if he refuse to eat it, they force him to do it by pricking his eyes; then, +after he has eaten, they drench him with a mixture of milk and honey, pouring +it not only into his mouth, but all over his face. They then keep his face +continually turned towards the sun; and it becomes completely covered up and +hidden by the multitude of flies that settle on it. And as within the boats he +does what those that eat and drink must needs do, creeping things and vermin +spring out of the corruption and rottenness of the excrement, and these +entering into the bowels of him, his body is consumed. When the man is +manifestly dead, the uppermost boat being taken off, they find his flesh +devoured, and swarms of such noisome creatures preying upon and, as it were, +growing to his inwards. In this way Mithridates, after suffering for seventeen +days, at last expired. +</p> + +<p> +Masabates, the king’s eunuch, who had cut off the hand and head of Cyrus, +remained still as a mark for Parysatis’s vengeance. Whereas, therefore, he was +so circumspect, that he gave her no advantage against him, she framed this kind +of snare for him. She was a very ingenious woman in other ways, and was an +excellent player at dice, and, before the war, had often played with the king. +After the war, too, when she had been reconciled to him, she joined readily in +all amusements with him, played at dice with him, was his confidant in his love +matters, and in every way did her best to leave him as little as possible in +the company of Statira, both because she hated her more than any other person, +and because she wished to have no one so powerful as herself. And so once when +Artaxerxes was at leisure, and inclined to divert himself, she challenged him +to play at dice with her for a thousand Darics, and purposely let him win them, +and paid him down in gold. Yet, pretending to be concerned for her loss, and +that she would gladly have her revenge for it, she pressed him to begin a new +game for a eunuch; to which he consented. But first they agreed that each of +them might except five of their most trusty eunuchs, and that out of the rest +of them the loser should yield up any the winner should make choice of. Upon +these conditions they played. Thus being bent upon her design, and thoroughly +in earnest with her game, and the dice also running luckily for her, when she +had got the game, she demanded Masabates, who was not in the number of the five +excepted. And before the king could suspect the matter, having delivered him up +to the tormentors, she enjoined them to flay him alive, to set his body upon +three stakes, and to stretch his skin upon stakes separately from it. +</p> + +<p> +These things being done, and the king taking them ill, and being incensed +against her, she with raillery and laughter told him, “You are a comfortable +and happy man indeed, if you are so much disturbed for the sake of an old +rascally eunuch, when I, though I have thrown away a thousand Darics, hold my +peace and acquiesce in my fortune.” So the king, vexed with himself for having +been thus deluded, hushed up all. But Statira both in other matters openly +opposed her, and was angry with her for thus, against all law and humanity, +sacrificing to the memory of Cyrus the king’s faithful friends and eunuchs. +</p> + +<p> +Now after that Tisaphernes had circumvented and by a false oath had betrayed +Clearchus and the other commanders, and, taking them, had sent them bound in +chains to the king, Ctesias says that he was asked by Clearchus to supply him +with a comb; and that when he had it, and had combed his head with it, he was +much pleased with this good office, and gave him a ring, which might be a token +of the obligation to his relatives and friends in Sparta; and that the +engraving upon this signet was a set of Caryatides dancing. He tells us that +the soldiers, his fellow captives, used to purloin a part of the allowance of +food sent to Clearchus, giving him but little of it; which thing Ctesias says +he rectified, causing a better allowance to be conveyed to him, and that a +separate share should be distributed to the soldiers by themselves; adding that +he ministered to and supplied him thus by the interest and at the instance of +Parysatis. And there being a portion of ham sent daily with his other food to +Clearchus, she, he says, advised and instructed him, that he ought to bury a +small knife in the meat, and thus send it to his friend, and not leave his fate +to be determined by the king’s cruelty; which he, however, he says, was afraid +to do. However, Artaxerxes consented to the entreaties of his mother, and +promised her with an oath that he would spare Clearchus; but afterwards, at the +instigation of Statira, he put every one of them to death except Menon. And +thenceforward, he says, Parysatis watched her advantage against Statira, and +made up poison for her; not a very probable story, or a very likely motive to +account for her conduct, if indeed he means that out of respect to Clearchus +she dared to attempt the life of the lawful queen, that was mother of those who +were heirs of the empire. But it is evident enough, that this part of his +history is a sort of funeral exhibition in honor of Clearchus. For he would +have us believe, that, when the generals were executed, the rest of them were +torn in pieces by dogs and birds; but as for the remains of Clearchus, that a +violent gust of wind, bearing before it a vast heap of earth, raised a mound to +cover his body, upon which, after a short time, some dates having fallen there, +a beautiful grove of trees grew up and overshadowed the place, so that the king +himself declared his sorrow, concluding that in Clearchus he put to death a man +beloved of the gods. +</p> + +<p> +Parysatis, therefore, having from the first entertained a secret hatred and +jealousy against Statira, seeing that the power she herself had with Artaxerxes +was founded upon feelings of honor and respect for her, but that Statira’s +influence was firmly and strongly based upon love and confidence, was resolved +to contrive her ruin, playing at hazard, as she thought, for the greatest stake +in the world. Among her attendant women there was one that was trusty and in +the highest esteem with her, whose name was Gigis; who, as Dinon avers, +assisted in making up the poison. Ctesias allows her only to have been +conscious of it, and that against her will; charging Belitaras with actually +giving the drug, whereas Dinon says it was Melantas. The two women had begun +again to visit each other and to eat together; but though they had thus far +relaxed their former habits of jealousy and variance, still, out of fear and as +a matter of caution, they always ate of the same dishes and of the same parts +of them. Now there is a small Persian bird, in the inside of which no excrement +is found, only a mass of fat, so that they suppose the little creature lives +upon air and dew. It is called rhyntaces. Ctesias affirms, that Parysatis, +cutting a bird of this kind into two pieces with a knife, one side of which had +been smeared with the drug, the other side being clear of it, ate the untouched +and wholesome part herself, and gave Statira that which was thus infected; but +Dinon will not have it to be Parysatis, but Melantas, that cut up the bird and +presented the envenomed part of it to Statira; who, dying with dreadful agonies +and convulsions, was herself sensible of what had happened to her, and aroused +in the king’s mind suspicion of his mother, whose savage and implacable temper +he knew. And therefore proceeding instantly to an inquest, he seized upon his +mother’s domestic servants that attended at her table, and put them upon the +rack. Parysatis kept Gigis at home with her a long time, and, though the king +commanded her, she would not produce her. But she, at last, herself desiring +that she might be dismissed to her own home by night, Artaxerxes had intimation +of it, and, lying in wait for her, hurried her away, and adjudged her to death. +Now poisoners in Persia suffer thus by law. There is a broad stone, on which +they place the head of the culprit, and then with another stone beat and press +it, until the face and the head itself are all pounded to pieces; which was the +punishment Gigis lost her life by. But to his mother, Artaxerxes neither said +nor did any other hurt, save that he banished and confined her, not much +against her will, to Babylon, protesting that while she lived he would not come +near that city. Such was the condition of the king’s affairs in his own house. +</p> + +<p> +But when all his attempts to capture the Greeks that had come up with Cyrus, +though he desired to do so no less than he had desired to overcome Cyrus and +maintain his throne, proved unsuccessful, and they, though they had lost both +Cyrus and their own generals, nevertheless escaped, as it were, out of his very +palace, making it plain to all men that the Persian king and his empire were +mighty indeed in gold and luxury and women, but otherwise were a mere show and +vain display, upon this, all Greece took courage, and despised the barbarians; +and especially the Lacedaemonians thought it strange if they should not now +deliver their countrymen that dwelt in Asia from their subjection to the +Persians, nor put an end to the contumelious usage of them. And first having an +army under the conduct of Thimbron, then under Dercyllidas, but doing nothing +memorable, they at last committed the war to the management of their king +Agesilaus, who, when he had arrived with his men in Asia, as soon as he had +landed them, fell actively to work, and got himself great renown. He defeated +Tisaphernes in a pitched battle, and set many cities in revolt. Upon this, +Artaxerxes, perceiving what was his wisest way of waging the war, sent +Timocrates the Rhodian into Greece, with large sums of gold, commanding him by +a free distribution of it to corrupt the leading men in the cities, and to +excite a Greek war against Sparta. So Timocrates following his instructions, +the most considerable cities conspiring together, and Peloponnesus being in +disorder, the ephors remanded Agesilaus from Asia. At which time, they say, as +he was upon his return, he told his friends that Artaxerxes had driven him out +of Asia with thirty thousand archers; the Persian coin having an archer stamped +upon it. +</p> + +<p> +Artaxerxes scoured the seas, too, of the Lacedaemonians, Conon the Athenian and +Pharnabazus being his admirals. For Conon, after the battle of Aegospotami, +resided in Cyprus; not that he consulted his own mere security, but looking for +a vicissitude of affairs with no less hope than men wait for a change of wind +at sea. And perceiving that his skill wanted power, and that the king’s power +wanted a wise man to guide it, he sent him an account by letter of his +projects, and charged the bearer to hand it to the king, if possible, by the +mediation of Zeno the Cretan or Polycritus the Mendaean (the former being a +dancing-master, the latter a physician), or, in the absence of them both, by +Ctesias; who is said to have taken Conon’s letter, and foisted into the +contents of it a request; that the king would also be pleased to send over +Ctesias to him, who was likely to be of use on the sea-coast. Ctesias, however, +declares that the king, of his own accord, deputed him to this service. +Artaxerxes, however, defeating the Lacedaemonians in a sea-fight at Cnidos, +under the conduct of Pharnabazus and Conon, after he had stripped them of their +sovereignty by sea, at the same time, brought, so to say, the whole of Greece +over to him, so that upon his own terms he dictated the celebrated peace among +them, styled the peace of Antalcidas. This Antalcidas was a Spartan, the son of +one Leon, who, acting for the king’s interest, induced the Lacedaemonians to +covenant to let all the Greek cities in Asia and the islands adjacent to it +become subject and tributary to him, peace being upon these conditions +established among the Greeks, if indeed the honorable name of peace can fairly +be given to what was in fact the disgrace and betrayal of Greece, a treaty more +inglorious than had ever been the result of any war to those defeated in it. +</p> + +<p> +And therefore Artaxerxes, though always abominating other Spartans, and looking +upon them, as Dinon says, to be the most impudent men living, gave wonderful +honor to Antalcidas when he came to him into Persia; so much so that one day, +taking a garland of flowers and dipping it in the most precious ointment, he +sent it to him after supper, a favor which all were amazed at. Indeed he was a +person fit to be thus delicately treated, and to have such a crown, who had +among the Persians thus made fools of Leonidas and Callicratidas. Agesilaus, it +seems, on someone having said, “O the deplorable fate of Greece, now that the +Spartans turn Medes!” replied, “Nay, rather it is the Medes who become +Spartans.” But the subtlety of the repartee did not wipe off the infamy of the +action. The Lacedaemonians soon after lost their sovereignty in Greece by their +defeat at Leuctra; but they had already lost their honor by this treaty. So +long then as Sparta continued to be the first state in Greece, Artaxerxes +continued to Antalcidas the honor of being called his friend and his guest; but +when, routed and humbled at the battle of Leuctra, being under great distress +for money, they had dispatched Agesilaus into Egypt, and Antalcidas went up to +Artaxerxes, beseeching him to supply their necessities, he so despised, +slighted, and rejected him, that finding himself, on his return, mocked and +insulted by his enemies, and fearing also the ephors, he starved himself to +death. Ismenias, also, the Theban, and Pelopidas, who had already gained the +victory at Leuctra, arrived at the Persian court; where the latter did nothing +unworthy of himself. But Ismenias, being commanded to do obeisance to the king, +dropped his ring before him upon the ground, and so, stooping to take it up, +made a show of doing him homage. He was so gratified with some secret +intelligence which Timagoras the Athenian sent in to him by the hand of his +secretary, Beluris, that he bestowed upon him ten thousand darics, and because +he was ordered, on account of some sickness, to drink cow’s milk, there were +fourscore milch kine driven after him; also, he sent him a bed, furniture, and +servants for it, the Grecians not having skill enough to make it, as also +chairmen to carry him, being infirm in body, to the seaside. Not to mention the +feast made for him at court, which was so princely and splendid that Ostanes, +the king’s brother, said to him, “O, Timagoras, do not forget the sumptuous +table you have sat at here; it was not put before you for nothing;” which was +indeed rather a reflection upon his treason than to remind him of the king’s +bounty. And indeed the Athenians condemned Timagoras to death for taking +bribes. +</p> + +<p> +But Artaxerxes gratified the Grecians in one thing in lieu of the many +wherewith he plagued them, and that was by taking off Tisaphernes, their most +hated and malicious enemy, whom he put to death; Parysatis adding her influence +to the charges made against him. For the king did not persist long in his wrath +with his mother, but was reconciled to her, and sent for her, being assured +that she had wisdom and courage fit for royal power, and there being now no +cause discernible but that they might converse together without suspicion or +offense. And from thenceforward humoring the king in all things according to +his heart’s desire, and finding fault with nothing that he did, she obtained +great power with him, and was gratified in all her requests. She perceived he +was desperately in love with Atossa, one of his own two daughters, and that he +concealed and checked his passion chiefly for fear of herself, though, if we +may believe some writers, he had privately given way to it with the young girl +already. As soon as Parysatis suspected it, she displayed a greater fondness +for the young girl than before, and extolled both her virtue and beauty to him, +as being truly imperial and majestic. In fine, she persuaded him to marry her +and declare her to be his lawful wife, overriding all the principles and the +laws by which the Greeks hold themselves bound, and regarding himself as +divinely appointed for a law to the Persians, and the supreme arbitrator of +good and evil. Some historians further affirm, in which number is Heraclides of +Cuma, that Artaxerxes married not only this one, but a second daughter also, +Amestris, of whom we shall speak by and by. But he so loved Atossa when she +became his consort, that when leprosy had run through her whole body, he was +not in the least offended at it; but putting up his prayers to Juno for her, to +this one alone of all the deities he made obeisance, by laying his hands upon +the earth; and his satraps and favorites made such offerings to the goddess by +his direction, that all along for sixteen furlongs, betwixt the court and her +temple, the road was filled up with gold and silver, purple and horses, devoted +to her. +</p> + +<p> +He waged war out of his own kingdom with the Egyptians, under the conduct of +Pharnabazus and Iphicrates, but was unsuccessful by reason of their +dissensions. In his expedition against the Cadusians, he went himself in person +with three hundred thousand footmen and ten thousand horse. And making an +incursion into their country, which was so mountainous as scarcely to be +passable, and withal very misty, producing no sort of harvest of corn or the +like, but with pears, apples, and other tree-fruits feeding a warlike and +valiant breed of men, he unawares fell into great distresses and dangers. For +there was nothing to be got fit for his men to eat, of the growth of that +place, nor could anything be imported from any other. All they could do was to +kill their beasts of burden, and thus an ass’s head could scarcely be bought +for sixty drachmas. In short, the king’s own table failed; and there were but +few horses left; the rest they had spent for food. Then Teribazus, a man often +in great favor with his prince for his valor, and as often out of it for his +buffoonery, and particularly at that time in humble estate and neglected, was +the deliverer of the king and his army. There being two kings amongst the +Cadusians, and each of them encamping separately, Teribazus, after he had made +his application to Artaxerxes and imparted his design to him, went to one of +the princes, and sent away his son privately to the other. So each of them +deceived his man, assuring him that the other prince had deputed an ambassador +to Artaxerxes, suing for friendship and alliance for himself alone; and, +therefore, if he were wise, he told him, he must apply himself to his master +before he had decreed anything, and he, he said, would lend him his assistance +in all things. Both of them gave credit to these words, and because they +supposed they were each intrigued against by the other, they both sent their +envoys, one along with Teribazus, and the other with his son. All this taking +some time to transact, fresh surmises and suspicions of Teribazus were +expressed to the king, who began to be out of heart, sorry that he had confided +in him, and ready to give ear to his rivals who impeached him. But at last he +came, and so did his son, bringing the Cadusian agents along with them, and so +there was a cessation of arms and a peace signed with both the princes. And +Teribazus, in great honor and distinction, set out homewards in the company of +the king; who, indeed, upon this journey made it appear plainly that cowardice +and effeminacy are the effects, not of delicate and sumptuous living, as many +suppose, but of a base and vicious nature, actuated by false and bad opinions. +For notwithstanding his golden ornaments, his robe of state, and the rest of +that costly attire, worth no less than twelve thousand talents, with which the +royal person was constantly clad, his labors and toils were not a whit inferior +to those of the meanest persons in his army. With his quiver by his side and +his shield on his arm, he led them on foot, quitting his horse, through craggy +and steep ways, insomuch that the sight of his cheerfulness and unwearied +strength gave wings to the soldiers, and so lightened the journey, that they +made daily marches of above two hundred furlongs. +</p> + +<p> +After they had arrived at one of his own mansions, which had beautiful +ornamented parks in the midst of a region naked and without trees, the weather +being very cold, he gave full commission to his soldiers to provide themselves +with wood by cutting down any, without exception, even the pine and cypress. +And when they hesitated and were for sparing them, being large and goodly +trees, he, taking up an ax himself, felled the greatest and most beautiful of +them. After which his men used their hatchets, and piling up many fires, passed +away the night at their ease. Nevertheless, he returned not without the loss of +many and valiant subjects, and of almost all his horses. And supposing that his +misfortunes and the ill success of his expedition made him despised in the eyes +of his people, he looked jealously on his nobles, many of whom he slew in +anger, and yet more out of fear. As, indeed, fear is the bloodiest passion in +princes; confidence, on the other hand, being merciful, gentle, and +unsuspicious. So we see among wild beasts, the intractable and least tamable +are the most timorous and most easily startled; the nobler creatures, whose +courage makes them trustful, are ready to respond to the advances of men. +</p> + +<p> +Artaxerxes, now being an old man, perceived that his sons were in controversy +about his kingdom, and that they made parties among his favorites and peers. +Those that were equitable among them thought it fit, that as he had received +it, so he should bequeath it, by right of age, to Darius. The younger brother, +Ochus, who was hot and violent, had indeed a considerable number of the +courtiers that espoused his interest, but his chief hope was that by Atossa’s +means he should win his father. For he flattered her with the thoughts of being +his wife and partner in the kingdom after the death of Artaxerxes. And truly it +was rumored that already Ochus maintained a too intimate correspondence with +her. This, however, was quite unknown to the king; who, being willing to put +down in good time his son Ochus’s hopes, lest, by his attempting the same +things his uncle Cyrus did, wars and contentions might again afflict his +kingdom, proclaimed Darius, then twenty-five years old, his successor, and gave +him leave to wear the upright hat, as they call it. It was a rule and usage of +Persia, that the heir apparent to the crown should beg a boon, and that he that +declared him so should give whatever he asked, provided it were within the +sphere of his power. Darius therefore requested Aspasia, in former time the +most prized of the concubines of Cyrus, and now belonging to the king. She was +by birth a Phocaean, of Ionia, born of free parents, and well educated. Once +when Cyrus was at supper, she was led in to him with other women, who, when +they were sat down by him, and he began to sport and dally and talk jestingly +with them, gave way freely to his advances. But she stood by in silence, +refusing to come when Cyrus called her, and when his chamberlains were going to +force her towards him, said, “Whosoever lays hands on me shall rue it;” so that +she seemed to the company a sullen and rude-mannered person. However, Cyrus was +well pleased, and laughed, saying to the man that brought the women, “Do you +not see of a certainty that this woman alone of all that came with you is truly +noble and pure in character?” After which time he began to regard her, and +loved her above all of her sex, and called her the Wise. But Cyrus being slain +in the fight, she was taken among the spoils of his camp. +</p> + +<p> +Darius, in demanding her, no doubt much offended his father, for the barbarian +people keep a very jealous and watchful eye over their carnal pleasures, so +that it is death for a man not only to come near and touch any concubine of his +prince, but likewise on a journey to ride forward and pass by the carriages in +which they are conveyed. And though, to gratify his passion, he had against all +law married his daughter Atossa, and had besides her no less than three hundred +and sixty concubines selected for their beauty, yet being importuned for that +one by Darius, he urged that she was a free-woman, and allowed him to take her, +if she had an inclination to go with him, but by no means to force her away +against it. Aspasia, therefore, being sent for, and, contrary to the king’s +expectation, making choice of Darius, he gave him her indeed, being constrained +by law, but when he had done so, a little after he took her from him. For he +consecrated her priestess to Diana of Ecbatana, whom they name Anaitis, that +she might spend the remainder of her days in strict chastity, thinking thus to +punish his son, not rigorously, but with moderation, by a revenge checkered +with jest and earnest. But he took it heinously, either that he was +passionately fond of Aspasia, or because he looked upon himself as affronted +and scorned by his father. Teribazus, perceiving him thus minded, did his best +to exasperate him yet further, seeing in his injuries a representation of his +own, of which the following is the account: Artaxerxes, having many daughters, +promised to give Apama to Pharnabazus to wife, Rhodogune to Orontes, and +Amestris to Teribazus; whom alone of the three he disappointed, by marrying +Amestris himself. However, to make him amends, he betrothed his youngest +daughter Atossa to him. But after he had, being enamored of her too, as has +been said, married her, Teribazus entertained an irreconcilable enmity against +him. As indeed he was seldom at any other time steady in his temper, but uneven +and inconsiderate; so that whether he were in the number of the choicest +favorites of his prince, or whether he were offensive and odious to him, he +demeaned himself in neither condition with moderation; but if he was advanced +he was intolerably insolent, and in his degradation not submissive and +peaceable in his deportment, but fierce and haughty. +</p> + +<p> +And therefore Teribazus was to the young prince flame added upon flame, ever +urging him, and saying, that in vain those wear their hats upright who consult +not the real success of their affairs, and that he was ill befriended of reason +if he imagined, whilst he had a brother, who, through the women’s apartments, +was seeking a way to the supremacy, and a father of so rash and fickle a humor, +that he should by succession infallibly step up into the throne. For he that +out of fondness to an Ionian girl has eluded a law sacred and inviolable among +the Persians is not likely to be faithful in the performance of the most +important promises. He added, too, that it was not all one for Ochus not to +attain to, and for him to be put by his crown; since Ochus as a subject might +live happily, and nobody could hinder him; but he, being proclaimed king, must +either take up his scepter or lay down his life. These words presently inflamed +Darius: what Sophocles says being indeed generally true: — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Quick travels the persuasion to what’s wrong. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +For the path is smooth, and upon an easy descent, that leads us to our own +will; and the most part of us desire what is evil through our strangeness to +and ignorance of good. And in this case, no doubt, the greatness of the empire +and the jealousy Darius had of Ochus furnished Teribazus with material for his +persuasions. Nor was Venus wholly unconcerned in the matter, in regard, namely, +of his loss of Aspasia. +</p> + +<p> +Darius, therefore, resigned himself up to the dictates of Teribazus; and many +now conspiring with them, a eunuch gave information to the king of their plot +and the way how it was to be managed, having discovered the certainty of it, +that they had resolved to break into his bed-chamber by night, and there to +kill him as he lay. After Artaxerxes had been thus advertised, he did not think +fit, by disregarding the discovery, to despise so great a danger, nor to +believe it when there was little or no proof of it. Thus then he did: he +charged the eunuch constantly to attend and accompany the conspirators wherever +they were; in the meanwhile, he broke down the party-wall of the chamber behind +his bed, and placed a door in it to open and shut, which covered up with +tapestry; so the hour approaching, and the eunuch having told him the precise +time in which the traitors designed to assassinate him, he waited for them in +his bed, and rose not up till he had seen the faces of his assailants and +recognized every man of them. But as soon as he saw them with their swords +drawn and coming up to him, throwing up the hanging, he made his retreat into +the inner chamber, and, bolting to the door, raised a cry. Thus when the +murderers had been seen by him, and had attempted him in vain, they with speed +went back through the same doors they came in by, enjoining Teribazus and his +friends to fly, as their plot had been certainly detected. They, therefore, +made their escape different ways; but Teribazus was seized by the king’s +guards, and after slaying many, while they were laying hold on him, at length +being struck through with a dart at a distance, fell. As for Darius, who was +brought to trial with his children, the king appointed the royal judges to sit +over him, and because he was not himself present, but accused Darius by proxy, +he commanded his scribes to write down the opinion of every one of the judges, +and show it to him. And after they had given their sentences, all as one man, +and condemned Darius to death, the officers seized on him and hurried him to a +chamber not far off. To which place the executioner, when summoned, came with a +razor in his hand, with which men of his employment cut off the heads of +offenders. But when he saw that Darius was the person thus to be punished, he +was appalled and started back, offering to go out, as one that had neither +power nor courage enough to behead a king; yet at the threats and