diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/67344-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67344-0.txt | 13896 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 13896 deletions
diff --git a/old/67344-0.txt b/old/67344-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f5ab79f..0000000 --- a/old/67344-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13896 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Myths of China and Japan, by Donald -Alexander Mackenzie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Myths of China and Japan - with illustrations in colour & monochrome after paintings and - photographs - -Author: Donald Alexander Mackenzie - -Release Date: February 6, 2022 [eBook #67344] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS OF CHINA AND -JAPAN *** - - - - - - MYTHS OF - CHINA AND JAPAN - - By - DONALD A. MACKENZIE - - - With Illustrations in Colour & Monochrome - after Paintings and Photographs - - - THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY LTD. - 66 CHANDOS ST. COVENT GARDEN LONDON - - - - - - - - -PREFACE - - -This volume deals with the myths of China and Japan, and it is shown -that these throw light on the origin and growth of civilization and the -widespread dissemination of complex ideas associated with certain modes -of life. The Far East does not appear to have remained immune to -outside cultural influences in ancient times. Modern research has -established that the old school of opinions which insisted on the -complete isolation of China can no longer obtain. As Laufer says: “It -cannot be strongly enough emphasized on every occasion that Chinese -civilization, as it appears now, is not a unit and not the exclusive -production of the Chinese, but the final result of the cultural efforts -of a vast conglomeration of the most varied tribes, an amalgamation of -ideas accumulated from manifold quarters and widely differentiated in -space and time.... No graver error can hence be committed than to -attribute any culture idea at the outset to the Chinese, for no other -reason than because it appears within the precincts of their empire.” - -Even the Chinese records have to be regarded with caution. It is -impossible nowadays to accept as serious contributions to history the -inflated chronology and the obvious fables compiled and invented by -Chinese scholars for political and other purposes during the Han and -later dynasties. These scholars had really little knowledge of the -early history of their country and people. They were puzzled even by -certain existing customs and religious practices, and provided -ingenious “secondary explanations” which, like their accounts of the -early dynasties, do not accord with the data accumulated by -archæologists and other workers in the scientific field. The complex -religious ideas of the Chinese were obviously not of spontaneous -generation. Many of these resemble too closely the complexes found -elsewhere, and their history cannot be traced within the limits of the -Chinese empire. Indeed, as is shown, some of them are undoubtedly -products of human experiences obtained elsewhere, and they reveal -traces of the influences to which they were subjected during the -process of gradual transmission from areas of origin. Nor, would it -appear, was Chinese civilization nearly as ancient as the native -scholars would have us believe. - -When the early Chinese entered China, they found non-Chinese peoples in -different parts of that vast area which they ultimately welded into an -empire. They were an inland people and did not invent boats; they did -not originate the agricultural mode of life but adopted it, using the -seeds and implements they had acquired; nor did they invent the -potter’s wheel with which they were familiar from the earliest times in -China, having evidently become possessed of it, along with the complex -culture associated with it, before they migrated into the province of -Shensi. Nor could an agrarian people like the Chinese have been the -originators of the belief in the existence of “Isles of the Blest” in -the Eastern Ocean; they were not alone in Asia in believing in a -Western Paradise situated among the mountains. - -The Chinese, as Laufer demonstrates in his Jade, did not pass through -in China that culture stage called the “Neolithic”. When they first -settled in Shensi, they searched for and found jade, as did the -carriers of bronze who first entered Europe. There was obviously an -acquired psychological motive for the search for jade, and the evidence -of Chinese jade symbolism demonstrates to the full that it had been -acquired from those who had transferred to jade the earlier symbolism -of shells, pearls, and precious metals. In the chapter devoted to jade -it is shown that this view is confirmed by the evidence afforded by -Chinese customs connected with jade, shells, pearls, &c. - -In no country in the world are the processes of culture drifting and -culture mixing made more manifest than in China. The Chinese dragon is, -as Professor Elliot Smith puts it, a “composite wonder beast”. -Throughout this volume it is shown to yield, when dissected, remarkable -evidence regarding the varied influences under which it acquired its -highly complex character. The fact that a Chinese dragon charm closely -resembles a Scottish serpent charm is of special interest in this -connection. When, however, it is found that China obtained certain -myths and practices from the area called by its writers “Fu-lin” (the -Byzantine Empire), and that not only Byzantine but Ægean influences are -traceable in the Celtic field, the charm-link between Gaelic Scotland -and China may not, after all, be regarded as “far-fetched”. The same -may be said regarding the curious similarity between the myths and -practices connected with shells, and especially cockle-shells, in Japan -and the Scottish Hebrides. Although the West Highlanders and the -inhabitants of the Land of the Rising Sun were never brought into -contact, it may be that similar cultural influences drifted east and -west from their area of origin, and that the carriers were the ancient -mariners who introduced the same type of vessel into far-separated -oceans. - -As in China, we do not in Japan find a culture of purely native origin, -but rather one which has grown up from a mass of imported elements as -varied as the racial types that compose the present-day population. -Both in China and Japan these imported elements have been subjected to -the influences of time and locality and infused with national ideas and -ideals. The processes of growth and change have not, however, concealed -the sources from which certain of the early ideas emanated in varying -degrees of development. - -The early native history of Japan is, like that of China, no more -worthy of acceptance than are the long-discarded English and Scottish -fables regarding Brute and Scota. - -The data accumulated in this volume tend to show, although we have no -direct evidence of systematic missionary enterprise earlier than that -of the Buddhists, that the influential religious cults of ancient times -that flourished in Mesopotamia and in the Egyptian Empire (which -included part of Western Asia) appear to have left their impress on the -intellectual life of even far-distant peoples. Apparently modes of -thought were transmitted along direct and indirect avenues of -intercourse by groups of traders. Even before trade routes were opened, -religious beliefs and practices appear to have been introduced into -distant lands by prospectors and by settlers who founded colonies from -which later colonies “budded”. When the same set of complexes are found -in widely separated areas, it is difficult to accept the view that they -originated from the same particular experiences and the same set of -circumstances, especially when it is made manifest that the complexes -in the older centre of culture reflect strictly local physical -conditions, and even the local political conditions that resulted in a -fusion of peoples and of their myths, symbols, and religious beliefs -and practices. - - -DONALD A. MACKENZIE. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Chap. Page - - I. The Dawn of Civilization 1 - II. A Far-travelled Invention 13 - III. Ancient Mariners and Explorers 24 - IV. The World-wide Search for Wealth 36 - V. Chinese Dragon Lore 46 - VI. Bird and Serpent Myths 66 - VII. Dragon Folk-stories 76 - VIII. The Kingdom under the Sea 95 - IX. The Islands of the Blest 106 - X. The Mother-goddess of China and Japan 131 - XI. Tree-, Herb-, and Stone-lore 158 - XII. How Copper-culture reached China 189 - XIII. The Symbolism of Jade 211 - XIV. Creation Myths and the God and Goddess Cults 256 - XV. Mythical and Legendary Kings 274 - XVI. Myths and Doctrines of Taoism 297 - XVII. Culture Mixing in Japan 324 - XVIII. Japanese Gods and Dragons 345 - XIX. Rival Deities of Life and Death, Sunshine and Storm 357 - XX. The Dragon-slayer and His Rival 371 - XXI. Ancient Mikados and Heroes 378 - - - - - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - - Facing Page - -THE GOD OF THUNDER (in colour) Frontispiece - - From a Chinese picture in the John Rylands Library, Manchester - -POTTER’S WHEEL, SIMLA, INDIA 16 - - From a sketch by J. Lockwood Kipling in the Victoria and Albert - Museum - -A MODERN CHINESE JUNK ON THE CANTON RIVER 24 - -CHINESE DRAGON-BOAT FESTIVAL 40 - - From a picture woven in coloured silks and gold thread in the - Victoria and Albert Museum - -CHINESE DRAGONS AMONG THE CLOUDS 48 - - From a painting in the British Museum - -CHINESE DRAGON VASE WITH CARVED WOOD STAND 56 - - (Victoria and Albert Museum) - -CARP LEAPING FROM WAVES 81 - - From a Japanese painting in the British Museum - -CHINESE PORCELAIN VASE DECORATED WITH FIVE-CLAWED DRAGONS RISING -FROM WAVES 88 - - (Victoria and Albert Museum) - -RESONANT STONE OF JADE SHOWING DRAGON WITH CLOUD ORNAMENTS, -SUSPENDED FROM CARVED BLACKWOOD FRAME 96 - - By courtesy of B. Laufer, Field Museum of Natural History, - Chicago - -TORTOISE AND SNAKE 104 - - From a rubbing in the British Museum of a Chinese original - -GATHERING FRUITS OF LONGEVITY 112 - - From a Chinese painting in the British Museum - -SHOU SHAN (i.e. “HILLS OF LONGEVITY”), THE TAOIST PARADISE 124 - - From a woven silk picture in the Victoria and Albert Museum - -THE CHINESE SI WANG MU (JAPANESE SEIOBO) AND MAO NU 136 - - From a Japanese painting (by Hidenobu) in the British Museum - -MOUNTAIN VIEW WITH SCHOLAR’S RETREAT 140 - - From a Chinese painting in the British Museum - -GENII AT THE COURT OF SI WANG MU 152 - - From a Chinese painting in the British Museum - -SQUARE BRICK OF THE HAN DYNASTY, WITH MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES AND -INSCRIPTIONS 160 - -CHINESE BOWL WITH SYMBOL OF LONGEVITY 168 - - (Victoria and Albert Museum) - -GOATS CROPPING PLANT OF LIFE 172 - - From the jade sculpture in the Scottish National Museum, - Edinburgh - -THE GODDESS OF THE DEW 184 - - From a Chinese painting in the British Museum - -AN OFFERING TO THE GODS, PEKING 200 - - From a photograph by H. G. Ponting, F.R.G.S. - -ANCIENT BRONZE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS ON THE CITY WALL, PEKING 208 - -MORTUARY FISH IN JADE, OF HAN PERIOD 212 - -FIGURE OF BUTTERFLY IN WHITE AND BROWNISH-YELLOW JADE, TSʼIN OR -HAN PERIOD 212 - -AMULETS FOR THE DEAD, AND OTHER OBJECTS IN JADE 220 - - The subjects on pages 212 and 220 are reproduced by courtesy - of B. Laufer, author of “Jade”, Field Museum, Chicago - -THE TEMPLE OF HEAVEN, PEKING 228 - - From a photograph by H. G. Ponting, F.R.G.S. - -THREE SAGES STUDYING SYMBOL OF YIN AND YANG 230 - - From a Chinese painting in the British Museum - -KWAN-YIN, THE CHINESE “GODDESS OF MERCY” 271 - - From a porcelain figure decorated in soft enamels in the Victoria - and Albert Museum - -LAO TZE AND DISCIPLES 300 - - From a Chinese painting in the British Museum - -THE MOST FAMOUS PAI-LO (GODDESS SYMBOL) IN CHINA: AT THE MENG -TOMBS, NEAR PEKING 328 - - From a photograph by H. G. Ponting, F.R.G.S. - -THE FAMOUS OLD TORI-WI (GODDESS SYMBOL), MIYAJIMA, JAPAN 338 - - From a photograph by H. G. Ponting, F.R.G.S. - -THE JAPANESE TREASURE SHIP 352 - - From a woodcut in the British Museum - -SUSA-NO-WO MAKING A COMPACT WITH DISEASE SPIRITS 360 - - From a Japanese painting (by Hoga) in the British Museum - -AMATERÂSU, THE SUN GODDESS, EMERGING FROM HER CAVE 368 - - From a Japanese painting in the British Museum - -SEIOBO (= THE CHINESE SI WANG MU) WITH ATTENDANT AND THREE RISHI 380 - - From a Japanese painting (by Sanraku) in the British Museum - - - - - - - - -MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN - - -CHAPTER I - -THE DAWN OF CIVILIZATION - - Chinese Culture—Had it Independent Origin?—Evolution in Human - Affairs—Stratification Theory—The Mystery of Mind—Man’s First - Philosophy of Life—Influences exercised by Ancient - Civilizations—Culture Mixing—The Idea of Progress—Art in the - Pleistocene Age—Introduction of Agriculture—Birth of Osirian - Civilization—The “Water of Greenness” as “Water of Life”—How - Commerce Began—Introduction of Copper-working—The Oldest Calendar - in the World—The “Kings of Mankind”—Ancient Man and Modern Man. - - -The destinies of a people are shaped by their modes of thought, and -their real history is therefore the history of their culture. The -Chinese frame of mind has made the Chinese the people they are and -China the country it is. Every section of society has been swayed by -this far-reaching and enduring influence, the sources of which lie in -remote antiquity. It is the force that has even been shaping public -opinion and directing political movements. Emperors and leaders of -thought have been uplifted by it or cast down by it. - -To understand China, it is necessary that we should inquire into its -inner history—the history of its culture—so as to get at the Chinese -point of view and look at things through Chinese eyes. That inner -history is in part a record of its early experiences among the nations -of the earth. There was a time when China was “in the making”, when the -little leaven that leavened the whole lump began to move, when that -culture which spread over a vast area was confined to a small centre -and to a comparatively small group of people. Who were this people, -where were they situated, what influences were at work to stir them and -shape their ambitions, and what secret did they learn which gave them -power over the minds and bodies of about a third of the inhabitants of -the globe? In short, how and where did Chinese culture originate, and -how did it spread and become firmly established? Was it a thing of -purely local growth? Did it begin to be quite independently of all -other cultures? Does it owe its virility and distinctiveness among the -cultures of ancient and modern times to the influence of the locality -in which it had “independent origin”? Had it an independent origin? - -These queries open up the larger problem as to the origin of -civilization in the world. At this point, therefore, we must decide -whether or not we are to accept the idea of evolution in human affairs. -Can the principles of biological evolution be applied to the problems -of ethnology (using the term in its widest sense to include the -physical and cultural history of mankind)? Can we accept the theory -that in isolated quarters of the globe separated communities were -stirred by natural laws to make progress in adapting themselves to -their environments, and that, once a beginning was made, separated -communities developed on similar lines? Did each ancient civilization -have its natural periods of growth and decay? Were separated -communities uninfluenced during these periods by human minds and wills? -Were their destinies shaped by natural laws, or by the cumulative force -of public opinion? Was it a natural law that made men abandon the -hunting and adopt the agricultural mode of life? Did certain -communities of men, influenced by natural laws in ancient times, begin -to shape their religious systems by first worshipping groups of spirits -and ultimately, having passed through a sequence of well-defined -stages, find themselves elevated by these natural laws to the stage of -monotheism? Is it because certain races have, for some mysterious -reason, been prompted to pass through these stages more quickly than -others, that they are deserving of the term “progressive” while others -must be characterized as “backward”? - -If these questions are answered in the affirmative, we must assume that -we have solved the riddle of Mind. Those who apply the principles of -biological evolution to human affairs are in the habit of referring to -laws that control the workings of the human mind. But what do we really -know about the workings of the human mind? This question has only to be -asked so that the hazardous character of the fashion of thinking -adopted by extreme exponents of the Evolution School may be emphasized. -It cannot but be admitted that we know little or nothing regarding the -human mind. What happens when we think? How are memories stored in the -brain? How are emotions caused? What is Consciousness? How does the -Will operate? Grave psychological problems have to be solved before we -can undertake the responsibility of discussing with any degree of -confidence the laws that are supposed to govern human thought and -action. - -The researches into the early history of man, of about a generation -ago, were believed by some to “have revealed the essential similarity -with which, under many superficial differences, the human mind has -elaborated its first crude philosophy of life”. It was found that -similar beliefs and practices obtained among widely separated -communities, and it was not suspected that the influence exercised by -direct and indirect cultural contact between “progressive” and -“backward” communities extended to such great distances as has since -been found to be the case. Prospecting routes by land and sea were the -avenues along which cultural influences “drifted”. Early man was much -more enterprising as a trader and explorer than was believed in Tylor’s -day. The evidence accumulated of late years tends to show that almost -no part of the globe remained immune to the influences exercised by the -great ancient civilizations, and that these civilizations were never in -a state of “splendid isolation” at any period in their histories. In -the light of this knowledge it is becoming more and more clear that -Victorian ethnologists were inclined to make too much of resemblances, -and failed to take into account the differences that a more intensive -study of local cultures have revealed. There were, of course, -resemblances, which suggest the influence of cultural contact and the -settlement among backward peoples of colonists from progressive -communities, but there were also differences of beliefs and customs -which were of local origin and can hardly be characterized as -“superficial”. One of the results of contact was the process of -“culture mixing”. Customs and fashions of thinking were introduced into -a country and blended with local customs and local modes of thought. In -early China, as will be shown, there was “culture mixing”. The Chinese -frame of mind is the result of compromises effected in remote times. - -How, then, did the idea of progress originate? Is there in the human -mind an instinct which stirs mankind to achieve progress? If so, how -does it come about that some peoples have failed to move until brought -into contact with progressive races? Why did the Melanesians, for -instance, remain in the Stone Age until reached by the missionary and -the sandal-wood trader? The missionaries and the traders caused them to -advance in a brief period from the Stone Age to the Age of Steel and -Machinery. Can it be maintained that in ancient days no sudden changes -took place? Did the people, for instance, who introduced bronze-working -into a country introduce nothing else? Did they leave behind their -beliefs, their myths, their customs, and their stories? - -When it is asked how progress originated, we can only turn to such -evidence as is available regarding the early history of “Modern Man”. -At a remote period, dating back in Europe to the Pleistocene Age, men -lived in organized communities and pursued the hunting mode of life. -Their culture is revealed by their pictorial art in the prehistoric -cave-dwellings of France and Spain, and their decorative art by their -finely engraved implements and weapons. [1] This art reached a high -state of perfection. In some aspects it compares favourably with modern -art. [2] Evidently it had a long history, and was practised by those -who were endowed with the artistic faculty and had received a training. -These early men, who belonged to the Cro-Magnon races, were traders as -well as hunters. In some of their “inland stations” have been found -shells that had been imported from the Mediterranean coast. - -The hunting mode of life prevailed also among the proto-Egyptians in -the Nile valley, an area which was less capable in remote times of -maintaining a large population than were the wide and fertile plains of -Europe. Egypt was thinly peopled until the agricultural mode of life -was introduced. Someone discovered how to make use of the barley that -grew wild in the Nile valley and western Asia. In time the seeds were -cultivated, and some little community thus provided itself with an -abundant food-supply. Men’s minds were afterwards engaged in solving -the problem how to extend the area available for cultivation in the -narrow Nile valley. Nature was at hand to make suggestions to them. -Each year the River Nile came down in flood and fertilized the parched -and sun-burnt wastes. The waters caused the desert to “blossom like the -rose”. Intelligent observers perceived that if the process of -water-fertilization were maintained, as in the Delta region, they could -extend their little farms and form new ones. The art of irrigation was -discovered and gradually adopted, with the result that the narrow river -valley, which had been thinly peopled during the Hunting Period, became -capable of maintaining a large population. - -In what particular area the agricultural mode of life was first -introduced, it is impossible to say. Some favour southern Palestine and -some southern Mesopotamia. Those who favour Egypt [3] can refer to -interesting and important evidence in support of their view. It is the -only ancient country, for instance, in which there are traditions -regarding the man [4] who introduced the agricultural mode of life. -This was Osiris, a priest-king [5] who was deified, or a god to whom -was credited the discovery, made by a man or group of men, of how to -grow corn. Plutarch’s version of the Egyptian legend states: “Osiris, -being now become King of Egypt, applied himself towards civilizing his -countrymen, by turning them from their former indigent and barbarous -course of life; he moreover taught them how to cultivate and improve -the fruits of the earth”. Evidence has been forthcoming that the -pre-Dynastic Egyptians were agriculturists. The bodies of many of them -have been found preserved in their graves in the hot dry sands of Upper -Egypt. “From the stomachs and intestines of these prehistoric people”, -writes Professor G. Elliot Smith, “I was able to recover large -quantities of food materials, in fact, the last meals eaten before -death.” Careful examination was made of the contents of the stomachs. -“Almost every sample contained husks of barley, and in about 10 per -cent of the specimens husks of millet could be identified with -certainty.” The millet found in these bodies is nearly related to the -variety “which is now cultivated in the East Indies”. [6] - -Here we have proof that the agricultural mode of life obtained in the -Nile valley over sixty centuries ago, and that the seeds of the -cultivated variety of millet, which grows wild in North Africa and -southern Asia, were carried to far-distant areas by ancient traders and -colonists. These facts have, as will be found, an important bearing on -the early history of Chinese civilization. - -Our immediate concern, however, is with the history of early -civilization. In the Nile valley man made progress when he was able to -provide something which he required, by the intelligent utilization of -means at his disposal. No natural law prompted him to cultivate corn -and irrigate the sun-parched soil. He did not become an agriculturist -by instinct. He conducted observations, exercised his reasoning -faculty, made experiments, and a great discovery was forthcoming. The -man whose memory is enshrined in that of Osiris was one of the great -benefactors of the human race. When he solved the problem of how to -provide an abundant supply of food, he made it possible for a large -population to live in a small area. It is told of Osiris that “he gave -them (the Egyptians) a body of laws to regulate their conduct by”. No -doubt the early hunters observed laws which regulated conduct in the -cave-home as well as on the hunting-field. The fact that a great -pictorial art was cultivated by Aurignacian man in western Europe, -about 20,000 years ago, indicates that the social organization had been -sufficiently well developed to permit of certain individuals of a -class—possibly the priestly class—devoting themselves to the study of -art, while others attended to the food-supply. Aurignacian art could -never have reached the degree of excellence it did had there not been a -school of art—apparently religious art—and a system of laws that -promoted its welfare. - -When, in Egypt, the agricultural mode of life was introduced, and an -abundant supply of food was assured, new laws became a necessity, so -that the growing communities might be kept under control. These laws -were given a religious significance. Osiris “instructed them (the -Egyptians) in that reverence and worship which they were to pay to the -gods”. Society was united by the bonds of a religious organization, -and, as is found, Nilotic religion had a close association with the -agricultural mode of life. It reflected the experiences of the early -farmers; it reflected, too, the natural phenomena of the Nile valley. -Water—the Nile water—was the fertilizing agency. It was the “water of -life”. The god Osiris was closely associated with the Nile; he was the -“fresh” or the “new” water that flowed in due season after the trying -period of “the low Nile”, during which the land was parched by the -burning sun and every green thing was coated by the sand-storms. “Ho, -Osiris! the inundation comes,” cried the priest when the Nile began to -rise. “Horus comes; he recognizes his father in thee, youthful in thy -name of Fresh Water.” [7] The literal rendering is: “Horus comes; he -beholds his father in thee, greenness in thy name of Water of -Greenness”. The reference is to the “new water” which flows quite green -for the first few days of the annual inundation. The “new water” -entered the soil and vegetation sprang up. Osiris was the principle of -life; he was also the ghost-god who controlled the river. As the Nile, -Osiris was regarded as the source of all life—the creator and sustainer -and ruler in one. - -When the discovery of how to grow corn was passed from people to people -and from land to land, not only the seeds and agricultural implements -were passed along, but the ceremonies and religious beliefs connected -with the agricultural mode of life in the area of origin. The -ceremonies were regarded as of as much importance as the implements. - -It need not surprise us, therefore, to find, as we do find, not only -North African millet in the East Indies, but North African religious -beliefs connected with agriculture in widely separated countries. -Osirian religious ideas and myths were, it would appear, distributed -over wide areas and among various races. There is therefore a germ of -historical truth in the account given by Plutarch of the missionary -efforts of Osiris. “With the same disposition”, we read, “he (Osiris) -afterwards travelled over the rest of the world, inducing the people -everywhere to submit to his discipline.... The Greeks conclude him to -have been the same person with their Dionysos or Bacchus.” [8] - -In the process of time the Egyptians found that they were able to -produce a larger food-supply than they required for their own needs. -They were consequently able to devote their surplus to stimulating -trade, so as to obtain from other countries things which were not to be -had in Egypt. They were thus brought into touch with other communities, -and these communities, such as the wood-cutters of Lebanon, were -influenced by Egyptian civilization and stimulated to adopt new modes -of life. Their food-supply was assured by the Egyptian demand for -timber. They received corn from the Nile valley in payment for their -labour. There are references in the Egyptian texts to the exports of -wheat to North Syria and Asia Minor. - -When the great discovery was made of how to work copper, the early -agriculturists achieved rapid progress. Boats were built more easily -and in larger numbers, new weapons were produced, and the Upper -Egyptians conquered the Lower Egyptians, with the result that Egypt was -united under a single king. With this union, which was followed by a -period of remarkable activity, begins the history of Ancient Egypt. - -The man, remembered as Osiris, who first sowed his little corn patch, -sowed also the seeds from which grew a mighty empire and a great -civilization. His discovery spread from people to people, and from land -to land, and a new era was inaugurated in the history of the world. -Progress was made possible when mankind were led from the wide -hunting-fields to the little fields of the Stone Age [9] farmer, and -shown how they could live pleasant and well-ordered lives in large -communities. - -The early Egyptian farmers found it necessary to measure time and take -account of the seasons. A Calendar was introduced and adopted during -the prehistoric (Palæolithic) period, [10] and was used by the -Egyptians for thousands of years. Julius Cæsar adapted this Calendar -for use in Rome. It was subsequently adjusted by Pope Gregory and -others, and is now in use all over the civilized world. Each time we -hang up a new calendar, therefore, we are reminded of the man who -stimulated progress over vast areas by sowing corn, so as to provide -food for his family in a distant land at a far-distant period of time. - -When we consider the problem of the origin of progress, let us not -forget him and others like him—those early thinkers and discoverers to -whom all humanity owe a debt of gratitude. The few invent, the many -adopt; the few think and lead, and the many follow. - -“No abstract doctrine”, writes Sir James F. Frazer in this connection, -“is more false and mischievous than that of the natural equality of -men.... The experience of common life sufficiently contradicts such a -vain imagination.... The men of keenest intelligence and strongest -characters lead the rest and shape the moulds into which, outwardly at -least, society is cast.... The true rulers of men are the thinkers who -advance knowledge.... It is knowledge which, in the long run, directs -and controls the forces of society. Thus the discoverers of new truths -are the real though uncrowned and unsceptred kings of mankind.” [11] - -Progress has its origin in Mind. It has been manifested in the past in -those districts in which the mind of man was applied to overcome -natural obstacles and to develop natural resources. The histories of -the great ancient civilizations do not support the idea of an -evolutionary process which had its origin in human instinct. “There -has”, Professor G. Elliot Smith writes, “been no general or widespread -tendency on the part of human societies to strive after what by -Europeans is regarded as intellectual or material progress. Progressive -societies are rare because it requires a very complex series of factors -to compel men to embark upon the hazardous process of striving after -such artificial advancement.” - -Professor Elliot Smith will have none of what Dr. W. H. R. Rivers -refers to as “crude evolutionary ideas”. “The history of man”, he -writes, “will be truly interpreted, not by means of hazardous and -mistaken analogies with biological evolution, but by the application of -the true historical method. The causes of the modern actions of mankind -are deeply rooted in the past. But the spirit of man has ever been the -same: and the course of ancient history can only be properly -appreciated when it is realized that the same human motives whose -nature can be studied in our fellow-men to-day actuated the men of old -also.” [12] - -In the chapters that immediately follow it will be shown that separated -communities were brought into close touch by traders. The term -“trading”, however, refers, especially in early times, chiefly to -prospecting and the exploiting of locally unappreciated forms of -wealth. It was not until after civilization had spread far and wide -that permanent trade routes were established. Some overland routes -became less important when sea routes were ultimately opened. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II - -A FAR-TRAVELLED INVENTION - - The Potter’s Wheel—An Egyptian Invention—The Wheel in Theology—Clay - Pots and Stone Vessels—Skilled Artisans produce Poor Pottery—The - Yakut Evidence—Female Potters—Pot Symbol of Mother-goddess—Potter’s - Wheel worked by Men—Egyptian “Wheel” adopted in Crete, Babylonia, - Iran, India, and China—No “Wheel” in America—Secular and Religious - Pottery in China, Japan, India, and Rome—Coarse - Grave-Pottery—Potter’s Wheel as Symbol of Creator—Chinese Emperors - as Potters—Culture Heroes—Association of Agriculture with - Pottery—Egyptian Ideas in Far East. - - -What bearing, it may be asked, have the discoveries made in Egypt on -the early history of China? Is there evidence to show that these -widely-separated countries were brought into contact in remote times? -Did the primitive Chinese receive and adopt Egyptian inventions, and if -so, how were such inventions conveyed across the wide and difficult -country lying between the Mediterranean coast and the Yellow Sea? Is -there any proof that trade routes extended in ancient times right -across Asia? Did prospecting and trading ancient mariners cross the -Indian Ocean and coast round to Chinese waters? - -Interesting evidence regarding cultural contact is afforded by the -potter’s wheel. This wonderful machine was invented in Egypt some time -before the Fourth Dynasty (about 3000 B.C.), and in its area of origin -it exercised an influence not only on ceramic craftsmanship but on -religious ideas. It was regarded as a gift of the gods, as in ancient -Scotland bronze weapons, implements, musical instruments, &c., were -regarded as gifts from the fairies. Apparently the invention was first -introduced in Memphis, the ancient capital, the chief god of which was -Ptah, the supreme deity “of all handicraftsmen and of all workers in -metal and stone”. Ptah was already regarded as the creator of the -primeval egg from which the universe was hatched, and of the “sun egg” -and the “moon egg”. He was evidently a deity whose life-history goes -back to primitive times when the mother-goddess was symbolized as the -goose that laid the primeval egg. The problem of whether the egg or the -bird came first was solved by the priests of the Ptah cult of Memphis, -who regarded their deity as the creator of the “egg”. After the -potter’s wheel came into use, they depicted Ptah turning the “egg” upon -it. The manufacture of wheel-made pottery thus came to have religious -associations. It was closely connected with the culture of Egypt which -had its basis in the agricultural mode of life. The arts and crafts -were all stimulated by religious ideas; they were cultivated by the -priestly class in temple workshops, and were essentially an expression -of Egyptian beliefs and conceptions. - -Before the potter’s wheel came into use, the potter’s art had -degenerated. Vases, bowls, jars, platters, and other vessels were made -of such costly stones as diorite, alabaster, and porphyry; these were -drilled out with copper implements. Copper vessels were also made. The -discovery of how to work copper had caused the craftsmen to neglect the -potter’s art, and to work with enthusiasm in the hardest stone until -they achieved a high degree of skill. The coarse pottery of the -pre-wheel period is therefore no indication that the civilization had -reached a stage of decadence. This fact should be a warning to those -archæologists who are prone to conclude that if the pottery taken from -a stratum in some particular area is “coarse”, the people who produced -it at the period it represents were necessarily in a backward -condition. The evidence afforded by Yakut products is of special -interest in this connection. The Yakuts are usually referred to as “the -most intelligent and progressive people in Siberia”. They are, however, -poor potters. They never glaze their vessels or use the potter’s wheel. -At the great Russian market of Yakutsk they refuse to purchase -wheel-made crockery, and purchase instead the raw clay with which to -make their own hand-made vessels, which are almost as coarse as those -of the Stone Age. But although the technique displayed in their pottery -is crude, they are famous for their excellent wood-carving and iron -forged-work. [13] A people cannot, therefore, be judged by their -pottery alone. It may be that those ancient peoples who are found to -have been poor potters were skilled and progressive in other spheres of -activity. The Hebrews were poor artisans and never invented anything, -but they have given the world a great religious literature. - -After the potter’s wheel was introduced in Memphis, a new era in the -history of pottery was inaugurated. The enclosed baking-furnace came -into use at the same time, and the potter’s art and technique speedily -attained a wonderfully high degree of excellence. But the old crude, -hand-made pottery was still being produced. It was consistently -produced until Egypt ceased to be a great and independent kingdom. -Indeed, it is being manufactured even in our own day. - -The reason why good and bad pottery are produced in a single -country—and Egypt is no exception to this rule—is that the manufacture -of hand-made vessels was in ancient times essentially a woman’s -avocation. The potter’s wheel was invented by man, and credited to a -god, and has from the beginning been worked by men only. There was -apparently a religious significance in the connection of the sexes with -the different processes. The clay pot was, in ancient Egypt, a symbol -of the mother-goddess. [14] Pots used in connection with the worship of -the Great Mother were apparently produced by her priestesses. As women -played their part in agricultural ceremonies, so did they play their -part—evidently a prominent one—in producing the goddess’s pot symbols. -The coarse jars in which were stored wines and oils and food-stuffs -were gifts of the Great Mother, the giver of all; she was the -inexhaustible sacred Pot—the womb of Nature. Domestic pottery used by -women was, very properly, the ancient folks appear to have argued, -produced by women. - -“It will be noted”, writes O. T. Mason in this connection, “that the -feminine gender is used throughout in speaking of aboriginal potters. -This is because every piece of such ware is the work of woman’s hands. -She quarried the clay, and, like the patient beast of burden, bore it -home on her back. She washed it and kneaded it and rolled it into -fillets. These she wound carefully and symmetrically until the vessel -was built up. She further decorated and burned it, and wore it out in -household drudgery. The art at first was woman’s.” [15] - -In many countries the connection of women with hand-made and of men -with wheel-made pottery obtains even in our day. The following -statement by two American scholars, who have produced a short but -authoritative paper on the potter’s art, is the result of a close -investigation of evidence collected over a wide area, and carefully -digested and summarized: [16] - -“The potter’s wheel is the creation of man, and therefore is an -independent act of invention which was not evolved from any contrivance -utilized during the period of hand-made ceramic ware. The two processes -have grown out of two radically distinct spheres of human activity. The -wheel, so speak, came from another world. It had no point of contact -with any tool that existed in the old industry, but was brought in from -an outside quarter as a novel affair when man appropriated to himself -the work hitherto cultivated by woman. The development was one from -outside, not from within. All efforts, accordingly, which view the -subject solely from the technological angle, and try to derive the -wheel from previous devices of the female potter, are futile and -misleading. It is as erroneous as tracing the plough back to the hoe or -digging-stick, whereas, in fact, the two are in no historical -interrelation and belong to fundamentally different culture strata and -periods—the hoe to the gardening activity of woman, the plough to the -agricultural activity of man. Both in India and China the division of -ceramic labour sets apart the thrower or wheel-potter, and distinctly -separates him from the moulder. The potters in India, who work on the -wheel, do not intermarry with those who use a mould or make images. -They form a caste by themselves.” [17] - -The oldest wheel-made pottery is found in Egypt. There can be no doubt -that the potter’s wheel was invented in that country. It was imported -into Crete, which had trading relations with the merchants of the -ancient Pharaohs, as far back as about 3000 B.C. Before the wheel was -adopted the Cretans made stone vessels, following Egyptian patterns, -but using soft stone instead of hard. Their hand-made pottery -degenerated, as did the Egyptian. “Pottery came again to its own in -both countries”, writes Mr. H. R. Hall, “with the invention of the -potter’s wheel and the baking-furnace.” [18] - -The potter’s wheel must have found a ready market in the old days. It -was adopted, in time, in western Europe; it was quickly “taken up” in -Babylonia and in Iran, and was ultimately introduced into India and -China. But only the high Asiatic civilizations were capable of -constructing it, and consequently wheel-made pottery is not found -everywhere. Among the “aboriginal Americans” the wheel was never -employed. It is an interesting fact that the mind of man, which is -alleged to “work” on the same lines everywhere, never “evolved” a -potter’s wheel in Mexico or Peru. [19] Major Gordon tells that in Assam -[20] “the women fashion the pots by hand; they do not use the potter’s -wheel”. Similar evidence is obtainable in various other countries. In -China there are wheel-potters and moulders, and a distinction is drawn -between them by ancient writers. “This clear distinction is accentuated -by Chu Yen in his treatise on pottery. [21] He justly observes also -that the articles made by the wheel-potters were all intended for -cooking, with the exception of the vessel yu, which was designed for -measuring; while the output of the moulders, who made the ceremonial -vessels kuei and tou by availing themselves of the plumb-line, was -intended for sacrificial use. Also here, in like manner as in ancient -Rome, India, and Japan, the idea may have prevailed that a wheel-made -jar is of a less sacred character than one made by hand.” [22] Here -then we touch on another point which must be borne in mind by those who -draw conclusions regarding ancient cultures by means of pottery. In -Britain, for instance, a rather coarse pottery is found in graves. It -is possible that a better pottery was made for everyday use. The -conservatism of burial customs may have caused coarser pottery to be -put into graves than the early folks were capable of producing during -the period at which the burial took place. - -The wheel-pottery was as sacred to some cults as the hand-made was to -others. Even the potter’s wheel was sacred. In Egypt the Ptah cult -adopted it, as has been stated; in India it was a symbol of the -Creator; in China (as in ancient Egypt) the idea originally prevailed -that the Creator was a potter who turned on his wheel the sun and the -moon, man and woman, although in time this myth became a philosophical -abstraction. The symbolism of Jeremiah has similarly a history: - - - “O house of Israel, cannot I do with you as this potter? saith the - Lord. Behold, as the clay is in the potter’s hand, so are ye in - mine hand, O house of Israel.”—Chapter XVIII, 6. - - -St. Paul, too, refers to the potter: - - - “Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the - thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? - Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make - one vessel unto honour, and another unto dishonour?” (Romans, ix, - 20–21.) - - -Chinese emperors were compared to potters. They were credited with the -power to control a nation as the potter controlled his wheel. The -ancient peoples who adopted the Egyptian potter’s wheel evidently -learned that it was of divine origin. They adopted the Egyptian beliefs -and myths associated with it. Withal, the wheel was associated with the -agricultural mode of life, having originated in a country of -agriculturists. Ptah, the divine potter, was, like all the other -prominent gods of Egypt, fused with Osiris—the god who was, among other -things, the “culture hero”. The Chinese “culture hero”, Shun, who -became emperor, is said to have “practised husbandry, fishing, and -making pottery jars”. He manufactured clay vessels without flaw on the -river bank. [23] - -The Chinese culture hero, Shen-ming (“Divine Husbandman”) “was regarded -as the father of agriculture and the discoverer of the healing property -of plants”. In ancient Chinese lore “we meet a close association of -agriculture with pottery, and an illustration of the fact that -husbandman and potter were one and the same person during the primeval -period”. [24] - -Memories of Ptah-Osiris clung to the potter’s wheel. The trade routes -must have hummed with stories about the god who had gifted this -wonderful contrivance to mankind. These stories were localized in -various countries, and they took on the colour of the period during -which the wheel was imported. In Japan, the Ptah legend has been given -a Buddhistic significance. The potter’s wheel is reputed there to be -the invention of the famous Korean monk, Gyõgi (A.D. 670–749). No doubt -the first potter’s wheel reached Japan from Korea, whence came the -conquerors of the Ainus. But there is evidence that it was in use long -before Buddhism “drifted” along the sea route from the mainland in the -sixth century, to become curiously mixed up with Shintoism two -centuries later. The priests of Buddhism, who transformed the Shinto -gods into “avatars” of Buddha, no doubt also identified the far-carried -Ptah-Osiris with their monk—the Japanese “culture hero”. - -The earliest pottery in Japan was manufactured by the Ainus and was -“hand-shaped” by the women. A similar pottery was produced in Korea. -The wheel-made variety made its appearance when Chinese culture spread -through Korea during the Silla kingdom period, which began about the -time (A.D. 59) when the earliest Japanese, according to their own -traditions, migrated to the islands that bear their name. No doubt the -traders were active on sea and land long before the Japanese conquered -the islands of the Ainus and the Chinese overran Korea. Great -migrations and conquests in ancient times were indirectly stimulated by -trade. A new culture was introduced into backward communities by the -early prospectors and trading colonists, and these communities in time -acquired weapons, reared the domesticated horse, and took to the sea -after having learned how to build and navigate ships similar to those -introduced by the traders. - -When the potter’s wheel was introduced into Korea, the clay vessels -were shaped in imitation of Chinese pottery. There can remain no doubt, -therefore, as to whence the wheel came. China was the chief centre of -early civilization in the Far East, and its influence spread far and -wide. There are some who think that Burma was during its early period -in closer touch with China than with India; but more evidence than is -yet available is required to establish this theory. The earliest -civilization in southern China of which we have knowledge was of Indian -origin. The sea traders who had crossed the Indian Ocean reached the -Burmese coast several centuries before the Christian era, as the -archaic character of Burmese river boats suggests. It may be, however, -that the potter’s wheel was carried along the mid-Asian trade routes -long before the shippers coasted round to Chinese waters. There can be -no doubt that the potter’s wheel was introduced into China at a very -remote period. Investigators are unable to discover any native legends -regarding its origin. Nor are there any traditions regarding female -potters. The culture heroes of China who made the first pots appear to -have used the wheel, and the Chinese potter’s wheel is identical with -the Egyptian. - -When the wheel was introduced into Japan, hand-made pottery was in use -for religious purposes, and for long afterwards the vessels used at -Shinto shrines were not turned on the wheel. In India, hand-made -pottery was similarly reserved for religious worship after the -wheel-made variety came into use. [25] The wheel did not reach southern -India until its Iron Age. [26] When the southern India Iron Age began -is uncertain. It was not, of course, an “Age” in the real sense, but a -cultural “stage”. Iron was known and apparently in use during the -Aryo-Indian Vedic period in the north. [27] - -The potter’s wheel was introduced into Babylonia at a very remote -period. From Babylonia it was carried into Persia. The Avestan word for -kiln is tanura, which is believed, according to Laufer, to be a loan -word from Semitic tanur. - -There are, of course, no records regarding the introduction of the -potter’s wheel into Babylonia, India, or China. All that we know -definitely is that it first came into use in Egypt, and that it was -afterwards adopted in the various ancient centres of civilization from -which cultural influences “flowed” to various areas. With the wheel -went certain religious ideas and customs. These are not found in the -areas unreached by the potter’s wheel. - -China appears to have been influenced at the dawn of its history by the -culture represented by the Egyptian wheel. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III - -ANCIENT MARINERS AND EXPLORERS - - The Chinese Junk—Kufas—The Ancient “Reed Float” and Skin-buoyed - Raft—“Two floats of the Sky”—Dug-out Canoes—Where Shipping was - developed—Burmese and Chinese Junks resemble Ancient Egyptian - Ships—Cretan and Phœnician Mariners—Africa circumnavigated—Was - Sumeria colonized by Sea-farers?—Egyptian Boats on Sea of - Okhotsk—Japanese and Polynesian Boats—Egyptian Types in - Mediterranean and Northern Europe—Stories of Long Voyages in Small - Craft—Visit of Chinese Junk to the Thames—Solomon’s Ships. - - -Further important evidence regarding cultural contact in early times is -afforded by shipping. How came it about that an inland people like the -primitive Chinese took to seafaring? - -The question that first arises in this connection is: Were ships -invented and developed by a single ancient people, or were they -invented independently by various ancient peoples at different periods? -Were the Chinese junks of independent origin? Or were these junks -developed from early models of vessels—such foreign vessels as first -cruised in Chinese waters? - -Chinese junks are flat-bottomed ships, and the largest of them reach -about 1000 tons. The poops and fore-castles are high, and the masts -carry lug-sails, generally of bamboo splits. They are fitted with -rudders. Often on the bows appear painted or inlaid eyes. These eyes -are found on models of ancient Egyptian ships. - -During the first Han dynasty (about 206 B.C.) junks of “one thousand -kin” (about 15 tons) were regarded as very large vessels. In these -boats the early Chinese navigators appear to have reached Korea and -Japan. But long before they took to the sea there were other mariners -in the China sea. - -The Chinese were, as stated, originally an inland people. They were -acquainted with river kufas (coracles) before they reached the -seashore. These resembled the kufas of the Babylonians referred to by -Herodotus, who wrote: - -“The boats which come down the river to Babylon are circular, and made -of skins. The frames, which are of willow, are cut in the country of -the Armenians above Assyria, and on these, which serve for hulls, a -covering of skins is stretched outside, and thus the boats are made, -without either stem or stern, quite round like a shield.” [28] - -These kufas are still in use in Mesopotamia. They do not seem to have -altered much since the days of Hammurabi, or even of Sargon of Akkad. -The Assyrians crossed rivers on skin floats, and some of the primitive -peoples of mid-Asia are still using the inflated skins of cows as river -“ferry-boats”. But such contrivances hardly enter into the history of -shipping. The modern liner did not “evolve” from either kufa or skin -float. Logs of wood were, no doubt, used to cross rivers at an early -period. The idea of utilizing these may have been suggested to ancient -hunters who saw animals being carried down on trees during a river -flood. But attempts to utilize a tree for crossing a river would have -been disastrous when first made, if the hunters were unable to swim. -Trees are so apt to roll round in water. Besides, they would be useless -if not guided with a punting-pole, expertly manipulated. Early man must -have learned how to navigate a river by using, to begin with, at least -two trees lashed together. In Egypt and Babylonia we find traces of his -first attempts in this connection. The reed float, consisting of two -bundles of reeds, and the raft to which the inflated skins of animals -were attached to give it buoyancy, were in use at an early period on -the Rivers Nile and Euphrates. A raft of this kind had evidently its -origin among a people accustomed, as were the later Assyrians, to use -skin floats when swimming across rivers. There are sculptured -representations of the Assyrian soldiers swimming with inflated skins -under their chests. - -The reed float was in use at a very early period on the Nile. Professor -Breasted says that the two prehistoric floats were “bound firmly -together, side by side, like two huge cigars”, and adds the following -interesting note: “The writer was once without a boat in Nubia, and a -native from a neighbouring village at once hurried away and returned -with a pair of such floats made of dried reeds from the Nile shores. On -this somewhat precarious craft he ferried the writer over a wide -channel to an island in the river. It was the first time that the -author had ever seen this contrivance, and it was not a little -interesting to find a craft which he knew only in the Pyramid texts of -5000 years ago still surviving and in daily use on the ancient river in -far-off Nubia.” - -In the Pyramid texts there are references to the reed floats used by -the souls of kings when being ferried across the river to death. The -gods “bind together the two floats for this King Pepi”, runs a Pyramid -text. “The knots are tied, the ferry-boats are brought together”, says -another, and there are allusions to the ferryman (the prehistoric -Charon) standing in the stern and poling the float. Before the Egyptian -sun-god was placed in a boat, he had “two floats of the sky” to carry -him along the celestial Nile to the horizon. [29] - -The “dug-out” canoe was probably developed from the raft. Men who -drifted timber down a river may have had the idea of a “dug-out” -suggested to them by first shaping a seat on a log, or a “hold” to -secure the food-supply for the river voyage. Pitt Rivers suggests that -after the discovery was made that a hollowed log could be utilized in -water, “the next stage in the development of the canoe would consist in -pointing the ends”. [30] - -In what locality the dug-out canoe was invented it is impossible to say -with absolute certainty. All reliable writers on naval architecture -agree, however, that Egypt was the “cradle” of naval architecture. [31] - -“For the development of the art of shipbuilding,” says Chatterton, “few -countries could be found as suitable as Egypt.... The peacefulness of -the waters of the Nile, the absence of storms, and the rarity of calms, -combined with the fact that, at any rate, during the winter and early -spring months, the gentle north wind blew up the river with the -regularity of a Trade Wind, so enabling the ships to sail against the -stream without the aid of oars—these were just the conditions that many -another nation might have longed for. Very different, indeed, were the -circumstances which had to be wrestled with in the case of the first -shipbuilders and sailormen of Northern Europe.” [32] - -The early Egyptians were continually crossing the river. When they -began to convey stones from their quarries, they required substantial -rafts. Egyptian needs promoted the development of the art of navigation -on a river specially suited for experiments that led to great -discoveries. The demand for wood was always great, and it was -intensified after metal-working had been introduced, because of the -increased quantities of fuel required to feed the furnaces. It became -absolutely necessary for the Egyptians to go far afield in search of -timber. The fact that they received supplies of timber at an early -period from Lebanon is therefore of special interest. Their experiences -in drifting rafts of timber across the Mediterranean from the Syrian -coast apparently not only stimulated naval architecture and increased -the experiences of early navigators, but inaugurated the habit of -organizing seafaring expeditions on a growing scale. “Men”, says -Professor Elliot Smith, “did not take to maritime trafficking either -for aimless pleasure or for idle adventure. They went to sea only under -the pressure of the strongest incentives.” [33] - -The Mediterranean must have been crossed at a very early period. -Settlements of seafarers took place in Crete before 3000 B.C. [34] On -the island have been found flakes of obsidian that were imported at the -dawn of its history from the Island of Melos. No doubt obsidian -artifacts were used in connection with the construction of vessels -before copper implements became common. - -The earliest evidence of shipbuilding as an organized and important -national industry is found in the Egyptian tomb pictures of the Old -Kingdom period (c. 2400 B.C.). Gangs of men, under overseers, are seen -constructing many kinds of boats, large and small. There are records of -organized expeditions dating back 500 years earlier. Pharaoh Snefru -built vessels “nearly one hundred and seventy feet long”. He sent “a -fleet of forty vessels to the Phœnician coast to procure cedar logs -from the slopes of Lebanon”. [35] Expeditions were also sent across the -Red Sea. Vessels with numerous oars, and even vessels with sails, are -depicted on Egyptian prehistoric pottery dating back to anything like -6000 B.C. In no other country in the world was seafaring and -shipbuilding practised at such a remote period. - -The earliest representations of deep-sea boats are found in Egypt. One -is seen in the tomb of Sahure, of the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2600 B.C.). A -great expedition sailed to Punt (Somaliland) during the reign of Queen -Halshepsut (c. 1500 B.C.). Five of the highly-developed vessels are -depicted in her temple at Deir-el-Bahari. It is of interest to compare -one of these vessels with a Chinese junk. “Between the Chinese and -Burmese junks of to-day and the Egyptian ships of about six thousand -years ago there are”, writes E. Kebel Chatterton, “many points of -similarity.... Until quite recently, China remained in the same state -of development for four thousand years. If that was so with her arts -and life generally, it has been especially so in the case of her -sailing craft.” Both the Chinese junk and the ancient Egyptian ship -“show a common influence and a remarkable persistence in type”. [36] - -“Are we to believe”, a reader asks, “that the ancient Egyptian -navigators went as far as China? Is there any proof that they made long -voyages? Were the ancient Egyptians not a people who lived in isolation -for a prolonged period?” [37] - -It is not known definitely how far the ancient Egyptian mariners went -after they had begun to venture to sea. But one thing is certain. They -made much longer voyages than were credited to them a generation ago. -The Phœnicians, who became the sea-traders of the Egyptians, learned -the art of navigation from those Nilotic adventurers who began to visit -their coast at a very early period in quest of timber; they adopted the -Egyptian style of craft, as did the Cretans, their predecessors in -Mediterranean sea trafficking. By the time of King Solomon the -Phœnicians had established colonies in Spain, and were trading not only -from Carthage in the Mediterranean, but apparently with the British -Isles, while they were also active in the Indian Ocean. They were -evidently accustomed to make long voyages of exploration. At the time -of the Jewish captivity, Pharaoh Necho (609–593 B.C.) sent an -expedition of Phœnicians from the Red Sea to circumnavigate Africa. -They returned three years later by way of Gibraltar. But their voyage -excited no surprise in Egypt. [38] It had long been believed by the -priests that the world was surrounded by water. Besides, these priests -preserved many traditions of long voyages that had been made to distant -lands. - -There are those who believe that the early Egyptian mariners, who were -accustomed to visit British East Africa and sail round the Arabian -coast, founded the earliest colony in Sumeria (ancient Babylonia) at -the head of the Persian Gulf. The cradle of Sumerian culture was Eridu, -“the sea port”. The god of Eridu was Ea, who had a ship with pilot and -crew. According to Babylonian traditions, he instructed the people, as -did Osiris in Egypt, how to irrigate the land, grow corn, build houses -and temples, make laws, engage in trade, and so on. He was remembered -as a monster—a goat-fish god, or half fish, half man. Apparently he was -identical with the Oannes of Berosus. It may be that Ea-Oannes -symbolized the seafarers who visited the coast and founded a colony at -Eridu, introducing the agricultural mode of life and the working of -copper. Early inland peoples must have regarded the mariners with whom -they first came into contact as semi-divine beings, just as the Cubans -regarded Columbus and his followers as visitors from the sky. The -Mongols of Tartary entertained quaint ideas about the British “foreign -devils” after they had fought in one of the early wars against China. -M. Huc, the French missionary priest of the congregation of St. -Lazarus, who travelled through Tartary, Tibet, and China during 1844–6, -had once an interesting conversation with a Mongol, who “had been told -by the Chinese what kind of people, or monsters rather, these English -were”. The story ran that the Englishmen “lived in the water like fish, -and when you least expected it, they would rise to the surface and cast -at you fiery gourds. Then as soon as you bend your bow to send an arrow -at them, they plunge again into the water like frogs.” [39] - -Those who suppose that the Sumerians coasted round from the Persian -Gulf to the Red Sea, landed on the barren African coast, and, setting -out to cross a terrible desert, penetrated to the Nile valley along a -hitherto unexplored route of about 200 miles, have to explain what was -the particular attraction offered to them by prehistoric Egypt if, -according to their theory, it was still uncultivated and in the -“Hunting Age”. How came it about that they knew of a river which ran -through desert country? - -It is more probable that the Nilotic people penetrated to the Red Sea -coast, and afterwards ventured to sea in their river boats, and that, -in time, having obtained skill in navigation, they coasted round to the -Persian Gulf. In pre-Dynastic times the Egyptians obtained shells from -the Red Sea coast. - -At what period India was first reached is uncertain. When Solomon -imported peacocks from that country (the land of the peacock), the sea -route was already well known. It is significant to find that all round -the coast, from the Red Sea to India, Ceylon, and Burma, the Egyptian -types of vessels have been in use from the earliest seafaring periods. -The Burmese junks on the Irawadi resemble closely, as has been -indicated, the Nile boats of the ancient Egyptians. [40] The Chinese -junks were developed from Egyptian models. More antique Egyptian boats -than are found on the Chinese coast are still being used by the Koryak -tribe who dwell around the sea of Okhotsk. Mr. Chatterton says that the -Koryak craft have “important similarities to the Egyptian ships of the -Fourth and Fifth Dynasties (c. 3000–2500 B.C.). Thus, besides copying -the ancients in steering with an oar, the fore-end of the prow of their -sailing boats terminates in a fork through which the harpoon-line is -passed, the fork being sometimes carved with a human face which they -believe will serve as a protector of the boat. Instead of rowlocks they -have, like the early Egyptians, thong-loops through which the oar or -paddle is inserted. Their sail, too, is a rectangular shape of dressed -reindeer skins sewed together. But it is their mast that is especially -like the Egyptians and Burmese.” This mast is made of three poles “set -up in the manner of a tripod”. The double mast was common in ancient -Egypt, but Mr. Chatterton notes that Mr. Villiers Stuart “found on the -walls of a tomb belonging to the Sixth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) at Gebel -Abu Faida, the painting of a boat with a treble mast made of three -spars arranged like the edges of a triangular pyramid”. [41] Thus we -find that vessels of Egyptian type (adopted by various peoples) not -only reached China but went a considerable distance beyond it. Japanese -vessels still display Egyptian characteristics. In the Moluccas and -Malays the ancient three-limbed mast has not yet gone out of fashion. -Polynesian craft were likewise developed from Egyptian models. William -Ellis, the missionary, [42] noted “the peculiar and almost classical -shape of the large Tahitian canoes”, with “elevated prow and stern”, -and tells that a fleet of them reminded him of representations of “the -ships in which the Argonauts sailed, or the vessels that conveyed the -heroes of Homer to the siege of Troy”. - -Various writers have called attention to the persistence of Egyptian -types in the Mediterranean and in northern Europe. “In every age and -every district of the ancient world”, wrote Mr. Cecil Torr, the great -authority on classic shipping, “the method of rigging ships was -substantially the same; and this method is first depicted by the -Egyptians.” [43] - -The Far Eastern craft went long distances in ancient days. Ellis tells -of regular voyages made by Polynesian chiefs which extended to 300 and -even 600 miles. A chief from Rurutu once visited the Society Islands in -a native boat built “somewhat in the shape of a crescent, the stem and -stern high and pointed and the sides deep”. [44] Sometimes -exceptionally long voyages were forced by the weather conditions of -Oceania. “In 1696”, Ellis writes, “two canoes were driven from Ancarso -to one of the Philippine Islands, a distance of 800 miles.” He gives -other instances of voyages of like character. A Christian missionary, -travelling in a native boat, was carried “nearly 800 miles in a -south-westerly direction”. [45] Reference has already been made to the -long and daring voyage made by the Phœnicians who circumnavigated -Africa. Another extraordinary enterprise is referred to by Pliny the -elder, [46] who quotes from the lost work of Cornelius Nepos. This was -a voyage performed by Indians who had, before 60 B.C., embarked on a -commercial voyage and reached the coast of Germany. It is uncertain -whether they sailed round the Cape of Good Hope and up the Atlantic -Ocean, or went northward past Japan and discovered the north-east -passage, skirting the coast of Siberia, and sailing round Lapland and -Norway to the Baltic. They were made prisoners by the Suevians and -handed over to Quintus Metellus Celer, pro-consular governor of Gaul. - -In 1770 Japanese navigators reached the northern coast of Siberia and -landed at Kamchatka. They were taken to St. Petersburg, where they were -received by the Empress of Russia, who treated them with marked -kindness. In 1847–8 the Chinese junk Keying sailed from Canton to the -Thames and caused no small sensation on its arrival. This vessel -rounded the Horn and took 477 days to complete the voyage. - -Solomon’s ships made long voyages: “Once every three years came the -navy of Tarshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and -peacocks”. [47] - -As in the case of the potter’s wheel, cultural elements were -distributed far and wide by the vessels of the most ancient of -mariners. Before tracing these elements in China, it would be well to -deal with the motives that impelled early seafarers to undertake long -and adventurous voyages of exploration and to found colonies in distant -lands. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE WORLD-WIDE SEARCH FOR WEALTH - - Religious Incentive of Quest of Wealth—Sacredness of Precious - Metals and Stones—Gold and the Sky Deities—Iron as the Devil’s - Metal—Chinese Dragons and Metals—Gold good and Silver bad in - India—Dragons and Copper—Sulphuret of Mercury as “Dragon’s Blood” - and Elixir of Life—Dragons and Pearls—The “Jewel that grants all - Desires”—Story of Buddhist Abbot and the Sea-God—“Jewels of Flood - and Ebb”—Japan and Korea—Sea-god as “Abundant Pearl Prince”—Pearl - Fishers—Early History of Sea-trafficking—Traders and Colonists—Cow, - Moon, Shells, and Pearls connected with Mother-goddess—The Sow - Goddess—Shell Beliefs—Culture Drifts and Culture Complexes. - - -There can be no doubt as to the reasons why Solomon sought to emulate -the maritime activities of the Phœnicians who had been bringing -peacocks from India, silver from Spain, and gold from West Africa and -elsewhere long before his day. - - - “And King Solomon made a navy of ships in Ezion-geber, which is - beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom. And - Hiram sent in the navy his servants, shipmen that had knowledge of - the sea, with the servants of Solomon. And they came to Ophir, and - fetched from thence gold, four hundred and twenty talents, and - brought it to King Solomon.” [48] - - -When the Queen of Sheba visited Jerusalem she was accompanied by -“camels that bare spices, and very much gold, and precious stones”. -[49] About seven centuries before Solomon’s day, Queen Hatshepsut of -Egypt, to whom reference was made in the last chapter, had emulated the -feats of her ancestors by sending a fleet to Punt (Somaliland or -British East Africa) to bring back, among other things, myrrh trees for -her new temple. The myrrh was required “for the incense in the temple -service”. [50] Ancient mariners set out on long voyages, not only on -the quest of wealth, but also of various articles required for -religious purposes. Indeed, the quest of wealth had originally -religious associations. Gold, silver, copper, pearls, and precious -stones were all sacred, and it was because of their connection with the -ancient deities that they were first sought for. The so-called -“ornaments” worn by our remote ancestors were charms against evil and -ill luck. Metals were similarly supposed to have protective qualities. -Iron is still regarded in the Scottish Highlands as a charm against -fairy attack. In China it is a protection against dragons. The souls of -the Egyptian dead were “charmed” in the other world by the amulets -placed in their tombs. When the Pharaoh’s soul entered the boat of the -sun-god he was protected by metals. “Brought to thee”, a Pyramid text -states, “are blocks of silver and masses of malachite.” [51] Gold was -the metal of the sun-god and silver of the deity of the moon. Horus had -associations with copper, and Ptah, the god of craftsmen, with various -metals. Iron was “the bones of Set”, the Egyptian devil. In Greece and -India the mythical ages were associated with metals, and iron was the -metal of the dark age of evil (the Indian “Kali Yuga”). - -In China the metals have similarly religious associations. The -dragon-gods of water, rain, and thunder are connected with gold of -various hues—the “golds” coloured by the alchemists by fusion with -other metals. Thus we have Chinese references to red, yellow, white, -blue, and black gold, as in the following extract: - - - “When the yellow dragon, born from yellow gold a thousand years - old, enters a deep place, a yellow spring dashes forth; and if from - this spring some particles (fine dust) arise, these become a yellow - cloud. - - “In the same way blue springs and blue clouds originate from blue - dragons, born from blue gold eight hundred years old; red, white, - and black springs and clouds from red, white, and black dragons - born from gold of same colours a thousand years old.” [52] - - -In Indian Vedic lore gold is a good metal and silver a bad metal. One -of the Creation Myths states in this connection: - - - “He (Prajapati) created Asuras (demons). That was displeasing to - him. That became the precious metal with the bad colour (silver). - This was the origin of silver. He created gods. That was pleasing - to him. That became the precious metal with the good colour (gold). - That was the origin of gold.” [53] - - -The dragon of the Far East is associated with copper as well as gold. -In the Japanese Historical Records the story is told how the Emperor -Hwang brought down a dragon so that he might ride on its back through -the air. He first gathered copper on a mountain. Then he cast a tripod. -Immediately a dragon, dropping its whiskers, came down to him. After -the monarch had used the god as an “airship”, no fewer than seventy of -his subjects followed his example. Hwang was the monarch who prepared -the “liquor of immortality” (the Japanese “soma”) by melting cinnabar -(sulphuret of mercury, known as “dragon’s blood”). Chinese dragons, -according to Wang Fu in ’Rh ya yih, dread iron and like precious -stones. In Japan the belief prevailed that if iron and filth were flung -into ponds the dragons raised hurricanes that devastated the land. The -Chinese roused dragons, when they wanted rain, by making a great noise -and by throwing iron into dragon pools. Iron has “a pungent nature” and -injures the eyes of dragons, and they rise to protect their eyes. -Copper has, in China, associations with darkness and death. The “Stone -of Darkness” is hollow and contains water or “the vital spirit of -copper”. [54] Dragons are fond of these stones and of beautiful gems. -[55] - -The dragon-shaped sea-gods of India and the dragon-gods of China and -Japan have close associations with pearls. In a sixth-century Chinese -work, [56] it is stated that pearls are spit out by dragons. Dragons -have pearls “worth a hundred pieces of gold” in their mouths, under -their throats, or in their pools. When dragons fight in the sky, pearls -fall to the ground. De Groot [57] makes reference to “thunder pearls” -that dragons have dropped from their mouths. These illuminate a house -by night. In Wang Fu’s description of the dragon it is stated that a -dragon has “a bright pearl under its chin”. - -A mountain in Japan is called Ryushuho, which means “Dragon-Pearl -Peak”. It is situated in Fuwa district of Mino province, and is -associated in a legend with the Buddhist temple called “Cloud-Dragon -Shrine”. When this temple was being erected, a dragon, carrying a pearl -in its mouth, appeared before one of the priests. Mountain and -sanctuary were consequently given dragon names. - -The “jewel that grants all desires” is known in India, China, and -Japan. A Japanese story relates that once upon a time an Indian -Buddhist abbot, named Bussei (Buddha’s vow), set out on a voyage with -purpose to obtain this jewel (a pearl) which was possessed by “the -dragon king of the ocean”. In the midst of the sea the boat hove to -while Bussei performed a ceremony and repeated a charm, causing the -dragon-king to appear. The abbot, making a mystic sign, then demanded -the pearl; but the dragon deceived him and nullified the mystic sign. -Rising in the air, “the King of the Ocean” caused a great storm to -rage. The boat was destroyed and all on board it, except Bussei, were -drowned. Bussei afterwards migrated from southern India to Japan, -accompanied by Baramon (“Wall-gazing Brahman”). - -The “Jewels of Flood and Ebb” were jewels that granted desires. In -Japanese legend these were possessed by the dragon king (Sagara), whose -kingdom, like that of the Indian Naga monarch and that of the Gaelic -ruler of “Land Under-Waves”, is situated at the bottom of the sea. The -white jewel is called “Pearl of Ebb”, and the blue jewel “Pearl of -Flood”. - -A Japanese story relates that the Empress Jingo obtained from a sea-god -a “jewel that grants all desires”. During her reign a great fleet went -to Korea to obtain tribute. The Korean fleet went out to meet it, but -when it was drawn up for battle, a Japanese god cast into the sea the -“Pearl of Ebb”, and immediately the waters withdrew, leaving both -fleets stranded. The resolute King of Korea, not to be daunted, leapt -on to the dried sea-bed, and, marshalling his troops there, advanced at -the head of them to attack and destroy the Japanese fleet. Then the -Japanese god flung the “Pearl of Flood” into the sea. No sooner was -this done than the waters returned and drowned large numbers of -Koreans. Then a tidal wave swept over the Korean shore, while the -troops prayed for their lives in vain. Not until the “Pearl of Ebb” was -thrown once again into the sea did the waters retreat from the land. - -After these miraculous and disastrous manifestations, the King of Korea -was glad to make peace, and sent out three vessels laden with tribute -to the empress, who had conquered the enemy without the loss of a -single Japanese soldier or sailor, or even a single drop of Japanese -blood. - -Other names of the Japanese sea-god Sagara [58] are Oho-watatsumi (“sea -lord, or sea snake”), and Toyo-tama hiko no Mikoto (“Abundant Pearl -Prince”), and he has a daughter named Toyo-tama-bime (“Abundant Pearl -Princess”). [59] During storms, sailors threw jewels into the sea to -pacify the dragon king. - -Chinese emperors, like the Egyptian Pharaohs, had dragon boats which -were used in connection with religious rain-getting ceremonies. They -had also the bird boats called “yih”. Mr. Wells Williams refers to the -yih as “a kind of sea-bird that flies high, whose figure is gaily -painted on the sterns of junks, to denote their swift sailing”. He adds -that “the descriptions are contradictory, but its picture rudely -resembles a heron”. [60] - -It will be gathered from the evidence summarized above that the -seafaring activities of the Chinese and Japanese had close associations -with the search for precious metals and stones and pearls on the part -of those who introduced the Egyptian type of vessels into their waters. -With these ships went many customs and beliefs that became mixed with -local customs and beliefs. New modes of life were introduced, and, with -these, new modes of thought. Nothing persists like immemorial customs, -myths, and religious beliefs associated with a particular mode of life. - -Before the culture-complexes of China and Japan are investigated, so -that local elements may be sifted out from the overlying mass of -imported elements, it would be well to deal with the history of the -search for wealth across the oceans of the world. - -It is necessary, therefore, to turn back again to the cradle of -shipbuilding and maritime enterprise—to ancient Egypt with its -wonderful civilization of over 3000 years that sent its influences far -and wide. Whether or not the Egyptians ever reached China or Japan, we -have no means of knowing. Pauthier’s view in this connection has come -in for a good deal of destructive criticism. He referred to a Chinese -tradition that about 1113 B.C. the Court was visited by seafarers from -the kingdom of “Nili”, and suggested that they came from the Nile -valley. [61] The “Nili”, “Nēlē”, or “Nērē” folk, according to others, -came from the direction of Japan or from beyond Korea. References to -them are somewhat obscure. It does not follow that because Egyptian -ships reached China, they were manned by Egyptians. Ships were, like -potter’s wheels, adopted by folks who may never have heard of Egypt. A -culture flows far beyond the areas reached by those who have given it a -definite character, just as the Bantu dialects have penetrated to areas -in Africa far beyond Bantu control. - -What motives, then, stimulated maritime enterprise at the dawn of the -history of sea-trafficking? What attracted the ancient mariners? If it -was wealth, what was “wealth” to them? - -The answer to the last query is that wealth was something with a -religious significance. Gold was searched for, but not, to begin with, -for the purpose of making coins. There was no coinage. Gold was a -precious metal in the sense that it brought luck, and to the ancient -people “luck” meant everything they yearned for in this world and the -next. - -As far back as the so-called “Palæolithic period” in western Europe, -there was, as has been noted, a systematic search for wealth in the -form of sea-shells. The hunters in central Europe imported shells from -the Mediterranean coast and used them as amulets. These imported shells -are found in their graves. In Ancient Egypt, shells were carried from -the Red Sea coast, as well as from the Mediterranean coast, long before -the historical period begins. The evidence of the grave-finds shows -that Red Sea pearl-shell and Red Sea cowries were in use for religious -purposes. “Millions of them”, as Maspero has noted, have been found in -Ancient Egyptian graves. In time, pearls came into use, not only pearls -from Nile mussels, but from oysters found in the southern part of the -Gulf of Aden. As shipping developed, the pearl-fishers went farther and -farther in search of pearls. The famous ancient pearl area in the -Persian Gulf was discovered and drawn upon at some remote period. No -doubt the pearls worn by Assyrian and Persian monarchs came, in part, -from the Persian Gulf. At what period Ceylon pearls were first fished -for it is impossible to say. Of one thing we can be certain, however. -They were fished for by men who used the Egyptian type of vessel. - -The migrating and trading pearl-fishers carried their beliefs with them -from land to land. Almost everywhere are found the same beliefs and -practices connected with shells and pearls. These beliefs and practices -are of a highly complex character—so complex, indeed, that they must -have had an area of origin in which they reflected the beliefs and -customs of a people with a history of their own. The pearl, for -instance, was connected with the moon, with the goddess who was the -Great Mother, and with the sun and the sun-god. Venus (Aphrodite) was -sea-born. She was lifted from the sea, by Tritons, seated on a shell. -She was the pearl—the vital essence of the magic shell, and she was the -moon, the “Pearl of Heaven”. The pearl, like the moon, was supposed to -exercise an influence over human beings. In Egypt, the Mother Goddess -was symbolized by a cow, and cow, moon, pearl, and shell were connected -in an arbitrary way. - -In those areas in which the Mother Goddess was symbolized by the sow, -the shell was likewise connected with her. The Greeks applied to the -cowry a word that means “little pig”; this word had a special reference -to the female sex. The Romans called the shell “porci”, and porcelain -has a like derivation. [62] As has been shown, women were connected -with hand-made pottery, and the pot was a symbol of the Great Mother. -In Scotland, certain shells are still referred to as “cows” and “pigs”. -They were anciently believed to promote fertility and bring luck. The -custom of placing shells on window-sills, at doors, in fire-places, and -round garden plots still obtains in parts of England, Scotland, and -Ireland. Some low-reliefs of mother goddesses with baskets of fruit, -corn, &c., surviving from the Romano-British period, which have been -found in various parts of Britain, have shell-canopies. The Romans -“took over” the goddesses of the peoples of western Europe on whom they -imposed their rule, as they took over the Greek pantheon. - -Following the clues afforded by the evidence of ships, it is found that -the early pearl-fishers coasted round from the Red Sea to the Persian -Gulf, round India to the Bay of Bengal, round the Malay Peninsula to -the China Sea, northwards to the Sea of Okhotsk, and on to the western -coast of North America. Oceania was peopled by the ancient mariners, -who appear to have reached by this route the coast of South America. As -we have seen, Africa was circumnavigated. Western and north-western -Europe and the British Isles were reached at a very early period. - -The ancient seafarers searched not only for pearls and pearl-shell, but -also for gold, silver, copper, tin, and other metals and for precious -stones. They appear to have founded trading colonies that became -centres from which cultural influences radiated far and wide. From -these colonies expeditions set out to discover new pearling grounds and -new mineral fields. The search for wealth, having a religious -incentive, caused, as has been said, the spread of religious ideas. In -different countries, imported beliefs and customs became mingled with -local beliefs and customs, with the result that in many countries are -found “culture complexes” which have a historical -significance—reflecting as they do the varied experiences of the -peoples and the influences introduced into their homelands at various -periods. - -In the next chapter it will be shown how the dragon of China has a -history that throws much light on the early movements of explorers and -traders who carried the elements of complex cultures into far distant -lands. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CHINESE DRAGON LORE - - Dragon Rain-god and Tiger-god of Mountains and Woods—Thunder-gods - of East and West—Shark-gods as Guardians of Treasure—Dragon and - Whale—Fish Vertebræ as Charms—Dragon and Dugong, Crocodile, Eel, - &c.—Polynesian Dragon as “Pearl-mother”—Chinese Dragon and “Stag of - the Sky”—Babylonian Sea-god and the Antelope, Gazelle, Stag, and - Goat—Babylonian Dragon-slayers—Egyptian Gazelle- and - Antelope-gods—Osiris as a Sea-god—African Antelope and Asiatic - Dragon—The Serpent as “Water Confiner” in Egypt and India—Chinese - Dragon has “Nature of Serpent”—Ancient Attributes of Far-Eastern - Dragon—Dragon Battles—Dragons in East and West—Stones as “Dragon - Eggs”—Dragon Mother and World Dragon—Dragons and Emperors. - - -The Chinese dragon is a strange mixture of several animals. Ancient -native writers like Wang Fu inform us that it has the head of a camel, -the horns of a stag, the eyes of a demon, the ears of a cow, the neck -of a snake, the belly of a clam, the scales of a carp, the claws of an -eagle, and the soles of a tiger. On its head is the chiʼih muh lump -that (like a “gas-bag”) enables it to soar through the air. The body -has three jointed parts, the first being “head to shoulders”, the -second, “shoulders to breast”, and the third, “breast to tail”. The -scales number 117, of which 81 are imbued with good influence (yang) -and 36 with bad influence (yin), for the dragon is partly a Preserver -and partly a Destroyer. Under the neck the scales are reversed. There -are five “fingers” or claws on each foot. The male dragon has whiskers, -and under the chin, or in the throat, is a luminous pearl. There is no -denying the importance and significance of that pearl. - -A male dragon can be distinguished from a female one by its undulating -horn, which is thickest in the upper part. A female dragon’s nose is -straight. A horned dragon is called kʼiu-lung and a hornless one -chʼi-lung. Some dragons have wings. In addition there are -horse-dragons, snake-dragons, cow-dragons, toad-dragons, dog-dragons, -fish-dragons, &c., in China and Japan. Indeed, all hairy, feathered, -and scaled animals are more or less associated with what may be called -the “Orthodox Dragon”. The tiger is an enemy of the dragon, but there -are references to tiger-headed dragons. The dragon is a divinity of -water and rain, and the tiger a divinity of mountains and woods. [63] -The white tiger is a god of the west. - -Like the deities of other countries, the Chinese dragon-god (and the -Japanese dragon) may appear in different shapes—as a youth or aged man, -as a lovely girl or an old hag, as a rat, a snake, a fish, a tree, a -weapon, or an implement. But no matter what its shape may be, the -dragon is intimately connected with water. It is a “rain lord” and -therefore the thunder-god who causes rain to fall. The Chinese dragon -thus links with the Aryo-Indian god Indra and other rain- and -thunder-gods connected with agriculture, including Zeus of Greece, -Tarku of Asia Minor, Thor of northern Europe, the Babylonian Marduk -(Merodach), &c. There are sea-dragons that send storms like the -wind-gods, and may be appeased with offerings. These are guardians of -treasure and especially of pearling-grounds. Apparently the early -pearl-fishers regarded the shark as the guardian of pearls. It seized -and carried away the “robbers” who dived for oysters. The chief sea-god -of China sometimes appeared in shark form—an enormous lion-headed -shark. - -Procopius, a sixth-century writer, says in this connection: “Sea-dogs -are wonderful admirers of the pearl-fish, and follow them out to -sea.... A certain fisherman, having watched for the moment when the -shell-fish was deprived of the attention of its attendant sea-dog ... -seized the shell-fish and made for the shore. The sea-dog, however, was -soon aware of the theft, and, making straight for the fisherman, seized -him. Finding himself thus caught, he made a last effort, and threw the -pearl-fish on shore, immediately on which he was torn to pieces by its -protector.” [64] - -In Polynesia the natives have superstitious ideas about the shark. -“Although”, says Ellis, “they would not only kill but eat certain kinds -of shark, the large blue sharks, Squalus glaucus, were deified by them, -and, rather than attempt to destroy them, they would endeavour to -propitiate their favour by prayers and offerings. Temples were erected, -in which priests officiated, and offerings were presented to the -deified sharks, while fishermen, and others who were much at sea, -sought their favour.” [65] Polynesian gods, like Chinese dragons, -appeared in various shapes. “One, for instance,” writes Turner, “saw -his god in the eel, another in the shark, another in the turtle, -another in the dog, another in the owl, another in the lizard; and so -on throughout all the fish of the sea, and birds, and four-footed -beasts and creeping things. In some of the shell-fish, even, gods were -supposed to be present.” [66] Here we meet again with the shell -beliefs. The avatars of dragons had pearls. In an old Chinese work the -story is told of a dragon that appeared in the shape of a little girl -sitting at the entrance of a cave and playing with three pearls. When a -man appeared, the child fled into the cave, and, reassuming dragon -form, put the pearls in its left ear. [67] As the guardian of pearls, -the Chinese dragon links with the shark-god of the early pearl-fishers. -There were varieties of these sea-gods. In Polynesia “they had”, Ellis -has recorded, “gods who were supposed to preside over the fisheries, -and to direct to their coasts the various shoals by which they were -periodically visited.” The Polynesians invoked their aid “either before -launching their canoes, or while engaged at sea”. It is of interest to -find in this connection that the dragon had associations with the -whale. Ancient mariners reverenced the whale. The Ligurians and Cretans -carried home portions of the backbones of whales. [68] The habit of -placing spines of fish in graves is of great antiquity in Europe. The -early seafarers who reached California during its prehistoric age -perpetuated this very ancient custom. Beuchat gives an illustration of -a kitchen-midden grave in California in which a whale’s vertebra is -shown near the human skeleton. [69] The swashtika appears among the -pottery designs of early American pottery. [70] The ancient Peruvians -worshipped the whale, and the Maori dragon was compared to one. [71] In -Scottish folk-lore witches sometimes assume the forms of whales. - -The dolphin, the bluish dugong [72] (probably the “semi-human whale” -referred to by Ælian), and other denizens of the sea were regarded as -deities by ancient seafarers. De Groot, in his The Religious System of -China, quoting from the Shan hai King, relates that in the Eastern Sea -is a “Land of Rolling Waves”. In this region dwell sea-monsters that -are shaped like cows and have blue bodies. They are hornless and -one-legged. Each time they leave or enter the waters, winds arise and -rain comes down. Their voice is that of thunder and their glare that of -sun and moon. - -The reference to the single leg may have been suggested by the fact -that when the dugong dives the tail comes into view. This interesting -sea-animal has been “recklessly and indiscriminately slaughtered” in -historic times. - -Classical writers referred to some of the strange monsters seen by -their mariners as “sea-cows”. In like manner the Chinese have connected -denizens of the deep with different land animals. - -The religious beliefs associated with various sea and land animals -cling to that composite god the dragon. In dealing with it, therefore, -we cannot ignore its history, not only in China but in those countries -that influenced Chinese civilization, while attention must also be paid -to countries that, like China, were influenced by the early sea and -land traders and colonists. - -In Polynesia the dragon is called mo-o and mo-ko. “Their (the -Polynesian) use of this word in traditions”, says W. D. Westervelt, -[73] “showed that they often had in mind animals like crocodiles and -alligators, and sometimes they referred the name to any monster of -great mythical powers belonging to the man-destroying class. Mighty -eels, immense sea-turtles, large fish of the ocean, fierce sharks, were -all called mo-o. The most ancient dragons of the Hawaiians are spoken -of as living in pools or lakes.” Mr. Westervelt notes that “one dragon -lived in the Ewa lagoon, now known as ‘Pearl Harbour’. This was -Kane-kua-ana, who was said to have brought the pipi (oysters) to Ewa. -She [74] was worshipped by those who gather the shell-fish. When the -oysters began to disappear about 1850, the natives said the dragon had -become angry and was sending the oysters to Kahiki, or some far-away -foreign land.” It is evident that such a belief is of great antiquity. -The pearl under the chin of the Chinese dragon has, as will be seen, an -interesting history. - -But, it may be asked here, what connection has a mountain stag with the -ancient pearl-fishers? As Wang Fu reminds us, the pearl-guarding -Chinese dragon has “the horns of a stag”. It was sometimes called, De -Groot states, [75] “the celestial stag”—the “stag of the sky”. This was -not merely a poetic image. The sea-god Ea of ancient Babylonia was in -one of his forms “the goat fish”, as some put it. Professor Sayce says, -in this connection, “Ea was called ‘the antelope of the deep’, ‘the -antelope the creator’, ‘the lusty antelope’. He was sometimes referred -to as ‘a gazelle’. Lubin, ‘a stag’, was a reduplicated form of elim, ‘a -gazelle’. Both words were equivalent to sarru, ‘king’.” [76] Whatever -the Ea land animal was—whether goat, gazelle, antelope, or stag—it was -associated with a sea-god who, according to Babylonian belief, brought -the elements of culture to the ancient Sumerians, who were developing -their civilization at the seaport of Eridu, then situated at the head -of the Persian Gulf, in which pearls were found. Ea was depicted as -half a land animal and half a fish, or as a man wrapped in the skin of -a gigantic fish as Egyptian deities were wrapped in the skins of wild -beasts. One of Ea’s names was Dagan, which was possibly the Dagon -worshipped also by the Philistines and by the inhabitants of Canaan -before the Philistines arrived from Kaphtor (the land of Keftiu, i.e. -Crete). - -Ea was associated with the dragon Tiamat, which his son Marduk -(Merodach) slew. It is stated in Babylonian script that Ea “conferred -his name” on Marduk. In other words, Marduk supplanted Ea and took over -certain of his attributes, and part of his history. He was the god of -Babylon, which supplanted other cities, formerly capitals; he therefore -supplanted the chief gods of these cities. - -Ea was originally the slayer of the dragon Tiamat and the conqueror of -the watery abyss over which he reigned, supplanting the dragon. [77] He -became the dragon himself—the “goat fish” or “antelope of the deep”—the -composite deity connected with animals deified by ancient hunters and -fishers whose beliefs were ultimately fused with those of others with -whom they were brought into close association in centres of culture. -Ea, who had a dragon form, was connected with the serpent, or “worm”, -as well as with the fish. - -In Egypt Horus, Osiris, and Set were associated with the gazelle. -Osiris was, in one of his forms, the River Nile. He was not only the -Nile itself, but the controller of it; he was the serpent and soul of -the Nile, and he was the ocean into which the Nile flowed, and the -leviathan of the deep. In the Pyramid texts Osiris is addressed: “Thou -art great, thou art green, in thy name of Great-green (sea); lo, thou -art round as the Great Circle (Okeanos); lo, thou art turned about, -thou art round as the circle that encircles the Hauneba (Ægeans)”. [78] -Osiris was thus the serpent (dragon) that, lying in the ocean, -encircled the world. His son Horus is at one point in the Pyramid texts -(Nos. 1505–8) narrative “represented as crossing the sea”. [79] Horus -was sometimes depicted riding on the back of a gazelle or antelope. The -Egyptian antelope-god was in time fused with the serpent or dragon of -the sea. Referring to the evidence of Frobenius [80] in this -connection, Professor Elliot Smith says that “in some parts of Africa, -especially in the west, the antelope plays the part of the dragon in -Asiatic stories”. [81] When we reach India, it is found that the -wind-god, Vayu, rides on the back of the antelope. Vayu was fused with -Indra, the slayer of the dragon that controlled the water-supply, and, -indeed, retained it by enclosing it as the Osiris serpent of Egypt, or -the serpent-mother of Osiris, enclosed the water in its cavern during -the period of “the low Nile”, before the inundation took place. [82] -After Osiris, as the water-confining serpent (dragon) was slain, the -river ran red with his blood and rose in flood. Osiris, originally “a -dangerous god”, [83] was the “new” or “fresh” water of the inundation. -“The tradition of his unfavourable character”, Breasted comments, -“survived in vague reminiscences long centuries after he had gained -wide popularity.” Osiris ultimately became “the kindly dispenser of -plenty”, and his slayer, Set, originally a beneficent deity, was made -the villain of the story and fused with the dragon Apep, the symbol of -darkness and evil. This change appears to have been effected after the -introduction of the agricultural mode of life. The Nile, formerly the -destroyer, then became the preserver, sustainer, and generous giver of -“soul substance” and daily bread. - -When the agricultural mode of life was introduced into China the -horned-dragon, or horned-serpent (for the dragon, Chinese writers -remind us, has “the nature of a serpent”), became the Osiris -water-serpent. - -How a snake becomes a dragon is explained in the Shu i ki, which says: -“A water-snake after 500 years changes into a kiao, a kiao after 1000 -years changes into a lung; [84] a lung after 500 years changes into a -kioh-lung, [85] and after 1000 years into a ying-lung. [86]” In Japan -is found, in addition, the pʼan-lung (“coiled dragon”), which has not -yet ascended to heaven. [87] The “coiled dragon” is evidently the -water-retaining monster. - -The Chinese dragon is as closely connected with water as was the -serpent form of Osiris with the Nile in ancient Egypt, and as was Indra -with the “drought dragon” in India. The dragon dwells in pools, it -rises to the clouds, it thunders and brings rain, it floods rivers, it -is in the ocean, and controls the tides and causes the waters to ebb -and flow as do its magic pearls (the “Jewels of Flood and Ebb”), and it -is a symbol of the emperor. The Egyptian Pharaoh was an “avatar” of -Osiris, or Horus, [88] and the Chinese emperor was an “avatar” or -incarnation of the dragon. As water destroys, the dragon is a -destroyer; as water preserves and sustains, the dragon is a preserver -and sustainer. - -The dragon, as has been indicated, is essentially the Chinese -water-god. “The ancient texts ... are short,” says de Visser, “but -sufficient to give us the main conceptions of old China with regard to -the dragon. He was in those early days, just like now, the god of -water, thunder, clouds, and rain, the harbinger of blessings, and the -symbol of holy men. As the emperors are the holy beings of earth, the -idea of the dragon being the symbol of imperial power is based upon -this ancient conception.” [89] - -The Chinese “dragon well” is usually situated inside a deep mountain -cave. It was believed that the well owed its origin to the dragon. De -Visser quotes, in this connection, from an ancient sage, who wrote: -“When the yellow dragon, born from yellow gold a thousand years old, -enters a deep place, a yellow spring dashes forth, and if from this -spring some particles (fine dust) arise, these become a yellow cloud”. -A famous dragon well is situated at the top of Mount Pien, in Hu-cheu. -It flows from a cave, and is called “Golden Well Spring”. The cave is -known as the “Golden Well Cave”, and is supposed to be so deep that no -one can reach the end of it. There was a dragon well near Jerusalem. -[90] Other dragon wells are found as far west as Ireland and Scotland. -A cave with wells, called the “Dropping Cave”, at Cromarty, has a demon -in its inner recesses. The Corycian cave of the Anatolian Typhoon is -one of similar character. According to Greek legend, this -hundred-headed monster, from whose eyes lightning flashes, will one day -send hail, floods, and rivers of fire to lay waste Sicilian farms. [91] -The floods of the River Rhone were supposed to be caused by the “drac”. -In Egypt Set became the “roaring serpent”, who crept into a hole in the -ground, “wherein he hid himself and lived”. He had previously taken the -shapes of the crocodile and the hippopotamus to escape Horus, the -Egyptian “dragon slayer”. - -In China the season of drought is winter. The dragons are supposed to -sleep in their pools during the dry spell, and that is why, in the old -Chinese work, Yih Lin, it is stated that “a dragon hidden in water is -useless”. The dragons are supposed to sleep so that they may “preserve -their bodies”. They begin to stir and rise in spring. Soon they fight -with one another, so that there is no need for a Horus, a Merodach, or -an Indra to compel them, by waging battle, to bring benefits to -mankind. The Chinese welcome what they called a “dragon battle” after -the dry season. Thunder-storms break out, and rain pours down in -torrents. If a number of dragons engage in battle, and the war in the -air continues longer than is desired, the rivers rise in flood and -cause much destruction and loss of life. As the emperor was closely -connected with the chief dragon-god, social upheavals and war might -result, it was anciently believed, in consequence of the failure of the -priests and the emperor (the holiest of priests) to control the -dragons. The dynasty might be overthrown by the indignant and ruined -peasantry. - -Among the curious superstitions entertained in China regarding dragon -battles, is one that no mortal should watch them. It was not only -unlucky but perilous for human beings to peer into the mysteries. De -Visser quotes a Chinese metrical verse in this connection: - - - When they fight, the dragons do not look at us; - Why should we look at them when they are fighting? - If we do not seek the dragons, - They also will not seek us. [92] - - -In Gaelic Scotland the serpent, which is associated with the goddess -Bride, sleeps all winter and comes forth on 1st February (old style), -known as “Bride’s day”. A Gaelic verse tells in this connection: - - - The serpent will come from the home - On the brown day of Bride, - Though there should be three feet of snow - On the flat surface of the ground. [93] - - -As in China, a compact was made with the Bride serpent or dragon: - - - To-day is the Day of Bride, - The serpent shall come from his hole, - I will not molest the serpent, - And the serpent will not molest me. - - -It is evident that some very ancient belief, connected with the -agricultural mode of life, lies behind these curious verses in such -far-separated countries as Scotland and China. Bride and her serpent -come forth to inaugurate the season of fruitfulness as do the battling -dragons in the Far East. - -When Chinese dragons fight, fire-balls and pearls fall to the ground. -Pearls give promise of abundant supplies of water in the future. It is -necessary, if all is to go well with the agriculturist, that the blue -and yellow dragons should prevail over the others. The blue dragon is -the chief spirit of water and rain, and this is the deity that presides -during the spring season. - -A glimpse is afforded of the mental habits of the early searchers for -precious or sacred metals and jewels by the beliefs entertained in -China regarding the origin of the dragon-gods. These were supposed to -have been hatched from stones, especially beautiful stones. The colours -of stones were supposed to reveal the characters of the spirits that -inhabited them. In Egypt, for instance, the blue turquoise was -connected with the mother-goddess Hathor, who was, among other things, -a deity of the sky and therefore the controller of the waters above the -firmament as well as of the Nile. She was the mother of sun and moon. -She was appealed to for water by the agriculturists and for favourable -winds by the seafarers. The symbol used on such occasions was a blue -stone. It was a “luck stone” that exercised an influence on the -elements controlled by the goddess. In the Hebrides a blue stone used -to be reverenced by the descendants of ancient sea-rovers. Martin in -his Western Isles tells of such a stone, said to be always wet, which -was preserved in a chapel dedicated to St. Columba on the Island of -Fladda. “It is an ordinary custom,” he has written, “when any of the -fishermen are detained in the isle by contrary winds, to wash the blue -stone with water all round, expecting thereby to procure a favourable -wind, which, the credulous tenant living in the isle says, never fails, -especially if a stranger wash the stone.” Why a “stranger”? Was this -curious custom introduced of old by strangers who had crossed the deep? -Had the washing ceremony its origin in the custom of pouring out -libations practised by those who came from an area in which a complex -religious culture had grown up, and where men had connected a deity, -originally associated with the water-supply and therefore with the -food-supply, with tempests and ocean-tides and the sky? - -The Chinese, who called certain beautiful stones “dragon’s eggs”, -believed that when they split, lightning flashed and thunder bellowed -and darkness came on. The new-born dragons ascended to the sky. Before -the dragons came forth, much water poured from the stone. As in the -Hebrides, the dragon stone had, it would appear, originally an -association with the fertilizing water-deity. - -The new-born Chinese dragon is no bigger than a worm, or a baby serpent -or lizard, but it grows rapidly. Evidently beliefs associated with the -water-snake deities were fused with those regarding coloured stones. -The snake was the soul of the river. Osiris as the Nile was a snake. -His mother had, therefore, a snake form. - -The haunting memory of the goddess-mother of water-spirits clings to -the “dragon mother” of a Chinese legend related by ancient writers, a -version of which is summarized by de Visser. [94] Once, it runs, an old -woman found five “dragon eggs” lying in the grass. When they split (as -in Egypt “the mountain of dawn” splits to give birth to the sun), this -woman carried the little serpents to a river and let them go. For this -service she was given the power to foretell future events. She became a -sibyl—a priestess. The people called her “The Dragon Mother.” When she -washed clothes at the river-side, the fishes, who were subjects of -dragons, “used to dance before her”. - -In various countries certain fish were regarded as forms of the -shape-changing dragon. The Gaelic dragon sometimes appeared as the -salmon, and a migratory fish was in Egypt associated with Osiris and -his “mother”. - -When the Chinese “Dragon Mother” died, she was buried on the eastern -side of the river. Why, it may be asked, on the eastern side? Was it -because, being originally a goddess, she was regarded as the “mother” -of the sun-god of the east—the mother who was “the mountain of dawn” -and whose influence was concentrated in the blue stone? The Chinese -dragon of the east is blue, and the blue dragon is associated with -spring—the first-born season of the year. But apparently the dragons -objected to the burial of the “Dragon Mother” on the eastern bank. The -legend tells that they raised a violent storm, and transferred her -grave to the western bank. Until the present age the belief obtains -that there is always wind and rain near the “Dragon Mother’s Grave”. -The people explain that the dragons love to “wash the grave”. - -Here we find the dragons pouring out libations, as did the worshippers -of the Great Mother who came from a distant land. - -The god of the western quarter is white, and presides over the autumn -season of fruitfulness. Just before the “birth” of autumn the Chinese -address their prayers to the mountains and hills. - -In ancient Egypt the conflict between the Solar and Osirian cults was a -conflict between the “cult of the east” and the “cult of the west”. -Professor Breasted notes that although Osiris is “First of the -Westerners” (the west being his quarter) “he goes to the east (after -death) in the Pyramid texts (of the solar cult) and the pair, Isis and -Nepthys (the goddess), carry the dead into the east”. The east was the -place where the ascent to the sky was made. In Egyptian solar theology -it combined with the south. The rivalry between the two cults is -reflected in one particular Pyramid text in which “the dead is adjured -to go to the west in preference to the east, in order to join the -sun-god!” But to the solar cult the east was “the most sacred of all -regions”. In the Pyramid texts it is found that “the old doctrine of -the ‘west’ as the permanent realm of the dead, a doctrine which is -later so prominent, has been quite submerged by the pre-eminence of the -east”. [95] - -This east-and-west theological war, then, had its origin in Egypt. How -did it reach China, there to be enshrined in the legend of the Dragon -Mother? Can it be held that it was “natural” the Chinese should have -invented a legend which had so significant and ancient a history in the -homeland of the earliest seafarers? - -The dragon-gods that presided over the seasons and the divisions of the -world were five in number. At the east was the blue (or green) god -associated with spring, at the west the white god associated with -autumn, at the north the black god associated with winter (the Chinese -season of drought), and at the south were two gods, the red and the -yellow; the red god presided during the greater part of summer, the -rule of the yellow god being confined to the last month. - -The dragons were life-givers not only as the gods who presided over the -seasons and ensured the food-supply, but as those who gave cures for -diseases. The “Red Cloud herb” and other curative herbs were found -after a thunderstorm beside the dragon-haunted pools. De Groot [96] -tells that fossil bones were called “dragon bones”, and were used for -medicinal purposes. The dragons were supposed to cast off their bones -as well as their skins. Bones of five colours (the colours of the five -dragons) were regarded as the most effective. White and yellow bones -came next in favour. Black bones were “of inferior quality”. The Shu -King, a famous Chinese historical classic, [97] tells that the dragons’ -bones come from Tsin land. It is noted that the five-coloured ones are -the best. The blue, yellow, red, white, and black ones, according to -their colours, correspond with the viscera, as do the five chih -(felicitous plants), the five crystals (shih ying), and the five kinds -of mineral bole (shih chi). De Groot [98] gives the colours connected -with the internal organs as follows: - - - 1. Blue—liver and gall. - 2. White—lungs and small intestines. - 3. Red—heart and large intestines. - 4. Black—kidneys and bladder. - 5. Yellow—spleen and stomach. - - -Apparently the special curative quality of a dragon’s bone was revealed -by its colour. The gods of the various “mansions” influenced different -organs of the human body. - -In ancient Egypt the internal organs were placed in jars and protected -by the Horuses of the cardinal points. The god of the north had charge -of the small viscera, the god of the south of the stomach and large -intestines, the god of the west of liver and gall, and the god of the -east of heart and lungs. The Egyptian north was red and symbolized by -the Red Crown, and the south was white and symbolized by the White -Crown. - -In Mexico the colours white, red, and yellow were connected with -different internal organs, and black with a disembowelled condition. - -It is evident that the sea and land traders carried their strange -stocks of medical knowledge over vast areas. It is not without -significance to find in this connection that, according to Chinese -belief, there was an island on which dragons’ bones were found. - -The dragons are not only rain-gods and gods of the four quarters and -the seasons, but also “light-gods”, connected with sun and moon, day -and night. In the Yih lin there is a reference to a black dragon which -vomits light and causes darkness to turn into light. The mountain -dragon of Mount Chung is called the “Enlightener of Darkness”. “When it -opens its eyes it is day, when it shuts its eyes it is night. Blowing -he makes winter, exhaling he makes summer. The wind is its breath.” -[99] - -In like manner the Egyptian Ra and Ptah are universal gods, the sun and -moon being their “eyes”. Even Osiris, as far back as the Pyramid -period, was the source of all life and a world-god. He was addressed: -“The soil is on thy arm, its corners are upon thee as far as the four -pillars of the sky. When thou movest the earth trembles.... As for -thee, the Nile comes forth from the sweat of thy hands. Thou spewest -out the wind....” [100] Osiris sent water to bring fertility as do the -dragons, air for the life-breath of man and beast, and also light, -which was, of course, fire (the heat which is life). - -The idea of the life-principle being in fire and water lies behind Wang -Fu’s statement: “Dragon fire and human fire are opposite. If dragon -fire comes into contact with wetness, it flames; and if it meets water, -it burns. If one drives it (the dragon) away by means of fire, it stops -burning and its flames are extinguished.” [101] Celestial fire is -something different from ordinary fire. The “vital spark” is of -celestial origin—purer and holier than ordinary fire. Dragon skins, -even when cast off, shine by night. So do pearls, coral, and precious -stones “shine in darkness” in the Chinese myths. - -One traces the influence of the solar cult in the idea that the -dragon’s vital spirit is in its eyes. It is because iron blinds a -dragon that it fears that metal. In Egypt the eye of Horus is blinded -by Set, whose metal is iron. - -There is a quaint mixture of religious ideas in the Chinese custom of -carrying in procession through the streets, on the 15th of the first -month, a dragon made of bamboo, linen, and paper. In front of it is -borne a red ball. De Groot says that this is the azure dragon, the head -of which rose as a star to usher in spring at the beginning. [102] In -like manner the Egyptian “spring” is ushered in by the star Sirius, the -mother of the sun, from which falls a tear that causes the inundation. -But although the red ball may have been a solar symbol, it is also -connected with the moon. The Chinese themselves call the ball “The -Pearl of Heaven”—that is, “the moon”. An inscription on porcelain -brings this out clearly. Mr. Blacker has translated the text below two -dragons rushing towards a ball as “A couple of dragons facing the -moon”. [103] The dragons were not only moon- and sun-“devourers” who -caused eclipses, but guardians of these orbs in their capacities as -gods of the four quarters. - -The all-absorbing dragon appears even as a vampire. A tiger-headed -dragon with the body of a snake seizes human beings, covers them with -saliva, and sucks blood from under their armpits. “No blood is left -when they stop sucking.” [104] In Japanese legends dragons as white -eels draw blood from the legs of horses that enter a river. [105] Evil -or sick dragons send bad rain. - -The gods ride on dragons, and therefore emperors and holy men can also -use them as vehicles. Yu, the founder of the Hea Dynasty, had a -carriage drawn by two dragons. Ghosts sometimes appear riding on -dragons and wearing blue hats. The souls of the dead are conveyed to -the Celestial regions by the winged gods. Dragons appear when great men -are born. [106] Emperors had dragon ancestors. The Emperor Yaou was the -son of a red dragon; one Japanese emperor had a dragon’s tail, being a -descendant of the sea-god. [107] - -In the next chapter it will be shown that in Chinese dragon-lore it is -possible to detect with certainty the sources of certain “layers” that -were superimposed on primitive conceptions regarding these deities. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -BIRD AND SERPENT MYTHS - - Culture Complexes in Dragon-lore—Polynesian Dragon Beliefs—Oceanic - and African Fish-gods—Reptile Deities where no Reptiles are - found—Chinese Dragons and Indian Nagas—Dragon-links between India, - Tibet, China, and Japan—Birds and Snakes—Distribution of Egyptian - “Winged Disk”—Horus and the “Secretary Bird”—Indian Mungoose - supplants “Secretary Bird”—Mungoose form of God of Riches and - Death—Bird and Serpent combined in Dragon—Babylonian Dragon was a - combination of Eagle, Serpent, and Lion—Tree Forms of the Chinese - Dragon, the Polynesian Mo-o, and the Indian Nagas—The Dragon, the - Salmon, the Tree, and the “Thunder-bird”. - - -The intensive study of a country’s beliefs and ideas, as revealed in -its myths and legends, is greatly facilitated by the adoption of the -comparative method. It may not always be found possible to identify -areas in which certain beliefs had origin, but when we detect, as we do -in China, myths similar to those found in other lands, and especially -highly complex myths, that had origin in one particular country and -received additions in another, the imported elements may be sifted out -from a local religious system without much difficulty. - -The Chinese dragon has distinct and outstanding Chinese -characteristics, but it is obviously not entirely a Chinese creation. -Attached to the “composite wonder beast” are complex ideas that have a -history outside China, as well as those ideas that reflect Chinese -natural phenomena and Chinese experiences and habits of life and -thought. The fused beliefs, as symbolized by the dragon, have passed -through a prolonged process of local development, but those that were -imported have not, it is found, been entirely divested of their -distinctive characteristics, and remain preserved as flies are in -amber. - -Interesting and important evidence that throws light on the history of -the Chinese dragon is found in Polynesia, India, and Babylonia, and -even in Egypt and Europe. The cultural influence of Babylonia, which -radiated over a wide area for a score of centuries or longer, is -traceable in India, and, as is well known, Buddhist India exercised a -strong cultural influence on China. But, as will be shown, Babylonian -influence reached the Shensi province of China long before the Aryans -entered India. Buddhist ideas regarding the pearl-protecting dragon-god -of water and fire were evidently superimposed in China upon earlier -Babylonian ideas regarding the water-dragon, which had no particular -connection with pearls. At any rate, there is no mention of pearls in -the Babylonian myth. - -When it is found that many of the ideas connected with the Chinese -dragon were prevalent in Polynesia, what conclusion is to be drawn? -There is no evidence that Chinese culture was an active force in New -Zealand or Hawaii, for instance. It cannot have been from China that -the Polynesians derived their dragon, or their beliefs connected with -the serpent, a reptile unknown to the islanders at first hand. The only -reasonable conclusion that can be drawn is that the Chinese and the -Polynesians were influenced at an early period by intruders from other -lands. The Polynesian intruders must necessarily have been sea-traders. -Of course, the Polynesians may themselves have imported their dragon -beliefs from their homeland. That homeland, however, was certainly not -China. - -The Polynesian Mo-o or Mo-ko (dragon) had, as was shown in the last -chapter, a connection with pearls. “On Maui”, writes W. D. Westervelt, -[108] “the greatest dragon of the island was Kiha-wahine. The natives -had the saying, ‘Kiha has mana, or miraculous power, like Mo-o-inanea’. -She lived in a large, deep pool on the edge of the village Lahaina, and -was worshipped by the royal family of Maui as their special guardian.” -Royal families were invariably the descendants of intruding conquerors. -It is of special interest, therefore, to find the Polynesian dragon-god -connected with a military aristocracy. - -The Rev. George Brown, missionary and explorer, refers to similar -dragon beliefs among the people of New Britain. He tells of a spring -connected with the woman (goddess) who caused the deluge. The natives -“say that an immense fish lives in it, which will come out when they -call it”. The belief obtains among the Melanesians “that the creator of -all things was a woman”. She “made all lands” and “the natives prayed” -to her “when an eclipse of the sun or the moon took place”. [109] The -king of Samoan gods was a dragon. “This god”, Brown tells, “had the -body of a man to the breast only, and the body of an eel (muræna) -below. This eel’s body lies down in the ocean, and from the chest to -the head lies down in the house. This is the god to whom all things are -reported. The inferior gods are his attendants.” [110] - -Gods half human and half reptile, or half human and half fish, are -found in various countries. In the British Museum are bronze reliefs of -the King of Benin (as the representative of his chief deity) half shark -and half man. The kings of Dahomey were depicted as sharks with bodies -covered with scales; their statues are in the Trocadero, Paris. [111] - -That the Polynesian reptile deities were imported there can be no -doubt. As early as 1825 Mr. Bloxam, the English naval chaplain, drew -this necessary conclusion. In his The Voyage of the Blonde he says: “At -the bottom of the Parre (pali) there are two large stones, on which -even now offerings of fruit and flowers are laid to propitiate the -Aku-wahines, or goddesses, who are supposed to have the power of -granting a safe passage”. Referring to the female mo-o, or reptile -deities, Mr. Bloxam says it was difficult for him to get an explanation -of their name, the Hawaiians having “nothing of the shape of serpents -or large reptiles in their islands”. [112] - -But the closest analogy to the Chinese dragon is found in India. The -Nagas (serpent-gods), which were taken over by the Buddhists, and the -Chinese dragons have much in common. “Cobras in their ordinary shape,” -writes Dr. Rhys Davids of the Nagas, “they lived beneath the waters -like mermen and mermaids, in great luxury and wealth, more especially -of gems.” Sometimes the tree-spirits (dryads) are called Nagas. “They -could at will, and often did, adopt the human form; and though terrible -if angered, were kindly and mild by nature.” [113] Kerns says “that the -Nagas are water-spirits represented, as a rule, in human shapes, with a -crown of serpents on their heads”, and also as “snake-like beings -resembling clouds”. [114] They are “demi-gods”. Like the Chinese -dragons, the Nagas are guardians of the four quarters of the universe. -There are withal Nagas in the sea who control winds and tides, and one -of the Naga kings is Sagara, who is a Neptune in Japan. The Nagas are -also “Lords of the Earth”, and send drought and disease when offended -or neglected. Ea, the sea-god of the early Babylonians, was known also -as Enki, “The Lord of the Earth”. - -In Buddhist art the Naga is shown in three forms: (1) as a human being -with a snake on or poised over the head, reminding one of the Egyptian -kings or queens who wear the uræus symbol on their foreheads; (2) as -half human and half snake (the “mermaid form”); and (3) as ordinary -snakes. The first form is found not only in India, but in Tibet, China, -and Japan. Human-shaped Nagas are depicted worshipping Buddha, as they -stand in water. - -In Tibet, the Naga is shown with the upper part of the body in human -shape and the lower in snake shape; there are horns on the head and -wings spreading out from the shoulders. The same form is found in -Japan. - -This Tibetan link between the Indian Naga and the Chinese Dragon is -important. The bird-god has been blended with the snake-god. In India -the bird-gods (Garudas) are enemies of the Nagas (snakes), and Garudas -in “eagle shape” are found depicted in low relief, carrying off Nagas -in snake shape. This eternal conflict between eagle-like birds and -serpents is one of the features of Babylonian mythology. - -The story of Zu, the Babylonian Eagle-god, is found on tablets that -were stored in the library of the great Assyrian King, Ashur-bani-pal. -Zu, it is related, stole from the gods the “tablets of destiny”, and -was pursued and caught by Shamash, the sun-god. In one version of the -myth Zu, the eagle, is punished by the serpent, which conceals itself -in the body of an ox. When the eagle comes to feast on the flesh it is -seized by the serpent and slain. - -In Polynesia the eternal conflict between bird-god and serpent-god is -illustrated in wood-carvings. The Egyptian winged disk, as adopted by -the islanders, shows the bird in the centre with a struggling snake in -its beak. The Central American peoples had likewise this -bird-and-serpent myth. Indeed, it figures prominently in their -mythologies. In Mexico the winged disk was placed, as in Egypt, above -the entrances to the temples. - -The bird-and-serpent myth is to be found even in the Iliad. When Hector -set forth with his heroes to break through the wall of the Achæan camp, -an eagle appeared in the air, bearing in its talons “a blood-red -monstrous snake, alive and struggling still”. The writhing snake -manages to sting the eagle, which immediately drops it. [115] - -In ancient Egyptian myths the bird was the Horus hawk and the serpent -was Set. Horus assumed, in his great battle against the snake, -crocodile, and other enemies of Ra, the winged disk form—the winged -sun, protected by the two snake-goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt. - -This strange combination of deities in the “winged disk” symbol was as -distinctively an Egyptian cultural and political complex as the Union -Jack is distinctively a British complex. As the Union Jack has been -carried to many a distant land, so was the Egyptian winged disk, “the -flag” of Egyptian culture. In those areas in which the winged disk is -found, are found also traces of Egyptian ideas which, of course, were -not necessarily introduced by the Egyptians themselves. - -How did this myth of the struggle between bird and serpent have origin? -The only country in the world in which a great bird hunts serpents is -Africa. The bird in question is the famous secretary bird (Serpentarius -secretarius), which is nowadays domesticated by South African farmers -so as to keep down snakes. It is found in East and West Africa. “In -general appearance it looks like a modified eagle mounted on stilts.” -[116] The bird attacks a snake with wings outspread, and flaps them in -front of its body to prevent itself from being bitten during the -conflict. Early Egyptian seafarers were no doubt greatly impressed -when, “in the land of Punt”, they saw these strange birds, with heads -like eagles or hawks, standing over snakes they had clutched in their -talons, and then flying away with them dangling from their beaks. The -mariners’ stories about the snake-devouring bird appear to have crept -into the mythology of Egypt, with the result that the Horus hawk became -the hunter of Set in his “hissing serpent” form. Above the hole in the -ground into which the Set serpent fled for concealment and safety was -set a pole surmounted by the head of the Horus hawk. As Dr. Budge puts -it: “Horus, the son of Isis, stood upon him (Set) in the form of a pole -or staff, on the top of which was the head of a hawk”. [117] But, one -may urge, it could not have been until after Egyptian vessels visited -the coasts haunted by the secretary bird that the bird and serpent -variation of the Horus-Set myth was formulated in the land of Egypt, -whence, apparently, it was distributed far and wide. Horus was not -necessarily an enemy of serpents, seeing that there are two in his -disk. - -In Tibet, as has been stated, the bird and serpent were combined, and -the “composite beast” was given a human head with horns. The horned and -winged dragon of China is thus, in part, a combination of the original -secretary bird and the snake. - -The later blending process was, no doubt, due to Buddhistic influence. -Both Nagas (snakes) and Garudas (eagles or secretary birds) were -included in northern India among the gods and demons who worshipped -Buddha. The Nagas understood the language of birds. They gave charms to -human beings so that they might share this knowledge. In European and -Arabian stories folk-heroes acquire the language of birds, or of all -animals, after eating the hearts of dragons. A Naga king causes an -Indian king to understand what animals say. [118] - -“The jewel that grants all desires” is possessed by the Indian Nagas, -as it is by Chinese and Japanese dragons. In the Mahábhárata, the -Pandava hero Arjuna is, after being slain in combat, restored to life -by his Naga wife, who had obtained this magic jewel from the Naga king. -[119] - -The Nagas are guardians of pearls, and the females have many pearl -necklaces. - -Note may here be taken of interesting Indian evidence that throws light -on the process of transferring to a local animal complex ideas -associated with another animal figuring in an imported myth. The great -enemy of African snakes is, as has been said, the secretary bird; the -Indian enemy is the mungoose. In early Buddhist art the mungoose, -spitting jewels, is placed in the right hand of Kubera, god of wealth, -who stands on the back of a Yaksha (a bird demon). By devouring snakes -(Nagas) the mungoose (according to the myth) “appropriates their -jewels, and has hence developed into the attribute of Kubera”. [120] -Here the pearl-guarding shark, having become a jewel-guarding -dragon-snake, is substituted by the jewel-spitting mungoose which has -“devoured” its attributes. - -The god Kubera has a heaven of its own, and is a form of Yama, god of -death. In his form as Dharma, god of justice, Yama figures in the -Mahábhárata [121] as a “blue-eyed mungoose with one side of his body -changed into gold”, his voice being “loud and deep as thunder”. Here -Yama links with Indra, god of thunder, who, having a heaven of his own, -is also a god of death. Egypt had its “blue-eyed Horus”. [122] The god -Horus was the living form of Osiris. The living Pharaoh was a Horus, -and the dead Pharaoh an Osiris, as Dr. Gardiner reminds us. - -The combination of bird and serpent is found in Persia as well as in -Tibet. On an archaic cylinder seal from the ancient Elamite capital of -Susa, the dragon is a lion with an eagle’s head and wings; the forelegs -are those of the eagle, and the hind legs those of a lion. - -A form of the god Tammuz, namely the god Nin-Girsu (“Lord of Girsu”) of -the Sumerian city of Lagash (Girsu appears to have been a suburb), was -a lion-headed eagle. [123] The god Ea had a dragon form. [124] The -dragon of the Ishtar gate of Babylon is a combination of eagle, -serpent, and lion, and is horned. - -There can remain little doubt that the Chinese dragon has an -interesting history, not only in China but outside that country. It -cannot be held to have independent origin. At a remote period dragon -beliefs reached China, India, and Polynesia, and even America. [125] - -In each separated area the dragon took on a local colouring, but the -fundamental beliefs connected with it remained the same. It was closely -connected with water (the “water of life”), and also with trees (the -“trees of life”). Thus we find that in China a dragon might assume “the -shape of a tree growing under water”; [126] a boat once collided with -drift-wood which was found to be a dragon. Crocodiles are sometimes -mistaken for logs of wood. - -In Hawaii two noted dragons (mo-o) lived in a river. “They were called -‘the moving boards’ which made a bridge across the river.” [127] - -The Indian Nagas were not only water deities but tree spirits, as Dr. -Rhys Davids has emphasized. [128] - -Behind dragon worship is a complex of beliefs connected with what is -usually called “tree and well worship”. In Gaelic stories, the sacred -tree is guarded by the “beast” in the sacred well, and a form of the -“beast” (dragon) is the salmon; in the tree is the “thunder bird”. -Dragon, tree, and bird are connected with the god of thunder who sends -rain. - -When Buddhism reached China, imported Naga beliefs were superimposed on -earlier Chinese beliefs connected with the dragon-god who controlled -the rain-supply, as Osiris in Egypt controlled the Nile, and the -Babylonian Ea the Euphrates. - -In the next chapter various beliefs connected with the dragon are -brought out in representative legends. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -DRAGON FOLK-STORIES - - How Fish became Chinese Dragons—Fish forms of Teutonic and Celtic - Gods—Dragon-slayers eat Dragons’ Hearts—The “Language of - Birds”—Heart as Seat of Intelligence—Babylonian - Dragon-Kupu—Polynesian Dragon-Kupua—Dragons and Medicinal - Herbs—Story of Chinese Herbalist and “Red Cloud Herb”—“Boy Blue” - and Red Carp as Forms of Black Dragon—Ignis Fatuus as “Dragon - Lanterns”—“Heart Fire”—Story of Priest and Dragon-woman—The “Fire - Nail” in Japan and Polynesia—The “Faith Cure” in Japan—The Magic - Rush-mat—Grave Reed-mats, Skins, and Linen Wrappings—The - Ephod—Melusina in Far East—Story of Wu and the Thunder Dragon. - - -In Chinese and Japanese folk-stories the dragons have fish forms or -avatars. They may be eels, carps, or migratory fish like the salmon. It -is believed that those fish that ascend a river’s “dragon gate” become -dragons, while those that remain behind continue to be fish. Dragons -are closely associated with waterfalls. They haunt in one or other of -their forms the deep pools below them. - -In western European stories, dragons and gods of fire and water assume -the forms of fish, and hide themselves in pools. Loki of Icelandic -legend has a salmon form. When the gods pursue him, he hides in -Franang’s stream, or “under the waters of a cascade called -Franangurfors”. [129] After he is caught and bound, Loki is tortured by -a serpent. When he twists his body violently, earthquakes are caused. -He is closely associated with the “dragon-woman”, and is the father of -monsters, including the moon-swallowing wolf-dragon. - -Andvari, the guardian of Nibelung treasure, has a pike form. [130] - -In Gaelic legend the salmon is the source of wisdom and of the power to -foretell events. Finn (Fionn) tastes of the “Salmon of Knowledge” when -it is being cooked, and immediately becomes a seer. Michael Scott, in -like manner, derives wisdom from the “juices” of the white snake. The -salmon is, in Gaelic, a form of the dragon. The dragon of Lough Bel -Séad [131] (Lake of the Jewel Mouth), in Ireland, was caught “in the -shape of a salmon”. - -Sigurd, the dragon-slayer of Norse Icelandic stories, eats the dragon’s -heart, and at once understands the language of birds. So does Siegfried -of Germanic romance. The birds know the secrets of the gods. They are -themselves forms of the gods. Apollonius of Tyana acquired wisdom by -eating the hearts of dragons in Arabia. - -In ancient Egypt the heart was not only the seat of life, but the mind, -and therefore the source of “words of power”. The Hebrews and many -other peoples used “heart” when they wrote of “mind”. [132] Ptah, god -of Memphis, was the “heart” (mind) of the gods. The “heart” fashioned -the gods. Everything that is came into existence by the thought of the -“heart” (mind). - -The Egyptian belief about the power of the “heart” (the source of magic -knowledge, and healing, and creative power) lies behind the stories -regarding heroes eating dragons’ hearts. In an Egyptian folk-tale the -dragon-slayer does not eat the heart of the reptile god, but gets -possession of a book of spells, and, on reading these, acquires -knowledge of the languages of all animals, including fish and birds. -[133] - -When, however, we investigate the dragon beliefs of ancient Babylonia, -we meet with a reference to the Ku-pu as the source of divine power and -wisdom. After Merodach (Marduk) the dragon-slayer kills Tiamat, the -“mother dragon”, a form of the mother-goddess, he “divides the flesh of -the Ku-pu, and devises a cunning plan”. As the late Mr. Leonard W. King -pointed out, [134] Ku-pu is a word of uncertain meaning. It did not -signify the heart, because it had been previously stated in the text -that Merodach severed her inward parts, he pierced her heart. - -Jensen has suggested that Ku-pu signifies “trunk, body”. It is more -probable that the Ku-pu was the seat of the soul, mind, and magical -power; the power that enabled the slain reptile to come to life again -in another form. [135] - -It may be that a clue is afforded in this connection by the Polynesian -idea of Kupua. Mr. Westervelt, who has carefully recorded what he has -found, writes regarding the Mo-o (dragons) of the Hawaiians: - - - “Mighty eels, immense sea turtles, large fish of the ocean, fierce - sharks, were all called mo-o. The most ancient dragons of the - Hawaiians are spoken of as living in pools or lakes. These dragons - were known also as Kupuas, or mysterious characters, who could - appear as animals, or human beings, according to their wish. The - saying was, ‘Kupuas have a strange double body!’” - - -The Polynesian beliefs connected with the Kupuas are highly suggestive. -Mr. Westervelt continues: - - - “It was sometimes thought that at birth another natural form was - added, such as an egg of a fowl or a bird, or the seed of a plant, - or the embryo of some animal which, when fully developed, made a - form which could be used as readily as the human body. These Kupuas - were always given some great magic power. They were wonderfully - strong, and wise, and skilful. - - “Usually the birth of a Kupua, like the birth of a high chief, was - attended with strange disturbances in the heavens, such as - reverberating thunder, flashing lightning, and severe storms which - sent the abundant red soil of the islands down the mountain-sides - in blood-red torrents, known as ka-ua-koko (the blood rain). The - name was also given to misty, fine rain when shot through by the - red waves of the sun.” - - -All the dragons of Hawaii were descended from Mo-o-inanea (the -self-reliant dragon), a mother-goddess. She had a dual nature, -“sometimes appearing as a dragon, sometimes as a woman”. Hawaiian -dragons also assumed the forms of large stones, some of which were -associated with groves of hau trees; on these stones ferns and flowers -were laid and referred to as “kupuas”. [136] - -In China the dragon’s kupua (to use the Polynesian term) figures in -various stories. We meet with the “Red Cloud herb”, or the “Dragon -Cloud herb”, which cures diseases. It is the gift of the dragon, and -apparently a dragon kupua. Other curative herbs are the -“dragon-whisker’s herb” and the “dragon’s liver”, a species of gentian, -which is in Japan a badge of the Minamoto family. The “dragon’s -spittle” had curative qualities, the essence of life being in the body -moisture of a deity. The pearl, which the dragon spits out, has, or is, -“soul substance”. The plum tree was in China connected with the dragon. -A story tells that once a dragon was punished by having its ears cut -off. Its blood fell on the ground, and a plum tree sprang up; it bore -fleshy fruit without kernels. [137] When in an ancient Egyptian story -the blood of the Bata bull falls to the ground two trees containing his -soul-forms grow in a night. [138] - -A Chinese “Boy Blue” story deals with the search made by Wang Shuh, a -herbalist, for the Red Cloud herb. He followed the course of a mountain -stream on a hot summer day, and at noon sat down to rest and eat rice -below shady trees beside the deep pool of a waterfall. As he lay on the -bank, gazing into the water, he was astonished to see in its depths a -blue boy, about a foot in height, with a blue rush in his hand, riding -on the back of a red carp, without disturbing the fish, which darted -hither and thither. In time the pair came to the surface, and, rising -into the air, turned towards the east. Then they went swiftly in the -direction of a bank of cloud that was creeping across the blue sky, and -vanished from sight. - -The herbalist continued to ascend the mountain, searching for the herb, -and when he reached the summit was surprised to find that the sky had -become completely overcast. Great masses of black and yellow clouds had -risen over the Eastern Sea, and a thunder-storm was threatening. Wang -Shuh then realized that the blue boy he had seen riding on the back of -the red carp was no other than the thunder-dragon. He peered at the -clouds, and perceived that the boy and the carp [139] had been -transformed into a black kiao (scaled dragon). He was greatly alarmed, -and concealed himself in a hollow tree. - -Soon the storm burst forth in all its fury. The herbalist trembled to -hear the voice of the black thunder-dragon and to catch glimpses of his -fiery tongue as he spat out flashes of lightning. Rain fell in -torrents, and the mountain stream was heavily swollen, and roared down -the steep valley. Wang Shuh feared that each moment would be his last. - -In time, however, the storm ceased and the sky cleared. Wang Shuh then -crept forth from his hiding-place, thankful to be still alive, although -he had seen the dragon. He at once set out to return by the way he had -come. When he drew near to the waterfall he was greatly astonished to -hear the sound of sweet humming music. Peering through the branches of -the trees, he beheld the little blue boy riding on the back of the red -carp, returning from the east and settling down on the surface of the -pool. Soon the boy was carried into the depths and past the playful -fish again. - -Struck with fear, the herbalist was for a time unable to move. When at -length he had summoned sufficient strength and courage to go forward, -he found that the boy and the carp had vanished completely. Then he -perceived that the Red Cloud herb, for which he had been searching, had -sprung up on the very edge of the swirling water. Stooping, he plucked -it greedily. As soon as he had done so, he went scampering down the -side of the mountain. On reaching the village, Wang told his friends -the wonderful story of his adventure and discovery. - -Now it happened that the Emperor’s daughter—a very beautiful girl—was -lying ill in the royal palace. The Court physicians had endeavoured in -vain to restore her to health. Hearing of Wang Shuh’s discovery of the -Red Cloud herb, the Emperor sent out for him. On reaching the palace, -the herbalist was addressed by the Emperor himself, who said: “Is it -true, as men tell, that you have seen the black kiao in the form of a -little blue boy riding on a red carp?” - -“It is indeed true,” Wang Shuh made answer. - -“And is it true that you have found the dragon herb that sprang up -during the thunder-storm?” - -“I have brought the herb with me, Your Majesty.” - -“Mayhap,” the Emperor said, “it will give healing to my daughter.” - -Wang Shuh at once made offer of the herb, and the Emperor led him to -the room in which the sick princess lay. The herb had a sweet odour, -[140] and Wang Shuh plucked a leaf and gave it to the lady to smell. -She at once showed signs of reviving, and this was regarded as a good -omen. Wang Shuh then made a medicine from the herb, and when the -princess had partaken of it, she grew well and strong again. - -The Emperor rewarded Wang Shuh by appointing him his chief physician. -Thus the herbalist became a great and influential man. - -To few mortals comes the privilege of setting eyes on a dragon, and to -fewer is the vision followed by good fortune. - -In this quaint story the Red Cloud herb is evidently a kupua of the -thunder-dragon. It had “soul substance” (the vital essence). Another -kupua or avatar was the carp. - -In China and Japan there are references in dragon stories to pine trees -being forms assumed by dragons. The connection between the tree and -dragon is emphasized by the explanation that when a pine becomes very -old it is covered with scales of bark, and ultimately changes into a -dragon. By night “dragon lanterns” (ignis fatuus) are seen on pine -trees in marshy places, and on the masts of ships at sea. - -The pine trees at Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines are said to be -regularly illuminated by these “supernatural” lights. The “lanterns” -are supposed to come from the sea. Japanese stories tell that when a -lantern appears on a pine, a little boy, known as the “Heavenly Boy”, -is to be seen sitting on the topmost branch. Some lights were supposed -to be the souls of holy men. In Gaelic stories are told about little -men being seen in these wandering lights. - -There is an evil form of the fire which is supposed to rise from the -blood of a suicide or of a murderer’s victim. The “heart fire” (the -“vital spark”) in the blood is supposed to rise as a flame from the -ground. A similar superstition prevailed in England. If lights made -their appearance above a prison on the night before the arrival of the -judges of assize, the omen was regarded as a fatal one for the -prisoners. The belief is widespread in the British Isles that lights -(usually greenish lights) appear before a sudden death takes place. - -Wandering lights seen on mountains were supposed by the Chinese and -Japanese to be caused by dragons. A Japanese legend associates them -with a dragon woman, named Zennyo, who appears to have the attributes -of a fire-goddess. It is told regarding a Buddhist priest who lived -beside a dragon hole on Mount Murōbu. One day, as he was about to cross -a river, a lady wearing rich and dazzling attire came up to him and -made request for a magic charm he possessed. She spoke with averted -face, telling who she was. The priest repeated the charm to her and -then said: “Permit me to look upon your face”. - -Said the dragon woman: “It is very terrible to behold. No man dare gaze -on my face. But I cannot refuse your request.” - -The priest had his curiosity satisfied, but apparently without coming -to harm. Priestly prestige was maintained by stories of this kind. - -As soon as the priest looked in her face the dragon woman rose in the -air, and stretched out the small finger of her right hand. It was not, -however, of human shape, but a claw that suddenly extended a great -length and flashed lights of five colours. The “five colours” indicate -that the woman was a deity. Kwan Chung, in his work Kwantsze, says: “A -dragon in the water covers himself with five colours. Therefore, he is -a god (shin).” [141] - -The “fire nail” figures prominently in Polynesian mythology. In the -legend of Maui, that hero-god goes to the old woman (the goddess), his -grandmother, to obtain fire for mankind. “Then the aged woman pulled -out her nail; and as she pulled it out fire flowed from it, and she -gave it to him. And when Maui saw she had drawn out her nail to produce -fire for him, he thought it a most wonderful thing.” [142] - -The reference in the Japanese story to the averted face of the dragon -woman may be connected with the ancient belief that the mortal who -looked in the face of a deity was either shrivelled up or transformed -into stone, as happened in the case of those who fixed their eyes upon -the face of Medusa. Goddesses like the Egyptian Neith were “veiled”. A -Japanese legend tells of a dragon woman who appeared as a woman with a -malicious white face. She laughed loudly, displaying black teeth. She -was often seen on a bridge, binding up her hair. [143] Apparently she -was a variety of the mermaid family, and this may explain the reference -to her being “one legged”. The people scared her away by forming a -torch-light procession and advancing towards her. Dragons were -sometimes expelled by means of fire. In Europe, bonfires were lit when -certain “ceremonies of riddance” were performed. - -British mermaids are credited, in the folk-tales, with providing cures -for various diseases, and especially herbs, [144] and in this -connection they link with the dragon wives of China and Japan. Some -dragon women lived for a time among human beings as do swan-maidens, -nereids, mermaids, and fairies in the stories of various lands. - -A Japanese legend tells of an elderly and mysterious woman who had the -power to cure any ill that flesh is heir to. When a patient called, she -listened attentively to what was told her. Then she retired to a secret -chamber, sat down and placed a rush mat [145] on her head. After -sitting alone for a time (apparently engaged in working a magic spell) -she left the chamber and returned to the patient. She recommended the -“faith cure”. Making the pretence that she was handing over a medicine, -she said: “Believe that I have given you medicine. Now, go away. Each -day you must sit down and imagine that you are taking my medicine. Come -back to me in seven days’ time.” Those who faithfully carried out her -instructions are said to have been cured. Large numbers visited her -daily. - -It was suspected that this woman was possessed by the spirit of a -water-demon. A watch was set upon her, and one night she was seen going -from her house to a well in which, during the day, she often washed her -head while being consulted by patients. Those who watched her told that -she remained in human shape for a little time. Then she transformed -herself into a white mist and entered the well. Protective charms were -recited, and she never returned. For many years afterwards, however, -her house was haunted. - -De Groot relates a story about one of the wives of an Emperor of China -who practised magic by means of reptiles and insects. Her object was to -have her son selected as crown prince. She was detected, and she and -her son were imprisoned. Both became dragons before they died. - -Dragons sometimes appear in the stories in the rôle of demon lovers. A -Japanese legend tells of two boys who were the children of a man and a -dragon woman. In time they changed into dragons and flew away. The -woman herself came to her lover in the shape of a snake, and then -transformed herself into a beautiful maiden. - -This is a version of a very widespread story, found in the Old and New -World, which was possibly distributed by ancient mariners and traders. -Its most familiar form is the French legend of Melusina, the serpent -woman, who became the wife of Raymond of Poitou, and the mother of his -disfigured children. [146] - -A Chinese legend of the Melusina order deals with the fall of the Hea -Dynasty. A case of dragon foam which had been kept in the royal palace -during three dynasties was one day opened, and there issued forth a -dragon in the form of a black lizard. It touched a young virgin, who -became the mother of a girl whom she bore in secret and abandoned in a -wood. It chanced that a poor man and his wife, who were childless, -hearing the cries of the babe, took her to their house, where they -cared for her tenderly. But the magicians came to know of the dragon’s -daughter, of whom it had been prophesied that she would destroy the -dynasty. Search was made for the child, and the foster-parents fled -with her to the land of Pao. They presented her to the king of the -land, and she grew up to be a beautiful maid who was called Pao Sze. -The king loved her dearly, and when she gave birth to a son, he made -her his queen, degrading Queen Chen and her son, the crown prince. Poh -Fuh, the son of the dragon woman, then became crown prince instead. - -Now Pao Sze, although very beautiful, was always sad of countenance. -She never smiled. The king did everything in his power to make her -smile and laugh. But his efforts were in vain. - -“Fain would I hear you laugh,” said he. - -But she only sighed and said: “Ask me not to laugh.” - -One day the king, in his endeavours to break the spell of sadness that -bound his beautiful queen, arranged that his lords should enter the -palace and declare that an enemy army was at hand, and that the life of -the king was in peril. - -This they did. The king was at the time making merry when his lords -entered suddenly and said: “Your Majesty, the enemy have come, while -you sit making merry, and they are resolved to slay you.” - -The king’s sudden change of countenance made the dragon woman laugh. -His Majesty was well pleased. - -Then, as it chanced, the enemy came indeed. But when the alarm was -raised, the lords thought it was a false one. The army took possession -of the city, entered the palace, and slew the king. Pao Sze was taken -prisoner, because of her fatal beauty; but she brought no joy to her -captor and transformed herself into a dragon, departing suddenly and -causing a thunder-storm to rage. - -To those who win their favour, the dragons are preservers even when -they come forth as destroyers. The story is told of how Wu, the son of -a farmer named Yin, won the favour of a dragon and rose to be a great -man in China. When he was a boy of thirteen, he was sitting one day at -the garden gate, looking across the plain which is watered by a winding -river that flows from the mountains. He was a silent, dreamy boy, who -had been brought up by his grandmother, his mother having died when he -was very young, and it was his habit thus to sit in silence, thinking -and observing things. Along the highway came a handsome youth riding a -white horse. He was clad in yellow garments and seemed to be of high -birth. Four man-servants accompanied him, and one held an umbrella to -shield him from the sun’s bright rays. The youth drew up his horse at -the gate and, addressing Wu, said: “Son of Yin, I am weary. May I enter -your father’s house and rest a little time?” - -The boy bowed and said: “Enter.” - -Yin then came forward and opened the gate. The noble youth dismounted -and sat on a seat in the court, while his servants tethered the horse. -The farmer chatted with his visitor, and Wu gazed at them in silence. -Food was brought, and when the meal was finished, the youth thanked him -for his hospitality and walked across the courtyard. Wu noticed that -before one of the servants passed through the gate, he turned the -umbrella upside down. When the youth had mounted his horse, he turned -to the silent, observant boy and said: “I shall come again to-morrow.” - -Wu bowed and answered: “Come!” - -The strangers rode away, and Wu sat watching them until they had -vanished from sight. - -When evening came on, the farmer spoke to his son regarding the -visitors, and said: “The noble youth knew my name and yet I have never -set eyes on him before.” - -Wu was silent for a time. Then he said: “I cannot say who the youth is -or who his attendants are.” - -“You watched them very closely, my son. Did you note anything peculiar -about them?” - -Said Wu: “There were no seams in their clothing; the white horse had -spots of five colours and scaly armour instead of hair. The hoofs of -the horse and the feet of the strangers did not touch the ground.” -[147] - -Yin rose up with agitation and exclaimed: “Then they are not human -beings, but spirits.” - -Said Wu: “I watched them as they went westward. Rain-clouds were -gathering on the horizon, and when they were a great distance off they -all rose in the air and vanished in the clouds.” [148] - -Yin was greatly alarmed to hear this, and said: “I must ask your -grandmother what she thinks of this strange happening.” - -The old woman was fast asleep, and as she had grown very deaf it was -difficult to awaken her. When at length she was thoroughly roused, and -sat up with head and hands trembling with palsy, [149] Yin repeated to -her in a loud voice all that Wu had told him. - -Said the woman: “The horse, spotted with five colours, and with scaly -armour instead of hair, is a dragon-horse. When spirits appear before -human beings they wear magic garments. That is why the clothing of your -visitors had no seams. Spirits tread on air. As these spirits went -westward, they rose higher and higher in the air, going towards the -rain-clouds. The youth was the Yellow Dragon. He is to raise a storm, -and as he had four followers, the storm will be a great one. May no -evil befall us.” - -Then Yin told the old woman that one of the strangers had turned the -umbrella upside down before passing through the garden gate. “That is a -good omen,” she said. Then she lay down and closed her eyes. “I have -need of sleep,” she murmured; “I am very old.” [150] - -Heavy masses of clouds were by this time gathering in the sky, and Yin -decided to sit up all night. Wu asked to be permitted to do the same, -and his father consented. Then the boy lit a yellow lantern, put on a -yellow robe that his grandmother had made for him, burned incense, and -sat down reading charms from an old yellow book. [151] - -The storm burst forth in fury just when dawn was breaking dimly. Wu -then closed his yellow book and went to a window. The thunder bellowed, -the lightning flamed, and the rain fell in torrents, and swollen -streams poured down from the mountains. Soon the river rose in flood -and swept across the fields. Cattle gathered in groups on shrinking -mounds that had become islands surrounded by raging water. - -Yin feared greatly that the house would be swept away, and wished he -had fled to the mountains. - -At night the cottage was entirely surrounded by the flood. Trees were -cast down and swept away. “We cannot escape now,” groaned Yin. - -Wu sat in silence, displaying no signs of emotion. “What do you think -of it all?” his father asked. - -Wu reminded him that one of the strangers had turned the umbrella -upside down, and added: “Before the dragon youth went away he spoke and -said: ‘I shall come again to-morrow’.” - -“He has come indeed,” Yin groaned, and covered his face with his hands. - -Said Wu: “I have just seen the dragon. As I looked towards the sky he -spread out his great hood above our home. He is protecting us now.” - -“Alas! my son, you are dreaming.” - -“Listen, father, no rain falls on the roof.” - -Yin listened intently. Then he said: “You speak truly, my son. This is -indeed a great marvel.” - -“It was well,” said Wu, “that you welcomed the dragon yesterday.” - -“He spoke to you first, my son; and you answered, ‘Enter’. Ah, you have -much wisdom. You will become a great man.” - -The storm began to subside, and Wu prevailed upon his father to lie -down and sleep. [152] - -Much damage had been done by storm and flood, and large numbers of -human beings and domesticated animals had perished. In the village, -which was situated at the mouth of the valley, only a few houses were -left standing. - -The rain ceased to fall at midday. Then the sun came out and shone -brightly, while the waters began to retreat. - -Wu went outside and sat at the garden gate, as was his custom. In time -he saw the yellow youth returning from the west, accompanied by his -four attendants. When he came nigh, Wu bowed and the youth drew up his -horse and spoke, saying: “I said I should return to-day.” - -Wu bowed. - -“But this time I shall not enter the courtyard,” the youth added. - -“As you will,” Wu said reverently. - -The dragon youth then handed the boy a single scale which he had taken -from the horse’s neck, and said: “Keep this and I shall remember you.” - -Then he rode away and vanished from sight. - -The boy re-entered the house. He awoke his father and said: “The storm -is over and the dragon has returned to his pool.” [153] - -Yin embraced his son, and together they went to inform the old woman. -She awoke, sat up, and listened to all that was said to her. When she -learned that the dragon youth had again appeared and had spoken to Wu, -she asked: “Did he give you ought before he departed?” - -Wu opened a small wooden box and showed her the scale that had been -taken from the neck of the dragon horse. - -The woman was well pleased, and said: “When the Emperor sends for you, -all will be well.” - -Yin was astonished to hear these words, and exclaimed: “Why should the -Emperor send for my boy?” - -“You shall see,” the old woman made answer as she lay down again. - -Before long the Emperor heard of the great marvel that had been worked -in the flooded valley. Men who had taken refuge on the mountains had -observed that no rain fell on Yin’s house during the storm. So His -Majesty sent couriers to the valley, and these bade Yin to accompany -them to the palace, taking Wu with him. - -On being brought before the Emperor, Yin related everything that had -taken place. Then His Majesty asked to see the scale of the dragon -horse. - -It was growing dusk when Wu opened the box, and the scale shone so -brightly that it illumined the throne-room so that it became as bright -as at high noon. - -Said the Emperor: “Wu shall remain here and become one of my magicians. -The yellow dragon has imparted to him much power and wisdom.” - -Thus it came about that Wu attained high rank in the kingdom. He found -that great miracles could be worked with the scale of the dragon horse. -It cured disease, and it caused the Emperor’s army to win victories. -Withal, Wu was able to foretell events, and he became a renowned -prophet and magician. - -The farmer’s son grew to be very rich and powerful. A great house was -erected for him close to the royal palace, and he took his grandmother -and father to it, and there they lived happily until the end of their -days. - -Thus did Wu, son of Yin, become a great man, because of the favour -shown to him by the thunder-dragon, who had wrought great destruction -in the river valley and taken toll of many lives. - -It will be gathered from this story that the Chinese dragon is not -always a “beneficent deity”, as some writers put it. Like certain other -gods, he is a destroyer and preserver in one. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE KINGDOM UNDER THE SEA - - The Vanishing Island of Far-Eastern Dragon-god—Story of Priest who - visited Underworld—Far-Eastern Dragon as “Pearl Princess”—Her Human - Lover—An Indian Parallel—Dragon Island in Ancient Egyptian - Story—The Osirian Underworld—Vanishing Island in Scotland and - Fiji—Babylonian Gem-tree Garden—Far-Eastern Quest of the Magic - Sword—Parallels of Teutonic and Celtic Legend—“Kusanagi Sword”, the - Japanese “Excalibur”—City of the Far-Eastern Sea-god—Japanese - Vision of Gem-tree Garden—Weapon Demons—Star Spirits of Magic - Swords—Swords that become Dragons—Dragon Jewels—Dragon - Transformations. - - -The palace of the dragon king is situated in the Underworld, which can -be entered through a deep mountain cave or a dragon-guarded well. In -some of the Chinese stories the dragon palace is located right below a -remote island in the Eastern Sea. This island is not easily approached, -for on the calmest of days great billows dash against its shelving -crags. When the tide is high, it is entirely covered by water and -hidden from sight. Junks may then pass it or even sail over it, without -their crews being aware that they are nigh to the palace of the -sea-god. - -Sometimes a red light burns above the island at night. It is seen many -miles distant, and its vivid rays may be reflected in the heavens. - -In a Japanese story the island is referred to as “a glowing red mass -resembling the rising sun”. No mariner dares to approach it. - -There was once a Chinese priest who, on a memorable night, reached the -dragon king’s palace by entering a deep cave on a mountain-side. It was -his pious desire to worship the dragon, and he went onward in the -darkness, reciting religious texts that gave him protection. The way -was long and dark and difficult, but at length, after travelling far, -he saw a light in front of him. He walked towards this light and -emerged from the cavern to find that he was in the Underworld. Above -him was a clear blue firmament lit by the night sun. He beheld a -beautiful palace in the midst of a garden that glittered with gems and -flowers, and directed his steps towards it. He reached a window the -curtain of which rustled in the wind. He perceived that it was a mass -of gleaming pearls. Peering behind it, as it moved, he beheld a table -formed of jewels. On this table lay a book of Buddhist prayers -(sutras). - -As he gazed with wonder and reverence, the priest heard a voice that -spake and said: “Who hath come nigh and why hath he come?” - -The priest answered in a low voice, giving his name, and expressing his -desire to behold the dragon king, whom he desired to worship. - -Then the voice made answer: “Here no human eye can look upon me. Return -by the way thou hast come, and I shall appear before thee at a distance -from the cavern mouth.” - -The priest made obeisance, and returned to the world of men by the way -he had come. He went to the spot that the voice had indicated, and -there he waited, reading sacred texts. Soon the earth yawned and the -dragon king arose in human shape, wearing a red hat and garment. The -priest worshipped him, and then the dragon vanished from sight. On that -sacred spot a temple was afterwards erected. - -Once upon a time the daughter of the dragon king, who was named -“Abundant Pearl Princess”, fell in love with a comely youth of Japan. -He was sitting, on a calm summer day, beneath a holy tree, and his -image was reflected in a dragon well. The princess appeared before him -and cast a love spell over his heart. The youth was enchanted by her -beauty, and she led him towards the palace of the dragon king, the -“Abundant Pearl Prince”. There she married him, and they lived together -for three years. Then the youth was possessed by a desire to return to -the world of men. In vain the princess pleaded with him to remain in -the palace. When, however, she found that his heart was set on leaving -the kingdom of the Underworld, she resolved to accompany him. He was -conveyed across the sea on the back of a wani (a dragon in crocodile -shape). The princess accompanied him, and he built a house for her on -the seashore. - -The “Abundant Pearl Princess” was about to become a mother, and she -made the youth promise not to look upon her until after her child was -born. But he broke his vow. Overcome with curiosity, he peered into her -chamber and saw that his wife had assumed the shape of a dragon. As -soon as the child was born, the princess departed in anger and was -never again beheld by her husband. - -This story, it will be noted, is another Far-Eastern version of the -Melusina legend. - -An Indian version of the tale relates that the hero was a sailor, the -sole survivor from a wreck, who swam to a small island in the midst of -the sea. When he reached the shore, he set out to look for food, but -found that the trees and shrubs, which dazzled him with their beauty, -bore beautiful gems instead of fruit. At length, however, he found a -fruit-bearing tree. He ate and was well content. Then he sat down -beside a well. As he stooped to drink of its waters, he had a vision of -the Underworld in all its beauty. At the bottom of the well sat a fair -sea-maid, who looked upwards with eyes of love and beckoned him towards -her. He plunged into the well and found himself in the radiant Kingdom -of Ocean. The maid was the queen, and she took him as her consort. She -promised him great wealth, but forbade him to touch the statue of an -Apsara [154], which was of gold and adorned with gems. But one day he -placed his hand on the right foot of the image. The foot darted forth -and struck him with such force that he was driven through the sea and -washed ashore on his native coast. [155] - -The oldest version of this type of story comes from Egypt. It has been -preserved in a papyrus in the Hermitage collection at Petrograd, and is -usually referred to as of Twelfth Dynasty origin (c. 2000 B.C.). A -sailor relates that he was the sole survivor from a wreck. He had -seized a piece of wood and swam to an island. After he recovered from -exhaustion, he set out to search for food. “I found there figs and -grapes, all manner of good herbs, berries and grain, melons of all -kinds, fishes and birds.” In time, he heard a noise “as of thunder”, -while “the trees shook and the earth was moved”. The ruler of the -island drew nigh. He was a human-headed serpent “thirty cubits long, -and his beard greater than two cubits; his body was as overlaid with -gold, and his colour as that of true lapis-lazuli”. - -The story proceeds to tell that the sailor becomes the guest of the -serpent, who makes speeches to him and introduces him to his family. It -is stated that the island “has risen from the waves and will sink -again”. After a time the sailor is rescued by a passing vessel. [156] -This ancient Egyptian tale links with the Indian and Chinese versions -given above. The blue serpent resembles closely the Chinese dragon; the -vanishing island is common to Egypt and China. Like much else that came -from Egypt, the island has a history. Long before the ancient mariners -transferred it to the ocean, it figured in the fused mythology of the -Solar and Osirian cults. Horus hid from Set on a green floating island -on the Nile. He was protected by a serpent deity. His father, Osiris, -is Judge and Ruler of the Underworld, and has a serpent shape as the -Nile god and the dragon of the abyss. The red light associated with the -Chinese dragon island of ocean recalls the Red Horus, a form of the -sun-god, rising from the Nile of the Underworld, on which floated the -green nocturnal sun, “the green bed of Horus” and a form of his father -Osiris as the solar deity of night. - -The Osirian underworld idea appears to have given origin to the -widespread stories found as far apart as Japan and the British Isles -regarding “Land-under-Waves” and “the Kingdom of the Sea”. The green -floating island of Paradise is referred to in Scottish Gaelic -folk-tales. In Fiji the natives tell of a floating island that vanishes -when men approach it. [157] - -In some Chinese legends Egyptian conceptions blend with those of -Babylonia. The Chinese priest who, in the dragon-king story, reached -the Underworld through a deep cave, followed in the footsteps of -Gilgamesh, who went in search of the “Plant of Life”—the herb that -causes man “to renew his youth like the eagle”. [158] Gilgamesh entered -the cave of the Mountain of Mashi (Sunset Hill), and after passing -through its night-black depths, reached the seaside garden in which, as -on the island in the Indian story, the trees bore, instead of fruit and -flowers, clusters of precious stones. He beheld in the midst of this -garden of dazzling splendour the palace of Sabitu, the goddess, who -instructed him how to reach the island on which lived his ancestor -Pir-naphishtum (Ut-napishtim). Gilgamesh was originally a god, the -earlier Gishbilgames of Sumerian texts. [159] - -The Indian Hanuman (the monkey-god) similarly enters a deep cave when -he goes forth as a spy to Lanka, the dwelling-place of Ravana, the -demon who carried away Sita, wife of Rama, the hero of the Rámáyana. A -similar story is told in the mythical history of Alexander the Great. -There are also western European legends of like character. Hercules -searches for the golden apples that grow in the Hesperian gardens. -[160] In some Far Eastern stories the hero searches for a sword instead -of an herb. “Every weapon,” declares an old Gaelic saying, “has its -demon.” The same belief prevailed in China, where dragons sometimes -appeared in the form of weapons, and in India, where the spirits of -celestial weapons appeared before heroes like Arjuna and Rama. [161] In -the Teutonic Balder story, as related by Saxo Grammaticus, [162] the -hero is slain by a sword taken from the Underworld, where it was kept -by Miming (Mimer), the god, in an Underworld cave. Hother, who gains -possession of it, goes by a road “hard for mortal man to travel”. - -In the Norse version the sword becomes an herb—the mistletoe, a -“cure-all”, like the Chinese dragon herb and the Babylonian “Plant of -Life”. Excalibur, the sword of King Arthur, was obtained from the -lake-goddess (a British “Naga”), and was flung back into the lake -before he died: - - - So flashed and fell the brand Excalibur: - But ere he dipped the surface, rose an arm - Clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful, - And caught him by the hilt, and brandished him - Three times, and drew him under in the mere. [163] - - -The Japanese story of the famous Kusanagi sword is a Far-Eastern link -between the Celestial herb- and weapon-legends of Asia and Europe. It -tells that this magic sword was one of the three treasures possessed by -the imperial family of Japan, and that the warrior who wielded it could -put to flight an entire army. At a naval battle the sword was worn by -the boy-Emperor, Antoku Tennō. He was unable to make use of it, and -when the enemy were seen to be victorious, the boy’s grandmother, -Nu-no-ama, clutched him in her arms and leapt into the sea. - -Many long years afterwards, when the Emperor Go Shirakawa sat on the -imperial throne, his barbarian enemies declared war against him. The -Emperor arose in his wrath and called for the Kusanagi sword. Search -was made for it in the temple of Kamo, where it was supposed to be in -safe-keeping. The Emperor was told, however, that it had been lost, and -he gave orders that ceremonies should be performed with purpose to -discover where the sword was, and how it might be restored. One night, -soon afterwards, the Emperor dreamed a dream, in which a royal lady, -who had been dead for centuries, appeared before him and told that the -Kusanagi sword was in the keeping of the dragon king in his palace at -the bottom of the sea. - -Next morning the Emperor related his dream to his chief minister, and -bade him hasten to the two female divers, Oimatsu and her daughter -Wakamatsu, who resided at Dan-no-ura, so that they might dive to the -bottom of the sea and obtain the sword. - -The divers undertook the task, and were conveyed in a boat to that part -of the ocean where the boy-Emperor, Antoku Tennō, had been drowned. A -religious ceremony was performed, and the mother and daughter then -dived into the sea. A whole day passed before they appeared again. They -told, as soon as they were taken into the boat, that they had visited a -wonderful city at the bottom of the sea. Its gates were guarded by -silent sentinels who drew flashing swords when they (the divers) -attempted to enter. They were consequently compelled to wait for -several hours, until a holy man appeared and asked them what they -sought. When they had informed him that they were searching for the -Kusanagi sword, he said that the city could not be entered without the -aid of Buddha. - -Said the Emperor’s chief minister: “The city is that of the god of the -sea.” - -“It is very beautiful,” Oimatsu told him; “the walls are of gold, and -the gates of pearl. Above the city walls are seen many-coloured towers -that gleam like to precious stones. When one of the gates was opened, -we perceived that the streets were of silver and the houses of -mother-of-pearl.” - -Said the Emperor’s chief minister: “Fain would I visit that city.” - -He looked over the side of the boat and sighed, “I see naught but -darkness.” - -“When we dived and reached the sea-bottom,” Oimatsu continued, “we -beheld a cave and entered it. Thick darkness prevailed, but we walked -on and on, groping as we went, until we reached a beautiful plain over -which bends the sky, blue as sapphire. Trees growing on the plain bear -clusters of dazzling gems that sparkle among their leaves.” - -“Were you not tempted to pluck them?” asked the minister. - -“Each tree is guarded by a poisonous snake,” Oimatsu told him, “and we -dared not touch the gems.” - -On the following day the divers were provided with sutra-charms by the -chief priest of the temple of Kamo. - -They entered the sea again, and told, on their return next morning, -that they had visited the city, and reached the palace of the dragon -king, which was guarded by invisible sentries. Two women came out of -the palace and bade them stand below an old pine tree, the bark of -which glittered like the scales of a dragon. In front of them was a -window. The blind was made of beautiful pearls, and was raised high -enough to permit them to see right into the room. - -One of the palace ladies said, “Look through the window.” - -The women looked. In the room they saw a mighty serpent with a sword in -his mouth. He had eyes bright as the sun, and a blood-red tongue. In -his coils lay a little boy fast asleep. [164] The serpent looked round -and, addressing the women, spoke and said: “You have come hither to -obtain the Kusanagi sword, but I shall keep it for ever. It does not -belong to the Emperor of Japan. Many years ago it was taken from this -palace by a dragon prince who went to dwell in the river Hi. He was -slain by a hero of Japan. [165] This hero carried off the sword and -presented it to the Emperor. After many years had gone past a -sea-dragon took the form of a princess. She became the bride of a -prince of Japan, and was the grandmother of the boy-Emperor with whom -she leapt into the sea during the battle of Dan-no-ura. This boy now -lies asleep in my coils.” - -The Emperor of Japan sorrowed greatly when he was informed regarding -the dragon king’s message. “Alas!” he said, “if the Kusanagi sword -cannot be obtained, the barbarians will defeat my army in battle.” - -Then a magician told the Emperor that he knew of a powerful spell that -would compel the dragon to give up the sword. “If it is successful,” -the Emperor said, “I shall elevate you to the rank of a prince.” - -The spell was worked, and when next the female divers went to the -Kingdom under the Sea, they obtained the sword, with which they -returned to the Emperor. He used it in battle and won a great victory. - -The sword was afterwards placed in a box and deposited in the temple of -Atsuta, and there it remained for many years, until a Korean priest -carried it away. When, however, the Korean was crossing the ocean to -his own land, a great storm arose. The captain of the vessel knew it -was no ordinary storm, but one that had been raised by a god, and he -spoke and said, “Who on board this ship has offended the dragon king of -Ocean?” - -Then said the Korean priest, “I shall throw my sword into the sea as a -peace-offering.” - -He did as he said he would, and immediately the storm passed away. - -The dragon king caused the sword to be replaced in the temple from -which the Korean had stolen it. There it lay for a century. Then it was -carried back to the palace of the dragon-god in his Kingdom under the -Sea. - -Magic or supernatural swords were possessed by the spirits of -dragon-gods. - -According to a Chinese story in the Books of the Tsin Dynasty, an -astrologer once discovered that among the stars there shone the spirits -of two magic swords, and that they were situated right above the spot -where the swords had, in time past, been concealed. Search was made for -these, and deep down in the earth was found a luminous stone chest. -Inside the chest lay two swords that bore inscriptions indicating that -they were dragon swords. As soon as they were taken out of the box, -their star-spirits faded from the sky. - -These dragon swords could not be retained by human beings for any -prolonged period. Stories are told of swords being taken away by -spirit-beings and even of swords leaping of their own accord from their -sheaths into rivers or the ocean, and assuming dragon shape as soon as -they touched water. [166] - -Similarly dragon jewels might be carried away by dragons who appeared -in human shape—either as beautiful girls or as crafty old men. - -It was fortunate for mortals when dragons appeared as human beings, as -animals, or as fish that spoke with human voices. Dragons were unable -to change their shapes when angry, or when they intended to avenge a -wrong. A transformed dragon was therefore quite harmless. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE ISLANDS OF THE BLEST - - Souls on Islands—Wells of Life and Trees or Plants of Life in - China, Ancient Egypt, Babylonia, &c.—How Islands were Anchored—The - Ocean Tortoise—A Giant’s Fishing—The Mystery of Fu-sang—Island of - Women—Search for Fabled Isles—Chinese and Japanese Stories—How - Navigation was Stimulated—Columbus and Eden—Water of Life in - Ceylon, Polynesia, America, and Scotland—Delos, a Floating - Island—Atlantis and the Fortunate Isles—Celtic Island - Paradise—Apples and Nuts as Food of Life—America as Paradise—The - Indian Lotus of Life—Buddhist Paradise with Gem-trees—Diamond - Valley Legend in China and Greece—Luck Gems and Immortality. - - -The Chinese and Japanese, like the Egyptians, Indians, Fijians, and -others, believed, as has been shown, in the existence of a floating and -vanishing island associated with the serpent-god or dragon-god of -ocean. They believed, too, that somewhere in the Eastern Sea lay a -group of islands that were difficult to locate or reach; which -resembled closely, in essential particulars, the “Islands of the -Blest”, or “Fortunate Isles”, of ancient Greek writers. Vague beliefs -regarding fabulous countries far across the ocean were likewise -prevalent. - -In some native accounts these Chinese Islands of the Blest are said to -be five in number, and named Tai Yü, Yüan Chiao, Fang Hu, Ying Chou, -and P’ēng-lai; in others the number is nine, or ten, or only three. A -single island is sometimes referred to; it may be located in the ocean, -or in the Yellow River, or in the river of the Milky Way, the Celestial -Ho. - -The islands are, in Chinese legend, reputed to be inhabited by those -who have won immortality, or by those who have been transported to -their Paradise to dwell there in bliss for a prolonged period so that -they may be reborn on earth, or pass to a higher state of existence. - -It is of special interest to note in connection with these islands that -they have Wells of Life and Trees or Herbs of Life. The souls drink the -water and eat the herb or fruit of the tree to prolong their existence. -One Chinese “plant of life” is li chih, “the fungus of immortality”. It -appears on Chinese jade ornaments as a symbol of longevity. “This -fungus”, writes Laufer, “is a species of Agaric and considered a -felicitous plant, because it absorbs the vapours of the earth. In the -Li Ki (ed. Couvreur, Vol. I, p. 643) it is mentioned as an edible -plant. As a marvellous plant foreboding good luck, it first appeared -under the Han Dynasty, in 109 B.C., when it sprouted in the imperial -palace Kan-tsʼüan. The emperor issued an edict announcing this -phenomenon, and proclaimed an amnesty in the empire except for -relapsing criminals. A hymn in honour of this divine plant was composed -in the same year.” [167] - -Like the Red Cloud herb the li chih had evidently a close connection -with the dragon-god. - -The question arises whether the idea of an island of paradise was of -“spontaneous origin” in China, or whether the ancient Chinese borrowed -the belief from intruders, or from peoples with whom they had constant -trading relations. There is evidence that as far back as the fourth -century B.C., a Chinese explorer set out on an expedition to search for -the island or islands of Paradise in the Eastern Sea. But it is not -known at what precise period belief in the island arose and became -prevalent. - -The evidence afforded by the ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts is of -special interest and importance in connection with the problem of -origin. As far back as c. 2500 B.C. “the departed Pharaoh hoped to draw -his sustenance in the realm of Re (Paradise)” from “the tree of life in -the mysterious isle in the midst of the Field of Offerings”. The soul -of the Pharaoh, according to the Pyramid Texts, set out, soon after -death, in search of this island “in company with the Morning Star. The -Morning Star is a gorgeous green falcon, a solar divinity, identified -with Horus of Dewat.” The Egyptian story of the soul’s quest goes on to -tell that “this King Pepi ... went to the great isle in the midst of -the Field of Offerings over which the gods make the swallows fly. The -swallows are the Imperishable Stars. They give to this King Pepi the -tree of life, whereof they live, that ye (Pepi and the Morning Star) -may at the same time live thereof.” (Pyramid Texts, 1209–16). Sinister -enemies “may contrive to deprive the king of the sustenance provided -for him....” Charms were provided to protect the fruit of immortality. -“The enemy against which these are most often directed in the Pyramid -Texts is serpents.” In the Japanese story of the Kusanagi sword, the -gem-trees of the Otherworld are protected by dragons. - -The Pyramid Texts devoted to the ancient Egyptian King Unis tell that a -divine voice cries to the gods Re and Thoth (sun and moon), saying, -“Take ye this King Unis with you that he may eat of that which ye eat, -and that he may drink of that which ye drink.” The magic well is -referred to as “the pool of King Unis”. [168] The soul of the Pharaoh -also sails with the unwearied stars in the barque of the sun-god, not -only by day but by night, and as the Egyptian night sun was green, “the -green bed of Horus”, the idea of the floating solar island on the -Underworld Nile became fused with that of the island with the Well of -Life and the Tree of Life. In the Pyramid Texts the Celestial -Otherworld “is”, as Breasted says, “not only the east, but explicitly -the east of the sky”. [169] Similarly the fabulous continents of the -Chinese were situated to the east of the mythical sea. - -The Sumerians and early Babylonians had, like the Egyptians, their -Islands of the Blest. Gilgamesh, who reaches these islands by crossing -the mythical sea, finds dwelling on one of them Ut-napishtim (the -Babylonian Noah) and his wife. Ut-napishtim directs the hero to another -island on which there is a fountain of healing waters and a magic plant -that renews youth. Gilgamesh finds the Plant of Immortality, but as he -stoops to drink water from a stream, a serpent darts forth and snatches -the plant from him. This serpent was a form of “the Earth Lion” (the -dragon). [170] - -The Gilgamesh legend dates back beyond 2500 B.C. Like the Egyptian one -enshrined in the Pyramid Texts, it has two main features, the Well of -Life and the Tree or Plant of Life, which are situated on an island. -The island in time crept into the folk-tales. It was no doubt the -prototype of the vanishing island of the Egyptian mariner’s story -already referred to. - -In the Shih Chi (Historical Record) of Ssŭ-ma Chʼien, “the Herodotus of -China”, a considerable part of which has been translated by Professor -Ed. Chavannes, [171] the three Chinese Islands of the Blest (San, Shen, -Shan) are named P’ēng-lai, Fang Chang, and Ying Chou. They are located -in the Gulf of Chihli, but are difficult to reach because contrary -winds spring up and drive vessels away in the same manner as the vessel -of Odysseus was driven away from Ithaca. It is told, however, that in -days of old certain fortunate heroes contrived to reach and visit the -fabled isles. They told that they saw there palaces of gold and silver, -that the white men and women, the white beasts and the white birds ate -the Herb of Life and drank the waters of the Fountain of Life. On the -island of Ying Chou are great precipices of jade. A brook, the waters -of which are as stimulating as wine, flows out of a jade rock. Those -who can reach the island and drink of this water will increase the -length of their lives. When the jade water is mixed with pounded -“fungus of immortality” a food is provided which ensures a thousand -years of existence in the body. - -Chinese legends tell that the lucky mariners who come within view of -the Isles of the Blest, behold them but dimly, as they seem to be -enveloped in luminous clouds. When vessels approach too closely, the -islands vanish by sinking below the waves, as do the fabled islands of -Gaelic stories. - -Lieh Tze, alleged to be an early Taoist writer, [172] but whose -writings, or those writings attributed to him, were forged in the first -or second century A.D., has located the islands to the east of the gulf -of Chihli in that fathomless abyss into which flow all the streams of -the earth and the river of the Milky Way. Apparently this abyss is the -Mythical Sea which was located beyond the eastern horizon—a part of the -sea that surrounds the world. Into this sea or lake, according to the -ancient Egyptian texts, pours the celestial river, along which sails -the barque of the sun-god. The Nile was supposed by the Ancient -Egyptians to be fed by the waters above the firmament and the waters -below the earth. The Pyramid Texts, when referring to the birth of -Osiris as “new water” (the inundation), say: - - - The waters of life that are in the sky come; - The waters of life that are in the earth come. - The sky burns for thee, - The earth trembles for thee. [173] - - -In India the Ganges was likewise fed by the celestial Ganges that -poured down from the sky. - -Lieh Tze’s Islands of the Blest are five in number, and are inhabited -by the white souls of saintly sages who have won immortality by having -their bodies rendered transparent, or after casting off their bodies as -snakes cast off their skins. All the animals on these islands are -likewise white and therefore pure and holy. The spirit-dwellings are of -gold and jade, and in the groves and gardens the trees and plants bear -pearls and precious stones. Those who eat of the fungus, or of perfumed -fruit, renew their youth and acquire the power of floating like down -through the air from island to island. - -At one time the islands drifted about on the tides of ocean, but the -Lord of All who controls the Universe, having been appealed to by the -Taoist sages who dwelt on the isles, caused three great Atlas-turtles -to support each island with their heads so that they might remain -steadfast. These turtles are relieved by others at the end of sixty -thousand years. In like manner, in Indian mythology, the tortoise -Kurma, an avatar of the god Vishnu, supports Mount Meru when it is -placed in the Sea of Milk. The Japanese Creator has a tortoise form -that supports the world-tree, on the summit of which sits a four-armed -god. In China the tortoise had divine attributes. Tortoise shell is a -symbol of unchangeability, and a symbol of rank when used for court -girdles. The tortoise was also used for purposes of divination. [174] - -A gigantic mythical tortoise is supposed, in the Far East, to live in -the depths of ocean. It has one eye situated in the middle of its body. -Once every three thousand years it rises to the surface and turns over -on its back so that it may see the sun. - -Once upon a time, a legend tells, the Atlas-turtles that support the -Islands of the Blest suffered from a raid by a wandering giant. As the -Indian god Vishnu and the Greek Poseidon could cross the Universe at -three strides, so could this giant pass quickly from country to country -and ocean to ocean. One or two strides were sufficient for him to reach -the mythical ocean from the Lung-po mountains. He sat on the mountain -summit of one of the Islands of the Blest, and cast his fishing-line -into the deep waters. [175] The Atlas-turtles were unable to resist the -lure of his bait and, having hooked and captured six of them, he threw -them over his back and returned home in triumph. These turtles had been -supporting the two islands, Tai Yü and Yüan Chiao, which, having been -set free, were carried by powerful tides towards the north, where they -stranded among the ice-fields. The white beings that inhabited these -islands were thus separated from their fellow saints on the other three -islands, Fang Hu, Ying Chou, and Pʼēng-lai. We are left to imagine how -lonely they felt in isolation. No doubt, they suffered from the evils -associated with the north—the “airt” of drought and darkness. The giant -and his tribesmen were punished by the Lord of the Universe for this -act by having their stature and their kingdom greatly reduced. - -On the fabled islands, the white saints cultivate and gather the -“fungus of immortality”, as the souls in the Paradise of Osiris -cultivate and harvest crops of barley and wheat and dates. Like the -Osirian corn, the island fungus sprouts in great profusion. This fungus -has not only the power to renew youth but even to restore the dead to -life. The “Herodotus of China” has recorded that once upon a time -leaves of the fungus were carried by ravens to the mainland from one of -the islands, and dropped on the faces of warriors slain in battle. The -warriors immediately came to life, although they had lain dead for -three days. The “water of life” had similarly reanimating properties. - -The famous magician, Tung-fang Shuo, who lived in second century B.C., -tells that the sacred islands are ten in number, there being two -distinct groups of five. One of the distant islands is named Fu-sang, -and it has been identified by different western writers with -California, Mexico, Japan, and Formosa. Its name signifies “the Land of -the Leaning Mulberry”. The mulberries are said to grow in pairs and to -be of great height. Once every nine thousand years they bear fruit -which the saints partake of. This fruit adds to their saintly -qualities, and gives them power to soar skyward like celestial birds. - -Beyond Fu-sang is a country of white women who have hairy bodies. In -the spring season they enter the river to bathe and become pregnant, -and their children are born in the autumn. The hair of their heads is -so long that it trails on the ground behind them. Instead of breasts, -they have white locks or hairy organs at the back of their necks from -which comes a liquor that nourishes their children. These women, -according to some accounts, have no husbands, and take flight when they -see a man. A historian who, by the way, gives them husbands, has -recorded that a Chinese vessel was once driven by a tempest to this -wonderful island. The crew landed and found that the women resembled -those of China, but that the men had heads like dogs and voices that -sounded like the barking of dogs. Evidently the legends about the -fabled islands became mixed up with accounts of the distant islands of -a bearded race reached by seafarers. - -There are records of several attempts that were made by pious Chinese -Emperors to discover the Islands of the Blest, with purpose to obtain -the “fungus of immortality”. One mariner named Hsu Fü, who was sent to -explore the Eastern Sea so that the fungus might be brought to the -royal palace, returned with a wonderful story. He said that a god had -risen out of the sea and inquired if he was the Emperor’s -representative. “I am,” the mariner made answer. - -“What seek ye?” asked the sea-god. - -“I am searching for the plant that has the power to prolong human -life,” Hsu Fü answered. - -The god then informed the Emperor’s messenger that the offerings he -brought were not sufficient to be regarded as payment for this magic -plant. He was willing, however, that Hsu Fü should see the fungus for -himself so that, apparently, the Emperor might be convinced it really -existed. - -The vessel was then piloted in a south-easterly direction until the -Islands of the Blest were reached. Hsu Fü was permitted to land on -P’ēng-lai, the chief island, on which was situated the golden palace of -the dragon king of ocean. There he saw newly-harvested crops of the -“fungus of immortality” guarded by a great brazen dragon of ferocious -aspect. Not a leaf could he obtain, however, to bring back to China. - -The pious mariner knelt before the sea-god and asked him what offering -he required from the Emperor in return for the fungus. He was informed -that many youths and girls would have to be sent to P’ēng-lai. - -On ascertaining the price demanded by the god for the magic fungus, the -Emperor dispatched a fleet of vessels with three thousand young men and -virgins. Hsu Fü was placed in command of the expedition. But he never -returned again to China. According to some, he and his followers still -reside on P’ēng-lai; others assert that he reached a distant land, -supposed to be Japan, where he founded a state over which he reigned as -king. - -Other Chinese Emperors were similarly anxious to discover the fabled -islands, and many expeditions were sent to sea. One exasperated monarch -is said to have had nearly five hundred magicians and scholars put to -death because their efforts to assist him in discovering the islands -had proved to be futile. - -Another Emperor fitted out a naval expedition which he himself -commanded. Each vessel was packed with soldiers who in mid-ocean raised -a great clamour, blowing horns, beating drums, and shouting in chorus, -with purpose to terrify the gods of ocean and compel them to reveal the -location of the Isle of Immortality. In time the dragon-god appeared in -his fiercest shape, with the head of a lion and a shark-like body 500 -feet in length. The Emperor ordered his fleet to surround the god, who -had apparently come with the intention of preventing the ships going -any farther. A fierce battle ensued. Thousands of poisoned arrows were -discharged against the god, who was so grievously wounded that his -blood tinged the sea over an area of 10,000 miles. But despite this -victory achieved by mortals, the famous island on which grew the herb -of immortality was never reached. On the same night the Emperor had to -engage in single combat with the dragon-god, who came against him in a -dream. This was a combat of souls, for in sleep, as was believed, the -soul leaves the body. The soul of the Emperor fared badly. On the day -that followed his majesty was unable to rise from his couch, and he -died within the space of seven days. - -In Japanese stories the island of P’ēng-lai is referred to as Horaizan. -It has three high mountains, on the chief of which, called Horai, grows -the Tree of Life. This tree has a trunk and branches of gold, roots of -silver, and gem-leaves and fruit. In some stories there are three -trees, the peach, the plum, and the pine. The “fungus of immortality” -is also referred to. It grows in the shade of one or another of the -holy trees, usually the pine. There is evidence, too, of the belief -that a “grass of immortality” grew on the sacred island as well as the -famous fungus. The life-giving fountain was as well known to the -Japanese as it was to the Chinese and others. - -A story is told of a Japanese Gilgamesh, named Sentaro, who, being -afraid of death, summoned to his aid an immortal saint so that he might -be enabled to obtain the “grass of immortality”. The saint handed him a -crane made of paper which, when mounted, came to life and carried -Sentaro across the ocean to Mount Horai. There he found and ate the -life-giving grass. When, however, he had lived for a time on the island -he became discontented. The other inhabitants had already grown weary -of immortality and wished they could die. Sentaro himself began to pine -for Japan and, in the end, resolved to mount his paper crane and fly -over the sea. But after he left the island he doubted the wisdom of his -impulsive resolution. The result was that the crane, which moved -according to his will, began to crumple up and drop through the air. -Sentaro was greatly scared, and once again yearned so deeply for his -native land that the crane, straightened and strengthened by his -yearning, rose into the air and continued its flight until Japan was -reached. - -Another Japanese hero, named Wasobioye, the story of whose wanderings -is retold by Professor Chamberlain, [176] once set out in a boat to -escape troublesome visitors. The day was the eighth of the eighth month -and the moon was full. Suddenly a storm came on, which tore the sail to -shreds and brought down the mast. Wasobioye was unable to return home, -and his boat was driven about on the wide ocean for the space of three -months. Then he reached the Sea of Mud, on which he could not catch any -fish. He was soon reduced to sore straits and feared he would die of -hunger, but, in time, he caught sight of land and was greatly cheered. -His boat drifted slowly towards a beautiful island on which there were -three great mountains. As he drew near to the shore, he found, to his -great joy, that the air was laden with most exquisite perfumes that -came from the flowers and tree-blossoms of that wonderful isle. He -landed and found a sparkling well. When he had drunk of the water his -strength was revived, and a feeling of intense pleasure tingled in his -veins. He rose up refreshed and happy and, walking inland, soon met -with Jofuku the sage, known in China as Hsu Fü, who had been sent to -the Island of the Blest (P’ēng-lai) by the Emperor She Wang Ti to -obtain the “fungus of immortality”, with the youths and virgins, but -had never returned. - -Wasobioye was taken by the friendly sage to the city of the immortals, -who spent their lives in the pursuit of pleasure. He found, however, -that these people had grown to dislike their monotonous existence, and -were constantly striving to discover some means whereby their days -would be shortened. They refused to partake of mermaid flesh because -this was a food that prolonged life; they favoured instead goldfish and -soot, a mixture which was supposed to be poisonous. The manners of the -people were curious. Instead of wishing one another good health and -long life, they wished for sickness and a speedy death. Congratulations -were showered on any individual who seemed to be indisposed, and he was -sympathized with when he showed signs of recovering. - -Wasobioye lived on the island for nearly a quarter of a century. Then, -having grown weary of the monotonous life, he endeavoured to commit -suicide by partaking of poisonous fruit, fish, and flesh. But all his -attempts were in vain. It was impossible for anyone to die on that -island. In time he came to know that he could die if he left it, but he -had heard of other wonderful lands and wished to visit them before his -days came to an end. Then, instead of eating poisonous food, he began -to feast on mermaid flesh so that his life might be prolonged for many -years beyond the allotted span. Thereafter he visited the Land of -Shams, the Land of Plenty, &c. His last visit was paid to the Land of -Giants. Wasobioye is usually referred to as the “Japanese Gulliver”. - -The search for the mythical islands with their “wells of life” and -“trees” or “plants of life” is referred to in the stories of many lands -and even in history, especially the history of exploration, for the -world-wide search for the Earthly Paradise appears to have exercised -decided influence in stimulating maritime enterprise in mediæval as -well as prehistoric times. Columbus searched for the island paradise in -which the “well” and “tree” were to be found. He sailed westward so as -to approach the paradise “eastward in Eden”, [177] through “the back -door” as it were, and wrote: “The saintly theologians and philosophers -were right when they fixed the site of the terrestrial paradise in the -extreme Orient, because it is a most temperate clime; and the lands -which I have just discovered are the limits of the Orient.” In another -letter he says: “I am convinced that there lies the terrestrial -paradise”. [178] - -As Ellis reminds us, “the expedition which led to the discovery of -Florida was undertaken not so much from a desire to explore unknown -countries”, as to find a “celebrated fountain, described in a tradition -prevailing among the inhabitants of Puerto Rico, as existing in Binini, -one of the Lucayo Islands. It was said to possess such restorative -powers as to renew youth and the vigour of every person who bathed in -its waters. It was in search of this fountain, which was the chief -object of their expedition, that Ponce de Leon ranged through the -Lucayo Islands and ultimately reached the shores of Florida.” - -Ellis refers to this voyage because he found that the mythical island -and well were believed in by the Polynesians. He refers, in this -connection, to the “Hawaiian account of the voyage of Kamapiikai to the -land where the inhabitants enjoyed perpetual health and youthful -beauty, where the wai ora (life-giving fountain) removed every internal -malady, and every external deformity or paralysed decrepitude, from all -those who were plunged beneath its salutary waters”. Ellis anticipates -the views of modern ethnologists when dealing with the existence of the -same beliefs among widely-separated peoples. He says: “A tabular view -of a number of words in the Malayan, Asiatic, or the Madagasse, the -American, and the Polynesian languages, would probably show that, at -some remote period, either the inhabitants of these distant parts of -the world maintained frequent intercourse with each other, or that -colonies from some one of them originally peopled, in part or -altogether, the others”. He adds, “Either part of the present -inhabitants of the South Sea Islands came originally from America, or -tribes of the Polynesians have, at some remote period, found their way -to the (American) continent”. [179] - -W. D. Westervelt, in his Legends of Old Honolulu, heads his old -Hawaiian story “The Water of Life of Ka-ne”, which he himself has -collected, with the following extract from the Maori legend of New -Zealand: - - - When the moon dies, she goes to the living water of Ka-ne, to the - water which can restore all life, even the moon to the path in the - sky. - - -In the Hawaiian form of the legend the hero, who found the water so -that his sick father, the king, might be cured, met with a dwarf who -instructed him where to go and what to do. - -A russet dwarf similarly figures in the Gaelic story of Diarmaid’s -search for the cup and the water of life so that the daughter of the -King of Land-under-Waves might be cured of her sickness. This dwarf -takes the Gaelic hero across a ferry and instructs him how to find the -cup and the water. [180] - -The Polynesians’ ghosts went westward. In their Paradise was a -bread-fruit tree. “This tree had two branches, one towards the east and -one towards the west, both of which were used by the ghosts. One was -for leaping into eternal darkness into Po-pau-ole, the other was a -meeting-place with the helpful gods.” [181] Turner tells that “some of -the South Sea Islanders have a tradition of a river in their imaginary -world of spirits, called the ‘water of life’. It was supposed that if -the aged, when they died, went and bathed there, they became young and -returned to earth to live another life over again.” [182] Yudhishthira, -one of the heroes of the Aryo-Indian epic the Mahábhárata, becomes -immortal after bathing in the celestial Ganges. [183] In the Æneid, the -hero sees souls in Paradise drinking of the water of Lethe so that they -may forget the past and be reborn among men. - -Sir John de Mandeville, the fourteenth-century traveller and compiler -of traveller’s stories, located the fountain of life at the base of a -great mountain in Ceylon. This “fayr well ... hathe odour and savour of -all spices; and at every hour of the day, he chaungethe his odour and -his savour dyversely. And whoso drinkethe 3 times fasting of that watre -of that welle, he is hool (whole) of alle maner (of) sykenesse that he -hathe. And they that duellen (dwell) there and drynken often of that -welle, thei nevere hau (have) sykenesse, and thei semen (seem) alle -weys yonge.” Sir John says that he drank of the water on three or four -occasions and fared the better for it. Some men called it the “Welle of -Youthe”. They had often drunk from it and seemed “alle weys yongly -(youthful)” and lived without sickness. “And men seyn that that welle -comethe out of Paradys, and therefore it is so vertuous.” The “tree of -life” is always situated near the “well of life” in mediæval -literature. At Heliopolis in Egypt a well and tree are connected by -Coptic Christians and Mohammedans with Christ. When Joseph and Mary -fled to Egypt they rested under this tree, according to Egyptian -belief, and the clothes of the holy child were washed in the well. -Heliopolis, the Biblical On, is “the city of the sun”, and the Arabs -still call the well the “spring of the sun”. According to ancient -Egyptian belief the sun-god Ra washed his face in it every morning. The -tree, a sycamore, was the mother-goddess. - -That European ideas regarding a floating island or islands were of -Egyptian origin and closely connected with the solar cult, is suggested -by the classical legend regarding Delos, one of the Cyclades. It was -fabled to have been raised to the surface of the sea at the command of -Poseidon, so that the persecuted goddess Latona, who was pursued from -land to land by a python, as the Egyptian Isis was pursued by Set, -might give birth there to Apollo. On Delos the image of Apollo was in -the shape of a dragon, and delivered oracles. It was unlawful for any -person to die on Delos, and those of its inhabitants who fell sick were -transported to another island. - -Delos was a floating island like the floating island of the Nile, “the -green bed of Horus” on which that son of Osiris and Isis hid from Set. -The most ancient Apollo was the son of cripple Hephaistos. Cripple -Horus was, in one of his forms, a Hephaistos and a metal-worker. Homer -knew of the fabled island of Apollo. The swineherd, addressing -Odysseus, says, [184] “There is a certain isle called Syria ... over -above Ortygia, and there are the turning places of the sun. It is not -very great in compass, though a goodly isle, rich in herds, rich in -flocks, with plenty of corn and wine. Dearth never enters the land, and -no hateful sickness falls on wretched mortals.” - -The later Greeks located the island Paradise in the Atlantic, and it is -referred to as “Atlantis”, the Islands of the Blest and the Fortunate -Isles (fortunatae insulae). Hercules set out to search for the golden -apples, the fruit of immortality that grow in - - - those Hesperian gardens famed of old, - Fortunate fields and groves and flowery vales. - - -The garden of Paradise, cared for by those celebrated nymphs, the -daughters of Hesperus, brother of Atlas—Hesperus is the planet Venus as -an evening star—was also located among the Atlas mountains in Africa. -There the tree of life, which bore the golden apples, was guarded by -the nymphs and by a sleepless dragon, like the gem-trees in the -Paradises of China and Japan. - -According to Diodorus, the Phœnicians discovered the island Paradise. -Plutarch placed it at a distance of five days’ voyage to the west of -Brittia (England and Scotland), apparently confusing it with Ireland -(the “sacred isle” of the ancients), or with an island in the Hebrides. - -The island of immortals in the western ocean is found in Gaelic folk- -and manuscript-literature. - -Among the Gaelic names of Paradise is that of “Emain Ablach” (Emain -rich in apples). In one description a youth named Conla and his bride -Veniusa are referred to. “Now the youth was so that in his hand he held -a fragrant apple having the hue of gold; a third part of it he would -eat, and still, for all he consumed, never a whit would it be -diminished. The fruit it was that supported the pair of them and when -once they had partaken of it, nor age nor dimness could affect them.” A -part of this Paradise was reserved for “monarchs, kings, and tribal -chiefs”. Teigue, a Celtic Gilgamesh who visited the island, saw there -“a thickly furnished wide-spreading apple tree that bore blossom and -ripe fruit” at the same time. He asked regarding the great tree and was -informed that its fruit was “meat” intended to “serve the congregation” -which was to inhabit the mansion. [185] The rowan berry and hazel nut -were also to the Gaels fruits of immortality. There once came to St. -Patrick “from the south” a youth wearing a crimson mantle fixed by a -fibula of gold over a yellow shirt. He brought “a double armful of -round yellow-headed nuts and of beautiful golden-yellow apples”. [186] -The Gaelic Islands of the Blest are pictured in glowing colours: - - - Splendours of every colour glisten - Throughout the gentle-voiced plains. - Joy is known, ranked around music - In the southern Silver-cloud Plain. - Unknown is wailing or treachery ... - There is nothing rough or hoarse ... - Without grief, without sorrow, without death, - Without sickness, without debility ... - A lovely land - On which the many blossoms drop. [187] - - -The hero Bran sets out to search for the islands, and, like one of the -Chinese mariners, meets with the sea-god, who addresses him and tells -of the wonders of the island Paradise with its trees of life. - - - A wood laden with beautiful fruit ... - A wood without decay, without defect, - On which is a foliage of a golden hue. [188] - - -The green floating and vanishing island and the well of life are common -in Scottish Gaelic folk-lore. It was believed that the life-giving -water had greatest potency if drunk at dawn of the day which was of -equal length with the night preceding it, and that it should be drunk -before a bird sipped at the well and before a dog barked. The -Scandinavians heard of the Gaelic Island of the West during their -prolonged sojourn in the British Isles and Ireland, and referred to it -as “Ireland hit Mikla” (“The Mickle Ireland”), and the mythical island -was afterwards identified with Vinland, believed to be America, which -was apparently reached by the hardy sea-rovers. - -The Earthly Paradise was also located in Asia. In the mythical -histories of Alexander a hero sets forth like Gilgamesh on the quest of -the Water of Life. He similarly enters a cavern of a great mountain in -the west which is guarded by a monster serpent. In one version of the -tale this hero carries a jewel that shines in darkness—a jewel that -figures prominently in Chinese lore (Chap. XIII)—and passes through the -dark tunnel. He reaches the Well of Life and plunges into it. When he -came out he found that his body had turned a bluish-green colour, and -ever afterwards he was called “El Khidr”, which means “Green”. [189] - -The Well of Life is referred to in the Koran. Commentators explain a -reference to a vanishing fish by telling that Moses or Joshua carried a -fried fish when they reached the Well of Life. Some drops of the water -fell on the fish, which at once leapt out of the basket into the sea -and swam away. - -In the Aryo-Indian epic, the Mahábhárata, the hero Bhima sets out in -search of the Lake of Life and the Lotus of Life. He overcomes the -Yaksha-guardians of the lake, and when he bathes in the lake his wounds -are healed. [190] - -There are glowing descriptions in Buddhist literature of the Paradise -reached by those who are to qualify for Buddhahood. A proportion of the -Chinese Taoist inhabitants of the Islands of the Blest similarly wait -for the time when they will pass into another state of existence. A -similar belief prevailed in the West. Certain Celtic heroes, like -Arthur, Ossian, Fionn (Finn), Brian Boroimhe, and Thomas the Rhymer, -live in Paradise for long periods awaiting the time when they are to -return to the world of men, as do Charlemagne, Frederick of Barbarossa, -William Tell, and others on the Continent. - -In the Buddhist Paradise the pure beings have faces “bright and -yellowish”, yellow being the sacred colour of the Buddhist as it is the -colour of the chief dragon of China. In this Paradise is the Celestial -Ganges and the great Bodhi-tree, “a hundred yojanas in height”, which -prolongs life and increases “their stock of merit”. Their “merit” may -“grow in the following shapes, viz. either in gold, in silver, in -jewels, in beryls, in shells, in stones, in corals, in amber, in red -pearls, in diamonds, &c., or in any one of the other jewels; or in all -kinds of perfumes, in flowers, in garlands, in ointment, in -incense-powder, in cloaks, in umbrellas, in flags, in banners, or in -lamps; or in all kinds of dancing, singing, and music”. [191] - -The gem-trees abound in this Paradise. “Of some trees”, one account -runs, “the trunks are of coral, the branches of red pearls, the small -branches of diamonds, the leaves of gold, the flowers of silver, and -the fruits of beryl.” [192] In the “eastern quarter” there are “Buddha -countries equal to the sand of the River Ganga (Ganges)”. The purified -beings in the lands “surpass the light of the sun and moon, by the -light of wisdom, and by the whiteness, brilliancy, purity, and beauty -of their knowledge”. [193] There are references to “the king of jewels -that fulfils every wish”. It has “golden-coloured rays excessively -beautiful, the radiance of which transforms itself into birds -possessing the colours of a hundred jewels, which sing out harmonious -notes”. [194] The purified may become like Buddha “with bodies bright -as gold and blue eyes”, for “the eyes of Buddha are like the water of -the four great oceans; the blue and the white are quite distinct”. -[195] The imaginations of the Buddhists run riot in their descriptions -of the Land of Bliss, and the stream of glowing narrative carries with -it many pre-Buddhist beliefs about metals and precious stones, “red -pearls, blue pearls”, and so on, and “nets of gold adorned with the -emblems of the dolphin, the svastika (swashtika), the nandyāvarta, and -the moon”. [196] In their Paradise even the river mud is of gold. The -religious ideas of the early searchers for “soul substance” in the form -of metals and gems are thus found to be quaintly blended with Buddhist -conceptions of the Earthly Paradise. - -In some Chinese and Japanese stories the souls of the dead are carried -to Paradise by birds, and especially by the crane or stork, which takes -the place of the Indian man-eagle Garuda (Japanese Gario, the -woman-bird with crane’s legs), and of the Babylonian eagle that carried -the hero Etana to heaven. The saints who reach the Indian Paradise of -Uttara Kuru, situated at the sources of the River Indus, among the -Himalayan mountains, and originally the homeland of the Kuru tribe of -Aryans, are supposed to have their lives prolonged for centuries. When -they die their bodies are carried away by gigantic birds and dropped -into mountain recesses. The belief enshrined in stories of this kind -may be traced to the wide-spread legend of the Diamond Valley. Laufer -notes that a version of it occurs in the Liang se kung ki, “one of the -most curious books of Chinese literature”. A prince is informed by -scholars regarding the wonders of distant lands. “In the west, arriving -at the Mediterranean,” one Chinese story runs, “there is in the sea an -island of two hundred square miles. On this island is a large forest, -abundant in trees with precious stones, and inhabited by over ten -thousand families. These men show great ability in cleverly working -gems, which are named for the country Fu-lin (Syria). In a -north-westerly direction from the island is a ravine, hollowed out like -a bowl, more than a thousand feet deep. They throw flesh into this -valley. Birds take it up in their beaks, whereupon they drop the -precious stones.” Here Fu-lin, in the Mediterranean area, is referred -to as early as the beginning of the sixth century. - -The Chinese Diamond Valley story is “an abridged form of a well-known -Western legend”. In a version of it in the writings of Epiphanius, -Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus (c. 315–403), the valley is situated in -“a desert of great Scythia”, and the precious stones are gathered on -the mountains, whence the eagles carry them. The eagle-stone is “useful -to women in aiding parturition”. Laufer notes that Pliny knew about the -parturition stone, and that the beliefs associated with it are found in -Egypt and India. In the latter country it occurs in legends about the -combats between the eagle and serpent. [197] - -A Scottish Gaelic folk-story tells of a man who had a combat with an -eagle which carried him away to the floating island of the blest. He -was killed, but came to life again after drops of the water from the -well of life were thrown on his body. Stones found in eagles’ or -ravens’ nests, according to Scottish belief, imparted to their -possessors the power of prophecy or healing. - -The gems from the trees of Paradise in Babylonian, Indian, Chinese, and -Japanese literature were supposed to confer special powers on those who -became possessed of them. To this class belongs the “Jewel that grants -all Desires”, the “gem that shines in darkness”, the prophet’s or -priest’s jewel or jewels, &c. Gems were searched for in ancient times -because they were supposed to possess what has been called “soul -substance”. They protected those who wore them from all evil, they -assisted birth, they prolonged life. Precious metals were similarly -believed to be “luck-bringers”, and to early man luck meant everything -he wished for, including good health, longevity, plentiful supplies of -food, a knowledge of the future, offspring, and so on. - -In the stories of the Islands of the Blest the happy souls are, in the -ancient sense of the term, “lucky souls”. Paradise was a land in which -life-giving water and fruit, and innumerable gems were to be found, and -those who reached it became wise as magicians and prophets, and lived -for thousands of years free from sickness and pain. It was the land of -eternal youth and unlimited happiness. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE MOTHER-GODDESS OF CHINA AND JAPAN - - Food for the Dead—Milk, Bread, and Beer in Paradise—The Western - Tree of Life in Egypt—Tree of Life in Greece, Britain, and - Polynesia—The Underworld Paradise—The “Wonderful Rose - Garden”—Chinese Cult of the West—Biblical Tree Parable—Chinese - Peach Tree of Longevity—The “Royal Mother of the West”—Visit of the - Chinese Emperor—A Far-Eastern El-Khidr—The Sacred Chrysanthemum—The - Cassia Tree Cult—Celestial Yellow River—Moon Myths—Lunar Elixir in - China, India, and Scandinavia—Chinese Star Maiden—The Sun - Barque—“Island of Blest” in Celestial River—Moon-girl Story—The - “Makara” in China and Japan—The Chinese Ishtar—Deluge Legend—Tree - Spirits—Story of Little Peachling—“Soul Substance” in Dragon Bones, - Trees, and Pearls. - - -The quest of the “elixir of life”, the “water of life”, or “the food of -life” is as prominent a feature of ancient religious literature as is -the quest of the Holy Grail in the Arthurian romances. As has been -shown in the last chapter, the belief that prompted the quest was -widely prevalent, and of great antiquity. The Babylonian hero, -Gilgamesh, whose story is told in the oldest epic in the world, -undertook his long and perilous journey to the Otherworld, in quest of -the Plant of Life, because the thought of death was sorrowful to him. -When his friend, Ea-bani, had expired, - - - Gilgamesh wept bitterly, and he lay stretched out upon the ground. - He cried, “Let me not die like Ea-bani.... - I fear death.” [198] - - -In the Babylonian myth of Adapa reference is made to the “water of -life” and the “food of life”, which give wisdom and immortality to the -gods and to the souls of those mortals who win their favour. The sacred -tree in Babylonian art is evidently the Tree of Life. [199] - -We seem to meet with the history of the immemorial quest in the Pyramid -Texts of Ancient Egypt. The ancient priests appear to have concerned -themselves greatly regarding the problem how the dead were to be -nourished in the celestial Paradise. “The chief dread felt by the -Egyptian for the hereafter,” says Breasted, “was fear of hunger.” [200] -In Egypt, as in other lands offerings of food were made at the tombs, -and these were supposed to be conveyed to the souls by certain of the -gods. But those who hoped to live for ever knew well that the time -would come when grave-offerings would cease to be made, and their own -names would be forgotten on earth. Some Pharaohs endowed their -chapel-tombs for all time, but revolutions ultimately caused endowments -to be appropriated. - -The Babylonians believed that if the dead were not fed, their ghosts -would prowl through the streets and enter houses, searching for food -and water. [201] In Polynesia the homeless and desolate ghosts were -those of poor people, “who during their residence in the body had no -friends and no property”. [202] The custom of including food-vessels -and drinking-cups in the funerary furniture of prehistoric graves in -different countries was no doubt connected with the fear of hunger in -the hereafter. The custom was widespread of giving the dead food -offerings at regular intervals. Once a year the living held feasts in -the burial-grounds, and invited the dead to partake of their share. -Among the Hallowe’en beliefs in the British Isles is one that ghosts -return home during the year-end festival to attend “the feast of all -souls”. The Hebridean custom, which lingered even in the nineteenth -century, of placing food and water, or milk, beside a corpse while it -lay in a house, and outside the door or at the grave after the burial -took place, was no doubt a relic of an ancient custom, based on the -haunting belief that the dead were in need of nourishment, if not for -all time, at any rate until the journey to the Otherworld was -completed. - -As has been said, it was the provision of food in the celestial -Paradise, far removed from the earth and its produce, that chiefly -concerned the Egyptians. In the Underworld Kingdom, presided over by -Osiris, the souls grew corn and gathered fruit. But the Paradise of the -solar cult was above or beyond the sky. Some of the sun-worshippers are -found in the Pyramid Texts to have placed their faith in the -food-supplying Great Mother, the goddess Hathor, who gave them corn and -milk during their earthly lives. As son of Re, born of the sky-goddess, -he (the Pharaoh) is frequently represented as suckled by one of the -sky-goddesses, or some other divinity connected with Re, especially the -ancient goddesses of the prehistoric kingdoms of South and North. These -appear as “the two vultures with long hair and hanging breasts; ... -they draw their breasts over the mouth of King Pepi, but they do not -wean him forever....” Another text invokes the mother-goddess: “Give -thy breast to this King Pepi, ... suckle this King Pepi therewith”. As -a result, perhaps, of the prevalence of Osirian beliefs, the solar cult -adopted the idea that food, such as is found in Egypt, might be -provided in the regions above or beyond the sky. The sun-god was -appealed to: “Give thou bread to this King Pepi, from this thy eternal -bread, thy everlasting beer”. [203] - -But the chief source of nourishment in the celestial Paradise was the -Tree of Life (a form of the mother-goddess) on the great isle in the -mythical lake or sea beyond the Eastern horizon. [204] Egyptian artists -depicted this tree as a palm, or sycamore, with a goddess rising from -inside it, pouring water from a vessel on the hands of the Pharaoh’s -soul, which might appear in human form, or in the man-bird form called -the ba. In the funeral ritual the ceremony of pouring out a libation -was performed with the object of restoring the body moisture (the water -of life) to the mummy. [205] A Biblical reference to the ceremony is -found in 2 Kings, iii, 11, in which it is said of Elisha that he -“poured water on the hands of Elijah”. No doubt the Egyptian soul -received water as nourishment, as well as to ensure its immortality, -from the tree-goddess. - -In the Book of the Dead (Chapter LIX), the Tree of Life is referred to -as “the sycamore of Nut” (the sky-goddess). Other texts call the tree -“the Western Tree” of Nut or Hathor. It may be that the solar cult of -the East took over the tree from the Osirian cult of the West. - -This mythical tree figures in many ancient mythologies. The goddess -Europa was worshipped at Gortyna, in Crete, during the Hellenic period, -as a sacred tree. [206] The tree may be traced from the British Isles -to India, and there are numerous legends of spirits entering or leaving -it. The Polynesians have stories of this kind. Their Tree of Life was -the local bread-fruit tree which “became a god”, or, as some had it, a -goddess. “Out of this magic bread-fruit tree,” a legend says, “a great -goddess was made.” [207] - -It may be that the island Paradise with its Tree of Life was specially -favoured after maritime enterprise made strong appeal to the -imagination of the Egyptians. No doubt the old sailors who searched for -“soul-substance” in the shape of pearls, precious stones, and metals -had much to do with disseminating the idea of the Isles of the Blest. -At any rate, it became, as we have seen, a tradition among seafarers to -search for the distant land in which was situated the “water of life”. -The home-dwelling Osirians clung to their idea of an Underworld -Paradise, and belief in it became fused with that of the floating -island, or Islands of the Blest. Those who dwelt in inland plains and -valleys, and those accustomed to cross the great mysterious deserts on -which the oasis-mirage frequently appeared and vanished like the -mythical floating island, conceived of a Paradise on earth. There are -references in more than one land to a Paradise among the mountains. It -figures in the fairy stories of Central Europe, for instance, as “the -wonderful Rose Garden” with its linden Tree of Immortality, the -hiding-place of a fairy lady, its dancing nymphs and its dwarfs; the -king of dwarfs has a cloak of invisibility which he wraps round those -mortals he carries away. [208] - -At first only the souls of kings entered Paradise. But, in time, the -belief became firmly established that the souls of others could reach -it too, and be fed there. The quest of the “food of life” then became a -popular theme of the story-tellers, and so familiar grew the idea of -the existence of this fruit that people believed it could be obtained -during life, and that those who partook of it might have their days -prolonged indefinitely. For, as W. Schooling has written, “a few simple -thoughts on a few simple subjects produce a few simple opinions common -to a whole tribe” (and even a great part of mankind), “and are taught -with but little modification to successive generations; hence arises a -rigidity that imposes ready-made opinions, which are seldom questioned, -while such questioning as does occur is usually met with excessive -severity, as Galileo and others have found out”. [209] - -The apple, as we have seen, was to the Celts the fruit of immortality: -the Chinese favoured the peach—that is, it was favoured by the Chinese -cult of the West. As all animals were supposed to be represented in the -Otherworld by gigantic prototypes—the fathers or mothers of their -kind—so were trees represented by a gigantic tree. [210] This tree was -the World Tree that supported the Universe. In Egypt the World Tree was -the sycamore of the sky-goddess, who was the Great Mother of deities -and mankind. The sun dropped into the sycamore at eventide; when -darkness fell the swallows (star-gods) perched in its branches. In -Norse mythology the tree is the ash, called Ygdrasil, and from the well -at its roots souls receive the Hades-drink of immortality, drinking -from a horn embellished with serpent symbols. The Tree figures -prominently in Iranian mythology: the Aryo-Indian Indra constructs the -World-house round it. This Tree is, no doubt, identical with the sacred -tree in Assyrian art, which is sometimes the date, the vine, the -pomegranate, the fir, the cedar, and perhaps the oak. It may be that -the Biblical parable about the talking trees is a memory of the -rivalries of the various Assyrian tree cults: - - - The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them; and they - said unto the olive tree, Reign thou over us. But the olive tree - said unto them, Should I leave my fatness, wherewith by me they - honour god and man, and go to be promoted over the trees? And the - trees said to the fig tree, Come thou, and reign over us. But the - fig tree said unto them, Should I forsake my sweetness, and my good - fruit, and go to be promoted over the trees? Then said the trees - unto the vine, Come thou, and reign over us. And the vine said unto - them, Should I leave my vine, which cheereth God and man, and go to - be promoted over the trees? Then said all the trees unto the - bramble, Come thou, and reign over us. And the bramble said unto - the trees, If in truth ye anoint me King over you, then come and - put your trust in my shadow: and if not, let fire come out of the - bramble, and devour the cedars of Lebanon. - - -As in Assyria, there was in China quite a selection of life-giving -trees. - -The Chinese gigantic Peach Tree, whose fruit was partaken of by gods -and men, grew in the Paradise among the Kwun-lun mountains in Tibet, -and, like the Indian Mount Meru (“world spine”), supported the -Universe. Its fruit took three thousand years to ripen. The tree was -surrounded by a beautiful garden, and was under the care of the -fairy-like lady Si Wang Mu, the queen of immortals, the “Mother of the -Western King”, and the “Royal Mother of the West”. She appears to have -originally been the mother-goddess—the Far-Eastern form of Hathor. In -Japan she is called Seiobo. Her Paradise, which is called “the palace -of exalted purity”, and “the metropolis of the pearl mountain”, or of -“the jade mountain”, and is entered through “the golden door”, [211] -was originally that of the cult of the West. Sometimes Si Wang Mu is -depicted as quite as weird a deity as the Phigalian Demeter, with -disordered hair, tiger’s teeth, and a panther’s tail. Her voice is -harsh, and she sends and cures diseases. Three blue birds bring food to -her. - -Chinese emperors and magicians were as anxious to obtain a peach from -the Royal Mother’s tree in the Western Paradise, as they were to import -the “fungus of immortality” from the Islands of the Blest in the -Eastern Sea. - -There once lived in China a magician named Tung Fang So, who figures in -Japanese legend as Tobosaku, and is represented in Japanese art as a -jolly old man, clasping a peach to his breast and performing a dance, -or as a dreamy sage, carrying two or three peaches, and accompanied by -a deer—an animal which symbolized longevity. Various legends have -gathered round his name. One is that he had several successive rebirths -in various reigns, and that originally he was an avatar of the planet -Venus. He may therefore represent the Far-Eastern Tammuz, the son of -the mother-goddess. Another legend tells that he filched three peaches -from the Tree of Life, which had been plucked by the “Royal Mother of -the West”. - -Tung Fang So was a councillor in the court of Wu Ti, the fourth emperor -of the Han Dynasty, who reigned for over half a century, and died after -fasting for seven days in 87 B.C. In Japanese stories Wu Ti is called -Kan no Buti. He was greatly concerned about finding the “water of life” -or the “fruit of life”, so that his days might be prolonged. In his -palace garden he caused to be erected a tower over 100 feet high, which -appears to have been an imitation of a Babylonian temple. On its summit -was the bronze image of a god, holding a golden vase in its hands. In -this vase was collected the pure dew that was supposed to drip from the -stars. The emperor drank the dew, believing that it would renew his -youth. - -One day there appeared before Wu Ti in the palace garden a beautiful -green sparrow. In China and Japan the sparrow is a symbol of -gentleness, and a sparrow of uncommon colour is supposed to indicate -that something unusual is to happen. The emperor was puzzled regarding -the bird-omen, and consulted Tung Fang So, who informed him that the -Queen of Immortals was about to visit the royal palace. - -Before long Si Wang Mu made her appearance. She had come all the way -from her garden among the Kwun-lun mountains, riding on the back of a -white dragon, with seven of the peaches of immortality, which were -carried on a tray by a dwarf servant. Her fairy majesty was gorgeously -attired in white and gold, and spoke with a voice of bird-like -sweetness. - -When she reached Wu Ti there were only four peaches on the tray, and -she lifted one up and began to eat it. The peach was her symbol, as the -apple was that of Aphrodite. Tung Fang So peered at her through a -window, and when she caught sight of his smiling face, she informed the -emperor that he had stolen three of her peaches. Wu Ti received a peach -from her, and, having eaten it, became an immortal. A similar story is -told regarding the Chinese Emperor, Muh Wang. - -In her “Jade Mountain” Paradise of the West (the highest peak of the -Kwun-lun mountains) this goddess is accompanied by her sister, as the -Egyptian Isis is by Nephthys, and the pair are supposed to flit about -in Cloud-land, followed by the white souls of good women of the Taoist -cult. Her attendants include the Blue Stork, the White Tiger, the Stag, -and the gigantic Tortoise, which are all gods and symbols of longevity -in China. - -Among the many stories told about Tung Fang So is one regarding a visit -he once paid to the mythical Purple Sea. He returned after the absence -of a year, and on being remonstrated with by his brother for deserting -his home for so long a period, he contended that he had been away for -only a single day. His garments had been discoloured by the waters of -the Purple Sea, and he had gone to another sea to cleanse them. In like -manner heroes who visit Fairyland find that time slips past very -quickly. - -The Purple Sea idea may have been derived from the ancient Well of Life -story about El Khidr, [212] whose body and clothing turned green after -he had bathed in it. Purple supplanted green and blue as the colour of -immortality and royalty after murex dye became the great commercial -asset of sea-traders. Tung Fang So may have had attached to his memory -a late and imported version of the El Khidr story. - -The reference to Wu Ti’s dew-drinking habit recalls the story of the -youthful Keu Tze Tung, a court favourite, who unwittingly offended the -emperor, Muh Wang, and was banished. As the Egyptian Bata, who -similarly fell into disgrace in consequence of a false charge being -made against him, fled to the “Valley of the Acacia”, Keu Tze Tung fled -to the “Valley of the Chrysanthemum”. There he drank the dew that -dropped from the petals of chrysanthemums, and became an immortal. The -Buddhists took over this story, and told that the youth had been given -a sacred text, which he painted on the petals. This text imparted to -the dew its special qualities. In the Far East the chrysanthemum is a -symbol of purity. The chrysanthemum with sixteen petals is the emblem -of the Mikado of Japan. - -A Chinese sage, who, like the Indian Rishis, practised yoga until he -became immortal, engaged his spare moments in painting fish. He lived -on the bank of a stream for over two hundred years. In the end he was -carried away to the Underworld Paradise of the Lord of Fish, who was, -of course, the dragon-god. He paid one return visit to his disciples, -riding like the Chinese “Boy Blue” in the dragon story, on the back of -a red carp. - -Another Chinese “tree-cult” favoured, instead of the peach tree, a -cassia tree. This cassia-cult must have been late. The peach tree is -indigenous. “Of fruits,” says Laufer, “the West is chiefly indebted to -China for the peach (Amygdalus persica) and the apricot (Prunus -armeniaca). It is not impossible that these two gifts were transmitted -by the silk-dealers, first to Iran (in the second or first century -B.C.) and thence to Armenia, Greece, and Rome (in the first century -A.D.).” In India the peach is called cinani (“Chinese fruit”). “There -is no Sanskrit name for the tree (peach); nor does it play any rôle in -the folk-lore of India, as it does in China.” ... Persia “has only -descriptive names for these fruits, the peach being termed saft alu -(‘large plum’), the apricot, zard alu (‘yellow plum’).” [213] - -It is difficult to identify the cassia tree of Chinese religious -literature. “The Chinese word Kwei occurs at an early date, but it is a -generic term for Lauraceæ; and there are about thirteen species of -Cassia, and about sixteen species of Cinnamomum in China. The essential -point is that the ancient texts maintain silence as to cinnamon; that -is, the product from the bark of the tree. Cinnamomum cassia is a -native of Kwan-si, Kwan-tun, and Indo-China; and the Chinese made its -first acquaintance under the Han, when they began to colonize and to -absorb southern China.” The first description of this tree goes no -farther back than the third century. “It was not the Chinese, but -non-Chinese peoples of Indo-China who first brought the tree into -civilization, which, like all other southern cultivations, was simply -adopted by the conquering Chinese.” [214] It has been suggested that -the cinnamon bark was imported into Egypt from China as far back as the -Empire period (c. 1500 B.C.) by Phœnician sea-traders. [215] Laufer -rejects this theory. [216] Apparently the ancient Egyptians imported a -fragrant bark from their Punt (Somaliland, or British East Africa). At -a very much later period cinnamon bark was carried across the Indian -Ocean from Ceylon. - -The Egyptians imported incense-bearing trees from Punt to restore the -“odours of the body” of the dead, and poured out libations to restore -its lost moisture. [217] “When”, writes Professor Elliot Smith, “the -belief became well established that the burning of incense was potent -as an animating force, and especially a giver of life to the dead, it -naturally came to be regarded as a divine substance in the sense that -it had the power of resurrection. As the grains of incense consisted of -the exudation of trees, or, as the ancient texts express it, ‘their -sweat’, the divine power of animation in course of time became -transferred to trees. They were no longer merely the source of the -life-giving incense, but were themselves animated by the deity, whose -drops of sweat were the means of conveying life to the mummy.... The -sap of trees was brought into relationship with life-giving water.... -The sap was also regarded as the blood of trees and the incense that -exuded as sweat.” As De Groot reminds us, “tales of trees that shed -blood, and that cry out when hurt are common in Chinese literature (as -also in Southern Arabia, notes Elliot Smith); also of trees that lodge, -or can change into maidens of transcendent beauty.” [218] - -Apparently the ancient seafarers who searched for incense-bearing trees -carried their beliefs to distant countries. The goddess-tree of the -peach cult was evidently the earliest in China. It bore the fruit of -life. The influence that led to the foundation of this cult probably -came by an overland route. The cassia-tree cult was later, and beliefs -connected with it came from Southern China; these, too, bear the -imprint of ideas that were well developed before they reached China. - -There are references in Chinese lore to a gigantic cassia tree which -was 10,000 feet high. Those who ate of its fruit became immortal. The -earlier belief connected with the peach tree was that the soul who ate -one of its peaches lived for 3000 years. - -This cassia world-tree appears first to have taken the place of the -peach tree of the “Royal Mother of the West”. It was reached by sailing -up the holiest river in China, the Hoang-Ho (Yellow River), the sources -of which are in the Koko-Nor territory to the north of Tibet. It -wriggles like a serpent between mountain barriers before it flows -northward; then it flows southward for 200 miles on the eastern border -of Shensi province (the Chinese homeland), and then eastward for 200 -miles, afterwards diverging in a north-easterly direction towards the -Gulf of Chihli, in which the Islands of the Blest were supposed to be -situated. - -It was believed that the Hoang-Ho had, like the Ganges of India and the -Nile of Egypt, a celestial origin. Those sages who desired to obtain a -glimpse of Paradise sailed up the river to its fountain head. Some -reached the tree and the garden of Paradise. Others found themselves -sailing across the heavens. The Western Paradise was evidently supposed -by some to be situated in the middle of the world, and by others to -have been situated beyond the horizon. - -Chang Kiʼen, one of the famous men attached to the court of Wu Ti, the -reviver of many ancient beliefs and myths, was credited with having -followed the course of the sacred river until he reached the spot where -the cassia tree grew. Beside the tree were the immortal animals that -haunt the garden of the “Royal Mother of the West”. In addition, Chang -Kiʼen saw the moon-rabbit or moon-hare, which is adored as a -rice-giver. In the Far East, as in the Near East and in the West, the -moon is supposed to ripen crops. The lunar rabbit or hare is associated -with water; in the moon grow plants and a tree of immortality. There is -also, according to Chinese belief, a frog in the moon. It was -originally a woman, the wife of a renowned archer, who rescued the moon -from imprisonment in masses of black rain-clouds. The “Royal Mother of -the West” was so grateful to the archer for the service he had rendered -that she gave him a jade cup filled with the dew of immortality. His -wife stole the cup and drank the dew. For this offence the “Royal -Mother of the West” transformed her into a frog, and imprisoned her in -the moon. In Egypt the frog was a symbol of resurrection or rebirth, -and the old frog-goddess Hekt is usually regarded as a form of Hathor, -the Great Mother. - -The lunar tree is sometimes identified with the cassia tree of -immortality. Its leaves are red as blood, and the bodies of those who -eat of its fruit become as transparent as still water. - -The moon-water which nourishes plants and trees (eight lunar trees of -immortality are referred to in some legends), and the dew of -immortality in the jade cup, appear to be identical with the Indian -soma and the nectar of the classical gods. In Norse mythology the lunar -water-pot (a symbol of the mother-goddess) was filled at a well by two -children, the boy Hyuki and the girl Bil, [219] who were carried away -by the moon-god Mani. Odin was also credited with having recovered the -moon-mead from the hall of Suttung, “the mead wolf”, after it had been -stolen from the moon. The god flew heavenward, carrying the mead, in -the form of an eagle. [220] Zeus’s eagle is similarly a nectar-bringer. - -In Indian mythology the soma was contained in a bowl fashioned by -Twashtri, the divine artisan, and was drunk by the gods, and especially -by Indra, the rain-bringer. A Vedic frog-hymn was chanted by -Aryo-Indian priests as a rain-charm when Indra’s services were -requisitioned. In one of the Indian legends an eagle or falcon carries -the soma to Indra. The souls who reach Paradise are made immortal after -they drink of the soma. In India the soma was personified, and the -lunar god, Soma, became a god of love, immortality, and fertility. The -soma juice was obtained by the Vedic priests from some unknown plant. -There are also references in Indian mythology to the “Amrita”, which -was partaken of by the gods. It was the sap of sacred trees that grew -in Paradise. Trees and plants derived their life and sustenance from -water. The Far-Eastern beliefs in “the dew of immortality”, “the fungus -of immortality”, and “the fruit of immortality” have an intimate -connection with the belief that the mother-goddess was connected with -the moon, which exercised an influence over water. The mother-goddess -was also the love-goddess, the Ishtar of Babylonia, the Hathor of -Egypt, the Aphrodite of Greece. Her son, or husband, was, in one of his -phases, the love-god. - -The sage of the Chinese Emperor Wu Ti, who followed the course of the -Yellow River so as to reach the celestial Paradise, saw, in addition to -the moon-rabbit, or hare, the “Old Man of the Moon”, the Chinese Wu -Kang and Japanese Gekkawo, the god of love and marriage. He is supposed -to unite lovers by binding their feet with invisible red silk cords. -The “Old Man in the Moon” is, in Chinese legend, engaged in chopping -branches from the cassia tree of immortality. New branches immediately -sprout forth to replace those thus removed, but the “Old Man” has to go -on cutting till the end of time, having committed a sin for which his -increasing labour is the appropriate punishment. - -A Buddhist legend makes Indra the old man. He asked for food from the -hare, the ape, and the fox. The hare lit a fire and leapt into it so -that the god might be fed. Indra was so much impressed by this supreme -act of friendship and charity that he placed the exemplary hare in the -moon. A version of this story is given in the Mahábhárata. - -In European folk-lore the “Old Man” is either a thief who stole a -bundle of faggots, or a man who “broke the Sabbath” by cutting sticks -on that holy day. - - - See the rustic in the Moon, - How his bundle weighs him down; - Thus his sticks the truth reveal - It never profits man to steal. - - -Various versions of the Man in the Moon myth are given by S. -Baring-Gould, [221] who draws attention to a curious seal “appended to -a deed preserved in the Record office, dated the 9th year of Edward the -Third (1335)”. It shows the “Man in the Moon” carrying his sticks and -accompanied by his dog. Two stars are added. The inscription on the -seal is, “Te Waltere docebo cur spinas phebo gero (I will teach thee, -Walter, why I carry thorns in the moon)”. The deed is one of conveyance -of property from a man whose Christian name was Walter. - -Wu Ti’s sage travelled through the celestial regions until he reached -the Milky Way, the source of the Yellow River. He saw the Spinning -Maiden, whose radiant garment is adorned with silver stars. She had a -lover, from whom she was separated, but once a year she was allowed to -visit him, and passed across the heavens as a meteor. This Spinning -Maiden, who weaves the net of the constellations, is reminiscent of the -Egyptian sky-goddess, Hathor (or Nut), whose body is covered with -stars, and whose legs and arms, as she bends over the earth, “represent -the four pillars on which the sky was supposed to rest and mark the -four cardinal points”. Her lover, from whom she was separated, was Seb. -[222] In China certain groups of stars are referred to as the -“Celestial Door”, the “Hall of Heaven”, &c. Taoist saints dwell in -stellar abodes, as well as on the “Islands of the Blest”; some were, -during their life on earth, incarnations of star-gods. The lower ranks -of the western-cult immortals remain in the garden of the “Royal -Mother”; those of the highest rank ascend to the stars. - -Wu Ti’s sage, according to one form of the legend, never returned to -earth. His boat, which sailed up the Yellow River and then along the -“Milky Way”, was believed to have reached the Celestial River that -flows round the Universe, and along which sails the sun-barque of the -Egyptian god Ra (or Re). One day the Chinese sage’s oar—apparently his -steering oar—was deposited in the Royal Palace grounds by a celestial -spirit, who descended from the sky. Here we have, perhaps, a faint -memory of the visits paid to earth from the celestial barque by the -Egyptian god Thoth, in his captivity as envoy of the sun-god Ra. - -There is evidence in Far-Eastern folk-tales that at a very remote -period the beliefs of the cult of the sky-goddess, which placed the -tree of immortality in the “moon island”, and the beliefs of the peach -cult of “the Westerners” were fused, as were those of the Osirian and -solar cults in Egypt. - -A curious story tells that once upon a time a man went to fish on the -Yellow River. A storm arose, and his boat was driven into a tributary, -the banks of which were fringed with innumerable peach trees in full -blossom. He reached an island, on which he landed. There he was kindly -treated by the inhabitants, who told that they had fled from China -because of the oppression of the emperor. This surprised the fisherman -greatly. He asked for particulars, and was given the name of an emperor -who had died about 500 years before he himself was born. - -“What is the name of this island?” he asked. The inhabitants were -unable to tell him. “We came hither,” they said, “just as you have -come. We are strangers in a strange land.” - -Next day the wanderer launched his boat and set out to return by the -way he had come. He sailed on all day and all night, and when morning -came he found himself amidst familiar landmarks. He was able to return -home. - -When the fisherman told the story to a priest, he was informed that he -had reached the land of the Celestials, and that the river fringed by -peach trees in blossom was the Milky Way. - -In this story the Chinese Island of the Blest is, like the Nilotic -“green bed of Horus”, a river island. - -Another memory of the Celestial River and the Barque of the Sun is -enshrined in the story of Lo Tze Fang, a holy woman of China who -ascended to heaven by climbing a high tree—apparently the “world-tree”. -After reaching the celestial regions she was carried along the -Celestial River in a boat. According to the story, she still sails each -day across the heavens. - -Other saintly people have been carried to the celestial regions by -dragons. According to Chinese belief the “Yellow Dragon” is connected -with the moon. The reflection of the moon on rippling water is usually -referred to as the “Golden Dragon”, or “Yellow Dragon”, the chief of -Chinese dragons, and usually associated with the sun. - -One of the classes of Chinese holy men of the Spirit-world, the Sien -Nung, who bear a close resemblance to Indian Rishis, is connected with -the moon cult. They are believed to prolong their lives by eating the -leaves of the lunar plants. - -In an Egyptian legend it is told that Osiris was the son of the Mother -Cow, who had conceived him when a fertilizing ray of light fell from -the moon. In like manner a moon-girl came into being in Japan. She was -discovered by a wood-cutter. One day, when collecting bamboo, he found -inside a cane a little baby, whose body shone as does a gem in -darkness. He took her home to his wife, and she grew up to be a very -beautiful girl. She was called “Moon Ray”, and after living for a time -on the earth returned to the moon. She had maintained her youthful -appearance by drinking, from a small vessel she possessed, the fluid of -immortality. - -As the dragon was connected with the moon, and the moon with the -bamboo, it might be expected that the dragon and bamboo would be -closely linked. One of the holy men is credited with having reached the -lunar heaven by cutting down a bamboo, which he afterwards transformed -into a dragon. He rode heavenwards on the dragon’s back. - -Saintly women, as a rule, rise to heaven in the form of birds, or in -their own form, without wings, on account of the soul-like lightness of -their bodies, which have become purified by performing religious rites -and engaging in prayer and meditation. Their husbands have either to -climb trees or great mountains. Some holy women, after reaching heaven, -ride along the clouds on the back of the Kʼilin, the bisexual monster -that the soul of Confucius is supposed to ride. It is a form of the -dragon, but more like the makara of the Indian god Varuna than the -typical “wonder beast” of China and Japan. Some of these monsters -resemble lions, dogs, deer, walruses, or unicorns. They are all, -however, varieties of the makara. - -Sometimes we find that the attributes of the Great Mother, who, like -Aphrodite, was a “Postponer of Old Age” (Ambologera), being the -provider of the fruit of immortality and a personification of the World -Tree, have been attached to the memory of some famous lady, and -especially an empress. As the Egyptian Pharaoh, according to the -beliefs of the solar cult, became Ra (the sun-god) after death, so did -the Chinese empress become the “Royal Lady of the West”. Nu Kwa, a -mythical empress of China, was reputed to have become a goddess after -she had passed to the celestial regions. She figures in the Chinese -Deluge Myth. Like the Babylonian Ishtar, she was opposed to the policy -of destroying mankind. She did not, however, like Ishtar, content -herself by expressing regret. When the demons of water and fire, aided -by rebel generals of her empire, set out to destroy the world, Nu Kwa -waged war against them. Her campaign was successful, but not until a -gigantic warrior had partly destroyed the heavens by upsetting one of -its pillars and the flood had covered a great portion of the earth. The -empress stemmed the rising waters by means of charred reeds (a -Babylonian touch), and afterwards rebuilt the broken pillar, under -which was placed an Atlas-tortoise. Like Marduk (Merodach), she then -set the Universe in order, and formed the channel for the Celestial -River. Thereafter she created the guardians of the four quarters, -placing the Black Tortoise in the north, and giving it control over -winter; the Blue Dragon in the east, who was given control over spring; -the White Tiger in the west, who was given control over autumn; and the -Red Bird in the south, who was given control over summer, with the -Golden Dragon, whose special duty was to guard the sun, the moon being -protected by the White Deity of the west. The broken pillar of heaven -was built up with stones coloured like the five gods. - -Among the gifts conferred on mankind by this Empress-Goddess was jade, -which she created so that they might be protected against evil -influence and decay. - -In this Deluge Myth, which is evidently of Babylonian origin, the gods -figure as rebels and demons. The Mother Goddess is the protector of the -Universe, and the friend of man. Evidently the cult of the Mother -Goddess was at one time very powerful in China. In Japan the Empress Nu -Kwa is remembered as Jokwa. - -The Tree of Immortality, as has been seen, is closely associated with -the Far Eastern Mother Goddess, who may appear before favoured mortals -either as a beautiful woman, as a dragon, or as a woman riding on a -dragon, or as half woman and half fish, or half woman and half serpent. -It is from the goddess that the tree receives its “soul substance”; in -a sense, she is the tree, as she is the moon and the pot of life-water, -or the mead in the moon. The fruits of the tree are symbols of her as -the mother, and the sap of the tree is her blood. - -Reference has been made to Far Eastern stories about dragons -transforming themselves into trees and trees becoming dragons. The tree -was a “kupua” of the dragon. The mother of Adonis was a tree—Myrrha—the -daughter of King Cinyras of Cyprus, who was transformed into a myrrh -tree. A Japanese legend relates that a hero, named Manko, once saw a -beautiful woman sitting on a tree-trunk that floated on the sea. She -vanished suddenly. Manko had the tree taken into his boat, and found -that the woman was hidden inside the trunk. She was a daughter of the -Dragon King of Ocean. - -A better-known Japanese tree hero is Momotaro (momo, peach, taro, -eldest son), whose name is usually rendered in English as “Little -Peachling”. He is known in folk-stories as a slayer of demons—a -veritable Jack the Giant-Killer. - -The legend runs that one day an old wood-cutter went out to gather -firewood, while his wife washed dirty clothes in a river. After the -woman had finished her work, she saw a gigantic peach drifting past. -Seizing a pole, she brought it into shallow water, and thus secured it. -The size of the peach astonished her greatly, and she carried it home, -and, having washed it, placed it before her husband when he returned -home for his evening meal. No sooner did the wood-cutter begin to cut -open the peach than a baby boy emerged from the kernel. The couple, -being childless, were greatly delighted, and looked upon the child as a -gift from the Celestials, and they believed he had been sent so as to -become their comfort and helper when they grew too old to work. - -Momotaro, “the elder son of the peach”, as they called him, grew up to -be a strong and valiant young man, who performed feats of strength that -caused everyone to wonder at him. - -There came a day when, to the sorrow of his foster-parents, he -announced that he had resolved to leave home and go to the Isle of -Demons, with purpose to secure a portion of their treasure. This seemed -to be a perilous undertaking, and the old couple attempted to make him -change his mind. Momotaro, however, laughed at their fears, and said: -“Please make some millet dumplings for me. I shall need food for my -journey.” - -His foster-mother prepared the dumplings and muttered good wishes over -them. Then Momotaro bade the old couple an affectionate farewell, and -went on his way. - -The young hero had not travelled far when he met a dog, which barked -out: “Bow-wow! where are you going, Peach-son?” - -“I am going to the Isle of Demons to obtain treasure,” the lad -answered. - -“Bow-wow! what are you carrying?” - -“I am carrying millet dumplings that my mother made for me. No one in -Japan can make better dumplings than these.” - -“Bow-wow! give me one and I shall go with you to the Isle of Demons.” - -The lad gave the dog a dumpling, and it followed at his heels. - -Momotaro had not gone much farther when a monkey, perched on a tree, -called out to him, saying: “Kia! Kia! where are you going, Son of a -Peach?” - -Momotaro answered the monkey as he had answered the dog. The monkey -asked for a dumpling, promising to join the party, and when he received -one he set off with the lad and the dog. - -The next animal that hailed the lad was a pheasant, who called out: -“Ken! Ken! where are you going, Son of a Peach?” - -Momotaro told him, and the bird, having received the dumpling he asked -for, accompanied the lad, the dog, and the monkey on the quest of -treasure. - -When the Island of Demons was reached they all went together towards -the fortress in which the demon king resided. The pheasant flew inside -to act as a spy. Then the monkey climbed over the wall and opened the -gate, so that Momotaro and the dog were able to enter the fortress -without difficulty. The demons, however, soon caught sight of the -intruders, and attempted to kill them. Momotaro fought fiercely, -assisted by the friendly animals, and slew or scattered in flight the -demon warriors. Then they found their way into the royal palace and -made Akandoji, the king of demons, their prisoner. This great demon was -prepared to wield his terrible club of iron, but Momotaro, who was an -expert in the jiu-jitsu system of wrestling, seized the demon king and -threw him down, and, with the help of the monkey, bound him with a -rope. - -Momotaro threatened to put Akandoji to death if he would not reveal -where his treasure was hidden. - -The king bade his servants do homage to the Son of the Peach and to -bring forth the treasure, which included the cap and coat of -invisibility, magic jewels that controlled the ebb and flow of ocean, -gems that shone in darkness and gave protection against all evil to -those who wore them, tortoise-shell and jade charms, and a great -quantity of gold and silver. - -Momotaro took possession of as much of the treasure as he could carry, -and returned home a very rich man. He built a great house, and lived in -it with his foster-parents, who were given everything they desired as -long as they lived. - -In this story may be detected a mosaic of myths. The Egyptian Horus, -whose island floated down the Nile, had white sandals which enabled him -to go swiftly up and down the land of Egypt. There are references in -the Pyramid Texts to his youthful exploits, but the full story of them -has not yet been discovered. The Babylonian Tammuz, when a child, -drifted in a “sunken boat” down the River Euphrates. No doubt this myth -is the one attached to the memory of Sargon of Akkad, [223] the son of -a vestal virgin, who was placed in an ark and set adrift on the river. -He was found by a gardener, and was afterwards raised to the kingship -by the goddess Ishtar. Karna, the Aryo-Indian Hector, the son of Surya, -the sun-god, and the virgin-princess Pritha, was similarly set adrift -in an ark, and was rescued from the Ganges by a childless woman whose -husband was a charioteer. The poor couple reared the future hero as -their own son. [224] - -Adonis, the son of the myrrh tree, was a Syrian form of Tammuz. Horus -was the son of Osiris, whose body was enclosed by a tree after Set -caused his death by setting him adrift in a chest. When Isis found the -tree, which had been cut down for a pillar, the posthumous conception -of the son of Osiris took place. [225] The Momotaro legend has thus a -long history. - -The friendly animals figure in the folk-tales of many lands. Momotaro’s -fight for the treasure, including the cloak of invisibility, bears a -close resemblance to Siegfried’s fight for the treasure of the -Nibelungs. [226] In western European, as in Far Eastern lore, the -treasure is guarded by dragons as well as by dwarfs and giants and -other demons. When the dragon-slayer is not accompanied by friendly -animals, he receives help and advice from birds whose language he -acquires by eating a part of the dragon, or, as in the Egyptian tale, -after getting possession of the book of spells, guarded by the -“Deathless Snake”. When the Egyptian hero reads the spells he -understands the language of birds, beasts, and fishes. The -treasure-guarding dragon appears, as has been suggested, to have had -origin in the belief that sharks were the guardians of pearl-beds and -preyed upon the divers who stole their treasure. - -The beliefs connected with the life-giving virtues of the tree of the -Mother Goddess were attached to shells, pearls, gold, and jade. The -goddess was the source of all life, and one of her forms was the -dragon. As the dragon-mother she created or gave birth to the -dragon-gods. Dragon-bones were ground down for medicinal purposes; -dragon-herbs cured diseases; the sap of dragon-trees, like the fruit, -promoted longevity, as did the jade which the goddess had created for -mankind. - -The beliefs connected with jade were similar to those connected with -pearls, which were at a remote period emblems of the moon in Egypt. In -China the moon was “the pearl of heaven”. One curious and widespread -belief was that pearls were formed by rain-drops, or by drops of dew -from the moon, the source of moisture, and especially of nectar or -soma. Pearls and pearl-shells were used for medicinal purposes. They -were, like the sap of trees, the very essence of life—the -soul-substance of the Great Mother. [227] - -That the complex ideas regarding shells, pearls, dew, trees, the moon, -the sun, the stars, and the Great Mother were of “spontaneous -generation” in many separated countries is difficult to believe. It is -more probable that the culture-complexes enshrined in folk-tales and -religious texts had a definite area of origin in which their history -can be traced. The searchers for precious stones and metals and -incense-bearing trees must have scattered their beliefs far and wide -when they exploited locally-unappreciated forms of wealth. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -TREE-, HERB-, AND STONE-LORE - - “Soul Substance” in Medicinal Plants—Life-fire in Water and - Plants—“The Blood which is Life”—Colour Symbolism in East and - West—Charm Symbolism—Gems as Fruit—Jade and Vegetation—Far Eastern - Elixirs of Life—Links between Pine, Cypress, Mandrake, and - Mugwort—Story of Treasure-finding Dog—The Far Eastern Artemis—Her - Mugwort, Lotus, and Fruit Basket—Herbs and Pearl-shell—Goats and - Women’s Herb—Chinese and Tartar’s Fight for Mandrake—Tea as an - Elixir—Far Eastern Rip Van Winkles—Problem of the Date Tree—“Tree - Tears” and “Stone Tears”—Weeping Deities—Goats and - Thunder-gods—Goats and Sheep become Stones—Gems and Herbs connected - with Moon—Graded Herbs, Deities, and Stones—Foreign Ideas in China. - - -In the ancient medical lore of China, as in the medical lores of other -lands, there are laudatory references to “All-heal” plants and plants -reputed to be specific remedies for various diseases. Not a few of -these medicinal plants have been found to be either quite useless or -positively harmful, but some are included in modern pharmacopœias, -after having been submitted to the closest investigations of -physiological science. - -The old herbalists, witch-doctors, and hereditary “curers”, who made -some genuine discoveries that have since been elaborated, were -certainly not scientists in the modern sense of the term. Their “cures” -were a quaint mixture of magic and religion. They searched for those -plants and substances that appeared, either by their shape or colour, -to contain in more concentrated form than others the “essence of life”, -the “soul substance” that restored health and promoted longevity. - -This “soul substance” was concentrated in body-odours and -body-moistures. It was a something mixed in water which had colour, -odour, and heat—a something derived from the Great Mother, who had -herself sprung from water, as did the Egyptian Hathor and the Greek -Aphrodite, or, if not directly from the Great Mother, from one or other -of her offspring. The “soul substance” of the goddess was in -vegetation; the sap of trees was identified with her blood—the “blood -which is life”. Blood was one kind of body-moisture; other kinds were -sweat, tears, saliva, &c. All these moistures had fertilizing -properties. The Mother, as the sky-goddess, provided the world’s supply -of fertilizing water. In China the supply was controlled by the -dragon-gods, who caused the thunder and lightning that released the -rain and flooded the rivers. - -Winter is the Chinese dry season. It was believed that during this -period the dragons were concealed and asleep. No growth was possible -during winter because of the scarcity of water—the life-giving water -that caused Nature to “renew her youth” in the spring season. When the -dragons awoke and rose fighting and thundering, parched wastes were -soaked and fertilized by rain. Then the old, decaying world renewed her -youth and fresh vegetation appeared, because “soul substance” in the -form of rain had entered the soil and furnished plants with -“blood-sap”, and at the same time with vital energy, vital odours, and -vital colours. Thus life, which had its origin in water, was sustained -by the products of water and by the properties in water. - -The plants that were supposed to store up most “soul substance” were -those that grew in water, like the lotus, those that constantly -absorbed moisture, like the “fungus of immortality”, or those that -sprang up suddenly during a thunder-storm, like the “Red Cloud herb”. -The latter required a heavy deluge to bring it into existence. It was a -special gift of the dragon-god—or an “avatar” of that deity—and had -concentrated in it the essence of much rain, and, in addition, the -essence of lightning—the “fire of heaven”, ejected by the rain-dragon. -The lightning was the “dragon’s tongue”, and had therefore substance, -moisture, and heat, as well as brilliance. To the early thinkers the -life fluid was not only blood, but warm blood—blood pulsating with the -“vital spark”, the “fire of life”. These men would have accepted in the -literal sense the imagery of the modern Irish poet, who wrote: - - - O, there was lightning in my blood, - Red lightning lighten’d through my blood, - My Dark Rosaleen. - - -The “fire of life” might be locked up in vegetation, in stone, or in -red earth, and be made manifest by its colour alone. - -The genesis of this idea can be traced at a very early period in the -history of modern man (Homo sapiens). In Aurignacian times in western -Europe (that is, from ten till twenty thousand years ago) blood was -identified with life and consciousness. The red substance in “the blood -which is life” was apparently regarded as the vitalizing agency, and -was supposed to be the same as red earth (red ochre). It is found, from -the evidence afforded by burial customs, that the Aurignacian race -originated or perpetuated the habit of smearing the bodies of their -dead with red ochre. After the flesh had decayed, the red ochre fell on -and coloured the bones and the pebbles around the bones. Whether or not -the red ochre was supposed to be impregnated with the essence of fire, -or of the sun, the source of fire, it is impossible to say. Behind the -corpse-painting custom there was, no doubt, a body of definite beliefs. -As much is suggested by the fact that shell-amulets and spine-amulets -were laid on or about the dead. The belief that the first man had been -formed of red clay mixed with water may well have been in existence in -Aurignacian times. The amulets associated with Aurignacian ceremonial -burials suggest, too, that ideas had been formulated regarding the -after-life. Was it believed that the painted, and therefore reanimated, -body would rise again, or that the soul could be assisted to travel to -the Otherworld? These questions cannot yet be answered. We can do no -more than note here that Colour Symbolism, and especially Red Symbolism -and all it entails, had origin in remote antiquity. - -In China red flowers and red berries were supposed, because of their -colour, to be strongly impregnated with “soul substance” or “vital -essence”, or, to use the Chinese term, with shen. These flowers and -berries had curative qualities. In western Europe the red holly berry -was in like manner regarded as an “All-heal”. The tree on which the red -berry appears is so full of divine life that it is an evergreen. In -Gaelic folk-lore holly is associated with the Mother Goddess and with -the water-beast (dragon) and its “avatar”, the red-spotted salmon, -which is supposed to swallow the holly berries that drop into its pool. - -The red substance which is in the blood was not necessarily confined, -however, to vegetation. As it was of the earth, earthy, or a product of -some mysterious agency at work in the earth, it might be found in -coagulated form as a ruby, or any other red stone, or as a stone -streaked or spotted with red; it might be found in water as a shell, -wholly or partly red, or as a red or yellow pearl inside a shell. It -might likewise be found concentrated in the red feathers of a bird. A -bird with red feathers was usually recognized as a “thunder bird”—Robin -Red-breast is a European “thunder bird” [228]—and the red berry as a -“thunder berry”—a berry containing the “soul substance” of the god of -lightning and fire. Fire was obtained by friction from trees associated -with the divine Thunderer; his spirit dwelt in the tree. One of the -“fire sticks” was invariably taken from a red-berried tree. - -The red vital substance might likewise be displayed by a sacred -fish—the “thunder fish”. In the Chinese “Boy Blue” story the -thunder-dragon in human form rides on the back of a red carp. - -Yellow is, like red, reputed to be a vital colour. Lightning is yellow; -the flames of wood fires are yellow, while the embers are red. Early -man appears to have recognized the close association of yellow and red -in fire. Gold is yellow, and it was connected, as a substitute for red -and yellow shells, with the sun, which at morning and evening sends -forth red and yellow rays. The fire which is in the sun “warms the -blood” and promotes the growth of plants, as does the moisture in the -moon—the moon which controls the flow of sap and blood. The combination -of sun-fire, lunar-fire, and moisture, or of fire-red earth and rain, -constituted, according to early man’s way of thinking, the mystery -called life. Yellow berries and yellow flowers were as sacred to him, -and had as great life-prolonging and curative qualities, as red -berries, red flowers, red feathers, and the skins and scales of red -fish. Yellow gems and yellow metals were consequently valued as highly -as were red gems and red metals. In China yellow is the earth colour. -In Ceylon, Burmah, Tibet, and China it is the sacred colour of the -Buddhists. - -Blue, the sky colour, and therefore the colour of the sky-deity, was -likewise holy. Torquoise and lapis-lazuli were connected with the Great -Mother. The sacredness of green has a more complex history. It was not -reverenced simply because of the greenness of vegetation. The -mysterious substance that makes plants green was derived from the -supreme source of life—the green form of the water-goddess or god—and -was to be found in concentrated form in green gems and stones, -including green jade. White was the colour of day, the stars, and the -moon, and black the colour of night and of death, and therefore the -colour of deities associated with darkness and the Otherworld. In China -black is the colour of the north, of winter, and of drought. The -combination of the five colours (black, white, red, yellow, and blue or -green) was displayed by all deities. This conception is enshrined in -the religious text which De Visser gives without comment: - - - “A dragon in the water covers himself with five colours; - Therefore he is a god.” [229] - - -In China, as in several other countries, the colour of an animal, -plant, or stone was believed to reveal its character and attributes. A -red berry was regarded with favour, because it displayed the life -colour. A red stone was favoured for the same reason. When it is -nowadays found that some particular berry or herb, favoured of old as -an “All-heal”, is really an efficacious medicine, an enthusiast may -incline to regard it as a wonderful thing that modern medical science -has not achieved, in some lines, greater triumphs than were achieved by -the “simple observers” of ancient times. But it may be that the real -cures were of accidental discovery, and that the effective berry or -herb would, on account of its colour alone, have continued in use -whether it had cured or not. - -In China not only the berry with a “good colour” was used by “curers”, -but even the stone with a “good colour”. The physicians, for instance, -sometimes prescribed ground jade, and we read of men who died, because, -as it was thought, the quantities of jade-medicine taken were much too -large. Some ancient writers assert, in this connection, that although a -dose of ground jade may bring this life to a speedy end, it will ensure -prolonged life in the next world. - -The berries and stones which were reputed to be “All-heals” were not -always devoured. They could be used simply as charms. The vital essence -or “soul substance” in berry or stone was supposed to be so powerful -that it warded off the attacks of the demons of disease, or expelled -the demons after they had taken possession of a patient. Medicines -might be prepared by simply dipping the charms into pure well water. -These charms were often worn as body-ornaments. All the ancient -personal ornaments were magic charms that gave protection or regulated -the functions of body organs. When symbols were carved on jade, the -ornaments were believed to acquire increased effectiveness. Gold -ornaments were invariably given symbolic shape. Like the horse-shoe, -which in western Europe is nailed on a door for “luck”—that is, to ward -off evil—these symbolic ornaments were credited with luck-bringing -virtues. The most ancient gold ornaments in the world are found in -Egypt, and these are models of shells, which had been worn as -“luck-bringers” long before gold was worked. [230] These shells had an -intimate association with the Mother Goddess, who, in one of her -aspects, personified the birth-aiding and fertilizing shell. - -The idea that the coloured fruits and the coloured stones were -life-giving “avatars” of the Mother Goddess is well illustrated in the -glowing accounts of the Chinese Paradise. The Tree of Life might bear -fruit or gems. The souls swallowed gems as readily as fruit. In the -Japanese Paradise the immortals devour powdered mother-of-pearl shells -as well as peaches, dried cassia pods, cinnabar, pine needles, or pine -cones. - -Jade was connected with vegetation on this earth as well as in -Paradise. As we have seen, the Great Mother goddess created this famous -mineral for the benefit of mankind. It contained her “soul substance”, -as did the trees, their blossoms, and their fruit, and even their -leaves and bark. This quaint belief is enshrined in the following -quotation from the Illustrated Mirror of Jades, translated by Laufer -and given without comment: - - - “In the second month, the plants in the mountains receive a bright - lustre. When their leaves fall, they change into jade. The spirit - of jade is like a beautiful woman.” [231] - - -It is obvious that the “beautiful woman” is the Goddess of the West. -Reference to coral trees in Paradise are numerous. It was believed not -only in China but in western Europe, until comparatively recent times, -that coral was a marine tree—the tree of the water-goddess. The Great -Mother was connected with the water above and beyond the firmament, as -well as the rivers and the sea. - -“Good health” in the Otherworld was immortality or great longevity. A -soul which ate of a peach from the World Tree was assured of 3000 years -of good health. He renewed his youth, and never grew old, so long as -the supply of peaches was assured. [232] - -In China men lengthened their days by partaking of “soul substance” in -various forms. The pine-tree cult made decoctions of pine needles and -cones, or of the fungus found at the roots of pines. “The juice of the -pine”, says one Chinese sage, “when consumed for a long time, renders -the body light, prevents man from growing old, and lengthens his life. -Its leaves preserve the interior of the body; they cause a man never to -feel hunger, and increase the years of his life.” The cypress was also -favoured. “Cypress seeds,” the same writer asserts, “if consumed for a -long period, render a man hale and healthy. They endow him with a good -colour, sharpen his ears and eyes, cause him never to experience the -feeling of hunger, nor to grow old.” The camphor tree comes next to the -pine and cypress as “a dispenser and depository of vital power”. [233] - -Apparently the fact that pines and cypresses are evergreens recommended -them to the Chinese, although it was not for that reason only the -belief arose about their richness of “soul substance”. An ancient -Chinese sage has declared: “Pines and cypresses alone on this earth are -endowed with life, in the midst of winter as well as in summer they are -evergreen. Pines 1000 years old resemble a blue ox, a blue dog, or a -blue human being. Cypresses 1000 years old have deep roots shaped like -men in a sitting posture.... When they are cut they lose blood.... -Branches of pines which are 3000 years old have underneath the bark -accumulations of resin in the shape of dragons, which, if pounded and -consumed in a quantity of full ten pounds, will enable a man to live -500 years.” [234] - -Here we have the tree connected with the blue dragon. As has been -stated, ancient pines were transformed into dragons. The assertion that -the pines and cypresses were the only trees possessed of “vital power” -does not accord with the evidence regarding the peach-tree cult. The -peach, although not an evergreen, was credited with being possessed of -much “soul substance”. - -No doubt the ideas connected with evergreens had a close association -with the doctrines of colour symbolism. The Chinese “Tree of Heaven” -(Ailanthus glandulosa) appears to have attracted special attention, -because in spring its leaves are coloured reddish-violet or -reddish-brown before they turn green. The walnut, cherry, and peony -similarly show reddish young leaves, and these trees have much lore -connected with them. - -One seems to detect traces of the beliefs connected with the mandrake -in the reference to the human-shaped roots of the 1000-year-old cypress -tree. The mandrake was the plant of Aphrodite, and its root, which -resembles the human form, was used medicinally; it has narcotic -properties, and was believed also to be a medicine which promoted -fertility, assisted birth, and caused youths and girls to fall in love -with one another. According to mandrake-lore, the plant shrieks when -taken from the earth, and causes the death of the one who plucks it. -[235] Dogs were consequently employed to drag it out of the ground, and -they expired immediately. The “mandrake apple” is believed by Dr. -Rendel Harris to have been the original “love apple”. [236] - -In like manner the mugwort, the plant of Artemis, was connected in -China and Japan with the pine which had virtues similar to those of the -herb. Although the mandrake-dog is not associated with the cypress, it -is found connected in a Japanese folk-story with the pine. The hero of -the tale, an old man called Hana Saka Jijii, acquired the secret how to -make withered trees blossom. He possessed a wonderful dog, named Shiro, -which one day attracted his attention by sniffing, barking, and wagging -his tail at a certain spot in the cottage garden. The old man was -puzzled to know what curious thing in the ground attracted the dog, and -began to dig. After turning up a few spadefuls of earth he found a -hoard of gold and silver pieces. - -A jealous neighbour, having observed what had happened, borrowed Shiro -and set the animal to search for treasure in his own garden. The dog -began to sniff and bark at a certain spot, but when the man turned over -the soil, he found only dirt and offal that emitted an offensive smell. -Angry at being deceived by the dog, he killed it and buried the body -below the roots of a pine tree. Hana Saka Jijii was much distressed on -account of the loss of Shiro. He burned incense below the pine tree, -laid flowers on the dog’s grave, and shed tears. That night he dreamed -a wonderful dream. The ghost of Shiro appeared before him, and, -addressing him, said: “Cut down the pine tree above my grave and make a -rice mortar of it. When you use the mortar think of me.” - -The old man did as the dog advised, and discovered to his great joy -that when he used the pine-tree mortar each grain of rice was -transformed into pure gold. He soon became rich. - -The envious neighbour discovered what was going on and borrowed the -mortar. In his hands, however, it turned rice into dirt. This enraged -him so greatly that he broke the mortar and burned it. - -That night the ghost of Shiro appeared once again in a dream, and -advised Hana Saka Jijii to collect the ashes of the burnt mortar and -scatter them on withered trees. Next morning he did as the dog advised -him. To his astonishment he found that the ashes caused withered trees -to come to life and send forth fresh and beautiful blossoms. He then -went about the country and employed himself reviving dead plum and -cherry trees, and soon became so renowned that a prince sent for him, -asking that he should bring back to life the withered trees in his -garden. The old man received a rich reward when he accomplished the -feat. - -The jealous neighbour came to know how Hana Saka Jijii revived dead -trees, so he collected what remained of the ashes of the pine-tree -mortar. Then he set forth to proclaim to the inhabitants of a royal -town that he could work the same miracle as Hana Saka Jijii. The prince -sent for him, and the man climbed into the branches of a withered tree. -But when he scattered the ashes no bud or blossom appeared, and the -wind blew the dust into the eyes of the prince and nearly blinded him. -The impostor was seized and soundly beaten; and the dog Shiro was, in -this manner, well avenged. - -In this story the dog is a searcher for and giver of treasure. It is of -special interest, therefore, to find that Artemis, the mugwort-goddess -of the West, “was not only the opener of treasure-houses, but she also -possessed the secret of the Philosopher’s Stone; she could transmute -base substances into gold”. She could therefore grant riches to those -whom she favoured. Dr. Rendel Harris, quoting from an old English -writer, records the belief “that upon St. John’s eve there are coals -(which turn to gold) to be found at midday under the roots of mugwort, -which after or before that time are very small, or none at all”. The -gold cures sickness. [237] - -A similar belief was attached to the mandrake. A French story tells of -a peasant who regularly “fed” a mandrake that grew below a -mistletoe-bearing oak. The mandrake, when fed, would, it was believed, -“make you rich by returning twice as much as you spent upon it.... The -plant had become an animal.” [238] - -If Shiro’s prototype was the mandrake-dog which sacrificed itself for -the sake of lovers, and was itself an “avatar” of the deity, we should -expect to find the pine tree connected with the love-goddess. [239] -Joly, in his Legend in Japanese Art (p. 147), tells that “at Takasago -there is a very old pine tree, the trunk of which is bifurcated; in it -dwells the spirit of the Maiden of Takasago, who was seen once by the -son of Izanagi, who fell in love and wedded her. Both lived to a very -great age, dying at the same hour on the same day, and since then their -spirits abide in the tree, but on moonlight nights they return to human -shape and revisit the scene of their earthly life and pursue their work -of gathering pine needles.” The needles were promoters of longevity, as -we have seen. - -Another Japanese pair associated with the pine trees are Jo and Uba, a -couple of old and wrinkled spirits. They gathered pine needles, Jo -using a rake and Uba a besom and fan. - -The goddess of the pine was evidently a Far Eastern Aphrodite, as well -as a Far Eastern Artemis—an Artemis who provided medicine for women in -the form of the mugwort, was a goddess of birth, a guardian of -treasure, and a goddess of travellers and hunters. The Romans -associated with Diana (Artemis) her loved one, Dianus or Janus, [240] -as the tree-goddess in Japan was associated with a deified human lover. - -The pine may have been “a kind of mugwort” (and apparently, like the -cypress, a “kind of mandrake”), but it did not displace the mugwort as -a medicinal plant. Dr. Rendel Harris quotes a letter from Professor -Giles, the distinguished Chinese scholar, who says: “There is quite a -literature about Artemisia vulgaris, L. (the mugwort), which has been -used in China from time immemorial for cauterizing as a -counter-irritant, especially in cases of gout. Other species of -Artemisia are also found in China.” [241] - -The Far Eastern Artemis appears to be represented by the immortal lady -known in China as Ho Sien Ku, and in Japan as Kasenko. She is shown “as -a young woman clothed in mugwort, holding a lotus stem and flower” -(like a western Asiatic or Egyptian goddess), “and talking to a -phœnix”, or “depicted carrying a basket of loquat fruits which she -gathered for her sick mother. She was a woman who, having been promised -immortality in a dream, fed on mother-of-pearl, and thereafter moved as -swiftly as a bird.” [242] The Mexican god Tlaloc’s wife was similarly a -mugwort goddess. - -In the pine-tree story the Japanese representative of the tree- and -lunar-goddess of love appears with her spouse on moonlight nights. The -moon was the “Pearl of Heaven”. It will be noted that the mugwort is -connected with pearl-shell—the lady Ho Sien Ku having acquired the -right to wear mugwort, in her character as an immortal, by eating -mother-of-pearl. This connection of pearl-shell with a medicinal plant -is a more arbitrary one than that of the mugwort with the pine, or the -mandrake with the cypress. - -The lotus was a form of the ancient love-goddess, as was also the -cowry. In Egypt the solar-god Horus emerges at birth from the -lotus-form of Hathor as it floats on the breast of the Nile. Ho Sien -Ku’s basket of fruit is also symbolic. “A basket of sycamore figs” was -in Ancient Egypt “originally the hieroglyphic sign for a woman, a -goddess, or a mother”. It had thus the same significance as the Pot, -the lotus, the mandrake-apple, and the pomegranate. The latter symbol -supplanted the Egyptian lotus in the Ægean area. [243] - -Mugwort, as already stated, was a medicine, and chiefly a woman’s -medicine. “The plant (mugwort)”, says Dr. Rendel Harris, “is Artemis, -and Artemis is the plant. Artemis is a woman’s goddess and a maid’s -goddess, because she was a woman’s medicine and a maid’s medicine.” -[244] The mugwort promoted child-birth, and controlled women like the -moon, and was used for women’s ailments in general. It was a healing -plant, and was “good for gout” among other troubles. - -The women’s herb in China is called the “san tsi”. An -eighteenth-century writer [245] says it is “efficacious in women’s -disorders and hæmorrhages of all sorts”. It is found “only on the tops -of high, steep mountains”, as is the scented Edelraut (Artemisia -mutellina) an alpine plant like the famous and beautiful Edelweiss. - -Continuing his account of the “san tsi” herb, the eighteenth-century -writer and compiler says: “A kind of goat of a greyish colour is very -fond of feeding upon this plant, insomuch that they (the Chinese) -imagine the blood of this animal is endowed with the same medicinal -properties. It is certain that the blood of these goats has surprising -success against the injuries received by falls from horses, and other -accidents of the same kind. This the missionaries have had experience -of several times. One of their servants that was thrown by a vicious -horse, and who lay some time without speech or motion, was so soon -recovered by this remedy that the next day he was able to pursue his -journey.” It is also “a specific against the smallpox”. The author of -The Chinese Traveller, touching again on the blood substitute for this -plant, which is “not easy to be had”, says: “In the experiments above -mentioned, the blood of a goat was made use of that had been taken by -hunters”. - -The goat appears to be the link between Artemis “the curer” and Artemis -as “Diana the huntress”. As the virtues of rare curative herbs passed -into the blood of animals who ate them, the goddess, like her -worshippers, hunted the animals in question, or became their protector. -Pliny, in his twenty-eighth book, having, as Dr. Rendel Harris notes, -“exhausted the herbals”, shows that “a larger medicine is to be found -in animals and in man”. [246] - -In China the stag or deer, the stork, and the tortoise are associated -with the Tree of Life as “emblems of longevity”. One is reminded in -this connection of the Western, Eastern, and Far Eastern legends about -birds that pluck and carry to human beings leaves of “the plant of -life” or “fungus of immortality”, and of Mykenæan and Ancient Egyptian -representations of bulls, goats, deer, &c., browsing on vines and other -trees or bushes that were supposed to contain the elixir of life, being -sacred to the goddess and shown as symbols of her or of the god with -whom she was associated as mother or spouse. - -Another famous Far Eastern curative “wort” is the ginseng. Like the -fungus of immortality, it grew on one of the Islands of the Blest. -Taken with mermaid’s flesh, it was supposed to lengthen the life of man -for several centuries. - -“As described by Father Jartoux”, says the eighteenth-century English -writer, already quoted, [247] “it has a white root, somewhat knotty, -about half as thick as one’s little finger; and as it frequently parts -into two branches, not unlike the forked parts of a man, it is said -from thence to have obtained the name of ginseng, which implies a -resemblance of the human form, though indeed it has no more of such a -likeness than is usual among other roots. From the root arises a -perfectly smooth and roundish stem, of a pretty deep-red colour, except -towards the surface of the ground, where it is somewhat whiter. At the -top of the stem is a sort of joint or knot, formed by the shooting out -of four branches, sometimes more, sometimes less, which spread as from -a centre. The colour of the branches underneath is green, with a -whitish mixture, and the upper part is of a deep red like the stem.... -Each branch has five leaves,” and the leaves “make a circular figure -nearly parallel to the surface of the earth”. The berries are of “a -beautiful red colour”. - -Here we have hints of the mandrake without a doubt. As a matter of -fact, the ginseng has been identified with the mandrake. The plant -evidently attracted attention because of its colours and form. As it -has a red stem and red berries, it is not surprising to learn that “it -strengthens the vital spirits, is good against dizziness in the head -and dimness of sight, and prolongs life to extreme old age”, and that -“those who are in health often use it to render themselves more strong -and vigorous”. The four-leaved ginseng, like the four-leaved clover, -was apparently a symbol of the four cardinal points. Its “five leaves” -and the “circular figure formed by them” must have attracted those who -selected five colours for their gods and adored the sun. - -The ginseng is found “on the declivities of mountains covered with -thick forests, upon the banks of torrents or about the roots of trees, -and amidst a thousand other different forms of vegetables”. - -Conflicts took place between Tartars and Chinese for possession of the -ginseng, and one Tartar king had “the whole province where the ginseng -grows encompassed by wooden palisades”. Guards patrolled about “to -hinder the Chinese from searching for it (ginseng)”. - -Tea first came into use in China as a life-prolonger. The shrub is an -evergreen, and appears to have attracted the attention of the Chinese -herbalists on that account. Our eighteenth-century writer says: “As to -the properties of tea, they are very much controverted by our -physicians; but the Chinese reckon it an excellent diluter and purifier -of the blood, a great strengthener of the brain and stomach, a promoter -of digestion, perspiration, and cleanser of the veins and urethra”. -Large quantities of tea were in China given “in fevers and some sorts -of colics”. Our author adds: “That the gout and stone are unknown in -China is ascribed to the use of this plant”. [248] - -Apparently we owe not only some valuable medicines, but even the -familiar cup of tea, to the ancient searchers for the elixir of life -and curative herbs. Intoxicating liquors (aqua vitæ, i.e. “water of -life”) have a similar history. They were supposed to impart vigour to -the body and prolong life. Withal, like the intoxicating “soma”, drunk -by Aryo-Indian priests, they had a religious value as they produced -“prophetic states”. Even the opium habit had a religious origin. Aqua -vitæ was impregnated with “soul substance”, as was the juice of grapes, -or, as the Hebrews put it, “the blood of grapes”. [249] - -As Far Eastern beliefs associated with curative plants and curative -stones (like jade) have filtered westward, so did Western beliefs -filter eastward. Dr. Rendel Harris has shown that myths and beliefs -connected with the ivy and mugwort, which were so prevalent in Ancient -Greece, can be traced across Siberia to Kamschatka. The Ainus of Japan -regard the mistletoe as an “All-heal”, as did the ancient Europeans. -“The discovery of the primitive sanctity of ivy, mugwort, and -mistletoe”, says Dr. Harris, “makes a strong link between the early -Greeks and other early peoples both East and West, and it is probable -that we shall find many more contacts between peoples that, as far as -geography and culture go, are altogether remote.” [250] - -There are many Far Eastern stories about men and women who have escaped -threatened death by eating herbs, or pine resin, or some magic fruit. - -One herb, called huchu, was first discovered to have special virtues by -a man who, when crossing a mountain, fell into a deep declivity and was -unable to get out of it, not only on account of the injuries he had -sustained, but because the rocks were as smooth as glass. He looked -about for something to eat, and saw only the huchu herb. Plucking it -out of the thin soil in which it grew, he chewed the root and found -that it kept his body at a temperature which prevented him feeling -cold, while it also satisfied his desire for food and water. Time -passed quickly and pleasantly. He felt happy, slept well, and did not -weary. - -One day the earth was shaken by a great earthquake that opened a way of -escape for him. The man at once left his mountain prison and set off -for home. - -On reaching his house he found, to his surprise, that it was inhabited -by strangers. He spoke to them, asking why they were there, and -inquiring regarding his wife and children. The strangers only scoffed -at him. Then he wandered through the village, searching for old -friends, but could not find one. He, however, interested a wise old man -in his case. An examination was made of the family annals, and it was -discovered that the name given by the man had been recorded three -centuries earlier as that of a member of the family who had -mysteriously disappeared. - -The Chinese Rip Van Winkle then told the story of his life in the -mountain cavity, and how he had been sustained by the huchu herb. In -this manner, according to Chinese tradition, the discovery was made -that the herb “prolongs life, cures baldness, turns grey hair black -again, and tends to renew one’s youth”. Great quantities of huchu tea -must be drunk for a considerable time, and no other food taken, if the -desired results are to be fully achieved. - -Other Rip Van Winkle stories tell of men who have lived for centuries -while conversing with immortals met by chance, or while taking part in -their amusements like the men in Western European stories, who enter -fairy knolls and dance with fairy women, and think they have danced for -a single hour, but find, when they come out, that a whole year has gone -past. - -One day a Taoist priest, named Wang Chih, entered a mountain forest to -gather firewood. He came to a cave in which sat two aged men playing -chess, while others looked on. The game fascinated Wang Chih, so he -entered the cave, laid aside his chopper, and looked on. When he began -to feel hungry and thirsty he moved as if to rise up and go away, -although the game had not come to an end. One of the spectators, -however, divining his intention, handed him a kernel, which looked like -a date stone, saying, “Suck that”. - -Wang Chih put the kernel in his mouth and found that it refreshed him -so that he experienced no further desire for food or drink. - -The chess-playing continued in silence, and several hours, as it -seemed, flew past. Then one of the old men spoke to Wang Chih, saying: -“It is now a long time since you came to join our company. I think you -should return home.” - -Wang Chih rose to his feet. When he grasped his chopper he was -astonished to find that the handle crumbled to dust. On reaching home, -he discovered, like the man who fed on the huchu herb, that he had been -missing for one or two centuries. The old men with whom he had mingled -in the cave were the immortals, known to the Chinese as Sten Nung, to -the Japanese as Sennin, and to the Indians as Rishis—a class of -demi-gods who once lived on earth and achieved great merit, in the -spiritual sense, by practising austerities in solitude and for long -periods. - -The reference to the date stone is of special interest. In Babylonia -and Assyria the date palm was one of the holy trees. It was cultivated -in southern Persia, and may have been introduced into China from that -quarter. Another possibility is that the seeds were got from dates -carried by Arab traders to China, or obtained from Arabs by Chinese -traders. One of the Chinese names for the date resembles the Ancient -Egyptian designation, bunnu. Laufer, who discusses this problem, [251] -refers to early Chinese texts that make mention of Mo-lin, a distant -country in which dark-complexioned natives subsist on dates. Mo-lin, -earlier Mwa-lin, is, Laufer thinks, “intended for the Malindi of Edrīsī -or Mulanda of Yãqūt, now Malindi, south of the Equator, in Seyidieh -Province of British East Africa”. The lore connected with other Trees -of Life in China appears to have been transferred to the imported date -palm. One of its names is “jujube of a thousand years”, or “jujube of -ten thousand years”. Laufer quotes a Chinese description of the date -palm which emphasizes the fact that it “remains ever green”, and tells -that “when the kernel ripens, the seeds are black. In their appearance -they resemble dried jujubes. They are good to eat, and as sweet as -candy.” [252] - -Another Chinese Rip Van Winkle story relates that two men who wandered -among the mountains met two pretty girls. They were entertained by -them, and fed on a concoction prepared from hemp. Seven generations -went past while they enjoyed the company of the girls. - -The hemp (old Persian and Sanskrit bangha) was cultivated at a remote -period in China and Iran. A drug prepared from the seed is supposed to -prolong life and to inspire those who partake of it to prophesy, after -seeing visions and dreaming dreams. The “bang” habit is as bad as the -opium habit. - -In the tree-lore of China there are interesting links between trees and -stones. It has been shown that jade was an “avatar” of the -mother-goddess, who created it for the benefit of mankind; that tree -foliage was identified with jade; that dragons were born from stones; -certain coloured stones were “dragon eggs”, the eggs of the “Dragon -Mother”, the mother-goddess herself, who had “many forms and many -colours”. Sacred stones were supposed to have dropped from the sky, or -to have grown in the earth. Pliny refers to a stone that fell from the -sun. - -In Ancient Egypt it was believed that the creative or fertilizing tears -of the beneficent deities, like those of Osiris and Isis, caused good -shrubs to spring up, and that the tears of a deity like Set, who became -the personification of evil, produced poisonous plants. The weeping -Prajapati of the Aryo-Indians resembles the weeping sun-god Ra of -Egypt. At the beginning, Prajapati’s tears fell into the water and -“became the air”, and the tears he “wiped away, upwards, became the -sky”. [253] - -It is evident that the idea of the weeping deity reached China, for -there are references to “tree tears” and to “stone tears”. Both the -tree and stone “avatars” of the Great Mother or Great Father shed -creative tears. - -The Chinese appear to have discovered their wonderful “weeping tree” in -Turkestan in the second century B.C., but the beliefs connected with it -were evidently of greater antiquity. They already knew about the -weeping deities who created good and baneful vegetation, and the -discovery of the tree, it would appear, simply afforded proof to them -of the truth of their beliefs. - -The tree in question (the hu tʼun tree) has been identified by Laufer -as the balsam poplar. “This tree”, he quotes from a Chinese -commentator, “is punctured by insects, whereupon flows down a juice, -that is commonly termed hu tʼun lei (‘hu tʼun tears’), because it is -said to resemble human tears. When this substance penetrates earth or -stone it coagulates into a solid mass, somewhat on the order of rock -salt.” Laufer notes that Pliny “speaks of a thorny shrub in Ariana, on -the borders of India, valuable for its tears, resembling the myrrh, but -difficult of access on account of the adhering thorns. It is not known -what plant is to be understood by the Plinian text; but the analogy of -the tears,” comments Laufer, “with the above Chinese term is -noteworthy.” - -An ancient Chinese scholar, dealing with the references to the weeping -trees, says that “its sap sinks into the earth, and is similar to earth -and stone. It is used as a dye, like the ginger stone” (a variety of -stalactite). Ta Min, who lived in the tenth century of our era, wrote -regarding the tree, “There are two kinds—a tree sap, which is not -employed in the Pharmacopœia, and a stone sap collected on the surface -of stones; this one only is utilized as medicine. It resembles in -appearance small pieces of stone, and those coloured like loess take -the first place. The latter was employed as a remedy for toothache.” -[254] - -In Babylonia toothache was supposed to be caused by the marsh-worm -demon which devours “the blood of the teeth” and “destroys the strength -of the gums”. The god Ea smites the worm, which is a form of the dragon -Tiamat. [255] - -The antique conception enshrined in the “weeping tree” is that the -mother-goddess of the sky sheds tears, which cause the tree to grow, -and that, as the tree, she sheds tears that become stones, while the -stones shed tears that provide soul substance to cure disease by -removing pain and promoting health. In Egypt the stone specially sacred -to the sky-goddess Hathor was the turquoise, in which was, apparently, -concentrated the vital essence or “soul substance” of the sky. The -goddess sprang from water, and her tears were drops of the primeval -water from which all things that are issued forth. Those stones that -contained water were in China “dragon stones” or “dragon eggs”. In -various countries there are legends about deities, and men and women -have sprung from moisture-shedding stones. The mother-goddess of -Scotland, who presides over the winter season, transforms herself at -the beginning of summer into a stone that is often seen to be covered -with moisture. In Norse mythology the earliest gods spring from stones -that have been licked by the primeval mother-cow. Mithra of Persia -sprang from a rock. Indonesian beliefs regarding moist stones, from -which issue water and human beings, are fairly common. [256] - -The Kayan of Sumatra are familiar with the beliefs that connect stones -and vegetables with the sky and water. They say that “in the beginning -there was a rock. On this rain fell and gave rise to moss, and the -worms, aided by the dung beetles, made soil by their castings. Then a -sword handle came down from the sun and became a large tree. From the -moon came a creeper which, hanging from the tree, mated through the -action of the wind.” From this union of tree and creeper, i.e. sun and -moon, “the first men were produced”. [257] - -The connection between sky, plant, and animals is found in the lore -regarding the Chinese sant si mountain herb which is eaten by goats. -This herb, like other herbs, is produced from the body-moisture of the -goddess; it is the goddess herself—the goddess who sprang from water. -The plant is guarded by the mountain goat as the pearls are guarded by -the shark, and the goat, which browses on the plant, is, like the -shark, an avatar of the goddess. Goat’s blood is therefore as -efficacious as the sap of the herb. - -The goat or ram is the vehicle of the Indian fire and lightning god -Agni; the Norse god Thor has a car drawn by goats. Dionysos, as Bromios -(the Thunderer), has a goat “avatar”, too, and he is the god of wine -(Bacchus)—the wine, the “blood of grapes”, being the elixir of life. -Osiris, who had a ram form, was to the Ancient Egyptians “Lord of the -Overflowing Wine”. European witches ride naked on goats or on brooms; -the devil had a goat form. - -In China, as has been shown, the dragon-herb, peach, vine, pine, fungus -of immortality, ginseng, &c., received their sap, or blood, or “soul -substance” from rain released by dragon gods, who thundered like -Bromios-Dionysos. The inexhaustible pot from which life-giving water -came was in the moon. This Pot was the mother-goddess, who had a star -form. A fertilizing tear from the goddess-star, which falls on the -“Night of the Drop”, is still supposed in Egypt to cause the Nile to -rise in flood. - -We should expect to find the Chinese mythological cycle completed by an -arbitrary connection between the goat or ram and sacred stones. - -There are, to begin with, celestial goats. Some of the Far Eastern -demi-gods, already referred to, ride through “Cloud-land” on the backs -of goats or sheep. One of the eight demi-gods, who personify the eight -points of the compass, is called by the Chinese Hwang Chʼu-Pʼing, and -by the Japanese Koshohei. He is said to be an incarnation of the -“rain-priest”, Chʼih Sung Tze, who has for his wife a daughter of the -Royal Mother of the West, the mother-goddess of the Peach Tree of Life. - -The Japanese version of the legend of the famous Koshohei is given by -Joly as follows: “Koshohei, when fifteen years old, led his herd of -goats to the Kin Hwa mountains, and, having found a grotto, stayed -there for forty years in meditation. His brother, Shoki, was a priest, -and he vowed to find the missing shepherd. Once he walked near the -mountain and he was told of the recluse by a sage named Zenju, and set -out to find him. He recognized his brother, but expressed his -astonishment at the absence of sheep or goats. Koshohei thereupon -touched with his staff the white stones with which the ground was -strewn, and as he touched them they became alive in the shape of -goats.” [258] - -Goats might become stones. The Great Mother was a stone, rock, or -mountain, having the power to assume many forms, because she was the -life of all things and the substance of all things. The goddess was the -Mountain of Dawn in labour that brought forth the mouse-form of the sun -(Smintheus Apollo), or the antelope form of the sun, or the hawk or -eagle form, or the human form, or the egg containing the sun-god. She -was also the sun-boat—the dragon-ship of the sun. The five holy -mountains of China appear to have been originally connected with the -goddess and her sons—the gods of the four quarters. - -In China deities might on occasion take the form of stones or reptiles. -During the Chou Dynasty (756 B.C.) “one of the feudal dukes”, says -Giles, “saw a vision of a yellow serpent which descended from heaven, -and laid its head on the slope of a mountain. The duke spoke of this to -his astrologer, who said, ‘It is a manifestation of God; sacrifice to -it’. In 747 B.C. another duke found on a mountain a being in the -semblance of a stone. Sacrifices were at once offered, and the stone -was deified and received regular worship from that time forward.” [259] - -Giles states further in connection with Chinese god-stones: “Under 532 -B.C. we have the record of a stone speaking.” The Marquis Lu inquired -of his chief musician if this was a fact, and received the following -answer: “Stones cannot speak. Perhaps this one was possessed by a -spirit. If not, the people must have heard wrong. And yet it is said -that when things are done out of season and discontents and complaints -are stirring among the people, then speechless things do speak.” [260] - -Precious stones were, like boulders or mountains, linked with the Great -Mother. In Egypt the red jaspar amulet, called “the girdle of Isis”, -was supposed to be a precious drop of the life-blood of that goddess. -Herbs were connected with precious stones, and were credited with the -attributes and characteristics of these stones. There are many -references in Chinese, Indian, and other texts and folk-lores to gems -that gleam in darkness. No gems do. The mandrake was similarly believed -to shine at night. Both gem and herb were associated with the moon, a -form of the mother-goddess, and were supposed to give forth light like -the moon, [261] just as stones associated with the rain-mother were -supposed to become moist, or to send forth a stream of water, or to -shed tears like the “weeping trees”, and like the sky from which drop -rain and dew. The attributes of the goddess were shared by her -“avatars”. - -The amount or strength of the “soul-substance” in trees, herbs, -well-water, stones, and animals varied greatly. Some elixirs derived -from one or other of these “avatars” might prolong life by a few years; -other elixirs might ensure many years of health. - -The difference between a medicinal herb and the herb of immortality was -one of degree in potency. The former was imbued with sufficient -“soul-substance” to cure a patient suffering from a disease, or to give -good health for months, or even years; the latter gave extremely good -health, and those who partook of it lived for long periods in the -Otherworld. - -Even the “spiritual beings” (ling) of China were graded. The four ling, -as De Visser states, are “the unicorn, the phœnix, the tortoise, and -the dragon”. The dragon is credited with being possessed of “most ling -of all creatures”. [262] - -Stones were likewise graded. Precious stones had more ling than -ordinary stones. Precious stones are sometimes referred to as pi-si. -One Chinese writer says that “the best pi-si are deep-red in colour; -that those in which purple, yellow, and green are combined, and the -white ones take the second place; while those half white and half black -are of the third grade”. [263] - -Stones that displayed five colours combined apparently all the virtues -of the five deities—the gods of the four quarters, and the sun, their -chief. These were all children of the sixth deity, the Great Mother, -who was the water on earth and the water above the firmament and the -moon. The moon contained, as has been said, the “Pot” of fertilizing -water which created all the water that flows into the Earth “Pot”. In -China, as in Egypt and Western Europe, the Great Mother was the -reproductive principle in Nature, the source of the moisture of life, -the blood which is life, the sap of trees, the soul-substance in herbs, -in fruit, in pearls, and in precious stones and precious -metals—precious because of their close association with her. - -It was the human dread of death and pain, the human desire for health -and long life, and for the renewal of youth that instigated early man -to search for the well of life, the plant of life, the curative herb, -the pearl, and precious stones and precious metals. But before the -search began, the complex ideas about the origin of life and the means -by which it might be prolonged, which are reviewed in this chapter, -passed through a long process of development in the most ancient -centres of civilization. In China we meet not only with primitive ideas -regarding life-giving food and water, but with ideas that had gradually -developed for centuries outside China after the earliest attempts had -been made to reanimate the corpse, not merely by painting it, but by -preventing the body from decaying. In the history of mummification in -Egypt may be found the history of complex beliefs that travelled far -and wide. [264] Even those peoples who did not adopt, or, at any rate, -perpetuate the custom of mummification, adopted the belief that it was -necessary to preserve the corpse. This belief is still prevalent in -China, as will be shown, but magic takes the place of surgery. - -In the next chapter evidence will be provided to indicate how the -overland “drift” of culture towards China was impelled by the forces at -work in Babylonia and Egypt. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HOW COPPER-CULTURE REACHED CHINA - - Metals connected with Deities—Introduction of Copper—Struggles for - the First “Mine-Land”—Early Metal-working in Caucasus, Armenia, and - Persia—Civilizations of Trans-Caspian Oases—Babylonian Influence in - Mid Asia—Bronze and Jade carried into Europe—Ancient “Gold Rushes” - to Siberia—Discoveries in Chinese Turkestan—Jade carried to - Babylonia—Links between China, Iran, and Siberia—Bronze-links - between China and Europe—Evidence of Ornaments and Myths—Early - Metal-working—Far Eastern and European Furnaces Identical—Chinese - Civilization dates from 1700 B.C.—Culture-mixing in Ancient Times. - - -The persistent and enterprising search for wealth in ancient times, -which, as will be shown in this chapter, had so much to do with the -spread of civilization, may seem quite a natural thing to modern man. -But it is really as remarkable, when we consider the circumstances, to -find the early peoples possessed of the greed of gold as it would be to -find hungry men who have been ship-wrecked on a lonely island more -concerned about its mineral resources than the food and water they were -absolutely in need of. What was the good of gold in an ancient -civilization that had no coinage? What attraction could it possibly -hold for desert nomads? - -The value attached to gold, which is a comparatively useless metal, has -always been a fictitious value. As we have seen, it became precious in -ancient times, not because of its purchasing power, but for the reason -that it had religious associations. The early peoples regarded the -precious metal as an “avatar” of the life-giving and life-sustaining -Great Mother goddess—the “Golden Hathor”, the “Golden Aphrodite”. - -In Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, India, and China the cow- and sky-goddess, -the source of fertilizing water, was, in the literal sense, a goddess -of gold. In India one of the five Sanskrit names for gold is Chandra -[265] (“the moon”), and the Indus was called “Golden Stream”, not -merely because gold was found in its sand, but because of its -connection with the celestials. “Gold is the object of the wishes of -the Vedic singer, and golden treasures are mentioned as given by -patrons, along with cows and horses. Gold was used for ornaments for -neck and breast, for ear-rings, and even for cups. Gold is always -associated with the gods. All that is connected with them is of gold; -the horses of the sun are ‘gold skinned’, and so on.” This summary by -two distinguished Sanskrit scholars emphasizes the close connection -that existed in India between gold and gold ornaments and religious -beliefs. [266] - -“Gold”, a reader may contend, “is, of course, a beautiful metal, and -the ancients may well have been attracted by its beauty when they began -to utilize it for ornaments.” But is there any proof that ornaments -were adopted, because, in the first place, they made appeal to the -æsthetic sense, which, after all, is a cultivated sense, and not to be -entirely divorced from certain mental leanings produced by the -experiences and customs of many generations? Do ornaments really -beautify those who wear them? Was it the æsthetic sense that prompted -the early peoples to pierce their noses and ears; and to extend the -lobes of their ears so as to “adorn” themselves with shells, stones, -and pieces of metal? Can we divorce the practice of mutilation from its -association with crude religious beliefs? Inherited ideas of beauty may -be wrong ideas, and it can be said of the modern lady who wears -collections of brilliant and costly jewels that she is not necessarily -made more beautiful by perpetuating a custom rooted in the grossest -superstitions of antiquity, for these jewels were originally charms to -preserve health, to regulate the flow of blood, to promote fertility -and birth, and, generally speaking, to secure “luck” by bringing the -wearer into close touch with the “deities”, whose “soul-substance” was -contained in them. - -When the æsthetic sense of mankind reached that high stage of -development represented by Greek sculpture, the so-called ornaments -were discarded and the human form depicted in all its natural beauty -and charm. - -Whatever was holy seemed beautiful to the early people, and that is why -in a country like India, with its wealth of exquisitely coloured -flowers, the Sanskrit names for gold include Jāta-rūpa (native beauty), -and Su-varna (good, or beautiful colour). The gold colour was really a -luck-bringing colour, and therefore beautiful to Aryan eyes. - -Having attached in their homelands a fictitious religious value to -gold, the early prospectors and miners carried their beliefs and -customs with them wherever they went, and these were in time adopted by -the peoples with whom they came into contact. - -When Columbus crossed the Atlantic he and his followers greatly -astonished the unsophisticated natives of the New World by their -anxiety to obtain precious metals. They found, to their joy, that “the -sands of the mountain streams glittered with particles of gold; these”, -as Washington Irving says, [267] “the natives would skilfully separate -and give to the Spaniards, without expecting a recompense”. - -No doubt the early searchers for gold in Africa and Asia met with many -peoples who were as much amused and interested, and as helpful, as were -the natives of the New World, who welcomed the Spaniards as visitors -from the sky. - -Gold was the earliest metal worked by man. It was first used in Egypt -to fashion imitation sea-shells, and the magical and religious value -attached to the shells was transferred to the gold which, in -consequence, became “precious” or “holy”. - -Copper was the next metal to be worked. It was similarly used for the -manufacture of personal ornaments and other sacred objects, being -regarded apparently, to begin with, as a variety of gold. But in -time—some centuries, it would appear, after copper was first extracted -from malachite—some pioneer of a new era began to utilize it as a -substitute for flint, and copper knives and other implements were -introduced. This discovery of the usefulness of copper had far-reaching -effects, and greatly increased the demand for the magical metal. -Increasing numbers of miners were employed, and search was made for new -copper-mines by enterprising prospectors who, in Egypt, were employed, -or, at any rate, protected, by the State. This search had much to do -with promoting race movements, and introducing not only new modes of -life but new modes of thought into lands situated at great distances -from the areas in which these modes of life and thought had origin. The -metal-workers were the missionaries of a New Age. In this chapter it -will be shown how they reached China. - -Archæologists are not agreed as to where copper was first used for the -manufacture of weapons and implements. Some favour Egypt, and others -Mesopotamia. In the former country the useful metal was worked in -pre-Dynastic times, that is, before 3500 B.C. or 4500 B.C. “Copper -ornaments and objects, found in graves earlier than the middle -pre-Dynastic period”, wrote the late Mr. Leonard W. King, “are small -and of little practical utility as compared with the beautifully flaked -flint knives, daggers, and lances.... At a rather later stage in the -pre-Dynastic period, copper dagger-blades and adzes were produced in -imitation of flint and stone forms, and these mark the transition to -the heavy weapons and tools of copper which, in the early Dynastic -period, largely ousted flint and stone implements for practical use. -The gradual attainment of skill in the working of copper ore on the -part of the early Egyptians had a marked effect on the whole status of -their culture. Their improved weapons enabled them by conquest to draw -their raw materials from a far more extended area.” [268] - -Copper was found in the wadis of Upper Egypt and on the Red Sea -coast—in those very areas in which gold was worked for generations -before copper was extracted from malachite. At a later period the -Pharaohs sent gangs of miners to work the copper-mines in the Sinaitic -peninsula. King Semerket, of the early Dynastic age, had men extracting -copper in the Wadi Maghara. “His expedition was exposed to the -depredations of the wild tribes of Beduin ... and he recorded his -punishment of them in a relief on the rocks of the Wadi.” There is -evidence that at this remote period the Pharaohs “maintained foreign -relations with far remote peoples”. [269] A record of a later age (c. -2000 B.C.) affords us a vivid glimpse of life in the “Mine-Land”. An -official recorded in an inscription that he had been sent there in what -he calls the “Evil summer season”. He complained, “It is not the season -for going to this Mine-Land.... The highlands are hot in summer, and -the mountains brand the skin.” Yet he could boast that “he extracted -more copper than he had been ordered to obtain”. [270] - -The transition from stone to copper cannot be traced in ancient -Babylonia. Sumerian history begins at the seaport Eridu, when that -centre of civilization was situated at the head of the Persian Gulf—a -fact that suggests the settlement there of seafaring colonists. At the -dawn of Sumerian culture, copper tools and weapons had come into use. -No metals could be found in the alluvial “plain of Shinar”. - -The early Babylonians (Sumerians) had to obtain their supplies of -copper from Sinai, Armenia, the Caucasus area, and Persia. It may be -that their earliest supplies came from Sinai, and that the battles in -that “Mine-Land”, recorded in early Egyptian inscriptions, were fought -between rival claimants of the ore from the Nile valley and the valley -of the Tigris and Euphrates. One ancient Pharaoh refers in an -inscription to his “first occurrence of smiting the Easterners” in -Sinai. “This designation”, comments Breasted, “of the event as the -‘first occurrence’ would indicate that it was a customary thing for the -kings of the time (First Dynasty, c. 3500 B.C.) to chastise the -barbarians.” [271] But were they really “barbarians”? Is it likely that -barbarians would be found in such a region, especially in summer? It is -more probable that the “Easterners” came from an area in which the -demand for copper was as great as it was in Egypt. - -The regular battles between the ancient “peggers-out” of “claims” in -Mine-Land no doubt forced the “Easterners” to search for copper -elsewhere. By following the course of the Tigris the Sumerian -prospectors were led to the rich mineral area of the Armenian -Highlands, and it is of special significance in this connection to find -that the earliest Assyrian colonies were founded by Sumerians. -Apparently Nineveh (Mosul) had origin as a trading centre at which -metal ores were collected and sent southward some time before the -Semitic Akkadians obtained control of the northern part of the -Babylonian plain. - -The copper obtained from Armenia and other western Asiatic areas was -less suitable than Sinaitic copper, being much softer. Sinaitic and -Egyptian copper is naturally hard on account of the proportion of -sulphur it contains. But after tin was found, and it was discovered -that, when mixed with copper, it produced the hard amalgam known as -bronze, the Sumerians appear to have entirely deserted the Sinaitic -Mine-Land, and left it to the Egyptians. - -The Egyptians continued in their Copper Age until their civilization -ceased to be controlled by native kings. - -Babylonia had likewise a Copper Age to begin with, but copper was at an -early period entirely supplanted by bronze, except for religious -purposes—a fact which is of great importance, especially when it is -found that the religious beliefs associated with copper and gold were -disseminated far and wide by the early miners—the troglodytes of Sinai -in the early Egyptian texts—who formed colonies that became industrial -and trading centres. Votive images found in Babylonia are of copper. A -good example of early Sumerian religious objects is the interesting -bull’s head in copper from Tello, which is dated c. 3000 B.C. The eyes -of this image of the bull-god—the “Bull of Heaven”, the sky-god, whose -mother or spouse was the “Cow of Heaven”—“are inlaid with -mother-of-pearl and lapis-lazuli”. A “very similar method is met with -in the copper head of a goat which was found at Fara”. [272] Here we -find fused in early Sumerian religious objects complex religious -beliefs connected with domesticated animals, sea-shells, and metals. - -The opinion, suggested here by the writer, that the battles between -rival miners in Sinai compelled the Sumerians to search for copper -elsewhere and to discover means whereby the softer copper could be -hardened, appears to accord with the view that bronze was first -manufactured in Babylonia, or in some area colonized by Babylonia. In -his able summary of the archæological evidence regarding the -introduction of bronze, Sir Hercules Read shows that “the attribution -of the discovery to Babylonia is preferred as offering fewest -difficulties”. [273] - -Recent archæological finds make out a good case for Russian Turkestan -as the “cradle of the bronze industry”. - -In Troy and Crete bronze supplanted flint and obsidian. There was no -Copper Age in either of these culture centres. The copper artifacts -found in Crete are simply small and useless votive axes and other -religious objects. - -Whence did the Babylonians receive, after the discovery was made how to -manufacture bronze, the necessary supplies of tin? Armenia and the -Caucasus “appear”, as Read says, “to be devoid of stanniferous ores”. -Apparently the early metal-searchers had gone as far as Khorassan in -Persia before their fellows had ceased to wage battles with Egyptians -in the Sinaitic “Mine-Land”. Tin has been located at Khorassan and “in -other parts of Persia, near Asterabad and Tabriz. [274]... From such -areas as these”, Reid says, “the tin used in casting the earliest -bronze may have been derived.” We are now fairly on our way along the -highway leading to China. “In Eastern Asia, beyond the radius of the -ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia”, Read continues, “there would -seem to be no region likely to have witnessed the discovery (of how to -work bronze) nearer than Southern China; for India, which has copper -implements of a very primitive type, is poor in tin ... while the Malay -peninsula, an extremely rich stanniferous region, does not appear to -have been mined in very ancient times”. [275] It is unlikely that -bronze was first manufactured in China, considering the period of its -introduction into Babylonia, which antedates by several centuries the -earliest traces of civilization in the Far East. - -The history of the development of the industries and commerce of early -Babylonia is the history of the growth and dissemination of -civilization, not only in western Asia, but in the “Mid East” and the -“Far East”. - -Babylonia, the Asiatic granary of the ancient world, lay across the -trade routes. Both its situation and its agricultural resources gave it -great commercial importance. It had abundant supplies of surplus food -to stimulate trade, and its industrial activity created a demand for -materials that could not be obtained in the rich alluvial plain. “Over -the Persian Gulf”, says Professor Goodspeed, [276] “teak-wood, found in -Eridu (the seaside “cradle” of Sumerian culture), was brought from -India. Cotton also made its way from the same source to the southern -cities. Over Arabia, by way of Ur, which stood at the foot of a natural -opening from the desert ... were led the caravans laden with stone, -spices, copper, and gold [277] from Sinai, Yemen, and Egypt. -Door-sockets of Sinaitic stone found at Nippur attest this traffic.” -Cedar wood was imported from the Syrian mountains “for the adornment of -palaces and temples. From the east, down the pass of Holwan, came the -marble and precious metal of the mountains. Much of this raw material -was worked over by Babylonian artisans and shipped back to -less-favoured lands, along with the grain, dates, and fish, the rugs -and cloths of native production. All this traffic was in the hands of -Babylonian traders, who fearlessly ventured into the borders of distant -countries, and must have carried with them thither the knowledge of the -civilization and wealth of their own home, for only thus can the -widespread influence of Babylonian culture in the earliest periods be -explained.” - -It was evidently due to the influence of the searchers for metals and -the traders that the culture of early Sumeria spread across the Iranian -plateau. As Laufer has shown, [278] “the Iranians were the great -mediators between the West and the East”. The Chinese “were positive -utilitarians, and always interested in matters of reality; they have -bequeathed to us a great amount of useful information on Iranian -plants, products, animals, minerals, customs, and institutions”. Not -only plants but also Western ideas were conveyed to China by the -Iranians. [279] - -The discoveries of archæological relics made by the De Morgan -Expedition in Elam (western Persia), and by the Pumpelly Expedition in -Russian Turkestan, have provided further evidence that -Sumero-Babylonian civilization exercised great influence over wide -areas in ancient times. Unfortunately no such records as those made by -the Egyptians who visited Mine-Land have been discovered either in -Babylonia or beside the mineral workings exploited by the Sumerians or -Akkadians. The Egyptian Pharaohs, as we have seen, had to send military -forces to protect their miners, and on one occasion found it necessary -to conduct mining operations in the hot season instead of in the cool -season, a fact which suggests that the opposition shown by rivals was -at times very formidable. It does not follow that the Babylonians had -to contend with similar opposition in Armenia and Persia. They appear -to have won the co-operation of the native peoples in the mid-Asian -mining districts, and to have made it worth their while to keep up the -supply of gold, and copper, and tin. Babylonia had corn and -manufactured articles to sell, and they made it possible for native -chiefs to organize their countries and to acquire wealth and a degree -of luxury. Nomadic pastoral peoples became traders, and communities of -them adopted Babylonian modes of life. Mr. W. J. Perry has shown that -in districts where minerals were anciently worked, the system of -irrigation, which brought wealth and comfort in Babylonia and the Nile -valley, was adopted, and that megalithic monuments were erected. [280] - -The early searchers for metals and pearls and precious stones were -apparently the pioneers of civilization in many a district occupied by -backward peoples. - -The mineral area to the south-east of the Caspian Sea appears to have -been exploited as early as the third millennium B.C., as was also the -mineral area stretching from the Caspian to the eastern coast of the -Black Sea. New trade routes were opened up and connections established, -not only with Elam and Babylonia in the south, but with Egypt, through -Palestine, and with Crete and with the whole Ægean area. Troy became -the “clearing-house” of this early trade flowing from western Asia into -Europe. The enterprising sea-kings of Crete appear to have penetrated -the Dardanelles and reached the eastern shores of the Black Sea, where -they tapped the overland trade routes. [281] Dr. Hubert Schmidt, who -accompanied the Pumpelly expedition to Russian Turkestan in 1903–4, -found Cretan Vasiliki pottery in one of the excavated mounds, and, in -another, “three-sided seal-stones of Middle Minoan type (c. 2000 B.C.), -engraved with Minoan designs”. [282] There is evidence which suggests -that this trade in metals between western Asia and the Ægean area was -in existence long before 2500 B.C., and not long after 3000 B.C. - -One of the great centres of Mesopotamian culture in the south-eastern -Caspian area was Anau, near Askabad, on the Merve-Caspian railway -route. Another was Meshed, which lies to the south-east of Anau in a -rich metalliferous mountain region. One of the “Kurgans” (mounds) -excavated at Anau yielded archæological relics that indicated an early -connection between Turkestan and Elam in south-western Persia. In -another “Kurgan” were found traces of a copper-culture. The early -searchers for metals were evidently the originators or introducers of -this culture, and as the stratum contained baked clay figurines of the -Sumerian mother-goddess, the prototype of Ishtar, little doubt can -remain whence came the earliest miners. This region of desolate -sand-dunes was in ancient times irrigated by the Mesopotamian colonists -who sowed not only the seeds of barley, wheat, and millet, but also the -seeds of civilization, and stimulated progress among the native tribes. -The settlers built houses of bricks which had been sun-dried in -accordance with the prevailing Babylonian fashion. The Egyptian -potter’s wheel was introduced—another indication that regular trading -relations between Babylonia and Egypt were maintained at a very early -period. - -Mr. Pumpelly, in the first flush of enthusiasm aroused by the mid-Asia -revelations, urged the claim that the agricultural mode of life -originated in the Transcaspian Oases, and that it passed thence to -Babylonia and Egypt. But the discovery of husks of barley in the -stomachs of naturally mummified bodies found in the hot dry sands of -Upper Egypt affords proof that cannot be overlooked in this connection. -[283] Agriculture was practised in the Nile valley long centuries -before the Transcaspian Copper Age was inaugurated. Besides, barley and -millet grow wild in the Delta area. - -The early Mesopotamian searchers for metals, and their pupils from the -Transcaspian region, continued the explorations towards the east. They -appear to have wandered to the north-west of the Oxus and the -south-east of the Lake Balkash and apparently to the very borders of -China. This eastward drift must have been in progress long before the -introduction of bronze into central Europe, which had a Stone Age -culture for three or four centuries after bronze implements had become -common in Troy and Crete. The traders who carried bronze into Hungary -carried jade too, and the beliefs which had been connected with jade in -Asia. The earliest supplies of European jade objects must have come, as -will be shown, from Chinese Turkestan. - -There was good reason for the early gold rush towards the east. Gold -can still be easily found “everywhere and in every form” in Siberia. -The Altai means “gold mountains”, and these yield silver and copper as -well as gold. Indeed, eastern Siberia is a much richer metalliferous -area than western Siberia, and this fact appears to have been -ascertained at a very remote period. The searchers for metals not only -collected gold, copper, and silver on the Altai Mountains and the area -of the upper reaches of the Yenesei River, but also penetrated into -Chinese Turkestan, where, as in Russian Turkestan, trading colonies -were founded, the metals were worked, and the agricultural mode of -life, including the system of irrigation, adopted with undoubted -success. [284] Important archæological excavations, conducted by Dr. -Stein in Chinese Turkestan, “on behalf of the Indian Government”, have -revealed traces of the far-reaching influences exercised by -Mesopotamian culture in a region now covered by the vast and confusing -sand-dunes of the Taklamakan Desert. At Khotan the discoveries made -were of similar character to those at Anau. - -Khotan is the ancient trading centre which connected central Asia and -India, and India and China. One of the most important products of -Khotan is jade—that is, important from the historical point of view. It -is uncertain at what period the importation of jade into China from the -Khotan area was inaugurated. But there can be no doubt about the -antiquity of the jade trade between Chinese Turkestan and Babylonia. -Some of the Babylonian cylinder-seals were of jade, others being of -“marble, jasper, rock-crystal, emerald, amethyst, topaz, chalcedony, -onyx, agate, lapis-lazuli, hæmatite, and steatite” [285]—all relics of -ancient trade and mining activity. Turquoise was imported into -Babylonia from Khotan and Kashgar. The archæological finds made on the -site of the ancient Sumerian city at Nippur include cobalt, “presumably -from China”. [286] At Nippur was found, too, Persian marble, -lapis-lazuli from Bactria, and cedar and cypress from Zagros. - -When it is borne in mind that the chief incentive behind the search for -precious metals and precious stones was a religious one, we should not -express surprise to find that not only the products of centres of -ancient civilization were carried across Asia to outlying parts, but -also myths, legends, and religious beliefs of complex character. These -were given a local colouring in different areas. In northern Siberia, -for instance, the local fauna displaced the fauna of the southern -religious cults, the reindeer or the goat taking the place of the -gazelle or the antelope. Mythological monsters received new parts, just -as the dolphin-god of Cretan and other seafaring peoples received an -elephant’s head in northern India and became the makara; and the -seafarers’ shark-god received in China the head of a lion, although the -lion is not found in China. No doubt the lion was introduced into China -as a religious art motif by some intruding cult. Touching on this phase -of the problem of early cultural contact, Ellis H. Minns [287] suggests -a number of possibilities to account for the similarities between -Siberian and Chinese art. One is that “the resemblance may be due to -both (Siberians and Chinese) having borrowed from Iranian or some other -Central Asian art.... In each case,” he adds, “we seem to have an -intrusion of monsters ultimately derived from Mesopotamia, the great -breeding-ground of monsters.” The data summarized in a previous chapter -[288] dealing with the Chinese dragon affords confirmation of this -view. - -Dr. Joseph Edkins, writing in the seventies of last century as a -Christian missionary who made an intensive study of Chinese religious -beliefs at first hand, had much to say about the “grafting process” or -culture-mixing. “Every impartial investigator”, he wrote, “will -probably admit that the ceremonies and ideas of the Chinese sacrifices -link them with Western antiquity. The inference to be drawn is this, -that the Chinese primeval religion was of common origin with the -religions of the West. But if the religion was one, then the political -ideas, the mental habits, the sociology, the early arts and knowledge -of nature, should have been of common origin also with those of the -West.” [289] - -No doubt the stories brought from Siberia by the early explorers tended -to stimulate the imaginations of the myth-makers of Mesopotamia, India, -and China. The mineral and hot springs in the cold regions may have -been regarded as proof that “the wells of life” had real existence. -Some of these wells are so greatly saturated with carbonic acid gas -that they burst skin and stone bottles. “Here is living water indeed!” -the early explorer may have exclaimed when he attempted to carry away a -sample. “The feathers in the air”, as Herodotus puts it when referring -to the snow, and the aurora borealis must have greatly impressed the -early miners in the mysterious Altai region—a region possessing so much -mineral wealth that it must have been regarded as a veritable -wonderland of the gods by the early prospectors. Who knows but that the -story of Gilgamesh’s pilgrimage through the dark mountain to the land -in which trees bore gems instead of fruit owes something to the -narratives of the early explorers who reached mysterious regions rich -in metals and gems, where the strange murmurings that fill the air on -still winter nights are still referred to as “the whisperings of the -stars”, and the aurora borealis, which scatters the darkness and -illumines snow-clad mountain ranges and valleys, displays wonderful and -vivid colours in great variety. - -That the early culture which was disseminated eastward across Siberia -to China and westward into Europe was of common origin, is clearly -indicated by the archæological remains. - -Dealing with the bronzes of Russia and Siberia, Sir Hercules Read -writes: “At both extremities of the vast area stretching from Lake -Baikal through the Southern Siberian Steppes across the Ural Mountains -to the basin of the Volga, and even beyond to the valleys of the Don -and Dnieper, there have been found, generally in tombs, but -occasionally on the surface of the ground, implements and weapons -marked by the same peculiarities of form, and by a single style of -decoration. These objects exhibit an undoubted affinity with those -discovered in China; but some of the distinctive features have been -traced in the bronze industry of Hungary and the Caucasus; for example, -pierced axes and sickles have a close resemblance to Hungarian and -Caucasian forms. The Siberian bronzes have this relationship both in -the East and West, but their kinship with Chinese antiquities being the -more obvious, it is natural to assume that the culture which they -represent is of East Asiatic origin.” Read notes, however, that “most -of the Chinese bronze implements are of developed, and therefore not of -primitive forms.... Such forms can only have been reached after a long -period of evolution, but their prototypes are found neither in the -Ural-Altaic region itself, where some objects may indeed be simpler in -design than others, but cannot be described as quite primitive; nor as -yet within the limits of China.” [290] - -The evidence afforded by ancient religious beliefs and customs tends to -show that the cultural centre in Asia, which stimulated the growth of -civilization, was Babylonia, while Egyptian influence flowed northward -through Palestine and into Syria. In time the influence of Cretan -civilization made itself felt on the eastern shores of the Black Sea. -The ebb and flow of cultural influences along the trade routes at -various periods renders the problem of highly complex character. But -one leading fact appears to emerge. The demand for metals and precious -stones in the earliest seats of civilization—that is, in Babylonia and -Egypt—stimulated exploration and the spread of a culture based on the -agricultural mode of life. Not only was the system of irrigation, first -introduced in the Nilotic and Tigro-Euphratean valleys, adopted by -colonies of miners and traders who settled in mid-Asia and founded -sub-cultural centres that radiated westward and eastward; the religious -ideas and customs that had grown up with the agricultural mode of life -in the cradles of ancient civilization were adopted too. New -experiences and new inventions imparted “local colour” to colonial -culture, but the leading religious principles that veined that culture -underwent little change. The immemorial quest for the elixir of life -was never forgotten. It was not to purchase their daily bread alone -that men lived laborious days washing gold dust from river sands, -crushing quartz among the Altai Mountains, or quarrying and fishing -jade in Chinese Turkestan; they were chiefly concerned about -“purchasing” the “food of life” so as to secure immortality. The fear -of death, which sent Gilgamesh on his long journey, caused many a man -in ancient times to wander far and wide in search of life-giving -metals, precious stones, pearls, and plants. And so we find in China as -in Egypt, in Babylonia as in western Europe, that the quest of -immortality was the chief incentive that stimulated research, -discovery, and the spread of civilization. The demand for the wood of -sacred trees, incense-bearing trees and plants, precious metals and -precious stones in the temples of Egypt and Babylonia, had much to do -with the development of early trade. The Pharaohs of Egypt and the -Patesies of Sumeria fitted out expeditions to obtain treasure for their -holy places, and to keep open the trade routes along which the treasure -was carried. - -That the system of metal-working had anciently an area of origin is -emphasized by the investigations conducted by Professor Gowland. [291] -He deals first with the Japanese evidence. “The method which was -practised, and the furnace employed by the early workers, still”, he -writes, “survive in use at several mines in Japan at the present time.” -A hole in the ground forms the furnace, and a bellows is used to -introduce the blast from the top. After the copper is smelted it is -allowed to cool off, and when it is nearly solidified it is taken out -and broken up. “The copper thus produced in Japan is never cast direct -from the smelting furnaces into useful forms, but is always resmelted -in crucibles, a mode of procedure which undoubtedly prevailed in Europe -during the early Metal and the Bronze Ages.” The Japanese clay -crucibles “are analogous to those found in the pile-dwellings of the -Swiss and Upper Austrian lakes”. - -Dealing with iron-furnaces, the Professor shows that the Ancient -Egyptian furnace resembled “the Japanese furnace for copper, tin, and -lead”. The Etruscan furnace also resembled the Egyptian one. “From -metallurgical considerations only”, Gowland adds, “we would certainly -be led to the inference that the Etruscans had obtained their knowledge -of the method of extracting metal from that (the Egyptian) source.” -British evidence suggests that the methods obtaining in ancient times -were introduced from “the Mediterranean region of Europe.... The actual -process for the extraction of iron from its ores in Europe, in fact in -all countries in early times, was practically the same.” - -Elsewhere, Professor Gowland has written: “It is important to note ... -that the type of furnace which survives in India among the hill tribes -of the Ghats is closely analogous to the prehistoric furnace of the -Danube, and of the Jura district in Europe”. [292] - -“Culture-drifts” can thus be followed in their results. Backward -communities that adopted inventions in early times continue to use them -in precisely the same manner as did those ancient peoples by whom they -were first introduced. In like manner are early beliefs and customs -still perpetuated in isolated areas. But it does not follow that all -these beliefs had origin among the peoples who still cling to them. -Some so-called “primitive” beliefs are really of highly complex -character, with as long a history of development as has the primitive -type of furnace utilized by the hill tribes of India. - -In the next chapter it will be shown that in the jade beliefs of China -traces survive of ideas not necessarily of Chinese origin—ideas that, -in fact, grew up and passed through processes of development in -countries in which jade was never found. For, as the Chinese bronze -implements are “not of primitive forms”, and therefore not indigenous, -neither are all Chinese beliefs and customs “primitive” in the same -sense, or, in the real sense, indigenous either. As the stimulus to -work metals in China came from an outside source, so, apparently, did -the stimulus to search for such a “life-giving” and “luck-conferring” -material as jade come from other countries, and from races unrelated to -those that occupied China in early times. - -The beliefs associated with jade were developed in China, although they -did not originate there; and these beliefs were similar to those -attached to the pearls, the precious stones, and the precious metals -searched for by the ancient prospectors who discovered and first worked -jade in Chinese Turkestan and on the borders of China. - -To sum up, it would appear that the elements of a religious culture, -closely associated with the agricultural mode of life, and common to -Sumeria and Egypt, passed across Asia towards China, reaching the -Shensi province about 1700 B.C. At a much later period the complex -culture of the Egyptian Empire period gradually drifted along the sea -route and left its impress on the Chinese coast. Iranian culture, which -was impregnated with Babylonian and Egyptian ideas, likewise exercised -a persisting influence, and was renewed again and again. - -One of the ultimate results of the rise of Persia as a world-power, and -of the invasion of Asia by Alexander, was to bring China into direct -touch with the Hellenistic world. - -Indian influence is represented chiefly by Buddhism. In northern India -Buddhism had been blended with Naga (serpent) worship, and when it -reached China, the local beliefs regarding dragons were given a -Buddhistic colouring. The Chinese Buddhists mixed the newly-imported -religious culture with their own. The “Islands of the Blest” were -retained by the cult of the East, and the Western Paradise by the cult -of the West. The latter paradise is unknown to the Buddhists in Burmah -and Ceylon, but has never been forgotten by the Buddhists of northern -China. A Buddha called “Boundless Age” was placed in the garden of the -Royal Lady of the West, but that goddess still lingered beside the -Peach Tree of Immortality, while the sky-goddess continued to weave the -web of the constellations, and the pious men and women of the Taoist -faith were supposed to reach her stellar Paradise by sailing along the -Celestial River in dragon-boats or riding on the back of dragons. The -Chinese Buddhists found ideas regarding Nirvana less satisfying than -those associated with the Paradise of the “Peaceful Land of the West” -and the higher Paradise of the “Palaces of the Stars”, in which dwelt -the gods and the demi-gods of the older faiths. - -Writing in this connection, Dr. Joseph Edkins says: “A mighty branch of -foreign origin has been grafted in the old stock. The metaphysical -religion of Shakyamuni was added to the moral doctrines of Confucius. -Another process may then be witnessed. A native twig was grafted in the -Indian branch. Modern Taoism has grown up on the model supplied by -Buddhism. That it is possible to observe the modus operandi of this -repeated grafting, and to estimate the amount of gain and loss to the -people of China, resulting from the varied religious teaching which -they have thus received, is a circumstance of the greatest interest to -the investigator of the world’s religions.” [293] - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE SYMBOLISM OF JADE - - Jade in Early Times—Used to Reanimate and Preserve the Dead—Jade as - a Night-shining Jewel—Connection with the Pearl, Coral, Mandrake, - Moon, Dragon, Fish, &c.—Jade Beliefs in Japan—Jade Amulets—The - Chinese Cicada Amulet and Egyptian Search—Butterfly, Frog, and Bird - Amulets—Jade and the Mother-goddess—The Chinese Universe—Great Bear - and “World Mill”—Babylonian Astronomy in China—Star Deities—The - Fung-shui Doctrine—Jade Symbols of Deities—Tigress as a - Mother-goddess—Links with the West—The Two Souls in China and - Egypt—Jade as an Elixir—Jade and Herbs—Jade and Babylonian - Nig-gil-ma—Jade and Rhinoceros Horn—Jade Beliefs in Prehistoric - Europe—Jade and Colour Symbolism—Jade contains Heat and - Moisture—Jade as “The Jewel that Grants all Desires”. - - -One’s thoughts at once turn to China when mention is made of jade, for -in no other country in the world has it been utilized for such a -variety of purposes or connected more closely with the social -organization and with religious beliefs and ceremonies. - -This tough mineral, which is also called nephrite and “axe-stone”, and -is of different chemical composition to jadeite, was known to the -Chinese at the very dawn of their history. It was used by them at first -like flint or obsidian for the manufacture of axes, arrow-heads, -knives, and chisels, as well as for votive objects and personal -ornaments of magical or religious character, and then, as time went on, -for mortuary amulets, for images or symbols of deities, for mirrors, -[294] for seals and symbols of rank, and even for musical instruments, -possessing, as it does, wonderful resonant qualities. The latter -include jade flutes and jade “luck gongs”, which have religious -associations. - -Native artisans acquired great skill in working this tenacious mineral, -and the finest art products in China are those exquisite jade -ornaments, symbols, and vessels that survive from various periods of -its history. Not only did the accomplished and patient workers, -especially of the Han period (200 B.C.–200 A.D.), achieve a high degree -of excellence in carving and engraving jade, and in producing beautiful -forms; they also dealt with their hard mineral so as to utilize its -various colours and shades, and thus increase the æsthetic qualities of -their art products. The artistic genius, as well as the religious -beliefs, of the Chinese has been enshrined in nephrite. - -When the prehistoric Chinese settled in Shensi, they found jade in that -area. “All the Chinese questioned by me, experts in antiquarian -matters, agree”, Laufer writes, “in stating that the jades of the Chou -and Han Dynasties are made of indigenous material once dug on the very -soil of Shensi Province, that these quarries have been long ago -exhausted, no jade whatever being found there nowadays. My informant -pointed to Lan-tʼien and Fêng-siang-fu as the chief ancient mines.” -[295] - -But although the early Chinese made use of indigenous jade, it does not -follow, as has been noted, that the early beliefs connected with this -famous mineral were of indigenous origin. It cannot be overlooked that -the symbolism of jade is similar in character to the older symbolism of -pearls, precious stones, and precious metals, and that the associated -beliefs can be traced not in China alone, but in such widely-separated -countries as India, Babylonia, and Egypt. There was evidently a -psychological motive for the importance attached by the early Chinese -to jade, which they called yu. [296] It had been regarded elsewhere as -a precious mineral before they began to search for it and make use of -it, especially for religious purposes. - -It is not necessary to go back to the “Age of Stone” to theorize -regarding Chinese jade beliefs. It has yet to be established that China -had a Neolithic Age. “As far as the present state of our archæological -knowledge and the literary records point out”, says Laufer, “the -Chinese have never passed through an epoch which, for other culture -regions, has been designated as a Stone Age.” [297] - -Stone implements have been found, but, as in ancient Egypt, these were -still being manufactured long after metals came into general use. - -The fact that the same beliefs were connected with jade as with pearls, -shells, gold, &c., is brought out very clearly in Chinese records -regarding ancient burial customs. It was considered to be as necessary -in ancient China as in ancient Egypt that the bodies of the dead should -be preserved from decay. The Egyptians mummified their dead, and laid -on and beside them a variety of charms that were supposed to afford -protection and assist in the process of reanimation; withal, food -offerings were provided. The Chinese, who have long been noted for -their tendency to find substitutes for religious offerings, including -paper money, believed that the bodies of the dead could be preserved by -magic. At any rate, they did not consider it necessary to practise the -science of mummification. In the Li Ki (chapter 56) the orthodox -treatment of the bodies of the Emperor and others is set forth as -follows: - -“The mouth of the Son of Heaven is stuffed with nine cowries, that of a -feudal lord with seven, that of a great officer with five, and that of -an ordinary official with three”. [298] - -Gold and jade were used in like manner. Laufer quotes from Ko Hung the -significant statement: “If there is gold and jade in the nine apertures -of the corpse, it will preserve the body from putrefaction”. A -fifth-century Chinese writer says: “When on opening an ancient grave -the corpse looks like alive, then there is inside and outside of the -body a large quantity of gold and jade. According to the regulations of -the Han Dynasty, princes and lords were buried in clothes adorned with -pearls and with boxes of jade for the purpose of preserving the body -from decay.” [299] - -According to De Groot, pearls were introduced into the mouth of the -dead during the Han Dynasty. “At least”, he says, “it is stated that -their mouths were filled with rice, and pearls and jade stone were put -therein, in accordance with the established ceremonial usages.” And Poh -hu thung i, a well-known work, professedly written in the first -century, says: “On stuffing the mouth of the Son of Heaven with rice, -they put jade therein; in the case of a feudal lord they introduce -pearls; in that of a great officer and so downwards, as also in that of -ordinary officials, cowries are used to this end”. - -De Groot, commenting on the evidence, writes: “The same reasons why -gold and jade were used for stuffing the mouth of the dead hold good -for the use of pearls in this connection”. He notes that in Chinese -literature pearls were regarded as “depositories of Yang matter”, that -medical works declare “they can further and facilitate the procreation -of children”, and “can be useful for recalling to life those who have -expired, or are at the point of dying”. [300] - -In India, as a Bengali friend, Mr. Jimut Bahan Sen, M.A., informs me, a -native medicine administered to those who are believed to be at the -point of death is a mixture of pounded gold and mercury. It is named -Makara-dhwaja. The makara [301] is in India depicted in a variety of -forms. As a composite lion-legged and fish-tailed “wonder beast” -resembling the Chinese dragon, it is the vehicle of the god Varuna, as -the Babylonian “sea goat” or “antelope fish” is the vehicle of the god -Ea or of the god Marduk (Merodach). The makara of the northern -Buddhists is likewise a combination of land and sea animals or -reptiles, including the dolphin with the head of an elephant, goat, -ram, lion, dog, or alligator. [302] - -In China the lion-headed shark, a form of the sea-god, is likewise a -makara or sea-dragon. Gold and night-shining pearls are connected with -the makara as with the dragon. The Chinese dragon, as we have seen, is -born from gold, while curative herbs like the “Red Cloud herb” and the -“dragon’s whiskers herb” are emanations of the dragon. Gold, like the -herb, contains “soul substance” in concentrated form. Pounded gold, the -chief ingredient in the makara-dhwaja medicine, is believed in India to -renew youth and promote longevity like pounded jade and gold in China. - -“In Yung-cheu, which is situated in the Eastern Ocean, rocks exist,” -wrote a Chinese sage in the early part of the Christian era. “From -these rocks there issues a brook like sweet wine; it is called the -Brook of Jade Must. If, after drinking some pints out of it, one -suddenly feels intoxicated, it will prolong life.... Grease of jade,” -we are further told, “is formed inside the mountains which contain -jade. It is always to be found in steep and dangerous spots. [303] The -jade juice, after issuing from those mountains, coagulates into such -grease after more than ten thousand years. This grease is fresh and -limpid, like crystal. If you find it, pulverize it and mix it with the -juice of herbs that have no pith; it immediately liquefies; drink one -pint of it then and you will live a thousand years.... He who swallows -gold will exist as long as gold; he who swallows jade will exist as -long as jade. Those who swallow the real essence of the dark sphere -(heavens) will enjoy an everlasting existence; the real essence of the -dark sphere is another name for jade. Bits of jade, when swallowed or -taken with water, can in both these cases render man immortal.” [304] - -As we have seen, the belief prevailed in China that pearls shone by -night. The mandrake root was believed elsewhere to shine in like -manner. The view is consequently urged by the writer that the myths -regarding precious stones, jade, pearls, and herbs of nocturnal -luminosity owe their origin to the arbitrary connection of these -objects with the moon, and the lunar-goddess or sky-goddess. In China -Ye Kuang (“light of the night”) “is”, Laufer notes, “an ancient term to -designate the moon”. [305] - -The intimate connection between the Mother deity and precious metals -and stones is brought out by Lucian in his De Dea Syria. He refers to -the goddess Hera of Hierapolis, who has “something of the attributes of -Athene, and of Aphrodite, and of Selene, and of Rhea, and of Artemis, -and of Nemesis, and of the Fates”, and describes her as follows: - - - “In one of her hands she holds a sceptre, and in the other a - distaff; [306] on her head she bears rays and a tower, and she has - a girdle wherewith they adorn none but Aphrodite of the sky. And - without she is gilt with gold, and gems of great price adorn her, - some white, some sea-green, others wine-dark, others flashing like - fire. Besides these there are many onyxes from Sardinia, and the - jacinth and emeralds, the offerings of the Egyptians and of the - Indians, Ethiopians, Medes, Armenians, and Babylonians. But the - greatest wonder of all I will proceed to tell: she bears a gem on - her head, called a Lychnis; it takes its name from its attribute. - From this stone flashes a great light in the night-time, so that - the whole temple gleams brightly as by the light of myriads of - candles, but in the day-time the brightness grows faint; the gem - has the likeness of a bright fire.” [307] - - -Laufer notes in his The Diamond [308] that “the name lychnis is -connected with the Greek lychnos” (“a portable lamp”), and that, -“according to Pliny, the stone is so called from its lustre being -heightened by the light of a lamp”. He thinks the stone in question is -the tourmaline. Laufer reviews a mass of evidence regarding precious -stones that were reported to shine by night, and comes to the -conclusion that there is no evidence on record “to show that the -Chinese ever understood how to render precious stones phosphorescent”. -He adds: “Since this experiment is difficult, there is hardly reason to -believe that they should ever have attempted it. Altogether,” he -concludes, “we have to regard the traditions about gems luminous at -night, not as a result of scientific effort, but as folk-lore -connecting the Orient with the Occident, Chinese society with the -Hellenistic world.” As Laufer shows, the Chinese imported legends -regarding magical gems from Fu-lin (“the forest of Fu”), an island in -the Mediterranean Sea, which was known to them as “the Western Sea” (Si -hai). [309] At a very much earlier period they imported other legends -and beliefs regarding metals and minerals. - -Pearls and gold having been connected with the makara or dragon, it is -not surprising to find that their lunar attributes were imparted to -jade. Laufer quotes Chinese references to the “moonlight pearl” and the -“moon-reflecting gem”, [310] while De Groot deals with Chinese legends -about “effulgent pearls”, about “pearls shining during the night”, -“flaming or fiery pearls”, and “pearls lighting like the moon”. De -Groot adds, “Similar legends have always been current in the empire (of -China) about jade stone”, and he notes in this regard that “at the time -of the Emperor Shen-nung (twenty-fifth century B.C.) there existed”, -according to Chinese records, “jade which was obtained from agate -rocks, under the name of ‘Light shining at night’. If cast into the -waters in the dark it floated on the surface, without its light being -extinguished.” [311] - -The wishing jewel (“Jewel that grants all desires”) of India, Japan, -and China is said to be “the pupil of a fish eye”. In India it was -known in Sanskrit as the cintimani, and was believed to have originated -from the makara. [312] The Chinese records have references to -“moonlight pearls” from the eyes of female whales, and from the eyes of -dolphins. [313] It does not follow that this belief about the origin of -shining pearls had a connection with observations made of the -phosphorescing of parts of marine animals, because the Chinese writers -refer too, for instance, to the nocturnal luminosity of rhinoceros -horn. [314] Even coral, which, like jade, was connected with the lunar- -or sky-goddess, was supposed to shine by night. Laufer quotes from the -work, Si King tsa (Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital, i.e. -Si-ngan-fu), in this connection: - - - “In the pond Tsi-tsʼui there are coral trees twelve feet high. Each - trunk produces three stems, which send forth 426 branches. These - have been presented by Chao Tʼo, King of Nan Yūe (Annam), and were - styled ‘beacon-fire trees’. At night they emitted a brilliant light - as though they would go up in flames.” [315] - - -The “coral tree” here links with the pine, peach, and cassia trees, and -the shining mandrake, as well as with jade, gold, precious stones, and -pearls. In Persia the pearl and coral are called margan, which -signifies “life-giver” or “life-owner”. Lapis-lazuli was called Kin -tsin (“essence of gold”) during the Tiang period in China. [316] - -As the metal associated with the moon was usually silver, gold being -chiefly, although not always, the sun metal, we should expect to find -silver connected with jade and pearls. - -De Groot, who is frankly puzzled over Chinese beliefs regarding pearls, -and has to “plead incompetency” to solve the problem why they were -“considered as depositories and distributors of vital force”, [317] -provides the translation of a passage in the Ta Tsʼing thung li that -connects silver with pearls. It states in reference to burial customs -that “in the case of an official of the first, second, or third degree, -five small pearls and pieces of jade shall be used for stuffing the -mouth; in that of one of the fourth, fifth, sixth, or seventh rank, -five small pieces of gold and of jade. The gentry shall use three bits -of broken gold or silver; among ordinary people the mouth shall be -stuffed with three pieces of silver.” - -De Groot insists that the principal object of the practice of stuffing -the mouths of the dead was “to save the body from a speedy decay”. -[318] - -It is significant therefore to find references in Chinese literature to -“Pearls of Jade”, to “Fire Jade” that sheds light or even “boils a -pot”, and to find silver being regarded as a substitute for jade. -Shells, pearls, gold, silver, and jade contained “soul substance” -derived from the Great Mother. As we have seen, Nu Kwa, the mythical -Chinese Empress (the sister of Fu Hi, the “Chinese Adam”), who stopped -the Deluge, took the place of the ancient goddess in popular legend. -She was credited, as has been indicated, with planning the course of -the Celestial River, with creating dragons, with re-erecting one of the -four pillars that supported the firmament, and with creating jade for -the benefit of mankind. In Japan Nu Kwa is remembered as Jokwa. - -The Japanese beliefs connected with jade are clearly traceable to -China. A Tama may be a piece of jade, a crystal, a tapering pearl, or -the pearl carried on the head of a Japanese dragon. “The Tama”, says -Joly, “is associated not only with the Bosatsu and other Buddhist -deities or saints, but also with the gods of luck.” [319] There are a -number of heroic legends in which the Tama figures. In a story, -relegated to the eighth century B.C., a famous jade stone is called -“the Tama”. It tells that Pien Ho (the Japanese Benwa) saw an eagle -standing on a large block of jade which he took possession of and -carried to his king. The royal magicians thought it valueless, and -Benwa’s right foot was cut off. He made his way to the mountains and -replaced the jade, and soon afterwards observed that the same eagle -returned and perched upon it again. When a new king came to the throne -Benwa carried the jade to the court, but only to have his left foot cut -off. A third king came to the throne, and on seeing Benwa weeping by -the gate of the palace he inquired into the cause of his grief, and had -the stone tested, when it was found to be a perfect gem. This Tama was -afterwards regarded so valuable that it was demanded as “a ransom for -fifteen cities”. [320] - -Here the eagle is associated with the gems containing “soul substance”. -Joly notes that “foxes are also shown holding the Tama”, and he wonders -if the globe “held under their talons by the heraldic lions has a -similar meaning”. [321] Foxes and wolves were, like dragons, capable of -assuming human form and figure among the were-animals of the Far East. -As these were-animals include the tiger, which is a god in China, it is -possible that they were ancient deities. The lion is associated with -the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, with the Cretan mother-goddess, while -the Egyptian Tefnut has a lioness form. Tammuz of Babylon is, as -Nin-girsu of Lagash, a lion-headed eagle. The Indian Vishnu has a -lion-headed avatar. - -The connection of the precious jewel and of gold with the supreme deity -is traceable to the ancient beliefs regarding the shark-guardian of -pearls. As the beliefs associated with pearls were transferred to jade, -it need not surprise us to find the sacred fish—a form of the Great -Mother—connected with jade. A significant text is quoted by Laufer, -without comment, which brings out this connection. He says that “Lü -Pu-wei, who died in B.C. 235, reports in his book Lu-shih Chʼun Tsʼiu: -‘Pearls are placed in the mouth of the dead, and fish-scales are added; -these are now utilized for interment with the dead.’ The Commentary to -this passage explains: ‘To place pearls in the mouth of the dead (han -chu) means to fill the mouth with them; the addition of fish-scales -means, to enclose these in a jade casket which is placed on the body of -the deceased, as if it should be covered with fish-scales.’” [322] Jade -fish-symbols figure among the Chinese mortuary amulets. - -Light is thrown on Chinese beliefs regarding resurrection by the cicada -mortuary amulet which was made of jade. It was placed on the tongue of -the dead and seems therefore to have been like the Egyptian scarab -amulet, a guarantee of immortality. - -One of the important ceremonies in connection with the process of -reanimating an Egyptian corpse was “the opening of the mouth”. It was -necessary that the reanimated corpse should speak with “the true voice” -and justify itself in the court of Osiris, judge of the dead, when the -heart was weighed in the balance. - -Tongue and heart were closely connected. According to the beliefs -associated with the cult of Ptah, which was fused with the cult of -Osiris, the heart was “the mind”, and the source of all power and all -life. The tongue expressed the thoughts of the mind. - - - Ptah, the great, is the mind and tongue of the gods. - Ptah, from whom proceeded the power - Of the mind, - And of the tongue.... - It (the mind) is the one that bringeth forth every - successful issue. - It is the tongue that repeats the thoughts of the mind. [323] - - -The mind was the essence of life: the tongue, which formed the word, -was the active agent of the mind (heart). - -As “the stuffing of the corpse with jade took the place of embalming” -[324] in China, the custom of placing a jade amulet on the tongue is of -marked significance. It is quite evidently an imported custom. The -cicada takes the place of the Egyptian scarabæus, the beetle-god of -Egypt, named Khepera and called in the texts “father of the gods”. In -ancient Egypt scarabs were placed on the bodies and in the tombs of the -dead to protect heart (mind) and tongue and ensure resurrection. A text -sets forth in this connection: “And behold, thou shalt make a scarab of -green stone, with a rim of gold, and this shall be placed in the heart -of a man, and it shall perform for him the ‘Opening of the Mouth’”. The -scarab is to be anointed with “ānti unguent” and then “words of power” -are to be recited over it. In “words of power” the deceased addresses -the scarab as “my heart, my mother: my heart whereby I came into -being”. - -The beetle-god, in whose form the scarab was made, “becomes”, as Budge -says, “in a manner a type of the dead body, that is to say, he -represents matter containing a living germ which is about to pass from -a state of inertness into one of active life. As he was a living germ -in the abyss of Nu (the primeval deep) and made himself emerge -therefrom in the form of the rising sun, so the germ of the living -soul, which existed in the dead body of man, and was to burst into new -life in a new world by means of the prayers recited during the -performance of appropriate ceremonies, emerged from its old body in a -new form either in the realm of Osiris or in the boat of Ra (the -sun-god).” [325] - -This Egyptian doctrine was symbolized by the beetle which rolls a bit -of dung in the dust into the form of a ball, and then, having dug a -hole in the ground, pushes it in and buries it. Thereafter the beetle -enters the subterranean chamber to devour the ball. This beetle also -collects dung to feed the larvæ which ultimately emerge from the ground -in beetle form. - -As the Chinese substituted jade for pearls, so did they substitute the -cicada for the dung-beetle. - -The cicada belongs to that class of insect which feeds on the juices of -plants. It is large and broad with brightly-coloured wings. The male -has on each side of the body a sort of drum which enables it to make -that chirping noise called “the song of the cicada”, referred to by the -ancient classical poets. When the female lays her eggs she bores a hole -in a tree and deposits them in it. Wingless larvæ are hatched, and they -bore their way into the ground to feed on the juices of roots. After a -time—in some cases after the lapse of several years—the cicada emerges -from the ground, the skin breaks open, and the winged insect rises in -the air. The most remarkable species of the cicada is found in the -United States, where it passes through a life-history of seventeen -years, the greater part of that time being spent underground—the larval -stage. In China the newly-hatched larva sometimes bores down into the -earth to a depth of about twenty feet. - -“The observation of this wonderful process of nature,” says Laufer, -“seems to be the basic idea of this (cicada) amulet. The dead will -awaken to a new life from his grave as the chirping cicada rises from -the pupa buried in the ground. This amulet, accordingly, was an emblem -of resurrection.” Laufer quotes in this connection from the Chinese -philosopher Wang Chʼung, who wrote: “Prior to casting off the exuviæ, a -cicada is a chrysalis. When it casts them off, it leaves the pupa -state, and is transformed into a cicada. The vital spirit of a dead man -leaving the body may be compared to the cicada emerging from the -chrysalis.” [326] - -The fact that the cicada feeds on the juices of plants apparently -connected it with the idea of the Tree of Life, the source of “soul -substance”. - -Another insect symbol of resurrection was the butterfly, which was -connected with the Plum Tree of Life. Laufer notes that some -butterflies carved from jade, which were used as mortuary amulets, have -a plum-blossom pattern between the antennæ and plum-blossoms “carved à -jour in the wings”. [327] - -He notes that “in modern times the combination of butterfly and -plum-blossom is used to express a rebus with the meaning ‘Always great -age’”. This amulet is of great antiquity. - -The butterfly symbol of resurrection is found in Mexico. The Codex -Remensis shows an anthropomorphic butterfly from whose mouth a human -face emerges. Freyja, the Scandinavian goddess, is connected with the -butterfly, and in Greece and Italy the same insect was associated with -the idea of resurrection. Psyche (a name signifying “soul”) has -butterfly wings. Apparently the butterfly, like the cicada, was -supposed to derive its vitality from the mother-goddess’s Tree of Life. - -Another important Chinese mortuary jade object was the frog or toad -amulet. As we have seen, the frog was connected with the moon and the -lunar goddess, and in China, as in ancient Egypt, was a symbol of -resurrection. - -Among the interesting jade amulets shown by Laufer are two that roughly -resemble in shape the Egyptian scarabs. “The two pieces”, he writes, -“show traces of gilding, and resemble helmets in their shape, and are -moulded into the figures of a curious monster which it is difficult to -name. It seems to me that it is possibly some fabulous giant bird, for -on the sides, two wings, each marked by five pinions, are brought out, -a long, curved neck rises from below, though the two triangular ears do -not fit the conception of a bird.” [328] The figure apparently -represents a “composite wonder beast”. Fishes and composite quadrapeds -were also depicted in jade and placed in graves. Human figures are -rare. - -Stone coffins were used in ancient times. The books of the later Han -Dynasty (at the beginning of our era) tell about a pious governor, Wang -Khiao, who receives a jade coffin from heaven. It was placed by unseen -hands in his hall. His servants endeavoured to take it away, but found -it could not be moved. - -De Groot, [329] who translates the story, continues: “Khiao said, ‘Can -this mean that the Emperor of Heaven calls me towards him?’ He bathed -himself, put on his official attire with its ornaments, and lay down in -the coffin, the lid being immediately closed over him. When the night -had passed, they buried him on the east side of the city, and the earth -heaped itself over him in the shape a tumulus. All the cows in the -district on that evening were wet with perspiration and got out of -breath, and nobody knew whence this came. The people thereupon erected -a temple for him.” - -De Groot quotes from another work written in the fifth century, which -relates that “at Lin-siang there is in the water a couch of stone, upon -which stand two coffins of solid stone, green like copper mirrors. -There is nobody who can give information regarding them.” [330] - -Here we have jade used for the preservation of the dead, associated -with the sky, with cows, water, and stone, and, in addition, a -reference to green copper. Jade has taken the place of pearls, and -pearls were, as has been shown, connected with the mother-goddess, the -sky and cow deity who was the source of fertilizing and creative -moisture and “soul substance”. The standing stones of the -mother-goddess were supposed to perspire, and to split and give birth -to dragons or gods. This idea appears to lie behind the story regarding -the perspiring cows. An influence was at work on the night when the -sage was buried in the jade coffin, and that influence came from the -sky, and was concentrated in jade. It is necessary, therefore, at this -point, to get at Chinese ideas regarding the connection between jade -and the mysterious influence or influences in what we call “Nature”. - -Behind all mythologies lie basic ideas regarding the universe. To -understand a local or localized mythology, it is necessary that we -should know something regarding the world in which lived those who -invented or perpetuated the myths. - -The Chinese world was flat, and over it was the dome of the firmament -supported by four pillars. These pillars were situated at the four -cardinal points, and were each guarded by a sentinel deity. The deities -exercised an influence on the world and on all living beings in it, and -their influence was particularly strong during their seasons. - -Like the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians the Chinese believed that -their world was surrounded by water. There are references in the texts -to the “Four Seas”, and to what the Egyptians called the “Great Circle” -(Okeanos). - -The Babylonians believed the world was a mountain, and their temples -were models of their world. Thus the temple of Enlil, as the world-god, -was called E-Kur, which signifies “mountain house”. His consort Ninlil -was also called Nin-Kharsag, “the lady of the mountain”. [331] The -Babylonian and Egyptian temples were not only places of worship, but -seats of learning, and they had workshops in which the dyers, -metal-workers, &c., plied their sacred trades. - -Chinese palaces and universities were in ancient times models of the -world. One of the odes says of King Wu: - - - “In the capital of Hao he built his hall with its circlet of water. - From the west to the east, from the south to the north, there was - not a thought but did him homage.” [332] - - -This hall was a royal college, “built”, says Legge, “in the middle of a -circle of water”. Colleges might also have semicircular pools in front -of them, “as may now be seen in front of the temples of Confucius in -the metropolitan cities of the provinces”. [333] Ceremonies were -studied in these institutions. There were also grave-pools. In -Singapore these grave-pools have had to be abolished because they were -utilized for hatching purposes by mosquitoes. - -Much attention was paid by the Chinese to the shape and situation of a -temple, college, palace, or grave. Each was subjected to good and bad -influences, and as seafarers set their sails to take full advantage of -a favourable breeze, so did the Chinese construct edifices and graves -to take full advantage of favourable influences emanating from what may -be called the “magic tanks” of the universe—the cardinal points and the -sky. - -The beliefs involved in this custom are not peculiar to China. In -Scottish Gaelic, for instance, there is the old saying: - - - Shut the north window, - And quickly close the window to the south; - And shut the window facing west; - Evil never came from the east. - - -Another saying is: “Shut the windows to the north, open the windows to -the south, and do not let the fire go out”. Both in Scottish and Irish -Gaelic the north is the “airt” (cardinal point) of evil influence, and -is coloured black, as is the north in China, and the south in India. -The black Indian south is “Yama’s gate”, that is the “gate” of the god -of death. One cannot say anything worse to a Hindu than “Go to Yama’s -gate”. The north is the good and white “airt” of Indian mythology; the -good go northward to Paradise, as in Scotland they go southward. A -Japanese poet has written: “The Paradise is in the south; only fools -pray towards the west”. [334] - -In the Pyramid Texts of ancient Egypt the east is held by the solar -cult “to be the most sacred of all regions”, while the west is the -sacred “airt” of the Osirian cult. [335] In the east the sun-god, to -whom the soul of the dead Pharaoh went, was supposed to be reborn every -morning. The Chinese regarded the east “as the quarter”, says De Groot, -“in which is rooted the life of everything, the great genitor of life -(the sun) being born there every day”. [336] As we have seen, there was -in China, as in Egypt, a rival cult of the west. - -The gods of the four quarters of China, from whom influences flowed, -were: The Blue (or Green) Dragon (east), the Red Bird (south), the -White Tiger (west), and the Black Tortoise (north). The east is the -left side, and the west is the right side; a worshipper therefore faces -the south. In Irish and Scottish Gaelic lore the south is the right -side, and the north is the left side; a worshipper therefore faces the -east. - -According to Kwang-tze, the Taoist, it was believed in China that “the -breath (or influence) of the east is wind, and wind creates wood”; that -“the breath of the south is Yang, which creates fire”; that “the centre -is earth”; that “the breath of the west is Yin, which gives birth to -metal”; and that the breath of the north “is cold, by which water is -produced”. Another native pre-Christian writer says that “the east -appertains to wood, the south to fire, the west to metal, and the north -to water”. [337] Thus taking in the seasons we have the following -combinations, showing the organs of the body influenced by the gods of -the “airts”: - - - East—the Blue Dragon, Spring, Wood; Planet, Jupiter; liver and - gall. - South—the Red Bird, Summer, Fire, the Sun; Planet, Mars; heart and - large intestines. - West—the White Tiger, Autumn, Wind, Metal; Planet, Venus; lungs and - small intestine. - North—the Black Tortoise, Winter, Cold, Water; Planet, Mercury; - kidneys and bladder. - - -The good influence (or breath) was summed up in the term Yang, and bad -influence in the term Yin. Yang refers to what is bright, warm, active, -and life-giving; and Yin to what is inactive, cold, and of the earth -earthy. “When”, says a Chinese writer, “we speak of the Yin and the -Yang, we mean the air (or ether) collected in the Great Void. When we -speak of the Hard and Soft, we mean that ether collected and formed -into substance.” [338] Says De Groot in this connection: “In China -vital power is specially assimilated with the Yang, the chief part of -the Cosmos, identified with light, warmth, and life”. Yin is “the -principle of darkness, cold, and death, standing in the universe -diametrically opposite to Yang”. [339] The chief source of Yang is the -sun, which gives forth “shen” or “soul substance”; the chief source of -Yin is the moon. Yang strengthens the vital energy, and is the active -principle in various elixirs of life, including, as De Groot notes, -“the cock, jade, gold, pearls, and the products of pine and cypress -trees”. [340] - -Yin and Yang are controlled by the constellation, the Great Bear, -called in China “the Bushel”. In the Shi Ki there is a reference to -“the seven stars of the Bushel”, styled “the Revolving Pearls or the -Balance of Jasper”, and arrayed “to form the body of seven rulers”. -This constellation is “the chariot of the Emperor (of Heaven). -Revolving around the pole, it descends to rule the four quarters of the -sphere and to separate the Yin and the Yang; by so doing it fixes the -four seasons, upholds the equilibrium between the five elements, moves -forward the subdivisions of the sphere, and establishes all order in -the Universe.” [341] - -An ancient Chinese writer says in this connection that when the handle -(tail) of the Bushel (Great Bear) points to the east (at nightfall), it -is spring to all the world. When the handle points to the south it is -summer, when it points to the west it is autumn, and when it points to -the north it is winter. In the Shu King (Part II, Book I) the Great -Bear is referred to as “the pearl-adorned turning sphere with its -transverse tube of jade”. [342] The Polar Star is the “Pivot of the -Sky”, which revolves in its place, “carrying round with it all the -other heavenly bodies”. In like manner the Taoists taught that “the -body of man is carried round his spirit and by it”. The spirit is thus -the “Pivot of Jade”. That is why the Pivot of Jade is used in the -ritual services of Taoism. [343] - -In Norse-Icelandic mythology the World Mill controls the seasons and -the movements of the heavenly bodies. The heavens revolve round the -Polar Star, Veraldar Nagli (“the world spike”). Nine giant maids turn -the world mill. [344] - -The Babylonians, who were the pioneer astronomers and astrologers of -Asia, identified the stable and controlling spirit of the night sky -with the Polar Star, which was called “Ilu Sar” (“the god Shar”) or -“Anshar” (“Star of the Height” or “Star of the Most High”). [345] - -Isaiah (xiv, 4–14) refers to the supreme star-god when he makes Lucifer -declare: “I will ascend unto heaven, I will exalt my throne above the -stars of God; I will sit also upon the mount of the congregation, in -the sides of the north; I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; -I will be the most High”. - -Chinese astronomy and the Chinese calendar are undoubtedly of -Babylonian origin. The Babylonian god of the Pole Star has not been -forgotten. Dr. Edkins once asked a Chinese schoolmaster: “Who is the -Lord of heaven and earth?” He replied “that he knew none but the Pole -Star,” called in the Chinese language Teen-hwang-ta-te, the great -imperial ruler of heaven. [346] - -There is a god and a goddess in the Great Bear. “Among the liturgical -works used by the priests of Tao”, says Edkins, “one of the commonest -consists of prayers to Towmoo, a female divinity supposed to reside in -the Great Bear. A part of the same constellation is worshipped under -the name Kwei-sing. A small temple is erected to this deity on the east -side of the entrance to Confucian temples, and he is regarded as being -favourable to literature.” But the chief god of literature is -“Wen-chang”, who is identified with a constellation near the Great Bear -which bears his name. He is prayed to by scholars to assist them in -their examinations. Temples were erected to him on elevated earthen -terraces. “Wen-chang”, says Edkins, “is said to have come down to our -world during many generations at irregular intervals. Virtuous and -highly-gifted men were chosen from history as likely to have been -incarnations of this divinity.” [347] - -The five elements controlled by the Great Bear as it swings round the -Polar Star are in China (1) water, (2) fire, (3) wood, (4) metal, and -(5) earth. These elements compose what we call Nature. As we have seen, -they were placed under the guardianship of animal gods. The White Tiger -of the West, for instance, is associated with metal. When, therefore, -metal is placed in a grave, a ceremonial connection with the tiger-god -is effected. “According to the Annals of Wu and Yueh, three days after -the burial of the king, the essence of the element metal assumed the -shape of a white tiger and crouched down on the top of the grave.” -[348] Here the tiger is a protector—a preserver. - -Jade being strongly imbued with Yang or “soul substance” was intimately -associated with all the gods, and the various colours of jade were -connected with the colours of the “airts” and of the heavens and earth. -Laufer quotes from the eighteenth chapter of Chou li, which deals with -the functions of the Master of Religious Ceremonies: - - - “He makes of jade the six objects to do homage to Heaven, to Earth, - and to the Four Points of the compass. With the round tablet pi of - bluish (or greenish) colour, he does homage to Heaven. With the - yellow jade tube tsʼung, he does homage to Earth. With the green - [349] tablet Kuei, he renders homage to the region of the East. - With the red tablet chang, he renders homage to the region of the - South. With the white tablet in the shape of a tiger (hu), he - renders homage to the region of the West. With the black jade piece - of semicircular shape (huang) he renders homage to the region of - the North. The colour of the victims and of the pieces of silk for - these various spirits correspond to that of the jade tablet.” [350] - - -The shape, as well as the colours, of the jade symbols was of -ritualistic importance. - -What would appear to be the most ancient Chinese doctrine regarding the -influences or “breaths” that emanated from Nature, and affected the -living and the dead, is summed up in the term Fung-shui. “Fung” means -wind, and “shui” means “the water from the clouds which the wind -distributes over the world”. Certain winds are good, and certain winds -are bad. - -The importance attached to wind and water appears to be connected with -the ancient belief, found in Babylonia and Egypt, that wind is the -“breath of life”, the soul, and that water is the source of all -life—“the water of life”. - -“Fung-shui”, says De Groot, “denotes the atmospherical influences which -bear absolute sway over the fate of man, as none of the principal -elements of life can be produced without favourable weather and rains.” -It also means, he adds, “a quasi-scientific system, supposed to teach -men where and how to build graves, temples, and dwellings, in order -that the dead, the gods, and the living may be located therein -exclusively, or as far as possible, under the auspicious influences of -Nature”. [351] - -The controllers of wind and water are the White Tiger god of the West, -and the Blue (or green) Dragon god of the East. “These animals”, says -De Groot, “represent all that is expressed by the word Fung-shui, viz., -both æolian and aquatic influences, Confucius being reputed to have -said that ‘the winds follow the tiger’, and the dragon having, since -time immemorial, in Chinese cosmological mythology played the part of -chief spirit of water and rain.” [352] - -When the dead were buried it was considered necessary, according to -Fung-shui principles, to have graves facing the south, and the Dragon -symbol on the left (east) side of the coffin, and the Tiger symbol on -the right (west) side, while the Red Bird of the south was on the -front, and the Black Tortoise of the north on the back. - -These symbols were, so to speak, set amidst natural surroundings that -allowed the “free flow” of auspicious influences or “breaths”. A site -for a burial-ground was carefully selected, due account being taken of -the configurations of the surrounding country and the courses followed -by streams. [353] - -Not only graves, but houses and towns, were so placed as to secure the -requisite balance between the forces of Nature. De Groot notes that -Amoy is reputed by Chinese believers of the Fung-shui system to owe its -prosperity to two knolls flanking the inner harbour, called “Tiger-head -Hill” and “Dragon-head Hill”. Canton is influenced by the “White -clouds”, a chain of hills representing the Dragon on one side of its -river, and by undulating ground opposite representing the Tiger. -“Similarly”, he says, “Peking is protected on the north-west by the -Kin-shan or Golden Hills, which represent the Tiger and ensure its -prosperity, together with that of the whole empire and the reigning -dynasty. These hills contain the sources of a felicitous watercourse, -called Yu-ho or ‘Jade River’, which enters Peking on the north-west, -and flows through the grounds at the back of the Imperial Palace, then -accumulates its beneficial influences in three large reservoirs or -lakes dug on the west side, and finally flows past the entire front of -the inner palace, where it bears the name of the Golden Water.” [354] - -Here we find jade and gold closely associated in the Fung-shui system. - -As we have seen, white jade was used when the Tiger god of the West was -worshipped; it is known as “tiger jade”; a tiger was depicted on the -jade symbol. To the Chinese the tiger was the king of all animals and -“lord of the mountains”, and the tiger-jade ornament was specially -reserved for commanders of armies. The male tiger was, among other -things, the god of war, and in this capacity it not only assisted the -armies of the emperors, but fought the demons that threatened the dead -in their graves. - -There are traces in China of a tigress shape of the goddess of the -West. Laufer refers to an ancient legend of the country of Chu, which -tells of a prince who in the eighth century B.C. married a princess of -Yün. A son was born to them and named Tou Po-pi. The father died and -the widow returned to Yün, where Tou Po-pi, in his youth, had an -intrigue with a princess who bore him a son. “The grandmother ordered -the infant to be carried away and deserted on a marsh, but a tigress -came to suckle the child. One day when the prince of Yün was out -hunting, he discovered this circumstance, and when he returned home -terror-stricken, his wife unveiled to him the affair. Touched by this -marvellous incident, they sent messengers after the child, and had it -cared for. The people of Chʼu, who spoke a language differing from -Chinese, called suckling nou, and a tiger they called yü-tʼu; hence the -boy was named Nou Yü-tʼu (‘Suckled by a Tigress’). He subsequently -became minister of Chʼu.” [355] - -This Far Eastern legend recalls that of Romulus and Remus, who were -thrown into the Tiber but were preserved and rescued; they were -afterwards suckled by a she-wolf. The Cretan Zeus was suckled, -according to one legend, by a sow, and to another by a goat. A Knossian -seal depicts a child suckled by a horned sheep. Sir Arthur Evans -refers, in this connection, to the legends of the grandson of Minos who -was suckled by a bitch; of Miletos, “the mythical founder of the city -of that name”, being nursed by wolves. [356] Vultures guarded the -Indian heroine Shakuntala, the Assyrian Semiramis was protected by -doves, while the Babylonian Gilgamesh and the Persian patriarch -Akhamanish were protected and rescued at birth by eagles. Horus of -Egypt was nourished and concealed by the serpent goddess Uazit, and in -his boyhood made friends of wild animals, as did also Bharata, the son -of the Indian vulture-guarded Shakuntala. Horus figures in the -constellation of Argo as a child floating in a chest or boat like the -abandoned Moses, the abandoned Indian Karna, the abandoned Sargon of -Akkad, and, as it would appear, Tammuz who in childhood lay in a -“sunken boat”. Horus of the older Egyptian legends was concealed on a -green floating island on the Nile—the “green bed of Horus”. [357] - -The oldest known form of the suckling legend is found in the Pyramid -Texts of Ancient Egypt. When the soul of the Pharaoh went to the -Otherworld he was suckled by a goddess or by the goddesses of the north -and south. The latter are referred to in the Texts as “the two vultures -with long hair and hanging breasts”. [358] Here the vultures take the -place of the cow-goddess Hathor. In Troy the cow-mother, covered with -stars, becomes the star-adorned sow-mother. [359] Demeter had a sow -form and Athene a goat form, and other goddesses had dove, eagle, wolf, -bitch, &c., forms. The Chinese tigress-goddess is evidently a Far -Eastern animal form of the Great Mother who suckles the souls of the -dead and the abandoned children who are destined to become notables. -Thus behind the wind-god, in the Chinese Fung-shui system, we meet with -complex ideas regarding the source of the “air of life”, and the source -of the food-supply. The Blue Dragon of the East is the Naga form of the -Aryo-Indian Indra, [360] the rain-controller, the fertilizer, who is -closely associated with Vayu, the wind-god; the dragon is the -thunderer, too, like Indra. The close association of the tiger- and -dragon-gods in the Fung-shui system may account for the custom of -decorating jade symbols of the tiger with the thunder pattern. [361] - -In jade-lore, as will be seen, we touch on complex religious beliefs -and conceptions not entirely of Chinese origin. Indeed, it is necessary -to leave China and investigate the religious systems of more ancient -countries to understand rightly Chinese ideas regarding jade as a -substitute for gold, pearls, precious stones, &c., and its connection -with vegetation and the Great Mother, the source of all life. - -It remains with us to deal with Chinese ideas regarding the soul which -was protected by jade, the concentrated form of “soul substance”. - -The Chinese believed that a human being had two souls. One was the -Kwei, that is the soul which partook of the nature of the element Yin -and returned to the earth from which it originally came; [362] the -other soul was the shen which partook of the element Yang. When the -shen is in the living body, it is called Khi or “breath”; after death -“it lives forth as a refulgent spirit, styled ming”. The other soul, -called Kwei, is known as the pʼoh during life; after death it lives on -in the grave beside the body, which is supposed to be protected against -decay by the jade, gold, pearls, shells, &c., and the good influences -“flowing” from east and west. - -The shen, like the cicada, may also dwell for a time in the grave or in -the gravestone before it rises on wings to the Sky Paradise, or passes -to the Western Paradise or the Eastern “Islands of the Blest”. Ancient -local and tribal beliefs and beliefs imported at different periods from -different culture centres were evidently fused in China, and we -consequently meet with a variety of ideas regarding the destiny of the -shen. “Departed souls”, says De Groot, “are sometimes popularly -represented as repairing to the regions of bliss on the back of a -crane.” [363] The soul may sail to the Western Paradise in a boat. -“Thou hast departed to the West, from whence there is no returning in -the barge of mercy”, runs an address to the corpse.[363] Here we have -the Ra-boat of Egypt conveying the soul to the Osirian Paradise. As has -been shown, souls sometimes departed on the backs of dragons, or rose -in the air towards cloudland, there to sail in boats or ride on the -backs of birds or kirins, or reached the moon or star-land by climbing -a gigantic tree. Belief in transmigration of souls can also be traced -in China, the result apparently of the importation of pre-Buddhist as -well as Buddhist beliefs from India. - -The living performed ceremonies to assist the soul of the dead on its -last journey. Priests chanted: - - - I salute Ye, Celestial Judges of the three spheres constituting the - higher, middle, and lower divisions of the Universe, and Ye, host - of Kings and nobles of the departments of land and water and of the - world of men! Remember the soul of the dead, and help it forward in - going to the Paradise of the West. [364] - - -Egyptian, Babylonian, and Indian ideas regarding the Western Paradise -are here significantly mingled. - -During life the soul might leave the body for a period, either during -sleep or when one fainted suddenly. - -This belief is widespread. The soul, in folk-stories, is sometimes -seen, as in Scotland, as a bee, or bird, or serpent, as in Norway as an -insect or mouse, as in Indonesia and elsewhere as a worm, snake, -butterfly, or mouse, and even, as in different countries, as deer, -cats, pigs, crocodiles, &c. Chinese beliefs regarding souls as -butterflies, cicadas, &c., have already been referred to. - -The wandering soul could be “called back” by repeating the individual’s -name. In China, even the dead were called back, and the ceremony of -recalling the soul is prominent in funeral rites, as De Groot shows. -[365] Peoples as far separated as the Mongolian Buriats and the -inhabitants of England, Scotland, and Ireland believed that ghosts -could be enticed to return to the body. [366] The “death-howl” in China -and Egypt, and elsewhere, is evidently connected with this ancient -belief. - -Of special interest is the evidence regarding Korean customs and -beliefs. Mrs. Bishop writes: “Man is supposed to have three souls. -After death one occupies the tablet, one the grave, and one the -unknown. During the passing of the spirit there is complete silence. -The under-garments of the dead are taken out by a servant, who waves -them in the air, and calls him by name, the relations and friends -meantime wailing loudly. After a time the clothes are thrown upon the -roof.” When a man dies, one of his souls is supposed to be seized and -carried to the unknown and placed on trial before the Ten Judges, who -sentence it “either to ‘a good place’ or to one of the manifold hells”. -[367] - -Professor Elliot Smith, reviewing the Chinese ideas regarding the two -souls, comes to the conclusion that “the early Chinese conceptions of -the soul and its functions are essentially identical with the Egyptian, -and must have been derived from the same source”. [368] As the Chinese -have the shen and the Kwei, so had the Egyptians the Ka and the ba. The -Ka was the spirit of the placenta, “which was accredited with the -attributes of the life-giving and birth-promoting Great Mother and -intimately related to the moon and the earliest totem”. [369] In China -the beliefs and customs connected with the placenta and the moon are -quite Egyptian in character. [370] - -Even in the worship of ancestors in China one can trace the influence -of Ancient Egyptian ideas. When the Pharaoh died, he was identified -with the god. King Unis, in the Pyramid Texts, becomes Osiris, who -controls the Nile. “It is Unis”, we read, “who inundates the land.” -Pepi I, in like manner, supplanted the god, and he is addressed as -Osiris, as is also King Mernere—“Ho this Osiris, King Mernere!” runs a -Pyramid Text. [371] The sun-god Ra was similarly supplanted by his son, -the dead Pharaoh. - -The souls of Chinese ancestors, who passed to the Otherworld, became -identified with the deities who protected households. Emperors became, -after death, emperors in heaven and their souls were the deified -preservers of their dynasties. Clan and tribal ancestors were -protectors of their clans and tribes, and families were ever under the -care of the souls of their founders. The belief became deeply rooted in -China that the ancestral soul exercised from generation to generation a -beneficent influence over a home. It is not surprising to find, -therefore, that gods are exceedingly numerous in China, and that it is -sometimes difficult to distinguish an ancestor from a god and a god -from an ancestor. The State religion was something apart from domestic -religion. Emperors worshipped the deities that controlled the nation’s -destinies, and families worshipped the deities of the household. - -Local and imported beliefs were fused and developed on Chinese soil, -and when, in time, Buddhism was introduced it was mixed with -pre-existing religious systems. Chinese Buddhism is consequently found -to have local features that distinguish it from the Buddhism of Tibet, -Burmah, and Japan, in which countries there was, in like manner, -culture-mixing. - -Beliefs connected with jade, which date back to the time when the jade -fished from the rivers of Chinese Turkestan was identified with pearls -and gold, were similarly developed in China. At first the jade was used -to assist birth and to cure diseases. It likewise brought luck, being -an object that radiated the influence of the All-Mother. As the living -had their days prolonged and their youth revived by jade, so were the -dead preserved from decay by the influence of the famous mineral. The -custom ultimately obtained of eating jade, as has already been noted in -these pages. Ground jade or “pure extract of jade” was not only -supposed to promote longevity, but to effect a ceremonial connection -between the worshipper and the spirits or deities. In the Chou li it is -stated that “when the Emperor purifies himself by abstinence, the chief -in charge of the jade works prepares for him the jade which he is -obliged to eat”. [372] It is explained by commentators that “the -emperor fasts and purifies himself before communicating with the -spirits; he must take the pure extract of jade; it is dissolved that he -may eat it”. Jade was also pounded with rice as food for the corpse. “A -marvellous kind of jade”, says Laufer, “was called Yü ying, ‘the -perfection of jade’,” which ensured eternal life. “In 163 B.C. a jade -cup of this kind was discovered on which the words were engraved ‘May -the sovereign of men have his longevity prolonged’.” Immortality was -secured by eating from jade bowls, or, as we have seen, by drinking dew -from a jade bowl. [373] - -As has been shown, the Great Mother created jade for the benefit of -mankind, and “the spirit of jade is like a beautiful woman”. [374] Jade -was also “the essence of the purity of the male principle”. [375] - -Apparently the god who was husband and son of the Great Mother was -connected with jade. The Mother was the life-giver, and the son, as -Osiris, was “the imperishable principle of life wherever found”. [376] -If men died, the seed of life in the body was preserved by jade -amulets; the plants might shed their leaves, but the life of the plants -was perpetuated by the spirit of jade. “In the second month”, says The -Illustrated Mirror of Jade, “the plants in the mountains receive a -brighter lustre. When their leaves fall, they change into jade.” [377] -The mountain plants in question appear to be the curative herbs that -contained, like jade, the elixir of life, and the chief of these plants -was the ginseng (mandrake), an avatar of the Great Mother. The plant, -or ground jade, or food or moisture from the jade vessel renewed youth -and prolonged life. All the elixirs were concentrated in jade; the -vital principle in human beings and plants was derived from and -preserved by jade. - -It is of special interest to find that the Chinese Nu Kwa who caused -the flood to retreat was the creator of the jade which protected -mankind and ensured longevity by preserving the seed or shen of life, -being impregnated with Yang, the male principle. In Babylonia, the seed -of mankind was preserved during the flood by the nig-gil-ma. - -In the Sumerian version of the Creation legend, the three great gods -Anu, Enlil, and Enki, assisted by the Great Mother goddess -Ninkharasagga, first created mankind, then the nig-gil-ma, and lastly -the four-legged animals of the field. The mysterious nig-gil-ma is -referred to in the story of the Deluge as “Preserver of the seed of -mankind”, while the ship or ark is “Preserver of Life”, literally “She -that preserves life”. A later magical text refers to the creation after -that of mankind and animals of “two small creatures, one white and one -black”. Man and animals were saved from the flood and the nig-gil-ma -played its or their part “in ensuring their survival”. - -Leonard W. King, who has gathered together the surviving evidence -regarding the mysterious nig-gil-ma [378] points out that the name is -sometimes preceded by “the determinative for ‘pot’, ‘jar’, or ‘bowl’”, -and is identical with the Semitic word mashkhalu. In the Tell-el-Amarna -letters there are references to a mashkhalu of silver and a mashkhalu -of stone (a silver vessel and a stone vessel). The nig-gil-ma may be -simply a “jar” or “bowl”. “But”, says Mr. L. King, “the accompanying -references to the ground, to its production from the ground, and to its -springing up ... suggest rather some kind of plant; and this, from its -employment in magical rites, may also have given its name to a bowl or -vessel which held it. A very similar plant was that found and lost by -Gilgamesh, after his sojourn with Ut-napishtim [379]; it too had potent -magical power, and bore a title descriptive of its peculiar virtue of -transforming old age to youth.” The nig-gil-ma may therefore be a -plant, a ship, a stone bowl or jar, or a vessel of silver (the moon -metal). If we regard it as a symbol or avatar of the mother-goddess it -was any of these things and all of these things—the Mother Pot, the -inexhaustible womb of Nature, the Plant of Life containing “soul -substance”, the red clay, the moon-silver, or, as in China, the jade of -which the sacred vessel was made. The Great Mother’s herb-avatar was -the ginseng (mandrake), as in the Egyptian Deluge story it was the red -earth didi from Elephantine placed in the beer prepared for the -slaughtering goddess Hathor-Sekhet as a surrogate of blood and a -soporific drink; the mixture was “the giver of life”, the red aqua -vitae, like the red wine and the juice of red berries in different -areas. [380] The mandrake was the didi of southern Europe and of China. -Dr. Rendel Harris shows that the early Greek magicians and doctors -referred to the male mandrake, which was white, and the female -mandrake, which was black. The black mandrake was personified as the -Black Aphrodite. [381] - -The Babylonian reference in a magical text to the nig-gil-ma as “two -small creatures, one white and one black” is therefore highly -significant. Apparently, like jade, the nig-gil-ma symbolized “the male -principle”, and “the spirit” of “a beautiful woman”. Thus mandrake -(ginseng), the Plant of Life, red earth, jade, the pearl and the pot or -jar or bowl, and the Deluge ship, and the ship of the sun-god, were -forms, avatars, or manifestations of the Great Mother who preserved the -seed of mankind and the elixir of life—in the Pot it grew the Plant of -Life, and from it could be drunk the dew of life, the water of life, -plant and water being impregnated with the “spirit” of jade. Jade-lore -is of highly complex character because, as has been indicated, the -early instructors of the Chinese attached to the mineral the -Egypto-Babylonian doctrines regarding the Great Mother and her shells, -pearls, precious stones, gold, silver and copper, herbs, trees, -cereals, red earth, &c. The Babylonian evidence regarding the -nig-gil-ma as a herb, and as a silver or stone jar, pot, or cup, in -which was preserved the seed of mankind (“soul substance”) may explain -why in the Chinese Deluge myth there is no ark or ship. The goddess -provided jade instead of a boat and she created dragons to control the -rain-supply, so that the world might not again suffer from the effects -of a flood. - -The virtues of jade were shared to a certain degree by rhinoceros horn, -which, as we have seen, was reputed to shine by night. - -Laufer has gathered together sufficient evidence to prove that the -rhinoceros was one of the wild animals known in ancient China. [382] A -hero of the Chou Dynasty, who subdued rebels and established peace -throughout the Empire, “drove away also the tigers, leopards, -rhinoceroses and elephants—and all the people were greatly delighted”. -[383] A native writer says: “To travel by water and not avoid -sea-serpents and dragons—this is the courage of a fisherman. To travel -by land and not avoid the rhinoceros and the tiger—this is the courage -of hunters.” In ancient times certain of the lords attending on the -emperor had a tiger symbol on each chariot wheel, while other lords had -on their wheels crouching rhinoceroses. [384] Laufer expresses the view -that “the strong desire prevailing in the epoch of the Chou for the -horn of the animal (rhinoceros) which was carved into ornamental cups, -and for its valuable skin, which was worked up into armour, had ... -contributed to its final destruction.” [385] The rhinoceros-horn cups -were used, like jade cups, chiefly for religious purposes. Rice-wine -was drunk from them when vows were made, and from them were poured -libations to ancestors. The animal’s skin was used not only for armour, -because of its toughness and durability, but because the rhinoceros was -a longevity animal, and a form of the god of longevity (shou-sing). It -was used, too, for the coffin of the “Son of Heaven” (the Emperor). -“The innermost coffin was formed by hide of water buffalo and -rhinoceros.” This case was enclosed in white poplar timber and the two -outer cases were of catalpa wood. [386] The jade coffin was similarly a -protecting life-giver. - -As there were black and white nig-gil-ma, and black and white deities, -so were there black and white rhinoceroses and black and white -elephants. Gautama Buddha entered his mother’s right side “in the form -of a superb white elephant”. [387] - -The water-rhinoceros had “pearl-like armour” (a significant comparison -when it is remembered that pearl-lore and jade-lore are so similar), -but not the mountain rhinoceros. It was the horn of the male animal -that had special virtues. The markings on it included a red line, which -was a result of his habit of gazing at the moon; the spots were stars. -As the animal was connected with the “material sky”, the horn was -impregnated with the Yang principle. A horn that “communicated with the -sky” was of the “first quality”. Laufer quotes the statement: “If the -horn of the rhinoceros ‘communicating with the sky’ emits light, so -that it can be seen by night, it is called ‘horn shining at night’ (ye -ming si): hence it can communicate with the spirits and open a way -through the water”. A man who carried in his mouth a piece of -rhinoceros horn found, it was alleged, on diving into the sea, that the -water gave way so as to allow a space for breathing. [388] The -pearl-fishers may therefore have used the magic horn, believing that it -protected and assisted them. - -It is recorded of a horn presented to an emperor of the Tʼang Dynasty -that “at night it emitted light so that a space of a hundred paces was -illuminated. Manifold silk wrappers laid around it could not hide its -luminous power. The emperor ordered it to be cut into slices and worked -up into a girdle; and whenever he went out on a hunting expedition, he -saved candle light at night.” With the aid of the horn it was possible -“to see supernatural monsters in water”. [389] - -There was warm rhinoceros horn and cold rhinoceros horn, as there was -warm jade and cold jade. A Chinese work of the eighth century mentions -“cold-dispelling rhinoceros horn (pi han si), whose colour is golden. -[390]... During the winter months it spreads warmth which imparts a -genial feeling to man.” Another work speaks of “heat-dispelling -rhinoceros horn (pi shu si).... During the summer months it can cool -off the hot temperature.” Girdles of “wrath-dispelling” horn caused men -“to abandon their anger”; hair-pins, combs, &c., were made from “dust -dispelling” horn. Rhinoceros horn had, like jade, healing properties. A -fourth-century Chinese writer tells that “the horn can neutralize -poison because the animal devours all sorts of vegetable poisons with -its food”. Chinese drug stores still stock shavings of the horn to cure -fever, smallpox, ophthalmia, &c. [391] According to S. W. Williams -[392] “a decoction of the horn shavings is given to women just before -parturition and also to frighten children”. A medicine is prepared from -rhinoceros skin, too. Laufer states that “the skin, as well as the -horn, the blood, and the teeth, were medicinally employed in Cambodja, -notably against heart diseases.... In Japan rhinoceros horn is powdered -and used as a specific in fever cases of all kind.” Dragon bones were -used in like manner in China. It is of importance to note that the -rhinoceros horn derived its healing qualities because the animal fed on -plants and trees provided with thorns. [393] Like the dragon, the -rhinoceros had an intimate connection with certain plants; like the -ginseng-devouring goat, it carried in its blood the virtue of the -plants and herbs it devoured. In Tibet and China the rhinoceros became -confused with the stag, antelope, and goat with one horn. It was the -prototype of the unicorn. In India and Iran it was confused with the -horse. There is in Chinese lore a “spiritual rhinoceros (ling si)” with -the body of an ox, the hump of a zebu, cloven feet, the snout of a pig, -and a horn in front. [394] It may be that in ancient times the lore -connected with the hippopotamus was transferred by the searchers for -pearls, precious stones, and metals to the Chinese “water-rhinoceros”. -Like the composite wonder-beast in the Osirian hall of judgment, which -tore the unworthy soul to pieces, the rhinoceros had its place in -judicial proceedings in China. In its goat form it solved a difficult -case when Kas Yas administered justice by butting the guilty party and -sparing the innocent. [395] - -The importance attached to jade in prehistoric Europe raises an -interesting problem. Jade artifacts have been found associated with the -Swiss lake-dwellings, and at “Neolithic sites” in Brittany and Ireland, -as well as in Malta and Sicily, and other parts of Europe. Schliemann -found votive axes of green and white jade (nephrite) in the stratum of -the first city of Troy. It was believed at the time that the European -jade artifacts had been imported from the borders of China, and -Professor Fischer expressed the wish “that before the end of his life -the fortune might be allotted to him of finding out what people brought -them to Europe”. [396] Professor Max Muller believed that the Aryans -were the carriers of jade. “If”, he wrote, “the Aryan settlers could -carry with them into Europe so ponderous a tool as their language, -without chipping a single facet, there is nothing so very surprising in -their having carried along and carefully preserved from generation to -generation so handy and so valuable an instrument as a scraper or a -knife, made of a substance which is Aere perennuis”. [397] - -After a prolonged search, European scientists have located nephrite -(jade proper) or jadeite in situ in Silesia, Austria, North Germany, -Italy, and among the Alps. “A sort of nephrite workshop was discovered -in the vicinity of Maurach (Switzerland), where hatchets chiselled from -the mineral and one hundred and fifty-four pieces of cuttings were -found.” [398] - -Laufer writes in this connection: “If we consider how many years, and -what strenuous efforts it required for European scientists to discover -the actual sites of jade in Central Europe, which is geographically so -well explored, we may realize that it could not have been quite such an -easy task for primitive man to hunt up these hidden places”. Laufer -thinks that in undertaking to overcome the difficulties experienced in -discovering jade in Europe, early man “must have been prompted by a -motive pre-existing and acting in his mind; the impetus of searching -for jade he must have received somehow from somewhere.... Nothing”, he -says, “could induce me to believe that primitive man of Central Europe -incidentally and spontaneously embarked on the laborious task of -quarrying and working jade. The psychological motive for this act must -be supplied.... From the standpoint of the general development of -culture in the Old World there is absolutely no vestige of originality -in the prehistoric cultures of Europe which appear as an appendix to -Asia.” [399] - -Apparently the “psychological motive” for searching for jade in China -and Europe came from the Khotan area in Chinese Turkestan, whence jade -was carried to Babylonia during the Sumerian period. It is probable -that bronze was first manufactured in the jade-bearing area of Asia, -and that the people who carried “the knowledge of bronze-making into -Europe”, as Professor Elliot Smith suggests, “also introduced the -appreciation of jade”. Laufer comments in this connection: “Originality -is certainly the rarest thing in the world, and in the history of -mankind the original thoughts are appallingly sparse. There is, in the -light of historical facts and experience, no reason to credit the -prehistoric and early populations of Europe with any spontaneous ideas -relative to jade.” After receiving jade and adopting the beliefs -attached to it, they set out to search for it, and found it in Europe. - -The polished axe pendants of jade found in Malta were evidently charms. -Among the Greeks jade was “the kidney stone”; it cured diseases of the -kidneys. The Spaniards brought jade or jadeite from Mexico, and called -it “the loin stone” (piedra de hijada). Sir Walter Raleigh introduced -it into England, and used the Spanish name from which “jade” is -derived. - -Red, green, blue, white, grey, and black jade were used, by reason of -their colours, for various deities in China, and to indicate the rank -of officials. “White jade, considered the most precious, was the -privileged ornament of the emperor; jade green like the mountains was -reserved for the princes of the first and second ranks; water-blue jade -was for the great prefects; the heir apparent had a special kind of -jade.” [400] Mottled jades—some resembling granite—were likewise -favoured for a variety of purposes. - -Jade played an important part in Chinese rain-getting ceremonies. -Dragon jade symbols, decorated with fish-scales, were placed on the -altar as offerings and for the purpose of invoking the rain-controlling -“composite wonder beast” and god. Sometimes bronze and silver dragon -symbols were used. According to Laufer, “the jade image of the dragon -remained restricted to the Han period, and was substituted at later -ages by prayers inscribed on jade or metal tablets. A survival of the -ancient custom”, he adds, “may be seen in the large paper or papier -mâché figures of dragons carried around in the streets by festival -processions in times of drought to ensure the benefit of rain.” [401] -In front of these dragons are carried the red ball, which symbolizes -the moon, the source of fertilizing moisture—of dew, of rain, and -therefore of the streams and rivers that flow to the sea. - -Jade links with pearls in the ocean surrounding the world, in which -lies a gigantic oyster that gapes after rain falls, and sends forth the -gleaming rainbow. The Greek historian, Isidorus of Charace (c. 300 -B.C.), referring to the pearl-fishing in the Persian Gulf, relates a -story about the breeding of pearls being influenced by thunder-storms. -[402] The jade ceremonial object, which roused the dragon, had thus -indirectly a share in pearl production. Pearls were, as we have seen, -likewise produced by dragons, who spat them out during storms. As -certain pearls were supposed to be formed by dew that dropped from the -moon, it may be that the Chinese gigantic oyster was, when it gaped to -send forth the rainbow, receiving the substance of a gigantic pearl -from the celestial regions. The life-prolonging and youth-renewing “Red -Cloud herb” came into existence during a thunder- and rain-storm. - -As we have seen, jade contains, according to Far Eastern belief, the -essence of heat as well as of moisture. It contains, too, the essence -of cold—not the cold of winter but the coolness desired in hot weather. -[403] In the Tu yang tsa pien, a Chinese work of the ninth century, it -is recorded that the Emperor of China received from Japan “an engraved -gobang board of warm jade, on which the game could be played in winter -without getting cold, and that it was most highly prized”. It is told -in this connection that “thirty thousand li (leagues) east of Japan is -the island of Tsi-mo, and upon this island the Ninghia Terrace, on -which terrace is the Gobang Player’s Lake. This lake produces the -chess-men which need no carving, and are naturally divided into black -and white. They are warm in winter, cool in summer, and known as cool -and warm jade. It also produces the catalpa-jade, in structure like the -wood of the catalpa tree, which is carved into chess-boards, shining -and brilliant as mirrors.” [404] - -Jade is, in short, a “luck stone”: the giver of children, health, -immortality, wisdom, power, victory, growth, food, clothing, &c. It is -“the jewel that grants all desires” in this world and the next, and is -therefore connected with all religious beliefs, while it also plays its -part as a symbol in the social organization, being the medium through -which the mysterious forces of nature exercise their influence in every -sphere of human thought and activity. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -CREATION MYTHS AND THE GOD AND GODDESS CULTS - - Are Animistic Beliefs Primitive?—Evidence of a Mummy-imported - Culture in Primitive Communities—Chinese Creation Myth—Chaos - Transformed into Kosmos—Pʼan Ku as the World-artisan—Chinese - World-giant Myth—Tibetan Version—Pʼan Ku and the Egyptian - Ptah—Hammer Gods—Pʼan Ku and the Scandinavian Ymir—Osiris as a - World-giant—Fusion of Egyptian and Babylonian Myths—The Chinese - Ishtars—The Goddess of the Deluge—The Chinese Virgin Mother—Dragon - Boat Ceremonies—The Mountain Goddess in China—Kiang Yuan as the - Divine Mother—Ancient Myths in Chinese Buddhism—The “Poosa” as - Goddess of Mercy—As Controller of Tides—Vision of - Sky-goddess—Island Seat of Goddess Worship—The Chinese Indra. - - -Although some exponents of the stratification theory incline to regard -Chinese religion as a stunted outcrop of animistic ideas, and chiefly -because of the remarkable persistence through the ages of the worship -of ancestors—the worship of ghost-gods and ghosts identified with -gods—there is really little trace of what is usually referred to as -“the primitive state of mind”. Under the term “animism” have been -included ideas that are less primitive than was supposed to be the case -about a generation ago. The belief, for instance, that there are -spirits in stones, or that the soul of the dead enters a megalithic -monument, or a statue placed in the tomb, may not, after all, belong to -a primitive stage of thought; nor does it follow that because it is -found to be prevalent among savage tribes isolated on lonely islands it -is a product merely of the early “workings of the human mind” when man, -as if by instinct, framed his “first crude philosophy of human -thought”. The fact that savages reached isolated islands, such as, for -instance, Eastern Island, where stone idols were erected, indicates -clearly that they had acquired a knowledge of shipbuilding and -navigation directly or indirectly from a centre of ancient -civilization. It may be, therefore, that they likewise acquired from -the same source ideas regarding the soul and the origin of things, and -that these, instead of being “simple” and “primitive”, are really of -complex character, and have remained in a state of arrested -development, simply because they have been detached from the parent -stem, to be preserved like flower petals pressed in a book, that still -retain a degree of their original brightness and characteristic odour. - -In outlying areas, like Australia and Oceania, are found not only -“primitive beliefs”, but definite burial customs that have a long -history elsewhere, including cremation and even mummification. “You get -the whole bag of tricks in Australia”, the late Andrew Lang once -declared to the writer when contending that certain beliefs and customs -found in Egypt, Babylonia, India, and Europe were “natural products of -the primitive mind”. But is it likely that such a custom as -mummification should have “arisen independently” in Australasia? Let us -take, for instance, the case of the mummy from the Torres Straits, -which is preserved in the Mackay Museum in the University of Sydney. It -was examined by Professor G. Elliot Smith, who, during his ten years’ -occupancy of the Chair of Anatomy in the Government School of Medicine -in Cairo, had unique opportunities of studying Ancient Egyptian surgery -as revealed by the mummies preserved in Gizeh museum. When he examined -the Papuan mummy at Sydney he found that undeniable Egyptian methods of -a definite period in Egyptian history had been employed. He -communicated his discovery to the Anthropological Section of the -British Association in Melbourne in 1914, and, as an anatomist, was -astonished to hear Professor Myres contending that it seemed to him -natural that people should want to preserve their dead! “If”, Professor -Elliot Smith has written, “Professor Myers had known anything of the -history of anatomy he would have realized that the problem of -preserving the body was one of extreme difficulty which for long ages -had exercised the most civilized peoples, not only of antiquity, but -also of modern times. In Egypt, where the natural conditions favouring -the successful issue of attempts to preserve the body were largely -responsible for the possibility of such embalming, it took more than -seventeen centuries of constant practice and experimentation to reach -the stage and to acquire the methods exemplified in the Torres Straits -mummies.” [405] Arm-chair theories vanish like mist when the light of -scientific evidence is released. - -In like manner may be found in the folk-lore and religious literature -of China “mummies” of imported myths, as well as early myths of local -invention that, ancient as they may be, cannot be regarded as -“primitive” in the real sense of the term. The following myth, found in -the literature of Taoism, may be more archaic than the writings of -Kwang-tze, who gives it. - -At the beginning of time there were two oceans—one in the south and one -in the north, and there was land in the centre. The Ruler of the -southern ocean was Shu (Heedless), and the Ruler of the northern ocean -was Hu (Hasty), while the Ruler of the Centre was Hwun-tun (Chaos). - -“Heedless” and “Hasty” were in the habit of paying regular visits to -the land, and there they met and became acquainted. “Chaos” treated -them kindly, and it was their desire to confer upon him some favour so -as to give practical expression to their feelings of gratitude. They -discussed the matter together, and decided what they should do. - -Now Chaos was blind, his eyes being closed, and he was deaf, his ears -being closed, and he could not breathe, having no nostrils, nor eat, -because he was mouthless. - -“Hasty” and “Heedless” met daily in the Central land, and each day they -opened an orifice. On the seventh day their work was finished. But when -he had eyes and ears opened, and could see and hear, and could breathe -through his nostrils, and had a mouth with which to eat, old Chaos -died. - -The meaning of this Chinese parable seems to be that the Universe had, -in the space of seven days, been “set in order”, Chaos having been -transformed into Kosmos. - -Although Taoism has been referred to by some writers of the “Evolution -School” as “an elaboration of animistic lore”, this myth is really a -product of the years that bring the philosophic mind. The three -“Rulers” may have originally been giants, and the story may owe -something to the Babylonian myth of Ea-Oannes, the sea-god, who came -daily from the Persian Gulf to instruct the early Sumerians how to live -civilized lives; but it was evidently some Far Eastern Socrates who -first named the sea-gods “Heedless” and “Hasty”, and tinged the fable -with Taoistic cynicism. - -Creation myths are not as “primitive” as some writers would have us -suppose. Considerable progress was achieved before mankind began to -theorize regarding the origin of things. Even the widespread and -so-called “primitive myth” about the egg from which the Universe, or -the first god, was hatched by the “Primeval Goose” may belong to a much -later stage of human development than is supposed by some of those -writers who speculate with so much confidence regarding “the workings -of the human mind”. Even the metaphysicians of Brahmanic India were -prone to speak in parables and fables. - -“At the beginning there was nothing”, the Chinese philosophers taught -their pupils. “Long ages passed by. Then nothing became something.” The -something had unity. Long ages passed by, and the something divided -itself into two parts—a male part and a female part. These two -somethings produced two lesser somethings, and the two pairs, working -together, produced the first being, who was named Pʼan Ku. Another -version of the myth is that Pʼan Ku emerged from the cosmic egg. - -It is not difficult to recognize in Pʼan Ku a giant god or world-god. -He was furnished with an adze, or, as is found in some Chinese prints, -with a hammer and a chisel. With his implement or implements Pʼan Ku -moves through the universe as the Divine Artisan, who shapes the -mountains and hammers or chisels out the sky, accompanied by the -primeval Tortoise, and the Phœnix, and a dragon-like being who may -represent the primeval “somethings”—the symbols of water, earth, and -air. The sun, moon, and stars have already appeared. - -Another version of the Pʼan Ku myth represents him as the Primeval -World-giant, who is destroyed so that the material universe may be -formed. From his flesh comes the soil, from his bones the rocks; his -blood is the waters of rivers and the ocean; his hair is vegetation; -while the wind is his breath, the thunder his voice, the rain his -sweat, the dew his tears, the firmament his skull, his right eye the -moon, and his left eye the sun. Pʼan Ku’s body was covered with vermin, -and the vermin became the races of mankind. - -A somewhat similar myth is found in Tibet. When M. Huc sojourned in -that country, he had a conversation with an aged nomad, who said: - -“There are on the earth three great families, and we are all of the -great Tibetan family. This is what I have heard the Lamas say, who have -studied the things of antiquity. At the beginning there was on the -earth only a single man; he had neither house nor tent, for at that -time the winter was not cold, and the summer was not hot; the wind did -not blow so violently, and there fell neither snow nor rain; the tea -grew of itself on the mountains, and the flocks had nothing to fear -from beasts of prey. This man had three children, who lived a long time -with him, nourishing themselves on milk and fruits. After having -attained to a great age, this man died. The three children deliberated -what they should do with the body of their father, and they could not -agree about it; one wished to put him in a coffin, the other wanted to -burn him, the third thought it would be best to expose the body on the -summit of a mountain. They resolved then to divide it into three parts. -The eldest had the body and arms; he was the ancestor of the great -Chinese family, and that is why his descendants have become celebrated -in arts and industry, and are remarkable for their tricks and -stratagems. The second son had the breast; he was the father of the -Tibetan family, and they are full of heart and courage, and do not fear -death. From the third, who had inferior parts of the body, are -descended the Tartars, who are simple and timid, without head or heart, -and who know nothing but how to keep themselves firm in their saddles.” -[406] - -Pʼan Ku, with his implements, links with the Egyptian artificer god -Ptah of Memphis, who used his hammer to beat out the metal firmament. -Ptah’s name means “to open” in the sense of “to engrave, to carve, to -chisel”; the sun and moon were his eyes; he was “the great artificer in -metals, and he was at once smelter, and caster, and sculptor, as well -as the master architect and designer of everything that exists in the -world”. In the Book of the Dead he (or Shu) is said to have performed -“the ceremony of opening the mouth of the gods with an iron knife”, -[407] as “Hasty” and “Heedless” opened the mouth, eyes, ears, and -nostrils of Chaos in the Chinese myth. The high priest of Memphis was -called Ur Kherp hem, “the great chief of the hammer”. As we have seen, -he was closely associated with the Egyptian potter’s wheel, which -reached China at an early period. Like Ptah, Pʼan Ku is sometimes -depicted as a dwarf, and sometimes as a giant. - -Other hammer-gods include the Aryo-Indian Indra, who builds the world -house; the Anatolian Tarku, the Mesopotamian Rammon or Adad, the -northern European Thor. The hammer is apparently identical with adze -and axe, and in Egypt the axe is an exceedingly ancient symbol of a -deity; in Crete the double axe has a similar significance. In Scotland -the hammer is carried by the Cailleach (Old Wife) in her character as -Queen of Winter; she shapes the mountains with it, and causes the -ground to freeze hard when she beats it. The hammer-god is in many -countries a thunderer; to the modern Greeks lightning flashes are -caused by blows of the “sky-axe” (astro-peléki); in Scottish Gaelic -mention is made of the “thunder-ball” (peleir-tarnainach). A -thunder-ball is carried by the Japanese thunder-god, but it is often -replaced by the thunder-drum. - -Pʼan Ku plays no conspicuous part in Chinese mythology; he is evidently -an importation. In his character as a world-god he resembles the -primeval giant Ymir of Norse-Icelandic myth, who was similarly cut up -or ground in the “World Mill”, so that the universe might be set in -order. - - - From the flesh of Ymir the world was formed, - From his blood the billows of the sea, - The hills from his bones, the trees from his hair, - The sphere of heaven from his skull. - - Out of his brows the blithe powers made - Midgarth for sons of men, - And out of his brains were the angry clouds - All shaped above in the sky. [408] - - -Ymir was, like Pʼan Ku, born from inanimate matter. He was nourished by -Audhumbla (Darkness and Vacuity), the cow mother, the Scandinavian -Hathor. - - - From stormy billow sprang poison drops, - Which waxed into Jotum (giant) form, - And from him are come the whole of our Kin; - All fierce and dread is that race. [409] - - -Another version of the Ymir myth makes the giant come into existence -like the self-created Ptah: - - - ’Twas the earliest of times when Ymir lived; - Then was sand, nor sea, nor cooling wave, - Nor was Earth found even, nor Heavens on high; - There was Yawning of Deeps, and nowhere grass. [410] - - -The black dwarfs were parasites on Ymir’s body, as human beings were -parasites on the body of Pʼan Ku. - -It may be that the idea of a primeval giant like Pʼan Ku, or Ymir, was -derived from the conception of Osiris as a world-god, which obtained in -Egypt as far back as the Empire period. Erman translates a hymn in -which it is said of the god: “The soil is on thy arm, its corners are -upon thee as far as the four pillars of the sky. When thou movest, the -earth trembles.... [411] The Nile comes from the sweat of thy hands. -Thou spewest out the wind that is in thy throat into the nostrils of -men, and that whereon men live is divine. It is [412] [alike in] in thy -nostrils, the tree and its verdure, reeds, plants, barley, wheat, and -the tree of life.” Everything constructed on earth lies on the “back” -of Osiris. “Thou art the father and mother of men, they live on thy -breath, they eat of the flesh of thy body. The ‘Primæval’ is thy name.” -[413] - -The body of Osiris was cut into pieces by Set. As the bones of Pʼan Ku -and Ymir are the rocks, so are the bones of Set the iron found in the -earth, but no myth survives of the cutting up of Set’s body. The black -soil on the Nile banks is the body of Osiris, and vegetation springs -from it. - -It may be, however, that it was in consequence of the fusion in some -cultural centre of the Babylonian myth regarding the cutting up of the -dragon Tiamat and the cutting up of the body of Osiris that the -northern Europeans came to hear of an Ymir and the Chinese of a Pʼan Ku -from the early traders in amber, jade, and metals. - -When Tiamat was slain, Marduk “smashed her skull”. - - - He cut the channels of her blood, - He made the North Wind bear it away into secret places.... - - He split her up like a flat fish into two halves, - One half of her he set in place as a covering for the heavens. - - -With the other part of Tiamat’s body Marduk made the earth. Then he -fashioned the abode of the god Ea in the deep, the abode of the god Anu -in high heaven, and the abode of Enlil in the air. [414] - -In India is found another myth that appears to have contributed to the -Chinese mosaic. At the beginning the Universal Soul assumed “the shape -of a man”. This was Purusha. - - - “He did not feel delight. Therefore nobody, when alone, feels - delight. He was desirous of a second. He was in the same state as - husband (Pati) and wife (Patni).... He divided this self two fold. - Hence were husband and wife produced. Therefore was this only a - half of himself, as a split pea is of the whole.... The void was - completed by woman.” [415] - - -It may be that India and China derived the god-splitting idea from a -common source in Central Asia, where such “culture-mixing” appears to -have taken place. - -In China itself there are many traces of blended ideas. In the Texts of -Confucianism, for instance, the symbol of the Khien stands for heaven, -and that of the Khwan for earth. - -In one of the native treatises it is stated: - - - “Khien suggests the idea of heaven; of a circle; of a ruler; of a - father; of jade; of metal; of cold; of ice; of deep red; of a good - horse; of an old horse; of a thin horse; of a piebald horse; and of - the fruit of trees. - - “Khwan suggests the idea of the earth; of a mother; of cloth; of a - caldron; of parsimony; of a turning lathe; of a young heifer; of a - large waggon; of what is variegated; of a multitude; and of a - handle and support. Among soils it denotes what is black.” [416] - - -Here we have the Great Father, the god of heaven, who is red and is a -circle (the sun); and the Great Mother, the goddess of Earth, who is -black. - -The sky-god is connected with jade and metal. As we have seen, the cult -of the west attributed the creation of jade to the Chinese Ishtar. -Precious metals were in several countries associated with sun, moon, -and stars. The horse is one of the animals associated with sky-gods; it -was, of course, later than the bull, stag, antelope, goat, ram, &c. -Cold as well as warmth was sent by the sky-god, who controls the -seasons. - -The mother-goddess is the Caldron—the “Pot”, which, as has already been -noted, was in Ancient Egypt the symbol of the inexhaustible womb of -nature personified by deities like Hathor, Rhea, Aphrodite, Hera, -Ishtar, &c. The “young heifer” has a similar connection, while the -“waggon” seems to be another form of the “Pot”. Cloth was woven by men -and women, but the production of thread was always the work of women in -Ancient Egypt and elsewhere. Apparently the turning lathe was female, -because the chisel was male; it may be that it was because the potter’s -wheel was female that it had to be operated by a man. “A multitude” may -refer to the reproductivity of the Great Mother of all mankind. The -goddess was, perhaps, parsimonious because during a period of the year -the earth gives forth naught, and stores all it receives. - -The egg from which Pʼan Ku emerged appears to have been a symbol of the -Mother Goddess of the sacred West, remembered in Chinese legends as Si -Wang Mu, “the mother of the Western King”, and in Japanese as Seiobo, -who was guardian of the World Tree, the giant peach, or the lunar, -cassia tree (Chapter X). Other references to her, under various names, -are scattered through ancient Chinese writings. In the “Annals of the -Bamboo Books” mention is made of “the Heavenly lady Pa”. She favoured -the Chinese monarch, Hwang Ti, who is supposed to have reigned during -2688 B.C. by stopping “the extraordinary rains caused by the enemy”. -[417] - -Here we seem to meet with a vague reference to the Deluge legend. The -Babylonian Ishtar was angered at the gods for causing the flood and -destroying mankind, as is gathered from the Gilgamesh epic: - - - Then the Lady of the gods drew nigh, - And she lifted up the great jewels [418] which Anu had made - according to her wish (and said): - “What gods these are! By the jewels of lapis lazuli which are upon - my neck, I will not forget! - These days I have set in my memory, never will I forget them! - Let the gods come to the offering, - But Bel shall not come to the offering, - Since he refused to ask counsel and sent the deluge, - And handed over my people unto destruction.” [419] - - -A goddess who protests against the destruction of her human descendants -by means of a flood, caused by the gods, was likely to protect them -against “extraordinary rains”, caused by their human or demoniac -enemies. - -As we have seen in previous chapters, the Chinese Deluge legend, in one -of its forms, was attached to the memory of the mythical Empress Nu -Kwa, the sister of the mythical Emperor Fuh-hi, sometimes referred to -as “the Chinese Adam”. Three rebels had conspired with the demons or -gods of water and fire to destroy the world, and a great flood came on. -Nu Kwa caused the waters to retreat by making use of charred reeds -(quite a Babylonian touch!). Then she re-erected one of the four -pillars of the sky against which one of the rebels, a huge giant, had -bumped his head, causing it to topple over. - -According to Chinese chronology, this world-flood occurred early in the -“Patriarchal Period” between 2943 B.C. and 2868 B.C. - -Another reference to the mother-goddess crops up in a poem by “the -statesman poet, Chu Yuan, 332–295 B.C., who drowned himself”, Professor -Giles writes, [420] “in despair at his country’s outlook, and whose -body is still searched for annually at the Dragon-boat Festival”. The -poem in question is entitled “God Questions”, and one question is: - - - “As Nu-Chi had no husband, how could she bear nine sons?” - - -Professor Giles adds: “The Commentary tells us that Nu Chi was a -‘divine maiden’, but nothing more seems to be known about her”. It is -evident that she was a virgin goddess, who, like the Egyptian Nut, was -the spirit of the cosmic waters. [421] It is of interest to find the -memory of the poet associated with the Dragon-boat Festival, which, -according to Chinese belief, had origin because he drowned himself in -the Ni-ro River. There is evidence, however, that the festival had -quite another origin. Dragon-boats were used in China on the fifth day -of the fifth month at water festivals. They were “big ships adorned -with carved dragon ornaments”, the yih bird being painted on the prow. -[422] De Visser says that these boats were used by emperors for -pleasure trips, and music was played on board them. “The bird was -painted, not to denote their swift sailing, but to suppress the -water-gods.” [423] According to De Groot, dragon-boat races were -“intended to represent fighting dragons in order to cause a real dragon -fight, which is always accompanied by heavy rains. The dragon-boats -carried through the streets may also serve to cause rain, although they -are at the same time considered to be substitutes.” [424] - -Having drowned himself, the poet became associated with the river -dragon. “Offerings of rice in bamboo”, says Giles, “were cast into the -river as a sacrifice to the spirit of their great hero.” [425] In like -manner, offerings were made to dragons in connection with rain-getting -ceremonies long before the poet was born. It is evident that he took -the place of the dragon-god as the mythical Empress Nu Kwa of the -Patriarchial Period took the place of the Chinese Ishtar, and as Ishtar -took the place of the earlier Sumerian goddess Ninkharasagga, who, with -“Anu, Enlil, and Enki”, “created the black-headed (i.e. mankind)”. -[426] - -The same Chinese poet sings of the mother-goddess in his poem, “The -Genius of the Mountain”, which Professor Giles has translated: - - - “Methinks there is a Genius of the Hills clad in wistaria, girdled - with ivy, with smiling lips, of witching mien, riding on the red - pard, wild cats galloping in the rear, reclining in a chariot, with - banners of cassia, cloaked with the orchid, girt with azalea, - culling the perfume of sweet flowers to leave behind a memory in - the heart.” - - -Like Ishtar, who laments for her lost Tammuz, this goddess laments for -her “Prince”. - - - “Dark is the grove wherein I dwell. No light of day reached it - ever. The path thither is dangerous and difficult to climb. Alone I - stand on hill-top, [427] while the clouds float beneath my feet, - and all around is wrapped in gloom.” - - -This goddess is not only associated with ivy, the cassia tree, &c., but -with the pine. “I shade myself”, she sings, “beneath the spreading -pine.” The poem concludes: - - - “Now booms the thunder through the drizzling rain. The gibbons howl - around me all the long night. The gale rushes fitfully through the - whispering trees. And I am thinking of my Prince, but in vain; for - I cannot lay my grief.” [428] - - -The goddess laments for her prince, as does Ishtar for Tammuz. - -The mother-goddess is found also in the “Book of Odes” (The Shih King). -She figures as the mother of the Hau-Ki and “the people of Kau” in the -ode which begins as follows: - - - “The first birth of (our) people was from Kian Yuan. How did she - give birth to our people? She had presented a pure offering and - sacrificed, that her childlessness might be taken away. She then - trod on a toe-print made by God, and was moved in the large place - where she rested. She became pregnant; she dwelt retired; she gave - birth to and nourished (a son), who was Hau-Ki.” [429] - - -Professor Giles refers to this birth-story “as an instance in Chinese -literature, which, in the absence of any known husband, comes near -suggesting the much-vexed question of parthenogenesis”. [430] - -Other Chinese references to miraculous conceptions, given below, -emphasize how persistent in Chinese legend are the lingering memories -of the ancient mother-goddess. - -As was the case in Babylonia and Egypt, the rival biological theories -of the god cult and the goddess cult were fused or existed side by side -in ancient China. - -The goddess cult influenced Buddhism even when it was adopted in China, -and fused with local religious systems. To the lower classes the -“Poosa”, who brings luck—that is, success and protection—may be either -a Buddha or a goddess. The name is “a shortened form of the Sanskrit -term Bodhisattwa”, and was originally “a designation of a class of -Buddha’s disciples.... The ‘Poosa’ feels more sympathy with the lower -wants of men than the Buddha (Fuh) does.” - -One of the holy beings referred to in China as a “Poosa” is Kwan-yin, -the so-called “goddess of mercy”. Dr. Joseph Edkins [431] says that -“this divinity is represented sometimes as male, at others as -female.... She is often represented with a child in her arms, and is -then designated the giver of children. Elsewhere she is styled the -‘Kwan-yin who saves from the eight forms of suffering’ or ‘of the -southern sea’, or ‘of the thousand arms’, &c. She passes through -various metamorphoses, which give rise to a variety in names.” - -The “Poosa” of Buddhism or the ancient Chinese faith is a powerful -protector. Dr. Edkins tells that “Chinese worshippers will sometimes -say, for example, that they must spend a little money occasionally to -obtain a favour of Poosa, in order to prevent calamities from assailing -them. I saw”, he relates, “an instance of this at a town on the -sea-coast near Hangchow. The tide here is extremely destructive in the -autumn. [432] It often overflows the embankment made to restrain it, -and produces devastation in the adjoining cottages and fields. A temple -was erected to the Poosa Kwan-yin, and offerings are regularly made to -her, and prayers presented for protection against the tide.” - -A vision of this Chinese Aphrodite was beheld about two years before -the British forces captured Canton. “The governor of the province to -which that city belongs”, says Dr. Edkins, “was engaged in -exterminating large bands of roving plunderers that disturbed the -region under his jurisdiction. He wrote to the Emperor on one occasion -a dispatch in which he said that, at a critical juncture in a recent -contest, a large figure in white had been seen beckoning to the army -from the sky. It was Kwan-yin. The soldiers were inspired with courage, -and won an easy victory over the enemy.” - -Edkins notes that “the principal seat of the worship of Kwan-yin is at -the island of Poots”. Here the deity “takes the place of Buddha, and -occupies the chief position in the temples”. There are many small caves -on the island dedicated to the use of hermits. “In several of them, -high up on a hill-side”, Dr. Edkins “noticed a small figure of Buddha”. -Here we have an excellent instance of “culture-mixing” in China in our -own day. - -Shang-ti, the personal god who rules in the sky, is to the Chinese -Buddhists identical with Indra, the Hindu god of thunder and rain. In -India Indra was in Vedic times the king of the gods, but in the -Brahmanic Age became a lesser being than Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu. -When Buddha was elevated to the godhead these great deities shrank into -minor positions. In China they stand among the auditors of the supreme -Buddha, as he sits on the lotus flower, and “occupy”, as Edkins found, -“a lower position than the personages called Poosa, Lohan, &c.” [433] - -In the next chapter it will be found that floating myths were attached -to the memories of mythical and legendary monarchs in China, and that -not a few of these myths resemble others found elsewhere. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -MYTHICAL AND LEGENDARY KINGS - - Pʼan Ku as the Divine Ancestor—The Mythical Age—Gods as Kings—The - Prometheus of China—Fu Hi as Adam—Doctrine of World’s Ages in - China—Links with Babylonia and India—Legendary Kings—The Chinese - Osiris—Reign of the “Yellow God”—Empress and Silk-worm - Culture—Royal Sons of Star-gods—Yaou, Son of the Red Dragon—Shun, - Son of the Rainbow—The Hea Dynasty—The Emperor Yu—Star Myths—Yu and - the River God—Yu as Pʼan Ku—The Flood Myth in Legends of Yu—The - Dynasty of Shang—Moon and Egg Myths—The Wicked Wu—A Hated Queen—The - Dynasty of Chou—A Chinese Gilgamesh—The Pious King Wen—Divination - by Tortoise and Grass—The Chous as Invaders—Historical - Dynasties—Ancient Iranian Traders—Trade and Civilization promoted - by the Dread of Death. - - -Pʼan Ku, the first “man” or “god”, was the ancestor of three -families—the rulers of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind. In Tibet, as we have -seen, the first man had three sons, who divided his body between them, -and they were the ancestors of the three human races. Like the -Babylonians, the Chinese had dynastic lists of antediluvian kings. Pʼan -Ku’s descendants ruled the nine divisions of the prehistoric empire or -world. There were ten dynastic periods, the first being that of the -“Nine Heads” (kings), the second that of the “Five Dragons”, and so on. -The five dragon kings were connected with the five planets: Venus, -Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn, and therefore with the five -elements, for Venus was the Star of Metal, Jupiter that of Wood, -Mercury that of Water, Mars the Star of Fire, and Saturn the Star of -Earth. Thus every part of the terrestrial surface, when identified with -one or more elements on account of its shape, is under the influence of -the corresponding metals, and also under that of the constellations -through which these planets move. [434] As we have seen, the spirits of -dragon swords appeared in the sky as stars. The star-gods, like the -dragons, were fathers of some of the famous kings of China. - -Towards the end came the period “Having Nests”, which indicates that -houses were built. Then came the period of Sui-zan, “the -Fire-producer”, who has been referred to as the “Prometheus of China”. - -A new age was ushered in by Fu Hsia or Fu Hi, the so-called “Adam of -China”. He is the first monarch of China’s legendary history, and was -supposed to reign from 2953 till 2838 B.C. Some regard him as the -leader of a colony which settled in Shensi. But he is more like a -mythical culture hero. He was the offspring of a miraculous conception, -and had dealings with dragons. Like the Babylonian Ea he instructed the -people how to live civilized lives. Before Fu-hi came, they lived like -animals; they knew their mothers but not their fathers, and they ate -raw flesh. They kept records by means of knotted cords, and he -instructed them in the mysteries of lineal figures, which had a mystic -significance. These were eight in number—the eight kwâ or trigrams, -which represented: (1) the sky; (2) water of lakes and marshes; (3) -fire, lightning, and the sun; (4) thunder; (5) wind and wood; (6) water -as in rain, springs, streams, clouds, and the moon; (7) a hill; (8) the -earth. - -Fu-hi also instructed the people to worship spirits, and he instituted -sacrifices. He kept in a park six kinds of animals, and sacrificed -twice a year at the two solstices, causing the days to be regarded as -sacred, so that the people might show gratitude to heaven. - -According to the Taoists, Fu-hi disturbed the primal unity, and caused -the people to begin to deteriorate. - -Here we touch on the doctrine of the World’s Ages. Like the Indians of -the Brahmanic period, the Chinese Taoists believed that the first age -was a perfect one, and that mankind gradually deteriorated. In the -Indian Krita Age “all men were saintly, and therefore they were not -required to perform religious ceremonies.... There were no gods in the -Krita Age, and there were no demons.” [435] - -Lao Tze, who will be dealt with more fully in the next chapter, -exclaims: “I would make people return to the use of knotted cords”. His -disciple, Kwang Tze, lamented that the paradisaical state of the early -ages had been disturbed by law-makers. Decadence set in with the -“Prometheus” and the “Adam”, and continued until the people became -“perplexed and disordered, and had no way by which they might return to -their true nature, and bring back their original condition”. [436] - -“It is remarkable”, says Legge, “that at the commencement of Chinese -history, Chinese tradition placed a period of innocence, a season when -order and virtue ruled in men’s affairs.” This comment is made in -connection with the following passage in the Shu King (Book XXVII, “The -Marquis of Lu on Punishments”): “The King said, ‘According to the -teachings of ancient times, Khih Yu was the first to produce disorder, -which spread among the quiet, orderly people, till all became robbers -and murderers, owl-like and yet self-complacent in their conduct, -traitors and villains, snatching and filching, dissemblers and -oppressors’”. [437] - -In some accounts of the early period, Fu Hi is succeeded by his sister, -the Empress Nu Kwa, the heroine of the Deluge. - -Fu Hi’s usual successor, however, is Shen-nung (2838–2698 B.C.), the -Chinese Osiris, who introduced the agricultural mode of life and -instructed the people how to make use of curative herbs. He was -worshipped as the god of agriculture. Thus an Ode sets forth: - - - That my fields are in such good condition, - Is matter of joy to my husbandmen. - With lutes, and with drums beating, - We will invoke the Father of Husbandry, - And pray for sweet rain, - To increase the produce of our millet fields, - And to bless my men and their wives. [438] - - -Shen-nung was not content with two annual sacrifices, and fixed two -others at the equinoxes, “that in spring to implore a blessing on the -fruit of the earth, and that in autumn, after the harvest was over, to -offer the first fruits to the ruler of heaven”. - -After Shen-nung died the emperor Hwang-Ti (“The Yellow God”) ascended -the throne. He was in the literal sense the “Son of Heaven”, for his -real father was the thunder-god, and he had therefore “a dragon-like -countenance”. As in the case of Osiris, who was reputed to have reigned -over Egypt, it is difficult to conclude whether he was a deified -monarch or a humanized deity. He belongs, of course, to the mythical -period of the “five Tis” in Chinese legendary history. - -The account of his origin sets forth that one night his mother -witnessed a brilliant flash of lightning which darted from the vicinity -of the star chʼoo in the Great Bushel (the “Great Bear”) and lit up the -whole country. Her Majesty became pregnant, but did not give birth to -her son until twenty-five months later. Hwang Ti was able to speak as -soon as he was born. When he ascended the throne, he possessed the -power of summoning spirits to attend at the royal palace, and his -allies in battle included tigers, panthers, and bears, as those of -Rama, the hero of the Indian epic, the Rámáyana, included bears and -gigantic monkeys. Hwang Ti was a lover of peace, and because he caused -peaceful conditions to prevail, phœnixes nested in his garden, or, like -swallows, perched on the palace roof and terraces and sang in the -courtyard. Other spirit-birds haunted the residence of the “Yellow -God”. - -He built a large temple so that he might not be prevented by bad -weather from offering up sacrifices and performing other religious -ceremonies at any season of the year, and he instructed the people in -their duties towards the spirits, their ancestors, and himself. He -fixed the holy days and introduced music in temple worship. His wife -undertook the duty of nourishing silk-worms and producing silk. An -enclosure on the north side of the temple was planted with mulberry -trees, and in this grove the Empress and the ladies of her court -attended to the silk-worms specially kept for the silk required for -religious ceremonies. Her Majesty was the goddess as her husband was -the god, and had therefore to promote reproduction and growth. She -therefore visited also the enclosure on the southern side of the temple -in which grew the cereals and fruits offered to the deities. - -Hwang Ti was specially favoured by the goddess known as “the heavenly -lady Pao”, who on one occasion stopped the heavy and destructive rains -that had been caused by the enemy. - -When the Emperor was in his seventy-seventh year, he retired from the -world, like an Indian ascetic, to practise austerities beside the Jo -water. He died in his one hundredth year. Some tell that when he was -ascending to heaven an earthquake occurred; others hold that he never -died but was transformed into a dragon. After he passed away, either as -a soul or dragon, to associate with the immortals, a wooden image of -him was made and worshipped by princes. - -His successor is said to have been the Emperor Che, whose dynastic -title was Shao-Hao. This monarch was the son of a star god. One night -his mother beheld a star, which resembled a rainbow, floating on a -stream in the direction of a small island. After retiring to rest she -dreamed that she received the star, and, in due course, she gave birth -to her son. Phœnixes visited the royal palace on the day that he -ascended the throne. This monarch had some mysterious association with -the west—probably with the goddess of the west—and is said to have -commanded an army of birds. - -He was followed by the Emperor Chuen-Heugh (Kao-Yang). He, too, was the -son of a star-god. It chanced that his mother witnessed the Yao-Kwang -star passing through the moon like a rainbow. She gave birth to her son -in the vicinity of the Jo water. There was a shield and spear on his -head at birth, a tradition which recalls that when the Indian princess -Pritha gave birth to Karna, son of Surya, the sun-god, he was fully -armed. - -Chuen-Heugh was a great sage. “He invented calendaric calculations and -delineations of the heavenly bodies,” and composed a piece of music -called “The Answer to the Clouds”. - -Next came the Emperor Kuh (Kao-sin) who, like Richard III, had teeth -when he was born. He similarly rose from the rank of a State prince to -the Imperial throne. The State of Yew-Kae was conquered by him. His -son, named Che, proved to be unworthy, and his younger son, Yao, was -selected as his successor. - -The Emperor Yao was the son of a red dragon, as well as of the Emperor, -and was not born until fourteen months after conception. He is said to -have been ten cubits in height when full grown. There were two pupils -in each of his eyes. He was a great sage and wonderful happenings -occurred during his reign. - -A mysterious grass grew on the palace stairs. It bore a pod on each day -of the month. He selected as his colleague and successor the sage Shun, -who had held an undistinguished position. It is told that this -selection was approved by five star-gods whose spirits appeared as five -old men and walked about among the islands of the River Ho. On another -occasion a bright light came from the river; then beautifully-coloured -vapours arose and a dragon-horse appeared, carrying in its mouth a -scaly cuirass for Shun, whose appointment was thus definitely approved -by Heaven. Thirty years later a tortoise rose from the water and rested -on the altar. On its back was an inscribed order instructing Yao to -resign in favour of Shun. This divine command was duly obeyed. - -Shun’s mother had conceived after seeing a rainbow. As has been stated, -a rainbow was believed to emanate from the gigantic oyster that lay in -mid ocean. When the child was born his mother and father detested him, -because his body was black and his eyes had double pupils, and because -he had a dragon face and a large mouth. When he became a youth he -reached the height of six cubits, and was thus like the Egyptian Horus -and the Norse hero Sigurd, a veritable giant. His parents endeavoured -on more than one occasion to cause his death by giving him difficult -tasks to perform, and acting treacherously towards him. On one occasion -they ordered him to plaster a granary, and when he was engaged at the -work they set fire to the building. But Shun was clad in “bird’s work -clothing”, which seems to indicate that he had power to assume bird -form, and he flew away. He was next ordered to deepen a well. He went -to work obediently, and while engaged in his task the well was suddenly -filled up with stones. But Shun had “dragon’s work clothing”, or was -able to assume a dragon form, and contrived to escape through the side -of the well. Like Hercules, he performed all his difficult tasks and -escaped without injury. - -Although Shun is usually said to have been selected by Yaou as his -successor, a vague tradition states that he dethroned Yaou by force and -kept him a prisoner. Before long, however, he degraded the young ruler -and took his place. - -On ascending the throne, Shun publicly worshipped the spirit of Shang -Ti (Ruler of Heaven, the personal god). He enacted new laws, so that -the government of the Empire might be regulated and strengthened, and -he was the first monarch to create Mandarins. Shun is credited with -selecting his successor Yu. - -The Emperor Yu was the first monarch of the Dynasty of Hea. According -to tradition he was the son of a star-god. It is told that one night -his mother saw a falling star and became pregnant. She afterwards -swallowed a pearl that had been dropped by a spirit. In due course she -gave birth to Yu. - -A similar myth is attached to the memory of the Irish Christian saint -Ciaran of Saigir, which was probably taken over from some ancient -Celtic hero, the son or grandson of Sirona (the aged one or -star-goddess). A Gaelic poem, believed to have been composed in the -ninth century, sets forth: - - - Liadaine (his mother) was asleep - On her bed (a saying not wrong). - When she turned her face to heaven - A star fell into her mouth. - Thence was born the marvellous child, - Ciaran of Saigir who is proclaimed to thee - And thence (a saying without pride) - Luaigne (Liadaine’s husband) said he (Ciaran) was not his son. - [439] - - -Osiris, as the son of the cow-goddess, was a son of the moon, from -which fell a fertilizing ray of light. The Egyptian deities had star -forms. As stars, they rose from malachite pools and perched in -swallow-shape on the branches of the world-tree of the Great Mother. -Hathor and Isis were personified as the star Sirius, from which fell -the tear, or drop of dew, that caused the low Nile to have increase and -rise in flood. As the morning star, the goddess was the mother of the -rising sun. Much star-lore surviving from ancient times remains to be -gleaned. - -When the star-deity’s son, the Chinese Emperor Yu, was born, he had the -mouth of a tiger. “His ears had three orifices; his head bore the -resemblance of the star Kow and Kʼeen. On his breast seemed a figure in -gem of the Great Bear.” When he grew up he reached the height of 9 -cubits, 6 inches. [440] - -The Irish hero, Cuchullin, was likewise a marvellous youngster. He had -“seven toes to each foot, and to either hand as many fingers; his eyes -were bright, with seven pupils apiece”, and so on. - -Yu was probably a historical character, to whose memory many floating -myths and legends were attached. He figures as the hero of a deluge. -One night, during his youth, he dreamt that while bathing in the Ho -(the Yellow River) he drank up the water. He also beheld a white fox -with nine tails—a particularly good omen. This was during the reign of -Yau. Shun came to know about him and showed him special favour, causing -him to be promoted until he became an influential man in the Empire. - -The gods were well pleased because he was loved by them. One day, as Yu -stood on the banks of the River Ho, gazing at the water, a god appeared -as a tall, white-faced man, with the body of a fish, like the -Babylonian Ea. He addressed Yu and said: “I am the spirit of the Ho. -Wan-ming shall regulate the waters.” - -The god then gave Yu a plan of the Ho, which gave full details -regarding the regulating of the waters, and sank into the river. - -A good deal of controversy has been engaged in as to what Yu was -supposed to have done. In the Shu King (“The Tribute of Yu” chapter) it -is stated: “Yu divided the land, following the course of the hills, he -cut down the trees. He determined the highest hills and largest rivers -(in the several regions).... The (waters of the) Hang and Wei were -brought to their proper channels.” Other rivers were similarly -controlled. [441] - -In another section Yu says: “When the floods were lifted to the -heavens, spreading far and wide, surrounding the hills and submerging -the mounds, so that the common people were bewildered and dismayed, I -availed myself of four vehicles, [442] and going up the hills I felled -the trees.... After that I drained off the nine channels, directing -them into the four seas; I dug out ditches and canals and brought them -into rivers.” [443] - -In the fourth book of the Shu King, “The Great Plan”, it is said: “I -have heard that in old time Khwan dammed up the inundating waters, and -thereby threw into disorder the arrangement of the five elements. God -was consequently roused to anger, and did not give him the Great Plan -with its nine divisions, and thus the unvarying principles (of Heaven’s -method) were allowed to go to ruin.” [444] - -In one of the Odes it is stated that “when the waters of the Deluge -spread vast abroad, Yu arranged and divided the regions of the land”. -[445] - -It has been suggested by some that Yu constructed a great embankment to -prevent the Yellow River changing its course—a task even greater than -constructing the Great Wall, and that he formed dams and opened -irrigating channels. It may be that he did much work in reclaiming land -and regulating the government of the Empire. But there can be little -doubt that the traditions surviving from his age were mixed with the -older traditions regarding the Babylonian flood. Yu is no mere canal -cutter. He hews the rocks and forms chasms between the mountains, like -Pʼan Ku, the Chinese Ptah or Indra, he constructs the embankments of -lakes, and makes channels for the great rivers, and he drains the -marshes. The grounds are made habitable and fit for cultivation. There -are even faint echoes of the Osirian legend in the stories regarding -his achievements. - -After Yu had finished his work, Heaven presented him with a -dark-coloured mace. [446] He was destined to become Emperor of the nine -provinces, we are told, but it is doubtful if the Empire was really so -large during his reign. After Shun resigned, Yu ascended the throne. -The vegetation then became luxuriant, and green dragons lay on the -borders of the Empire. Yellow dragons rose from the rivers when Yu -crossed them. His reign lasted for forty-five years. - -The sixth Emperor of the Hea Dynasty was another famous man. This was -Shao-Kʼang. His father had been murdered, and his mother took flight -and concealed herself. She gave birth to her son during her reign in -Shan-tung, when he became a herdsman. Like Horus, he was searched for -by the monarch who had usurped the throne, and he had to take to flight -and become a cook. In time he was able to collect an army and win a -great victory, which enabled him to regain the throne of his father. - -The last few Emperors of the Dynasty of Hea were weak and licentious -men. It is told of Kʼung-Kea, the fourteenth of his line, that he was -the cause of much misfortune, and caused the government to decay. Among -the terrible things he did was to eat a female dragon which had been -slain and pickled for him. Kwei, the seventeenth Emperor, was the first -to introduce men-drawn carriages, but the omens of his reign foretold -the approaching doom of the dynasty; the five planets wandered from -their courses, and stars fell like rain in his tenth year. He was -overthrown by Tʼang, the founder of the Dynasty of Shang. - -Tʼang had seven names, one of which was Li. He was descended from the -Empress Keen-tieh, who, having prayed for a son, entered a river to -bathe. A dark swallow came nigh and dropped a variegated egg from her -mouth, which the Empress swallowed. She became pregnant, and gave birth -to a son named See, who, when he grew up, was appointed by Yao, -Minister of Instruction, and was given the principality of Shang. - -Thirteen generations later the wife of one of See’s descendants gave -birth to Tʼang, the future Emperor. She had become pregnant after -seeing a white vapour passing through the moon. The child had whiskers -at birth, and his arms had four joints. He grew to the height of nine -cubits. - -Wonderful things happened to prove that Tʼang was the chosen by Heaven -to reign over the Empire. When he visited the altar of Yao, he dropped -a jewel into the water. “Lo! yellow fishes leapt up in pairs; a -blackbird followed him, and stood on the altar, where it changed into a -black gem.” There also appeared a black tortoise, which had on its back -characters intimating that Tʼang was to become the Emperor. A spirit -appeared on Mount Pei at the same time. “Another spirit, dragging a -white wolf, with a hook in his mouth, entered the court of Shang. The -virtue of metal waxed powerful; silver overflowed from the hills.” -Tʼang himself dreamed that “he went to the sky and licked it. After -this he became possessor of the Empire.” [447] - -When the Dynasty of Shang began to decline, the rulers became weak and -profligate. It is told of Wu-Yih, who reigned for only four years -(1198–1194 B.C.), he was “without any right principle. He made an image -of a man, and called it ‘the Spirit of Heaven’. Then he ‘gamed with it’ -(played dice, or at chess), causing someone to play for the image. ‘The -Spirit of Heaven’ was unsuccessful, on which he disgraced it, and made -a leather bag, which he filled with blood, and then placed aloft and -shot at (the image was probably in the bag as well), calling this -‘shooting at Heaven’.... In the fourth year of his reign, while hunting -between the Ho and the Wei, Wu-Yih suddenly died. Tsʼeen says that he -was struck dead by lightning; and people recognize in that event the -just and appropriate vengeance of Heaven which he had insulted.” [448] - -The Kafirs of Africa “play at a game of chance before their idols, and, -should chance be against them, kick and box their idols; but if, after -this correction, on pursuing their experiments they should continue -unsuccessful, they burn the hands and feet off them in the fire; should -ill fortune still attend them, they cast the idols on the ground, tread -them under foot, dash them about with such force as to break them to -pieces. Some, indeed, who show greater veneration for the images, -content themselves with fettering and binding them until they have -obtained their end; but should this not take place as early as their -impatience looks for, they fasten them to a cord and gradually let them -down into the water, even to the bottom, thus trusting to force them to -be propitious”. [449] It may be that Wu-Yih (Wuh-I) was engaged in some -such ceremony when he disgraced and tortured his god. - -A successor is remembered as the first man who used ivory chop-sticks. -The Viscount of Ke admonished him, saying: “Ivory chop-sticks will be -followed by cups of gem; and then you will be wanting to eat bears’ -paws and leopards’ wombs, and proceed to other extravagances. Your -indulgence of your desires may cost you the Empire.” This was Chou-sin, -an intemperate and extravagant tyrant. He came under the influence of a -beautiful but wicked woman, called Ta-ke, whom he married. “The most -licentious songs were composed for her amusement and the vilest dances -exhibited.” A park was laid out for her amusement. “There was a pond of -wine; the trees were hung with flesh; men and women chased each other -about quite naked.” Drinking bouts were common in the palace, and when -the princes began to rebel, new and terrible tortures were introduced. -The queen had constructed a copper pillar, which was greased all over. -It was laid above a charcoal fire, and culprits were ordered to walk on -it. When they slipped and fell into the fire, Ta-ke was “greatly -delighted”. - -The Dynasty of Shang was overthrown by King Wu, the founder of the -Dynasty of Chou. Wu was descended from the famous lady Kian Yuan, -already referred to (see Index). After treading in the toe-print (or -foot-print) made by God, she gave birth to her son, Hau Ki, suffering -no pain. Like Gilgamesh, Sargon, Romulus and Remus, Karna, and other -famous heroes, the child was exposed after birth, the lady’s husband, -according to one Chinese commentator, having been displeased with what -had taken place. In the Shih King the ode, which relates the legend of -Hau Ki, says: - - - He was placed in a narrow lane, - But the sheep and oxen protected him with loving care. - He was placed in a wide forest, - Where he was met by the wood-cutters. - He was placed on the cold ice, - And a bird screened and supported him with its wings. - When the bird went away, - Hau Ki began to wail. - His cry was long and loud, - So that his voice filled the whole way. [450] - - -The ode goes on to tell that when Hau Ki grew up he promoted husbandry -and founded the sacrifices of his house. Some of the Osirian-Tammuz -traditions were attached to his memory, but, as Legge says, “he has not -displaced the older Shan-nung, with whom, on his father’s side, he had -a connection as ‘the Father of Husbandry’”. [451] - -Before Wu became Emperor, a red man came out of the river to secure the -support of allies, and phœnixes brought messages to the effect that the -reigning dynasty was doomed. The empire could not be enjoyed by the -Shang King; “the powerful spirits of the earth have left it; all the -spirits are whisked away; the conjunction of the five planets in Fang -brightens all within the four seas”. [452] King Wen, the father of Wu, -to whom this revelation had been made, was a ruler in the west, and -knew that his son’s mission in life was the regeneration of the empire. - - - The dynasties of Hsia (Hea) and Shang - Had not satisfied God with their government; - So throughout the various States - He sought and considered - For a State on which he might confer the rule. - - God said to King Wen: - I am pleased with your conspicuous virtue, - Without noise and without display, - Without heat and without change, - Without consciousness of effort, - Following the pattern of God. - - God said to King Wen: - Take measures against hostile States, - Along with your brethren, - Get ready your engines of assault, - To attack the walls of Tsʼung. [453] - - -After Wu became the Emperor the worship of ancestors was promoted, and -dragons, tortoises, and phœnixes made regular appearances, while -vegetation flourished, and the mugwort grew so plentifully that a -palace could be erected from it. - -After Wu died spirit-birds appeared, and a mysterious bean, which was -an elixir, grew up. The Crown Prince was still a minor, and for seven -years the Duke of Chou acted as regent. Accompanied by the young king -the duke visited the Ho and the Lo. The king dropped a gem into the -water, and after day declined “rays of glory came out and shrouded all -the Ho (Yellow River), and green clouds came floating in the sky. A -green dragon came to the altar, and went away. They did the same at the -Lo, and the same thing happened.” A tortoise appeared, and on its shell -were writings that told of the fortunes of the empire till the -dynasties of Tsʼin and Han. [454] - -The tortoise-shell and stalks of a variety of grass were long used in -China for purposes of divination. What the tortoise and the grass -revealed was supposed to be the will of the spirits. Nowadays lots are -drawn, spirit-writing is believed in, and revelations are supposed to -be made when a bean symbol is tossed in the air, as is a coin in the -West; when the flat side is uppermost the tosser is supposed to receive -a refusal to his prayer. - -The Chou Dynasty was founded, according to Chinese dating, in 1122 -B.C., and lasted until 249 B.C. It has been suggested that although the -Chous claimed to be descended from one of Shun’s ministers, they were -really foreigners partly or wholly of Tartar origin. King Wu introduced -the sacrifice of human beings to the spirits of ancestors, and favoured -the magicians, whom he appointed to high positions in his court. His -empire consisted of a confederacy of feudal states, and its strength -endured so long as the central state remained sufficiently powerful to -exact tribute. - -After holding sway for about eight hundred years, the Chou Dynasty, and -with it the Feudal Age, came to an end. The State of Chin or Tsʼin, -which had been absorbing rival states, became so powerful that, in 221 -B.C., its king, Shih-huang-ti, became the first Emperor of China. He -resolved that the future history of China should begin with himself, -and issued a decree commanding that all existing literature should be -burned, except medical and agricultural books, and those dealing with -divination. Those who disobeyed his order and attempted to conceal the -forbidden books were put to death. Fortunately, however, some devoted -scholars succeeded in preserving for posterity a number of the classics -which would otherwise have perished. This extraordinary decree has cast -a shadow over the fame of the first emperor, who was undoubtedly a -great man. - -During the early years of the Chin or Tsʼin Dynasty the Great Wall to -the west and north of China was constructed, so as to protect the -empire against the barbarians who were wont to raid and pillage the -rich pastoral and agricultural lands, and impose their sway on the -industrious Chinese. “The building of the Great Wall”, says Kropotkin, -“was an event fraught with the greatest consequences, and one may say -without exaggeration that it contributed powerfully to the premature -downfall of the Roman Empire.” The Mongolian and Turki peoples who had -been attempting to subdue China were forced westward, and tribal and -racial movements were set in motion that ultimately led to the -invasions of Europe by nomadic fighting pastoralists from Asia. [455] - -The Great Wall is said to have been built in ten years in a straight -line of about 1200 miles, the average width at the base being 25 feet, -and the average height 30 feet. Strong “block-house” towers were -constructed in the wall for the accommodation of bodies of troops. - -It was during this Dynasty that China and related forms of that name, -based on “Tsʼin” or “Chin”, came into use in the west. The dynasties -that followed the Chin or Tsʼin (221–200 B.C.) are as follows: - - - The Han Dynasty 200 B.C. – 200 A.D. - The Minor Dynasties 200 A.D. – 600 ,, - The Tʼang Dynasty 600 ,, – 900 ,, - The Sung Dynasty 900 ,, – 1200 ,, - The Mongol Dynasty 1200 ,, – 1368 ,, - The Ming Dynasty 1368 ,, – 1644 ,, - The Manchu Dynasty 1644 ,, – 1900 ,, - - -The evidence afforded by Chinese archæology, and Chinese religious -beliefs, symbols, and customs tends to emphasize that the early -inhabitants of Shensi province were strongly influenced by -culture-drifts from the mid-Asian colonies of the ancient -civilizations. Hunting and pastoral peoples adopted the agricultural -mode of life, and with it the elements of a complex civilization which -had its origin in those areas where grew wild the cereals first -cultivated by man. - -The Chinese are a mixed race. In the north the oblique-eyed, -yellow-skinned element predominates. Like the Semites, who overran -Sumeria and adopted Sumerian modes of thought and life, so did the -Mongoloid tribes overrun northern China and became a sedentary people. -Petty kingdoms grew up, and in time found it necessary to unite against -the hordes who invaded and plundered their lands. The invaders included -Siberian nomads, Manchus, Mongolo-Turki peoples, the Sacæ (western -Scythians), and the blue-eyed Usuns or Wusuns who are believed to have -been congeners of the kurgan-builders of southern Siberia and southern -Russia. It was against Manchus and Mongols that the Great Wall was -erected, after northern China had been united as a result of those -conquests which made petty kings over-lords of ever-widening areas. -During the Han Dynasty southern China was subdued. There the -brownish-skinned Man-tze stock is most in prominence. Ancient -Indonesian intrusions have left their impress on the racial blend. - -Along the sea-coasts of China the sea-traders exercised their -influence, and in time their mode of life was adopted by the conquerors -from the inland parts of the growing empire. The types of vessels used -by the ancient Egyptians, the Phœnicians, the peoples of the Persian -Gulf, the Indians, Burmese, Indonesians, and Polynesians became common -on the Chinese coast and rivers. Maritime enterprise was stimulated, as -we have seen, by the Far Eastern Columbuses who searched for the elixir -of life and the fabled “Islands of the Blest”. “The Chinese,” writes -Mr. Kebel Chatterton, “in their own independent way went on developing -from the early Egyptian models (of ships), and have been not inaptly -called the Dutchmen of the east in their nautical tendencies.” [456] It -is believed that they were the inventors of the rudder, which took the -place of the ancient steering-oar. - -Along their coastal sea-routes the Chinese were brought into touch with -southern peoples, with whom they traded. Chinese records throw light on -the articles that were in demand at markets. “In Nan-čao”, [457] an -ancient text reveals, “there are people from Pʼo-lo-men (Burma), Pose -(Malay), Še-po (Java), Pʼo-ni (Borneo), Kʼun-lun (a Malayan country), -and of many other heretic tribes, meeting at one trading-mart, where -pearls and precious stones in great number are exchanged for gold and -musk.” [458] The early traders by sea and land attached great -importance to medicines and elixirs, and precious stones and metals, -and pearls. - -The overland trade-routes through Iran brought the Chinese into direct -touch with Lesser Fu-lin (Syria), and ultimately with Greater Fu-lin -(the Byzantine Empire). The vine and other plants with ancient -religious associations were imported into China, and the Chinese peach -tree reached Europe. With the peach went silk. “It is not impossible,” -says Laufer, “that these two gifts were transmitted by the -silk-dealers, first to Iran (in the second or first century B.C.), and -thence to Armenia, Greece, and Rome (in the first century A.D.).” [459] - -As the cuckoos hatched in the nests of hedge-sparrows, meadow-pipits, -and wagtails overcome and eject the offspring of their foster-parents, -so did the vigorous nomadic peoples who absorbed the elements of -ancient civilizations overcome and eject the offspring of their -“foster-parents”. The Babylonian Empire perished, and Irania, which had -been stimulated by it to adopt civilized conditions of life, became, in -turn, the nursery of vigorous states. Recent discoveries have brought -to light evidence which shows that the Iranian peoples “once covered an -immense territory, extending all over Chinese Turkestan, migrating into -China, coming into contact with the Chinese, and exerting a profound -influence on nations of other stock, notably Turks and Chinese. The -Iranians were the great mediators between the West and the East, -conveying the heritage of Hellenistic ideas to central and eastern -Asia, and transmitting valuable plants and goods of China to the -Mediterranean area.” [460] - -The laws of supply and demand operated then as now on the trade-routes, -which brought communities of regular traders into touch after they had -cultivated plants or manufactured articles to offer in exchange for -what they received. Before these routes could, however, have hummed -with commerce, a considerable advance in civilization had to be -achieved. States had to be organized and laws enforced for the -protection of property and property owners. - -The Iranians, who obtained silk from China, were not the originators of -the culture represented by this commodity; they simply stimulated the -demand for silk. Chinese civilization dates back to the time when the -early prospectors and explorers came into touch with backward peoples, -and introduced new modes and conditions of life. These pioneers did not -necessarily move along the routes that were ultimately favoured by -merchants, nor even those followed by migrating tribes in quest of -green pastures. They wandered hither and thither searching for gold and -gems and herbs, sowing as they went the seeds of civilization, which -did not, however, always fall on good ground. But in those places where -the seed took root and the prospects of development were favourable, -organized communities gradually grew up with an assured food-supply. -This was the case in Shensi province, in which was settled the “little -leaven” that ultimately “leavened the whole lump” of northern China. It -was after the empire became united under the Tsʼin Dynasty that -organized trade with the west assumed great dimensions, and was -regularly maintained under assured protection. - -Myths as well as herbs and gems and garments were exchanged by traders. -With the glittering jewel was carried the religious lore associated -with it; with the curative herb went many a fable of antiquity. Laufer -has shown in his The Diamond how Hellenistic lore connected with that -gem crept into Chinese writings. It is consequently possible to trace -in the mosaic of Chinese beliefs and mythology certain of the cultural -elements that met and blended and were developed on the banks of the -Yellow River. - -Elixirs and charms were in great demand in all centres of ancient -civilizations. It can be held, therefore, that behind the commerce of -early times, as behind the early religious systems, lay the haunting -dread of death. Gems warded off evil, and imparted vitality to those -who possessed them, and curative herbs renewed youth by restoring -health. Even the dead were benefited by them. Progress was thus, in a -sense, increasing efficiency in the quest of longevity in this world -and the next. - -In China, as elsewhere, the dread of death, as expressed in the -religious system, promoted the arts and crafts; artists, engravers, -architects, builders, jewellers, and scribes, as well as priests and -traders, were engaged in the unceasing conflict against the all-dreaded -enemy of mankind, the God of Death. The incentive that caused men to -undertake perilous journeys by land and sea in quest of elixirs, to -live laborious lives in workshops and temples, and to grasp at the -mythical straws of hope drifted along trade-routes from other lands, -was the same as that which sent the Babylonian Gilgamesh to explore the -dark tunnel of the Mountain of Mashu and cross the Sea of Death, and it -is found on the ninth tablet of the most ancient epic in the world: - - - Gilgamesh wept bitterly, and he lay stretched out upon the ground. - He cried: “Let me not die like Ea-bani! - Grief hath entered into my body, and - I fear death....” [461] - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -MYTHS AND DOCTRINES OF TAOISM - - Taoism and Buddhism—The Tao—Taoism and Confucianism—Lao Tze and - Osiris—The “Old Boy” Myth—Lao Tze goes West—Kwang Tze—Prince who - found the Water of Life—The “Great Mother” in Taoism—Taoism and - Egyptian Ptahism—Doctrine of the Logos—Indian Doctrines in - China—Taoism and Brahmanism—Metal Searchers as Carriers of Egyptian - and Babylonian Cultures—The Tao and Water—The Tao as “Mother of All - Things”—Fertilizing Dew and Creative Tears—The Tao and Artemis—The - Gate Symbol—Tao and Good Order—The World’s Ages in Taoism—Taoists - rendered Invulnerable like Achilles, &c.—The Tao as the Elixir of - Life—Breathing Exercises—The Impersonal God—Lao Tze and Disciples - deified and worshipped. - - -There are three religions in China, or, as native scholars put it, -“three Teachings”, namely Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Pure -Taoism, as taught by Lao Tze, is, like the Buddhism of its founder, -Siddhartha Gautama, metaphysical and mystical. It is similarly based on -a vague and somewhat bewildering conception of the origin of life and -the universe; it recognizes a creative and directing force which, at -the beginning, caused Everything to come out of Nothing. This force, -when in action, is called the Tao. It is so called from the time when -it began to move, to create, to cause Unity to be. The Tao existed -before then, but it was nameless, and utterly incomprehensible. It -existed, some writers say, even when there was nothing. Others go the -length of asserting that it existed before there was nothing. We can -understand what is meant by “nothing”, but we cannot understand what -the Nameless was before it was manifested as the Tao. - -The Tao is not God; it is impersonal. Taoists must make unquestioning -submission to the Tao, which must be allowed to have absolute sway in -the individual, in society, in the world at large. Taoism does not, -like Buddhism, yearn for extinction, dissolution, or ultimate loss of -identity and consciousness in the nebulous Nirvana. Nor does it, like -Buddhism, teach that life is not worth living—that it is sorrowful to -be doomed to be reborn. Rather, it conceives of a perfect state of -existence in this world, and of prolonged longevity in the next. All -human beings can live happily if they become like little children, -obeying the law (Tao) as a matter of course, following in “the way” -(Tao) without endeavouring to understand, or having any desire to -understand, what the Tao is. The obedient, unquestioning state of mind -is reached by means of Inaction—mental Inaction. The Tao drifts the -meritorious individual towards perfection, out of darkness into light. -Those who submit to the Tao know nothing of ethical ideals; they are in -no need of definite beliefs. It is unnecessary to teach virtue when all -are virtuous; it is unnecessary to have rites and ceremonies when all -are perfect; it is unnecessary to be concerned about evil when evil -ceases to exist. The same idea prevailed among the Brahmanic sages of -India, whose Krita or Perfect Age was without gods or devils. Being -perfect, the people required no religion. - -Confucianism is not concerned with metaphysical abstractions, or with -that sense of the Unity of all things and all beings in the One, which -is summed up in the term “Mysticism”. It maintains a somewhat agnostic, -but not irreligious frame of mind, confessing inability to deal with -the spirit world, or to understand, or theorize about, its mysteries. -It recognizes the existence of God and of spirits. “Respect the -spirits,” said Confucius, “but keep them at a distance....” He also -said: “Wisdom has been imparted to me. If God were to destroy this -wisdom (his system of ethics) the generations to come could not inherit -it.” - -Whether or not Confucius ever heard of the system of Lao Tze is -uncertain. If he did, it certainly made no appeal to him. His own -system of instruction was intensely practical. It was concerned mainly -with ethical and political ideals—with political morality. He was no -believer in Inaction. The salvation of mankind, according to his -system, could be achieved by strict adherence to the ideals of right -living and right thinking, and a robust and vigorous application of -them in the everyday life of individuals and the State. - -The reputed founder or earliest teacher of Taoism was Lao Tze, about -whom little or nothing is known. He is believed to have been born in -604 B.C., and to have died soon after 532 B.C. Confucius was born in -551 B.C., and died in 479 B.C. There are Chinese traditions that the -two sages met on at least one occasion, but these are not credited by -Western or modern native Chinese scholars. Confucius makes no direct -reference to Lao Tze in his writings. - -Lao Tze [462] means “Old Boy”, as Osiris, in his Libyan form, is said -to mean the “Old Man”. [463] He was given this name by his followers, -because “his mother carried him in her womb for seventy-two years, so -that when he was at length cut out of it his hair was already white”. -Julius Cæsar was reputed to have been born in like manner; so was the -Gaelic hero, Goll MacMorna, who, as we gather from Dunbar, was known in -the Lowlands as well as the Highlands; the poet makes one of his -characters exclaim, - - - My fader, meikle Gow mas Mac Morn, - Out of his moderis (mother’s) wame was shorn. - - -The same legend clings to the memory of Thomas the Rhymer, who is -referred to in Gaelic as “the son of the dead woman” (mac na mna -marbh), because his mother died before the operation was performed. -Shakespeare’s Macduff “was from his mother’s womb untimely ripped”. -[464] - -It may be that this widespread birth-story had its origin in Egypt. -Plutarch, in his treatise on the Mystery of Osiris and Isis, tells that -Set (the ancient god who became a devil) was “born neither at the -proper time, nor by the right place”, but that he “forced his way -through a wound which he had made in his mother’s side”. - -Different forms of the legend are found in China. According to the -traditions preserved in the “Bamboo Books”, which are of uncertain -antiquity, the Emperor Yao was born fourteen months after he was -conceived, the Emperor Yu emerged from his mother’s back, and the -Emperor Yin from his mother’s chest. The Aryo-Indian hero, Karna, a -prominent figure in the Mahábhárata, emerged from one of his mother’s -ears; he was a son of Surya, the sun-god. - -According to Taoist lore (after Buddhism and Taoism were partly fused -in China), Lao Tze appeared from time to time in China during the early -dynasties in different forms, and with different names. He had the -personal knowledge of the decline of the influence of the Tao from the -Perfect Age. After Fu-hi and other sovereigns disturbed the harmonies -of heaven and earth, “the manners of the people, from being good and -simple, became bad and mean”. He came to cleanse the stream of -spiritual life at its source, and was ultimately reborn as Lao Tze, -under the Plum Tree of Longevity, having been conceived under the -influence of a star in the constellation of the Great Bear. Li (plum -tree) was his surname. - -Lao Tze is said to have held a position in the Royal Library of Kau. -When he perceived that the State showed signs of decadence, he resolved -to leave the world, like the Indian heroes, Yudhishthira and his -brothers. He went westwards, apparently believing, as did Confucius, -“that the Most Holy was to be found in the West”. On entering the pass -of Hsien-Ku (in modern Ling-pao, Ho-nan province) the Warden, Yin Hsi, -a Taoist, welcomed the sage and set before him a dish of tea. Lao Tze -sat down to drink tea with his friend. This was the beginning of the -tea-drinking custom between host and guest in China. [465] - -Said the Warden, “And so you are going into retirement. I pray you to -write me a book before you leave.” - -Lao Tze consented, and composed the Tao Teh King, [466] which is -divided into two parts, and contains over 5000 words. - -When he had finished writing, he gave the manuscript to the Warden, -bade him farewell, and went on his way. It is not known where he died. - -The most prominent of Lao Tze’s disciples was Kwang Tze, who lived in -the fourth century B.C. Sze-ma Khien, the earliest Chinese historian of -note, who died about 85 B.C., says that Kwang Tze wrote “with purpose -to calumniate the system of Confucius and exalt the mysteries of Lao -Tze”. But although he wrote much, “no one could give practical -application to his teaching”. Other famous Taoist writers were Han Fei -Tze, who committed suicide in 233 B.C., and Liu An, prince of Hwai-nan, -and grandson of the founder of the Han Dynasty, who took his own life -in 122 B.C., having become involved in a treasonable plot. - -Another form of the legend is that this prince discovered the Water of -Life. As soon as he drank of it, his body became so light that he -ascended to the Celestial Regions in broad daylight and was seen by -many. As he rose he let fall the cup from which he had drunk. His dogs -lapped up the water and followed him. Then his poultry drank from the -cup and likewise rose in the air and vanished from sight. Apparently it -was not only the poor Indians “with untutored minds” who thought their -dogs (not to speak of their hens) would be admitted to the “equal sky”, -there to bear them company. - -It is generally believed by Oriental scholars that both Taoism and -Confucianism are of greater antiquity than their reputed founders. -Confucius insisted that he was “a transmitter, not a maker”, and Lao -Tze is found to refer to “an ancient”, “a sage”, and “a writer on war”, -as if he had been acquainted with writings that have not come down to -us. - -There is internal evidence in the Taoistic texts of Lao Tze and Kwang -Tze that the idea of the Tao had an intimate association in early times -with the ancient Cult of the West—the cult of the mother-goddess who -had her origin in water. The priestly theorists instructed the -worshippers of the Great Mother that at the beginning she came into -existence as an egg, or a lotus bloom from which rose the Creator, the -sun-god, or that she was a Pot containing water from which all things -have come—the pot being the inexhaustible womb of Nature, and the -symbol of the Great Mother-goddess. - -But they themselves were not satisfied with this myth. They recognized -that there was at work at the beginning a force—a law which “opened the -way”, a phrase which may have had a physical significance but -ultimately became a mystical one. In Chinese Taoism, this force is the -Tao which is manifested in order, stability, and rightness; it is -Truth. - -The Ancient Egyptian philosophers believed, at as remote a time as the -Pyramid Texts period (c. 2500 B.C.), that everything had origin in -Mind. The Universe was the idea of Ptah, the “opener”; he conceived it -in his “Heart” (Mind); when he expressed the idea, the Universe came -into existence. - - - Ptah, the great, is the mind and tongue of the gods.... - It (the mind) is the one that bringeth forth every successful - issue. - It is the tongue which repeats the thought of the mind: - It (the mind) was the fashioner of all gods... - At a time when every divine word - Came into existence by the thought of the mind, - And the command of the tongue. [467] - - -Although Breasted first thought that this fragment was a survival from -the Empire period (c. 1500 B.C.), he has since become convinced, like -Erman, that it must, on the basis of orthography, be relegated to the -Pyramid Age. - -“Is there not here,” Breasted asks, “the primeval germ of the later -Alexandrian doctrine of the ‘Logos’?” [468] - -In India Brahma (neuter) was the World Soul, “that subtle essence” -which, according to the composers of the Upanishads, exists in -everything that is, but cannot be seen. The personal Brahma, as -Prajapati, arose, at the beginning, from this impersonal World Soul. -“Mind (or Soul, manas),” an Indian sage has declared, “was created from -the non-existent. Mind created Prajapati. Prajapati created offspring. -All this, whatever exists, rests absolutely on mind.” - -Another Indian sage writes: - - - “At first the Universe was not anything. There was neither sky, nor - earth, nor air. Being non-existent, it resolved, ‘Let me be.’ It - became fervent. From that fervour smoke was produced. It again - became fervent. From the fervour fire was produced. Afterwards the - fire became ‘rays’ [469] and the ‘rays’ condensed into a cloud, - producing the sea. A magical formula (Dasahotri) was created. - Prajapati is the Dasahotri.” - - -When the Rev. Dr. Chalmers of Canton translated the Taoist Texts into -English in 1868 [470], he wrote: “I have thought it better to leave the -word ‘Tao’ untranslated, both because it has given the name to the -sect—the Taoists—and because no English word is its exact equivalent. -Three terms suggest themselves—‘the Way’, ‘Reason’, and ‘the Word’; but -they are all liable to objection. Were we guided by etymology, ‘the -Way’ would come nearest to the original, and in one or two passages the -idea of a Way seems to be in the term; but this is too materialistic to -serve the purpose of a translation. ‘Reason’ again seems to be more -like a quality or attribute of some conscious Being than Tao is. I -would translate it by ‘the Word’ in the sense of the Logos, but this -would be like settling the question which I wish to leave open, viz. -what amount of resemblance there is between the Logos of the New -Testament and this Tao, which is its nearest representative in -Chinese.” - -The New Testament doctrine of the Logos may here be reproduced by way -of comparison, the quotation being from Dr. Weymouth’s idiomatic -translation, which may be compared with the authorized versions: [471] - - - In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the - Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things came - into being through Him, and apart from Him nothing that exists came - into being. In Him was Life, and that Life was the Light of men. - The Light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not - overpowered it. - - There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a - witness, in order that he might give testimony concerning the - Light—so that all might believe through him. He was not the Light, - but he existed that he might give testimony concerning the Light. - The true Light was that which illumines every man by its coming - into the world. He was in the world, and the world came into - existence through Him, and the world did not recognize Him. - - -The meaning of the word “Tao”, says Max Von Brandt, “has never been -explained or understood,” and he adds, “Like the Hellenistic ‘Logos’, -it is at once the efficient and the material cause.” [472] Professor G. -Foot Moore says, “Tao is literally ‘way’; like corresponding words in -many languages, ‘course’, ‘method’, ‘order’, ‘norm’.” [473] Archdeacon -Hardwick [474] was “disposed to argue” that the system of Taoism was -founded on the idea of “some power resembling the ‘Nature’ of modern -speculators. The indefinite expression ‘Tao’ was adopted to denominate -an abstract cause, or the initial principle of life and order, to which -worshippers were able to assign the attributes of immateriality, -eternity, immensity, invisibility.” - -Canon Farrar has written in this connection: “We have long personified -under the name of Nature the sum total of God’s law as observed in the -physical world; and now the notion of Nature as a distinct, living, -independent entity seems to be ineradicable alike from our literature -and our systems of philosophy.” [475] - -Dr. Legge comments on this passage: “But it seems to me that this -metaphorical use of the word ‘nature’ for the Cause and Ruler of it -implies the previous notion of Him, that is, of God, in the mind.” -[476] - -Dr. Legge notes that in Lao Tze’s treatise “Tao appears as the -spontaneously operating cause of all movement in the phenomena of the -universe.... Tao is a phenomenon, not a positive being, but a mode of -being.” [477] - -Others have rendered Tao as “God”. But “the old Taoists had no idea of -a personal God,” says Dr. Legge. - -De Groot [478] refers to Tao as “the ‘Path’, the unalterable course of -Nature,” and adds that the “reverential awe of the mysterious -influences of Nature is the fundamental principle of an ancient -religious system usually styled by foreigners Tao-ism.” - -The idea of the Chinese Tao resembles somewhat that of the Indian -Brahma (neuter). Lao Tze says: “It (Tao) was undetermined and -perfected, existing before the heaven and the earth. Peaceful was it -and incomprehensible, alone and unchangeable, filling everything, the -inexhaustible mother of all things. I know not its name, and therefore -I call it Tao. I seek after its name and I call it the Great. In -greatness it flows on for ever, it retires and returns. Therefore is -the Tao great.” - -In his chapter “The Manifestation of the Mystery”, Lao Tze says: - - - “We look at it (Tao), and we do not see it, and we name it ‘the - Equable’. - - “We listen to it, and we do not hear it, and we name it ‘the - Inaudible’. - - “We try to grasp it, and do not get hold of it, and we name it ‘the - Subtle’. - - “With these three qualities, it cannot be made the subject of - description; and hence we blend them together and obtain ‘The - One’.” - - -Some scholars, like Joseph Edkins and Victor von Strauss, have -contended that Lao Tze was attempting to express the ideas of Jehovah -in Hebrew theology. Others incline to the belief that the influence of -Indian Brahmanic speculations had reached China at an early period and -inaugurated the intuitional teaching found in Lao Tze’s treatise. - -The idea of the first cause had arisen in India before the close of the -Vedic Age. At the beginning: - - - There was neither existence nor non-existence, - The Kingdom of air, nor the sky beyond. - - What was there to contain, to cover, in— - Was it but vast, unfathomed depths of water? - - There was no death there, nor Immortality: - No sun was there, dividing day from night. - - Then was there only THAT, resting within itself. - Apart from it, there was not anything. - - At first within the darkness veiled in darkness, - Chaos unknowable, the All lay hid. - - Till straitway from the formless void made manifest - By the great power of heat was born the germ. [479] - - -The Great Unknown was by the later Vedic poets referred to by the -interrogative pronoun “What?” (Ka). - -In the Indian Khandogya Upanishad, the sage tells a pupil to break open -a fruit. He then asks, “What do you see?” and receiving the reply, -“Nothing”, says, “that subtle essence which you do not perceive there, -of that very essence this great Nyagrodha tree exists. Believe me, my -son, that which is the subtle essence, in it all that exists has -itself. It is the True. It is self; and thou, my son, art it.” [480] - -The idea of the oneness and unity of all things is the basic principle -of mysticism. - - - There is true knowledge. Learn thou it is this: - To see one changeless Life in all the lives, - And in the Separate, One Inseparable. [481] - - -Dr. Legge in his commentary on The Texts of Taoism, asks his readers to -mark well the following predicates of the Tao: - - - “Before there were heaven and earth, from of old, there It was - securely existing. From It came the mysterious existence of - spirits; from It the mysterious existence of Ti (God). It produced - heaven. It produced earth.” [482] - - -Lao Tze had probably never been in India, but that passage from his -writings might well have been composed by one of the Brahmanic sages -who composed the Upanishads. - -The explanation may be that in Brahmanism and Taoism we have traces of -the influence of Babylonian and Egyptian schools of thought. No direct -proof is available in this connection. It is possible, however, that -the ancient sages who gave oral instruction to their pupils were the -earliest missionaries on the trade-routes. The search for wealth had, -as has been shown, a religious incentive. It is unlikely, therefore, -that only miners and traders visited distant lands in which precious -metals and jewels were discovered. Expeditions, such as those of the -Egyptian rulers that went to Punt for articles required in the temples, -were essentially religious expeditions. It was in the temples that the -demand for gold and jewels was stimulated, and each temple had its -workshops with their trade secrets. The priests of Egypt were the -dyers, and they were the earliest alchemists [483] of whom we have -knowledge. Such recipes as are found recorded in the Leyden papyrus -were no doubt kept from the common people. - -Associated with the search for metals was the immemorial quest of the -elixir of life, which was undoubtedly a priestly business—one that -required the performance of religious ceremonies of an elaborate -character. Metals and jewels, as we have seen, as well as plants, -contained the “soul substance” that was required to promote health and -to ensure longevity in this world and in the next. It was, no doubt, -the priestly prospectors, and not the traders and working miners, who -first imparted to jade its religious value as a substitute for gold and -jewels. - -When the searchers for wealth introduced into India and China the god -Ptah’s potter’s wheel they may well have introduced too the doctrine of -the Logos, found in the pyramid-age Ptah hymn quoted above, in which -the World Soul is the “mind” of the god, and the active principle “the -tongue” that utters “the Word”. - -If they did so—the hypothesis does not seem to be improbable—it may be -that as Buddhism was in India mixed with Naga worship, and was imported -into Tibet and China as a fusion of metaphysical speculations and crude -idolatrous beliefs and practices, the priestly philosophies of Egypt -and Babylonia were similarly associated with the debris of primitive -ideas and ceremonies when they reached distant lands. As a matter of -fact, it is found that in both these culture centres this fusion was -maintained all through their histories. Ptah might be the “Word” to the -priests, but to the common people he remained the artisan-god for -thousands of years—the god who hammered out the heavens and set the -world in order—a form of Shu who separated the heavens from the earth, -as did Pʼan Ku in China. - -In India and China, as in ancient Egypt, the doctrine of the Logos, in -its earliest and vaguest form, was associated with the older doctrine -that life and the universe emerged at the beginning from the womb of -the mother-goddess, who was the active principle in water, or the -personification of that principle. - -In one of the several Indian creation myths, Prajapati emerges, like -the Egyptian Sun-god Horus, from the lotus-bloom floating on the -primordial waters. The lotus is the flower form of the Great Mother, -who in Egypt is Hathor. - -Another myth tells that after the heat caused the rays to arise, and -the rays caused a cloud to form, and the cloud became water, the -Self-Existent Being (here the Great Father) created a seed. He flung -the seed into the waters, and it became a golden egg. From the egg came -forth the personal Brahma (Prajapati). [484] Because Brahma came from -the waters (Narah), and they were his first home or path (ayana), he is -called Narayana. [485] - -Here we have the “path” or “way”, the Chinese Tao in one of its phases. - -When the Tao (neuter) became “active”, it did not manifest itself as a -Great Father, however, but as a Great Mother. The passive Tao is -nameless; the active Tao has a name. Lao Tze’s great treatise, The Tao -Teh King, opens: - - - “The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao. - The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name, - (Conceived of as) having no name, it is the Originator of heaven - and earth; - (Conceived of as) having a name, it is the Mother of all things.” - [486] - - -The creation myths embedded in the writings of Lao Tze are exceedingly -vague. - - - “The Tao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three - produced All things. All things leave behind them the Obscurity - (out of which they have come), and go forward to embrace the - Brightness (into which they have emerged), while they are - harmonized by the Breath of Vacancy.” [487] - - -Another passage seems to indicate that the One, first produced, was the -Mother, and that the two produced by her were Heaven and Earth—the god -of the sky and the goddess of the earth: - - - “Heaven and Earth (under the guidance of Tao) unite together and - send down the sweet dew, which, without the direction of men, - reaches equally everywhere as of its own accord.” [488] - - -The fertilizing dew, like the creative tears of Egyptian and Indian -deities, gave origin to earth and its plants, and to all living things. -But no such details are given by Lao Tze. He is content to suggest that -the Tao as “the Honoured Ancestor” appears to have been before God. - -In his chapter, “The Completion of Material Forms”, he refers to the -female valley spirit. “The valley,” says Legge, “is used metaphorically -as a symbol of ‘emptiness’ or ‘vacancy’, and the ‘spirit of the valley’ -is ‘the female mystery’—the Tao which is ‘the mother of all things’.” - -Chalmers renders Chapter VI as follows: - - - “The Spirit (like perennial spring) of the Valley never dies. This - (Spirit) I call the abyss-mother. The passage of the abyss-mother I - call the root of heaven and earth. Ceaselessly it seems to endure, - and it is employed without effort.” - - -Dr. Legge’s rendering is in verse: - - - The valley spirit dies not, aye the same; - The female mystery thus do we name. - Its gate, from which at first they issued forth, - Is called the root from which grew heaven and earth. - Long and unbroken does its power remain, - Used gently, and without the touch of pain. [489] - - -The symbolism of this short chapter is of special interest, and seems -to throw light on the origin of the myths that were transformed by Lao -Tze into philosophical abstractions. We find the “female mystery” or -“abyss mother” is at once a gate (or passage) and a “root”. The Greek -goddess Artemis was both. She was the guardian of the portals, and was -herself the portals; she was the giver of the mugwort (the Chinese knew -it), and was herself the mugwort (Artemisia), as Dr. Rendel Harris has -shown. [490] She opened the gate of birth as the goddess of birth, her -“key” being the mugwort, and she opened the portal of death as the -goddess of death. As the goddess of riches she guarded the door of the -treasure-house, and she possessed the “philosopher’s stone”, which -transmuted base metals into gold. Artemis was a form of the Egyptian -Hathor, Aphrodite being another specialized form. Hathor was associated -with the lotus and other water plants, and was Nub, the lady of gold, -who gave her name to Nubia; she was the goddess of miners, and -therefore of the Sinaitic peninsula; she was the “gate” of birth and -death. The monumental gateways of Egypt, India, China, and Japan appear -to have been originally goddess portals. [491] - -The goddess of the early prospectors and miners was, as has been said, -a water-goddess. In the writings of Lao Tze, his female and active Tao, -“the Mother of all Things”, is closely associated with water. The -chapter entitled “The Placid and Contented Nature” refers to water, and -water as “an illustration of the way of the Tao, is”, Dr. Legge -comments, “repeatedly employed by Lao Tze”. - - - “The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of - water appears in its benefiting all things.” [492] - - -Lao Tze, dealing with “The Attribute of Humility”, connects “water” -with “women”: - - - “What makes a great state is its being (like a low-lying - down-flowing stream); it becomes the centre to which tend (all the - small states) under heaven. - - “(To illustrate from) the case of all females:—the female always - overcomes the male by her stillness.” [493] - - -Water is soft, but it wears down the rocks. - - - “The softest thing in the world dashes against and overcomes the - hardest; that which has no (substantial) existence enters where - there is no crevice.” [494] - - -The Tao acts like water, and (The Tao) “which originated all under the -sky is”, Lao Tze says, “to be considered as the mother of all of them. -When the mother is found, we know what her children should be.” [495] - -A passage which has puzzled commentators is, - - - “Great, it (the Tao) passes on (in constant flow). Passing on, it - becomes remote. Having become remote, it returns. Therefore the Tao - is great.” [496] - - -The reference may be to the circle of water which surrounds the world. -It is possible Lao Tze had it in mind, seeing that he so often compares -the action of the Tao to that of water—the Tao that produces and -nourishes “by its outflowing operation”. - -Like “soul substance”, the Tao is found in all things that live, and in -all things that exercise an influence on life. The Tao is the absolute, -or, as the Brahmanic sages declared, the “It” which cannot be seen—the -“It” in the fruit of the tree, the “It” in man. Lao Tze refers to the -“It” as the “One”. - -In his chapter, “The Origin of the Law”, he writes: - - - The things which from of old have got the One (the Tao) are: - - Heaven, which by it is bright and pure; - Earth endowed thereby firm and sure; - Spirits with powers by it supplied; - Valleys kept full throughout their void; - All creatures which through it do live; - Princes and Kings who from it get - The model which to all they give. [497] - - -The Tao may produce and nourish all things and bring them to maturity, -but it “exercises no control over them”. [498] - -Man must begin by taking control of himself: he must make use of the -light that is within him. The wise man “does not dare to act” of his -accord. When he has acted so that he reaches a state of inaction, the -Tao will then drift him into a state of perfection. He must guard the -mother (Tao) in himself by attending to the breath. “The management of -the breath,” says Dr. Legge, “is the mystery of the esoteric Buddhism -and Taoism.” [499] “When one knows,” Tao Tze has written, “that he is -his mother’s child, and proceeds to guard (the qualities of) the mother -that belongs to him, to the end of his life he will be free from peril. -Let him keep his mouth closed, and shut up the portals (of his -nostrils), and all his life he will be exempt from laborious exertion.” -[500] - -By giving “undivided attention to the breath” (the vital breath), and -bringing it “to the utmost degree of pliancy”, he “can become as a -(tender) babe. When he has cleansed away the most mysterious sights (of -his imagination), he can become without a flaw.” [501] - -The doctrine of Inaction pervades the teaching of Lao Tze, which is -quite fatalistic. Salvation depends on the individual and the state -allowing the Tao to “flow” freely. - - - “If the Empire is governed according to Tao, evil spirits will not - be worshipped as good ones. - - “If evil spirits are not worshipped as good ones, good ones will do - no injury. Neither will the Sages injure the people. Each one will - not injure the other. And if neither injures the other, there will - be mutual profit.” - - -A native commentator writes in this connection: - - - “Spirits do not hurt the natural. If people are natural, spirits - have no means of manifesting themselves, and if spirits do not - manifest themselves, we are not conscious of their existence as - such. Likewise, if we are not conscious of the existence of spirits - as such, we must be equally unconscious of the existence of - inspired teachers as such; and to be unconscious of the existence - of spirits and of inspired teachers is the very essence of Tao.” - [502] - - -The scholarly sage thus reached the conclusion that it is a blessed -thing to know nothing, to be ignorant. Good order is necessary for the -workings of the Tao, and good order is secured by abstinence from -action, and by keeping the people in a state of simplicity and -ignorance, so that they may be restful and child-like in their -unquestioning and complete submission to the Tao. “The state of -vacancy,” says Lao Tze, “should be brought to the utmost degree.... -When things (in the vegetable world) have displayed their luxuriant -growth, we see each of them return to its root. This returning to their -root is what we call the state of stillness.” [503] - -There would be no virtues if there were no vices, no robberies if there -were no wealth. - -“If,” the Taoists argued, “we would renounce our sageness and discard -our wisdom, it would be better for the people a hundredfold. If we -could renounce our benevolence and discard our rightness, the people -would again become filial and kindly. If we could renounce our artful -contrivances and discard our scheming for gain, there would be no -thieves and robberies.” [504] - -Here we meet with the doctrine of the World’s Ages, already referred -to. Men were perfect to begin with, because, as Lao Tze says, “they did -not know they were ruled”. “In the age of perfect virtue,” Kwang Tze -writes, “they attached no value to wisdom.... They were upright and -correct, without knowing that to be so was righteousness; they loved -one another, without knowing that to do so was benevolence; they were -honest and leal-hearted without knowing that it was loyalty; they -fulfilled their engagements, without knowing that to do so was good -faith; in their simple movements they employed the services of one -another, without thinking that they were conferring or receiving any -gift. Therefore their actions left no trace, and there was no record of -their affairs.” - -To this state of perfection, Lao Tze wished his fellow-countrymen to -return. - -That the idea of the Tao originated among those who went far and wide, -searching for the elixir of life, is suggested by Lao Tze’s chapter, -“The Value Set on Life”. He refers to those “whose movements tend to -the land (or place) of death”, and asks, “For what reason?” The answer -is, “Because of their excessive endeavours to perpetuate life”. - -He continues: - - - “But I have heard that he who is skilful in managing the life - entrusted to him for a time travels on the land without having to - shun rhinoceros or tiger, and enters a host without having to avoid - buff coat or sharp weapon. The rhinoceros finds no place in him - into which to thrust its horn, nor the tiger a place in which to - fix its claws, nor the weapon a place to admit its point. And for - what reason? Because there is in him no place of death.” [505] - - -It would appear that Lao Tze was acquainted not only with more ancient -writers regarding the Tao, but with traditions regarding heroes -resembling Achilles, Siegfried, and Diarmid, whose bodies had been -rendered invulnerable by dragon’s blood, or the water of a river in the -Otherworld; or, seeing that each of these heroes had a spot which was a -“place of death”, with traditions regarding heroes who, like El Kedir, -plunged in the “Well of Life” and became immortals, whose bodies could -not be injured by man or beast. The El Kedirs of western Asia and -Europe figure in legends as “Wandering Jews” or invulnerable heroes, -including those who, like Diarmid, found the “Well of Life”, and those -who had knowledge of charms that rendered them invisible or protected -them against wounds. The Far Eastern stories regarding the inhabitants -of the “Islands of the Blest”, related in a previous chapter, may be -recalled in this connection. Having drunk the waters of the “Well of -Life” and eaten of the “fungus of immortality”, they were rendered -immune to poisons, and found it impossible to injure themselves. When, -therefore, we find Lao Tze referring to men who had no reason to fear -armed warriors or beasts of prey, it seems reasonable to conclude that -these were men who had found and partaken of the elixir of life, or had -accumulated “stores of vitality” by practising breathing exercises and -drinking charmed water, or by acquiring “merit”, like the Indian -ascetics who concentrated their thoughts on Brahma (neuter). - -In the chapter, “Returning to the Root”, in his Tao Teh King, Lao Tze -appears to regard the Tao as a preservative against death. He who in -“the state of vacancy” returns to primeval simplicity and perfectness -achieves longevity through the workings of the Tao. - - - “Possessed of the Tao, he endures long; and to the end of his - bodily life is exempt from all danger of decay.” [506] - - -Here the Tao acts like the magic water that restores youth. It is “soul -substance”, and is required by the Chinese gods as Idun’s apples are -required by the Norse gods. Says Lao Tze: - - - “Spirits of the dead receiving It (Tao) become divine; the very - gods themselves owe their divinity to its influence; and by It both - heaven and earth were produced”. [507] - - -There were floating traditions in China in Lao Tze’s time regarding men -who had lived for hundreds of years. One was “the patriarch Phăng”, who -is referred to by Confucius [508] as “our old Phăng”. It was told that -“at the end of the Shang Dynasty (1123 B.C.) he was more than 767 years -old, and still in unabated vigour”. We read that during his lifetime he -lost forty-nine wives and fifty-four sons; and that, after living for -about 1500 years, he died and left two sons, Wu and I, who “gave their -names to the Wu-i or Bu-i Hills, from which we get our Bohea tea”. -[509] - -Kwang Tze refers to Phăng. But instead of telling that he had -discovered and partaken of the elixir of life, as he must have done in -the original story, he says that he “got It (the Tao), and lived on -from the time of the lord Yu to that of the five chiefs”. [510] - -Others who got It (the Tao) in like manner were, according to Kwang -Tze, the prehistoric Shih-wei who “adjusted heaven and earth”, Fu-hsi -who “by It penetrated to the mystery of the maternity of the primary -matter”, the sage Hwang-Ti who “by It ascended the cloudy sky”, Fu -Yueh, chief minister of Wu-ting (1324–1264 B.C.), who got It and after -death mounted to the Eastern portion of the Milky Way, where, riding on -Sagittarius and Scorpio, he took his place among the stars. Various -spirits “imbibed” It likewise and owed their power and attributes to It -(the Tao). [511] - -Kwang Tze tells that a man once addressed a Taoist sage, saying, “You -are old, sir, while your complexion is like that of a child; how is it -so?” - -The reply was, “I have become acquainted with the Tao”. [512] - -Here the Tao is undoubtedly regarded as the elixir of life—as “soul -substance” that renews youth and promotes longevity. It was not, -however, a thing to eat and drink—the “plant of life” or “the water of -life”—but an influence obtained like the spiritual power, the “merit”, -accumulated by the Brahmanic hermits of India who practised “yogi”. As -the mystery of creation was repeated at birth when a new soul came into -existence, so did the Tao create new life when the devotee reached the -desired state of complete and unquestioning submission to its workings. - -There were some Taoists who, like the Brahmanic hermits, sought refuge -in solitary places and endeavoured to promote longevity by management -of the breath, adopting what Mr. Balfour has called a “system of mystic -and recondite calisthenics”. As we have seen, Lao Tze makes reference -to “breathing exercises”, but apparently certain of his followers -regarded the performance of these exercises as the sum and substance of -his teachings, whereas they were but an aid towards attaining the state -of mind which prepared the Taoist for submission to the Tao. Kwang Tze -found it necessary to condemn the practices of those “scholars” who, -instead of pursuing “the path of self cultivation”, endeavoured to -accumulate “the breath of life” so that they might live as long as the -patriarch Phăng. In his chapter, “Ingrained Ideas”, he writes: - - - “Blowing and breathing with open mouth; inhaling and exhaling the - breath; expelling the old breath and taking in new; passing their - time like the (dormant) bear, and stretching and twisting (the - neck) like a bird; all this simply shows the desire for longevity”. - [513] - - -The genuine devotees “enjoy their ease without resorting to the rivers -and seas”, they “attain to longevity without the management (of the -breath)”, they “forget all things and yet possess all things by -cultivating the qualities of placidity, indifference, silence, -quietude, absolute vacancy and non-action”. These qualities “are the -substance of the Tao and its characteristics”. [514] - -It seems undoubted, however, that the system of Lao Tze, whereby -“spiritual fluid” flowed into the placid, receptive mind, originated in -the very practices here condemned—in the quest of “soul substance” -contained in water, herbs, metals, and gems. As Indian and Chinese -sages retired to solitudes and endured great privations, so that they -might accumulate “merit”, so did the searchers for herbs, metals, and -gems penetrate desert wastes and cross trackless mountains, so as to -accumulate the wealth which was “merit” to them. They were inspired in -like manner by genuine religious enthusiasm. - -The Taoists never forgot the “Elixir”. Taoism began with the quest of -that elusive and mystical “It” which renewed youth and ensured -immortality, or prolonged longevity after death, and the later Taoists -revived or, perhaps one should say, perpetuated the search for “the -Water of Life”, and the “Plant of Life”, the “Peach of 3000 years”, or -“10,000 years”, the gem trees, gold, pearls, jade, &c. The fear of -death obsessed their minds. They wished to live as long as the -Patriarch Phăng on this earth, or to be transferred bodily to the -Paradise of the West, the Paradise of Cloudland or Star-land, or that -of the “Islands of the Blest”. Besides, it was necessary that the -earthly life should be prolonged so that they might make complete -submission to the Tao. Their lives had to be passed in tranquillity; -they were not to reflect on the past or feel anxiety regarding the -future. The fear of death in the future tended to disturb their peace -of mind, and they were therefore in need of water which, like the water -of Lethe, would make them forget their cares, or some other elixir that -would inspire them with confidence and give them strength. Kwang Tze -might censure the ascetics for confusing “the means” with “the end”, -but ordinary men have always been prone to attach undue importance to -ceremonies and rites—to concentrate their thoughts on the performance -of rites rather than in accumulating “merit”, and to believe that -“merit” can be accumulated by the performance of the rites alone. - -The explanation of the state of affairs censured by Kwang Tze seems to -be that the transcendental teachings of Lao Tze and himself, in which -the vague idea of the Logos was fused with belief in a vague elixir of -life, were incomprehensible not only to the masses but even to -scholars, and that the practices and beliefs of the older faith on -which Lao Tze founded his system were perpetuated by custom and -tradition by other adherents to the cult of which he was a teacher. -Ordinary men, who were not by temperament or mental constitution or -training either mystics or metaphysicians, required something more -concrete than the elusive Tao of Lao and Kwang; they clung to their -beliefs in the efficacy of life-prolonging herbs, jewels, metals, -coloured stones, water, fresh air, &c. Withal, they required something -to worship, having always been accustomed to perform religious -ceremonies and offer up sacrifices. They could not worship or sacrifice -to an abstraction like the Tao. Nor could they grasp the idea of an -impersonal God as expressed in the writings of Kwang Tze, who taught: - - - “God is a principle which exists by virtue of its own - intrinsicality, and operates spontaneously without - self-manifestation”. - - -The people clung to their belief in a personal God, or personal gods -including dragon-gods, and when the old deities believed in by their -ancestors were discredited by their teachers, they deified Lao Tze and -his disciples as the Indians deified Buddha and the Rishis. Lao Tze was -sacrificed to in the second century B.C., and a superb temple was -erected to him. One of the Emperors who embraced the Taoist faith -caused the statue of Lao Tze to be carried into his palace, with pomp -and ceremony. The ordinary priests in the temples of China were called -Taoists. - -When Buddhism began to exercise an influence in China between the third -century B.C. and the first century A.D., the Taoists borrowed from the -Buddhists, while the Buddhists, in turn, borrowed from the Taoists. The -myth then arose that when Lao Tze “went west”, he was reborn in India -as the Buddha. But the Taoists clung also to the older myth that after -Lao Tze died, he ascended to Cloudland and became the personal god of -heaven, Shang Ti, the Supreme and Divine Emperor. It was as Shang Ti, a -term which includes the spirits of deceased Emperors of China, he was -worshipped not only in temples but at domestic shrines, along with the -various groups of demi-gods, some of whom were identified with the -disciples of Lao Tze. The Chinese Shang Ti, like the ancient Egyptian -sun-god Ra and the Babylonian Marduk (Merodach), was the divine father -of the living monarch. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -CULTURE MIXING IN JAPAN - - Races and Archæological Ages—The “Pit-dwellers”—Ainu Myths and - Legends—Mummification—Sacred Animals, Herbs, and Trees—Ainu - Cosmogony—Ainu Deluge Legend—Pearl-lore in Japan—Mandrake in Korea, - Japan, and China—The Japanese “Dragon-Pearl” as Soul—Links with - America—Medicinal Herbs and Jewels—The “God-Body”—Sanctity of - Beads—The Coral, Shells, Coins, Fruit, and Feathers of - Luck-gods—Jade in Japan—No Jade Necklaces in China—Japanese - Imperial Insignia the Mirror, Sword, and Jewel—Shinto Temples and - Artemis Gateways—Mikado as Osiris—The Shinto Faith—Yomi—Food of the - Dead—The Souls of Mikados and Pharaohs—The Kami as Gods, &c.—Gods - of the Cardinal Points. - - -There was not only “culture” mixing but also a mixing of races in -ancient times throughout the Japanese Archipelago. Distinct racial -types can be detected in the present-day population. “Of these,” says -the Japanese writer, Yei Ozaki, [515] “the two known as the patrician -and the plebeian are the most conspicuous. The delicate oval face of -the aristocrat or Mongoloid, with its aquiline nose, oblique eyes, -high-arched eyebrows, bud-like mouth, cream-coloured skin, and slender -frame, has been the favourite theme of artists for a thousand years, -and is still the ideal of beauty to-day. The Japanese plebeian has the -Malayan cast of countenance, high cheek-bones, large prognathic mouth, -full, straight eyes, a skin almost as dark as bronze, and a robust, -heavily-boned physique. The flat-faced, heavy-jawed, hirsute Ainu type, -with luxuriant hair and long beards, is also frequently met with among -the Japanese. Such are the diverse elements which go to comprise the -race of the present time.” - -The oblique-eyed aristocrats—the Normans of Japan—appear to have come -from Korea, and to have achieved political ascendancy as a result of -conquest in the archæological “Iron Age”, when megalithic tombs of the -corridor type, covered with mounds, were introduced. [516] They brought -with them, in addition to distinctive burial customs, a heritage of -Korean religious beliefs and myths regarding serpent- or dragon-gods of -rivers and ocean, air and mountains. After coming into contact with -other peoples in Japan, their mythology grew more complex, and assumed -a local aspect. Chinese and Buddhist elements were subsequently added. - -There was no distinct “Bronze Age” in Japan. “Ancient bronze objects -are,” says Laufer, “so scarce in Japan, that even granted they were -indigenous, the establishment of a Bronze Age would not be justified, -nor is there in the ancient records any positive evidence of the use of -bronze.” [517] Although stone implements have been found, it is -uncertain whether there ever was, in the strict Western European sense, -a “Neolithic Age”. The earliest inhabitants of the islands could not -have reached them until after ships came into use in the Far East, and -therefore after the culture of those who used metals had made its -influence felt over wide areas. - -As we have seen (Chapter III), the most archaic ships in the Kamschatka -area in the north, and in the Malayan area in the south, were of -Egyptian type, having apparently been introduced by the early -prospectors who searched for pearls and precious stones and metals. In -the oldest Japanese writings, the records of ancient oral traditions, -gold and silver are referred to as “yellow” and “white” metals existing -in Korea, while bronze, when first mentioned, is called the “Chinese -metal” and the “Korean metal”. [518] “The bronze and iron objects found -in the ancient graves have simply,” says Laufer, “been imported from -the mainland, and plainly are, in the majority of cases, of Chinese -manufacture. Many of these, like metal mirrors, certain helmets, and -others, have been recognized as such; but through comparison with -corresponding Chinese material, the same can be proved for the rest.” -[519] At the beginning of our era, the Japanese, as the annals of the -Later Han Dynasty of China record, purchased iron in Korea. The Chinese -and Koreans derived the knowledge of how to work iron from the interior -of Siberia, the Turkish Yakut there being the older and better -iron-workers. [520] - -The racial fusion in ancient Japan was not complete. Although the -Koreans, Chinese, and Malayans intermarried and became “Japanese”, -communities of the Ainu never suffered loss of identity, and lived -apart from the conquerors and those of their kinsmen who were absorbed -by them. - -An outstanding feature of Japanese archæology is that Culture A appears -to have been a higher one than Culture B, which is represented by Ainu -artifacts. Culture A is that of a pre-Ainu people whom the Ainu found -inhabiting parts of the archipelago, and called the Koro-pok-guru. The -name signifies “the people having depressions”, and is usually rendered -by Western writers as “Pit-dwellers”. In the Japanese writings the -Koro-pok-guru are referred to as “the small people” and “earth -spiders”. - -During the winter season the Koro-pok-guru lived in pit-houses, with -conical or beehive roofs. The depth of these earth houses was greater -on slopes and exposed heights than on low-lying ground. In summer they -occupied beehive houses erected on the level. Their “kitchen-midden” -deposits have yielded pottery, including well-shaped vases, and -arrowheads of flint, obsidian, reddish jasper or dark siliceous rock. -Like the “pit-dwellers” of Saghalin and Kamschatka, the Koro-pok-guru -were seafarers and fishers. Their houses were erected on river banks -and along the sea coast. - -Culture B deposits are devoid of pottery. The Ainu have never been -potters; their bowls and spoons were in ancient times made of wood. -They claim to have exterminated the Koro-pok-guru, who appear to have -had affinities with the present inhabitants of the northern Kuriles, a -people of short stature, with roundish heads, the men having short, -thick beards, and being quite different in general appearance from the -“hairy Ainu” with long, flowing beards. Some communities of Ainu -present physical characteristics that suggest the blending in ancient -times of the “long beards” and “short beards”. The pure Ainu are the -hairiest people in the world. They are broad-headed and have brown eyes -and black beards, and are of sturdy build. Their tibia and humerus -bones are somewhat flat. In old age some resemble the inhabitants of -Great Russia. - -The Ainu [521] are hunters and fishers. Their women cultivate millet -(their staple food) and vegetables, and gather herbs and roots among -the mountains. According to their own traditions, they came from Sara, -which means a “plain”. Their “culture hero”, Okikurumi, descended from -heaven to a mountain in Piratoru, [522] having been delegated by the -Creator to teach the Ainu religion and law. Before this hero returned -to heaven, he married Turesh Machi, [523] and he left his son, -Waruinekuru, to instruct the Ainu “how to make cloth, to hunt and fish, -how to make poison and set the spring-bow in the trail of animals”. - -When Okikurumi first arrived among the Ainu, the crust of the earth was -still thin and “all was burning beneath”. It was impossible for people -to go a-hunting without scorching their feet. The celestial hero -arranged that his wife should distribute food, but made it a condition -that no human being would dare to look in her face. She went daily from -house to house thrusting in the food with her great hands. - -An inquisitive Ainu, of the “Peeping Tom” order, resolved to satisfy -his curiosity regarding the mysterious food-distributor. One morning he -seized her and pulled her into his house, whereupon she was immediately -transformed into a wriggling serpent-dragon. A terrible thunderstorm -immediately broke out, and the house of “Peeping Tom” was destroyed by -lightning. - -This is an interesting Far Eastern version of the Godiva legend [524] -of Coventry. - -Greatly angered by the breaking of the taboo, Okikurumi returned to the -celestial regions. His dragon-wife is not only a Godiva, but another -Far Eastern Melusina. [525] - -Okikurumi is said to have worn ear-rings. He had therefore a solar -connection. The Aryo-Indian hero, Karna, son of Surya, the sun-god, who -emerged from an ear of his human mother, Princess Pritha, was similarly -adorned at birth with ear-rings. The Ainu have from the earliest times -considered it essential that they should all wear ear-rings, and the -ears of males and females are bored in childhood. It was similarly a -ceremonial practice in ancient Peru to bore the ears of Inca princes. -Jacob objected to his wives wearing ear-rings, and buried those -so-called “ornaments” with the gods of Laban under an oak at Shechem. -[526] Bracelets and “ear-ornaments” were similarly favoured as -religious charms and symbols by the Ainu. - -It is of special interest to note that mummification was practised by -some Ainu tribes or families. Whether or not they acquired this custom -from the Koro-pok-guru is uncertain. Women tattooed their arms, their -upper and lower lips, and sometimes their foreheads. Tattooing and -mummification similarly obtained among the Aleutian Islanders. The same -peculiar methods of preserving corpses obtained among the Ainu, the -Aleutians, and certain Red Indian tribes of North America. [527] -Another link between the Old and New Worlds is afforded by -American-Asiatic bone plate armour. [528] - -Like the Ostiaks and other Siberian tribes, the Ainu worship the bear. -Their bear feasts are occasions for heavy drinking and much dancing and -singing. Drunkenness is to them “supreme bliss”. - -The bear-goddess was the wife of the dragon-god. She had a human lover, -and that is why bears, her descendants, “are half like a human being”. - -The salmon is divine, and its symbol is worshipped. Folk-tales are told -regarding salmon taking human shape, as do the seals in Scottish Gaelic -stories. As in China and Japan, the fox is the most subtle of all -beasts. It supplanted the tiger as chief god, according to an Ainu -folk-tale. There is a great tortoise-god in the sea and an owl-god on -the land, and their children have intermarried. The cock is of -celestial origin. It was, at the beginning, sent down from heaven by -the Creator to ascertain what the world looked like, but tarried for so -long a time, being well pleased with things, that it was forbidden to -return. Hares are mountain deities. - -The oldest trees are the oak and pine, and they are therefore sacred, -and the oldest and most sacred herb is the mugwort. In Kamschatka the -pine is associated with the mugwort. The mugwort is connected with -goddesses of the Artemis order. [529] Sacred, too, was the willow, and -specially sacred the mistletoe that grew on a willow tree. An elixir -prepared from the mistletoe was supposed to renew youth, and therefore -to prolong life and cure diseases. Siberians venerate the herb willow. -[530] The drink prepared from it was a soporific for human beings, wild -animals, and deities. Far Eastern deities had apparently to be soothed -as well as invoked as, it may be recalled, was Hathor-Sekhet in the -Egyptian “flood myth”, when she was given beer poured out from jars, so -that she might cease from slaughtering mankind. [531] - -When the Ainu performed religious ceremonies, shavings and whittled -sticks of willow were used, and libations of intoxicating liquors -provided. Deities were made drunk, as in Babylonia, [532] and then -provided with a soothing anti-intoxicant. The Ainu set up their willow -sticks at wells and around their dwellings. They had no temples, and -when they worshipped the sun, a shaven willow stick was placed at the -east end of a house. - -The moon-god came next in order to the sun-god. The fire-god was -invoked to cure disease. There was a subtle connection between fire and -mistletoe, perhaps because fire was obtained by friction of soft and -hard wood, and an intoxicating elixir prepared from a tree or its -parasite was believed to be “fire water”—that is, “water of life”. -Offerings were made to gods of ocean, rivers, and mountains. - -The world was supposed to be floating on and surrounded by water, and -to be resting on the spine of a gigantic fish which caused earthquakes -when it moved. There were two heavens—one above the clouds and another -in the Underworld. A hell, from which the volcanoes vomit fire, was -reserved for the wicked. - -Like the Chinese, the Ainu tell stories of visits paid to Paradise. A -man, whose wife had been spirited away, appealed to the oak-god, who -provided him with a golden horse on which he rode to the sky. He -reached a beautiful city in which people went about singing constantly. -They smelled a stranger, and, the smell being offensive to them, they -appealed to the chief god to give him his wife. The god promised to do -so if the visitor would agree to go away at once. He consented readily, -and returned to the oak-god, who told him his wife was in hell, and -that the place was now in confusion because the chief god had ordered a -search to be made for her. Soon afterwards the lost woman was restored -to her husband. This man was given the golden horse to keep, and all -the horses in Ainu-land are descended from it. - -Another man once chased a bear on a mountain side. The animal entered a -cave, and he followed it, passing through a long, dark tunnel. He -reached the beautiful land of the Underworld. Feeling hungry, he ate -grapes and mulberries, and, to his horror, was immediately transformed -into a serpent. He crawled back to the entrance and fell asleep below a -pine tree. In his dream the goddess of the tree appeared. She told him -he had been transformed into a serpent because he had eaten of the food -of Hades, and that, if he wished to be restored to human shape, he must -climb to the top of the tree and fling himself down. When he awoke, the -man-serpent did as the goddess advised. After leaping from the tree -top, he found himself standing below it, while near him lay the body of -a great serpent which had been split open. He then went through the -tunnel and emerged from the cave. But later he had another dream, in -which the goddess appeared and told him he must return to the -Underworld because a goddess there had fallen in love with him. He did -as he was commanded to do, and was never again seen on earth. - -A story tells of another Ainu who reached this Paradise. He saw many -people he had known in the world, but they were unable to see him. Only -the dogs perceived him, and they growled and barked. Catching sight of -his father and mother he went forward to embrace them, but they -complained of being haunted by an evil spirit, and he had to leave -them. - -The Ainu have a Deluge Myth which tells that when the waters rose the -vast majority of human beings were destroyed. Only a remnant escaped by -ascending to the summit of a high mountain. [533] - -Although the Ainu claimed to have exterminated the Koro-pok-guru, it is -possible that they really intermixed with them and derived some of -their religious ideas and myths from them, and that, in turn, the -Japanese were influenced by both Ainu and Koro-pok-guru ideas and -myths. The aniconic pillars and the female goddess with fish -termination (the Dragon Mother) figure in Japanese as well as Ainu -religion. Both are found in Kamschatka, too. Dr. Rendel Harris, -commenting on the pillar and fish-goddess idols of the Kamschatdals, -[534] recalls “the various fish forms of Greek and Oriental religions, -the Dagon and Derceto of the Philistines, the Oannes of the Assyrians, -[535] Eurynome of the Greek legends, and the like”. The pillar, -sometimes shown to be clad with ivy, links with the symbols of Hermes -and Dionysos. He adds: “The Kamschatdals and other Siberian tribes -manufacture for themselves intoxicating and stupefying drinks which -have a religious value, and are employed by their Shamans in order to -produce prophetic states of inspiration”. The Japanese manufactured -sake from rice with precisely the same motive, and, like the Ainu, -offered their liquor to the gods. - -What attracted the Koro-pok-guru and the Ainu to Japan? As we have seen -(Chapter III), the primary incentive for sea-trafficking and -prospecting by sea and land was the desire to obtain wealth in the form -of pearls, precious stones, and metals. Now, pearls are found round the -Japanese coasts. Marco Polo has recorded that in his day the people of -Japan practised the mortuary custom (obtaining also in China) of -placing pearls in the mouths of the dead. “In the Island of Zipangu -[536] (Japan),” he says, “rose-coloured pearls were abundant, and quite -as valuable as white ones.” Kaempfer, writing in the eighteenth -century, stated that the Japanese pearls were found in small varieties -of oysters (akoja) resembling the Persian pearl oyster, and also in -“the yellow snail-shell”, the taira gai (Placuna), and the awabi or -abalone (Haliotis). A pearl fishery formerly existed in the -neighbourhood of Saghalin Island. As pearls have from the earliest -times been fished from southern Manchurian rivers, in Kamschatka, and -on the south coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, it may be that the earliest -settlers in Japan were prehistoric pearl-fishers. It is of special -interest to note here that, according to G. A. Cooke, pearls and -ginseng (mandrake) were formerly Manchurian articles of commerce. [537] -The herbs and pearls were, as we have seen, regarded as “avatars” of -the mother-goddess. - -In Korea ginseng is cultivated under Government supervision. “It is”, -Mrs. Bishop writes, [538] “one of the most valuable articles which -Korea exports, and one great source of its revenue.” A basket may -contain ginseng worth £4000. “But,” she adds, “valuable as the -cultivated root is, it is nothing to the value of the wild, which grows -in Northern Korea, a single specimen of which has been sold for £40! It -is chiefly found in the Kang-ge Mountains, but it is rare, and the -search so often ends in failure, that the common people credit it with -magical properties, and believe that only men of pure lives can find -it.” The dæmon who is “the tutelary spirit of ginseng ... is greatly -honoured” (p. 243). A ready market is found in China for Korean -ginseng. “It is a tonic, a febrifuge, a stomachic, the very elixir of -life, taken spasmodically or regularly in Chinese wine by most Chinese -who can afford it” (p. 95). - -In Japan, ginseng, mushroom, and fungus are, like pearls, promoters of -longevity, and sometimes, says Joly, “masquerade as phalli”: they are -“Plants of Life” and “Plants of Birth”, like the plants searched for by -the Babylonian heroes Gilgamesh and Etana, and like the dragon-herbs of -China. [539] - -In Shinto, the ancient religion of the Japanese, prominence is given to -pearls and other precious jewels, and even to ornaments like artificial -beads, which were not, of course, used merely for personal decoration -in the modern sense of the term; beads had a religious significance. A -sacred jewel is a tama, a name which has deep significance in Japan, -because mi-tama is a soul, or spirit, or double. Mi is usually referred -to as an “honorific prefix” or “honorific epithet”, but it appears to -have been originally something more than that. A Japanese commentator, -as De Visser notes, has pointed out in another connection [540] that mi -is “an old word for snake”, that is, for a snake-dragon. Mi-tama, -therefore, may as “soul” or “double” be all that is meant by -“snake-pearl” or “dragon-pearl”. [541] The pearl, as we have seen, -contained “soul substance”, the “vital principle”, the blood of the -Great Mother, like the “jasper of Isis” worn by women to promote birth, -and therefore to multiply and prolong life; in China and Japan the -pearl was placed in the mouth of the dead to preserve the corpse from -decay and ensure longevity or immortality. The connection between -jewels and medicine is found among the Maya of Central America. Cit -Bolon Tun (the “nine precious stones”) was a god of medicine. The -goddess Ix Tub Tun (“she who spits out precious stones”) was “the -goddess of the workers in jade and amethysts”. She links with Tlaloc’s -wife. - -According to Dr. W. G. Aston [542] tama contains the root of the verb -tabu, “to give”, more often met with in its lengthened form tamafu. -“Tama retains its original significance in tama-mono, a gift thing, and -toshi-dama, a new year’s present. Tama next means something valuable, -as a jewel. Then, as jewels are mostly globular in shape, [543] it has -come to mean anything round. At the same time, owing to its precious -quality, it is used symbolically for the sacred emanation from God -which dwells in his shrine, and also for that most precious thing, the -human life or soul.... The element tama enters into the names of -several deities. The food-goddess is called either Ukemochi no Kami or -Uka no mi-tama.” Phallic deities are also referred to as mi-tama. The -mi-tama is sometimes used in much the same sense as the Egyptian Ka: it -is the spirit or double of a deity which dwells in a shrine, where it -is provided with a shintai (“god body”)—a jewel, weapon, stone, mirror, -pillow, or some such object. - -The jewels (tama) worn by gods and human beings were not, as already -insisted upon, merely ornaments, but objects possessing “soul -substance”. These are referred to in the oldest Shinto books. In -ancient Japanese graves archæologists have found round beads (tama), -“oblong perforated cylinders” or “tube-shaped beads” (kuda-tama), and -“curved” or “comma-shaped [544] beads” (maga-tama). According to W. -Gowland, “the stones of which maga-tama are made are rock-crystal, -steatite, jasper, agate, and chalcedony, and more rarely chrysoprase -and nephrite (jade)”. He notes that “the last two minerals are not -found in Japan”. [545] - -Henri L. Joly, writing on the tama, says [546] it is also “represented -in the form of a pearl tapering to a pointed apex, and scored with -several rings. It receives amongst other names Nio-i-Hojiu, and more -rarely of Shinshi, the latter word being used for the spherical jewel, -one of the three relics left to Ninigi no Mikoto [547] by his -grandmother, Amaterâsu. [548] The necklace of Shinshi, mentioned in the -traditions, was lost, and in its place a large crystal ball, some three -or four inches in diameter, is kept and carried by an aide-de-camp of -the Emperor on State occasions.” - - -[**ERROR: Contains unhandled entity &c.;] -The pearl (tama) is “one of the treasures of the Takaramono, a -collection of objects associated with the Japanese gods of luck, which -includes the hat of invisibility (Kakuregasa), a lion playing with a -jewel, a jar containing coral, coins, &c.; coral branches (sangoju), -the cowrie shell (kai), an orange-like fruit, the five-coloured feather -robe of the Tennins, the winged maidens of the Buddhist paradise, -copper cash, &c.” [549] But although the tama may correspond to the -mani of the Indian Buddhists, it was not of Buddhist origin in Japan; -the Buddhists simply added to the stock of Japanese “luck jewels”. - -The tama of jade has raised an interesting problem. Nephrite is not -found in Japan. “It is difficult”, says Laufer, “to decide from what -source, how and when the nephrite or jadeite material was transmitted -to Japan.” Referring to jade objects found in the prehistoric Japanese -graves, he says: “The jewels may go back, after all, to an early period -when historical intercourse between Japan and China was not yet -established; they [550] represent two clearly distinct and -characteristic types, such as are not found in the jewelry of ancient -China. If the Japanese maga-tama and kuda-tama would correspond to any -known Chinese forms, it would be possible to give a plausible reason -for the presence of jade in the ancient Japanese tombs; but such a -coincidence of type cannot be brought forward. Nor is it likely that -similar pieces will be discovered in China, as necklaces were never -used there anciently or in modern times. We must therefore argue that -the two Japanese forms of ornamental stones were either indigenous -inventions or borrowed from some other non-Chinese culture sphere in -south-eastern Asia, the antiquities of which are unknown to us.” [551] - -The tama is of great importance in Shinto religion. At Ise, [552] “the -Japanese Mecca”, which has long been visited by pious pilgrims, a -virgin daughter of the Mikado used to keep watch over the three -imperial insignia—the mirror, the sword, and the jewel (tama)—which had -been handed down from Mikado to Mikado. There were no idols in the -temples. The Shintai was carefully wrapped up and kept in a box in the -“holy of holies”, a screened-off part of the simple and unadorned -wooden and thatched little temple. The temple was entered through a -gateway—the tori wi, a word which means “bird-perch”, in the sense of a -hen-roost. “As an honorary gateway”, says Dr. Aston, “the tori-wi is a -continental institution identical in purpose and resembling in form the -toran of India, the pailoo of China, and the hong-sal-mun of Korea.” -[553] When this symbol of Artemis [554] was introduced into Japan is -uncertain. “Rock gates” were of great sanctity in old Japan. There is -one at Ise—the “twin-rocks of Ise”. - -The mirror was the shintai (god-body) of the sun-goddess; the sword was -the shintai of the dragon; and the jewel (tama) was the shintai of the -Great Mother, who was the inexhaustible womb of nature. At sacred Ise, -the chief deities worshipped were Ama-terâsu, the goddess of the sun, -and Toyouke-hime, the goddess of food. [555] The high-priest was the -Mikado, who was a Kami (a god), and called “the Heavenly Grandchild”, -his heir being “august child of the sun”, and his residence “the august -house of the sun”. [556] After the Mikado had ascended the throne, the -Ohonihe (great food offering) ceremony was performed. It was “the most -solemn and important festival of the Shinto religion”, says Aston, who -quotes the following explanation of it by a modern Japanese writer: - - - “Anciently the Mikado received the auspicious grain from the Gods - of Heaven and therewithal nourished the people. In the Daijowe (or - Ohonihe) the Mikado, when the grain became ripe, joined unto him - the people in sincere veneration, and, as in duty bound, made - return to the Gods of Heaven. He thereafter partook of it along - with the nation. Thus the people learnt that the grain which they - eat is no other than the seed bestowed on them by the Gods of - Heaven.” - - -The Mikado was thus, in a sense, a Japanese Osiris. - -Shinto religion was in pre-Buddhist days a system of ceremonies and -laws on which the whole social structure rested. The name is a Chinese -word meaning “the way of the gods”, the Japanese equivalent being Kami -no michi. But although the gods were numerous, only a small proportion -of them played an important part in the ritual (norito), which was -handed down orally by generations of priests until after the fifth -century of our era, when a native script, based on Chinese characters, -came into use. - -Old Shinto was concerned chiefly with the food-supply, with -child-getting, with the preservation of health, and protection against -calamities caused by floods, droughts, fire, or earthquakes. It has -little or nothing to say regarding the doctrine of immortality. There -was no heaven and no hell. The spirits of some of these deities who -died like ordinary mortals went to the land of Yomi, as did also the -spirit of the Mikado, but little is told regarding the mysterious -Otherworld in which dwelt the spirits of disease and death. “In one -passage of the Nihon-gi,” says Aston, [557] “Yomi is clearly no more -than a metaphor for the grave.” It thus resembled the dark Otherworld -or Underworld of the Babylonians, from which Gilgamesh summoned the -spirit of his dead friend, Ea-bani. [558] No spirit of a god could -escape from Yomi after eating “the food of the dead”. When the -Babylonian god Adapa, son of Ea, was summoned to appear in the -Otherworld, his father warned him not to accept of the water and food -which would be offered him. [559] The goddess Ishtar was struck with -disease when she entered Hades in quest of her lover, the god Tammuz, -and it was not until she had been sprinkled with the “water of life” -that she was healed and liberated. [560] - -The Mikado, being a god, had a spirit, and might be transferred to Yomi -or might ascend to heaven to the celestial realm of his ancestress, the -sun-goddess. Some distinguished men had spirits likewise. But there is -no clear evidence in the Ko-ji-ki or the Nihon-gi that the spirits of -the common people went anywhere after death, or indeed, that they were -supposed to have spirits. Some might become birds, or badgers, or -foxes, and live for a period in these forms, and then die, as did some -of the gods. There are no ghosts in the early Shinto books. [561] - -The ancient Pharaohs of Egypt, like the ancient Mikados of Japan, were -assured of immortality. The mortuary Pyramid Texts “were all intended -for the king’s exclusive use, and as a whole contain beliefs which -apply only to the king”. There are vague references in these texts to -the dead “whose places are hidden”, and to those who remain in the -grave. [562] The fate of the masses did not greatly concern the solar -cult. - -Before dealing with the myths of Japan, it is necessary to consider -what the term kami, usually translated “gods”, signified to the -devotees of “Old Shinto”. The kami were not spiritual beings, but many -of them had spirits or doubles that resided in the shintai (god body). -Dr. Aston reminds us that although kami “corresponds in a general way -to ‘god’, it has some important limitations. The kami are high, swift, -good, rich, living but not infinite, omnipotent, or omniscient. Most of -them had a father and mother, and of some the death is recorded.” [563] -It behoves us to exercise caution in applying the term “animistic” to -the numerous kami of Japan, or in assuming that they were worshipped, -or reverenced rather, simply because they were feared. Some of the kami -were feared, but the fear of the gods is not a particular feature of -Shinto religion with its ceremonial hand-clappings and happy laughter. - -Dr. Aston quotes from Motöori, the great eighteenth century Shinto -theologian, the following illuminating statement regarding the kami: - - - “The term kami is applied in the first place to the various deities - of heaven and earth who are mentioned in the ancient records as - well as to their spirits (mi-tama) which reside in the shrines - where they were worshipped. Moreover, not only human beings, but - birds, beasts, plants, and trees, seas and mountains, and all other - things whatsoever which deserve to be dreaded and revered for the - extraordinary and pre-eminent powers which they possess are called - kami. They need not be eminent for surpassing nobleness, or - serviceableness alone. Malignant and uncanny beings are also called - kami if only they are objects of general dread. Among kami who are - human beings, I need hardly mention, first of all, the successive - Mikados—with reverence be it spoken.... Then there have been - numerous examples of divine human beings, both in ancient and - modern times, who, although not accepted by the nation generally, - are treated as gods, each of his several dignity, in a single - province, village, or family.” - - -In ancient Egypt the reigning monarch was similarly a god—a Horus while -he lived and an Osiris after he died, while a great scholar like -Imhotep (the Imuthes of the Greeks in Egypt who identified him with -Asklepois) might be deified and regarded as the son of Ptah, the god of -Memphis. Egypt, too, had its local gods like Japan; so had Babylonia. - -The Japanese theologian proceeds to say: - - - “Amongst kami who are not human beings, I need hardly mention - Thunder (in Japanese Nuru kami or the sounding-god). There are also - the Dragon and Echo (called in Japanese Ko-dama or the Tree - Spirit), and the Fox, who are kami by reason of their uncanny and - fearful natures. The term kami is applied in the Nihon-gi and - Manjoshiu to the tiger and the wolf. Isanagi (the creator-god) gave - to the fruit of the peach and to the jewels round his neck names - which implied that they were kami.” [564] - - -Here we touch on beliefs similar to those that obtained in China where -the dragon and tiger figure so prominently as the gods of the East and -the West. The idea that the peach was a kami appears to be connected -with the Chinese conception of a peach world-tree, a form of the Mother -Goddess, the fruit of which contains her “life substance” or shen as do -the jewels like the pearl and jade objects; the peach is a goddess -symbol as the phallus is a symbol of a god. - -Motöori adds: - - - “There are many cases of seas and mountains being called kami. It - is not their spirits which are meant. The word was applied directly - to the seas or mountains themselves as being very awful things.” - [565] - - -There were a beneficent class and an evil class of kami. Beneficent -deities provided what mankind required or sought for; they were -protectors and preservers. Four guardians of the world were called “Shi -Tenno”. They were posted at the cardinal points like the Chinese Black -Tortoise (north), the Red Bird (south), the White Tiger (west), and the -Blue or Green Dragon (east). The Japanese colour scheme, however, is -not the same as the Chinese. At the north is the blue god Bishamon or -Tamoten; at the south the white-faced warrior Zocho; at the west the -red-faced Komoku with book and brush or a spear; and at the east the -warrior with green face, named Jikoku, who is sometimes shown trampling -a demon under foot. - -In India the north is white and the south black, and in Ceylon the -Buddhist colours of the cardinal points are yellow (north), blue -(south), red (west), and white (east). - -Although it is customary to regard the coloured guardians of the -Japanese world as of Buddhist origin, it may well be that the original -Japanese guardians were substituted by the Hindu and Chinese divinities -imported by the Buddhists. The dragon-gods of China and Japan were -pre-Buddhistic, as De Visser has shown, [566] but were given, in -addition to their original attributes, those of the naga (serpent or -dragon) gods introduced by Buddhist priests. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -JAPANESE GODS AND DRAGONS - - Japanese Version of Egyptian Flood Myth—A Far Eastern - Merodach—Dragon-slaying Story—The River of Blood—Osiris as a Slain - Dragon—Ancient Shinto Books—Shinto Cosmogony—Separation of Heaven - and Earth—The Cosmic “Reed Shoot” and the Nig-gil-ma—The Celestial - Jewel Spear—Izanagi and Izanami—Births of Deities and Islands—The - Dragons of Japan—The Wani—Bear, Horse, and other - Dragons—Horse-sacrifice in Japan—Buddhist Elements in Japanese - Dragon Lore—Indian Nagas—Chinese Dragons and Japanese Water-Snakes. - - -There is no Shinto myth regarding the creation of man; the Mikados and -the chiefs of tribes were descendants of deities. Nor is there a Deluge -Myth like the Ainu one, involving the destruction of all but a remnant -of mankind. The Chinese story about Nu Kwa, known to the Japanese as -Jokwa, was apparently imported with the beliefs associated with the -jade which that mythical queen or goddess was supposed to have created -after she had caused the flood to retreat, but it does not find a place -in the ancient Shinto books. There is, however, an interesting version -of the Egyptian flood story which has been fused with the Babylonian -Tiamat dragon-slaying myth. Susa-no-wo, [567] a Far Eastern Marduk, -slays an eight-headed dragon and splits up its body, from which he -takes a spirit-sword—an avatar of the monster. - -Hathor-Sekhet, of the Egyptian myth, was made drunk, so that she might -cease from slaying mankind, and a flood of blood-red beer was poured -from jars for that purpose. Susa-no-wo provides sake (rice beer) to -intoxicate the dragon which has been coming regularly—apparently once a -year—for a daughter of an earth god. When he slays it, the River Hi is -“changed into a river of blood”. - -Another version of the Egyptian myth, as the Pyramid Texts bear -evidence, appears to refer to the “Red Nile” of the inundation season -as the blood of Osiris, who had been felled by Set at Nedyt, near -Abydos. [568] Lucian tells that the blood of Adonis was similarly -believed to redden each year the flooded River of Adonis, flowing from -Lebanon, and that “it dyed the sea to a large space red”. [569] Here -Adonis is the Osiris of the Byblians. Osiris, as we have seen, had a -dragon form; he was the dragon of the Nile flood, and the -world-surrounding dragon of ocean. [570] He was also the earth-giant; -tree and grain grew from his body. [571] The body of the eight-headed -Japanese dragon was covered with moss and trees. - -Susa-no-wo, as the rescuer of the doomed maiden, links with Perseus, -the rescuer of Andromeda from the water-dragon. [572] The custom of -sacrificing a maiden to the Nile each year obtained in Ancient Egypt. -In the Tiamat form of the Babylonian myth, Marduk cut the channels of -the dragon’s blood and “made the north wind bear it away into secret -places”. [573] The stories of Pʼan Ku of China and the Scandinavian -Ymir, each of whose blood is the sea, are interesting variants of the -legend. [574] - -The Japanese dragon-flood myth is merely an incident in the career of a -hero in Shinto mythology, which is a mosaic of local or localized and -imported stories, somewhat clumsily arranged in the form of a connected -narrative. - -Our chief sources of information regarding these ancient Japanese myths -are the Shinto works, the Ko-ji-ki and the Nihon-gi. [575] Of these -works, the Ko-ji-ki (“Records of Ancient Matters”) is the oldest; it -was completed in Japanese in A.D. 712; the Nihon-gi (“Chronicles of -Japan”) was completed in A.D. 720 in the Chinese language. - -Although the myths, formerly handed down orally by generations of -priests, were not collected and systematized until about 200 years -after Buddhism was introduced into Japan, they were not greatly -influenced by Indian ideas. Dragon-lore, however, became so complex -that it is difficult to sift the local from the imported elements. - -In the preface to the Ko-ji-ki, Yasumaro, the compiler, in his summary, -writes: - - - “Now when chaos had begun to condense, but force and form were not - yet manifest, and there was nought named, nought done, who could - know its shape? Nevertheless Heaven and Earth first parted, and the - Three Deities performed the commencement of Creation; the Passive - and Active Essences then developed, and the Two Spirits became the - Ancestors of all things.” - - -The myth of the separation of Heaven and Earth dates back to remote -antiquity in Egypt. Shu, the atmosphere-god, separated the sky-goddess -Nut from the earth-god Seb. In Polynesian mythology Rangi (Heaven), and -Papa (Earth), from whom “all things originated”, were “rent apart” by -Tane-mahuta, “the god and father of forests, of birds, of insects”. But -in this case the earth is the mother and the sky the father. [576] - -About the “Three Deities” referred to by Yasumaro, we do not learn -much. The idea of the trinity may have been of Indian origin. The -Passive and Active Essences recall the male Yang and its female Yin -principles of China. These are represented in the Ko-ji-ki by Izanagi -(“Male who Invites”) and Izanami (“Female who Invites”). - -Dr. Aston translates the opening passage of the Nihon-gi as follows: - - - “Of old, Heaven and Earth were not yet separated, and the In and - the Yo not yet divided. They formed a chaotic mass like an egg, - which was of obscurely defined limits, and contained germs. The - purer and clearer part was thinly diffused and formed Heaven, while - the heavier and grosser element settled down and became Earth. The - finer element easily became a united body, but the consolidation of - the heavy and gross element was accomplished with difficulty. - Heaven was therefore formed first, and Earth established - subsequently. Thereafter divine beings were produced between them.” - - -Here we meet with the cosmic egg, from which emerged the Chinese Pʼan -Ku, the Indian Brahma, the Egyptian Ra or Horus, and one of the -Polynesian creators. It might be held that China is the source of the -Japanese myth, because the In and the Yo are here, quite evidently the -Yang and the Yin, representing not Izanagi and Izanami as in the -Ko-ji-ki, but the deities of heaven and earth. But the Ko-ji-ki form of -the myth may be the oldest, and we may have in the Nihon-gi evidence of -Chinese ideas having been superimposed on those already obtaining in -Japan, into which they were imported from other areas. - -But to return to the Creation myth. An ancient native work, the -Kiu-ji-ki, which has not yet been translated into English, refers to -seven generations of gods, beginning with one of doubtful sex, in whose -untranslatable name the sun, moon, earth, and moisture are mentioned. -This First Parent of the deities was the offspring of Heaven and Earth. -The last couple is Izanagi and Izanami, brother and sister, like Osiris -and Isis, who became man and wife. - -According to the Ko-ji-ki the first three deities came into being in -Takama-no-hara, the “Plain of High Heaven”. They were alone, and -afterwards disappeared, i.e. died. The narrative continues: “The names -of the deities that were born next from a thing that sprouted up like -unto a reed-shoot when the earth, young and like unto floating oil, -drifted about medusa-like, [577] were the -Pleasant-Reed-Shoot-Prince-Elder-Deity, next the -Heavenly-Eternally-Standing-Deity. These two Deities were likewise born -alone, and hid their persons.” [578] Earth and mud deities followed, -and also the other deities who were before Izanagi and Izanami. - -It may be that the “reed-shoot” was the Japanese nig-gil-ma. (See -Chapter XIII.) As in one of the early Sumerian texts, the mysterious -plant, impregnated with preserving and perpetuating “life substance”, -was the second product of Creation. - -Izanagi and Izanami were told by the elder deities that they must -“make, consolidate, and give birth to this drifting land”. They were -then given the Ame no tama-boko, the “Celestial Jewel-spear”. It is -suggested that the spear is a phallic symbol. The jewel (tama) is “life -substance”. Izanagi and Izanami stood on “the floating bridge of -heaven”, which Aston identifies with the rainbow, or, as some Japanese -scholars put it, the “Heavenly Rock Boat”, or “Heavenly Stairs”, and -pushed down the tama-boko and groped with it until they found the -ocean. According to the Ko-ji-ki, they “stirred the brine until it went -curdle-curdle (koworo-koworo)”, that is, as Chamberlain suggests, -“thick and glutinous”. Others think the passage should be translated so -as to indicate that the brine gave forth “a curdling sound”. When the -primæval waters and the oily mud began to “curdle” or “cook”, the -deities drew up the spear. Some of the cosmic “porridge” dropped from -the point and formed an island, which was named Onogoro -(“self-curdling”, or “self-condensed”). The deities descended from -heaven and erected on the island an eight-fathom house [579] with a -central pillar. Here we meet with the aniconic pillar, the “herm” of -Kamschatkan religion, the pillar of the Vedic world-house erected by -the Aryo-Indian god Indra, the “branstock” of Scandinavian religion, -the pillar of the “Lion Gate” of Mycenæ; the “pillar” is the “world -spine”, like the Indian Mount Meru. [580] “The central pillar of a -house (corresponding to our king-post) is,” writes Dr. Aston, “at the -present day, an object of honour in Japan as in many other countries. -In the case of Shinto shrines, it is called Nakago no mibashira -(‘central august pillar’), and in ordinary houses the Daikoku-bashira.” -[581] - -Izanagi and Izanami become man and wife by performing the ceremony of -going round the pillar and meeting one another face to face. Their -first-born is Hiruko (leech-child). At the age of three he was still -unable to stand upright, and was in consequence placed in a reed boat -and set adrift on the ocean. - -Here we have what appears to be a version of the Moses story. The -Indian Karna, who is similarly set adrift, was a son of Surya, god of -the sun. The Egyptian Horus was concealed after birth on a floating -island, and he was originally a solar deity with a star form. [582] Ra, -the Egyptian sun-god, drifted across the heavens on reed floats before -he was given a boat. Osiris was, after death, set adrift in a chest. -When the Egyptians paid more attention to the constellations than they -did in the early period of their history, they placed in the -constellation of Argo the god Osiris in a chest or boat. In the Greek -period Canopus, the chief star of the constellation of Argo, is the -child Horus in his boat. Horus was a reincarnation of Osiris. The -Babylonian Ea originally came to Eridu in a boat, which became -transformed into a fish-man. As the sign for a god was a star, Ea was -apparently supposed to have come from one. Lockyer refers to Egyptian -and Babylonian temples, which were “oriented to Canopus”. [583] -Sun-gods were the offspring of the mother-star, or their own souls were -stars by night. “Hiruko,” says Aston, “is in reality simply a masculine -form of Hirume, the sun female.” [584] The sun and moon had not, -however, come into existence when he was set adrift, and it may be that -as the “leech-child” he was a star. He became identified in time with -Ebisu (or Yebisu), god of fishermen, and one of the gods of luck. - -Izanagi and Izanami had subsequently as children the eight islands of -Japan, and although other islands came into existence later, Japan was -called “Land-of-the-Eight-great-Islands” (Oho-ya-shima-kuni). “When,” -continues the Ko-ji-ki, “they (Izanagi and Izanami) had finished giving -birth to countries they began afresh, giving birth to deities (kami).” -These included “Heavenly-Blowing Male”, “Youth of the Wind”, the -sea-kami, “Great-Ocean-Possessor”, “Foam Calm”, “Foam Waves”, -“Heavenly-Water-Divider”, or “Water-Distributor” -(Ame-no-mi-kumari-no-kami), and the deities of mountains, passes, and -valleys. - -According to the Nihon-gi, the gods of the sea to whom Izanagi and -Izanami gave birth are called Watatsumi, which means “sea children”, -or, as Florenz translates it, “Lords of the Sea”. Wata, so like our -“water”, is “an old word for sea”. It is probable that, as De Visser -says, “the old Japanese sea-gods were snakes or dragons”. [585] - -In the Ko-ji-ki two groups of eight deities are followed by “the Deity -Bird’s-Rock-Camphor-Tree-Boat”, another name for this kami being -“Heavenly Bird-Boat”. Then came the food-goddess, “Deity -Princess-of-Great-Food”. She was followed by the fire-god, kagu-tsuchi. -This deity caused the death of his mother Izanami, having burned her at -birth so severely that she sickened and “lay down”. Before she died, an -interesting group of deities, making a total of eight from “Heavenly -Bird-Boat” to the last named, “Luxuriant Food Princess”, came into -being. From her vomit sprang “Metal-Mountain Prince” and -“Metal-Mountain Princess”; from her fæces came “Clay Prince” and “Clay -Princess” (earth deities); and from her urine crept forth Mitsu-ha -no-Me, which Japanese commentators explain as “Female-Water-snake”, or -“The Woman who produces the Water”. In the first rendering ha is -regarded as meaning “snake” (dragon), and in the second as “to -produce”. Neither Florenz nor De Visser can decide which explanation is -correct. [586] The dragon was, of course, a water-producer, or -water-controller, or a “water-confiner”, who was forced to release the -waters, like the “drought demon”, slain by the Aryo-Indian god Indra, -and the water-confiner of the Nile, whose blood reddened the river -during inundation. - -When Izanami died, the heart of Izanagi was filled with wrath and -grief. Drawing his big sabre, he, according to the Ko-ji-ki, cut off -the head of the fire-god; or, as the Nihon-gi tells, cut him into three -pieces, each of which became a god. Other gods sprang from the pieces, -from the blood drops that bespattered the rocks, the blood that clung -to the upper part of the sabre, and the blood that leaked out between -the fingers of Izanagi. - -According to the Nihon-gi, the blood dripping from the upper part of -the sword became the gods Kura-okami, Kura-yama-tsumi, and -Kura-mitsu-ha. The meaning of the character kura is “dark”, and -Professor Florenz explains it as “abyss, valley, cleft”, [587] and -notes that okami means “rain” and “dragon”. According to De Visser, -Kura-okami is a dragon- or snake-god who controls rain and snow, and -had Shinto temples “in all provinces”. Another reading in the Nihon-gi -states that one of the three gods who came into being from the pieces -of the fire-god’s body was Taka-okami, a name which, according to a -Japanese commentator, means “the dragon-god residing on the mountains”, -while Kura-okami means “the dragon-god of the valleys”. [588] The -second god born from the blood drops from the upper part of the sword, -Kura-yama-tsumi, is translated “Lord of the Dark Mountains”, and -“Mountain-snake”; and the third, Kura-mitsu-ha, is “Dark-water-snake” -or “Valley-water-snake”. According to the Ko-ji-ki, the deities -Kura-okami and Kura-mitsu-ha came from the blood that leaked out -between Izanagi’s fingers. - -It is of interest to note here that other dragon deities to which -Izanagi and Izanami gave origin, included the mizuchi or “water -fathers”, which are referred to as “horned deities”, “four-legged -dragons”, or “large water-snakes”. As Aston notes, [589] these “water -fathers” had no individual names; they were prayed to for rain in times -of drought. Another sea-dragon child of the great couple was the wani, -which appears to have been a combination of crocodile and shark. Aston -thinks that wani is a Korean word. De Visser, on the other hand, is of -opinion that the wani is the old Japanese dragon-god or sea-god, and -that the legend about the Abundant Pearl Princess (Toyo-tama-bime) -[590] who had a human lover and, like Melusina, transformed herself -from human shape into that of a wani (Ko-ji-ki) or a dragon (Nihon-gi), -was originally a Japanese serpent-dragon, which was “dressed in Indian -garb by later generations”. [591] Florenz, the German Orientalist, -thinks the legend is of Chinese origin, but a similar one is found in -Indonesia. “Wani,” De Visser says, “may be an Indonesian word,” and it -is possible, as he suggests, that “foreign invaders, who in prehistoric -times conquered Japan, came from Indonesia and brought the myth with -them.” [592] - -There is a reference in the Nihon-gi (Chapter I) to a “bear-wani, eight -fathoms long”, and it has been suggested that “bear” means here nothing -more than “strong”. [593] The Ainu, however, as we have seen (Chapter -XVII), associated bear and dragon deities; the bear-goddess was the -wife of the dragon-god, and that goddess had, like the Abundant Pearl -Princess, a human lover. “Bear-wani” may therefore have been a -bear-dragon. There was a dragon-horse “with a long neck and wings at -its sides”, which flew through the air, and did not sink when it trod -upon the water, [594] and there were withal Japanese crow-dragons, -toad-dragons, fish-dragons, and lizard-dragons. - -The horse played as prominent a part in Japanese rain-getting and -rain-stopping ceremonies as did the bear among the Ainu. White, black, -or red horses were offered to bring rain, but red horses alone were -sacrificed to stop rain. Like the Buriats of Siberia and the -Aryo-Indians of the Vedic period, the Japanese made use of the -domesticated horse at the dawn of their history. No doubt it was -imported from Korea. There is evidence that at an early period human -beings were sacrificed to the Japanese dragon-gods of rivers, lakes, -and pools. Human sacrifices at tombs are also referred to. In the -Nihon-gi, under the legendary date 2 B.C., it is related that when a -Mikado died his personal attendants were buried alive in an upright -position beside his tomb. [595] - -In his notable work on the dragon, M. W. de Visser [596] shows that the -Chinese ideas regarding their four-legged dragon and Indian Buddhist -ideas regarding nagas were introduced into Japan and fused with local -ideas regarding serpent-shaped water-gods. The foreign elements added -to ancient Japanese legends have, as has been indicated, made their -original form obscure. In the dragon place-names of Japan, however, it -is still possible to trace the locations of the ancient Shinto gods who -were mostly serpent-shaped. An ancient name for a Japanese dragon is -Tatsu. De Visser notes that Tatsu no Kuchi (“Dragon’s mouth”) is a -common place-name. It is given to a hot spring in the Nomi district, to -a waterfall in Kojimachi district, to a hill in Kamakura district, -where criminals were put to death, and to mountains, &c., elsewhere. -Tatsu ga hana (“Dragon’s nose”) is in Taga district; Tatsukushi -(“Dragon’s skewer”) is a rock in Tosa province; and so on. Chinese and -Indian dragons are in Japanese place-names “ryu” or “ryo”. These -include Ryo-ga-mine (“Dragon’s peak”) in Higo; Ryu-ga-take (“Dragon’s -peak”) in Ise; Ryu-kan-gawa (“Dragon’s rest river”) in Tokyo, &c. - -The worship of the Water Fathers or Dragons in Japan was necessary so -as to ensure the food-supply. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -RIVAL DEITIES OF LIFE AND DEATH, SUNSHINE AND STORM - - Izanagi visits Hades—Origin of Thunder Deities—The Flight from - Hades—Japanese Version of the “Far-travelled Tale”—The Sacred Peach - Tree—Izanami as Goddess of Death—Births of Sun and Moon from Eyes - of Izanagi—The Sun-goddess’s Necklace—Susa-no-wo as “Impetuous Male - Deity”—Connection with Typhoon and Rain—A Japanese Indra—Vitalizing - and Blighting Tears of Deities—Deities Born from Jewels and - Sword—The Harrying of Heaven—Flight of Sun-goddess—How Light was - Restored—The Sacred Mirror—Banishment of Susa-no-wo. - - -After Izanagi had slain his son, the fire-god, and brought into being -new gods, including dragons, he was seized with longing to see Izanami -once more. Accordingly he set out to find her in Yomi (“Yellow -stream”), the dark Hades of the Underworld. “The orthodox Japanese -derivation of Yomi,” says Chamberlain, “is from yoru, ‘night’, which -would give us for Yomo-tsu-kuni some such rendering as ‘Land of -Gloom’.” Another view is that “Yomi” is a mispronunciation of “Yama”, -the name of the Aryo-Indian god of death. [597] - -When Izanagi reached the gloomy dwelling of his sister, she raised the -door, and he spoke to her, saying: “Thine Augustness, my lovely young -sister! the lands that I and you made are not yet finished; so come -back”. She replied out of the darkness: “It is sorrowful that you did -not come hither sooner, for I have eaten of the food of Yomi. -Nevertheless, it is my desire to return. I will therefore speak with -the kami of Yomi.” [598] She added in warning, “Look not at me!” - -Izanami then went back to the place she had come from. She tarried -there for so long a time that Izanagi grew impatient. At length he felt -he could not wait any longer, so he broke off the end tooth of his -hair-comb, which is called the “male pillar”, and thus made a light, -and entered. [599] He found his sister. Her body was rotting, and -maggots swarmed over it. The Ko-ji-ki proceeds: - - - “In her head dwelt the Great Thunder, in her breast dwelt the Fire - Thunder, in her belly dwelt the Black Thunder, in her private parts - dwelt the Cleaving Thunder, in her left hand dwelt the Young - Thunder, in her right hand dwelt the Earth Thunder, in her left - foot dwelt the Rumbling Thunder, in her right foot dwelt the - Couchant Thunder; altogether eight thunder deities had been born - and dwelt there.” - - -Horrified at the spectacle, Izanagi drew back suddenly; whereupon his -sister exclaimed, “You have put me to shame!” and became angry. - -Here Izanagi has broken a taboo, as did the Japanese youth who married -the dragon-maid, Abundant Pearl Princess, and as did the husband of -Melusina in the French legend. It was an ancient custom in Japan to -erect “parturition houses”. These were one-roomed huts to which women -retired so as to give birth to children unseen. Ernest Satow tells that -on the island of Hachijo, until comparatively recent times, “women, -when about to become mothers, were ... driven out to the huts on the -mountain-side, and according to the accounts of native writers, left to -shift for themselves, the result not infrequently being the death of -the new-born infant”. [600] It was taboo for a man to enter a -“parturition house”. Apparently Izanami had retired to a “parturition -house” in Yomi. - -Enraged against Izanagi, because he had put her to shame, Izanami -commanded the Ugly Females of Yomi to pursue and slay him. - -At this point in the mythical narrative begins a version of the -widespread folk-story about the young man who makes escape from his -enemy or enemies, and in the course of his flight throws down articles -that are transformed into obstacles, or into things which tempt the -pursuers to tarry and eat. [601] - -The first article that Izanagi cast down behind him was his wreath or -head-dress, which was instantly turned into grapes. This is according -to the Ko-ji-ki; the Nihon-gi makes the head-dress the second obstacle. -His pursuer (Ko-ji-ki) or pursuers (Nihon-gi), having devoured the -grapes, resumed the chase. Then Izanagi, as he fled, broke his -hair-comb and threw it down; it instantly turned into bamboo sprouts. -While these were being pulled up and eaten, he continued his flight. - -The Ko-ji-ki (but not the Nihon-gi) here introduces another set of -pursuers. Izanami, finding that her brother had outwitted the Ugly -Female (or Females), “sent the eight Thunder-Deities with a thousand -and five hundred warriors of Hades to pursue him. Izanagi, drawing the -ten-grasp sabre that was augustly girded on him, fled forward, -brandishing it in his back hand (brandishing it behind him); and as the -demons still continued to pursue him, he took, on reaching the base of -the Even Pass of Hades, [602] three peaches that were growing at its -base, and waited and smote (his pursuers therewith) so that they all -fled back.” [603] - -Having thus rid himself of his pursuers, Izanagi addressed the peaches, -saying: “As you have helped me, so must ye help all living people in -the Central Land of Reed-Plains, when they are troubled and harassed”. - -Here we have not only a native name of China (“Land of Reed-Plains”) -applied to Japan, but also the sacred Chinese peach, a symbol of the -Great Mother, the Western Queen of Immortals (Si Wang Fu). The story of -a hero’s flight from the Underworld has not survived in China, if ever -it existed there. It is, however, found in the myths of Scandinavia. - -In the Nihon-gi (Aston) the comment is added to the peach incident: -“This was the origin of the custom of exorcising evil spirits by means -of peaches”. - -The peach, like the bean, was in Japan a symbol of the mother-goddess, -as was the shell in Egypt and the pig-shell in Greece. - -Izanami herself was the last to pursue Izanagi. When he saw her coming, -Izanagi blocked up the Pass of Yomi with a huge boulder of rock, which -it would take a thousand men to lift, and he stood on one side of it, -while she stood on the other to “exchange leave-takings” (Ko-ji-ki), or -to pronounce the formula of divorce (Nihon-gi). - -In the Ko-ji-ki Izanami threatens to slay a thousand inhabitants in the -land of the living, but Izanagi retorts that he will arrange for the -birth of one thousand and five hundred, so that the number born may -exceed the number who must die. - -Izanami became thereafter Yomo-tsu-oho-kami (Yomi’s Great Deity). [604] -The rock which blocks the Pass of Yomi became the -“Great-Deity-of-the-Road-Turning-back”. - -In the Nihon-gi (Aston’s translation) it is related that Izanagi flung -down various articles on leaving Hades, as the goddess Ishtar in -Babylonian mythology flung down her clothing and ornaments on entering -the dread abode of Erish-ki-gal (Persephone). Having pronounced the -divorce formula: - - - “He also said, ‘Come no farther’, and threw down his staff, which - was called Funando-no-kami (pass-not-place-deity), or - Kunado-no-kami (come-not-place-deity). Moreover, he threw down his - girdle, which was called Nagachiha-no-kami. Moreover, he threw down - his upper garment, which was called Wadzurahi-no-kami (god of - disease). Moreover, he threw down his trousers, which were called - Aki-guhi-no-kami. Moreover, he threw down his shoes, which were - called Chi-shiki-no-kami.” - - -On returning to the land of the living, Izanagi exclaimed: “I have come -from a hideous and polluted place. I will therefore perform the -purification of my august body.” - -He went to bathe at a river mouth on a plain covered with bush-clover, -beside a grove of orange trees confronting the sun. It is here, -according to the Ko-ji-ki, that he flings down his staff and the -various articles of clothing that are transformed into deities. Two -evil deities were born from the filth of Hades that fell from his -person when he entered the water. He dived, and three sea-gods came -into being. He washed his left eye, and thus gave origin to the goddess -of the sun, Ama-terâsu-oho-mi-kami (The -Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity). He washed his right eye, and there -came into being the god of the moon, Tsuki-yomi-no-kami -(Moon-Night-Possessor). He washed his nose, and from it was born -Take-haya-susa-no-wu-no-mikoto [605] -(His-Brave-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness). - -Izanagi took off his necklace of jewels or beads (tama), and, shaking -it so that the beads jingled, bestowed it on Ama-terâsu, the sun kami -or goddess, and set her to rule the “Plain of High Heaven”. He -commanded the moon-god to rule the night, and Susa-no-wo to rule the -“Sea Plain”. - -“At this point,” as Chamberlain says, “the story loses its unity. The -moon-goddess is no more heard of, and the traditions concerning the -sun-goddess diverge from those concerning the ‘Impetuous-Male-Deity’ in -a manner which is productive of inconsistencies in the rest of the -mythology.” [606] - -Chamberlain translates Susa-no-wo as “Impetuous-Male-Deity”, connecting -his name with susama, “to be impetuous”. But, as Aston points out, the -implied noun susa, “impetuosity”, does not exist. There is, however, a -town named Susa in Idzumo, [607] with which area the legends regarding -the god are specially associated. Susa-no-wo may therefore have been -simply “the god of Susa”. Aston, following Dr. Buckley, Chicago, -regards him as a personification of the rain-storm. Japanese writers, -on the other hand, have connected him with Godzu Tenno, an Indian Hades -deity, and with the moon-god, or regarded him as a war-god, while some -European scholars have referred to him as a “rotating-heavens god”. -Having been born from the nose of Izanagi, we should expect Susa-no-wo -to have a connection with wind and “the air of life”, as well as with -rain and the sea. It is of special interest to note in this connection -that, as Aston says, [608] “Japan is annually visited by destructive -typhoons, accompanied by great darkness and a terrific downpour of -rain”. Susa-no-wo is “continually weeping, wailing, and fuming with -rage”, and is “a lover of destruction”, and he is associated with Yomi, -the habitation of the deities that work evil against mankind. -Susa-no-wo may be the Japanese Indra, who brings rain. Japanese -wind-gods were givers of rain, as well as wind. [609] Like Indra, -Susa-no-wo is a dragon-slayer. A festival “celebrated in his honour at -Onomochi in Bingo” is described by a Japanese writer in these words: -[610] - - - “The procession is a tumultuous trial of speed and strength. Bands - of strong men seize the sacred cars, race with them to the sea, and - having plunged in breast-deep, their burden held aloft, dash back - at full speed to the shrine. There refreshments are served out, and - then the race is resumed, the goal being the central flag among a - number set up in a large plain. Their feet beat time to a wildly - shouted chorus, and they sweep along wholly regardless of obstacles - or collisions.” - - -Indra, with Agni, the fire-god, was the winner in a race of the gods; -he links with Vayu or Vata, the wind-god, and he wages war against the -Danavas, the demons of ocean. [611] - -In China dragon-boat races were held so as to cause rain. Imitation -boats were likewise carried through the streets to the seashore, and -there burned so as to take away evil influences. The boats represented -fighting dragons, and these were rain-bringers. The Japanese imitated -these Chinese customs, but not, however, until about the eleventh -century. [612] - -As a trickster among the gods, Susa-no-wo bears some resemblance to the -Scandinavian Loki; he is, like that deity, an ally of the powers of -darkness and destruction, and he similarly suffers banishment from the -celestial land. Susa-no-wo also recalls Nergal, the Babylonian -warrior-god, who conquered Hades, and was “the death spreader” -(Mushtabarrû-mûtanu). - -The deities of the sun and moon proceeded to rule the day and the night -as commanded by their parent Izanagi, but Susa-no-wo did not depart to -the ocean, which had been committed to his charge; instead, he cried -and wept until his eight-grasp beard reached the pit of his stomach. -Says the Ko-ji-ki: - - - “The fashion of his weeping was such as by his weeping to dry up - all the rivers and seas. For this reason the sound of bad deities - was like unto the flies of the fifth moon as they all swarmed, and - in all things every portent of woe arose.” - - -The reference to the god’s tears causing the green mountains to wither -and the waters to dry up has greatly perplexed Japanese commentators. -But there are statements in Asian and American mythologies regarding -“evil” or “poisonous rain” distributed, to the injury of vegetation, by -dragons that may be sick or badly disposed towards mankind. De Visser -refers to a Buddhist legend about a poisonous Naga that guarded a big -tree and killed all those who took a branch from it; when angry it sent -thunder and rain. [613] Central Asian legends tell that evil rains were -sent out of season by disturbed and enraged dragons. A Chinese story -tells of a sick dragon that, having been roused by prayers, gave “a -badly-smelling rain which would have spoiled the crops if a diviner had -not discovered it in time and cured the dragon at the latter’s -request”. Thereupon a fertilizing rain fell and a very clear spring -dashed forth from a rock. [614] - -In Ancient Egypt the deities wept vitalizing tears (see Index). Ra’s -tears gave life to gods and men, the tears of the god Shu and the -goddess Tefnut became incense-bearing trees. The tears of Osiris and -Isis caused life-giving herbs, &c., to grow, but the tears shed on the -world by the evil Set and his partisans produced poisonous plants. When -deities were enraged, their saliva, sweat, and blood on touching the -earth germinated and produced poisonous plants, scorpions, serpents, -&c. [615] - -The Chinese Buddhists believed in a Naga that, by means of a single -drop of water, could give rain to one or two kingdoms, and even prevent -the sea from drying up. [616] Similarly a single tear from Isis-Hathor, -as the star Sirius, that fell on the “Night of the Drop”, caused the -Nile to rise in flood. - -The blighting and ocean-drying tears of Susa-no-wo were evidently those -of an evil or angry deity, or of one who was sick with sorrow. - -Izanagi, beholding the ocean-ruler in tears, asked him why he wailed -and wept. - -Susa-no-wo made answer: “I wail because I wish to depart to the land of -my dead mother (Izanami) in the Nether-Distant Land (Yomi, i.e. -Hades)”. - -Izanagi was very angry, and said: “If that be so, you shall not dwell -in the ocean domain”. He then banished Susa-no-wo to Afumi. [617] - -Susa-no-wo made answer that he would first take leave of his sister, -Ama-terâsu, goddess of the sun. He rose in the air, as does a -thunder-bringing dragon. Says the Ko-ji-ki: - - - “(With these words) he forthwith went up to Heaven, whereupon all - the mountains shook, and every land and country quaked. So - Ama-terâsu, alarmed at the noise, said: ‘The reason of the ascent - hither of His Augustness my elder brother [618] is surely no good - intent. It is only that he wishes to wrest my land from me.’” [619] - - -The goddess unbound her hair, twisted it into bunches, put on her -string of five hundred curved jewels (maga-tama, i.e. claw-shaped), -[620] and armed herself with bow and arrows. She stood “valiantly like -unto a mighty man”, and asked her brother why he had ascended. -Susa-no-wo declared he had no evil intention, and she asked him to give -proof of his sincerity and goodwill. He proposed that they should -pledge their faith and produce children. To this she consented, and -they “swore to each other from the opposite banks of the Tranquil River -of Heaven”. [621] - -Ama-terâsu asked Susa-no-wo for his sword. He gave it to her and she -broke it into three pieces. She then made a jingling sound with her -jewels, brandished and washed them in the True-Pool-Well of Heaven -[622] and “crunchingly crunched them”. Then from the mist (of her -breath) were born the deities Torrent-Mist-Princess, -Lovely-Island-Princess, and Princess-of-the-Torrent. - -Susa-no-wo then asked for and obtained from Ama-terâsu the string of -five hundred curved jewels [623] which was twisted in the left bunch of -her hair. He made a jingling sound with the jewels, washed them in the -Pool, and, having crunched them, “blew them away”. From his breath were -born the god -“Truly-Conqueror-I-Conquer-Conquering-Swift-Heavenly-Great-Great-Ears”, -the god Ame-no-hohi, [624] the god “Prince-Lord of Heaven”, the god -“Prince-Lord of Life”, and the god of Kumano. In all eight -deities—three goddesses and five gods—were born. - -From these deities the Japanese noble families have claimed descent. -The Mikados were supposed to be descended from the Conquering God with -Great Ears (Masa-ya-a-katsu-kachi-haya-hi-ama-no-oshi-ho-mi-mi). -Another myth makes the Mikado a descendant of the sun-goddess and -Taka-mi-musubi (the High, August God of Birth and Growth), who, in a -sense, is a Japanese Osiris. He has been compared to the Hindu god -Shiva. Aston says that “musubi” is “the abstract process of growth -personified—that is, a power immanent in nature and not external to -it”. [625] Breasted similarly regards Osiris as “the imperishable -principle of life wherever found”. [626] Shiva, as “the fructifying -principle”, is represented by the phallus. It is believed that this -symbol was the “shintai” (god body) of Musubi. [627] - -After the three goddesses and five gods had come into being, Susa-no-wo -declared, “I have undoubtedly gained the victory”. He then proceeded to -harry the celestial regions. He broke down the divisions of the -rice-fields, filled up the ditches, and fouled with excrement and urine -the palace in which the goddess took food. He became even more violent. -Having broken open a hole in the sacred house in which sat Ama-terâsu -superintending the weaving of the garments of deities, he let fall into -it a heavenly piebald horse that had been flayed backwards (a criminal -offence). The celestial female weavers were terrified. - -Alarmed by Susa-no-wo’s doings, the sun-goddess entered her cave, the -Heavenly Rock Dwelling, [628] shut the door and made it fast. All the -land became dark. - -Then the eight hundred myriad deities took counsel, sitting in the bed -of the River of Heaven, so as to plan how they could entice the -sun-goddess from her hiding-place. They made the cocks (“the -long-singing birds of eternal night”) to crow loud, they caused the -Heavenly Smith to shape a mirror of iron (the “true metal”) from the -Heavenly Metal-Mountains (the mines), and charged the Jewel-Ancestor -(Tama-noya-no-mikoto) to make a complete string of five hundred curved -jewels. A tree was then taken from the celestial Mount Kagu [629] and -on it were hung the mirror, the jewel, cherry bark, and other -offerings. The ritual was recited, and thereafter Ama-no-Uzume (the -Dread Celestial Female), wearing metal head-gear (flowers of gold and -silver) and a sash of club-moss from the celestial mountain, and -holding in her hands a posy of bamboo grass, danced on a tub [630] -until the eight hundred myriad deities laughed. Wondering to hear -sounds of merriment, instead of sounds of woe, the sun-goddess opened -the door of her cave a little and asked why they all laughed. She was -told that the deities rejoiced because they had among them a more -august goddess than herself. - -One of the gods then held up the mirror, and the sun-goddess was -astonished to behold a bright deity, not knowing it was her reflected -image, and gradually came forth, fascinated by her own beauty and -brightness. A strong deity took her hand and drew her out while another -deity, Grand Jewel, drew a straw rope behind her so as to prevent her -retreating. [631] In this manner the sun-goddess was enticed to return -and light up the world. - -The second expulsion of Susa-no-wo followed. He was fined an immense -fine of table-offerings, his beard was shorn, and his finger and toe -nails were drawn out. - -According to the Ko-ji-ki, he begged for food from the food-goddess. -She took “dainty things” from various parts of her body which he -regarded as filth, so he slew her. Then from her head “were born -silk-worms, in her two eyes were born rice-seeds, in her two ears were -born millet, in her nose were born small beans, in her private parts -were born barley, in her fundament were born large beans”. These were -used as seeds. According to the Nihon-gi, they were sown “in the narrow -fields and in the long fields of Heaven”. - -The reason for keeping the mirror and jewels (tama) in the shrine of -Ise, and for worshipping the sun-goddess and the food-goddess there, -are thus explained in Shinto mythology. Virgin priestesses danced at -religious ceremonies as did the tub-thumping goddess, and offerings -were suspended from trees as in the celestial regions, while the straw -rope was utilized to keep back demons and to ensure the rising of the -sun by preventing the retreat of the sun-goddess. - -The finding of the dragon-sword is dealt with in the next mythical -story. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE DRAGON-SLAYER AND HIS RIVAL - - The Eight-headed Dragon—Sacrifices of Maidens—How the Dragon was - intoxicated and slain—Finding of the Dragon-sword—The Nuptial - House—Adventures of Ohonamochi—The Jealous Brothers—Flight of - Ohonamochi to Hades—Susa-no-wo as Giant-god of Hades—Princess - Forward—Far Eastern Version of Jack-and-the-Beanstalk Story—The - Life-sword, Life-bow and arrows, &c.—Ohonamochi’s Conquest of - Japan—A Japanese Odin—Another Creation Myth—The Elfin Deity in Bird - Skins—A Shining Sea-god. - - -After Susa-no-wo had been banished from heaven, he descended on -Tori-kami, beside the river Hi, in the province of Idzumo. A chopstick -came floating down the river, so he knew that people were dwelling -near, and he set out to search for them. He soon met an old man and an -old woman who were weeping bitterly; between them walked a lovely -maiden. - -“Who are you?” asked Susa-no-wo. - -The old man made answer: “I am a god of earth, son of a mountain god, -and my name is Ashi-na-dzu-chi (‘foot-stroker’); this woman is my wife, -and her name is Te-na-dzu-chi (‘hand stroker’); the maiden is my -daughter Kush-inada-hime (‘Miraculous-rice-field-sun-maiden’).” - -“Why do you weep?” asked Susa-no-wo. - -Said the old man: “I have had eight daughters, but each year the -eight-forked serpent (dragon) of Koshi has come and devoured one after -the other. I weep now because the time is at hand to give -Kush-inada-hime to the serpent.” - -“What is the serpent like?” - -“Its eyes are red as the winter cherry [632]; it has a body with eight -heads and eight tails, and on its body grow moss and trees. It is so -long that it stretches over eight valleys and eight hills. Its belly is -constantly bloody and inflamed.” [633] - -“If this maiden is your daughter,” said Susa-no-wo, “will you give her -to me?” - -“You honour me,” the old man made answer, “but I do not know your -name.” - -“I am the dear brother of the sun-goddess, and have just descended from -heaven.” - -“Most obediently do I offer my daughter to you,” the old man said with -reverence. - -Susa-no-wo then transformed the girl into a comb, which he placed in -his hair. Having done this, he bade the old couple to brew rice-beer -(sake). They obeyed him, and he asked them to construct a fence with -eight gates and eight benches, and to place on each bench a vat filled -with the beer. - -In time the eight-forked serpent came nigh. It dipped each of its heads -into each of the vats, drank the sake, became drunk, and then lay down -and slept. Susa-no-wo drew his two-handed sword, [634] and cut the -serpent in pieces. The Hi River turned red with blood. - -When Susa-no-wo cut the middle tail his sword broke. He marvelled at -this. Taking the point of the sword in his hand, he thrust and split, -and looked inside, and found a keen-cutting blade within this tail. He -took it out and sent it to his sister, Ama-terâsu, the sun-goddess. -This sword is the Kusa-nagi-no-tachi (the “herb-quelling” -dragon-sword). - -Susa-no-wo afterwards built a house in the land of Idzumo, at a place -called Suga. Clouds rose up from that place. He made an ode regarding -the eight clouds that formed an eight-fold fence for husband and wife -to retire within the house. Then he appointed the maiden’s father to be -keeper, or head-man of the house. - -In this nuptial house children were born to Susa-no-wo and the young -woman he had rescued from the dragon. These children included -Oho-toshi-no-kami (Great Harvest deity), Uka-no-mitama (the August -Spirit of Food), and Ohonamochi (“Great Name Possessor”), the god of -Idzumo, [635] who could assume snake form or human form at will. - -Ohonamochi and his eighty brothers desired to marry the Princess of -Yakami in Inaba. On their way thither the eighty brothers tricked a -hare, which came by a distressing injury, but Ohonamochi caused it to -be cured. The grateful hare of Inaba, now called “the Hare Deity”, -promised Ohonamochi, who carried the bag as a servant to his brothers, -that he would get the princess for wife. - -The princess afterwards refused to marry any of the eighty brothers, -saying she favoured Ohonamochi. Being enraged, the brothers took -counsel together and said to Ohonamochi: “There is a red boar on this -mountain, named Tema, in the land of Hataki. When we drive it down, you -must catch it. If you fail to catch it, we shall certainly slay you.” -[636] - -Having thus spoken, the eighty deities kindled a fire, in which they -heated a great boulder, shaped like to a boar. They rolled the stone -down the mountain-side, and when Ohonamochi seized it he was so -grievously burned that he died. - -Then his mother wept and lamented, and ascending to heaven, appealed to -Kami-musu-bi-no-kami (Divine-Producing Wondrous-Deity), one of the -elder gods, [637] who sent Kisa-gahi-hime (Princess Cockle-Shell) [638] -and Umugi-hime (Princess Clam) [639] to restore the dead deity to life. -Kisa-gahi-hime “triturated and scorched her shell”, and Umugi-hime -“carried water and smeared him as with mother’s milk”. [640] Thereupon -Ohonamochi came to life as a beautiful young man and walked again. - -The eighty deities again deceived Ohonamochi. They led him to the -mountains. There they cut down a tree, which they split, inserting a -wedge in it, and having made him stand in the middle, they took away -the wedge, and thus killed him. - -Ohonamochi’s mother again wailed and wept. She cut the tree, and, -taking him out, restored him to life once more. Then he fled to the -Land of Trees, escaping from his pursuers, who had fixed arrows in -their bows, by dipping under the fork of a tree and disappearing. [641] - -Ohonamochi was advised to seek refuge in the Nether-Distant-Land -(Hades), where dwelt Susa-no-wo. Princess Forward met him, and they -exchanged glances, and were married. She then informed her father, -Susa-no-wo, that a very beautiful god had arrived. But Susa-no-wo was -angry, and called the youthful deity “Ugly-Male-God-of-Reed-Plain”, and -commanded him to sleep in the snake-house. The Princess Forward gave -Ohonamochi a snake-scarf, instructing him to wave it thrice when the -snakes threatened to bite him. This he did, and was protected. On the -next night Susa-no-wo placed the young god in the house of centipedes -and wasps, but the princess gave him another scarf that protected him -against attack. - -Next day Susa-no-wo shot a “humming arrow” [642] into the middle of a -moor, and made Ohonamochi fetch it back. But when the young god went -out on the moor Susa-no-wo set fire to it all round. Ohonamochi could -perceive no way of escape. As he stood there, a mouse [643] came and -told him of a hollow place in which he could shelter himself. -Ohonamochi hastened to the hole and hid in it till the fire had gone -past. Then the mouse discovered and brought the humming arrow to -Ohonamochi. “The feathers of the arrows were brought in their mouths by -all the mouse’s children” (Ko-ji-ki, p. 73). [644] - -Princess Forward lamented for her husband, and Susa-no-wo believed he -was dead. But the princess found Ohonamochi, and took him to the house. -He returned the arrow to Susa-no-wo. This god had many centipedes in -his hair, and bade the youth take them out. Ohonamochi made pretence of -doing this, and Susa-no-wo fell asleep. - -Then Ohonamochi tied the hair of Susa-no-wo to the rafters, placed a -great boulder against the door, and fled away with Princess Forward on -his back. He carried away, too, Susa-no-wo’s life-sword and life-bow -and arrows, and the heavenly-speaking lute. [645] - -As Ohonamochi fled, the lute touched a tree, and the earth resounded -with its call. Susa-no-wo was awakened by the spirit-call. He pulled -down the great house so as to get out, but was so long delayed in -disentangling his hair from the rafters, that when he went in pursuit -he did not get within call of Ohonamochi until he reached the Even Pass -of Yomi (Hades). [646] - -Susa-no-wo shouted to Ohonamochi, advising him to pursue the eighty -half-brothers with the life-sword and life-bow and arrows until they -were swept into the river rapids. “Then, wretch,” said he, “become -Oho-kuni-nushi (Great Master god of the land), and make Princess -Forward thy consort. Set up the temple-pillars at the foot of Mount Uka -on foundations of rock and raise the cross-beams to the Plain of High -Heaven. Dwell there, you villain.” - -Ohonamochi pursued and destroyed the eighty deities. “Then,” the -narrative continues, “he began to make the land.” - -Here we meet with another Creation myth. - -Two children were born to Ohonamochi and Princess Forward; these were -Ki-no-mata-no-kami (Tree-fork-deity) and Mi-wi-no-kami (Deity of August -Wells). - -Like Odin, Ohonamochi woos in the course of his career more than one -goddess. One of these, the Princess of Nuna-kaha (Lagoon-river), sings -to him: - - - “Being a man probably (thou) hast on the various island headlands - that thou seest, and on every beach headland that thou lookest on, - a wife like the young herbs. But as for me, alas! being a woman, I - have no man except thee.” [647] - - -An elfin deity comes across the ocean to assist Ohonamochi to “make and -consolidate the land”. He is named Sukuna-bikona (the Little Prince -god). Attired in bird [648] skins, the little god sailed in a boat of -the heavenly Kagami. [649] - -After Little Prince had for a time assisted to consolidate the land, he -crossed over to Toko-yo-no-kuni (the Eternal Land). - -Then came a deity illuminating the sea to assist in consolidating the -land. He asked for a temple on Mount Mimoro and was afterwards -worshipped there. He himself passed to the Eternal Land -(Toko-yo-no-kuni), where grows the orange tree of life. [650] The deity -there who revealed Little Prince is called Crumbling Prince; his legs -do not walk, but he knows everything beneath the Heavens. [651] - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -ANCIENT MIKADOS AND HEROES - - End of Dynasty of Susa-no-wo—Dynasty of Sun-goddess—The First - Emperor of Japan—Mikado as Descendant of the Sea-god, the “Abundant - Pearl Prince”—A Japanese Gilgamesh—Quest of the Orange Tree of - Life—The “Eternal Land”—The Polynesian Paradise and Tree of - Life—Yamato-Take, National Hero of Japan—Conflicts with Gods and - Rebels—Enchantment and Death of Hero—The Bird-soul—Empress - Jingo—Mikado deified as God of War—Shinto Religion and - Nature-worship—The Goddess Cult in Japan—Adoration of the Principle - of Life in Jewels, Trees, Herbs, &c.—Buddhism—Revival of Pure - Shinto—Culture-mixing in China and Japan—China “not a nation”. - - -Many children were born to Ohonamochi, but the Celestials would not -give recognition to the Dynasty of Susa-no-wo, and resolved that -Ninigi, the august grandchild of the sun-goddess, should rule Japan. -Ohonamochi was deposed, and several deities were sent down from heaven -to pacify the land for the chosen one. - -Ninigi’s wife was Konohana-sakuyahime, and two of their children were -Hohodemi, the hunter, and Ho-no-Susori, the fisherman. - -It was Hohodemi who wooed and wed the “Abundant Pearl Princess” and -lived with her for a time in the land under the ocean. [652] After she -gave birth to her child, she departed to her own land, deeply offended -because her husband beheld her in dragon (wani) shape in the -parturition house he had built for her on the seashore. - -This child was the father of the first Emperor of Japan, Jimmu Tenno. -[653] The Mikados were therefore descended from the sun-goddess -Ama-terâsu and the Dragon-king of Ocean, the “Abundant Pearl Prince”. - -When engaged pacifying the land, Jimmu followed a gigantic crow [654] -that had been sent down from heaven to guide him. He possessed a magic -celestial cross-sword and a fire-striker. His two brothers, who -accompanied him on an expedition across the sea, leapt overboard when a -storm was raging so that the waves might be stilled. They were -subsequently worshipped as gods. - -Yamato now becomes the centre of the narrative, Idzumo having lost its -former importance. - -Jimmu Tenno reigned until he was 127 years of age, dying, according to -Japanese dating, in 585 B.C. His successor was Suisei Tenno. There -follows a blank of 500 years which is bridged by the names of rulers -most of whom had long lives, some reaching over 120 years. - -At the beginning of the Christian era, the Mikado was Sui-nin, who died -at the age of 141 years. This monarch sent the hero Tajima-mori to the -Eternal Land with purpose to bring back the fruit of the “Timeless (or -Everlasting) Fragrant Tree”. The Japanese Gilgamesh succeeded in his -enterprise. According to the Ko-ji-ki: - - - “Tajima-mori at last reached that country, plucked the fruit of the - tree, and brought of club-moss eight and of spears eight; but - meanwhile the Heavenly Sovereign had died. Then Tajima-mori set - apart of club-moss four and of spears four, which he presented to - the Great Empress, and set up of club-moss four and of spears four - as an offering at the door of the Heavenly Sovereign’s august - mausoleum, and, raising on high the fruit of the tree, wailed and - wept, saying: ‘Bringing the fruit of the Everlasting Fragrant Tree - from the Eternal Land, I have come to serve thee.’ At last he - wailed and wept himself to death. This fruit of the Everlasting - Fragrant Tree is what is now called the orange.” - - -Chamberlain explains [655] that “club-moss oranges” signifies oranges -as they grow on the branch surrounded by leaves, while spear-oranges -are the same divested of leaves and hanging to the bare twig. - -The location of the Eternal Land has greatly puzzled native scholars. -Some suppose it was a part of Korea and others that it was Southern -China or the Loocho Islands. According to the Nihon-gi, Tajima-mori -found the Eternal Land to be inhabited by gods and dwarfs. As it lay -somewhere to the west of Japan, it would appear to be identical with -the Western Paradise which, according to Chinese belief, is ruled over -by Si Wang Mu (the Japanese Seiobo), the “Royal Mother” and “Queen of -Immortals”. Instead of the Chinese Peach Tree of Life, the Japanese had -in their own Western Paradise the Orange Tree of Life. The orange was -not, however, introduced into Japan until the eighth century of our -era. [656] Whether or not it supplanted in the Japanese paradise an -earlier tree, as the cassia tree supplanted the peach tree in the -Chinese paradise, is at present uncertain. It may be that the idea of -the Western Paradise was introduced by the Buddhists. At the same time, -it will be recalled that the Peach Tree of Life grew on the borderland -of Yomi, which was visited by Izanagi. - -A similar garden paradise was known to the Polynesians, and especially -the Tahitians. It was called Rohutu noanoa (“Perfumed or Fragrant -Rohutu”). Thither the souls of the dead were conducted by the god -Urutaetae. This paradise “was supposed”, writes Ellis, [657] “to be -near a lofty and stupendous mountain in Raiatea, situated in the -vicinity of Hamaniino harbour and called Temehani unauna, ‘splendid or -glorious Temehani’. It was, however, said to be invisible to mortal -eyes, being in the reva, or aerial regions. The country was described -as most lovely and enchanting in appearance, adorned with flowers of -every form and hue, and perfumed with odours of every fragrance. The -air was free from every noxious vapour, pure, and most salubrious.... -Rich viands and delicious fruits were supposed to be furnished in -abundance for the frequent and sumptuous festivals celebrated there. -Handsome youths and women, purotu anae, all perfection, thronged the -place.” - -Another Polynesian paradise, called Pulotu, was reserved for chiefs, -who obtained “plenty of the best food and other indulgences”. Its -ruler, Saveasiuleo, had a human head. The upper part of his body -reclined in a great house “in company with the spirits of departed -chiefs”, while “the extremity of his body was said to stretch away into -the sea in the shape of an eel or serpent”. [658] - -The Japanese had thus, like the Polynesians, a garden paradise and a -sea-dragon-king’s paradise, as well as the gloomy Yomi. It may be that -the beliefs and stories regarding these Otherworlds were introduced by -the earliest seafarers, who formed pearl-fishing communities round -their shores. The Ainu believe that Heaven and Hell are beneath the -earth, “in Pokna moshiri, the lower world”, but they have no idea what -the rewards of the righteous are. [659] Nothing is definitely known -regarding the beliefs of the earlier and more highly civilized people -remembered as the Koro-pok-guru. - -The Mikado Sui-nin was succeeded by the Mikado Kei-ko, who died in A.D. -130, aged 143 years. One of his sons, Yamato-Take, is a famous -legendary hero of Japan. He performed many heroic deeds in battle -against brigands and rebels. At Ise he obtained from his aunt, -Yamato-hime, the priestess, the famous Kusanagi sword, and a bag which -he was not to open except when in peril of his life. He then set out to -subdue and pacify all savage deities and unsubmissive peoples. The -ruler of Sagami set fire to a moor which Yamato entered in quest of a -“Violent Deity”. Finding himself in peril, he opened the bag and -discovered in it a fire-striker (or fire-drill). He mowed the herbage -with the dragon-sword, and, using the fire-striker, kindled a -counter-fire, which drove back the other fire. The Kusanagi -(herb-quelling) sword takes its name from this incident. Yamato-Take -afterwards slew the wicked rulers of that land. He also slew a god in -the shape of a white deer which met him in Ashigara Pass. He lay in -ambush, and with a scrap of chive [660] hit the deer in the eye and -thus struck it dead. Then he shouted three times “Adzuma ha ya” (Oh, my -wife!). The land was thereupon called Adzuma. - -Then follows the mysterious story of the death of the hero. He went to -the land of Shinanu, in which Ohonamochi had taken refuge when Japan -was being subdued for the ruler chosen by the sun-goddess, and where, -being pursued and threatened with death, Ohonamochi consented to -abdicate and take up his abode in a temple. The country takes its name -from shina, a tree resembling the lime, [661] and nu or no, “moor”. -Yamato-Take entered this land through Shinanu Pass (Shinanu no saka), -between the provinces of Shinano and Mino. He overcame the deity of the -pass, and went to dwell in the house of Princess Miyazu, of fragrant -and slender arms. She welcomed him with love. In the house of the -princess he left the Kusanagi sword, and went forth against the deity -of evil breath (or influence) on Mount Ibuki. As he climbed the -mountain he met a white boar, big as a bull. Believing it was a -messenger of the deity, he vowed he would slay it when he returned, and -continued to climb the mountain. But the boar was not a messenger; it -was the very deity in person, and it sent a heavy ice-rain. [662] The -rain-smitten and perplexed hero was thus misled by the deity. - -On descending the mountain, Yamato-Take reached the fresh spring of -Tama-kura-be (the “Jewel-store-tribe”). He drank from it, and revived -somewhat. The spring was afterwards called Wi-same (the “well of -awakening” or “resting”). - -Then Yamato-Take departed, and reached the moor of Tagi, [663] -lamenting the loss of bodily strength. He passed on to Cape Wotsu in -Ise, and there found a sword he had left at a pine tree, and sang: - - - “O pine tree, my brother, - If thou wert a person, - My sword and my garments - To thee would I give”. - - -Having sung this song, he proceeded on his way, yearning for his native -land, delightful Yamato, situated behind Mount Awogaki. His next song -was one of love and regret. - - - “How sweet o’er the skies - From Yamato, my home, - Do its white clouds arise, - Do its white clouds all come.” - - -His sickness and weariness made him feel more and more faint, and he -sang in his distress: - - - “Oh! the sharp sabre-sword - I left by the bedside - Of Princess Miyazu— - The sabre-sword”. [664] - - -Yamato-Take sank and died as soon as he had finished his song. - -In time his wives came and built for him a mausoleum, weeping and -moaning the while, because he could not hear them or make answer. Then -Yamato-Take was transformed into a white bird, [665] which rose high in -the air and flew towards the shore. The wives pursued the bird with -lamentations and entered the sea. They saw the bird flying towards the -beach, and followed it. For a time it perched on a rock. Then it flew -from Ise to Shiki, in the land of Kafuchi, where a mausoleum was built -for it, so that it might rest. [666] But the white bird rose again to -heaven and flew away. It was never again seen. - -After Mikado Kei-ko, father of Yamato-Take, had passed away, Sei-mu -reigned until he was 108 years old. Then followed the Mikado Chiu-ai. -His capital was in the south-west on the island of Kyushu. A message -came from the goddess through the Empress Jingo, who was divinely -possessed, promising him Korea, “a land to the westward” with -“abundance of various treasures, dazzling to the eye, from gold and -silver downwards”. - -The Mikado refused to believe there was a land to the west, and -declared that the gods spoke falsely. Soon afterwards the heavenly -sovereign was struck dead. - -Now the Empress Jingo was with child. Having received the instructions -of the deities to conquer Korea for her son, she delayed his birth by -taking a stone and attaching it to her waist with cords. Korea was -subdued, the Empress having made use of the “Jewels of flood and ebb”, -as related in a previous chapter. Her child was born after she returned -to Japan. - -Empress Jingo is further credited with subduing and uniting the Empire -of Japan, and again establishing the central power at Yamato. She lived -until she was 100 years old. - -Her son Ojin Tenno, [667] who had a dragon’s tail, lived until he was -110 years old, and died in A.D. 310. He was worshipped after death as a -war-god, and the patron of the Minamoto clan. His successor, Nin-toku, -who died at the age of 110, was the last of the mythical monarchs, or -of the monarchs regarding whom miraculous deeds are related. Japanese -history begins and myth ends about the beginning of the fifth century -of the Christian era. - -The cult of Hachiman (Ojin Tenno) came into prominence in the ninth -century with the rise of the Minamoto family; its original seat was -Usa, in Buzen province. Hachiman’s shintai (“god body”) is a white -stone, or a fly-brush, or a pillow, or an arm-rest. - -Jimmu Tenno, the Empress Jingo, and Yamato-Take were similarly deified -and worshipped. A ninth century scholar, Sugahara Michizane, was -deified as Temmangû, god of scholars. Living as well as dead Mikados -were kami (deities). “The spirits of all the soldiers who died in -battle,” writes Yei Ozaki, [668] “are worshipped as deified heroes at -the Kudan shrine in Tokyo.” - -The worship of human ancestors in Japan is due to Chinese influence, -and had no place in old Shinto prior to the sixth century. In the -Ko-ji-ki and Nihon-gi the ancestors of the Mikados and the ruling -classes are the deities and their avatars. As we have seen, the Mikados -were reputed to be descended from the sun-goddess, and from the -daughter of the Dragon King of Ocean, called the “Abundant-Pearl -Princess”, a Japanese Melusina. - -It is far from correct, therefore, to refer, as has been done, to -Shinto religion as “the worship of nature-gods and ancestors”. Even the -term “nature-worship” is misleading. The adoration in sacred shrines of -the mi-tama (the “August jewel”, or “Dragon-pearl”, or “spirit”, or -“double”) of a deity is not “the worship of Nature”, but the worship of -“the imperishable principle of life wherever found”. At Ise, the -“Mecca” of Japan, the goddess cult is prominent. Both the sun-goddess -and the food-goddess are forms of the Far Eastern Hathor, the -personification of the pearl, the shell, the precious jewel containing -“life substance”, the sun mirror, the sword, the pillow, the -standing-stone, the holy tree, the medicinal herb, the fertilizing -rain, &c. The Mikado, as her descendant, was the living Horus, an -avatar of Osiris; after death the Mikado ascended, like Ra, to the -celestial regions, or departed, like Osiris, to the Underworld of the -Dead. The Mikado of Japan, like the Pharaoh of Egypt, was a Son of -Heaven. - -After Buddhism had been introduced into Japan in the sixth century, it -was fused with Shinto. The Shinto deities figured as avatars of Buddha -in the cult of Ryobu-Shinto. Even the Mikados came under the spell of -Buddhism. - -In the eighteenth century began the movement known as the “Revival of -Pure Shinto”. It was promoted chiefly by Motöori and his disciple -Hirata. In time it did much to bring about the revolution which -restored to supreme political power, as the hereditary high priest and -living representative of the sun-goddess, the Mikado of Japan. Shinto -is the official religion of modern Japan; but Buddhism, impregnated -with Shinto elements, is the religion of the masses. “Pure Shinto”, -however, was not “pure” in the sense that Motöori and Hirata professed -to believe. It was undoubtedly a product of culture mixing in early -times. “The Ko-ji-ki and Nihon-gi,” as Laufer says, “do not present a -pure source of genuine Japanese thought, but are retrospective records -largely written under Chinese and Korean influence, and echoing in a -bewildering medley continental-Asiatic and Malayo-Polynesian -traditions.” [669] In China, Korea, Polynesia, &c., a similar process -of culture mixing can be traced. Buddha and Mohammed were not the -earliest founders of cults which have left their impress on the -religious systems of the Far East. Vast areas were influenced by the -cultures of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. - -The history of civilization does not support the hypothesis that the -same myths and religious practices were of spontaneous generation in -widely-separated countries. Culture complexes cannot be accounted for -or explained away by the application of the principles of biological -evolution. As has been shown in these pages, there are many culture -complexes in China and Japan, and many links with more ancient -civilizations. - -Touching on the problem of culture mixing in China, Laufer writes: - -“In opposition to the prevalent opinion of the day, it cannot be -emphasized strongly enough on every occasion that Chinese civilization, -as it appears now, is not a unit and not the exclusive production of -the Chinese, but the final result of the cultural efforts of a vast -conglomeration of the most varied tribes, an amalgamation of ideas -accumulated from manifold quarters and widely differentiated in space -and time; briefly stated, this means China is not a nation, but an -empire, a political, but not an ethnical unit. No graver error can -hence be committed than to attribute any culture idea at the outset to -the Chinese, for no other reason than because it appears within the -precincts of their empire.” [670] - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe, pp. 26 et seq. - -[2] Ibid. See illustrations opposite p. 20. - -[3] Professor Cherry The Origin of Agriculture (Mem. and Proc. -Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1920). - -[4] In Babylonian legends civilization is introduced by the “goat-fish” -god Ea, who came from the Persian Gulf. - -[5] Those who give Osiris a Libyan origin believe his name signifies -“The Old One”, or “The Old Man”. - -[6] The Ancient Egyptians, pp. 41–42. - -[7] Breasted’s Religion and Thought in Egypt, p. 18. - -[8] S. Squire, Plutarch’s Treatise of Isis and Osiris (Cambridge, -1744). - -[9] In Egypt this was the Solutrean stage of the so-called “Palæolithic -Age”. - -[10] There was no “Neolithic Age” in Egypt. - -[11] The Scope of Social Anthropology (London, 1908), pp. 12–13. - -[12] Primitive Man (Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. VII), p. -50. - -[13] The Yakut (in Russian), Vol. I, p. 378. - -[14] The Evolution of the Dragon, G. Elliot Smith (London, 1919), pp. -178 et seq. - -[15] O. T. Mason, Origins of Invention, p. 166; and Woman’s Share in -Primitive Culture, p. 91. - -[16] The Beginnings of Porcelain in China, by Berthold Laufer and H. W. -Nichols (Field Museum of Natural History Publication, 192, -Anthropological Series, Vol. XII, No. 2. Chicago, 1917). - -[17] Ibid., pp. 153–154. - -[18] The Journal of Egyptian Archæology, April, 1914, p. 14. - -[19] Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States, p. 50 (Twentieth -Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1903). - -[20] The Khasis, p. 61. - -[21] Tao Shuo, chap. ii, p. 2 (new edition, 1912). - -[22] The Beginnings of Porcelain in China, pp. 154–5. In “culture -mixing” old local religious beliefs were not obliterated. - -[23] Chavannes, Mémoires historiques de Se-ma Tsʼien, Vol. I, pp. 72–4. - -[24] The Beginnings of Porcelain in China, p. 160. - -[25] Antiquities of India, L. D. Barnett, p. 176. - -[26] Madras Government Museum Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities, p. -111. - -[27] Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, Macdonell and Keith, Vol. I, -pp. 31, 32. - -[28] Book I, chap. 194. - -[29] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Egypt, pp. 108, 158. - -[30] Early Modes of Navigation, Journal of the Anthropological -Institute, Vol. IV, p. 402. - -[31] Holmes’s Ancient and Modern Ships, E. K. Chatterton’s Sailing -Ships and their Story, Cecil Torr’s Ancient Ships, Warrington Smith’s -Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia, Elliot Smith’s Ships as Evidence of -the Migrations of Early Culture, and the works of Pâris and Assmann, -and Pitt Rivers (op. cit.). - -[32] Sailing Ships and their Story, pp. 25–6. - -[33] Ships as Evidence, &c., pp. 5, 6. - -[34] Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe, pp. 146 and 191, et seq. - -[35] Breasted’s A History of Egypt, pp. 114–5. - -[36] Sailing Ships and their Story, pp. 31, 32. - -[37] Maspero in his The Dawn of Civilization protests against this -view. - -[38] Egyptian Myth and Legend, p. 372. - -[39] English translation of M. Huc’s Recollections (London, 1852), p. -21. - -[40] E. Kebel Chatterton’s Sailing Ships and their Story, pp. 7 and 31, -and illustration opposite page 8. - -[41] Sailing Ships and their Story, pp. 32–3. - -[42] Polynesian Researches, First Edition, 1829, Vol. I, p. 169. - -[43] Ancient Ships, p. 78. - -[44] Polynesian Researches, First Edition, 1829, Vol. I, pp. 181, 2. -The crescent-shaped vessel is quite Egyptian in character. - -[45] Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 50, 51. - -[46] Book II, 67. - -[47] 1 Kings, x, 22. - -[48] 1 Kings, ix, 26–8. - -[49] 1 Kings, x, 2. - -[50] Breasted’s A History of Egypt, p. 274. - -[51] Breasted’s Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 279. - -[52] Quoted from a Chinese work by Dr. W. M. W. de Visser in The Dragon -in China and Japan (Amsterdam, 1913). - -[53] Muir’s Sanskrit Texts, Vol. I, p. 516 (1890). - -[54] Dr. W. M. W. de Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 69. - -[55] Ibid., p. 223. - -[56] Shi i ki, chap. ii. - -[57] Religious System of China, Vol. V, p. 867. - -[58] This is the name of the Indian Naga king. - -[59] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 139. - -[60] Chinese-English Dictionary, p. 1092. - -[61] Chine Ancienne, pp. 94 et seq. - -[62] Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, pp. 216 et seq. - -[63] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 109. - -[64] Quoted by Prof. G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, p. -160. - -[65] Ellis, Polynesian Researches, First Edition, Vol. I, p. 178. - -[66] Rev. George Turner’s Nineteen Years in Polynesia (1861), pp. -238–9. The god emerging from the shell-fish is found in Mexico. -Jackson’s Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture, p. 52. - -[67] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 88. - -[68] Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe, pp. 306–7. Pierced fish -vertebræ have been found in Malta, Italy, the south-east of Spain, and -Troy. See Malta and the Mediterranean Race, R. N. Bradley (London, -1912), p. 136. - -[69] Manuel d’Archéologie Américaine, Fig. 21, p. 114. - -[70] Ibid., p. 169. - -[71] Ibid., p. 169. - -[72] This mammal belongs to the order Sirenia, which includes manatees. -It is native to Indian seas. A variety has been found in the Red Sea. - -[73] Legends of Gods and Ghosts (Hawaiian Mythology), 1915, pp. 255–6. - -[74] A form of the mother-goddess. - -[75] The Religious System of China, Vol. III, p. 1143. - -[76] Hibbert Lectures, pp. 280–84. - -[77] Legends of Babylonia and Egypt, Leonard W. King, pp. 116–7 (1918). - -[78] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 20. - -[79] Ibid., p. 26. - -[80] The Voice of Africa, Vol. II, p. 467. - -[81] The Evolution of the Dragon, p. 130. - -[82] See illustration of the serpent enclosing the waters in the shrine -of the Nile, from a bas-relief in the small temple of Philæ. Maspero’s -The Dawn of Civilization, p. 39. - -[83] Breasted, op. cit., p. 38. - -[84] A kiao-lung is a dragon with fish scales. - -[85] A horned dragon. - -[86] A dragon with wings. - -[87] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 72 et seq. - -[88] Horus while alive, and Osiris after he died, as Dr. Gardiner -insists. - -[89] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 42. - -[90] Nehemiah, ii, 13. - -[91] Æschylus, Prometheus Vinctus, 351–72. - -[92] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 46. - -[93] Dr. A. Carmichael, Carmina Gadelica, Vol. I, p. 169. - -[94] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 89. - -[95] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 99 et seq. - -[96] The Religious System of China, Vol. VI, p. 1087. - -[97] See English translation by Walter Gorn Old (London, 1904). - -[98] The Religious System of China, Vol. IV, p. 26. - -[99] De Visser, The Dragon in Japan and China, p. 62. - -[100] Breasted’s Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 21. - -[101] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 67. - -[102] De Groot’s The Religious System of China, Vol. I, p. 369. - -[103] Chats on Oriental China (London, 1908). - -[104] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 79. - -[105] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 112. - -[106] A dragon appeared at the birth of Confucius. - -[107] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 145. - -[108] Legends of Gods and Ghosts (Hawaiian Mythology, 1915), p. 258. - -[109] Melanesians and Polynesians (London, 1910), pp. 334–5. - -[110] Ibid., p. 364. - -[111] Indo-China and its Primitive People, London (trans.), p. 192. - -[112] Hawaiian Mythology, p. 257. - -[113] Buddhist India, pp. 222–3. - -[114] Manual of Indian Buddhism, pp. 593 et seq. - -[115] Iliad, Book XII (Lang’s, Leaf’s, and Dyer’s Trans.), p. 236. - -[116] The Natural History of Animals (Gresham, London), Vol. III, p. -176 and pp. 46 et seq. - -[117] Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, Vol. I, p. 481. - -[118] Chavannes’ Contes et Apologues. - -[119] Indian Myth and Legend, pp. 314–5. - -[120] Laufer, The Diamond: a study in Chinese and Hellenistic -Folk-lore, p. 7 (Chicago, 1915). - -[121] Açwamedha Parva, Section XC, Sloka 5. - -[122] Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, Vol. II, p. 107. - -[123] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 120. - -[124] Ibid., p. 62. - -[125] The Evolution of the Dragon, G. Elliot Smith, pp. 83 et seq. - -[126] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 130. - -[127] Westervelt’s Legends of Gods and Ghosts, p. 258. - -[128] Buddhist India, pp. 224–5. - -[129] Teutonic Myth and Legend, p. 174 et seq. - -[130] Teutonic Myth and Legend, p. 286. - -[131] The Irish term sed (pronounced “shade”), the old form of which is -set, signified a cow, a measure of value, property, and “a pearl, a -precious stone, or a gem of any kind”. Joyce, Irish Names of Places, p. -355 (Dublin, 1875). - -[132] Breasted, A History of Egypt, p. 357. - -[133] Egyptian Myth and Legend, pp. 341, 342. - -[134] Seven Tablets of Creation. - -[135] The belief that the cat has nine lives may be cited, and also the -belief that if an eel or a serpent is cut in two it will come to life -again. A Chinese dragon may revive after being cut up and buried. The -story is told in Japan of a man who killed a snake-dragon, cut it into -three pieces, and buried them, but thirteen years later, on the same -day of the year on which he slew the dragon, he cried out “I drink -water,” choked, and died. His death was caused by the dragon he had -endeavoured to kill (de Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 195). -The “Deathless Snake” in an ancient Egyptian story comes to life until -the severed parts are buried separately. - -[136] Legends of Gods and Ghosts (Hawaiian Mythology), pp. 256–7. - -[137] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 127. See also the Egyptian Bata -story, Egyptian Myth and Legend, pp. 49–56. - -[138] Egyptian Myth and Legend, p. 55. - -[139] The Dragon’s Kupuas. - -[140] The odour of the herb was the body odour of the dragon. It helped -to restore vitality, as did incense, when burned before an Egyptian -mummy. Gods were similarly “fed” by offerings of incense. The -Babylonian Noah burned incense, and the gods smelt the sweet savour. -The gods gathered like flies about him that offered the -sacrifice.—King, Babylonian Religion, p. 136. - -[141] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 63. Kwan Chung died -in 645 B.C. - -[142] Polynesian Mythology, Sir George Grey, p. 33. - -[143] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 174. - -[144] A Galloway herbalist who was searching for herbs to cure a -consumptive girl, named May, saw a mermaid rising in the sea. According -to the folk-story, the mermaid recommended mugwort (southernwood) as a -cure by singing: - - Would you let bonnie May die in your hand, - And the mugwort flowering in the land? - -[145] Jade disks, decorated with the rush pattern, were in China images -of Heaven and badges of rank. The rain-dragon in human form carries in -his right hand a blue rush. The rush was connected with water—the water -below the firmament and the water above the firmament. Reeds were -likewise connected with the deities. In Babylonia, priests had visions -in reed huts and the dead lay on reed mats. The reed and river-mud were -used by Marduk when he created man. Apparently, the reed was an avatar -of the water deity: it contained “soul substance”. Linen made from flax -was sacred and inspiring. It was wrapped round the dead, instead of -animal skins, in pre-Dynastic Egypt. The linen ephod was inspiring; -like the “prophet’s mantle” it gave the wearer power to foretell -events. - -[146] S. Baring-Gould’s Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 471 et -seq. - -[147] A similar belief regarding supernatural beings prevailed in -India. See story of Nala in Indian Myth and Legend. - -[148] The appearance of four servants (the gods of the four quarters) -with the dragon-god, indicates that the coming storm is to be one of -exceptional violence. - -[149] The deep slumberer in a folk-tale is usually engaged “working a -spell”. As will be gathered from the story, the boy received his -knowledge and power from his grandmother. She resembles the Norse Vala -and the Witch of Endor. - -[150] The Norse Vala makes similar complaint when awakened by Odin. It -looks as if this Chinese story is based on one about consulting a -spirit of a “wise woman” who sleeps in her tomb. - -[151] An interesting glimpse of the connection between colour symbolism -and magic. Everything is yellow because a yellow dragon is being -invoked. - -[152] This sleep appears to be as necessary as that of the grandmother. - -[153] The latest spell had been worked, and it was not necessary that -the father should sleep any longer. - -[154] Indian fairy girl. There are apsaras in the Paradise of Indra. - -[155] Indian Fairy Stories (London, 1915), pp. 47 et seq. - -[156] Egyptian Tales (first series), W. H. Flinders Petrie (London, -1899), pp. 81 et seq. - -[157] Folk Lore Journal, Vol. V, p. 257. - -[158] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 177 et seq. - -[159] L. W. King, Legends of Babylonia and Egypt (London, 1918), p. -146. - -[160] See references in Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 184 et seq. - -[161] Indian Myth and Legend, p. 256 and p. 381. - -[162] Book III. - -[163] Tennyson’s The Passing of Arthur. - -[164] Like the Indian god Vishnu, who lies asleep on the Naga. This -sleep, like that of magicians, is a spell-working or power-accumulating -sleep. - -[165] Like the Egyptian hero who slays the river serpent which guards -the box containing magic spells. Sigurd, Siegfried, and other -dragon-slaying heroes may be compared with this Far-Eastern hero. - -[166] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan. - -[167] Jade: A Study in Chinese Archæology and Religion, Berthold Laufer -(Chicago, 1912), pp. 209–10. - -[168] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Egypt, pp. 133–7. - -[169] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Egypt, p. 102. - -[170] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 181–3. - -[171] Mémoires Historiques de Se-ma Tsʼien (1895–1905). - -[172] He figures as a character (not a real one) in the writings of -Kwang-tze, who was born in the fourth century B.C. - -[173] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 145. - -[174] Dr. J. Legge, Chinese Classics, Vol. III, Part I, p. 240, and -Part II, p. 554. - -[175] In Scottish giant-lore giants sit on mountains in like manner and -fish for whales, using trees as fishing-rods. - -[176] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan. - -[177] Genesis, ii, 8. - -[178] Navarrette, Coll. de Documents, I, p. 244, quoted in Curious -Myths of the Middle Ages, p. 525. - -[179] William Ellis, Polynesian Researches (1st edition, London, 1829), -Vol. II, pp. 47 et seq. - -[180] Campbell, Popular Tales of the West Highlands, Vol. III, Tale -LXXXVI. - -[181] Legends of Gods and Ghosts, p. 246. - -[182] Nineteen Years in Polynesia, p. 353. - -[183] Swarga-rohanika Parva, Section III (Roy’s translation), p. 9. The -chief of the gods says to Yudhishthira: “Here is the celestial -river.... Plunging into it, thou wilt go to thine own regions -(Paradise).” Having bathed, the hero “cast off his human body” and -“assumed a celestial form”. - -[184] Odyssey, XV (Butcher and Lang’s trans.), p. 253. - -[185] S. H. O’Grady, Silva Gadelica, Vol. II, pp. 393–4. - -[186] Ibid., Vol. II, p. 113. - -[187] The Voyage of Bran. - -[188] Ancient Irish Poetry, p. 8. - -[189] The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great, trans. by E. Walter -Budge, pp. 11 et seq., and 167 et seq. - -[190] “Vana Parva” of Mahábhárata, and Indian Myth and Legend, pp. -105–9. - -[191] Description of Sukhāvatī, the Land of Bliss, in Buddhist Mahayana -Texts (Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XLIX), pp. 16, 17. - -[192] Ibid., p. 35. - -[193] Ibid., p. 56. - -[194] Ibid., p. 174. - -[195] Ibid., p. 180. - -[196] Ibid., p. 50. - -[197] B. Laufer, The Diamond (A Study in Chinese and Hellenistic -Folk-lore) (Chicago, 1915). - -[198] L. W. King, Babylonian Religion (London, 1903), p. 171. - -[199] L. W. King, Legends of Babylon and Egypt (London, 1918), p. 136. - -[200] Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 130. - -[201] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 71. - -[202] Westervelt, Legends of Gods and Ghosts (Hawaiian Mythology), p. -245. - -[203] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 120 et seq. - -[204] Ibid., p. 134. - -[205] G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, pp. 23 et seq. - -[206] Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, Vol. III, pp. 14, 30; Cook, -Zeus, Vol. I, p. 537. - -[207] Westervelt, Legends of Old Honolulu, pp. 22 et seq., and p. 29. - -[208] Teutonic Myth and Legend, pp. 424–32. - -[209] Westminster Review, November, 1892, p. 523. - -[210] When, some years ago, an ass was acquired by a tenant on a -Hebridean island, a native, on seeing this animal for the first time, -exclaimed, “It is the father of all the hares”. - -[211] Dr. Joseph Edkins, Religion in China, p. 151. - -[212] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 185 et seq. - -[213] Laufer, Sino Iranica (Chicago, 1919), pp. 539 et seq. - -[214] Laufer, Sino-Iranica, p. 543. - -[215] Transactions Am. Phil. Association, Vol. XXIII, 1892, p. 115. - -[216] Sino-Iranica, pp. 542–3. - -[217] G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, pp. 36 et seq. - -[218] Religious System of China, Vol. IV, pp. 272–6: and Elliot Smith, -The Evolution of the Dragon, pp. 38–9. - -[219] The Jack and Jill of the nursery rhyme. - -[220] Teutonic Myth and Legend, pp. 22 et seq. - -[221] Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 190 et seq. - -[222] Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, Vol. II, p. 104. - -[223] Babylonian Myth and Legend, p. 126–7. - -[224] Indian Myth and Legend, pp. 173 et seq., and 192–94. - -[225] Egyptian Myth and Legend, p. 19 et seq. - -[226] Teutonic Myth and Legend, pp. 352 (n.), 376, 383, 389, 391, 446. - -[227] For beliefs connected with pearls and shells, see Shells as -Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture, I. Wilfrid Jackson -(London, 1917). - -[228] Some thunder birds are dark as thunder-clouds. - -[229] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 63. - -[230] G. A. Reisner, Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ad-Dêr, Vol. I, -1908, Plates 6 and 7, and Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early -Culture, 1917, p. xxi. - -[231] Jade, p. 1. - -[232] The Norse gods grew old when the apples of immortality, kept by -the goddess Idun, were carried away. After the apples were restored, -they ate of them and grew young again.—Teutonic Myth and Legend, p. 57. - -[233] De Groot, The Religious System of China, Vol. I, p. 300. - -[234] De Groot, The Religious System of China, Vol. I, p. 295. - -[235] Shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth.—Romeo and Juliet, -iv, 3. - - Give me to drink mandragora ... - That I may sleep out the great gap of time - My Anthony is away.—Anthony and Cleopatra. - -[236] The Ascent of Olympus, pp. 107 et seq. - -[237] Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, p. 184; Rendel Harris, -The Ascent of Olympus, p. 73. - -[238] The Ascent of Olympus, p. 126. - -[239] Artemis, as goddess of birth, was a specialized form of the Great -Mother, who was herself the goddess of love and birth, of treasure, -&c.—the All-mother. - -[240] The Ascent of Olympus, p. 87. - -[241] Ibid., p. 86. - -[242] Joly, Legend in Japanese Art, p. 165. - -[243] Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, pp. 183, 199 et seq. - -[244] The Ascent of Olympus, 79–80. - -[245] The Chinese Traveller (London, 1772), Vol. I, p. 247. - -[246] The Ascent of Olympus, p. 82. - -[247] The Chinese Traveller, Vol. I, p. 239. - -[248] The Chinese Traveller, Vol. I, pp. 237 et seq. - -[249] Genesis, xlix, 11. - -[250] The Ascent of Olympus (note on Ivy and Mugwort in Siberia), pp. -96 et seq. - -[251] Sino-Iranica (Chicago, 1919), pp. 385 et seq. - -[252] Ibid., p. 386. - -[253] Indian Myth and Legend, p. 100. - -[254] Sino-Iranica, pp. 339–42. - -[255] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 234–5. - -[256] Perry, Megalithic Culture of Indonesia, p. 68. - -[257] Megalithic Culture of Indonesia, p. 92. - -[258] Legend in Japanese Art, p. 195. - -[259] Religions of Ancient China, pp. 24–5. - -[260] Ibid., pp. 38–9. - -[261] See Chapter XIII re shining gems, jade, coral, &c. - -[262] The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 39 and 64. - -[263] Laufer, Sino-Iranica, p. 568. - -[264] Elliot Smith, The Migration of Early Culture (London, 1915), and -The Evolution of the Dragon (London, 1919). - -[265] The other names are Jăta-rūpa, Su-varna, Harita, and Hiranya. - -[266] Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects (London, -1912), Vol. II, p. 504. See also for moon and gold, Vol. I, 254. - -[267] Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (London, 1703 Edition), -p. 243. - -[268] History of Sumer and Akkad, pp. 326–7. - -[269] Breasted, A History of Egypt, p. 48. - -[270] Breasted, A History of Egypt, p. 190. - -[271] Ibid., p. 48. - -[272] L. W. King, A History of Sumer and Akkad, pp. 74, 75. - -[273] British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age, p. 10. - -[274] British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age, p. 9. - -[275] Ibid., p. 9. - -[276] A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 74. - -[277] In the Tell-el-Amarna letters, Western-Asian monarchs are -eloquent in their requests for gold from Egypt. In one a Babylonian -king “asks for much gold” and complains that the last supply was base, -and that there was “much loss in melting”. - -[278] Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the History of -Civilization in Ancient Iran. Chicago, 1919. - -[279] Ibid., p. 185. - -[280] The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of -Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Times. Manchester, 1915. - -[281] Mrs. Hawes, Gournia, p. 33. - -[282] The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization, pp. 62–3. - -[283] Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, pp. 41 et seq. - -[284] It seems ridiculous to suggest that irrigation had origin in -mid-Asia and not in areas like the deltas of Egypt and Sumeria. - -[285] British Museum Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities, -p. 157. - -[286] Peter, Nippur II, p. 134. - -[287] Scythians and Greeks (1913), p. 280. - -[288] Chapter V. - -[289] Religion in China (London 1878, 2nd Ed.), p. 38. - -[290] British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age, p. -107. - -[291] Archæologia, p. 276. - -[292] Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. XLII, p. -279. - -[293] Religion in China, p. 6. - -[294] Jade and other stone mirrors are referred to in ancient texts. No -doubt these were religious symbols. None survives. Jade shoes are -mentioned too, but there are no surviving specimens. In Ireland bronze -shoes were worn in ancient times—perhaps in connection with religious -ceremonies. Obsidian mirrors were used in Mexico for purposes of -divination, and there were stone mirrors in Peru. - -[295] Jade: A Study in Chinese Archæology and Religion, Berthold Laufer -(Field Museum of Natural History, Publication 154, Anthropological -Series, Vol. X, Chicago, 1912, p. 23). - -[296] Laufer notes that yu included nephrite, jadeite, bowenite, and -sometimes “beautiful kinds of serpentine, agalmatolite, and -marble”.—Jade, p. 22. - -[297] Ibid., p. 29. - -[298] De Groot, The Religious System of China, Book I, pp. 275 et seq. - -[299] Jade, p. 299. - -[300] The Religious System of China, Book I, pp. 274 et seq. - -[301] Pronounced muk’ăra. - -[302] See illustrations in Professor Elliot Smith’s The Evolution of -the Dragon, pp. 88, 89. - -[303] Like the ginseng (mandrake) in the Kang-ge mountains in northern -Korea. (See Chapter XVII.) - -[304] De Groot, The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. I, pp. -272–3. - -[305] The Diamond, pp. 55, 56, n. - -[306] She is thus the divine spinner as the god Ptah of Egypt is the -divine potter. - -[307] The Syrian Goddess, Strong and Garstang (London, 1913), pp. 71, -72. - -[308] Chicago, 1915, p. 58. - -[309] The Diamond, p. 7. Lesser Fu-lin was Syria, and Greater Fu-lin -the Byzantine Empire. - -[310] Ibid., pp. 55, n. 2, 56. - -[311] The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. I, pp. 277–8. - -[312] Laufer, The Diamond, p. 22 and n. 3, and p. 69 and n. 7. - -[313] Ibid., pp. 68–9. - -[314] Laufer, Chinese Clay Figures, pp. 138, 151. - -[315] The Diamond, p. 71. - -[316] Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, p. 157, n. 1. Laufer, -Sino-Iranica, pp. 520 and 525. - -[317] The Religious System of China, Book II, Vol. IV, p. 331. - -[318] The Religious System of China, Book I, pp. 278–9. - -[319] Legend in Japanese Art, pp. 354, 355. - -[320] Legend in Japanese Art, pp. 355–6. - -[321] Ibid., p. 355. - -[322] Jade, p. 21, n. 4. - -[323] Breasted, A History of Egypt, p. 357. - -[324] Laufer, Jade, p. 299, n. 1. - -[325] Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, Vol. I, pp. 357–8. - -[326] Jade, p. 301 and n. 1. - -[327] Ibid., p. 310. - -[328] Jade, pp. 306–7. - -[329] The Religious System of China, Book I, p. 284. - -[330] The Religious System of China, Book I, p. 284. - -[331] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 332. - -[332] Legge, The Shih King, p. 395. - -[333] Ibid., p. 338. - -[334] Joly, Legend in Japanese Art, p. 297. - -[335] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 100. - -[336] The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. III, p. 962. - -[337] De Groot, op. cit., Book I, Vol. III, p. 983. - -[338] Legge, The Yi King, pp. 43–44. - -[339] The Religious System of China, Book I, p. 327. - -[340] Op. cit., p. 327. - -[341] De Groot, op. cit., p. 317. - -[342] Legge, Texts of Taoism, Vol. II, p. 265. - -[343] Legge, The Shu King, pp. 38, 39. - -[344] Teutonic Myth and Legend, p. 5. - -[345] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 330, 331. - -[346] Religion in China (London, 1878), p. 109. - -[347] Religion in China, p. 107. - -[348] Quoted by De Groot, The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. -III, p. 983. - -[349] Green and blue are interchangeable in China. - -[350] Biot, Vol. I, pp. 434, 435, quoted by Laufer in Jade, p. 120. - -[351] The Religious System of China, Book I, Part III, p. 935. - -[352] Ibid., Book I, Vol. III, p. 949. - -[353] In Scotland south-flowing water is specially good and -influential. - -[354] The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. III, pp. 949, 950. - -[355] Jade, pp. 182–3. - -[356] Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. XXI, pp. 128–9. - -[357] See Egyptian Myth and Legend, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, -Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe, and Indian Myth and Legend. - -[358] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 130. - -[359] See terra-cotta image of pig marked with stars in Schliemann’s -Troy and its Remains (translation by Smith, London, 1875), p. 232. - -[360] Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, p. 96. - -[361] Laufer, Jade (for illustrations of tigers with thunder pattern), -pp. 180–4. - -[362] De Groot, Religious System of China, Vol. I, Book I, pp. 94 and -110; Book II, pp. 5 et seq. - -[363] The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. I, p. 226, n. 2. - -[364] De Groot, op. cit., Book I, p. 72. - -[365] The Religious System of China, Book I, Vol. I, pp. 241 et seq. - -[366] See references in Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 69, 70, and -70 n. - -[367] Mrs. Bishop, Korea and Her Neighbours, Vol. II, pp. 84–5. - -[368] The Evolution of the Dragon, p. 50. - -[369] The Evolution of the Dragon, pp. 51–2. - -[370] De Groot, op. cit., p. 396, and Elliot Smith, op. cit., p. 48, -and n. 1. - -[371] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 19. - -[372] Biot, Vol. I, p. 125. - -[373] Laufer, Jade, pp. 296 et seq. - -[374] Ibid., p. 1. - -[375] Ibid., p. 296. - -[376] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 23. - -[377] Laufer, Jade, p. 1. - -[378] Legends of Babylonia and Egypt in relation to Hebrew Tradition -(The Schweich Lectures), London, 1918, pp. 56 et seq. and pp. 88 et -seq. - -[379] The Babylonian Noah, who became an immortal and lived on an -“Island of the Blest” and near the island on which were the Plant of -Life and the Well of Life. - -[380] Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, p. 205. - -[381] The Ascent of Olympus, pp. 120–1. - -[382] History of the Rhinoceros in Chinese clay figures (Field Museum -of Natural History, Publication 177), Chicago, 1914, pp. 73 et seq. - -[383] Legge, The Chinese Classics, Vol. II, p. 281. - -[384] Laufer, op. cit., pp. 160–1. - -[385] Op. cit., p. 161. - -[386] Legge, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXVII, p. 158, and Laufer, -Chinese Clay Images, p. 172. - -[387] Rhys David, Buddhism (London, 1903), p. 183. - -[388] Laufer, op. cit., p. 138. - -[389] Chinese Clay Images, pp. 150 et seq. - -[390] Like the “golden sun”. - -[391] Chinese Clay Images, pp. 152–3 and p. 153 n. 2. - -[392] The Chinese Commercial Guide, p. 95 (Hong-Kong, 1863). - -[393] Chinese Clay Images, p. 139. - -[394] Ibid., p. 108. - -[395] Referred to by the philosopher Wang Chʼung in his work Lun heng -(A.D. 82 or 83), quoted by Laufer, op. cit., p. 171 n. 3. - -[396] Schliemann’s Ilios, p. 242. - -[397] Letter to the Times, 18th December, 1879. - -[398] Laufer’s Jade, p. 2. - -[399] Jade, pp. 4–5. - -[400] Laufer’s Jade, p. 196. - -[401] Ibid., pp. 186–9. - -[402] Athenæus Deipnos, Book III, chap. xlvi; and Jackson, Shells as -Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture, p. 77. - -[403] Like rhinoceros horn. - -[404] Heber R. Bishop, Investigations and Studies in Jade (New York, -1906), Vol. I, p. 47; and A. Wylie, Notes on Chinese Literature -(Shanghai, 1901), p. 194. - -[405] The Migration of Early Culture: A Study of the Significance of -the Geographical Distribution of the Practice of Mummification, &c., -pp. 20 et seq. - -[406] Recollections of a Journey through Tartary, Tibet, and China, by -M. Huc (English translation, London, 1852), pp. 219–20. - -[407] Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, Vol. I, p. 500 et seq. - -[408] The Elder Edda, translation by O. Bray, p. 19. - -[409] Ibid., p. 51. - -[410] Ibid., p. 277. - -[411] In Norse mythology the earth trembles when Loki moves. - -[412] The “breath” which is “soul substance”. - -[413] Quoted by Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. -21–2. - -[414] Babylonian Myth and Legend, pp. 146–7. - -[415] Indian Myth and Legend, p. 95. - -[416] James Legge, The Texts of Confucianism, Part II, p. 430 (Sacred -Books of the East). - -[417] Legge, The Chinese Classics, Vol. III, Part I, p. 108. - -[418] This reference to the use of personal ornaments is highly -significant. - -[419] King, Babylonian Religion, p. 136. - -[420] Religions of Ancient China, pp. 43–44. - -[421] For a discussion on “Early Biological Theories” in this -connection see Professor G. Elliot Smith’s The Evolution of the Dragon, -pp. 26 et seq., and pp. 178 et seq. - -[422] Wells Williams, Chinese-English Dictionary, p. 1092. - -[423] The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 83–4. - -[424] De Groot, The Religious System of China; and De Visser, The -Dragon in China and Japan, p. 85. - -[425] Chinese Literature, p. 52. - -[426] King, Legends of Babylonia and Egypt (1916), p. 56. - -[427] Like the mountain-goddess of Crete. - -[428] Chinese Literature, pp. 52, 53. - -[429] Legge, Shu King, Shih King, Hsiao King (Sacred Books of the -East), Vol. III, pp. 396, 397. - -[430] Religions of Ancient China, pp. 21–3. - -[431] Religion in China (London, 1878, second edition), pp. 99 et seq. - -[432] The season controlled by the White Tiger-god of the west. - -[433] Religion in China, p. 104. - -[434] The Religious System of China, Book I, p. 959. - -[435] Indian Myth and Legend, p. 107. - -[436] Legge, The Texts of Taoism, Vol. I, pp. 370–1. - -[437] Legge, The Shu King (Sacred Books of the East), Vol. III, p. 255 -and n. 1. - -[438] Giles, Religions of Ancient China, p. 22. - -[439] Three Irish Glossaries, Whitley Stokes (London, 1862), p. lxxiii. - -[440] Legge, The Chinese Classics, Vol. III, Part I, p. 117. - -[441] Legge, The Shu King (Sacred Books of the East), pp. 64 et seq. - -[442] Boats, carriages, sledges, and spiked boots. - -[443] W. G. Old, The Shu King (London, 1904), pp. 36–7. - -[444] Legge, The Shu King, p. 139. - -[445] Legge, Ibid., p. 309. - -[446] The sky is the “dark sphere”, and the mace is therefore a -sky-mace. - -[447] Legge, The Annals of the Bamboo Book, pp. 128, 129 (The Chinese -Classics, Vol. III, Part 1). - -[448] Legge, The Shu King, n. 5, p. 269 (The Chinese Classics, Vol. -III, p. 1). Herodotus tells (Book II, chapter 122) that Pharaoh -Rhampsinitus (? Rameses) of Egypt descended to Hades and played dice -with Ceres (Isis), “sometimes winning and sometimes suffering defeat”. -A curious festival celebrated the event. - -[449] Pinkerton, A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting -Voyages and Travels (London, 1814), XVI, 696. - -[450] Legge, The Shih King, p. 397. - -[451] Legge, The Shih King, p. 398, n. - -[452] Legge, The Annals of the Bamboo Books, p. 143. - -[453] Giles, Religions of Ancient China, p. 20. - -[454] The Annals of the Bamboo Books, p. 147. - -[455] Geographical Journal, XXII, 1904, pp. 24, 176, 331, 772. - -[456] Sailing Ships and their Story, p. 310. - -[457] In Yūn-nan - -[458] Sino-Iranica, p. 469. - -[459] Pliny, XV, 11, 13, and Sino-Iranica, p. 539. - -[460] Sino-Iranica, p. 185. - -[461] King, Babylonian Religion, p. 165. - -[462] One of his names during his lifetime was Li Po-Yang: after his -death he was Li Tan. - -[463] Journal of Egyptian Archæology. - -[464] Macbeth, Act v, scene 7. - -[465] As has been stated, tea was an elixir. - -[466] “King” signifies “classic”. - -[467] Breasted, A History of Egypt, p. 357. - -[468] Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 46–7. - -[469] In Egypt the “rays” were the creative tears of the sun-god. - -[470] The Speculations in Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of “The Old -Philosopher”. - -[471] The Modern Speech New Testament (London, 1903): John, Chap. i, -verse 1 et seq. - -[472] The Ancient Faiths of China, p. 49. - -[473] History of Religions (Edinburgh, 1914), p. 49. - -[474] Christ and Other Masters, Vol. II, p. 67. - -[475] Language and Languages, pp. 184–5. Jowett, in a letter to Mrs. -Asquith in 1893, wrote, “I think also that you might put religion in -another way, as absolute resignation to the Will of God and the order -of Nature” (Autobiography of Mrs. Asquith). - -[476] The Texts of Taoism p. 13 (Sacred Books of the East). - -[477] Ibid., p. 15. - -[478] The Religious System of China, Book I, p. 936. - -[479] Rigveda, X, 129. - -[480] Indian Myth and Legend, pp. 97–9. - -[481] The Bhagavad-Gita, Book 18. - -[482] The Texts of Taoism, p. 19. - -[483] The beginnings of Alchemy can be traced back to the early -dynastic period in ancient Egypt. - -[484] The Egyptian gods Ra and Ptah similarly emerged from cosmic eggs. - -[485] Indian Myth and Legend, pp. 100–2. - -[486] Dr. Legge, Taoist Texts, p. 47. - -[487] Ibid., p. 85. - -[488] Ibid., pp. 74, 75. - -[489] Dr. Legge, Taoist Texts, p. 51. - -[490] Ascent of Olympus, p. 73. - -[491] For discussions on these gates see Elliot Smith in Journal of the -Manchester and Oriental Society (1916), and The Evolution of the -Dragon, pp. 184, 185. - -[492] Dr. Legge, Taoist Texts, p. 52. - -[493] Ibid., p. 104. - -[494] Ibid., p. 87. - -[495] Dr. Legge, Taoist Texts, pp. 94, 95. - -[496] Ibid., pp. 67–9. - -[497] Ibid., p. 82. - -[498] Ibid., p. 94. - -[499] The Texts of Taoism, p. 96. - -[500] Ibid., p. 95. - -[501] Ibid., pp. 53, 54. - -[502] Herbert A. Giles, Religions of Ancient China, p. 47. - -[503] The Texts of Taoism, p. 59. - -[504] Giles, Chuang Tzu, Mystic, Moralist, and Social Reformer. - -[505] The Texts of Taoism, pp. 92, 93. - -[506] The Texts of Taoism, p. 60. - -[507] Kwang Tze, Book VI, par. 7 (Balfour’s translation). - -[508] Analects VII, 1. - -[509] The Texts of Taoism, p. 167 n. - -[510] The Texts of Taoism (The Writings of Kwang Tze), p. 245. - -[511] The Texts of Taoism, pp. 244 et seq. - -[512] Ibid., p. 245. - -[513] The Texts of Taoism, p. 364. - -[514] Ibid., pp. 364–5. - -[515] Customs of the World, p. 380. - -[516] The terraced mound tombs of the Emperors of Japan appear to be -survivals of the ancient tombs. Although true dolmens have been found -in Korea, they do not, so far as is known, occur in Japan (Journal -Anthrop. Inst., xxiv, p. 330, and 1907, pp. 10 et seq.). - -[517] Chinese Clay Figures, p. 265, n. 3. - -[518] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. X -(supplement), p. xxxvi. - -[519] Chinese Clay Figures (Chicago, 1914), p. 265, n. 3. - -[520] Ibid., p. 271 and n. 3, p. 272 and n. 1. - -[521] In their own language Ainu-utara: “utara” is the plural suffix. -Their Japanese name is Yemishi; the Chinese came to know of them first -in A.D. 659, and called them Hia-i. A later Chinese name is Ku-hi. - -[522] Pira, “cliff”; toru, “to stay”. - -[523] Turesh, “younger sister”; machi, “wife”. - -[524] For other versions, see Hartland, The Science of Fairy Tales -(London, 1891), pp. 71 et seq. - -[525] See Index under “Melusina”. - -[526] Genesis, chapter xxxv, 4. - -[527] Elliot Smith, Distribution of Mummification: Manchester Memories, -Vol. LIX (1915), pp. 90 et seq. - -[528] Laufer, Chinese Clay Figures, p. 269. - -[529] Rendel Harris, The Ascent of Olympus, pp. 56 et seq., with its -Note on Ivy and Mugwort in Siberia, pp. 96 et seq. - -[530] Rendel Harris, op. cit., pp. 101–2. - -[531] Egyptian Myth and Legend, pp. 6 et seq. - -[532] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 143–4. - -[533] Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore. Batchelor, Notes on the -Ainu (Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan), Vol. X, pp. 206 et -seq. Milne, Notes on the Koro-pok-guru (Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan), Vol. X, pp. 187 et seq. Chamberlain, Ainu Folk-tales -(Folk-lore Society’s Publications, Vol. XXII, 1888). - -[534] Note on Ivy and Mugwort in Siberia in The Ascent of Olympus, pp. -99–100. - -[535] The god Ea of the Sumero-Babylonians. - -[536] Zipangu and Cipangu are renderings of the Chinese Jih-pên (“the -place the sun comes from”), with the word Kuo, “country”, added. The -Japanese Nihon or Nippon, and our Japan, are other renderings of the -Chinese name which was first used officially in Japan in the seventh -century A.D. Earlier Japanese names include Yamato and Ō-mi-kuni, “the -great dragon (mi) land”, &c. - -[537] Yule, The Book of Ser Marco Polo (Book III, chapter iii), Vol. -III, p. 200. Kunz, Folk-lore of Precious Stones (Memoirs Internat. -Congr. Anthrop., Chicago, 1894), pp. 147 et seq. G. A. Cooke, System of -Universal Geography, Vol. I (1801), p. 574. J. W. Jackson, Shells as -Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture (London, 1917), pp. 106 et -seq. - -[538] Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), Vol. II, pp. 95 et seq. - -[539] The Chinese dragon, K’üh-lung, originated from a sea-plant called -hai-lü. De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 72. - -[540] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 137. - -[541] The temple of the Mexican dragon- and rain-god, Tlaloc, was -called “Ep-coatl”, which signifies “pearl-serpent” or “serpent-pearl”. -Young children sacrificed to Tlaloc by being thrown into the whirlpool -(pan tit lan) of the lake of Mexico, were also called “Ep-coatl”. This -sacrifice took place at the water festival in the first month of the -Mexican year. The infants were sacrificed at several points, some being -butchered on holy hills, including the “place of mugwort”, sacred to -the mugwort and gem-goddess Chalchihuitlicue, wife of Tlaloc. But only -the children thrown into the lake were called “Ep-coatl”. - -[542] Shinto (London, 1905), pp. 27 et seq. - -[543] This does not seem to be the reason for the sanctity of a round -object. - -[544] Or shaped like the teeth of tigers or bears. - -[545] Archæologia, 1897 (The Dolmens and Burial Mounds in Japan), p. -478. - -[546] Legend in Japanese Art, pp. 354–6. - -[547] Ancestor of the Mikado. - -[548] Goddess of the Sun. - -[549] Legend in Japanese Art, pp. 350–1. - -[550] The Maga-tama and the Kuda-tama. - -[551] Jade, pp. 353–4. - -[552] Ise is the name of a province, and the nearest town to the -“Mecca” is Yamada. - -[553] Shinto (1905), pp. 231–2. - -[554] See Index under Artemis. - -[555] The temple of the sun-goddess is called Naiku, and that of the -food-goddess Geku. These temples are of wood, with thatched roofs. -Every twenty years the buildings are renewed. - -[556] Shinto, p. 38. - -[557] Shinto (1907), pp. 15–6. - -[558] King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 35, and 174 et seq. - -[559] Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 72–3. - -[560] Ibid., p. 95. - -[561] Aston, Shinto (1907), p. 14. - -[562] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 99 et seq. - -[563] Shinto (1907), p. 6. - -[564] Here we have the sanctity of jewels and other so-called -“ornaments” brought out very clearly. - -[565] Aston, Shinto (1907), pp. 6–7. - -[566] The Dragon in China and Japan. - -[567] See Chapter XX. - -[568] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 26. The Texts -referred to are: “His brother Set felled him to the earth in Nedyt.... -Osiris was drowned in his new water (the inundation).” - -[569] De Dea Syria, Chapter VIII. - -[570] Breasted, op. cit., p. 20. Osiris was addressed: “Thou art great, -thou art green, in thy name of Great Green (Sea); lo, thou art round as -the Great Circle (Okeanos); lo, thou art turned about, thou art round -as the circle that encircles the Haunebu (Ægeans)”. - -[571] Ibid., 22–3. - -[572] For various versions of this legend see Hartland, Legend of -Perseus and River deities in Index. - -[573] King, Babylonian Religion, p. 77. - -[574] See Index under Ymir and Pʼan Ku. - -[575] A translation into English of the Ko-ji-ki, by Professor B. H. -Chamberlain, was printed as a supplement to Vol. X of the Transactions -of the Asiatic Society of Japan (1893). The Nihon-gi was translated -into English by Dr. Aston, and printed in the Transactions of the Japan -Society for 1896. - -[576] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, pp. 1 et seq. - -[577] Like the Floating Island or Islands of the Blest. - -[578] “Hid their persons” signifies, according to some commentators, -that they died. But certain Egyptian deities were “hidden”; their -influence remained: the Japanese hidden deity had a “mi-tama” (soul). - -[579] Eight is a sacred number in Japan. - -[580] See Myths of Crete and pre-Hellenic Europe, pp. 305–9. - -[581] Shinto (1905), p. 90. - -[582] He is the green falcon of the Morning Star in the Pyramid Texts. - -[583] The Dawn of Astronomy (London, 1894), pp. 383 et seq. - -[584] Shinto (1905), p. 132. - -[585] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 137. - -[586] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 136–7; and Florenz, -Japanische Mythologie, Chap. III, p. 33. - -[587] Japanische Mythologie, p. 46. - -[588] De Visser, op. cit., pp. 135–6. - -[589] Shinto (1905), p. 73. - -[590] See Index under wani. - -[591] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 140. - -[592] Ibid., pp. 141–2. - -[593] De Visser, op. cit., pp. 139–40. - -[594] De Visser, op. cit., pp. 147 et seq. - -[595] Aston, Shinto (1905), p. 56 and pp. 219–20. - -[596] The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 231 et seq. - -[597] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. X -(supplement), p. 34. - -[598] The spirits of disease, decay, destruction, and darkness. - -[599] This phallic symbol had, apparently, like jade, rhinoceros-horn, -&c., nocturnal luminosity. - -[600] Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. VI, Part III, pp. -455–6. - -[601] For representative versions in various lands, see Andrew Lang’s -Custom and Myth (A Far-travelled Tale), pp. 87 et seq. - -[602] Or “Flat Hill of Hades”, the frontier line between the land of -the living and the land of the dead. - -[603] In the Ainu story about the man who visited the Underworld and -was transformed into a snake, a pine tree, inhabited by a goddess, -occupies the spot on which grows the peach tree in this Japanese myth. - -[604] The Japanese Persephone. - -[605] “Susa-no-wo” for short. - -[606] Things Japanese, p. 145. - -[607] Shinto (1905), p. 141. - -[608] Shinto (1905), p. 137. - -[609] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 153–4. - -[610] Shinto (1905), p. 140. - -[611] Indian Myth and Legend, pp. 14, 15, 24, 64, 65. - -[612] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, pp. 83 et seq. - -[613] Ibid., p. 15. - -[614] The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 121. - -[615] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 156 et seq. - -[616] De Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, p. 13. - -[617] The modern Omi, Afumi (Aha-humi), “Fresh-water Lake”: -Chamberlain, Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. X -(supplement), p. 45, n. 12. - -[618] That is, the elder brother of her family. He was really younger -than herself. - -[619] As the Babylonian Nergal wrested Hades from Eresh-ki-gal -(Persephone). - -[620] The so-called “comma-shaped” beads, which represented the claws -of tigers or bears, or a cut sea-shell. - -[621] The “Milky Way” by night, also called the “Heavenly River of -Eight currents (or ‘reaches’)”. - -[622] The ancient Egyptian Celestial Pool of the Gods. - -[623] Each jewel was eight feet long. - -[624] The “hohi of Heaven”. What “hohi” signifies is a puzzle. - -[625] Shinto (1905), p. 172. - -[626] Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 23. - -[627] Shinto (1905), p. 174. Professor Benoy K. Sarkar compares Shiva -to Osiris. See The Folk-Element in Hindu Culture (London, 1917), p. 7. - -[628] In Ancient Egypt the mountain that splits when the sun emerges at -dawn. - -[629] The tree Sakaki (Cleyera japonica) planted beside Shinto shrines. - -[630] The dance was a gross and indelicate one. - -[631] This rope (shime-naha) is tied round trees at Shinto shrines. At -Ise it stretches across a ravine, through which the sun is seen and -adored at dawn. The straw is pulled up by the roots. - -[632] The modern hohodzuki (Physalis Alkekengi). - -[633] De Groot refers to a “venerable” Chinese dragon living in a pond; -it had nine heads and eighteen tails, and “ate nothing but fever -demons”. The Religious System of China, Vol. VI, p. 1053. Another -dragon is 1000 miles long; his breath causes wind; when he opens his -eyes it is day, and when he closes them it is night. De Visser, The -Dragon in China and Japan, p. 62. - -[634] In the Nihon-gi this sword is called Ama no-hawe-giri (the -heavenly fly-cutter). - -[635] Idzumo is the next holiest place to Ise. The god had other names -including Oho-kuni-nushi (“Great Land Master”). - -[636] An incident that recalls the Diarmid story in Scottish and Irish -Gaelic folk-tales. - -[637] One of the first three deities, the children of Heaven and Earth. - -[638] The Arca inflata. - -[639] The Cytherea meretrix. - -[640] Chamberlain, in his translation of the Ko-ji-ki (p. 70), says -“the meaning is that a paste like milk was made of the triturated and -calcined shell mixed with water”. Mother (omo) may be read as “nurse” -too. Mrs. Carmichael, widow of Dr. Alexander Carmichael, the Scottish -folk-lorist, informs me that in the Outer Hebrides women burn and grind -cockle-shells to make a “lime water” for delicate children. The clam is -likewise used. The ancient Japanese and ancient Hebrideans may have -received this folk-medicine from the ancient seafarers who searched for -shells and metals. - -[641] This was a magical act. He rendered himself invisible. - -[642] The “sounding arrow” with a whistling contrivance made of bone. -It was known in China during the Tʼang Dynasty, and was used by hunters -to make birds rise, and by soldiers to scare enemies. Laufer thinks the -Japanese sounding arrows were of Chinese origin.—Chinese Clay Figures, -p. 224, n. 4. - -[643] Or a rat. - -[644] Here one is tempted to see mouse-Apollo, or the mouse of the -Homeric Apollo who shoots the arrows of disease. The mice that strip -the arrows of their feathers may be the arresters of disease. Mouse -medicine is of great antiquity in Egypt. - -[645] “Divine messages,” says Chamberlain, “were conveyed through a -person playing on the lute.” The language of the “lute” was thus like -the “language of birds”. - -[646] This is a Far Eastern version of the Jack-and-the-Beanstalk -story. - -[647] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. X -(supplement), p. 81. - -[648] Native commentators say “goose” or “wren”; some consider that -owing to a copyist’s error “insect” has been changed to bird, and that -the reading should be “moth” or “silk-worm moth” or “fire insect”. - -[649] Some think this plant is one that bears a berry three or four -inches long, and that the boat was a scooped-out berry. - -[650] This is not Yomi, but either the Chinese Paradise of the West or -the Paradise of the Buddhists. - -[651] A Chinese phrase signifying anciently the Chinese world or -empire. The “Crumbling Deity” may be the “leech-child”, or the -caterpillar worshipped by a Japanese cult. - -[652] See Index. - -[653] This is his posthumous name. During his life he was -Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko. - -[654] The golden crow of the sun had three legs. In the moon was the -jewelled hare. - -[655] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. X -(supplement), p. 199, n. 5. - -[656] Chamberlain, Things Japanese, p. 57. - -[657] Polynesian Researches (First Edition, 1829), p. 327. - -[658] Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia (1861), p. 237. - -[659] Batchelor, Notes on the Ainu (Transactions of the Asiatic Society -of Japan, Vol. X), p. 218. - -[660] Nira, the Allium odorum. - -[661] Tilia cordata. See Chamberlain’s Ko-ji-ki, pp. 102 n. 26, and -215. - -[662] An evil rain which did harm like the evil rain sent by a sick or -an angry and destroying dragon. - -[663] The moor of the waterfall of the River Yoro in Mino. - -[664] Apparently the sword would have protected him against the fatal -enchantment wrought by the white boar-god of Mount Ibuki. - -[665] Chidori, a dotteril, plover, or sandpiper. - -[666] As a god’s mi-tama rests in a temple to be worshipped. - -[667] His posthumous title. During life he was called Hachiman. - -[668] Customs of the World (Japan), pp. 380 et seq. - -[669] Chinese Clay Figures, Part I, p. 272 (Field Museum of Natural -History, Publication 177; Anthropological Series, Vol. XIII, No. 2). -Chicago, 1914. - -[670] Jade, p. 57. - - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |