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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..159850e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67333 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67333) diff --git a/old/67333-0.txt b/old/67333-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ae212ec..0000000 --- a/old/67333-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1733 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Native Races of British North -America, by W. D. Hambly - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Native Races of British North America - -Author: W. D. Hambly - -Release Date: February 6, 2022 [eBook #67333] - -Language: English - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIVE RACES OF BRITISH -NORTH AMERICA *** - - - - - - _Native Races of the British Empire_ - - - THE NATIVE RACES OF - BRITISH NORTH AMERICA - - - - - THE NATIVE RACES OF - BRITISH NORTH AMERICA - - BY - - W. D. HAMBLY, F.R.A.I., B.Sc. - (RESEARCH DEGREE, OXON.) - - OXFORD DIPLOMA IN ANTHROPOLOGY - ASSISTANT ANATOMIST IN THE WELLCOME RESEARCH EXPEDITION - TO THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN, 1913-14 - - HUMPHREY MILFORD - OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - LONDON, EDINBURGH, GLASGOW - TORONTO, MELBOURNE, CAPE TOWN, BOMBAY - 1920 - - [Illustration: NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN CHIEF.] - - - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY - MORRISON & GIBB LTD., EDINBURGH - - - - -PREFACE - - -During recent years there has been a very happy tendency to change the -nature of geographical teaching from a monotonous memorising of the -names of natural features to a subject of living interest. - -In the endeavour to effect this change there has been a serious -omission in our failure to appeal to natural interests of children by -making the human element a central feature of geographical work. - -A study of the picturesque lives of native races of the British -Empire is an absolute essential if the teacher wishes to impart the -appropriate colour and setting to a subsequent course of economic, -regional, and political geography. - -The sharp contrast between European beliefs and customs and those of -primitive people is in itself an incentive to study and interest. -In addition to this, a sympathetic understanding of the many native -races who are controlled by English statesmanship is necessary for the -material and moral progress of dominions in the British Empire. - - W. D. HAMBLY. - - - - - CONTENTS PAGE - - - CHAPTER I - - THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE 9 - - - CHAPTER II - - SOME OCCUPATIONS OF INDIAN TRIBES 16 - - - CHAPTER III - - SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES 22 - - - CHAPTER IV - - THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO 28 - - - CHAPTER V - - THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER 36 - - - CHAPTER VI - - TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 52 - - - [Illustration: Map of the northern U.S. and Canada with - names of native tribes] - - - - - NATIVE TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE - - -The “Old World” was startled in 1493 by the great navigator Columbus, -who returned with wonderful narratives concerning the “New World” of -North America, whose native population he called “Indians” because, -strange as it may seem to us, he thought that by sailing west he must -come to the land of India. At the present day scientists are at a loss -to account for the origin of Eskimo and North American Indian tribes; -sometimes the former are connected with the European cave dwellers, -who did such beautiful work in bone and ivory toward the end of the -old Stone Age. Whatever may have been the origin of countless numbers -of Indians, comprising hundreds of tribes, we may be certain that they -had inhabited the continent from a very remote period, for in very deep -old layers of soil one may find stone axes and arrowheads, which are -side by side with human remains and the bones of extinct species of the -horse. - -Not one little book, but many large ones, would be required in order -to give an account of all the Eskimo and Indian tribes of British North -America, to say nothing of the vast numbers of tribes watched over by -the United States. So we shall have to content ourselves with a glimpse -at the lives of a few tribes inhabiting country which lies between the -extreme north of North America and a boundary line passing from the -south of Vancouver Island through the Great Lakes, to the south of the -St. Lawrence estuary. - -Eskimo tribes on the west coast of Greenland are under Danish rule, -while Eskimo and Indian people of Alaska are subject to control by the -U.S.A. Hence we shall concern ourselves chiefly with the “Central” -Eskimo of Hudson Bay, Baffin Land, Davis Strait, and Labrador; while -with regard to Indian tribes we may select just a few of those which -lie wholly, or to some great extent, within British territory. - -[Illustration: A NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN.] - -Although Eskimo tribes are to be found from Behring Strait to -Greenland, and Indians anywhere between Vancouver Island and -Newfoundland, the appearance of peoples in widely separated tribes is -very much the same. All the Eskimo are short of stature (average height -5 ft. 2 in.), well built and sturdy, while the skin colour is a dark -yellowish brown, not unlike the shade that characterises the Southern -European. In some respects the Eskimo is not unlike an inhabitant of -Mongolia, for at once a traveller would notice the broad face, high -cheek bones, straight black hair, and oblique eyes. The head of an -Eskimo is long in proportion to the breadth, and the very high vault -enables a student to pick out an Eskimo skull from a great number -of those belonging to other races. The North American Indians, too, -are very uniform in appearance, and a native taken from one place -could easily be mistaken for an inhabitant of some region far away; -for in almost all cases there is the broad face, long well-shaped -nose, and pointed chin. To speak of a “Red” Indian gives quite a -wrong impression, for the skin is of a coppery brown, with a kind of -underlying red tinge. The hair is usually long, straight, and black, -but in British Columbia, and amongst the Déné, a reddish shade of hair -is not uncommon, while among Salish tribes of the Pacific Coast the -hair may be wavy or slightly curled. - -Of all the native tribes of British North America the Eskimo have -by far the hardest and most unpleasant life, because they have no -vegetable foods, cannot practise agriculture, and are entirely -dependent on the products of hunting expeditions, which for nine months -out of twelve are undertaken in bitterly cold weather, and among dreary -wastes of snow. Indians such as the “Haida” of Queen Charlotte Islands, -the “Kwakiutl” of Vancouver, and some of the “Salish” and “Déné” tribes -of British Columbia, are most fortunate on account of a warm temperate -climate and an abundant supply of various animal and vegetable foods. - -To the west of the Rocky Mountains lies a hilly, well-wooded country, -abounding with game such as deer, foxes, bears, hares, beavers, -squirrels, while birds are plentiful, and delicious salmon may be -obtained from the Fraser River and its tributaries. Of all trees the -cedar has been most useful to the coastal tribes, for it is to them -what the cocoa-nut palm is to the people inhabiting the South Sea -Islands. From the wood of cedar trees, houses and canoes are made, -while clothing may be manufactured from the inner bark; and there is -no part of this useful tree which is not put to some good purpose. -Basket work is very cleverly woven with strands of different colours -representing geometrical patterns, people, and objects. It may be -thought that the outlines of human and animal figures are too stiff, -but one must remember that the rigid nature of the basket work compels -the worker to make straight lines. - -[Illustration: BASKET-WORK HAT: WHALING SCENE INWOVEN. WOOTKA -SOUND, N. W. AMERICA.] - -Some drawings of animals are provided with human, or almost human -faces. This is done, not because the worker is unskilful, but because -he believes that spirits of his ancestors may dwell in animals. -Therefore the human and animal features are combined in sketches, -tattooing, and masks. - -Very different from British Columbia is a vast stretch of country from -the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains to the shores of Hudson Bay. -Here are to be found many branches of the Déné Indians under the names -of “Beavers,” “Dog Ribs,” and “Yellow Knives,” who have figured in -many a story of breathless adventure; and it is with this snow-clad -trappers’ country that Jack London has dealt in several of his novels. -On the southern shore of Hudson Bay the Algonkin Indians have come into -contact with Eskimo peoples, but nowhere are the two very friendly. To -the south of the Algonkins are the Lakes Superior, Erie, and Ontario, -in which region live the remnants of such important tribes as the -Huron, Iroquois, and Mohawks; the last named have been the heroes of -many a story book. In the year 1858 all Indian tribes came under the -charge of a special department of the Dominion Government, which set -aside certain localities for their use. Naturally the natives changed -very rapidly when in contact with Europeans, so that to-day they are -not the wild people described by such travellers as Fraser, Vancouver, -and Mackenzie, who explored the North-West Territories between the -years 1793 and 1808. Indian dress, weapons, canoes, carving, religious -songs, and dances are still extremely common, and in the United States -there is a special department of the Government concerned with the -publication of books describing the lives of Indian tribes. - -Mr. C. Hill-Tout, who has spent much time in observing the Indian -tribes of the Pacific Coast of British North America, says: “There -is no doubt in my mind that the present Salish population of about -12,000 does not represent nearly a fifth of the population of this -stock at the time of Simon Fraser’s visit to them. One tribe alone, -the ‘Lukungen,’ whose settlements are at the south-eastern end of -Vancouver’s Island, was estimated in 1859 to number 8500. To-day -they could not muster 200, or less than one-fortieth of their former -numbers.”... “That dying race the Haida of Queen Charlotte’s Islands -numbered, in 1840, 8328. Twenty years ago that number had dwindled to -2000, and to-day the native population of these small islands is about -700.” Perhaps it is safe to say that the total native population of -British North America is only one-tenth part of what it was a hundred -years ago. Alcohol, small-pox, and pneumonia have caused a heavy death -rate, in addition to which the easier lives, and the adoption of a -good deal of European clothing, have made the natives less robust, and -therefore an easy prey to all forms of sickness. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -SOME OCCUPATIONS OF INDIAN TRIBES - - -At many points along the shores of British Columbia the traveller may -notice the large strongly-built dwellings of the coast Salish, who -are experts in splitting stout logs from the cedar tree by means of -implements made from the horns of the elk and wood of maple trees. Such -large dwellings, some of which had a length of over 200 feet, were, of -course, occupied by more than one family, and as a rule there were at -least half a dozen hearths, each belonging to one of several closely -related families who occupied the same large dwelling. The interior -of the building was divided into rooms by curtains manufactured from -reeds or grasses; temporary screens of this kind were easily removed -when the whole room was required for winter dancing festivities, which -were generally connected with religious beliefs. Extending all round -the walls of the hut was a low platform, which, covered with skins and -blankets made from hair of dogs and mountain goats, served as a most -comfortable bed, while on its under side could be stored dried fish, -roots and berries collected during summer, and vast quantities of fir -cones and firewood. Such stores were frequently hidden in the forest, -for years ago, before the Canadian police were known, large bands of -fierce Indians, named “Kwakiutl,” from Vancouver Island preyed upon the -quieter coast Salish, carrying off their women, children, and stores. -Even now, says a missionary named Father Morice, the Déné are afraid of -the fierce, warlike tribes who paddled their long canoes for many miles -up the Fraser River. - -The only pieces of furniture worth mentioning are large treasure chests -constructed from planks of cedar firmly held by wooden rivets, so that -the joints are quite watertight. Such boxes held blankets, costumes -worn at dances, and other treasures, of which a chief owned a vast -supply. - -Salish tribes of the interior had two sets of dwellings, a heavy timber -one for winter use, and for summer a light cool structure made by -stretching mats over a wooden framework. A similar summer habitation is -made by the northern Déné tribes, whose pointed tent has the appearance -of a true Indian “wigwam,” and at the present time an encampment of -these tribes has the same appearance as it had a century ago, when -visited by the great explorer Sir Alexander Mackenzie. - -Of equal importance with the building of houses is the manufacture of -clothing, for which all Indian tribes have an abundance of raw material -obtained during hunting excursions. The moose--which by the way is a -domestic animal and beast of burden among the northern Déné--furnishes -a good hide, which along with deerskin can be made into strong -trousers and leggings, or into shoes named “moccasins.” Blankets, -forming a covering for the shoulders and body, are made from wool of -the mountain goat, and in some cases, down from ducks is interwoven -with the fabric, which is made by use of the old-fashioned spindle. -Among the interior Salish a man usually possesses a shirt, trousers, -leggings, moccasins, and cap. The shirt and trousers are generally -made ornamental by fringes of deerskin, while to the moccasins are -added dyed porcupine quills, goose feathers, or horse hair. Winter -socks are made from skins of the bear, buffalo, or deer, but in summer -these are replaced by lighter socks, manufactured from grass and -cedar bark. Small animals, such as the fox, lynx, hawk, and beaver, -furnish material suitable for caps, and among the “Thompson” Indians -a man always made a cap from the covering of what an Indian calls his -“totem,” that is, an animal which he believes to be his own special -friend and helper. - -The summer dress[1] worn by women did not differ much from that of the -men, save that it was longer, and usually ornamented with claws and -teeth of the beaver. A chief’s dress was very elaborate, and the most -interesting part of his costume consisted of a cap made from the hair -of women from noble families. Most boys are acquainted with tattooing, -which is very common amongst soldiers and sailors nowadays. A favourite -Indian pastime was the tattooing of figures representing animals; -and sometimes the chin, forehead, or cheeks would be ornamented with -tattooed designs of some animal, usually the “manitou,” or creature -which a boy selected for his companion and guardian through life. - -A good many occupations are connected with the food supply, and -everywhere near the coast or the banks of Fraser River there are -Indians busy catching, cleaning, drying, and extracting oil from fish, -among which the salmon is most prized. Gathering quantities of roots, -berries, and nuts is a favourite occupation with women and children, -who are made responsible for laying in large quantities of vegetable -food for winter. While men are occupied with hunting and fishing, women -collect roots of the cedar tree, and from the bark of these baskets of -varied patterns are neatly manufactured. Human and animal designs are -interwoven with pieces of coloured fibre in such a way as to give an -ornamental effect, though the Indian’s idea is not merely decoration, -but a desire to portray the animal helpers which he holds in reverence. -Very light vessels may be made from bark of birch and spruce trees; -some hold several gallons, and may be held on the back by leather -thongs, one of which passes round the forehead of the carrier. Canoes -of birch bark are so light that they can be carried across land for -several miles, and travellers have many times crossed from Hudson Bay -to Vancouver chiefly by use of these light portable canoes. - -The manufacture of bows and arrows is an important undertaking, for on -these the hunter’s life and food supply entirely depend. Very great -care is taken in providing a bow string which will not be affected by -damp, and after threads of sinew have been neatly plaited into one -strand, the whole is rubbed with glue from the sturgeon, or perhaps -with gum from the black pine tree. Some tribes provided the end of the -bow with a sharply pointed stone, so that the implement could be used -as a thrusting spear when an animal came to close quarters, and the -hunter had not time to fit another arrow. Willow and mountain maple are -tough, elastic woods suitable for the bow, which is always strengthened -by a layer of sinew, cherry-tree bark, or snake skin, which is glued -to the wood. Barbed and leaf-shaped arrow or spear points are used -for hunting and warfare. Rock crystal, quartz, and a hard, dark, -shiny stone named obsidian are most serviceable for weapons; poison -made from fangs of the rattlesnake is used as a varnish for these -stone arrow points, so the hunter must be very careful that he does -not scratch himself when fitting an arrow to the bow. Metal plays an -ever increasing part in the Indian’s outfit, but there are still many -knives, daggers, war clubs, spears, and tomahawks, in the manufacture -of which sharpened stone is employed. “Tomahawk” means a skull cracker, -and no better name could have been employed, for this implement pecks -out a little circular hole in the skull, and many graves have been -opened in which the skeleton shows plainly by what instrument the fatal -blow was delivered. No stone implement is more prized than the hammer, -which takes a great deal of chipping and rubbing from hard stone. -During long evenings men will sit round the fire talking and polishing -their hammers, merely rubbing with the palms of the hands; the -implements take a very smooth gloss, and are handed down from father to -son for many generations. - -[Illustration: NORTH AMERICAN IMPLEMENTS, WEAPONS, ETC. - - 1. Necklet of Wampum (shell) and bear’s claw. - 2. A pipe-tomahawk. - 3. A stone club-head. - 4. Wooden comb representing a beast. - 5. A peace-pipe. - 6. A spiked tomahawk (skull cracker). - 7. A stone-bladed axe. - 8, 9, 10. Wooden masks from Vancouver Island. These represent the - spirits of a beaver, a cannibal, and an eagle; they are worn during - dances held in honour of these spirits. - 11, 12, 13, 14. Fish-hooks. No. 11 is made of stone and wood; No. 12 - is tipped with a bird’s claw; No. 13 is for halibut, and is tipped - with bone; No. 14 is wood tipped with bone. - 15. Rattle of puffin beaks used in dances by the Haida of Queen - Charlotte Islands.] - -[1] For details of customs which still survive, also for information -concerning practices which have fallen into disuse, see books -recommended for the teacher’s reference library. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES - - -Every boy is familiar with the arrangement of Boy Scouts, who name -themselves the “Beavers,” “Lions,” “Bears,” or “Eagles”; and, strange -to say, there is a similar practice among many savage peoples in -America, Australia, and the Pacific region, though primitive tribes -have many strange beliefs which we do not hear of among boys who take -animals as their emblems. - -One of the Déné tribes is divided into halves, the people of one -division being “Bears,” while the others are all “Birds.” Now it is -so ordered that a man or woman of the “Bear” division may not marry -any one from his or her own half of the tribe; a person belonging to -the “Bears” must always marry into the “Bird” clan, and an individual -in the “Bird” division must select a partner from the “Bears.” The -Indians cannot explain how this order originated; they say it always -has been so and must remain. Some go so far as to declare that animals, -who were their ancestors, ordered this tribal division, and laid down -the rules for marriage. The missionary, Father Morice, tells us that -among another Déné tribe named “Carriers,” there are four of these -animal clans, namely, the Grouse, Beaver, Toad, and Grizzly Bear. -People of the Grizzly Bear clan think that they themselves, also their -ancestors, are closely connected with the Bear in some mysterious way. -They respect the animal, and apologise to him when it is necessary to -kill him in order to get food and clothing. The bear is thought to -have a spirit which would haunt the “Bear” clan if the animal were not -treated respectfully. Some Indian hunters who will have no respect for -an animal belonging to some other clan, sit by the dead bear, their own -totem animal, and smoke the pipe of peace, which implies that there is -a good feeling between the hunter and his dead bear, whose spirit will -not take revenge. - -In addition to this animal “totem,” which serves as a badge for the -clan, a boy always has his own special personal “totem,” which he -obtains in the following way. At the age of fourteen he is subject to -very harsh treatment, being beaten frequently, and driven to bathe -in cold water on winter mornings. Then there is among some tribes a -“sweat-bath,” which a boy enters in order to perspire out all his -badness, while starvation and solitude in the woods are thought to be -necessary before a boy is turned into a man who can have a “totem” -animal. It is during this starvation and fasting in the woods that the -boy dreams of some animal, or, as he puts it, “the ghost of the animal -comes to him while he is asleep,” and the first creature which appears -is his “totem,” to whom he prays when in danger and trouble. The youth -must rise at once, and after killing one of his “totem” animals, he -makes a little bag which is worn like a charm round the neck. Should -this “medicine bag” be lost, the youth is disgraced until he has killed -an enemy, and stolen his opponent’s skin bag. A chief may have more -than one “totem” animal, and outside a house, say of the Haida Indians, -one may see a high pole on which are carried the portraits of totem -animals belonging to all who dwell within the hut. Tattooing portraits -of “totem” animals on the hands and face is very common, especially -among the Haida of Queen Charlotte Islands. - -[Illustration: TOTEM POLE, 38 FT. HIGH, HAIDA, QN. CHARLOTTE IS. (now in -Brit. Mus.).] - -Winter dances in honour of animals are very common, and at these -festivities, masks in the form of animals are worn, while people -caper round in imitation of the movements of their own particular -totem. A very important social gathering among Salish tribes is named -“potlatch,” at which presents of great value are given away by a -chief who wishes to become very famous. People crowd to the top of -the long cedar-wood huts, and for days there is a distribution of -skins, horses, clothing, blankets, canoes, and every other form of -wealth. About twenty-five years ago a great chief of Vancouver Island -gave a “potlatch” to 2500 persons from different tribes. The guests -were feasted for over a month, and the savings of five years were -distributed; so no wonder the chief who is wealthy and a great warrior -readily becomes the judge and lawgiver in Indian society. - -Slaves, usually people taken in war, were at one time common, and very -miserable was their lot, for they were regarded as being no better -than dogs, and any man might put his slaves to death for a trifling -offence. Mr. Hill-Tout, who knows the Indians well, says: “Slavery -has, of course, been abolished since they came under our rule, but the -descendants of those formerly slaves are still looked down upon and -despised by the other Indians.” - -The North-Western tribes had no belief in a Supreme Being, or in God -Who made the universe, though they did think of a soul, spirit, or -ghost which could survive after the body was killed. Not only people, -but animals, and even weapons and articles of clothing, were thought -to have a ghost which went to some other world when the creature was -killed or the article broken. The Thompson Indians were very much -afraid of the spirits of deer, and they always took care to bury with -respect all such parts of the carcase as were not required. One way of -keeping friendly with the bear spirits was to hang the skull of the -animal on a tree, and all who took part in the ceremony were expected -to join in a chorus praising bears, while each performer was expected -to paint his face. The “medicine man,” “shaman,” or shall we say -priest, is most important among Déné tribes, for this peculiar person -goes into a deep sleep or trance in which he is supposed to visit the -world of spirits, who tell him how to cure sick people. So clever is -the “shaman” thought to be, that he is held quite capable of chasing a -soul which has left the body, and when the truant soul is caught, he -goes through a performance of returning it to the dying person. A man -who is very ill indeed will sometimes recover just because he has such -great faith in the medicine man, whose power he trusts absolutely. - -Burial is performed in various ways: the body may be left on a staging -concealed in the boughs of a tree, or the tomb may be a hut which was -specially constructed for the dying person, or perhaps his remains are -cremated. Whatever method is adopted, there is always the greatest fear -of death and a return of haunting spirits, which can be kept away only -by the observance of certain superstitious practices. The mourners -must not eat meat for several days, then they are not to cut it with a -knife. The encampment where death takes place is sometimes deserted, -and what is most important, the name of the dead must not be mentioned, -for the ghost may think he is called if he hears his name. - -Social gatherings are made happy by the narration of stories which -refer to the lives and adventures of animals. Here is one concerning -a sea-gull and a raven: the former bird is credited with having kept -daylight in a large box until a raven induced him to open the lid. -After lighting torches and searching the seashore, the raven returned -carrying prickly eggs of the sea urchin, which he strewed before the -house of the sea-gull. Next day he made a call on the sea-gull, and -found him in bed with his feet full of prickles, which the raven -volunteered to take out with a knife. When the operation was in -progress, Master Raven said: “You must open the lid of your box and -let out some daylight, for I cannot see what I am doing.” So the gull -opened the lid a little way, and the visitor continued taking out -prickles from the sea-gull’s feet. At last the little bit of daylight -was exhausted, and once more the raven asked for more light in order to -continue his work. Very reluctantly the sea-gull opened the lid of his -“daylight” box, but on this occasion the raven was too quick for him, -and forced the lid right open, with the result that daylight rushed -out, spread all over the world, and could not be gathered in again. - -Sea-gull was very much distressed, bitterly he cried, and to-day -the Indians say that sea birds flit along the shore, uttering their -plaintive cries because of the trick played by the raven so many years -ago. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO - - -Long before daybreak the Eskimo housewife rises, and at once supplies -the lamp with a new wick and more blubber; and while the breakfast of -seal’s flesh is being prepared, the hunter removes the block of snow -constituting a door; then, making his way along the under-snow passage -where the sleeping dogs lie, he emerges into the open, at which point a -piercing Arctic wind greets him. The sledge is cut loose from its ice -fetters, and the dogs are harnessed ready for an immediate start. - -The women who stay at home are occupied in making boots and clothing -by sewing skins of the seal, reindeer, or walrus; children and puppies -have to be fed and played with; then, of course, there is the hunter’s -evening meal to prepare: the raw liver of a seal caught during the day -is regarded as a great delicacy. A strange superstition demands that -women shall do no work while the spoils are being unloaded from the -sledge, for it is thought that the supreme goddess Sedna, who created -all sea animals, will be extremely angry if some mark of respect is -not shown to her dead creatures. Seal and walrus soups constitute the -first part of the evening meal, but of these the women do not partake, -and as a rule they share only in the last course, consisting of large -quantities of frozen meat. The soup is generally passed round in a -large horn cup, from which each takes a drink, a proceeding which is -followed by the introduction of a large mass of meat that is passed -round and bitten by each in turn. A person retiring to rest always -takes the precaution of leaving meat near the snow couch, so that he -may refresh himself if awake during the night. The Eskimo are, of -course, hunters and nothing more; upon animal life they depend entirely -for food, clothing, weapons, and locomotion; the cold is intense, the -hours of work long and laborious, so it comes to pass that enormous -quantities of animal food are essential. - -[Illustration: AN ESKIMO MAN.] - -An American explorer who spent many evenings with the Eskimo, who -are very hospitable, says: “The men visit one another and spend the -evening in talking, singing, gambling, and telling stories. The events -of the day are talked over, success in hunting is compared, the hunting -tools requiring mending are set in order, and the lines are dried and -softened. Some busy themselves in cutting new ivory implements and seal -lines.... During these social visits, the host places a large lump of -frozen meat and a knife on the side bench behind the lamp, and every -one is welcome to help himself to as much as he likes. The first comers -sit down on the ledge, while those entering later stand or squat in the -passage. When any one addresses the whole assembly, he always turns his -face to the wall, and avoids facing the listeners.” The young children -are not required to go to bed early, so they have a good time playing -on the snow couches, which are covered with skins. - -“The women sit on the bed in front of their lamps, with their legs -under them, working continually on their own clothing or on that of -the men, drying the wet foot-gear and mittens, and softening the -leather by chewing and rubbing. If there is a litter of pups, it is the -women’s business to look after them, to keep them warm, and to feed -them regularly. Generally the pups are put into small harness, and are -allowed to crawl about the side of the bed, where they are tied to the -wall by a trace.” - -Games, such as cat’s-cradle and gambling with dice, are numerous; there -is no money among the Eskimo, trade is by barter, so when gambling, -the stakes are articles of clothing, weapons, and food. Several -summer games are played with a ball of deerskin, which is thrown among -players, who keep it in motion by means of whips or blows from the -hand, the object frequently being to prevent the ball from touching the -ground; meanwhile various merry little songs are sung. Toy sledges, -kayaks, bows, and dolls are very popular with the children, who soon -make a wooden figure clad in a little pair of deerskin trousers, which -are a good imitation of the clothing of their own parents. - -Winter, during which all bays and inlets are frozen, is a good time for -visiting friends, because a sledge journey over the ice is a very easy -means of travelling many miles. A journey of 100 miles is not uncommon, -and when so great a distance has been accomplished, the visitors make a -long stay of almost a year, though it is understood that they must help -readily with all the hunting and domestic work. During the great war -“communal kitchens” were established in many places, and it is thought -that by having one central cooking-place there is a great saving in -food, fuel, and labour. The Eskimo have a similar arrangement in their -summer encampment, where each family in turn will take a whole day, -during which they are responsible for the collection of fuel and the -cooking of food for the whole encampment. When the meal is prepared, -the master of the duty household shouts “Ujo! Ujo!” (boiled meat), and -the hungry Eskimo emerge from their huts, each man carrying a large -knife with which he cuts a portion for his family. - -The education of Eskimo children consists entirely of learning the -occupations which will have to be undertaken in later years. Girls -practise sewing and preparation of skin garments, while very young boys -accompany hunters, and soon become expert in the management of dogs, -fishing tackle, and hunting appliances of every type. As soon as a boy -shows that he is able to support a wife, he is at liberty to marry; and -though adults frequently arrange that certain children shall marry when -grown up, these early contracts are not binding, and there is a good -deal of freedom in choosing a wife or husband. In general the husband -goes to live with his wife’s parents, and so becomes one of the family, -which he must help to support; if the suitor comes from another tribe -he may not take his wife to his own people, but is expected to settle -with her kindred. After the death of his wife’s parents a young man may -live where he pleases, but he must always be kind to his wife and treat -her well, or she is free to leave him and marry some one else. - -Children are affectionately treated, and according to one traveller -are “never scolded or whipped.” Sometimes it has been said that people -of certain tribes kill their children; such a dreadful proceeding -is extremely rare, and happens only when food is very scarce. The -Greenland Eskimo say that if a child were killed, its spirit would -come back to haunt them. Some people are unable to provide food for -the children, then the youngsters are adopted by a relative or friend. -Among the Eskimo there are no slaves, some reasons being that time is -fully occupied in hunting; journeys are difficult, also the Eskimo -are naturally peaceable and kind, so it comes to pass that warfare is -almost unknown, and captives are not taken. Servants there are, usually -cripples or unfortunate men who have lost their dogs, sledges, and -hunting apparatus. - -The Eskimo have some religious ideas concerning a good spirit “Sedna,” -to whom they pray for success in hunting. This goddess is supposed to -have created all animal life, and her special care is the protection -of Eskimo people, who have many stories and legends concerning the -goodness and bounty of their protectress. Almost all people believe -that there is some part of a man which lives after the body is dead, -and the Eskimo are no exception to the general rule, for they have -distinct ideas of heaven ruled over by Sedna. As a matter of fact, -there are thought to be four heavens, or at any rate four stages -through which the soul has to travel before it reaches the “good land” -where it will be for ever happy. Some people are not good enough to go -to the “good land” where summer is continuous, so they wander about in -the first three stages of the journey; and so low is the roof of each -of these first stages, that a man has to bend very low all the time he -is travelling. - -The Eskimo have some very clear rules for the division of game and the -restoration of lost property to its owner, but there are no kings, -chiefs, judges, or law courts, so justice and punishment are in the -hands of the whole settlement. Murder is not common, but when it does -occur there is a terrible blood feud between the two families, and -thirst for revenge may continue for many, many years, unless the -murderer, or one of his relatives, is killed as a punishment for the -crime. - -Animals, and even lifeless things, are thought to have a spirit which -goes to some sort of heaven, so we understand why a hunter’s property -is buried with him; his relations think he will need it in the next -world. A very wonderful man among the Eskimo is a person whom they -call “angakok,” a priest or “medicine man,” who goes through some very -strange performances, during which he claims to have a talk with ghosts -who tell him how to cure diseases, or in what way some misfortune can -be averted. Dr. Boas tells us that: “The lamps being lowered, the -‘angakok’ strips off his outer jacket, places the hood over his head, -and sits down in the back part of the hut, facing the wall. He claps -his hands, which are covered with mittens, and shaking his whole body -utters sounds which one would scarcely recognise as human.” After -this performance he pretends to summon to his aid the spirit of an -animal which is supposed to be his particular helper and guardian. -Then all in the hut join in a chorus, following which the patient is -questioned: “Did you eat when it was forbidden?” “Did you work when it -was forbidden?” and perhaps the sick man is obliged to admit that he -has broken some tribal law. The “angakok” may impose some rules on the -whole community; perhaps he forbids every one to eat the flesh of the -deer, or he may command a general cleansing of the hut; some orders are -very sensible, others just foolish and superstitious. - -Perhaps the efforts of the medicine man are all in vain, and when death -seems certain the patient is carried to a small skin tent or snow -hut, where he is left alone to die; for if death should occur in the -ordinary dwelling, everything within would have to be broken and thrown -away. The Eskimo are terrified of a dead body, but the dying person -is said to be very courageous, and not at all unwilling to leave this -world; one young girl asked for some tobacco and meat which she wished -to take to her mother, who had died a few weeks before. - -The body, wrapped in deer skin, is buried at once, and if the season -is summer, a pile of stones is erected, great care being taken that -these do not rest over the body, for their weight would be thought to -hinder the journey of a soul in the next world. Evidently the Eskimo -believes that life in the next world is very like existence here, for -with a man is buried a variety of hunting implements; a dead woman -requires pots, lamps, and knives; while toys are always placed with the -body of a little child. The nearest relatives always pull the body to -the burial-ground; dogs may not be used on such solemn occasions, and -the sledge used must always be left by the grave. Silently the friends -return to their hut, where for three days and nights they mourn for the -dead person. - -Sitting around their tiny lamp, the Eskimo hear the raging of the -storm, and with awe listen to the terrible noises of shrieking winds or -crunching ice. For these are said to be the voices of spirits who knock -wildly at the huts and pursue the dogs; terrible is the fate of a poor -Eskimo who falls into their grip. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER - - -The Algonkin Indians were so disgusted with the habits of life adopted -by the Innuit, that they called them “Eskimo,” a name which means -“eater of raw flesh.” It would be difficult to find a much better -description, for so barren is the snow-clad country, and so intense the -cold, that the Eskimo has no opportunities for practising agriculture; -neither would vegetable food sustain life in this inhospitable region. - -The fatty diet is obtained chiefly from the seal, whale, and walrus, -while the reindeer, together with an abundant supply of sea birds and -fish, furnish food and clothing. An encounter with polar bears is not -looked upon as a regular part of the hunter’s life, and a successful -combat with one of these animals is an event talked about during many -a long winter evening. So proud is the hunter, that he tattoos himself -with special marks indicating how many whales or polar bears he has -taken; one great hunter had across his chest tattooed marks in the form -of the flukes on the tail of a whale. These showed that he had killed -seven of these creatures; and such was the pride of his wife, that she -had tattooed herself in the same way. - -Seal hunting is perhaps the most common means of obtaining a large -supply of food and material for clothing, and usually the animal is -harpooned, though the method of capture depends on the season of the -year and the condition of the ice. - -The shaft of the harpoon, to which a line is attached, is made of -wood, strengthened by a thong of reindeer hide. The head consists of -a sharply pointed piece of ivory, probably obtained from the tusks of -the walrus; and in order that the sharp point may detach itself in the -wounded animal, the head fits very loosely in the shaft, to which it -is fastened by a strong thong of reindeer sinew. The floating wooden -shaft, to which a bladder is fastened, is plainly seen each time the -wounded animal comes up to breathe. The whole proceeding has been -described by Dr. Boas, who says: - -“When the day begins to dawn, the Eskimo prepares for the hunt by -gathering his harpoons and harnessing the dogs to the sledge. The -harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer’s antlers, which -are attached to the hind part of the sledge, a seal or bear skin is -lashed upon the bottom, and the spear secured under the lashing. The -hunter takes up the whip, and the dogs set off at a great pace for the -hunting ground. - -“Near the place where he expects to find seals, the hunter stops his -team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is then turned -upside down in such a way as to prevent the dogs from running away. -A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team, and the Eskimo -follows his guidance until a seal’s hole is found. In winter it is -entirely covered with snow, but generally a small elevation indicates -the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge, and the hunter -examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by the seal. -Cautiously he cuts a hole in the snow covering and peeps into the -excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice, the seal -has left the hole, and it would be in vain to expect its return. The -hunter must look for a new hole promising better results. - -[Illustration: ESKIMO SEAL HUNTER WAITING AT BREATHING HOLE.] - -“If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole, he marks its -exact centre on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep-hole -with small blocks of snow. These preparations must be made with the -utmost caution, as any changes in the appearance of the snow would -frighten away the seal.” - -The hunter stands on a small piece of seal skin with the harpoon -poised in both hands, and there he may have to wait for several hours; -sometimes he builds a screen of snow to protect himself from the -bitterly cold wind. Now he bends low, and listens intently for the -blowing which indicates that a seal is at hand; then suddenly he stands -upright, and with all his strength sends down the harpoon into the -hole, where the seal is in such a position that it usually receives -the weapon in the head. The line is paid out, and at the same time the -hunter cuts down the snow covering from the hole, to the edge of which -the animal is dragged, and dispatched by a blow on the head. - -The blood of a seal is highly prized, and to prevent waste all wounds -are closed by driving in ivory pegs; sometimes the hunter refreshes -himself with a copious drink of the warm blood. - -In the month of March, mother seals prepare long burrows in the snow, -and here the Eskimo finds the baby seal, which is dragged forth by -means of a large hook; the mother, too, is often caught or harpooned -because of her courage in attempting to save her young. Perhaps these -methods of hunting appear to be somewhat cruel, but it is to be -remembered that the Eskimo is constantly fighting hard to sustain life -in a severe and inhospitable climate. On some occasions the hunter -finds only the skin of a young seal in one of these burrows; the foxes -have arrived first and devoured the carcase. With the advance of summer -the young seal breaks from its snow burrow, and, until the end of June, -the mother and her calf may be seen basking together on the ice, where -they are shot or harpooned by the hunter, who, clad in seal skin, can -approach to very close range. Many men still prefer a harpoon to the -guns which may be obtained from whalers in exchange for skins, but -nowadays the head of the harpoon is usually made of iron, which is -more effective than sharpened ivory. This method of stalking the seal -may produce a bag of from ten to fifteen animals in a day, whereas the -winter tactics rarely result in the capture of more than one animal -even after twelve hours of weary waiting by the breathing hole. - -When the ice breaks, “kayaks” are launched, and the summer hunting of -the seal and walrus is soon in full swing. The double pointed canoe, -which is widely distributed between the shores of Greenland and Alaska, -consists of a stout framework of wood and whalebone, twenty-five feet -long, over which are stretched seal skins, sewn firmly together with -the sinews of reindeer. The top is covered by skin, with the exception -of a small hole just large enough to accommodate a man’s body; a double -paddle serves to propel the craft, which is, of course, provided with a -large harpoon when used for pursuing a seal or walrus. - -[Illustration: A KAYAK.] - -Sometimes a framework covered with skin is attached to the harpoon -line in such a way that when the cord is paid out the broad framework -is dragged through the sea at right angles to the line. How great is -the resistance of the water to such a device may be illustrated by -holding the edge of a piece of board while dragging it in water. Of -course a wounded animal is quickly exhausted by towing this apparatus -rapidly through the sea. An explorer named Lyon has left a very -interesting account of one method adopted by hunters of the walrus: - -“When the hunters in their canoes perceive a large herd sleeping on the -floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some other piece near -them which is small enough to be moved. On this they lift their canoes -and then bore several holes through which they fasten their tough -lines, and when everything is ready they silently paddle the hummock -towards their prey, each man sitting by his own line and spear. In -this manner they reach the ice on which the walruses lie snoring, and -if they please, each man may strike an animal, though in general two -persons attack the same beast. The wounded and startled walrus rolls -instantly to the water, but the harpoon being well fixed he cannot -escape from the hummock of ice to which the Eskimo have fastened the -line. When the animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches his -canoe, and, lying out of reach of the animal’s fearful tusks, spears -him to death.” - -At one time whaling was a favourite occupation of the central Eskimo, -and in some places it is continued to the present day, chiefly by -pursuing the whale with a great number of kayaks and skin boats of a -larger pattern. The creature is followed by numerous hunters, each -of whom endeavours to drive his harpoon into the animal, which, from -loss of blood and the resistance caused by harpoon lines, floats, and -framework, is tired out, and killed with lances. - -During the very short summer, herds of deer wander in search of -herbage, and the Eskimo follows on foot in order to secure a supply of -deer skins, which are fit for clothing only when taken at this period. -The snow huts have been abandoned, and the hunter takes with him a -light portable tent of reindeer hide, which is often pitched near the -shores of a lake habitually crossed by the herd. Sometimes the hunting -party is divided, and while some men drive the frightened animals into -the water, others sit in “kayaks” waiting for the deer to swim by. A -lake into which a long narrow peninsula projects is considered very -suitable, for a number of hunters extended in skirmishing order can -drive the herd along the narrow projection of land, and eventually into -the lake. Kayaks are propelled more quickly than the animals can swim, -so they are overtaken and killed with the spear. At times the deer does -a little hunting, and if provided with a stout pair of antlers he will -rip open the boat and make the Eskimo swim hard for the shore. - -[Illustration: ESKIMO SUMMER TENT OF BEAR SKIN AND SEAL SKIN, AND -SNOW HUT.] - -In some instances the herd is driven along a deep narrow valley with -steep sides, and as there is no means of escape, the animals are killed -by hunters extended in line at the narrowest part of the defile. Bows -are made either of wood or antlers of the deer, and as a rule the -wooden weapon is made stronger and more pliable by the addition of a -strong strip of sinew, which is bound firmly to the wooden portion. -The bowstring is manufactured from sinew; and the arrow tips, formerly -cleverly made by flaking pieces of slate, are now replaced by sharpened -scraps of tin or iron riveted into a slit at the pointed end of the -shaft, to the other extremity of which a few feathers of the owl are -fastened in order to give a true flight. A large quiver of seal skin is -divided into compartments containing the arrows, the bow, and a number -of spare arrow tips. A handle of ivory serves as a means of carrying -the quiver when the hunter is travelling, but as soon as game is in -sight, the quiver is slung over the left shoulder. - -[Illustration: ESKIMO TOOLS, WEAPONS, ETC. - - 1. Pick of wood and ivory; - 2. Adze of bone and iron; - 3. Antler club; - 4. Gaff for salmon; - 5. Snow-knife of bone; - 6, 7, 8, 9. Arrow heads of antler; - No. 9 is pointed with stone; - 10. Arrow straightener of bone; - 11. Hide scraper of bone and iron; - 12 Carving on ivory depicting a whale hunt; - 13. Tobacco pipe of ivory.] - -Eskimo dogs are eager in the pursuit of herds of the musk ox, which -always defends itself by forming a circle around the calves. While -the oxen are busy keeping a number of ferocious dogs at bay, the -hunters approach and let fly their arrows into the herd. Sometimes an -infuriated animal breaks from the defensive ring, and at such times -the Eskimo is saved by his dogs, who harass the creatures until the -hunter is again prepared to shoot. Polar bears are pursued by hunters -on light sledges, and when the quarry is exhausted by the chase, the -traces of the most reliable dogs are cut, and very soon the bear is -standing at bay, striking fiercely at the dogs with his huge forepaws, -until the hunter is able to come up and launch a spear or arrow. The -best season for bear hunting is March or April, when the bears come a -considerable distance inland in pursuit of young seals. In the region -of Davis Strait, the Eskimo diligently search for holes where the bear -is having his long winter sleep, from which the hunter intends that he -shall never be awakened. - -[Illustration: ESKIMO DOGS’ ATTACK ON A BEAR.] - -Hunters do not consider wolves sufficiently valuable to repay the -trouble of pursuit, and these creatures are ignored unless they prove -dangerous to the Eskimo encampments. Traps for wolves consist of a hole -ten feet deep, very small at the bottom, but gradually widening towards -the circular top, which is surrounded by a snow wall. A thin sheet of -ice covers the wide top, in the centre of which some strongly smelling -meat is placed. In order to get the bait, the wolf must leap the snow -wall, with the result that he crashes through the thin covering of -ice, and is soon trapped at the narrow base of the pit. A very cruel -method of killing wolves consists of rolling a very sharp piece of -whalebone inside a piece of meat, which is eagerly gulped down by a -hungry animal. The meat digests and dissolves, and before long the -wolf suffers very great pain, for the whalebone coil unwinds and the -sharpened ends penetrate the walls of the stomach and intestines. - -Small game, such as foxes, hares, ermines, and lemmings, are caught in -snares, while for birds the following clever contrivance is frequently -employed. “It consists of seven or eight sinew cords, nearly three feet -long and tied together at one end, while to the opposite ends weights -of ivory or stone are attached. Before being launched at the bird, -the sling is whirled round the head, so that when it leaves the hand -a rotatory movement is imparted to it, and all the weights fly apart, -the striking diameter of the weapon covering five or six feet. The bird -is thus brought to the ground, whether it is struck by the weights or -entangled in the strings.” - -A favourite method of catching gulls depends entirely on the quickness -of the hunter, who has concealed himself in a small snow house, one -block of the roof of which is made from a thin, transparent piece of -ice to support the bait. When a bird settles on this thin ice, the -trapper quickly pushes his hand through, seizes the creature, and drags -it into the hut. By far the greater number of birds are caught in the -moulting season, partridges by hand, and waterfowl after pursuit with -the kayak. Swimming birds dive as soon as the boat comes near them; -immediately they are pursued, and time after time are driven down -whenever they attempt to breathe at the surface; eventually they are -drowned, and the bodies float on the water. - -Fish, among which the salmon is very plentiful, are harpooned, taken by -ivory fishing hooks, or chipped out of blocks of ice in which they have -become deposited at the freezing of a small lake, which may have been -converted into a solid mass of ice. The scraping, chewing, and drying -of skins is one of the chief employments of women, and so careful are -they, that no part of the carcase is wasted, and even the intestines -of a seal are made to furnish transparent waterproofs, which are, of -course, very light and convenient to carry. Driftwood from the seashore -is used in making bows and sledges, while the antlers of the reindeer -help to form smooth runners, and the sinews give elasticity to wooden -bows. Knives, scrapers, hooks, utensils, prongs of harpoons, and -arrowheads, all depend for their manufacture on supplies of ivory and -bone, in the working of which the Eskimo is most ingenious. Strange to -say, the caves of very ancient Europe, when excavated, have sometimes -yielded specimens of engraved ivory very closely resembling the -products of the Eskimo. From the caves La Madeleine and Bruniquel are -derived some excellent specimens of engraving on bone, an art which -flourished in some parts of Southern Europe towards the end of the old -Stone Age. The question of the origin and migrations of the Eskimo, -together with speculations concerning their connection with the bone -workers of ancient Europe, are very interesting, but perhaps too long -and difficult for a small reading-book. - -In addition to the kayak already described, women use a large open boat -shaped like a trough and capable of holding about twenty people. With -this “umiak” single-bladed paddles are employed, and a low lug-sail -made of strips of walrus-intestine is sometimes hoisted. For steering, -a paddle is used, and a rudder is to be found only when the Eskimo have -copied the steering device from European whalers. - -[Illustration: A UMIAK AND ESKIMO DOGS AND SLEDGE.] - -The best sledges are made by the tribes of Hudson and Davis Straits, -for in these regions the most substantial pieces of driftwood are to -be found. The dog team is strong, intelligent, and willing to work; so -ready to start that the Eskimo driver may be in danger of being left -behind. Careful training of the animals is necessary, and sometimes -there is a great deal of harshness before they are fit to harness; -perhaps the worst qualities of the dogs are extreme ferocity and -pugnacity. Dr. Boas says: - -“The Eskimo rarely brings up more than three or four dogs at the same -time; and if the litter is larger than this number the rest are sold -or given away. The young dogs are carefully nursed, and in winter they -are allowed to lie on the couch, or are hung up near the lamp in a -skin cradle. When almost four months old the pups are first put to the -sledge, and gradually they become accustomed to pull with the others. -If food is plentiful the dogs are fed every alternate day, and then -their share is by no means a large one. In winter they are fed with the -heads, entrails, bones, and skins of seals, and they are so voracious -at this time of the year that nothing is secure from their appetite. -Any kind of leather, particularly books, harness, and thongs, is eaten -whenever they can get at it. In the spring they are better fed, and in -summer grow quite fat, but at any time of their life food may not be -procurable for five or six days. In Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait, -and Hudson Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are considerable, -the dogs are carried in summer to small islands, where they live upon -what they can find on the beach: clams, codfish, etc., and if at -liberty, they seem very happy, and well able to provide for themselves.” - -Dr. Boas remembers two runaway dogs which had lived on their own -account from April to August, during which month they returned quite -fat. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO - - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF AN ESKIMO SNOW HUT.] - -If we could creep along the narrow underground passage leading to the -snow hut, we might have the good fortune to find the Eskimo family -crowded together round the small, evil-smelling oil lamp, which from -time to time is replenished by a new supply of fat from the seal or -whale. Around the small, dome-shaped snow dwelling are low seats -constructed from blocks of frozen snow, which, covered with several -layers of skin and fur, make comfortable couches for the inmates. -Already the small room has become so warm that most members of the -family have cast aside their outer fur garments, and each person is -settling down to the evening task. The women are busy chewing skin of -the reindeer in order to make it soft and pliable, so that it may be -sewn into boots and jackets, while the men are constructing harpoons, -mending harness for the dogs, or perhaps cleverly engraving small -sketches on pieces of ivory obtained from the tusks of the walrus. - -[Illustration: ESKIMO BOW-DRILL FOR FIRE MAKING.] - -Oil lamps are kept burning day and night in winter, but should the -Eskimo require a light he can quickly produce it by means of the -bow-drill. A peg of hard wood rests in a hole in a soft board, and -near to the point of contact is a small pile of tinder; that is very -finely powdered wood, which is kept quite dry. The peg of hard wood can -be made to spin round rapidly by twisting it in a bow string, which -is made tight, then released suddenly. Boys at school adopt a similar -method for spinning a disc of cardboard, or setting a toy aeroplane -in flight. The rapid twirling of the hard peg sets up a great deal of -heat, which causes the tinder to smoulder, then to burst into flame -when gently blown. - -Presently the work is put on one side, and after a hearty meal has been -made from the flesh and warm blood of a young seal, stories of great -age are told concerning the perils of the hunter, and the wanderings -of the Eskimo people over the great ice-fields of Hudson Bay or Davis -Strait. Eagerly we listen, and although the names are very long and -strange to our ears, we may judge that the favourite stories are not -unlike our own tales of love and valour, with this exception, that the -Eskimo has no knowledge of writing, so stories are handed down from one -generation to another by word of mouth, while, to amuse the children, -the story-teller will make little sketches of the chief characters in -his narrative. - -A long, long time ago a young man, whose name was Itit, went timidly -to the hut of a young orphan girl, in order to ask whether she would -become his wife. However, as he was very shy, and afraid to speak to -the young girl for himself, he called her little brother, who was -playing before the hut, and said: “Go to your sister, and ask her if -she will marry me.” Away ran the little fellow, but almost immediately -he was back again in order to ask the name of the suitor. When the -Eskimo maiden heard that the name “Itit” was the short pet name for -“Ititaujang,” she said: “Oh, go away! I will not marry a man with such -an ugly name.” Three times the young brother carried a message of love -from the poor Itit, who was becoming very cold and angry, for he had -been standing in deep snow for a long time. When the maiden refused for -the third time, Itit turned away from the hut, left his own country, -where there was no other maiden whom he could love, and for many days -and nights he wandered, sad and lonely, over great hills and valleys -covered with snow. - -At last he arrived in the land of birds, and saw a lake on which -geese were swimming. On the shore he noticed a great many boots, so -cautiously he crept near and stole as many as he could carry. The birds -returned, and greatly alarmed at this theft, they flew away, with the -exception of one bird which remained behind, crying, “I want my boots! -I want my boots!” “You shall have your boots,” said Itit, “if you will -become my wife.” Then, returning the magic boots, he had the pleasure -of seeing the beautiful bird transformed into a handsome young Eskimo -maiden, who wandered with him to the seaside, where they settled in a -large village. Itit became the best whaler and seal catcher, so was -very much respected by all the Eskimo of that country; and what was -more pleasing still, he had a young son who was rapidly becoming a -brave and clever hunter. - -It so happened that the Eskimo, led by Itit, had killed a whale, and -all except the wife of Itit were busy carrying the meat and blubber to -their huts. When the lazy wife was called, she answered: “I do not like -food from the sea, I want all my food from the land. I will not eat -the meat of a whale, and I will not help.” She came down to the beach -leading her young son by the hand, and after finding some feathers, -she placed them between her fingers and those of her son, both twirled -their hands quickly, and on whispering some magic words were changed -into geese, which flew away, leaving Itit to carry out a sorrowful -search for his wife and child. - -After many weary months of travel he came to the bank of a swiftly -flowing river, where an old man was striking off chips of wood, which, -when polished between his hands, turned into little salmon, that -leaped into the water and began to swim towards a large lake. Itit at -once asked questions concerning his wife and child, and to his great -surprise learned that they were dwelling on a small island in the lake. -He was furious on hearing that his wife had taken another husband, -and now he loved her no more, but sought only for revenge. There was -no canoe, but the clever old man, who could make salmon from chips -of wood, took the backbone of a fish, and after vigorously polishing -this for a time, it turned into a small boat which the Eskimo calls a -“kayak.” This the old man presented to Itit, who immediately pushed off -from the shore in the direction of the island where his wife was hiding. - -Very soon a small hut came into view, and there was his son, playing -in the garden. The little boy ran into the house, crying, “Mother! -Father is here, and is coming to our hut!” to which the mother replied, -“Go on with your play; your father is far off, and cannot find us.” -No sooner were the words spoken than Itit entered and glared fiercely -round the room, while the frightened woman quickly opened a box from -which there flew a cloud of feathers. These stuck to the woman, her -son, and the new husband, and before Itit could carry out his revenge, -the hut suddenly disappeared, and his enemies, immediately transformed -into geese, flew rapidly away until they became mere specks in the -distance. - - * * * * * - -Among our own boys and girls, stories of Father Neptune, who lives -on the bed of the ocean and rules the waves, are very common. The -Eskimo, too, have traditions of “Kalopaling,” who seems to be very much -like the “Old Man of the Sea,” mentioned in stories of _Sinbad the -Sailor_. To the Eskimo, Kalopaling is a dreadful monster of human -form, covered with feathers of the eider duck, and so large is the hood -of his cloak that it will easily contain a kayak and the fisherman -who sculls it. This hood is said to be filled with Eskimo fishermen -who have either been drowned by accident or captured by the dreaded -Kalopaling, who, although unable to speak, can make a long wailing cry -of “bee-bee-bee.” The feet of this creature are very large, and appear -like sealskin floats, or the water wings which boys use when learning -to swim. - -The Eskimo believe that in olden times there were a great number of -“Kalopaling,” but happily their numbers are diminishing, and now only -a few of the strongest are left. These are often seen swimming a few -feet below the surface of the sea, and from time to time they rise in -order to breathe, then once more disappear below the surface with much -splashing of arms and legs. The hunter has only one chance of killing -a “Kalopaling,” and this must be done when the monster is asleep on -the ice. The flesh is said to be poisonous, but it may be used for -fattening dogs that draw the sledges. - -One story says that an old Eskimo woman lived with her little son, and -as they were very poor they had to depend on small gifts of blubber and -seal’s meat. On one occasion the boy was so hungry that he kept crying -out for food, and in spite of his mother’s threat to call Kalopaling, -the noise continued until the woman became so angry that she actually -called the monster, who walked away with the shrieking child hidden in -his enormous hood. Later on, food became plentiful, and the woman told -Eskimo fishermen how sorry she was that her little son had been taken -away, and before long a brave hunter and his wife promised to help her -to secure the child. - -Kalopaling used to allow the boy to play near the edge of a large crack -in the ice, but always had a rope of seaweed around him, so that he -could be pulled into the water when any one was approaching. The hunter -and his wife made several unsuccessful attempts to rescue the boy, but -at last their patience was rewarded, for coming out quickly from their -hiding-place behind a block of snow, they cut the rope of seaweed, and -carried the lad to his mother’s hut, where he grew up to become a great -hunter. - - * * * * * - -Ages ago there lived on the shore of Davis Strait a young orphan boy -named “Kaud,” who, on account of his loneliness, was so ill-treated -that he was not allowed to sleep in the hut, but had to cuddle up to -the sledge dogs which lay outside. His food consisted of the toughest -pieces of walrus hide, which he was obliged to eat without a knife, -until a little Eskimo girl took pity on him and made him a present of a -knife, which he concealed in the hood of his jacket. So badly treated -was young Kaud that he remained very small, and even young children -took advantage of his weakness and ill-treated him when at play. When -the villagers gathered in the house used for singing, Kaud would lie in -the passage listening to the music, and wishing he could take part in -the enjoyment. Sometimes a sturdy man would look out, and espying young -Kaud, would take him by the ear and lift him into the room, where some -heavy task would be found for him. - -The man in the moon had for some time been watching the miseries of -this Eskimo orphan, and at last decided to come to earth and help him. -For a time the small boy was too frightened to leave the hut where -he was hiding, but soon ventured forth, and to his surprise the man -from the moon told him to move some very large stones, which seemed -too heavy even for a strong man. Of course Kaud could not move the -stones although he tried very hard, when the man from the moon began to -flick him with a whip and shout, “Now, do you feel stronger?” “Yes, I -feel stronger,” said poor Kaud; but as the stone was still in the same -position the man from the moon used his whip a little more freely. At -last the stone moved just a little, and the small boy, encouraged by -success, exerted his strength, which was every moment increasing, and -to the delight of his taskmaster he was soon able, not only to move the -stone, but actually to lift it a great height from the ground. - -“Very good,” said the man from the moon. “To-morrow I will send three -bears, then you may show your full strength.” So saying, he got astride -a cloud and sailed away towards the full moon, whose silver light was -glistening on the frozen snow. Next morning three large bears made -their appearance in the village, much to the dismay of all the men, for -not even the oldest hunter had seen such large, fierce, white, shaggy -bears. - -The men, who crowded timidly into their huts, were astounded when they -saw the boy whom they had despised and ill-treated making his way -quickly towards the ferocious animals. “The bears will soon finish -him,” said the men; but this was not to be, for Kaud seized one animal -by its hind legs and, exerting all his strength, swung it round so that -its head crashed against a sharp piece of ice, and the animal lay quite -still. A second bear was treated in the same way, and at this point -Kaud determined to have his revenge on those who had ill-treated him -when he was little and weak. So he secured the mouth of the third bear -with a thong made of reindeer’s hide, then lifting the huge animal, -he carried it into the village as easily as he would previously have -lifted a young puppy. He unmuzzled the bear, and pushed it among his -enemies, who fled across the snow with the great animal in pursuit. -Then there came from a hiding-place the little girl who had presented a -knife to Kaud when he was young and weak, and after a few days spent on -a very pleasant honeymoon among the hills of snow, Kaud and his bride -settled in a snow hut near the sea, and it is said that the boy who had -been so weak became a hunter whom every one feared and admired. - - * * * * * - -The Eskimo are particularly fond of stories describing some poor -ill-treated boy who lived to become strong and famous, so in the story -of Kiviung we have no exception to the general rule. - -This poor boy was kept by a grandmother who had no one to go out -hunting, and no articles to offer in exchange for skins of the seal -and reindeer, so it came to pass that both of them had to be content -with clothes made from the skins of birds, instead of the double fur -suit which Eskimo people usually wear. Playmates who were better clad -mocked young Kiviung, and some went so far as to tear his birdskin -coat, a cruel act which made him run home to his grandmother, crying -for protection. - -Now it so happened that the grandmother was a very clever witch, but -no one knew of this, for the old lady had been too kind to harm any of -the villagers until her anger was aroused by the unkind treatment of -her grandson, who had many times been chased home by big strong men who -called out insulting remarks concerning the birdskin suit. - -[Illustration: AN ESKIMO BOY.] - -At last the old woman swore to have revenge, and in order to do this -she commanded her boy to step into a puddle which had formed in their -miserable dwelling. No sooner had he obeyed than he was transformed -into a healthy young seal. His coat was so beautiful and glossy that it -attracted the attention of all the villagers, who watched him basking -on a piece of ice near the shore. Then the kayaks were launched, and -each Eskimo began to paddle furiously in the direction of the young -seal, which could see the cruel-looking harpoons always carried by the -hunter. Nearer and nearer they came, then the baby seal slipped gently -from the ice and disappeared beneath the surface of the cold green -sea. Presently he came up to breathe, and at the same time noticed -with pleasure that all the kayaks were being swiftly paddled in his -direction. So diving once more, he headed for a most dangerous piece -of water, where heavy green seas were breaking, and huge pieces of ice -were floating about, dashing together with a crunching noise. Excited -by the chase, these Eskimo hunters had no thought of danger, and so -little Kiviung, in the form of a seal, led them into the perilous -position from which no one escaped. Once among the billows and blocks -of ice, these frail kayaks, made of skin stretched over a frame of -whalebone, were tossed about and dashed against the ice until not one -of them remained on the surface, and the hunters, after a few feeble -struggles in the ice-cold water, sank down and down into the regions -inhabited by fierce Kalopaling. - -The agile little seal used his tail and strong flappers to good -advantage, and presently landed safely at a point where the old witch, -his grandmother, was waiting to restore him to human form. This severe -lesson had a good effect on the remaining inhabitants of the Eskimo -encampment, and never again were they inclined to be cruel and unkind -to those who were weaker and poorer than themselves. - - - - -BOOKS FOR SCHOOL REFERENCE LIBRARY - - - _British Museum Guide Book to Ethnographical Collections._ - - _Native Races of the British Empire_, “British North America,” by - C. HILL-TOUT. (Constable & Co. Ltd., 1907.) - - _The Central Eskimo_, by FRANZ BOAS. See Annual Reports - of American Bureau for Ethnology, for information concerning Indian - and Eskimo Tribes. (Washington, U.S.A.) - - _Legends of Vancouver_, by E. PAULINE JOHNSON. (Sunset - Press. Vancouver, B.C.) - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -In a few places, missing periods at the end of sentences have been -added. - -Some illustrations have been relocated to a more appropriate place in -the text. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIVE RACES OF BRITISH -NORTH AMERICA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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D. Hambly</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Native Races of British North America</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: W. D. Hambly</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 6, 2022 [eBook #67333]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIVE RACES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ***</div> - - - - - -<p class="center p0"><big><span class="u"><em>Native Races of the British Empire</em></span></big></p> - - -<h1> THE NATIVE RACES OF<br /> -BRITISH NORTH AMERICA -</h1> - -<p class="center p0 p2"> BY</p> - -<p class="center p0"><big>W. D. HAMBLY, F.R.A.I., <abbr title="Bachelor of Science">B.Sc.</abbr></big><br /> - <small>(RESEARCH DEGREE, OXON.)</small></p> - -<p class="center p0"> <small>OXFORD DIPLOMA IN ANTHROPOLOGY<br /> - ASSISTANT ANATOMIST IN THE WELLCOME RESEARCH EXPEDITION<br /> - TO THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN, 1913-14</small></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"> <big>HUMPHREY MILFORD<br /> -OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS</big><br /> -LONDON, EDINBURGH, GLASGOW<br /> -TORONTO, MELBOURNE, CAPE TOWN, BOMBAY<br /> -1920 -</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img001"> - <img src="images/i001.jpg" class="w50" alt="NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN CHIEF." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="allsmcap">NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN CHIEF.</span><br /></p> - -</div> - - - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center p0"> <span class="smcap">Printed in Great Britain by<br /> - Morrison & Gibb <abbr title="Limited">Ltd.</abbr>, Edinburgh</span> -</p> -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>During recent years there has been a very happy tendency to change the -nature of geographical teaching from a monotonous memorising of the -names of natural features to a subject of living interest.</p> - -<p>In the endeavour to effect this change there has been a serious -omission in our failure to appeal to natural interests of children by -making the human element a central feature of geographical work.</p> - -<p>A study of the picturesque lives of native races of the British -Empire is an absolute essential if the teacher wishes to impart the -appropriate colour and setting to a subsequent course of economic, -regional, and political geography.</p> - -<p>The sharp contrast between European beliefs and customs and those of -primitive people is in itself an incentive to study and interest. -In addition to this, a sympathetic understanding of the many native -races who are controlled by English statesmanship is necessary for the -material and moral progress of dominions in the British Empire.</p> - -<p class="right p0"> W. D. HAMBLY. -</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th class="tdr"> -PAGE -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a> -</td> -<td> -<span class="smcap">The Country and its People</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_9">9</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a> -</td> -<td> -<span class="smcap">Some Occupations of Indian Tribes</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_16">16</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a> -</td> -<td> -<span class="smcap">Social Life among Indian Tribes</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_22">22</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a> -</td> -<td> -<span class="smcap">The Social Life of the Eskimo</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_28">28</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a> -</td> -<td> -<span class="smcap">The Eskimo as a Hunter</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_36">36</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a> -</td> -<td> -<span class="smcap">Tales told by the Eskimo</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_52">52</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img002"> - <img src="images/i002.jpg" class="w75" alt="Map of the northern U.S. and Canada with names of native tribes" /> -</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NATIVE_TRIBES_OF_BRITISH_NORTH_AMERICA">NATIVE TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA</h2> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I"><big>CHAPTER I</big><br /> -<span class="smcap">The Country and its People</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The “Old World” was startled in 1493 by the great navigator Columbus, -who returned with wonderful narratives concerning the “New World” of -North America, whose native population he called “Indians” because, -strange as it may seem to us, he thought that by sailing west he must -come to the land of India. At the present day scientists are at a loss -to account for the origin of Eskimo and North American Indian tribes; -sometimes the former are connected with the European cave dwellers, -who did such beautiful work in bone and ivory toward the end of the -old Stone Age. Whatever may have been the origin of countless numbers -of Indians, comprising hundreds of tribes, we may be certain that they -had inhabited the continent from a very remote period, for in very deep -old layers of soil one may find stone axes and arrowheads, which are -side by side with human remains and the bones of extinct species of the -horse.</p> - -<p>Not one little book, but many large ones, would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> be required in order -to give an account of all the Eskimo and Indian tribes of British North -America, to say nothing of the vast numbers of tribes watched over by -the United States. So we shall have to content ourselves with a glimpse -at the lives of a few tribes inhabiting country which lies between the -extreme north of North America and a boundary line passing from the -south of Vancouver Island through the Great Lakes, to the south of the -St. Lawrence estuary.</p> - -<p>Eskimo tribes on the west coast of Greenland are under Danish rule, -while Eskimo and Indian people of Alaska are subject to control by the -U.S.A. Hence we shall concern ourselves chiefly with the “Central” -Eskimo of Hudson Bay, Baffin Land, Davis Strait, and Labrador; while -with regard to Indian tribes we may select just a few of those which -lie wholly, or to some great extent, within British territory.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img003"> - <img src="images/i003.jpg" class="w50" alt="A North American Indian." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">A North American Indian.</span><br /></p> - -<p>Although Eskimo tribes are to be found from Behring Strait to -Greenland, and Indians anywhere between Vancouver Island and -Newfoundland, the appearance of peoples in widely separated tribes is -very much the same. All the Eskimo are short of stature (average height -5 ft. 2 in.), well built and sturdy, while the skin colour is a dark -yellowish brown, not unlike the shade that characterises the Southern -European. In some respects the Eskimo is not unlike an inhabitant of -Mongolia, for at once a traveller would notice the broad face, high -cheek bones, straight black hair, and oblique eyes. The head of an -Eskimo is long in proportion to the breadth, and the very high vault -enables a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> student to pick out an Eskimo skull from a great number -of those belonging to other races. The North American Indians, too, -are very uniform in appearance, and a native taken from one place -could easily be mistaken for an inhabitant of some region far away; -for in almost all cases there is the broad face, long well-shaped -nose, and pointed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> chin. To speak of a “Red” Indian gives quite a -wrong impression, for the skin is of a coppery brown, with a kind of -underlying red tinge. The hair is usually long, straight, and black, -but in British Columbia, and amongst the Déné, a reddish shade of hair -is not uncommon, while among Salish tribes of the Pacific Coast the -hair may be wavy or slightly curled.</p> - -<p>Of all the native tribes of British North America the Eskimo have -by far the hardest and most unpleasant life, because they have no -vegetable foods, cannot practise agriculture, and are entirely -dependent on the products of hunting expeditions, which for nine months -out of twelve are undertaken in bitterly cold weather, and among dreary -wastes of snow. Indians such as the “Haida” of Queen Charlotte Islands, -the “Kwakiutl” of Vancouver, and some of the “Salish” and “Déné” tribes -of British Columbia, are most fortunate on account of a warm temperate -climate and an abundant supply of various animal and vegetable foods.</p> - -<p>To the west of the Rocky Mountains lies a hilly, well-wooded country, -abounding with game such as deer, foxes, bears, hares, beavers, -squirrels, while birds are plentiful, and delicious salmon may be -obtained from the Fraser River and its tributaries. Of all trees the -cedar has been most useful to the coastal tribes, for it is to them -what the cocoa-nut palm is to the people inhabiting the South Sea -Islands. From the wood of cedar trees, houses and canoes are made, -while clothing may be manufactured from the inner bark; and there is -no part of this useful tree which is not put to some good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> purpose. -Basket work is very cleverly woven with strands of different colours -representing geometrical patterns, people, and objects. It may be -thought that the outlines of human and animal figures are too stiff, -but one must remember that the rigid nature of the basket work compels -the worker to make straight lines.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img004"> - <img src="images/i004.jpg" class="w50" alt="Basket-work Hat: Whaling Scene Inwoven. Wootka -Sound, N. W. America." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Basket-work Hat: Whaling Scene Inwoven. Wootka -Sound, <abbr title="northwest">N. W.</abbr> America.</span><br /></p> - -<p>Some drawings of animals are provided with human, or almost human -faces. This is done, not because the worker is unskilful, but because -he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> believes that spirits of his ancestors may dwell in animals. -Therefore the human and animal features are combined in sketches, -tattooing, and masks.</p> - -<p>Very different from British Columbia is a vast stretch of country from -the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains to the shores of Hudson Bay. -Here are to be found many branches of the Déné Indians under the names -of “Beavers,” “Dog Ribs,” and “Yellow Knives,” who have figured in -many a story of breathless adventure; and it is with this snow-clad -trappers’ country that Jack London has dealt in several of his novels. -On the southern shore of Hudson Bay the Algonkin Indians have come into -contact with Eskimo peoples, but nowhere are the two very friendly. To -the south of the Algonkins are the Lakes Superior, Erie, and Ontario, -in which region live the remnants of such important tribes as the -Huron, Iroquois, and Mohawks; the last named have been the heroes of -many a story book. In the year 1858 all Indian tribes came under the -charge of a special department of the Dominion Government, which set -aside certain localities for their use. Naturally the natives changed -very rapidly when in contact with Europeans, so that to-day they are -not the wild people described by such travellers as Fraser, Vancouver, -and Mackenzie, who explored the North-West Territories between the -years 1793 and 1808. Indian dress, weapons, canoes, carving, religious -songs, and dances are still extremely common, and in the United States -there is a special department of the Government concerned with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -publication of books describing the lives of Indian tribes.</p> - -<p><abbr title="Mister">Mr.</abbr> C. Hill-Tout, who has spent much time in observing the Indian -tribes of the Pacific Coast of British North America, says: “There -is no doubt in my mind that the present Salish population of about -12,000 does not represent nearly a fifth of the population of this -stock at the time of Simon Fraser’s visit to them. One tribe alone, -the ‘Lukungen,’ whose settlements are at the south-eastern end of -Vancouver’s Island, was estimated in 1859 to number 8500. To-day -they could not muster 200, or less than one-fortieth of their former -numbers.”... “That dying race the Haida of Queen Charlotte’s Islands -numbered, in 1840, 8328. Twenty years ago that number had dwindled to -2000, and to-day the native population of these small islands is about -700.” Perhaps it is safe to say that the total native population of -British North America is only one-tenth part of what it was a hundred -years ago. Alcohol, small-pox, and pneumonia have caused a heavy death -rate, in addition to which the easier lives, and the adoption of a -good deal of European clothing, have made the natives less robust, and -therefore an easy prey to all forms of sickness.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"><big>CHAPTER II</big><br /> -<span class="smcap">Some Occupations of Indian Tribes</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>At many points along the shores of British Columbia the traveller may -notice the large strongly-built dwellings of the coast Salish, who -are experts in splitting stout logs from the cedar tree by means of -implements made from the horns of the elk and wood of maple trees. Such -large dwellings, some of which had a length of over 200 feet, were, of -course, occupied by more than one family, and as a rule there were at -least half a dozen hearths, each belonging to one of several closely -related families who occupied the same large dwelling. The interior -of the building was divided into rooms by curtains manufactured from -reeds or grasses; temporary screens of this kind were easily removed -when the whole room was required for winter dancing festivities, which -were generally connected with religious beliefs. Extending all round -the walls of the hut was a low platform, which, covered with skins and -blankets made from hair of dogs and mountain goats, served as a most -comfortable bed, while on its under side could be stored dried fish, -roots and berries collected during summer, and vast quantities of fir -cones and firewood. Such stores were frequently hidden in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> the forest, -for years ago, before the Canadian police were known, large bands of -fierce Indians, named “Kwakiutl,” from Vancouver Island preyed upon the -quieter coast Salish, carrying off their women, children, and stores. -Even now, says a missionary named Father Morice, the Déné are afraid of -the fierce, warlike tribes who paddled their long canoes for many miles -up the Fraser River.</p> - -<p>The only pieces of furniture worth mentioning are large treasure chests -constructed from planks of cedar firmly held by wooden rivets, so that -the joints are quite watertight. Such boxes held blankets, costumes -worn at dances, and other treasures, of which a chief owned a vast -supply.</p> - -<p>Salish tribes of the interior had two sets of dwellings, a heavy timber -one for winter use, and for summer a light cool structure made by -stretching mats over a wooden framework. A similar summer habitation is -made by the northern Déné tribes, whose pointed tent has the appearance -of a true Indian “wigwam,” and at the present time an encampment of -these tribes has the same appearance as it had a century ago, when -visited by the great explorer Sir Alexander Mackenzie.</p> - -<p>Of equal importance with the building of houses is the manufacture of -clothing, for which all Indian tribes have an abundance of raw material -obtained during hunting excursions. The moose—which by the way is a -domestic animal and beast of burden among the northern Déné—furnishes -a good hide, which along with deerskin can be made into strong -trousers and leggings, or into shoes named “moccasins.” Blankets, -forming a covering for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> the shoulders and body, are made from wool of -the mountain goat, and in some cases, down from ducks is interwoven -with the fabric, which is made by use of the old-fashioned spindle. -Among the interior Salish a man usually possesses a shirt, trousers, -leggings, moccasins, and cap. The shirt and trousers are generally -made ornamental by fringes of deerskin, while to the moccasins are -added dyed porcupine quills, goose feathers, or horse hair. Winter -socks are made from skins of the bear, buffalo, or deer, but in summer -these are replaced by lighter socks, manufactured from grass and -cedar bark. Small animals, such as the fox, lynx, hawk, and beaver, -furnish material suitable for caps, and among the “Thompson” Indians -a man always made a cap from the covering of what an Indian calls his -“totem,” that is, an animal which he believes to be his own special -friend and helper.</p> - -<p>The summer dress<span class="fnanchor" id="fna1"><a href="#fn1">[1]</a></span> worn by women did not differ much from that of the -men, save that it was longer, and usually ornamented with claws and -teeth of the beaver. A chief’s dress was very elaborate, and the most -interesting part of his costume consisted of a cap made from the hair -of women from noble families. Most boys are acquainted with tattooing, -which is very common amongst soldiers and sailors nowadays. A favourite -Indian pastime was the tattooing of figures representing animals; -and sometimes the chin, forehead, or cheeks would be ornamented with -tattooed designs of some animal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> usually the “manitou,” or creature -which a boy selected for his companion and guardian through life.</p> - -<p>A good many occupations are connected with the food supply, and -everywhere near the coast or the banks of Fraser River there are -Indians busy catching, cleaning, drying, and extracting oil from fish, -among which the salmon is most prized. Gathering quantities of roots, -berries, and nuts is a favourite occupation with women and children, -who are made responsible for laying in large quantities of vegetable -food for winter. While men are occupied with hunting and fishing, women -collect roots of the cedar tree, and from the bark of these baskets of -varied patterns are neatly manufactured. Human and animal designs are -interwoven with pieces of coloured fibre in such a way as to give an -ornamental effect, though the Indian’s idea is not merely decoration, -but a desire to portray the animal helpers which he holds in reverence. -Very light vessels may be made from bark of birch and spruce trees; -some hold several gallons, and may be held on the back by leather -thongs, one of which passes round the forehead of the carrier. Canoes -of birch bark are so light that they can be carried across land for -several miles, and travellers have many times crossed from Hudson Bay -to Vancouver chiefly by use of these light portable canoes.</p> - -<p>The manufacture of bows and arrows is an important undertaking, for on -these the hunter’s life and food supply entirely depend. Very great -care is taken in providing a bow string which will not be affected by -damp, and after threads of sinew have been neatly plaited into one -strand, the whole is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> rubbed with glue from the sturgeon, or perhaps -with gum from the black pine tree. Some tribes provided the end of the -bow with a sharply pointed stone, so that the implement could be used -as a thrusting spear when an animal came to close quarters, and the -hunter had not time to fit another arrow. Willow and mountain maple are -tough, elastic woods suitable for the bow, which is always strengthened -by a layer of sinew, cherry-tree bark, or snake skin, which is glued -to the wood. Barbed and leaf-shaped arrow or spear points are used -for hunting and warfare. Rock crystal, quartz, and a hard, dark, -shiny stone named obsidian are most serviceable for weapons; poison -made from fangs of the rattlesnake is used as a varnish for these -stone arrow points, so the hunter must be very careful that he does -not scratch himself when fitting an arrow to the bow. Metal plays an -ever increasing part in the Indian’s outfit, but there are still many -knives, daggers, war clubs, spears, and tomahawks, in the manufacture -of which sharpened stone is employed. “Tomahawk” means a skull cracker, -and no better name could have been employed, for this implement pecks -out a little circular hole in the skull, and many graves have been -opened in which the skeleton shows plainly by what instrument the fatal -blow was delivered. No stone implement is more prized than the hammer, -which takes a great deal of chipping and rubbing from hard stone. -During long evenings men will sit round the fire talking and polishing -their hammers, merely rubbing with the palms of the hands; the -implements take a very smooth gloss, and are handed down from father to -son for many generations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img005"> - <img src="images/i005.jpg" class="w75" alt="North American Implements, Weapons, etc." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">North American Implements, Weapons, etc.</span></p> - -<ul class="index center"> -<li>1. Necklet of Wampum (shell) and bear’s claw.</li> - -<li>2. A pipe-tomahawk.</li> - -<li>3. A stone club-head.</li> - -<li>4. Wooden comb representing a beast.</li> - -<li>5. A peace-pipe.</li> - -<li>6. A spiked tomahawk (skull cracker).</li> - -<li>7. A stone-bladed axe.</li> - -<li>8, 9, 10. Wooden masks from Vancouver Island. These represent the -spirits of a beaver, a cannibal, and an eagle; they are worn during -dances held in honour of these spirits.</li> - -<li>11, 12, 13, 14. Fish-hooks. No. 11 is made of stone and wood; No. 12 -is tipped with a bird’s claw; No. 13 is for halibut, and is tipped -with bone; No. 14 is wood tipped with bone.</li> - -<li>15. Rattle of puffin beaks used in dances by the Haida of Queen -Charlotte Islands.</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn1"><a href="#fna1">[1]</a> For details of customs which still survive, also for information -concerning practices which have fallen into disuse, see books -recommended for the teacher’s reference library.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"><big>CHAPTER III</big><br /> -<span class="smcap">Social Life among Indian Tribes</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Every boy is familiar with the arrangement of Boy Scouts, who name -themselves the “Beavers,” “Lions,” “Bears,” or “Eagles”; and, strange -to say, there is a similar practice among many savage peoples in -America, Australia, and the Pacific region, though primitive tribes -have many strange beliefs which we do not hear of among boys who take -animals as their emblems.</p> - -<p>One of the Déné tribes is divided into halves, the people of one -division being “Bears,” while the others are all “Birds.” Now it is -so ordered that a man or woman of the “Bear” division may not marry -any one from his or her own half of the tribe; a person belonging to -the “Bears” must always marry into the “Bird” clan, and an individual -in the “Bird” division must select a partner from the “Bears.” The -Indians cannot explain how this order originated; they say it always -has been so and must remain. Some go so far as to declare that animals, -who were their ancestors, ordered this tribal division, and laid down -the rules for marriage. The missionary, Father Morice, tells us that -among another Déné tribe named “Carriers,” there are four of these -animal clans, namely, the Grouse,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> Beaver, Toad, and Grizzly Bear. -People of the Grizzly Bear clan think that they themselves, also their -ancestors, are closely connected with the Bear in some mysterious way. -They respect the animal, and apologise to him when it is necessary to -kill him in order to get food and clothing. The bear is thought to -have a spirit which would haunt the “Bear” clan if the animal were not -treated respectfully. Some Indian hunters who will have no respect for -an animal belonging to some other clan, sit by the dead bear, their own -totem animal, and smoke the pipe of peace, which implies that there is -a good feeling between the hunter and his dead bear, whose spirit will -not take revenge.</p> - -<p>In addition to this animal “totem,” which serves as a badge for the -clan, a boy always has his own special personal “totem,” which he -obtains in the following way. At the age of fourteen he is subject to -very harsh treatment, being beaten frequently, and driven to bathe -in cold water on winter mornings. Then there is among some tribes a -“sweat-bath,” which a boy enters in order to perspire out all his -badness, while starvation and solitude in the woods are thought to be -necessary before a boy is turned into a man who can have a “totem” -animal. It is during this starvation and fasting in the woods that the -boy dreams of some animal, or, as he puts it, “the ghost of the animal -comes to him while he is asleep,” and the first creature which appears -is his “totem,” to whom he prays when in danger and trouble. The youth -must rise at once, and after killing one of his “totem” animals, he -makes a little bag which is worn like a charm round the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> neck. Should -this “medicine bag” be lost, the youth is disgraced until he has killed -an enemy, and stolen his opponent’s skin bag. A chief may have more -than one “totem” animal, and outside a house, say of the Haida Indians, -one may see a high pole on which are carried the portraits of totem -animals belonging to all who dwell within the hut. Tattooing portraits -of “totem” animals on the hands and face is very common, especially -among the Haida of Queen Charlotte Islands.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img006"> - <img src="images/i006.jpg" class="w25" alt="Totem Pole, 38 ft. high, Haida, Qn. Charlotte Is. (now in -Brit. Mus.)." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Totem Pole, 38 <abbr title="feet">ft.</abbr> high, Haida, <abbr title="queen">Qn.</abbr> Charlotte <abbr title="island">Is.</abbr></span> (now in -<abbr title="British">Brit.</abbr> <abbr title="Museum">Mus.</abbr>).<br /></p> - -<p>Winter dances in honour of animals are very common, and at these -festivities, masks in the form of animals are worn, while people -caper round in imitation of the movements of their own particular -totem. A very important social gathering among Salish tribes is named -“potlatch,” at which presents of great value are given away by a -chief who wishes to become very famous. People crowd to the top of -the long cedar-wood huts, and for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> days there is a distribution of -skins, horses, clothing, blankets, canoes, and every other form of -wealth. About twenty-five years ago a great chief of Vancouver Island -gave a “potlatch” to 2500 persons from different tribes. The guests -were feasted for over a month, and the savings of five years were -distributed; so no wonder the chief who is wealthy and a great warrior -readily becomes the judge and lawgiver in Indian society.</p> - -<p>Slaves, usually people taken in war, were at one time common, and very -miserable was their lot, for they were regarded as being no better -than dogs, and any man might put his slaves to death for a trifling -offence. <abbr title="Mister">Mr.</abbr> Hill-Tout, who knows the Indians well, says: “Slavery -has, of course, been abolished since they came under our rule, but the -descendants of those formerly slaves are still looked down upon and -despised by the other Indians.”</p> - -<p>The North-Western tribes had no belief in a Supreme Being, or in God -Who made the universe, though they did think of a soul, spirit, or -ghost which could survive after the body was killed. Not only people, -but animals, and even weapons and articles of clothing, were thought -to have a ghost which went to some other world when the creature was -killed or the article broken. The Thompson Indians were very much -afraid of the spirits of deer, and they always took care to bury with -respect all such parts of the carcase as were not required. One way of -keeping friendly with the bear spirits was to hang the skull of the -animal on a tree, and all who took part in the ceremony<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> were expected -to join in a chorus praising bears, while each performer was expected -to paint his face. The “medicine man,” “shaman,” or shall we say -priest, is most important among Déné tribes, for this peculiar person -goes into a deep sleep or trance in which he is supposed to visit the -world of spirits, who tell him how to cure sick people. So clever is -the “shaman” thought to be, that he is held quite capable of chasing a -soul which has left the body, and when the truant soul is caught, he -goes through a performance of returning it to the dying person. A man -who is very ill indeed will sometimes recover just because he has such -great faith in the medicine man, whose power he trusts absolutely.</p> - -<p>Burial is performed in various ways: the body may be left on a staging -concealed in the boughs of a tree, or the tomb may be a hut which was -specially constructed for the dying person, or perhaps his remains are -cremated. Whatever method is adopted, there is always the greatest fear -of death and a return of haunting spirits, which can be kept away only -by the observance of certain superstitious practices. The mourners -must not eat meat for several days, then they are not to cut it with a -knife. The encampment where death takes place is sometimes deserted, -and what is most important, the name of the dead must not be mentioned, -for the ghost may think he is called if he hears his name.</p> - -<p>Social gatherings are made happy by the narration of stories which -refer to the lives and adventures of animals. Here is one concerning -a sea-gull and a raven: the former bird is credited with having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> kept -daylight in a large box until a raven induced him to open the lid. -After lighting torches and searching the seashore, the raven returned -carrying prickly eggs of the sea urchin, which he strewed before the -house of the sea-gull. Next day he made a call on the sea-gull, and -found him in bed with his feet full of prickles, which the raven -volunteered to take out with a knife. When the operation was in -progress, Master Raven said: “You must open the lid of your box and -let out some daylight, for I cannot see what I am doing.” So the gull -opened the lid a little way, and the visitor continued taking out -prickles from the sea-gull’s feet. At last the little bit of daylight -was exhausted, and once more the raven asked for more light in order to -continue his work. Very reluctantly the sea-gull opened the lid of his -“daylight” box, but on this occasion the raven was too quick for him, -and forced the lid right open, with the result that daylight rushed -out, spread all over the world, and could not be gathered in again.</p> - -<p>Sea-gull was very much distressed, bitterly he cried, and to-day -the Indians say that sea birds flit along the shore, uttering their -plaintive cries because of the trick played by the raven so many years -ago.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"><big>CHAPTER IV</big><br /> -<span class="smcap">The Social Life of the Eskimo</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Long before daybreak the Eskimo housewife rises, and at once supplies -the lamp with a new wick and more blubber; and while the breakfast of -seal’s flesh is being prepared, the hunter removes the block of snow -constituting a door; then, making his way along the under-snow passage -where the sleeping dogs lie, he emerges into the open, at which point a -piercing Arctic wind greets him. The sledge is cut loose from its ice -fetters, and the dogs are harnessed ready for an immediate start.</p> - -<p>The women who stay at home are occupied in making boots and clothing -by sewing skins of the seal, reindeer, or walrus; children and puppies -have to be fed and played with; then, of course, there is the hunter’s -evening meal to prepare: the raw liver of a seal caught during the day -is regarded as a great delicacy. A strange superstition demands that -women shall do no work while the spoils are being unloaded from the -sledge, for it is thought that the supreme goddess Sedna, who created -all sea animals, will be extremely angry if some mark of respect is -not shown to her dead creatures. Seal and walrus soups constitute the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -first part of the evening meal, but of these the women do not partake, -and as a rule they share only in the last course, consisting of large -quantities of frozen meat. The soup is generally passed round in a -large horn cup, from which each takes a drink, a proceeding which is -followed by the introduction of a large mass of meat that is passed -round and bitten by each in turn. A person retiring to rest always -takes the precaution of leaving meat near the snow couch, so that he -may refresh himself if awake during the night. The Eskimo are, of -course, hunters and nothing more; upon animal life they depend entirely -for food, clothing, weapons, and locomotion; the cold is intense, the -hours of work long and laborious, so it comes to pass that enormous -quantities of animal food are essential.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img007"> - <img src="images/i007.jpg" class="w50" alt="An Eskimo Man." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">An Eskimo Man.</span><br /></p> - -<p>An American explorer who spent many evenings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> with the Eskimo, who -are very hospitable, says: “The men visit one another and spend the -evening in talking, singing, gambling, and telling stories. The events -of the day are talked over, success in hunting is compared, the hunting -tools requiring mending are set in order, and the lines are dried and -softened. Some busy themselves in cutting new ivory implements and seal -lines.... During these social visits, the host places a large lump of -frozen meat and a knife on the side bench behind the lamp, and every -one is welcome to help himself to as much as he likes. The first comers -sit down on the ledge, while those entering later stand or squat in the -passage. When any one addresses the whole assembly, he always turns his -face to the wall, and avoids facing the listeners.” The young children -are not required to go to bed early, so they have a good time playing -on the snow couches, which are covered with skins.</p> - -<p>“The women sit on the bed in front of their lamps, with their legs -under them, working continually on their own clothing or on that of -the men, drying the wet foot-gear and mittens, and softening the -leather by chewing and rubbing. If there is a litter of pups, it is the -women’s business to look after them, to keep them warm, and to feed -them regularly. Generally the pups are put into small harness, and are -allowed to crawl about the side of the bed, where they are tied to the -wall by a trace.”</p> - -<p>Games, such as cat’s-cradle and gambling with dice, are numerous; there -is no money among the Eskimo, trade is by barter, so when gambling, -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> stakes are articles of clothing, weapons, and food. Several -summer games are played with a ball of deerskin, which is thrown among -players, who keep it in motion by means of whips or blows from the -hand, the object frequently being to prevent the ball from touching the -ground; meanwhile various merry little songs are sung. Toy sledges, -kayaks, bows, and dolls are very popular with the children, who soon -make a wooden figure clad in a little pair of deerskin trousers, which -are a good imitation of the clothing of their own parents.</p> - -<p>Winter, during which all bays and inlets are frozen, is a good time for -visiting friends, because a sledge journey over the ice is a very easy -means of travelling many miles. A journey of 100 miles is not uncommon, -and when so great a distance has been accomplished, the visitors make a -long stay of almost a year, though it is understood that they must help -readily with all the hunting and domestic work. During the great war -“communal kitchens” were established in many places, and it is thought -that by having one central cooking-place there is a great saving in -food, fuel, and labour. The Eskimo have a similar arrangement in their -summer encampment, where each family in turn will take a whole day, -during which they are responsible for the collection of fuel and the -cooking of food for the whole encampment. When the meal is prepared, -the master of the duty household shouts “Ujo! Ujo!” (boiled meat), and -the hungry Eskimo emerge from their huts, each man carrying a large -knife with which he cuts a portion for his family.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> - -<p>The education of Eskimo children consists entirely of learning the -occupations which will have to be undertaken in later years. Girls -practise sewing and preparation of skin garments, while very young boys -accompany hunters, and soon become expert in the management of dogs, -fishing tackle, and hunting appliances of every type. As soon as a boy -shows that he is able to support a wife, he is at liberty to marry; and -though adults frequently arrange that certain children shall marry when -grown up, these early contracts are not binding, and there is a good -deal of freedom in choosing a wife or husband. In general the husband -goes to live with his wife’s parents, and so becomes one of the family, -which he must help to support; if the suitor comes from another tribe -he may not take his wife to his own people, but is expected to settle -with her kindred. After the death of his wife’s parents a young man may -live where he pleases, but he must always be kind to his wife and treat -her well, or she is free to leave him and marry some one else.</p> - -<p>Children are affectionately treated, and according to one traveller -are “never scolded or whipped.” Sometimes it has been said that people -of certain tribes kill their children; such a dreadful proceeding -is extremely rare, and happens only when food is very scarce. The -Greenland Eskimo say that if a child were killed, its spirit would -come back to haunt them. Some people are unable to provide food for -the children, then the youngsters are adopted by a relative or friend. -Among the Eskimo there are no slaves, some reasons being that time is -fully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> occupied in hunting; journeys are difficult, also the Eskimo -are naturally peaceable and kind, so it comes to pass that warfare is -almost unknown, and captives are not taken. Servants there are, usually -cripples or unfortunate men who have lost their dogs, sledges, and -hunting apparatus.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo have some religious ideas concerning a good spirit “Sedna,” -to whom they pray for success in hunting. This goddess is supposed to -have created all animal life, and her special care is the protection -of Eskimo people, who have many stories and legends concerning the -goodness and bounty of their protectress. Almost all people believe -that there is some part of a man which lives after the body is dead, -and the Eskimo are no exception to the general rule, for they have -distinct ideas of heaven ruled over by Sedna. As a matter of fact, -there are thought to be four heavens, or at any rate four stages -through which the soul has to travel before it reaches the “good land” -where it will be for ever happy. Some people are not good enough to go -to the “good land” where summer is continuous, so they wander about in -the first three stages of the journey; and so low is the roof of each -of these first stages, that a man has to bend very low all the time he -is travelling.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo have some very clear rules for the division of game and the -restoration of lost property to its owner, but there are no kings, -chiefs, judges, or law courts, so justice and punishment are in the -hands of the whole settlement. Murder is not common, but when it does -occur there is a terrible blood feud between the two families, and -thirst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> for revenge may continue for many, many years, unless the -murderer, or one of his relatives, is killed as a punishment for the -crime.</p> - -<p>Animals, and even lifeless things, are thought to have a spirit which -goes to some sort of heaven, so we understand why a hunter’s property -is buried with him; his relations think he will need it in the next -world. A very wonderful man among the Eskimo is a person whom they -call “angakok,” a priest or “medicine man,” who goes through some very -strange performances, during which he claims to have a talk with ghosts -who tell him how to cure diseases, or in what way some misfortune can -be averted. <abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> Boas tells us that: “The lamps being lowered, the -‘angakok’ strips off his outer jacket, places the hood over his head, -and sits down in the back part of the hut, facing the wall. He claps -his hands, which are covered with mittens, and shaking his whole body -utters sounds which one would scarcely recognise as human.” After -this performance he pretends to summon to his aid the spirit of an -animal which is supposed to be his particular helper and guardian. -Then all in the hut join in a chorus, following which the patient is -questioned: “Did you eat when it was forbidden?” “Did you work when it -was forbidden?” and perhaps the sick man is obliged to admit that he -has broken some tribal law. The “angakok” may impose some rules on the -whole community; perhaps he forbids every one to eat the flesh of the -deer, or he may command a general cleansing of the hut; some orders are -very sensible, others just foolish and superstitious.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps the efforts of the medicine man are all in vain, and when death -seems certain the patient is carried to a small skin tent or snow -hut, where he is left alone to die; for if death should occur in the -ordinary dwelling, everything within would have to be broken and thrown -away. The Eskimo are terrified of a dead body, but the dying person -is said to be very courageous, and not at all unwilling to leave this -world; one young girl asked for some tobacco and meat which she wished -to take to her mother, who had died a few weeks before.</p> - -<p>The body, wrapped in deer skin, is buried at once, and if the season -is summer, a pile of stones is erected, great care being taken that -these do not rest over the body, for their weight would be thought to -hinder the journey of a soul in the next world. Evidently the Eskimo -believes that life in the next world is very like existence here, for -with a man is buried a variety of hunting implements; a dead woman -requires pots, lamps, and knives; while toys are always placed with the -body of a little child. The nearest relatives always pull the body to -the burial-ground; dogs may not be used on such solemn occasions, and -the sledge used must always be left by the grave. Silently the friends -return to their hut, where for three days and nights they mourn for the -dead person.</p> - -<p>Sitting around their tiny lamp, the Eskimo hear the raging of the -storm, and with awe listen to the terrible noises of shrieking winds or -crunching ice. For these are said to be the voices of spirits who knock -wildly at the huts and pursue the dogs; terrible is the fate of a poor -Eskimo who falls into their grip.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"><big>CHAPTER V</big><br /> -<span class="smcap">The Eskimo as a Hunter</span></h2> -</div> - - - - -<p>The Algonkin Indians were so disgusted with the habits of life adopted -by the Innuit, that they called them “Eskimo,” a name which means -“eater of raw flesh.” It would be difficult to find a much better -description, for so barren is the snow-clad country, and so intense the -cold, that the Eskimo has no opportunities for practising agriculture; -neither would vegetable food sustain life in this inhospitable region.</p> - -<p>The fatty diet is obtained chiefly from the seal, whale, and walrus, -while the reindeer, together with an abundant supply of sea birds and -fish, furnish food and clothing. An encounter with polar bears is not -looked upon as a regular part of the hunter’s life, and a successful -combat with one of these animals is an event talked about during many -a long winter evening. So proud is the hunter, that he tattoos himself -with special marks indicating how many whales or polar bears he has -taken; one great hunter had across his chest tattooed marks in the form -of the flukes on the tail of a whale. These showed that he had killed -seven of these creatures; and such was the pride of his wife, that she -had tattooed herself in the same way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<p>Seal hunting is perhaps the most common means of obtaining a large -supply of food and material for clothing, and usually the animal is -harpooned, though the method of capture depends on the season of the -year and the condition of the ice.</p> - -<p>The shaft of the harpoon, to which a line is attached, is made of -wood, strengthened by a thong of reindeer hide. The head consists of -a sharply pointed piece of ivory, probably obtained from the tusks of -the walrus; and in order that the sharp point may detach itself in the -wounded animal, the head fits very loosely in the shaft, to which it -is fastened by a strong thong of reindeer sinew. The floating wooden -shaft, to which a bladder is fastened, is plainly seen each time the -wounded animal comes up to breathe. The whole proceeding has been -described by <abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> Boas, who says:</p> - -<p>“When the day begins to dawn, the Eskimo prepares for the hunt by -gathering his harpoons and harnessing the dogs to the sledge. The -harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer’s antlers, which -are attached to the hind part of the sledge, a seal or bear skin is -lashed upon the bottom, and the spear secured under the lashing. The -hunter takes up the whip, and the dogs set off at a great pace for the -hunting ground.</p> - -<p>“Near the place where he expects to find seals, the hunter stops his -team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is then turned -upside down in such a way as to prevent the dogs from running away. -A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team, and the Eskimo -follows his guidance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> until a seal’s hole is found. In winter it is -entirely covered with snow, but generally a small elevation indicates -the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge, and the hunter -examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by the seal. -Cautiously he cuts a hole in the snow covering and peeps into the -excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice, the seal -has left the hole, and it would be in vain to expect its return. The -hunter must look for a new hole promising better results.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img008"> - <img src="images/i008.jpg" class="w50" alt="Eskimo Seal Hunter waiting at Breathing Hole." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Seal Hunter waiting at Breathing Hole.</span><br /></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p> - -<p>“If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole, he marks its -exact centre on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep-hole -with small blocks of snow. These preparations must be made with the -utmost caution, as any changes in the appearance of the snow would -frighten away the seal.”</p> - -<p>The hunter stands on a small piece of seal skin with the harpoon -poised in both hands, and there he may have to wait for several hours; -sometimes he builds a screen of snow to protect himself from the -bitterly cold wind. Now he bends low, and listens intently for the -blowing which indicates that a seal is at hand; then suddenly he stands -upright, and with all his strength sends down the harpoon into the -hole, where the seal is in such a position that it usually receives -the weapon in the head. The line is paid out, and at the same time the -hunter cuts down the snow covering from the hole, to the edge of which -the animal is dragged, and dispatched by a blow on the head.</p> - -<p>The blood of a seal is highly prized, and to prevent waste all wounds -are closed by driving in ivory pegs; sometimes the hunter refreshes -himself with a copious drink of the warm blood.</p> - -<p>In the month of March, mother seals prepare long burrows in the snow, -and here the Eskimo finds the baby seal, which is dragged forth by -means of a large hook; the mother, too, is often caught or harpooned -because of her courage in attempting to save her young. Perhaps these -methods of hunting appear to be somewhat cruel, but it is to be -remembered that the Eskimo is constantly fighting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> hard to sustain life -in a severe and inhospitable climate. On some occasions the hunter -finds only the skin of a young seal in one of these burrows; the foxes -have arrived first and devoured the carcase. With the advance of summer -the young seal breaks from its snow burrow, and, until the end of June, -the mother and her calf may be seen basking together on the ice, where -they are shot or harpooned by the hunter, who, clad in seal skin, can -approach to very close range. Many men still prefer a harpoon to the -guns which may be obtained from whalers in exchange for skins, but -nowadays the head of the harpoon is usually made of iron, which is -more effective than sharpened ivory. This method of stalking the seal -may produce a bag of from ten to fifteen animals in a day, whereas the -winter tactics rarely result in the capture of more than one animal -even after twelve hours of weary waiting by the breathing hole.</p> - -<p>When the ice breaks, “kayaks” are launched, and the summer hunting of -the seal and walrus is soon in full swing. The double pointed canoe, -which is widely distributed between the shores of Greenland and Alaska, -consists of a stout framework of wood and whalebone, twenty-five feet -long, over which are stretched seal skins, sewn firmly together with -the sinews of reindeer. The top is covered by skin, with the exception -of a small hole just large enough to accommodate a man’s body; a double -paddle serves to propel the craft, which is, of course, provided with a -large harpoon when used for pursuing a seal or walrus.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img009"> - <img src="images/i009.jpg" class="w75" alt="A Kayak." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">A Kayak.</span><br /></p> - -<p>Sometimes a framework covered with skin is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> attached to the harpoon -line in such a way that when the cord is paid out the broad framework -is dragged through the sea at right angles to the line. How great is -the resistance of the water to such a device may be illustrated by -holding the edge of a piece of board while dragging it in water. Of -course a wounded animal is quickly exhausted by towing this apparatus -rapidly through the sea. An explorer named Lyon has left a very -interesting account of one method adopted by hunters of the walrus:</p> - -<p>“When the hunters in their canoes perceive a large herd sleeping on the -floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some other piece near -them which is small enough to be moved. On this they lift their canoes -and then bore several holes through which they fasten their tough -lines, and when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> everything is ready they silently paddle the hummock -towards their prey, each man sitting by his own line and spear. In -this manner they reach the ice on which the walruses lie snoring, and -if they please, each man may strike an animal, though in general two -persons attack the same beast. The wounded and startled walrus rolls -instantly to the water, but the harpoon being well fixed he cannot -escape from the hummock of ice to which the Eskimo have fastened the -line. When the animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches his -canoe, and, lying out of reach of the animal’s fearful tusks, spears -him to death.”</p> - -<p>At one time whaling was a favourite occupation of the central Eskimo, -and in some places it is continued to the present day, chiefly by -pursuing the whale with a great number of kayaks and skin boats of a -larger pattern. The creature is followed by numerous hunters, each -of whom endeavours to drive his harpoon into the animal, which, from -loss of blood and the resistance caused by harpoon lines, floats, and -framework, is tired out, and killed with lances.</p> - -<p>During the very short summer, herds of deer wander in search of -herbage, and the Eskimo follows on foot in order to secure a supply of -deer skins, which are fit for clothing only when taken at this period. -The snow huts have been abandoned, and the hunter takes with him a -light portable tent of reindeer hide, which is often pitched near the -shores of a lake habitually crossed by the herd. Sometimes the hunting -party is divided, and while some men drive the frightened animals into -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> water, others sit in “kayaks” waiting for the deer to swim by. A -lake into which a long narrow peninsula projects is considered very -suitable, for a number of hunters extended in skirmishing order can -drive the herd along the narrow projection of land, and eventually into -the lake. Kayaks are propelled more quickly than the animals can swim, -so they are overtaken and killed with the spear. At times the deer does -a little hunting, and if provided with a stout pair of antlers he will -rip open the boat and make the Eskimo swim hard for the shore.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img010"> - <img src="images/i010.jpg" class="w75" alt="Eskimo Summer Tent of Bear Skin and Seal Skin, and -Snow Hut." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Summer Tent of Bear Skin and Seal Skin, and -Snow Hut.</span><br /></p> - -<p>In some instances the herd is driven along a deep narrow valley with -steep sides, and as there is no means of escape, the animals are killed -by hunters extended in line at the narrowest part of the defile. Bows -are made either of wood or antlers of the deer, and as a rule the -wooden weapon is made stronger and more pliable by the addition of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -strong strip of sinew, which is bound firmly to the wooden portion. -The bowstring is manufactured from sinew; and the arrow tips, formerly -cleverly made by flaking pieces of slate, are now replaced by sharpened -scraps of tin or iron riveted into a slit at the pointed end of the -shaft, to the other extremity of which a few feathers of the owl are -fastened in order to give a true flight. A large quiver of seal skin is -divided into compartments containing the arrows, the bow, and a number -of spare arrow tips. A handle of ivory serves as a means of carrying -the quiver when the hunter is travelling, but as soon as game is in -sight, the quiver is slung over the left shoulder.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img011"> - <img src="images/i011.jpg" class="w50" alt="Eskimo Tools, Weapons, etc." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Tools, Weapons, etc.</span><br /></p> -<ul class="index center"> -<li>1. Pick of wood and ivory; </li> -<li>2. Adze of bone and iron; </li> -<li>3. Antler club; </li> -<li> -4. Gaff for salmon; </li> -<li>5. Snow-knife of bone; </li> -<li>6, 7, 8, 9. Arrow heads of -antler; No. 9 is pointed with stone; </li> -<li>10. Arrow straightener of bone; -11. Hide scraper of bone and iron; </li> -<li>12 Carving on ivory depicting a -whale hunt; </li> -<li>13. Tobacco pipe of ivory.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Eskimo dogs are eager in the pursuit of herds of the musk ox, which -always defends itself by forming a circle around the calves. While -the oxen are busy keeping a number of ferocious dogs at bay, the -hunters approach and let fly their arrows into the herd. Sometimes an -infuriated animal breaks from the defensive ring, and at such times the -Eskimo is saved by his dogs, who harass the creatures until the hunter -is again prepared to shoot. Polar bears are pursued by hunters on light -sledges, and when the quarry is exhausted by the chase, the traces of -the most reliable dogs are cut, and very soon the bear is standing at -bay, striking fiercely at the dogs with his huge forepaws, until the -hunter is able to come up and launch a spear or arrow. The best season -for bear hunting is March or April, when the bears come a considerable -distance inland in pursuit of young seals. In the region of Davis -Strait, the Eskimo diligently search <span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>for holes where the bear is having his long winter sleep, from which -the hunter intends that he shall never be awakened.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img012"> - <img src="images/i012.jpg" class="w50" alt="Eskimo Dogs’ Attack on a Bear." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Dogs’ Attack on a Bear.</span><br /></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p> - -<p>Hunters do not consider wolves sufficiently valuable to repay the -trouble of pursuit, and these creatures are ignored unless they prove -dangerous to the Eskimo encampments. Traps for wolves consist of a hole -ten feet deep, very small at the bottom, but gradually widening towards -the circular top, which is surrounded by a snow wall. A thin sheet of -ice covers the wide top, in the centre of which some strongly smelling -meat is placed. In order to get the bait, the wolf must leap the snow -wall, with the result that he crashes through the thin covering of -ice, and is soon trapped at the narrow base of the pit. A very cruel -method of killing wolves consists of rolling a very sharp piece of -whalebone inside a piece of meat, which is eagerly gulped down by a -hungry animal. The meat digests and dissolves, and before long the -wolf suffers very great pain, for the whalebone coil unwinds and the -sharpened ends penetrate the walls of the stomach and intestines.</p> - -<p>Small game, such as foxes, hares, ermines, and lemmings, are caught in -snares, while for birds the following clever contrivance is frequently -employed. “It consists of seven or eight sinew cords, nearly three feet -long and tied together at one end, while to the opposite ends weights -of ivory or stone are attached. Before being launched at the bird, -the sling is whirled round the head, so that when it leaves the hand -a rotatory movement is imparted to it, and all the weights fly apart, -the striking diameter of the weapon covering five or six feet. The bird -is thus brought to the ground, whether<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> it is struck by the weights or -entangled in the strings.”</p> - -<p>A favourite method of catching gulls depends entirely on the quickness -of the hunter, who has concealed himself in a small snow house, one -block of the roof of which is made from a thin, transparent piece of -ice to support the bait. When a bird settles on this thin ice, the -trapper quickly pushes his hand through, seizes the creature, and drags -it into the hut. By far the greater number of birds are caught in the -moulting season, partridges by hand, and waterfowl after pursuit with -the kayak. Swimming birds dive as soon as the boat comes near them; -immediately they are pursued, and time after time are driven down -whenever they attempt to breathe at the surface; eventually they are -drowned, and the bodies float on the water.</p> - -<p>Fish, among which the salmon is very plentiful, are harpooned, taken by -ivory fishing hooks, or chipped out of blocks of ice in which they have -become deposited at the freezing of a small lake, which may have been -converted into a solid mass of ice. The scraping, chewing, and drying -of skins is one of the chief employments of women, and so careful are -they, that no part of the carcase is wasted, and even the intestines -of a seal are made to furnish transparent waterproofs, which are, of -course, very light and convenient to carry. Driftwood from the seashore -is used in making bows and sledges, while the antlers of the reindeer -help to form smooth runners, and the sinews give elasticity to wooden -bows. Knives, scrapers, hooks, utensils,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> prongs of harpoons, and -arrowheads, all depend for their manufacture on supplies of ivory and -bone, in the working of which the Eskimo is most ingenious. Strange to -say, the caves of very ancient Europe, when excavated, have sometimes -yielded specimens of engraved ivory very closely resembling the -products of the Eskimo. From the caves La Madeleine and Bruniquel are -derived some excellent specimens of engraving on bone, an art which -flourished in some parts of Southern Europe towards the end of the old -Stone Age. The question of the origin and migrations of the Eskimo, -together with speculations concerning their connection with the bone -workers of ancient Europe, are very interesting, but perhaps too long -and difficult for a small reading-book.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> - -<p>In addition to the kayak already described, women use a large open boat -shaped like a trough and capable of holding about twenty people. With -this “umiak” single-bladed paddles are employed, and a low lug-sail -made of strips of walrus-intestine is sometimes hoisted. For steering, -a paddle is used, and a rudder is to be found only when the Eskimo have -copied the steering device from European whalers.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img013"> - <img src="images/i013.jpg" class="w75" alt="A Umiak and Eskimo Dogs and Sledge." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">A Umiak and Eskimo Dogs and Sledge.</span><br /></p> - - - -<p>The best sledges are made by the tribes of Hudson and Davis Straits, -for in these regions the most substantial pieces of driftwood are to -be found. The dog team is strong, intelligent, and willing to work; so -ready to start that the Eskimo driver may be in danger of being left -behind. Careful training of the animals is necessary, and sometimes -there is a great deal of harshness before they are fit to harness; -perhaps the worst qualities of the dogs are extreme ferocity and -pugnacity. <abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> Boas says:</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> - -<p>“The Eskimo rarely brings up more than three or four dogs at the same -time; and if the litter is larger than this number the rest are sold -or given away. The young dogs are carefully nursed, and in winter they -are allowed to lie on the couch, or are hung up near the lamp in a -skin cradle. When almost four months old the pups are first put to the -sledge, and gradually they become accustomed to pull with the others. -If food is plentiful the dogs are fed every alternate day, and then -their share is by no means a large one. In winter they are fed with the -heads, entrails, bones, and skins of seals, and they are so voracious -at this time of the year that nothing is secure from their appetite. -Any kind of leather, particularly books, harness, and thongs, is eaten -whenever they can get at it. In the spring they are better fed, and in -summer grow quite fat, but at any time of their life food may not be -procurable for five or six days. In Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait, -and Hudson Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are considerable, -the dogs are carried in summer to small islands, where they live upon -what they can find on the beach: clams, codfish, etc., and if at -liberty, they seem very happy, and well able to provide for themselves.”</p> - -<p><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> Boas remembers two runaway dogs which had lived on their own -account from April to August, during which month they returned quite -fat.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"><big>CHAPTER VI</big><br /> -<span class="smcap">Tales told by the Eskimo</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img014"> - <img src="images/i014.jpg" class="w75" alt="Interior of an Eskimo Snow Hut." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of an Eskimo Snow Hut.</span><br /></p> - -<p>If we could creep along the narrow underground passage leading to the -snow hut, we might have the good fortune to find the Eskimo family -crowded together round the small, evil-smelling oil lamp, which from -time to time is replenished by a new supply of fat from the seal or -whale.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> Around the small, dome-shaped snow dwelling are low seats -constructed from blocks of frozen snow, which, covered with several -layers of skin and fur, make comfortable couches for the inmates. -Already the small room has become so warm that most members of the -family have cast aside their outer fur garments, and each person is -settling down to the evening task. The women are busy chewing skin of -the reindeer in order to make it soft and pliable, so that it may be -sewn into boots and jackets, while the men are constructing harpoons, -mending harness for the dogs, or perhaps cleverly engraving small -sketches on pieces of ivory obtained from the tusks of the walrus.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img015"> - <img src="images/i015.jpg" class="w75" alt="Eskimo Bow-Drill for Fire Making." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Bow-Drill for Fire Making.</span><br /></p> - - -<p>Oil lamps are kept burning day and night in winter, but should the -Eskimo require a light he can quickly produce it by means of the -bow-drill. A peg of hard wood rests in a hole in a soft board,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> and -near to the point of contact is a small pile of tinder; that is very -finely powdered wood, which is kept quite dry. The peg of hard wood can -be made to spin round rapidly by twisting it in a bow string, which -is made tight, then released suddenly. Boys at school adopt a similar -method for spinning a disc of cardboard, or setting a toy aeroplane -in flight. The rapid twirling of the hard peg sets up a great deal of -heat, which causes the tinder to smoulder, then to burst into flame -when gently blown.</p> - -<p>Presently the work is put on one side, and after a hearty meal has been -made from the flesh and warm blood of a young seal, stories of great -age are told concerning the perils of the hunter, and the wanderings -of the Eskimo people over the great ice-fields of Hudson Bay or Davis -Strait. Eagerly we listen, and although the names are very long and -strange to our ears, we may judge that the favourite stories are not -unlike our own tales of love and valour, with this exception, that the -Eskimo has no knowledge of writing, so stories are handed down from one -generation to another by word of mouth, while, to amuse the children, -the story-teller will make little sketches of the chief characters in -his narrative.</p> - -<p>A long, long time ago a young man, whose name was Itit, went timidly -to the hut of a young orphan girl, in order to ask whether she would -become his wife. However, as he was very shy, and afraid to speak to -the young girl for himself, he called her little brother, who was -playing before the hut, and said: “Go to your sister, and ask her if -she will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> marry me.” Away ran the little fellow, but almost immediately -he was back again in order to ask the name of the suitor. When the -Eskimo maiden heard that the name “Itit” was the short pet name for -“Ititaujang,” she said: “Oh, go away! I will not marry a man with such -an ugly name.” Three times the young brother carried a message of love -from the poor Itit, who was becoming very cold and angry, for he had -been standing in deep snow for a long time. When the maiden refused for -the third time, Itit turned away from the hut, left his own country, -where there was no other maiden whom he could love, and for many days -and nights he wandered, sad and lonely, over great hills and valleys -covered with snow.</p> - -<p>At last he arrived in the land of birds, and saw a lake on which -geese were swimming. On the shore he noticed a great many boots, so -cautiously he crept near and stole as many as he could carry. The birds -returned, and greatly alarmed at this theft, they flew away, with the -exception of one bird which remained behind, crying, “I want my boots! -I want my boots!” “You shall have your boots,” said Itit, “if you will -become my wife.” Then, returning the magic boots, he had the pleasure -of seeing the beautiful bird transformed into a handsome young Eskimo -maiden, who wandered with him to the seaside, where they settled in a -large village. Itit became the best whaler and seal catcher, so was -very much respected by all the Eskimo of that country; and what was -more pleasing still, he had a young son who was rapidly becoming a -brave and clever hunter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<p>It so happened that the Eskimo, led by Itit, had killed a whale, and -all except the wife of Itit were busy carrying the meat and blubber to -their huts. When the lazy wife was called, she answered: “I do not like -food from the sea, I want all my food from the land. I will not eat -the meat of a whale, and I will not help.” She came down to the beach -leading her young son by the hand, and after finding some feathers, -she placed them between her fingers and those of her son, both twirled -their hands quickly, and on whispering some magic words were changed -into geese, which flew away, leaving Itit to carry out a sorrowful -search for his wife and child.</p> - -<p>After many weary months of travel he came to the bank of a swiftly -flowing river, where an old man was striking off chips of wood, which, -when polished between his hands, turned into little salmon, that -leaped into the water and began to swim towards a large lake. Itit at -once asked questions concerning his wife and child, and to his great -surprise learned that they were dwelling on a small island in the lake. -He was furious on hearing that his wife had taken another husband, -and now he loved her no more, but sought only for revenge. There was -no canoe, but the clever old man, who could make salmon from chips -of wood, took the backbone of a fish, and after vigorously polishing -this for a time, it turned into a small boat which the Eskimo calls a -“kayak.” This the old man presented to Itit, who immediately pushed off -from the shore in the direction of the island where his wife was hiding.</p> - -<p>Very soon a small hut came into view, and there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> was his son, playing -in the garden. The little boy ran into the house, crying, “Mother! -Father is here, and is coming to our hut!” to which the mother replied, -“Go on with your play; your father is far off, and cannot find us.” -No sooner were the words spoken than Itit entered and glared fiercely -round the room, while the frightened woman quickly opened a box from -which there flew a cloud of feathers. These stuck to the woman, her -son, and the new husband, and before Itit could carry out his revenge, -the hut suddenly disappeared, and his enemies, immediately transformed -into geese, flew rapidly away until they became mere specks in the -distance.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Among our own boys and girls, stories of Father Neptune, who lives -on the bed of the ocean and rules the waves, are very common. The -Eskimo, too, have traditions of “Kalopaling,” who seems to be very much -like the “Old Man of the Sea,” mentioned in stories of <em>Sinbad the -Sailor</em>. To the Eskimo, Kalopaling is a dreadful monster of human -form, covered with feathers of the eider duck, and so large is the hood -of his cloak that it will easily contain a kayak and the fisherman -who sculls it. This hood is said to be filled with Eskimo fishermen -who have either been drowned by accident or captured by the dreaded -Kalopaling, who, although unable to speak, can make a long wailing cry -of “bee-bee-bee.” The feet of this creature are very large, and appear -like sealskin floats, or the water wings which boys use when learning -to swim.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<p>The Eskimo believe that in olden times there were a great number of -“Kalopaling,” but happily their numbers are diminishing, and now only -a few of the strongest are left. These are often seen swimming a few -feet below the surface of the sea, and from time to time they rise in -order to breathe, then once more disappear below the surface with much -splashing of arms and legs. The hunter has only one chance of killing -a “Kalopaling,” and this must be done when the monster is asleep on -the ice. The flesh is said to be poisonous, but it may be used for -fattening dogs that draw the sledges.</p> - -<p>One story says that an old Eskimo woman lived with her little son, and -as they were very poor they had to depend on small gifts of blubber and -seal’s meat. On one occasion the boy was so hungry that he kept crying -out for food, and in spite of his mother’s threat to call Kalopaling, -the noise continued until the woman became so angry that she actually -called the monster, who walked away with the shrieking child hidden in -his enormous hood. Later on, food became plentiful, and the woman told -Eskimo fishermen how sorry she was that her little son had been taken -away, and before long a brave hunter and his wife promised to help her -to secure the child.</p> - -<p>Kalopaling used to allow the boy to play near the edge of a large crack -in the ice, but always had a rope of seaweed around him, so that he -could be pulled into the water when any one was approaching. The hunter -and his wife made several unsuccessful attempts to rescue the boy, but -at last their patience was rewarded, for coming out quickly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> from their -hiding-place behind a block of snow, they cut the rope of seaweed, and -carried the lad to his mother’s hut, where he grew up to become a great -hunter.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Ages ago there lived on the shore of Davis Strait a young orphan boy -named “Kaud,” who, on account of his loneliness, was so ill-treated -that he was not allowed to sleep in the hut, but had to cuddle up to -the sledge dogs which lay outside. His food consisted of the toughest -pieces of walrus hide, which he was obliged to eat without a knife, -until a little Eskimo girl took pity on him and made him a present of a -knife, which he concealed in the hood of his jacket. So badly treated -was young Kaud that he remained very small, and even young children -took advantage of his weakness and ill-treated him when at play. When -the villagers gathered in the house used for singing, Kaud would lie in -the passage listening to the music, and wishing he could take part in -the enjoyment. Sometimes a sturdy man would look out, and espying young -Kaud, would take him by the ear and lift him into the room, where some -heavy task would be found for him.</p> - -<p>The man in the moon had for some time been watching the miseries of -this Eskimo orphan, and at last decided to come to earth and help him. -For a time the small boy was too frightened to leave the hut where -he was hiding, but soon ventured forth, and to his surprise the man -from the moon told him to move some very large stones, which seemed -too heavy even for a strong man. Of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> course Kaud could not move the -stones although he tried very hard, when the man from the moon began to -flick him with a whip and shout, “Now, do you feel stronger?” “Yes, I -feel stronger,” said poor Kaud; but as the stone was still in the same -position the man from the moon used his whip a little more freely. At -last the stone moved just a little, and the small boy, encouraged by -success, exerted his strength, which was every moment increasing, and -to the delight of his taskmaster he was soon able, not only to move the -stone, but actually to lift it a great height from the ground.</p> - -<p>“Very good,” said the man from the moon. “To-morrow I will send three -bears, then you may show your full strength.” So saying, he got astride -a cloud and sailed away towards the full moon, whose silver light was -glistening on the frozen snow. Next morning three large bears made -their appearance in the village, much to the dismay of all the men, for -not even the oldest hunter had seen such large, fierce, white, shaggy -bears.</p> - -<p>The men, who crowded timidly into their huts, were astounded when they -saw the boy whom they had despised and ill-treated making his way -quickly towards the ferocious animals. “The bears will soon finish -him,” said the men; but this was not to be, for Kaud seized one animal -by its hind legs and, exerting all his strength, swung it round so that -its head crashed against a sharp piece of ice, and the animal lay quite -still. A second bear was treated in the same way, and at this point -Kaud determined to have his revenge on those who had ill-treated him -when he was little and weak. So he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> secured the mouth of the third bear -with a thong made of reindeer’s hide, then lifting the huge animal, -he carried it into the village as easily as he would previously have -lifted a young puppy. He unmuzzled the bear, and pushed it among his -enemies, who fled across the snow with the great animal in pursuit. -Then there came from a hiding-place the little girl who had presented a -knife to Kaud when he was young and weak, and after a few days spent on -a very pleasant honeymoon among the hills of snow, Kaud and his bride -settled in a snow hut near the sea, and it is said that the boy who had -been so weak became a hunter whom every one feared and admired.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Eskimo are particularly fond of stories describing some poor -ill-treated boy who lived to become strong and famous, so in the story -of Kiviung we have no exception to the general rule.</p> - -<p>This poor boy was kept by a grandmother who had no one to go out -hunting, and no articles to offer in exchange for skins of the seal -and reindeer, so it came to pass that both of them had to be content -with clothes made from the skins of birds, instead of the double fur -suit which Eskimo people usually wear. Playmates who were better clad -mocked young Kiviung, and some went so far as to tear his birdskin -coat, a cruel act which made him run home to his grandmother, crying -for protection.</p> - -<p>Now it so happened that the grandmother was a very clever witch, but -no one knew of this, for the old lady had been too kind to harm any of -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> villagers until her anger was aroused by the unkind treatment of -her grandson, who had many times been chased home by big strong men who -called out insulting remarks concerning the birdskin suit.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img016"> - <img src="images/i016.jpg" class="w50" alt="An Eskimo Boy." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><span class="smcap">An Eskimo Boy.</span><br /></p> - -<p>At last the old woman swore to have revenge, and in order to do this -she commanded her boy to step into a puddle which had formed in their -miserable dwelling. No sooner had he obeyed than he was transformed -into a healthy young seal. His coat was so beautiful and glossy that it -attracted the attention of all the villagers, who watched him basking -on a piece of ice near the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> shore. Then the kayaks were launched, and -each Eskimo began to paddle furiously in the direction of the young -seal, which could see the cruel-looking harpoons always carried by the -hunter. Nearer and nearer they came, then the baby seal slipped gently -from the ice and disappeared beneath the surface of the cold green -sea. Presently he came up to breathe, and at the same time noticed -with pleasure that all the kayaks were being swiftly paddled in his -direction. So diving once more, he headed for a most dangerous piece -of water, where heavy green seas were breaking, and huge pieces of ice -were floating about, dashing together with a crunching noise. Excited -by the chase, these Eskimo hunters had no thought of danger, and so -little Kiviung, in the form of a seal, led them into the perilous -position from which no one escaped. Once among the billows and blocks -of ice, these frail kayaks, made of skin stretched over a frame of -whalebone, were tossed about and dashed against the ice until not one -of them remained on the surface, and the hunters, after a few feeble -struggles in the ice-cold water, sank down and down into the regions -inhabited by fierce Kalopaling.</p> - -<p>The agile little seal used his tail and strong flappers to good -advantage, and presently landed safely at a point where the old witch, -his grandmother, was waiting to restore him to human form. This severe -lesson had a good effect on the remaining inhabitants of the Eskimo -encampment, and never again were they inclined to be cruel and unkind -to those who were weaker and poorer than themselves.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BOOKS_FOR_SCHOOL_REFERENCE_LIBRARY">BOOKS FOR SCHOOL REFERENCE LIBRARY</h2> -</div> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em>British Museum Guide Book to Ethnographical Collections.</em></li> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Native Races of the British Empire</em>, “British North America,” by -<span class="smcap">C. Hill-Tout</span>. (Constable & <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr> <abbr title="Limited">Ltd.</abbr>, 1907.)</li> -<li class="ifrst"><em>The Central Eskimo</em>, by <span class="smcap">Franz Boas</span>. See Annual Reports -of American Bureau for Ethnology, for information concerning Indian -and Eskimo Tribes. (Washington, U.S.A.)</li> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Legends of Vancouver</em>, by <span class="smcap">E. Pauline Johnson</span>. (Sunset -Press. Vancouver, <abbr title="British Columbia">B.C.</abbr>)</li> -</ul> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>In a few places, missing periods at the end of sentences have been -added.</p> - -<p>Some illustrations have been relocated to a more appropriate place in the text.</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIVE RACES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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