commands of +the judges, who stood at the prison door, he returned, and grasping the hair of +his head and bringing his face to the ground with one hand, he cut through his +neck with the razor he had in the other. Some affirm that sentence was passed +in the presence of Artaxerxes; that Darius, after he had been convicted by +clear evidence, falling prostrate before him, did humbly beg his pardon; that +instead of giving it, he, rising up in rage and drawing his scimitar, smote him +till he had killed him; that then, going forth into the court, he worshipped +the sun, and said, “Depart in peace, ye Persians, and declare to your +fellow-subjects how the mighty Oromasdes hath dealt out vengeance to the +contrivers of unjust and unlawful things.” +</p> + +<p> +Such, then, was the issue of this conspiracy. And now Ochus was high in his +hopes, being confident in the influence of Atossa; but yet was afraid of +Ariaspes, the only male surviving, besides himself, of the legitimate +off-spring of his father, and of Arsames, one of his natural sons. For indeed +Ariaspes was already claimed as their prince by the wishes of the Persians, not +because he was the elder brother, but because he excelled Ochus in gentleness, +plain-dealing, and good-nature; and on the other hand Arsames appeared, by his +wisdom, fitted for the throne, and that he was dear to his father, Ochus well +knew. So he laid snares for them both, and being no less treacherous than +bloody, he made use of the cruelty of his nature against Arsames, and of his +craft and wiliness against Ariaspes. For he suborned the king’s eunuchs and +favorites to convey to him menacing and harsh expressions from his father, as +though he had decreed to put him to a cruel and ignominious death. When they +daily communicated these things as secrets, and told him at one time that the +king would do so to him ere long, and at another, that the blow was actually +close impending, they so alarmed the young man, struck; such a terror into him, +and cast such a confusion and anxiety upon his thoughts, that, having prepared +some poisonous drugs, he drank them, that he might be delivered from his life. +The king, on hearing what kind of death he died, heartily lamented him, and was +not without a suspicion of the cause of it. But being disabled by his age to +search into and prove it, he was, after the loss of this son, more affectionate +than before to Arsames, did manifestly place his greatest confidence in him, +and made him privy to his counsels. Whereupon Ochus had no longer patience to +defer the execution of his purpose, but having procured Arpates, Teribazus’s +son, for the undertaking, he killed Arsames by his hand. Artaxerxes at that +time had but a little hold on life, by reason of his extreme age, and so, when +he heard of the fate of Arsames, he could not sustain it at all, but sinking at +once under the weight of his grief and distress, expired, after a life of +ninety-four years, and a reign of sixty-two. And then he seemed a moderate and +gracious governor, more especially as compared to his son Ochus, who outdid all +his predecessors in blood-thirstiness and cruelty. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap67"></a>GALBA</h2> + +<p> +Iphicrates the Athenian used to say that it is best to have a mercenary soldier +fond of money and of pleasures, for thus he will fight the more boldly, to +procure the means to gratify his desires. But most have been of opinion, that +the body of an army, as well as the natural one, when in its healthy condition, +should make no efforts apart, but in compliance with its head. Wherefore they +tell us that Paulus Aemilius, on taking command of the forces in Macedonia, and +finding them talkative and impertinently busy, as though they were all +commanders, issued out his orders that they should have only ready hands and +keen swords, and leave the rest to him. And Plato, who can discern no use of a +good ruler or general, if his men are not on their part obedient and +conformable (the virtue of obeying, as of ruling, being in his opinion one that +does not exist without first a noble nature, and then a philosophic education, +where the eager and active powers are allayed with the gentler and humaner +sentiments), may claim in confirmation of his doctrines sundry mournful +instances elsewhere, and, in particular, the events that followed among the +Romans upon the death of Nero, in which plain proofs were given that nothing is +more terrible than a military force moving about in an empire upon uninstructed +and unreasoning impulses. Demades, after the death of Alexander, compared the +Macedonian army to the Cyclops after his eye was out, seeing their many +disorderly and unsteady motions. But the calamities of the Roman government +might be likened to the motions of the giants that assailed heaven, convulsed +as it was, and distracted, and from every side recoiling, as it were, upon +itself, not so much by the ambition of those who were proclaimed emperors, as +by the covetousness and license of the soldiery, who drove commander after +commander out, like nails one upon another. +</p> + +<p> +Dionysius, in raillery, said of the Pheraean who enjoyed the government of +Thessaly only ten months, that he had been a tragedy-king, but the Caesars’ +house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than +four emperors, passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for +another to enter. +</p> + +<p> +This was the only satisfaction of the distressed, that they needed not require +any other justice on their oppressors, seeing them thus murder each other, and +first of all, and that most justly, the one that ensnared them first, and +taught them to expect such happy results from a change of emperors, sullying a +good work by the pay he gave for its being done, and turning revolt against +Nero into nothing better than treason. +</p> + +<p> +For, as already related, Nymphidius Sabinus, captain of the guards, together +with Tigellinus, after Nero’s circumstances were now desperate, and it was +perceived that he designed to fly into Egypt, persuaded the troops to declare +Galba emperor, as if Nero had been already gone, promising to all the court and +praetorian soldiers, as they are called, seven thousand five hundred drachmas +apiece, and to those in service abroad twelve hundred and fifty drachmas each; +so vast a sum for a largess as it was impossible anyone could raise, but he +must be infinitely more exacting and oppressive than ever Nero was. This +quickly brought Nero to his grave, and soon after Galba too; they murdered the +first in expectation of the promised gift, and not long after the other because +they did not obtain it from him; and then, seeking about to find someone who +would purchase at such a rate, they consumed themselves in a succession of +treacheries and rebellions before they obtained their demands. But to give a +particular relation of all that passed would require a history in full form; I +have only to notice what is properly to my purpose, namely, what the Caesars +did and suffered. +</p> + +<p> +Sulpicius Galba is owned by all to have been the richest private person that +ever came to the imperial seat. And besides the additional honor of being of +the family of the Servii, he valued himself more especially for his +relationship to Catulus, the most eminent citizen of his time both for virtue +and renown, however he may have voluntarily yielded to others as regards power +and authority. Galba was also akin to Livia, the wife of Augustus, by whose +interest he was preferred to the consulship by the emperor. It is said of him +that he commanded the troops well in Germany, and, being made proconsul in +Libya, gained a reputation that few ever had. But his quiet manner of living +and his sparingness in expenses and his disregard of appearance gave him, when +he became emperor, an ill-name for meanness, being, in fact, his worn-out +credit for regularity and moderation. He was entrusted by Nero with the +government of Spain, before Nero had yet learned to be apprehensive of men of +great repute. To the opinion, moreover, entertained of his mild natural temper, +his old age added a belief that he would never act incautiously. +</p> + +<p> +There while Nero’s iniquitous agents savagely and cruelly harassed the +provinces under Nero’s authority, he could afford no succor, but merely offer +this only ease and consolation, that he seemed plainly to sympathize, as a +fellow-sufferer, with those who were condemned upon suits and sold. And when +lampoons were made upon Nero and circulated and sung everywhere about, he +neither prohibited them, nor showed any indignation on behalf of the emperor’s +agents, and for this was the more beloved; as also that he was now well +acquainted with them, having been in chief power there eight years at the time +when Junius Vindex, general of the forces in Gaul, began his insurrection +against Nero. And it is reported that letters came to Galba before it fully +broke out into an open rebellion, which he neither seemed to give credit to, +nor on the other hand to take means to let Nero know, as other officers did, +sending to him the letters which came to them, and so spoiled the design, as +much as in them lay, who yet afterwards shared in the conspiracy, and confessed +they had been treacherous to themselves as well as him. At last Vindex, plainly +declaring war, wrote to Galba, encouraging him to take the government upon him, +and give a head to this strong body, the Gaulish provinces, which could already +count a hundred thousand men in arms, and were able to arm a yet greater number +if occasion were. Galba laid the matter before his friends, some of whom +thought it fit to wait, and see what movement there might be and what +inclinations displayed at Rome for the revolution. But Titus Vinius, captain of +his praetorian guard, spoke thus: “Galba, what means this inquiry? To question +whether we shall continue faithful to Nero is, in itself, to cease to be +faithful. Nero is our enemy, and we must by no means decline the help of +Vindex: or else we must at once denounce him, and march to attack him, because +he wishes you to be the governor of the Romans, rather than Nero their tyrant.” +Thereupon Galba, by an edict, appointed a day when he would receive +manumissions, and general rumor and talk beforehand about his purpose brought +together a great crowd of men so ready for a change, that he scarcely appeared, +stepping up to the tribunal, but they with one consent saluted him emperor. +That title he refused at present to take upon him; but after he had a while +inveighed against Nero, and bemoaned the loss of the more conspicuous of those +that had been destroyed by him, he offered himself and service to his country, +not by the titles of Caesar or emperor, but as the lieutenant of the Roman +senate and people. +</p> + +<p> +Now that Vindex did wisely in inviting Galba to the empire, Nero himself bore +testimony; who, though he seemed to despise Vindex and altogether to slight the +Gauls and their concerns, yet when he heard of Galba (as by chance he had just +bathed and sat down to his morning meal), at this news he overturned the table. +But the senate having voted Galba an enemy, presently, to make his jest, and +likewise to personate a confidence among his friends, “This is a very happy +opportunity,” he said, “for me, who sadly want such a booty as that of the +Gauls, which must all fall in as lawful prize; and Galba’s estate I can use or +sell at once, he being now an open enemy.” And accordingly he had Galba’s +property exposed to sale, which when Galba heard of; he sequestered all that +was Nero’s in Spain, and found far readier bidders. +</p> + +<p> +Many now began to revolt from Nero, and pretty nearly all adhered to Galba; +only Clodius Macer in Africa, and Virginius Rufus, commander of the German +forces in Gaul, followed counsel of their own; yet these two were not of one +and the same advice, for Clodius, being sensible of the rapines and murders to +which he had been led by cruelty and covetousness, was in perplexity, and felt +it was not safe for him either to retain or quit his command. But Virginius, +who had the command of the strongest legions, by whom he was many repeated +times saluted emperor and pressed to take the title upon him, declared that he +neither would assume that honor himself, nor see it given to any other than +whom the senate should elect. +</p> + +<p> +These things at first did not a little disturb Galba, but when presently +Virginius and Vindex were in a manner forced by their armies, having got the +reins, as it were, out of their hands, to a great encounter and battle, in +which Vindex, having seen twenty thousand of the Gauls destroyed, died by his +own hand, and when the report straight spread abroad, that all desired +Virginius, after this great victory, to take the empire upon him, or else they +would return to Nero again, Galba, in great alarm at this, wrote to Virginius, +exhorting him to join with him for the preservation of the empire and the +liberty of the Romans, and so retiring with his friends into Clunia, a town in +Spain, he passed away his time, rather repenting his former rashness, and +wishing for his wonted ease and privacy, than setting about what was fit to be +done. +</p> + +<p> +It was now summer, when on a sudden, a little before dusk, comes a freedman, +Icelus by name, having arrived in seven days from Rome; and being informed +where Galba was reposing himself in private, he went straight on, and pushing +by the servants of the chamber, opened the door and entered the room, and told +him, that Nero being yet alive but not appearing, first the army, and then the +people and senate, declared Galba emperor; not long after, it was reported that +Nero was dead; “but I,” said he, “not giving credit to common fame, went myself +to the body and saw him lying dead, and only then set out to bring you word.” +This news at once made Galba great again, and a crowd of people came hastening +to the door, all very confident of the truth of his tidings, though the speed +of the man was almost incredible. Two days after came Titus Vinius with sundry +others from the camp, who gave an account in detail of the orders of the +senate, and for this service was considerably advanced. On the freedman, Galba +conferred the honor of the gold ring, and Icelus, as he had been before, now +taking the name of Marcianus, held the first place of the freedmen. +</p> + +<p> +But at Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus, not gently and little by little, but at once, +and without exception, engrossed all power to himself; Galba, being an old man +(seventy-three years of age), would scarcely, he thought, live long enough to +be carried in a litter to Rome; and the troops in the city were from old time +attached to him, and now bound by the vastness of the promised gift, for which +they regarded him as their benefactor, and Galba as their debtor. Thus +presuming on his interest, he straightway commanded Tigellinus, who was in +joint commission with himself, to lay down his sword; and giving +entertainments, he invited the former consuls and commanders, making use of +Galba’s name for the invitation; but at the same time prepared many in the camp +to propose that a request should be sent to Galba that he should appoint +Nymphidius sole prefect for life without a colleague. And the modes which the +senate took to show him honor and increase his power, styling him their +benefactor, and attending daily at his gates, and giving him the compliment of +heading with his own name and confirming all their acts, carried him on to a +yet greater degree of arrogance, so that in a short time he became an object, +not only of dislike, but of terror, to those that sought his favor. When the +consuls themselves had dispatched their couriers with the decrees of the senate +to the emperor, together with the sealed diplomas, which the authorities in all +the towns where horses or carriages are changed, look at and on that +certificate hasten the couriers forward with all their means, he was highly +displeased that his seal had not been used, and none of his soldiers employed +on the errand. Nay, he even deliberated what course to take with the consuls +themselves, but upon their submission and apology he was at last pacified. To +gratify the people, he did not interfere with their beating to death any that +fell into their hands of Nero’s party. Amongst others, Spiclus, the gladiator, +was killed in the forum by being thrown under Nero’s statues, which they +dragged about the place over his body. Aponius, one of those who had been +concerned in accusations, they knocked to the ground, and drove carts loaded +with stones over him. And many others they tore in pieces, some of them no way +guilty, insomuch that Mauriscus, a person of great account and character, told +the senate that he feared, in a short time, they might wish for Nero again. +</p> + +<p> +Nymphidius, now advancing towards the consummation of his hopes, did not refuse +to let it be said that he was the son of Caius Caesar, Tiberius’s successor; +who, it is told, was well acquainted with his mother in his early youth, a +woman indeed handsome enough, the off-spring of Callistus, one of Caesar’s +freedmen, and a certain seamstress. But it is plain that Caius’s familiarity +with his mother was of too late date to give him any pretensions, and it was +suspected he might, if he pleased, claim a father in Martianus, the gladiator, +whom his mother, Nymphidia, took a passion for, being a famous man in his way, +whom also he much more resembled. However, though he certainly owned Nymphidia +for his mother, he ascribed meantime the downfall of Nero to himself alone, and +thought he was not sufficiently rewarded with the honors and riches he enjoyed, +(nay, though to all was added the company of Sporus, whom he immediately sent +for while Nero’s body was yet burning on the pile, and treated as his consort, +with the name of Poppaea,) but he must also aspire to the empire. And at Rome +he had friends who took measures for him secretly, as well as some women and +some members of the senate also, who worked underhand to assist him. And into +Spain he dispatched one of his friends, named Gellianus, to view the posture of +affairs. +</p> + +<p> +But all things succeeded well with Galba after Nero’s death; only Virginius +Rufus, still standing doubtful, gave him some anxiety, lest he should listen to +the suggestions of some who encouraged him to take the government upon him, +having, at present, besides the command of a large and warlike army, the new +honors of the defeat of Vindex and the subjugation of one considerable part of +the Roman empire, namely, the entire Gaul, which had seemed shaking about upon +the verge of open revolt. Nor had any man indeed a greater name and reputation +than Virginius, who had taken a part of so much consequence in the deliverance +of the empire at once from a cruel tyranny and a Gallic war. But he, standing +to his first resolves, reserved to the senate the power of electing an emperor. +Yet when it was now manifest that Nero was dead, the soldiers pressed him hard +to it, and one of the tribunes, entering his tent with his drawn sword, bade +him either take the government or that. But after Fabius Valens, having the +command of one legion, had first sworn fealty to Galba, and letters from Rome +came with tidings of the resolves of the senate, at last with much ado he +persuaded the army to declare Galba emperor. And when Flaccus Hordeonius came +by Galba’s commission as his successor, he handed over to him his forces, and +went himself to meet Galba on his way, and having met him, turned back to +attend him; in all which no apparent displeasure nor yet honor was shown him. +Galba’s feelings of respect for him prevented the former; the latter was +checked by the envy of his friends, and particularly of Titus Vinius, who, +acting in the desire of hindering Virginius’s promotion, unwittingly aided his +happy genius in rescuing him from those hazards and hardships which other +commanders were involved in, and securing him the safe enjoyment of a quiet +life and peaceable old age. +</p> + +<p> +Near Narbo, a city in Gaul, the deputation of the senate met Galba, and, after +they had delivered their compliments, begged him to make what haste he could to +appear to the people, that impatiently expected him. He discoursed with them +courteously and unassumingly, and in his entertainment, though Nymphidius had +sent him royal furniture and attendance of Nero’s, he put all aside, and made +use of nothing but his own, for which he was well spoken of, as one who had a +great mind, and was superior to little vanities. But in a short time, Vinius, +by declaring to him that these noble, unpompous, citizen-like ways were a mere +affectation of popularity and a petty bashfulness at assuming his proper +greatness, induced him to make use of Nero’s supplies, and in his +entertainments not to be afraid of a regal sumptuosity. And in more than one +way the old man let it gradually appear that he had put himself under Vinius’s +disposal. +</p> + +<p> +Vinius was a person of an excessive covetousness, and not quite free from blame +in respect to women. For being a young man, newly entered into the service +under Calvisius Sabinus, upon his first campaign, he brought his commander’s +wife, a licentious woman, in a soldier’s dress, by night into the camp, and was +found with her in the very general’s quarters, the principia, as the Romans +call them. For which insolence Caius Caesar cast him into prison, from whence +he was fortunately delivered by Caius’s death. Afterwards, being invited by +Claudius Caesar to supper, he privily conveyed away a silver cup, which Caesar +hearing of, invited him again the next day, and gave order to his servants to +set before him no silver plate, but only earthen ware. And this offense, +through the comic mildness of Caesar’s reprimand, was treated rather as a +subject of jest than as a crime. But the acts to which now, when Galba was in +his hands and his power was so extensive, his covetous temper led him were the +causes, in part, and in part the provocation, of tragical and fatal mischiefs. +</p> + +<p> +Nymphidius became very uneasy upon the return out of Spain of Gellianus, whom +he had sent to pry into Galba’s actions, understanding that Cornelius Laco was +appointed commander of the court guards, and that Vinius was the great +favorite, and that Gellianus had not been able so much as to come nigh, much +less have any opportunity to offer any words in private, so narrowly had he +been watched and observed. Nymphidius, therefore, called together the officers +of the troops, and declared to them that Galba of himself was a good, +well-meaning old man, but did not act by his own counsel, and was ill-guided by +Vinius and Laco; and lest, before they were aware, they should engross the +authority Tigellinus had with the troops, he proposed to them to send deputies +from the camp, acquainting him that if he pleased to remove only these two from +his counsel and presence, he would be much more welcome to all at his arrival. +Wherein when he saw he did not prevail (it seeming absurd and unmannerly to +give rules to an old commander what friends to retain or displace, as if he had +been a youth newly taking the reins of authority into his hands), adopting +another course, he wrote himself to Galba letters in alarming terms, one while +as if the city were unsettled, and had not yet recovered its tranquillity; then +that Clodius Macer withheld the corn-ships from Africa; that the legions in +Germany began to be mutinous, and that he heard the like of those in Syria and +Judaea. But Galba not minding him much nor giving credit to his stories, he +resolved to make his attempt beforehand, though Clodius Celsus, a native of +Antioch, a person of sense, and friendly and faithful to Nymphidius, told him +he was wrong, saying he did not believe one single street in Rome would ever +give him the title of Caesar. Nevertheless many also derided Galba, amongst the +rest Mithridates of Pontus, saying, that as soon as this wrinkled, bald-headed +man should be seen publicly at Rome, they would think it an utter disgrace ever +to have had such a Caesar. +</p> + +<p> +At last it was resolved, about midnight, to bring Nymphidius into the camp, and +declare him emperor. But Antonius Honoratus, who was first among the tribunes, +summoning together in the evening those under his command, charged himself and +them severely with their many and unreasonable turns and alterations, made +without any purpose or regard to merit, simply as if some evil genius hurried +them from one treason to another. “What though Nero’s miscarriages,” said he, +“gave some color to your former acts, can you say you have any plea for +betraying Galba in the death of a mother, the blood of a wife, or the +degradation of the imperial power upon the stage and amongst players? Neither +did we desert Nero for all this, until Nymphidius had persuaded us that he had +first left us and fled into Egypt. Shall we, therefore, send Galba after, to +appease Nero’s shade, and, for the sake of making the son of Nymphidia emperor, +take off one of Livia’s family, as we have already the son of Agrippina? +Rather, doing justice on him, let us revenge Nero’s death, and show ourselves +true and faithful by preserving Galba.” +</p> + +<p> +The tribune having ended his harangue, the soldiers assented, and encouraged +all they met with to persist in their fidelity to the emperor, and, indeed, +brought over the greatest part. But presently hearing a great shout, +Nymphidius, imagining, as some say, that the soldiers called for him, or +hastening to be in time to check any opposition and gain the doubtful, came on +with many lights, carrying in his hand a speech in writing, made by Cingonius +Varro, which he had got by heart, to deliver to the soldiers. But seeing the +gates of the camp shut up, and large numbers standing armed about the walls, he +began to be afraid. Yet drawing nearer, he demanded what they meant, and by +whose orders they were then in arms; but hearing a general acclamation, all +with one consent crying out that Galba was their emperor, advancing towards +them, he joined in the cry, and likewise commanded those that followed him to +do the same. The guard notwithstanding permitted him to enter the camp only +with a few, where he was presently struck with a dart, which Septimius, being +before him, received on his shield; others, however, assaulted him with their +naked swords, and on his flying, pursued him into a soldier’s cabin, where they +slew him. And dragging his body thence, they placed a railing about it, and +exposed it next day to public view. When Galba heard of the end which +Nymphidius had thus come to, he commanded that all his confederates who had not +at once killed themselves should immediately be dispatched; amongst whom were +Cingonius, who made his oration, and Mithridates, formerly mentioned. It was, +however, regarded as arbitrary and illegal, and though it might be just, yet by +no means popular, to take off men of their rank and quality without a hearing. +For everyone expected another scheme of government, being deceived, as is +usual, by the first plausible pretenses; and the death of Petronius +Turpilianus, who was of consular dignity, and had remained faithful to Nero, +was yet more keenly resented. Indeed, the taking off of Macer in Africa by +Trebonius, and Fonteius by Valens in Germany, had a fair pretense, they being +dreaded as armed commanders, having their soldiers at their bidding; but why +refuse Turpilianus, an old man and unarmed, permission to try to clear himself, +if any part of the moderation and equity at first promised were really to come +to a performance? Such were the comments to which these actions exposed him. +When he came within five and twenty furlongs or thereabouts of the city, he +happened to light on a disorderly rabble of the seamen, who beset him as he +passed. These were they whom Nero made soldiers, forming them into a legion. +They so rudely crowded to have their commission confirmed, that they did not +let Galba either be seen or heard by those that had come out to meet their new +emperor; but tumultuously pressed on with loud shouts to have colors to their +legion, and quarters assigned them. Galba put them off until another time, +which they interpreting as a denial, grew more insolent and mutinous, following +and crying out, some of them with their drawn swords in their hands. Upon +seeing which, Galba commanded the horse to ride over them, when they were soon +routed, not a man standing his ground, and many of them were slain, both there +and in the pursuit; an ill omen, that Galba should make his first entry through +so much blood and among dead bodies. And now he was looked upon with terror and +alarm by any who had entertained contempt of him at the sight of his age and +apparent infirmities. +</p> + +<p> +But when he desired presently to let it appear what change would be made from +Nero’s profuseness and sumptuosity in giving presents, he much missed his aim, +and fell so short of magnificence, that he scarcely came within the limits of +decency. When Canus, who was a famous musician, played at supper for him, he +expressed his approbation, and bade the bag be brought to him; and taking a few +gold pieces, put them in with this remark, that it was out of his own purse, +and not on the public account. He ordered the largesses which Nero had made to +actors and wrestlers and such like to be strictly required again, allowing only +the tenth part to be retained; though it turned to very small account, most of +those persons expending their daily income as fast as they received it, being +rude, improvident livers; upon which he had further inquiry made as to those +who had bought or received from them, and called upon these people to refund. +The trouble was infinite, the exactions being prosecuted far, touching a great +number of persons, bringing disrepute on Galba, and general hatred on Vinius, +who made the emperor appear base-minded and mean to the world, whilst he +himself was spending profusely, taking whatever he could get, and selling to +any buyer. Hesiod tells us to drink without stinting of +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The end and the beginning of the cask. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +And Vinius, seeing his patron old and decaying, made the most of what he +considered to be at once the first of his fortune and the last of it. +</p> + +<p> +Thus the aged man suffered in two ways: first, through the evil deeds which +Vinius did himself, and, next, by his preventing or bringing into disgrace +those just acts which he himself designed. Such was the punishing Nero’s +adherents. When he destroyed the bad, amongst whom were Helius, Polycletus, +Petinus, and Patrobius, the people mightily applauded the act, crying out, as +they were dragged through the forum, that it was a goodly sight, grateful to +the gods themselves, adding, however, that the gods and men alike demanded +justice on Tigellinus, the very tutor and prompter of all the tyranny. This +good man, however, had taken his measures beforehand, in the shape of a present +and a promise to Vinius. Turpilianus could not be allowed to escape with life, +though his one and only crime had been that he had not betrayed or shown hatred +to such a ruler as Nero. But he who had made Nero what he became, and +afterwards deserted and betrayed him whom he had so corrupted, was allowed to +survive as an instance that Vinius could do anything, and an advertisement that +those that had money to give him need despair of nothing. The people, however, +were so possessed with the desire of seeing Tigellinus dragged to execution, +that they never ceased to require it at the theater and in the race-course, +till they were checked by an edict from the emperor himself, announcing that +Tigellinus could not live long, being wasted with a consumption, and requesting +them not to seek to make his government appear cruel and tyrannical. So the +dissatisfied populace were laughed at, and Tigellinus made a splendid feast, +and sacrificed in thanksgiving for his deliverance: and after supper, Vinius, +rising from the emperor’s table, went to revel with Tigellinus, taking his +daughter, a widow, with him; to whom Tigellinus presented his compliments, with +a gift of twenty-five myriads of money, and bade the superintendent of his +concubines take off a rich necklace from her own neck and tie it about hers, +the value of it being estimated at fifteen myriads. +</p> + +<p> +After this, even reasonable acts were censured; as, for example, the treatment +of the Gauls who had been in the conspiracy with Vindex. For people looked upon +their abatement of tribute and admission to citizenship as a piece, not of +clemency on the part of Galba, but of money-making on that of Vinius. And thus +the mass of the people began to look with dislike upon the government. The +soldiers were kept on a while in expectation of the promised donative, +supposing that if they did not receive the full, yet they should have at least +as much as Nero gave them. But when Galba, on hearing they began to complain, +declared greatly, and like a general, that he was used to enlist and not to buy +his soldiers, when they heard of this, they conceived an implacable hatred +against him; for he did not seem to defraud them merely himself in their +present expectations, but to give an ill precedent, and instruct his successors +to do the like. This heart-burning, however, was as yet at Rome a thing +undeclared, and a certain respect for Galba’s personal presence somewhat +retarded their motions, and took off their edge, and their having no obvious +occasion for beginning a revolution curbed and kept under, more or less, their +resentments. But those forces that had been formerly under Virginius, and now +were under Flaccus in Germany, valuing themselves much upon the battle they had +fought with Vindex, and finding now no advantage of it, grew very refractory +and intractable towards their officers: and Flaccus they wholly disregarded, +being incapacitated in body by unintermitted gout, and, besides, a man of +little experience in affairs. So at one of their festivals, when it was +customary for the officers of the army to wish all health and happiness to the +emperor, the common soldiers began to murmur loudly, and on their officers +persisting in the ceremony, responded with the words, “If he deserves it.” +</p> + +<p> +When some similar insolence was committed by the legions under Vitellius, +frequent letters with the information came to Galba from his agents; and taking +alarm at this, and fearing that he might be despised not only for his old age, +but also for want of issue, he determined to adopt some young man of +distinction, and declare him his successor. There was at this time in the city +Marcus Otho, a person of fair extraction, but from his childhood one of the few +most debauched, voluptuous, and luxurious livers in Rome. And as Homer gives +Paris in several places the title of “fair Helen’s love,” making a woman’s name +the glory and addition to his, as if he had nothing else to distinguish him, so +Otho was renowned in Rome for nothing more than his marriage with Poppaea, whom +Nero had a passion for when she was Crispinus’s wife. But being as yet +respectful to his own wife, and standing in awe of his mother, he engaged Otho +underhand to solicit her. For Nero lived familiarly with Otho, whose +prodigality won his favor, and he was well pleased when he took the freedom to +jest upon him as mean and penurious. Thus when Nero one day perfumed himself +with some rich essence and favored Otho with a sprinkle of it, he, entertaining +Nero next day, ordered gold and silver pipes to disperse the like on a sudden +freely, like water, throughout the room. As to Poppaea, he was beforehand with +Nero, and first seducing her himself, then, with the hope of Nero’s favor, he +prevailed with her to part with her husband, and brought her to his own house +as his wife, and was not content afterwards to have a share in her, but grudged +to have Nero for a claimant, Poppaea herself, they say, being rather pleased +than otherwise with this jealousy; she sometimes excluded Nero, even when Otho +was not present, either to prevent his getting tired with her, or, as some say, +not liking the prospect of an imperial marriage, though willing enough to have +the emperor as her lover. So that Otho ran the risk of his life, and strange it +was he escaped, when Nero, for this very marriage, killed his wife and sister. +But he was beholden to Seneca’s friendship, by whose persuasions and entreaty +Nero was prevailed with to dispatch him as praetor into Lusitania, on the +shores of the Ocean; where he behaved himself very agreeably and indulgently to +those he had to govern, well knowing this command was but to color and disguise +his banishment. +</p> + +<p> +When Galba revolted from Nero, Otho was the first governor of any of the +provinces that came over to him, bringing all the gold and silver he possessed +in the shape of cups and tables, to be coined into money, and also what +servants he had fitly qualified to wait upon a prince. In all other points, +too, he was faithful to him, and gave him sufficient proof that he was inferior +to none in managing public business. And he so far ingratiated himself, that he +rode in the same carriage with him during the whole journey, several days +together. And in this journey and familiar companionship, he won over Vinius +also, both by his conversation and presents, but especially by conceding to him +the first place, securing the second, by his interest, for himself. And he had +the advantage of him in avoiding all odium and jealousy, assisting all +petitioners, without asking for any reward, and appearing courteous and of easy +access towards all, especially to the military men, for many of whom he +obtained commands, some immediately from the emperor, others by Vinius’s means, +and by the assistance of the two favorite freedmen, Icelus and Asiaticus, these +being the men in chief power in the court. As often as he entertained Galba, he +gave the cohort on duty, in addition to their pay, a piece of gold for every +man there, upon pretense of respect to the emperor, while really he undermined +him, and stole away his popularity with the soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +So Galba consulting about a successor, Vinius introduced Otho, yet not even +this gratis, but upon promise that he would marry his daughter, if Galba should +make him his adopted son and successor to the empire. But Galba, in all his +actions, showed clearly that he preferred the public good before his own +private interest, not aiming so much to pleasure himself as to advantage the +Romans by his selection. Indeed he does not seem to have been so much as +inclined to make choice of Otho, had it been but to inherit his own private +fortune, knowing his extravagant and luxurious character, and that he was +already plunged in debt five thousand myriads deep. So he listened to Vinius, +and made no reply, but mildly suspended his determination. Only he appointed +himself consul, and Vinius his colleague, and it was the general expectation +that he would declare his successor at the beginning of the new year. And the +soldiers desired nothing more than that Otho should be the person. +</p> + +<p> +But the forces in Germany broke out into their mutiny whilst he was yet +deliberating, and anticipated his design. All the soldiers in general felt much +resentment against Galba for not having given them their expected largess but +these troops made a pretense of a more particular concern, that Virginius Rufus +was cast off dishonorably, and that the Gauls who had fought with them were +well rewarded, while those who had refused to take part with Vindex were +punished; and Galba’s thanks seemed all to be for him, to whose memory he had +done honor after his death with public solemnities as though he had been made +emperor by his means only. Whilst these discourses passed openly throughout the +army, on the first day of the first month of the year, the Calends, as they +call it, of January, Flaccus summoning them to take the usual anniversary oath +of fealty to the emperor, they overturned and pulled down Galba’s statues, and +having sworn in the name of the senate and people of Rome, departed. But the +officers now feared anarchy and confusion, as much as rebellion; and one of +them came forward and said: “What will become of us, my fellow-soldiers, if we +neither set up another general, nor retain the present one? This will be not so +much to desert from Galba as to decline all subjection and command. It is +useless to try and maintain Flaccus Hordeonius, who is but a mere shadow and +image of Galba. But Vitellius, commander of the other Germany, is but one day’s +march distant, whose father was censor and thrice consul, and in a manner +co-emperor with Claudius Caesar; and he himself has the best proof to show of +his bounty and largeness of mind, in the poverty with which some reproach him. +Him let us make choice of, that all may see we know how to choose an emperor +better than either Spaniards or Lusitanians.” Which motion whilst some assented +to, and others gainsaid, a certain standard-bearer slipped out and carried the +news to Vitellius, who was entertaining much company by night. This, taking +air, soon passed through the troops, and Fabius Valens, who commanded one +legion, riding up next day with a large body of horse, saluted Vitellius +emperor. He had hitherto seemed to decline it, professing a dread he had to +undertake the weight of the government; but on this day, being fortified, they +say, by wine and a plentiful noonday repast, he began to yield, and submitted +to take on him the title of Germanicus they gave him, but desired to be excused +as to that of Caesar. And immediately the army under Flaccus also, putting away +their fine and popular oaths in the name of the senate, swore obedience to +Vitellius as emperor, to observe whatever he commanded. +</p> + +<p> +Thus Vitellius was publicly proclaimed emperor in Germany; which news coming to +Galba’s ear, he no longer deferred his adoption; yet knowing that some of his +friends were using their interest for Dolabella, and the greatest number of +them for Otho, neither of whom he approved of, on a sudden, without anyone’s +privity, he sent for Piso, the son of Crassus and Scribonia, whom Nero slew, a +young man in general of excellent dispositions for virtue, but his most eminent +qualities those of steadiness and austere gravity. And so he set out to go to +the camp to declare him Caesar and successor to the empire. But at his very +first going forth, many signs appeared in the heavens, and when he began to +make a speech to the soldiers, partly extempore, and partly reading it, the +frequent claps of thunder and flashes of lightning and the violent storm of +rain that burst on both the camp and the city were plain discoveries that the +divine powers did not look with favor or satisfaction on this act of adoption, +that would come to no good result. The soldiers, also, showed symptoms of +hidden discontent, and wore sullen looks, no distribution of money being even +now made to them. However, those that were present and observed Piso’s +countenance and voice could not but feel admiration to see him so little +overcome by so great a favor, of the magnitude of which at the same time he +seemed not at all insensible. Otho’s aspect, on the other hand, did not fail to +let many marks appear of his bitterness and anger at his disappointment; since +to have been the first man thought of for it, and to have come to the very +point of being chosen, and now to be put by, was in his feelings a sign of the +displeasure and ill-will of Galba towards him. This filled him with fears and +apprehensions, and sent him home with a mind full of various passions, whilst +he dreaded Piso, hated Galba, and was full of wrath and indignation against +Vinius. And the Chaldeans and soothsayers about him would not permit him to lay +aside his hopes or quit his design, chiefly Ptolemaeus, insisting much on a +prediction he had made, that Nero should not murder Otho, but he himself should +die first, and Otho succeed as emperor; for the first proving true, he thought +he could not distrust the rest. But none perhaps stimulated him more than those +that professed privately to pity his hard fate and compassionate him for being +thus ungratefully dealt with by Galba; especially Nymphidius’s and Tigellinus’s +creatures, who, being now cast off and reduced to low estate, were eager to put +themselves upon him, exclaiming at the indignity he had suffered, and provoking +him to revenge himself. +</p> + +<p> +Amongst these were Veturius and Barbius, the one an optio, the other a +tesserarius (these are men who have the duties of messengers and scouts), with +whom Onomastus, one of Otho’s freedmen, went to the camp, to tamper with the +army, and brought over some with money, others with fair promises, which was no +hard matter, they being already corrupted, and only wanting a fair pretense. It +had been otherwise more than the work of four days (which elapsed between the +adoption and murder) so completely to infect them as to cause a general revolt. +On the sixth day ensuing, the eighteenth, as the Romans call it, before the +Calends of February, the murder was done. On that day, in the morning, Galba +sacrificed in the Palatium, in the presence of his friends, when Umbricius, the +priest, taking up the entrails, and speaking not ambiguously, but in plain +words, said that there were signs of great troubles ensuing, and dangerous +snares laid for the life of the emperor. Thus Otho had even been discovered by +the finger of the god; being there just behind Galba, hearing all that was +said, and seeing what was pointed out to them by Umbricius. His countenance +changed to every color in his fear, and he was betraying no small discomposure, +when Onomastus, his freedman, came up and acquainted him that the +master-builders had come, and were waiting for him at home. Now that was the +signal for Otho to meet the soldiers. Pretending then that he had purchased an +old house, and was going to show the defects to those that had sold it to him, +he departed; and passing through what is called Tiberius’s house, he went on +into the forum, near the spot where a golden pillar stands, at which all the +several roads through Italy terminate. +</p> + +<p> +Here, it is related, no more than twenty-three received and saluted him +emperor; so that, although he was not in mind as in body enervated with soft +living and effeminacy, being in his nature bold and fearless enough in danger, +nevertheless, he was afraid to go on. But the soldiers that were present would +not suffer him to recede, but came with their drawn swords about his chair, +commanding the bearers to take him up, whom he hastened on, saying several +times over to himself, “I am a lost man.” Several persons overheard the words, +who stood by wondering, rather than alarmed, because of the small number that +attempted such an enterprise. But as they marched on through the forum, about +as many more met him, and here and there three or four at a time joined in. +Thus returning towards the camp, with their bare swords in their hands, they +saluted him as Caesar; whereupon Martialis, the tribune in charge of the watch, +who was, they say, noways privy to it, but was simply surprised at the +unexpectedness of the thing, and afraid to refuse, permitted him entrance. And +after this, no man made any resistance; for they that knew nothing of the +design, being purposely encompassed by the conspirators, as they were +straggling here and there, first submitted for fear, and afterwards were +persuaded into compliance. Tidings came immediately to Galba in the Palatium, +whilst the priest was still present and the sacrifices at hand, so that persons +who were most entirely incredulous about such things, and most positive in +their neglect of them, were astonished, and began to marvel at the divine +event. A multitude of all sorts of people now began to run together out of the +forum; Vinius and Laco and some of Galba’s freedmen drew their swords and +placed themselves beside him; Piso went forth and addressed himself to the +guards on duty in the court; and Marius Celsus, a brave man, was dispatched to +the Illyrian legion, stationed in what is called the Vipsanian chamber, to +secure them. +</p> + +<p> +Galba now consulting whether he should go out, Vinius dissuaded him, but Celsus +and Laco encouraged him by all means to do so, and sharply reprimanded Vinius. +But on a sudden a rumor came hot that Otho was slain in the camp; and presently +appeared one Julius Atticus, a man of some distinction in the guards, running +up with his drawn sword, crying out that he had slain Caesar’s enemy; and +pressing through the crowd that stood in his way, he presented himself before +Galba with his bloody weapon, who, looking on him, demanded, “Who gave you your +orders?” And on his answering that it had been his duty and the obligation of +the oath he had taken, the people applauded, giving loud acclamations, and +Galba got into his chair and was carried out to sacrifice to Jupiter, and so to +show himself publicly. But coming into the forum, there met him there, like a +turn of wind, the opposite story, that Otho had made himself master of the +camp. And as usual in a crowd of such a size, some called to him to return +back, others to move forward; some encouraged him to be bold and fear nothing, +others bade him be cautious and distrust. And thus whilst his chair was tossed +to and fro, as it were on the waves, often tottering, there appeared first +horse, and straightaway heavy-armed foot, coming through Paulus’s court, and +all with one accord crying out, “Down with this private man.” Upon this, the +crowd of people set off running, not to fly and disperse, but to possess +themselves of the colonnades and elevated places of the forum, as it might be +to get places to see a spectacle. And as soon as Atillius Vergilio knocked down +one of Galba’s statues, this was taken as the declaration of war, and they sent +a discharge of darts upon Galba’s litter, and, missing their aim, came up and +attacked him nearer hand with their naked swords. No man resisted or offered to +stand up in his defense, save one only, a centurion, Sempronius Densus, the +single man among so many thousands that the sun beheld that day act worthily of +the Roman empire, who, though he had never received any favor from Galba, yet +out of bravery and allegiance endeavored to defend the litter. First, lifting +up his switch of vine, with which the centurions correct the soldiers when +disorderly, he called aloud to the aggressors, charging them not to touch their +emperor. And when they came upon him hand to hand, he drew his sword, and made +a defense for a long time, until at last he was cut under the knees and brought +to the ground. +</p> + +<p> +Galba’s chair was upset at the spot called the Lacus Curtius, where they ran up +and struck at him as he lay in his corslet. He, however, offered his throat, +bidding them “Strike, if it be for the Romans’ good.” He received several +wounds on his legs and arms, and at last was struck in the throat, as most say, +by one Camurius, a soldier of the fifteenth legion. Some name Terentius, others +Lecanius; and there are others that say it was Fabius Falulus, who, it is +reported, cut off the head and carried it away in the skirt of his coat, the +baldness making it a difficult thing to take hold of. But those that were with +him would not allow him to keep it covered up, but bade him let everyone see +the brave deed he had done; so that after a while he stuck upon the lance the +head of the aged man that had been their grave and temperate ruler, their +supreme priest and consul, and, tossing it up in the air, ran like a bacchanal, +twirling and flourishing with it, while the blood ran down the spear. But when +they brought the head to Otho, “Fellow-soldiers,” he cried out, “this is +nothing, unless you show me Piso’s too,” which was presented him not long +after. The young man, retreating upon a wound received, was pursued by one +Murcus, and slain at the temple of Vesta. Titus Vinius was also dispatched, +avowing himself to have been privy to the conspiracy against Galba by calling +out that they were killing him contrary to Otho’s pleasure. However, they cut +off his head, and Laco’s too, and brought them to Otho, requesting a boon. +</p> + +<p> +And as Archilochus says — +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +When six or seven lie breathless on the ground,<br/> +’Twas I, ’twas I, say thousands, gave the wound. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Thus many that had no share in the murder wetted their hands and swords in +blood, and came and showed them to Otho, presenting memorials suing for a +gratuity. Not less than one hundred and twenty were identified afterwards from +their written petitions; all of whom Vitellius sought out and put to death. +There came also into the camp Marius Celsus, and was accused by many voices of +encouraging the soldiers to assist Galba, and was demanded to death by the +multitude. Otho had no desire for this, yet, fearing an absolute denial, he +professed that he did not wish to take him off so soon, having many matters yet +to learn from him; and so committed him safe to the custody of those he most +confided in. +</p> + +<p> +Forthwith a senate was convened, and as if they were not the same men, or had +other gods to swear by, they took that oath in Otho’s name which he himself had +taken in Galba’s and had broken; and withal conferred on him the titles of +Caesar and Augustus; whilst the dead carcasses of the slain lay yet in their +consular robes in the marketplace. As for their heads, when they could make no +other use of them, Vinius’s they sold to his daughter for two thousand five +hundred drachmas; Piso’s was begged by his wife Verania; Galba’s they gave to +Patrobius’s servants; who when they had it, after all sorts of abuse and +indignities, tumbled it into the place where those that suffer death by the +emperor’s orders are usually cast, called Sessorium. Galba’s body was conveyed +away by Priscus Helvidius by Otho’s permission, and buried in the night by +Argius, his freedman. +</p> + +<p> +Thus you have the history of Galba, a person inferior to few Romans, either for +birth or riches, rather exceeding all of his time in both, having lived in +great honor and reputation in the reigns of five emperors, insomuch that he +overthrew Nero rather by his fame and repute in the world than by actual force +and power. Of all the others that joined in Nero’s deposition, some were by +general consent regarded as unworthy, others had only themselves to vote them +deserving of the empire. To him the title was offered, and by him it was +accepted; and simply lending his name to Vindex’s attempt, he gave to what had +been called rebellion before, the name of a civil war, by the presence of one +that was accounted fit to govern. And, therefore, as he considered that he had +not so much sought the position as the position had sought him, he proposed to +command those whom Nymphidius and Tigellinus had wheedled into obedience, no +otherwise than Scipio formerly and Fabricius and Camillus had commanded the +Romans of their times. But being now overcome with age, he was indeed among the +troops and legions an upright ruler upon the antique model; but for the rest, +giving himself up to Vinius, Laco, and his freedmen, who made their gain of all +things, no otherwise than Nero had done to his insatiate favorites, he left +none behind him to wish him still in power, though many to compassionate his +death. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap68"></a>OTHO</h2> + +<p> +The new emperor went early in the morning to the capitol, and sacrificed; and, +having commanded Marius Celsus to be brought, he saluted him, and with obliging +language desired him rather to forget his accusation than remember his +acquittal; to which Celsus answered neither meanly nor ungratefully, that his +very crime ought to recommend his integrity, since his guilt had been his +fidelity to Galba, from whom he had never received any personal obligations. +Upon which they were both of them admired by those that were present, and +applauded by the soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +In the senate, Otho said much in a gentle and popular strain. He was to have +been consul for part of that year himself, but he gave the office to Virginius +Rufus, and displaced none that had been named for the consulship by either Nero +or Galba. Those that were remarkable for their age and dignity he promoted to +the priest-hoods; and restored the remains of their fortunes, that had not yet +been sold, to all those senators that were banished by Nero and recalled by +Galba. So that the nobility and chief of the people, who were at first +apprehensive that no human creature, but some supernatural penal, or vindictive +power had seized the empire, began now to flatter themselves with hopes of a +government that smiled upon them thus early. +</p> + +<p> +Besides, nothing gratified or gained the whole Roman people more than his +justice in relation to Tigellinus. It was not seen how he was in fact already +suffering punishment, not only by the very terror of retribution which he saw +the whole city requiring as a just debt, but with several incurable diseases +also; not to mention those unhallowed frightful excesses among impure and +prostituted women, to which, at the very close of life, his lewd nature clung, +and in them gasped out, as it were, its last; these, in the opinion of all +reasonable men, being themselves the extremest punishment, and equal to many +deaths. But it was felt like a grievance by people in general that he continued +yet to see the light of day, who had been the occasion of the loss of it to so +many persons, and such persons, as had died by his means. Wherefore Otho +ordered him to be sent for, just as he was contriving his escape by means of +some vessels that lay ready for him on the coast near where he lived, in the +neighborhood of Sinuessa. At first he endeavored to corrupt the messenger, by a +large sum of money, to favor his design; but when he found this was to no +purpose, he made him as considerable a present, as if he had really connived at +it, only entreating him to stay till he had shaved; and so took that +opportunity, and with his razor dispatched himself. +</p> + +<p> +And while giving the people this most righteous satisfaction of their desires, +for himself he seemed to have no sort of regard for any private injuries of his +own. And at first, to please the populace, he did not refuse to be called Nero +in the theater, and did not interfere when some persons displayed Nero’s +statues to public view. And Cluvius Rufus says, imperial letters, such as are +sent with couriers, went into Spain with the name of Nero affixed adoptively to +that of Otho; but as soon as he perceived this gave offense to the chief and +most distinguished citizens, it was omitted. +</p> + +<p> +After he had begun to model the government in this manner, the paid soldiers +began to murmur, and endeavored to make him suspect and chastise the nobility, +either really out of a concern for his safety, or wishing, upon this pretense, +to stir up trouble and warfare. Thus, whilst Crispinus, whom he had ordered to +bring him the seventeenth cohort from Ostia, began to collect what he wanted +after it was dark, and was putting the arms upon the wagons, some of the most +turbulent cried out that Crispinus was disaffected, that the senate was +practicing something against the emperor, and that those arms were to be +employed against Caesar, and not for him. When this report was once set afoot, +it got the belief and excited the passions of many; they broke out into +violence; some seized the wagons, and others slew Crispinus and two centurions +that opposed them; and the whole number of them, arraying themselves in their +arms, and encouraging one another to stand by Caesar, marched to Rome. And +hearing there that eighty of the senators were at supper with Otho, they flew +to the palace, and declared it was a fair opportunity to take off Caesar’s +enemies at one stroke. A general alarm ensued of an immediate coming sack of +the city. All were in confusion about the palace, and Otho himself in no small +consternation, being not only concerned for the senators (some of whom had +brought their wives to supper thither), but also feeling himself to be an +object of alarm and suspicion to them, whose eyes he saw fixed on him in +silence and terror. Therefore he gave orders to the prefects to address the +soldiers and do their best to pacify them, while he bade the guests rise, and +leave by another door. They had only just made their way out, when the soldiers +rushed into the room, and called out, “Where are Caesar’s enemies?” Then Otho, +standing up on his couch, made use both of arguments and entreaties, and by +actual tears at last, with great difficulty, persuaded them to desist. The next +day he went to the camp, and distributed a bounty of twelve hundred and fifty +drachmas a man amongst them; then commended them for the regard and zeal they +had for his safety, but told them, that there were some who were intriguing +among them, who not only accused his own clemency, but had also misrepresented +their loyalty; and, therefore, he desired their assistance in doing justice +upon them. To which when they all consented, he was satisfied with the +execution of two only, whose deaths he knew would be regretted by no one man in +the whole army. +</p> + +<p> +Such conduct, so little expected from him, was rewarded by some with gratitude +and confidence; others looked upon his behavior as a course to which necessity +drove him, to gain the people to the support of the war. For now there were +certain tidings that Vitellius had assumed the sovereign title and authority, +and frequent expresses brought accounts of new accessions to him; others, +however, came, announcing that the Pannonian, Dalmatian, and Moesian legions, +with their officers, adhered to Otho. Erelong also came favorable letters from +Mucianus and Vespasian, generals of two formidable armies, the one in Syria, +the other in Judaea, to assure him of their firmness to his interest: in +confidence whereof he was so exalted, that he wrote to Vitellius not to attempt +anything beyond his post; and offered him large sums of money and a city, where +he might live his time out in pleasure and ease. These overtures at first were +responded to by Vitellius with equivocating civilities; which soon, however, +turned into an interchange of angry words; and letters passed between the two, +conveying bitter and shameful terms of reproach, which were not false indeed, +for that matter, only it was senseless and ridiculous for each to assail the +other with accusations to which both alike must plead guilty. For it were hard +to determine which of the two had been most profuse, most effeminate, which was +most a novice in military affairs, and most involved in debt through previous +want of means. +</p> + +<p> +As to the prodigies and apparitions that happened about this time, there were +many reported which none could answer for, or which were told in different +ways, but one which everybody actually saw with their eyes was the statue in +the capitol, of Victory carried in a chariot, with the reins dropped out of her +hands, as if she were grown too weak to hold them any longer; and a second, +that Caius Caesar’s statue in the island of Tiber, without any earthquake or +wind to account for it, turned round from west to east; and this they say, +happened about the time when Vespasian and his party first openly began to put +themselves forward. Another incident, which the people in general thought an +evil sign, was the inundation of the Tiber; for though it happened at a time +when rivers are usually at their fullest, yet such height of water and so +tremendous a flood had never been known before, nor such a destruction of +property, great part of the city being under water, and especially the corn +market, so that it occasioned a great dearth for several days. +</p> + +<p> +But when news was now brought that Caecina and Valens, commanding for +Vitellius, had possessed themselves of the Alps, Otho sent Dolabella (a +patrician, who was suspected by the soldiery of some ill design), for whatever +reason, whether it were fear of him or of anyone else, to the town of Aquinum, +to give encouragement there; and proceeding then to choose which of the +magistrates should go with him to the war, he named amongst the rest Lucius, +Vitellius’s brother, without distinguishing him by any new marks either of his +favor or displeasure. He also took the greatest precautions for Vitellius’s +wife and mother, that they might be safe, and free from all apprehension for +themselves. He made Flavius Sabinus, Vespasian’s brother, governor of Rome, +either in honor to the memory of Nero, who had advanced him formerly to that +command, which Galba had taken away, or else to show his confidence in +Vespasian by his favor to his brother. +</p> + +<p> +After he came to Brixillum, a town of Italy near the Po, he stayed behind +himself, and ordered the army to march under the conduct of Marius Celsus, +Suetonius Paulinus, Gallus, and Spurina, all men of experience and reputation, +but unable to carry their own plans and purposes into effect, by reason of the +ungovernable temper of the army, which would take orders from none but the +emperor whom they themselves had made their master. Nor was the enemy under +much better discipline, the soldiers there also being haughty and disobedient +upon the same account, but they were more experienced and used to hard work; +whereas Otho’s men were soft from their long easy living and lack of service, +having spent most of their time in theaters and at state-shows and on the +stage; while moreover they tried to cover their deficiencies by arrogance and +vain display, pretending to decline their duty not because they were unable to +do the thing commanded but because they thought themselves above it. So that +Spurina had like to have been cut in pieces for attempting to force them to +their work; they assailed him with insolent language, accusing him of a design +to betray and ruin Caesar’s interest; nay, some of them that were in drink +forced his tent in the night, and demanded money for the expenses of their +journey, which they must at once take, they said, to the emperor, to complain +of him. +</p> + +<p> +However, the contemptuous treatment they met with at Placentia did for the +present good service to Spurina, and to the cause of Otho. For Vitellius’s men +marched up to the walls, and upbraided Otho’s upon the ramparts, calling them +players, dancers, idle spectators of Pythian and Olympic games, but novices in +the art of war, who never so much as looked on at a battle; mean souls, that +triumphed in the beheading of Galba, an old man unarmed, but had no desire to +look real enemies in the face. Which reproaches so inflamed them, that they +kneeled at Spurina’s feet, entreated him to give his orders, and assured him no +danger or toil should be too great or too difficult for them. Whereupon when +Vitellius’s forces made a vigorous attack on the town, and brought up numerous +engines against the walls, the besieged bravely repulsed them, and, repelling +the enemy with great slaughter, secured the safety of a noble city, one of the +most flourishing places in Italy. +</p> + +<p> +Besides, it was observed that Otho’s officers were much more inoffensive, both +towards the public and to private men, than those of Vitellius; among whom was +Caecina, who used neither the language nor the apparel of a citizen; an +overbearing, foreign-seeming man, of gigantic stature and always dressed in +trews and sleeves, after the manner of the Gauls, whilst he conversed with +Roman officials and magistrates. His wife, too, traveled along with him, riding +in splendid attire on horseback, with a chosen body of cavalry to escort her. +And Fabius Valens, the other general, was so rapacious, that neither what he +plundered from enemies nor what he stole or got as gifts and bribes from his +friends and allies could satisfy his wishes. And it was said that it was in +order to have time to raise money that he had marched so slowly that he was not +present at the former attack. But some lay the blame on Caecina, saying, that +out of a desire to gain the victory by himself before Fabius joined him, he +committed sundry other errors of lesser consequence, and by engaging +unseasonably and when he could not do so thoroughly, he very nearly brought all +to ruin. +</p> + +<p> +When he found himself beat off at Placentia, he set off to attack Cremona, +another large and rich city. In the meantime, Annius Gallus marched to join +Spurina at Placentia; but having intelligence that the siege was raised, and +that Cremona was in danger, he turned to its relief, and encamped just by the +enemy, where he was daily reinforced by other officers. Caecina placed a strong +ambush of heavy infantry in some rough and woody country, and gave orders to +his horse to advance, and if the enemy should charge them, then to make a slow +retreat, and draw them into the snare. But his stratagem was discovered by some +deserters to Celsus, who attacked with a good body of horse, but followed the +pursuit cautiously, and succeeded in surrounding and routing the troops in the +ambuscade; and if the infantry which he ordered up from the camp had come soon +enough to sustain the horse, Caecina’s whole army, in all appearance, had been +totally routed. But Paulinus, moving too slowly, was accused of acting with a +degree of needless caution not to have been expected from one of his +reputation. So that the soldiers incensed Otho against him, accused him of +treachery, and boasted loudly that the victory had been in their power, and +that if it was not complete, it was owing to the mismanagement of their +generals; all which Otho did not so much believe as he was willing to appear +not to disbelieve. He therefore sent his brother Titianus, with Proculus, the +prefect of the guards, to the army, where the latter was general in reality, +and the former in appearance. Celsus and Paulinus had the title of friends and +counselors, but not the least authority or power. At the same time, there was +nothing but quarrel and disturbance amongst the enemy, especially where Valens +commanded; for the soldiers here, being informed of what had happened at the +ambuscade, were enraged because they had not been permitted to be present to +strike a blow in defense of the lives of so many men that had died in that +action. Valens, with much difficulty, quieted their fury, after they had now +begun to throw missiles at him, and quitting his camp, joined Caecina. +</p> + +<p> +About this time, Otho came to Bedriacum, a little town near Cremona, to the +camp, and called a council of war; where Proculus and Titianus declared for +giving battle, while the soldiers were flushed with their late success, saying +they ought not to lose their time and opportunity and present height of +strength, and wait for Vitellius to arrive out of Gaul. But Paulinus told them +that the enemy’s whole force was present, and that there was no body of reserve +behind; but that Otho, if he would not be too precipitate, and choose the +enemy’s time, instead of his own, for the battle, might expect reinforcements +out of Moesia and Pannonia, not inferior in numbers to the troops that were +already present. He thought it probable, too, that the soldiers, who were then +in heart before they were joined, would not be less so when the forces were all +come up. Besides, the deferring battle could not be inconvenient to them that +were sufficiently provided with all necessaries; but the others, being in an +enemy’s country, must needs be exceedingly straitened in a little time. Marius +Celsus was of Paulinus’s opinion; Annius Gallus, being absent and under the +surgeon’s hands through a fall from his horse, was consulted by letter, and +advised Otho to stay for those legions that were marching from Moesia. But +after all he did not follow the advice; and the opinion of those that declared +for a battle prevailed. +</p> + +<p> +There are several reasons given for this determination, but the most apparent +is this; that the praetorian soldiers, as they are called, who serve as guards, +not relishing the military discipline which they now had begun a little more to +experience, and longing for their amusements and unwarlike life among the shows +of Rome, would not be commanded, but were eager for a battle, imagining that +upon the first onset they should carry all before them. Otho also himself seems +not to have shown the proper fortitude in bearing up against the uncertainty, +and, out of effeminacy and want of use, had not patience for the calculations +of danger, and was so uneasy at the apprehension of it, that he shut his eyes, +and like one going to leap from a precipice, left everything to fortune. This +is the account Secundus the rhetorician, who was his secretary, gave of the +matter. But others would tell you that there were many movements in both armies +for acting in concert; and if it were possible for them to agree, then they +should proceed to choose one of their most experienced officers that were +present; if not, they should convene the senate, and invest it with the power +of election. And it is not improbable that, neither of the emperors then +bearing the title having really any reputation, such purposes were really +entertained among the genuine, serviceable, and sober-minded part of the +soldiers. For what could be more odious and unreasonable than that the evils +which the Roman citizens had formerly thought it so lamentable to inflict upon +each other for the sake of a Sylla or a Marius, a Caesar or a Pompey, should +now be undergone anew, for the object of letting the empire pay the expenses of +the gluttony and intemperance of Vitellius, or the looseness and effeminacy of +Otho? It is thought that Celsus, upon such reflections, protracted the time in +order to a possible accommodation; and that Otho pushed on things to an +extremity to prevent it. +</p> + +<p> +He himself returned to Brixillum, which was another false step, both because he +withdrew from the combatants all the motives of respect and desire to gain his +favor, which his presence would have supplied, and because he weakened the army +by detaching some of his best and most faithful troops for his horse and foot +guards. +</p> + +<p> +About the same time also happened a skirmish on the Po. As Caecina was laying a +bridge over it, Otho’s men attacked him, and tried to prevent it. And when they +did not succeed, on their putting into their boats torchwood with a quantity of +sulphur and pitch, the wind on the river suddenly caught their material that +they had prepared against the enemy, and blew it into a light. First came +smoke, and then a clear flame, and the men, getting into great confusion and +jumping overboard, upset the boats, and put themselves ludicrously at the mercy +of their enemies. Also the Germans attacked Otho’s gladiators upon a small +island in the river, routed them, and killed a good many. +</p> + +<p> +All which made the soldiers at Bedriacum full of anger, and eagerness to be led +to battle. So Proculus led them out of Bedriacum to a place fifty furlongs off, +where he pitched his camp so ignorantly and with such a ridiculous want of +foresight, that the soldiers suffered extremely for want of water, though it +was the spring time, and the plains all around were full of running streams and +rivers that never dried up. The next day he proposed to attack the enemy, first +making a march of not less than a hundred furlongs; but to this Paulinus +objected, saying they ought to wait, and not immediately after a journey engage +men who would have been standing in their arms and arranging themselves for +battle at their leisure, whilst they were making a long march with all their +beasts of burden and their camp followers to encumber them. As the generals +were arguing about this matter, a Numidian courier came from Otho with orders +to lose no time, but give battle. Accordingly they consented, and moved. As +soon as Caecina had notice, he was much surprised, and quitted his post on the +river to hasten to the camp. In the meantime, the men had armed themselves +mostly, and were receiving the word from Valens; so while the legions took up +their position, they sent out the best of their horse in advance. +</p> + +<p> +Otho’s foremost troops, upon some groundless rumor, took up the notion that the +commanders on the other side would come over; and accordingly, upon their first +approach, they saluted them with the friendly title of fellow-soldiers. But the +others returned the compliment with anger and disdainful words; which not only +disheartened those that had given the salutation, but excited suspicions of +their fidelity amongst the others on their side, who had not. This caused a +confusion at the very first onset. And nothing else that followed was done upon +any plan; the baggage-carriers, mingling up with the fighting men, created +great disorder and division, as well as the nature of the ground; the ditches +and pits in which were so many, that they were forced to break their ranks to +avoid and go round them, and so to fight without order and in small parties. +There were but two legions, one of Vitellius’s, called The Ravenous, and +another of Otho’s, called The Assistant, that got out into the open outspread +level and engaged in proper form, fighting, one main body against the other, +for some length of time. Otho’s men were strong and bold, but had never been in +battle before; Vitellius’s had seen many wars, but were old and past their +strength. So Otho’s legion charged boldly, drove back their opponents, and took +the eagle, killing pretty nearly every man in the first rank, till the others, +full of rage and shame, returned the charge, slew Orfidius, the commander of +the legion, and took several standards. Varus Alfenus, with his Batavians, who +are the natives of an island of the Rhine, and are esteemed the best of the +German horse, fell upon the gladiators, who had a reputation both for valor and +skill in fighting. Some few of these did their duty, but the greatest part of +them made towards the river, and, falling in with some cohorts stationed there, +were cut off. But none behaved so ill as the praetorians, who, without ever so +much as meeting the enemy, ran away, broke through their own body that stood, +and put them into disorder. Notwithstanding this, many of Otho’s men routed +those that were opposed to them, broke right into them, and forced their way to +the camp through the very middle of their conquerors. +</p> + +<p> +As for their commanders, neither Proculus nor Paulinus ventured to reenter with +the troops; they turned aside, and avoided the soldiers, who had already +charged the miscarriage upon their officers. Annius Gallus received into the +town and rallied the scattered parties, and encouraged them with an assurance +that the battle was a drawn one and the victory had in many parts been theirs. +Marius Celsus, collecting the officers, urged the public interest; Otho +himself, if he were a brave man, would not, after such an expense of Roman +blood, attempt anything further; especially since even Cato and Scipio, though +the liberty of Rome was then at stake, had been accused of being too prodigal +of so many brave men’s lives as were lost in Africa, rather than submit to +Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia had gone against them. For though all +persons are equally subject to the caprice of fortune, yet all good men have +one advantage she cannot deny, which is this, to act reasonably under +misfortunes. +</p> + +<p> +This language was well accepted amongst the officers, who sounded the private +soldiers, and found them desirous of peace; and Titianus also gave directions +that envoys should be sent in order to a treaty. And accordingly it was agreed +that the conference should be between Celsus and Gallus on one part, and Valens +with Caecina on the other. As the two first were upon their journey, they met +some centurions, who told them the troops were already in motion, marching for +Bedriacum, but that they themselves were deputed by their generals to carry +proposals for an accommodation. Celsus and Gallus expressed their approval, and +requested them to turn back and carry them to Caecina. However, Celsus, upon +his approach, was in danger from the vanguard, who happened to be some of the +horse that had suffered at the ambush. For as soon as they saw him, they +hallooed, and were coming down upon him; but the centurions came forward to +protect him, and the other officers crying out and bidding them desist, Caecina +came up to inform himself of the tumult, which he quieted, and, giving a +friendly greeting to Celsus, took him in his company and proceeded towards +Bedriacum. Titianus, meantime, had repented of having sent the messengers; and +placed those of the soldiers who were more confident upon the walls once again, +bidding the others also go and support them. But when Caecina rode up on his +horse and held out his hand, no one did or said to the contrary; those on the +walls greeted his men with salutations, others opened the gates and went out, +and mingled freely with those they met; and instead of acts of hostility, there +was nothing but mutual shaking of hands and congratulations, everyone taking +the oaths and submitting to Vitellius. +</p> + +<p> +This is the account which the most of those that were present at the battle +give of it, yet own that the disorder they were in, and the absence of any +unity of action would not give them leave to be certain as to particulars. And +when I myself traveled afterwards over the field of battle, Mestrius Florus, a +man of consular degree, one of those who had been, not willingly, but by +command, in attendance on Otho at the time, pointed out to me an ancient +temple, and told me, that as he went that way after the battle, he observed a +heap of bodies piled up there to such a height, that those on the top of it +touched the pinnacles of the roof. How it came to be so, he could neither +discover himself nor learn from any other person; as indeed, he said, in civil +wars it generally happens that greater numbers are killed when an army is +routed, quarter not being given, because captives are of no advantage to the +conquerors; but why the carcasses should be heaped up after that manner is not +easy to determine. +</p> + +<p> +Otho, at first, as it frequently happens, received some uncertain rumors of the +issue of the battle. But when some of the wounded that returned from the field +informed him rightly of it, it is not, indeed, so much to be wondered at that +his friends should bid him not give all up as lost or let his courage sink; but +the feeling shown by the soldiers is something that exceeds all belief. There +was not one of them would either go over to the conqueror or show any +disposition to make terms for himself, as if their leader’s cause was +desperate; on the contrary, they crowded his gates, called out to him with the +title of emperor, and as soon as he appeared, cried out and entreated him, +catching hold of his hand, and throwing themselves upon the ground, and with +all the moving language of tears and persuasion, besought him to stand by them, +not abandon them to their enemies, but employ in his service their lives and +persons, which would not cease to be his so long as they had breath; so urgent +was their zealous and universal importunity. And one obscure and private +soldier, after he had drawn his sword, addressed himself to Otho: “By this, +Caesar, judge our fidelity; there is not a man amongst us but would strike thus +to serve you;” and so stabbed himself. Notwithstanding this, Otho stood serene +and unshaken, and, with a face full of constancy and composure, turned himself +about and looked at them, replying thus: “This day, my fellow-soldiers, which +gives me such proofs of your affection, is preferable even to that on which you +saluted me emperor; deny me not, therefore, the yet higher satisfaction of +laying down my life for the preservation of so many brave men; in this, at +least, let me be worthy of the empire, that is, to die for it. I am of opinion +the enemy has neither gained an entire nor a decisive victory; I have advice +that the Moesian army is not many days’ journey distant, on its march to the +Adriatic; Asia, Syria, and Egypt, and the legions that are serving against the +Jews, declare for us; the senate is also with us, and the wives and children of +our opponents are in our power; but alas, it is not in defense of Italy against +Hannibal or Pyrrhus or the Cimbri that we fight; Romans combat here against +Romans, and, whether we conquer or are defeated, our country suffers and we +commit a crime: victory, to whichever it fall, is gained at her expense. +Believe it many times over, I can die with more honor than I can reign. For I +cannot see at all, how I should do any such great good to my country by gaining +the victory, as I shall by dying to establish peace and unanimity and to save +Italy from such another unhappy day.” +</p> + +<p> +As soon as he had done, he was resolute against all manner of argument or +persuasion, and taking leave of his friends and the senators that were present, +he bade them depart, and wrote to those that were absent, and sent letters to +the towns, that they might have every honor and facility in their journey. Then +he sent for Cocceius, his brother’s son, who was yet a boy, and bade him be in +no apprehension of Vitellius, whose mother and wife and family he had treated +with the same tenderness as his own; and also told him that this had been his +reason for delaying to adopt him, which he had meant to do, as his son; he had +desired that he might share his power, if he conquered, but not be involved in +his ruin, if he failed. “Take notice,” he added, “my boy, of these my last +words, that you neither too negligently forget, nor too zealously remember, +that Caesar was your uncle.” By and by he heard a tumult amongst the soldiers +at the door, who were treating the senators with menaces for preparing to +withdraw; upon which, out of regard to their safety, he showed himself once +more in public, but not with a gentle aspect and in a persuading manner as +before; on the contrary, with a countenance that discovered indignation and +authority, he commanded such as were disorderly to leave the place, and was not +disobeyed. +</p> + +<p> +It was now evening, and feeling thirsty, he drank some water, and then took two +daggers that belonged to him, and when he had carefully examined their edges, +he laid one of them down, and put the other in his robe, under his arm, then +called his servants, and distributed some money amongst them, but not +inconsiderately, nor like one too lavish of what was not his own; for to some +he gave more, to others less, all strictly in moderation, and distinguishing +every one’s particular merit. When this was done, he dismissed them, and passed +the rest of the night in so sound a sleep, that the officers of his bedchamber +heard him snore. In the morning, he called for one of his freedmen, who had +assisted him in arranging about the senators, and bade him bring him an account +if they were safe. Being informed they were all well and wanted nothing, “Go +then,” said he, “and show yourself to the soldiers, lest they should cut you to +pieces for being accessory to my death.” As soon as he was gone, he held his +sword upright under him with both his hands, and falling upon it, expired with +no more than one single groan, to express his sense of the pang, or to inform +those that waited without. When his servants therefore raised their +exclamations of grief, the whole camp and city were at once filled with +lamentation; the soldiers immediately broke in at the doors with a loud cry, in +passionate distress, and accusing themselves that they had been so negligent in +looking after that life which was laid down to preserve theirs. Nor would a man +of them quit the body to secure his own safety with the approaching enemy; but +having raised a funeral pile, and attired the body, they bore it thither, +arrayed in their arms, those among them greatly exulting, who succeeded in +getting first under the bier and becoming its bearers. Of the others, some +threw themselves down before the body and kissed his wound, others grasped his +hand, and others that were at a distance knelt down to do him obeisance. There +were some who, after putting their torches to the pile, slew themselves, though +they had not, so far as appeared, either any particular obligations to the +dead, or reason to apprehend ill usage from the victor. Simply it would seem, +no king, legal or illegal, had ever been possessed with so extreme and vehement +a passion to command others, as was that of these men to obey Otho. Nor did +their love of him cease with his death; it survived and changed erelong into a +mortal hatred to his successor, as will be shown in its proper place. +</p> + +<p> +They placed the remains of Otho in the earth, and raised over them a monument +which neither by its size nor the pomp of its inscription might excite +hostility. I myself have seen it, at Brixillum; a plain structure, and the +epitaph only this: To the memory of Marcus Otho. He died in his thirty-eighth +year, after a short reign of about three months, his death being as much +applauded as his life was censured; for if he lived not better than Nero, he +died more nobly. The soldiers were displeased with Pollio, one of their two +prefects, who bade them immediately swear allegiance to Vitellius; and when +they understood that some of the senators were still upon the spot, they made +no opposition to the departure of the rest, but only disturbed the tranquillity +of Virginius Rufus with an offer of the government, and moving in one body to +his house in arms, they first entreated him, and then demanded of him to accept +of the empire, or at least to be their mediator. But he, that refused to +command them when conquerors, thought it ridiculous to pretend to it now they +were beat, and was unwilling to go as their envoy to the Germans, whom in past +time he had compelled to do various things that they had not liked; and for +these reasons he slipped away through a private door. As soon as the soldiers +perceived this, they owned Vitellius, and so got their pardon, and served under +Caecina. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 674 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + |