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diff --git a/old/67182-0.txt b/old/67182-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9454bd8..0000000 --- a/old/67182-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13538 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A History of Epidemic Pestilences, by -Edward Bascome - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A History of Epidemic Pestilences - From the Earliest Ages, 1495 Years Before the Birth of our - Saviour to 1848: With Researches into Their Nature, Causes, and - Prophylaxis - -Author: Edward Bascome - -Release Date: January 16, 2022 [eBook #67182] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Karin Spence, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF EPIDEMIC -PESTILENCES *** - - - - - - A HISTORY - - OF - - EPIDEMIC PESTILENCES - - FROM THE EARLIEST AGES, - - 1495 Years before the Birth of our Saviour to 1848: - - WITH - - RESEARCHES INTO THEIR NATURE, CAUSES, - AND PROPHYLAXIS. - - BY - - EDWARD BASCOME, M.D. - - “The all-surrounding heav’n, the vital air, - Is big with death: and tho’ the putrid south - Be shut, tho’ no convulsive agony - Shake from the deep foundations of the world - Th’ imprison’d plagues, a secret venom oft - Corrupts the air, the water, and the land.” - ART OF PRESERVING HEALTH. - - LONDON: - JOHN CHURCHILL, PRINCES STREET, SOHO. - 1851. - - - - - HUGHES AND CO., PRINTERS, - KING’S HEAD COURT, GOUGH SQUARE. - - - - - DEDICATION. - - - TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE - - THE EARL OF SHAFTESBURY, - - AND - - TO DR. JOHN CONOLLY, M.D. - -MY LORD, - -MY DEAR SIR, - -Inadequate as I feel to the task of conveying to you my sense of -obligation in being permitted the honour of dedicating this work to -persons of your high position and distinguished merit, I feel doubly -so, to express my admiration of your _immeasurable benevolence_, -as portrayed not only in your public capacities in general, but -more especially--the one in emanating, the other in carrying out -the provisions of the law for the protection and kind consideration -of those unfortunates of God’s creatures whom it hath pleased him -to afflict with the direst of human maladies, the privation or -prostration of the noblest of man’s faculties--Reason. - -That your labours have been of incalculable benefit to suffering -humanity is too notorious to admit of either comment or eulogy from me. - -That you both may live long in health, to see perfected “the good work -begun” by you, and that you may enjoy the satisfaction of a well-earned -reputation resulting therefrom, is the earnest wish of, - - My Lord, - and - My dear Sir, - With the highest respect, - Your obedient, - Humble Servant, - THE AUTHOR. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -Feeling it to be incumbent on every one to contribute to the good of -his fellow-men, in as far as his experience enables him-- - - “Non sibi sed toti mundo se credere natum;” - -and presuming on the practical knowledge gained during a sojourn of a -quarter of a century in climes that are not the most hospitable, the -Author has been induced to offer to the public the following pages, as -his professional lucubrations on a subject deeply interesting to every -community,--a subject both comprehensive and obscure,--comprehensive, -inasmuch as it involves the consideration of a vast variety of disease -under the appellation of Epidemic Pestilence,--“The offspring of -inclement skies, and of legions of putrefying locusts,”--and obscure, -as regards the uncertainty which must ever appertain to all that -relates to the phenomena of Life and Death. - -The Author has endeavoured to place in fair review the various opinions -of the most eminent historians (professional and otherwise), and -would impress on his readers, that on a subject embracing so wide a -field _as that of atmospheric influence, arising from elemental -disturbance, together with the boundless variety in the circumstances -of human society, as the exciting and predisposing cause of -disease_, the present volume must be read and considered as a whole; -for it is only by comparison of all the phenomena displayed in the -following History of Pestilences, that any thing like just or rational -conclusions can be arrived at,--conclusions such as the remarkable -coincidences of the observations and comments by historians, not only -of the earliest ages of the world, but those of more modern times, -fully warrant. - -It has been the Author’s aim, by careful examination, to reconcile the -discrepancies of historians as regards dates,--discrepancies evidently -owing to the varying commencements of the year with different people or -nations. - -In conclusion,--however dogmatical the Author may appear to be to -his readers in that which he has advanced as to the NATURE, -CAUSES, &c. of epidemic pestilences, he begs to assure them -that he has written from honest conviction; and with that assurance he -leaves the subject-matter in the hands of those capable of estimating -his efforts in behalf of SANITY. - - Ὁ οἴδαμεν λαλοῦμεν, καὶ ὃ ἑωράκαμεν μαρτυροῦμεν. - - “We teach that we do know, and testify that we have seen.” - - Wyke House, Brentford. - - - - - HISTORY - - OF - - EPIDEMIC PESTILENCES. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - FROM 1495 B.C. TO A.D. 540. - - Πλείη μὲν γὰρ γαῖα κακῶν, πλείη δὲ θάλασσα· - Νοῦσοι δ’ ἀνθρώποισιν ἐφ’ ἡμέρῃ ἠδ’ ἐπὶ νυκτὶ - Αὐτόματοι φοιτῶσι. - HESIOD. - - The earth’s full of maladies, and full the sea, - Which set upon us both by night and day. - - -It is recorded that in the month Adar,--answering, according to our -computation of time, to the period between the middle of February -and March, the end of the Jewish year,--during the reign of Pharaoh -IV., king of Egypt, in the year of the world 2509 (anno 1495 before -the Christian era), and in the 80th year of the life of Moses, the -sacred historian and great captain of the hosts of Israel, many awful -prodigies in the natural world commenced, especially in commotions of -the elements, which were succeeded by a pestilence destructive both -to men and beasts in the low lands of Egypt. This terrible pestilence -was preceded by fearful commotions of the elements,--hail, thunder -and lightning, heat and drought, the generation of insects, &c.; for -the summer had been hot, and attended with heavy cold nocturnal dews -alternating with rains, after a humid winter. The weather had been very -variable; the excessive heats and hot winds exhausted the inhabitants -by day, and the cold damp dews chilled them by night: the atmosphere -was so filled with fiery elements, and clouds of dust and sand, -that men and cattle were in imminent danger of suffocation, and were -compelled to seek shelter from these dry storms and tempests. On the -10th, universal darkness prevailed, which continued for three days; -and on the 14th, deadly pestilence commenced, which, in one sudden and -universal destruction, swept away millions from the face of nature. - -Anno 1471 B.C., by dire pestilence, the murmurers and mutineers in the -company of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram were destroyed in the encampment -at Kadesh, in the desert of Paran, to the number of 14,700 persons; -and nineteen years after (1452 B.C.), by a similar pestilence, of the -riotous and drunken worshippers of Baal-peor, 24,000 men and women -perished. - -In the year 1310 B.C., sixty years previous to the Trojan war, -the island of Ægina was visited by an epidemic pestilence, which was -fatal to great numbers. - -Anno 1141 B.C., the people of Ashdod, a place lying on the seashore -between Gaza and Joppa, which is called in the New Testament Azotus, -were visited by an epidemic pestilence termed EMERODS--an affection of -the bowels, or malignant dysentery. - -In the time of David, 1017 B.C., there broke out a pestilence -which in three days destroyed 70,000 persons. About the period of -this infliction, the first dreadful epoch of Spanish epidemiology is -recorded. The period, however, has been variously given; by some, it -is fixed at 1100 B.C., while other writers mention it as -having occurred during the great plague or dearth in Egypt. There were, -without interruption, _twenty-five years_ of drought in Spain; -springs were dried up, rivers became fordable, their waters becoming -almost stagnant; there was neither pasture for beasts nor fruit for -man; so great was the barrenness of the land, that there was scarcely -any green thing to be found, except some olive-trees on the banks -of the Ebro and the Guadalquiver. Such, says the historian, was the -melancholy state of our ancient Spain; “full of dreadful mortalities, -plagues, and miseries of every description, which, with emigration to -other lands, nearly depopulated our country.” - -Plutarch mentions the occurrence of a great pestilence that happened in -Rome in the year 790 B.C., soon after the murder of Tatius: it was so -rapidly fatal that it is represented as killing almost instantaneously; -cattle as well as men were swept away, and all nature appeared one -desolate and abandoned waste: during this awful period it is said to -have rained blood, or crimson insects which turned the waters to the -colour of blood, as happened in Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh: the -crops failed, and the country of Campania may be said to have been -ravaged by the sword, famine, and pestilence. Plutarch also gives an -account of an epidemic pestilence which afflicted the inhabitants of -Italy, especially the capital of the empire, during the reign of Numa -Pompilius, of Hezekiah over Judah, and of Sennacherib over Assyria in -the year 710 B.C.: by this pestilence 185,000 of the Assyrian armies -perished at the siege of Jerusalem, which compelled the assailants to -raise the siege and to return to Nineveh, even after they had taken -all the principal cities of Judah, including Libnah, a city situated -about twelve miles south-west of Jerusalem. It was at this period that -Numa Pompilius instituted the Salii, a college of priests of Mars, who -carried the sacred shields in procession, to stop the pestilence. - -Livy describes another pestilence which occurred at Rome during -the reign of Tullus Hostilius, 694 B.C. Zosimus, an officer during -the reign of Theodosius the Younger, speaks of the prevalence of a -pestilence in the city of Rome during the reign of Tarquin, anno 671 -B.C.; and Dionysius Halicarnassus, Murator, and Functius have also -mentioned the occurrence of a great famine and pestilence in Rome, anno -545 B.C., which nearly depopulated Velitræ, an ancient town of Latium -on the Appian Road, about twenty miles to the east of Rome. A murrain -prevailed about this time among their cattle, which destroyed vast -numbers, and such havoc was made among the inhabitants of Latium that -the Volsci were necessitated to apply to the Romans to re-people their -cities. Rome also suffered the year subsequently, as did Campania, -celebrated for its lake Avernus, which emitted such poisonous vapours -that birds would not go near its banks: this pestilence spared neither -age nor constitution, and yielded to no remedies. It appeared suddenly, -destroyed its victims rapidly, and on the approach of continued cold -weather disappeared as suddenly as it came. - -Anno 594 B.C. There perished this year a third part of the -inhabitants of Jerusalem by a severe pestilence. - -Herodotus and Justin have recorded the destruction of the army of -Xerxes, when retreating into Asia after his defeat at the battle of -Salamis, by a grievous pestilence, which attacked both land and sea -forces, especially the army under the command of General Mardonius, -anno 480 B.C.: the victims were numbered at 150,000. During -this period Diodorus Siculus writes that the ancient Spanish troops -were the most faithful and courageous, and constituted almost always -the strength of the Carthaginian armies: he continues,--They (the -Carthaginians) took treasure and soldiers, who by their valour aided -the republic in their most critical times of war. The Spanish soldiers -endured hardship with indomitable courage, and, being naturally of a -robust make, were not intimidated by the pestilence which destroyed -others of the Carthaginian army of that time, nor by the 150,000 dead -bodies--plague-victims, which without burial strewed the plains. All -these circumstances did not prevent their appearing in arms, and -demanding the capitulation of Syracuse from its first tyrant, whilst -at the same time the other troops, shamefully abandoned by their -chiefs, took to a precipitate flight, and surrendered at discretion. -History says nothing of the means taken for the curing of this -horrible pestilence at Syracuse, nor shows clearly why the Spaniards -alone enjoyed an immunity from this pestilence, which was worthy of -being perpetuated in history. Villalba however mentions some physical -causes which he considers contributed to the remarkable exemption of -the Spaniards from the dire pestilence: he states that the ancient -Spaniards were a sober race; and, according to all authorities, -sobriety is a powerful means of protection against disease. Filarcus, -a citizen of Athens, was singularly struck with this fact: among the -rich who lived frugally, drank water alone, and were clothed with the -richest garments, moderation and bodily cleanliness were observed to be -of the highest importance in maintaining the sensible and insensible -perspiration; these functions of secretion and of excretion being -essential in order that the integral parts of the blood should preserve -its purity, its weight, its normal state of electricity, and natural -fluidity, upon which depend the preservation of health and the power -of resisting disease in times of epidemics, as is affirmed by medical -jurists, and as the ancient Spaniards practised. He continues,--Bathing -is also an efficacious means of removing the impurities that opposed -the sensible and insensible perspiration; and it would appear that in -Spain, long before the Second Punic War, bathing was in general favour. -The unmeaning sneer of Diodorus Siculus at the habit of the Spaniards -of washing their entire bodies with urine, will be recollected, whilst -Galen says that in Syria they avoid the plague by simply drinking -that liquid excrement. That the Spaniards used urine advantageously -as a topical lotion we shall find in the treatises on baths and other -subjects of ancient Spain. Drs. Ribeiro and Sanchez assert, with some -foundation, that the use of linen in Europe has caused pestilence to -be less frequent; thus, as it were, contributing to the cleanliness -which the ancients obtained by the use of their public baths. To a -similar cause we may attribute the rarity with which the Spaniards -were attacked by the aforesaid frightful pestilence. Catullus, Silius -Italicus, and Gratius Faliscus eulogize the vapour baths of the ancient -Sætabi: in fine, says Villalba, the sobriety, personal cleanliness, -bathing in common water, washing with urine, vapour baths, and the -wearing linen garments, with fortitude, concurred powerfully to the -immunity enjoyed from disease by our Spanish ancestors. - -Anno 476 B.C. During this and the succeeding years, says -Florian de Ocampo, there prevailed in Spain from time to time a -series of pestilences and other minor diseases, by which a multitude -of persons perished. The Carthaginians, to appease the ire of the -gods to whom they attributed these fatal visitations, offered up -human sacrifices, and made incisions on their arms and legs, and on -other parts of their bodies: they also immolated cattle of all kinds, -according to the severity of the pestilence. - -Orosius, another Spanish writer, and also Dionysius, relate the -occurrence of a terrible plague at Rome, which caused great mortality, -463 B.C. This was a grievous time, says the historian, men -and beasts being equally afflicted. The disease was preceded by great -heat and drought, and the calamities and fatigues of war, which were -greatly augmented by crowds of countrymen and herds of cattle received -within the walls of the city, in order to avoid the ravages and -plunderings of the Latins and Hernici, who then desolated the country. -The epidemic first seized on horses and horned cattle, then on man, -the poorer people being the chief victims: it began about the calends -of September, and raged until the end of November. The two consuls -Servilius and Æbutius, and many other illustrious Romans, fell victims -to the disease. - -Livy and Dionysius inform us that, anno 452 B.C., nearly -one-half of the inhabitants of Rome were destroyed by the pestilence -_loimikié_, which was also communicated to the Æqui, the -Volsci, and the Sabines, and caused a great mortality amongst them. -The distress and consternation being general, the land was left -uncultivated, and the miseries of famine threatened to overwhelm those -who survived the epidemic. This pestilence was succeeded by another, -which, if possible, was more grievous; it lasted from 443 to 438 -B.C. In time, so frequently had Rome been scourged by repeated -epidemic pestilences, that Livy styled it “urbs assiduis exhausta -funeribus.” - -In the second year of the Peloponnesian War, 435 B.C., epidemic -pestilence broke out at Athens, where the inhabitants of the Athenian -territory were crowded together into the city to avoid the ravages of -the Lacedemonians: it destroyed 5000 of the prime of their armies, -and an immense number of the poor, and continued without interruption -for five years. It began towards the close of an open spring, after -a severe winter, raged the four following summers and autumns, was -especially fatal to their armies at the siege of Epidaurus and Potidea, -and continued all through the severe winters. Thucydides, Lucretius, -Anacharsis, Plutarch, and Hippocrates give an account of a similar -pestilence which ravaged Persia about the same period. Artaxerxes, -the king of Persia, sent for the great physician of Cos and Greece -to come and arrest its progress, but Hippocrates nobly answered the -Persian monarch in these words, addressing Hystaspes, prefect of the -Hellespont: “To the epistle which you have sent, and you have asserted -to come from the king, write to the king as I briefly answer,--We -enjoy victuals, clothing, homes, and everything necessary for life -in abundance; and it is neither right for me to use the wealth of -the Persians, nor to liberate barbarians from diseases while they -may be the enemies of Greece. Farewell.” Thucydides describes the -symptoms of the disease in a cursory manner; Lucretius more minutely; -and from these historians we infer the following morbid phenomena. -The invasion was sudden and unexpected; the disease commenced with a -violent headache, fiery redness of the eyes, succeeded by pains and -inflammation of the throat, difficulty of breathing, and offensive -breath, a sneezing and hoarseness, violent fever with insatiable -thirst supervening: watchfulness and delirium or stupor, vomiting of -bilious matter, utter prostration of strength, and urgent flux of the -bowels, were noticed in the second stage of the disease. In the first -stage, the stools were dark and fœtid: there were hiccough, bleeding -at the gums, throat, nose, stomach, and bowels,--convulsions: pustules -or sores of a livid hue were also observed about the bodies of those -affected. This bilious plague or pestilence of Athens exhibited, from -the foregoing accounts, symptoms analogous to those of the bilious -remittent or yellow fever of America and the West Indies, and would -appear to have arisen from similar causes. - -The historian, in speaking of the calamity, brings the causes of the -pestilence to our view. He says, “As they had no houses, but dwelt in -booths all the summer season, where there was scarcely room to breathe, -the pestilence destroyed with the greatest confusion, so that they -lay together in heaps, the dying upon the dead, and the dead upon the -dying: they were tumbling one over the other in the public streets, or -lay expiring round every fountain, whither they had crept to assuage -the intolerable thirst which was consuming them. The temples of which -they had taken possession were full of the dead bodies of those who had -expired there.” - -Anno 427 B.C. a cruel pestilence or plague spread almost -through the world. Mariana and other Spanish writers say that it -commenced in Egypt, and, travelling through all the intervening -countries, reached Spain: the mortality in most places began among the -cattle. From various accounts it would appear that the country people -were first affected with this pestilence; afterwards the inhabitants -in the towns. Anno 404 B.C. Carthage was almost depopulated, -as recorded by Justin and Diodorus Siculus. The Carthaginians sent on -an expedition under Himilco to reduce revolted Sicily to subjection, -were destroyed in great numbers by pestilence; it was so fatal that, -according to one writer, Ocampo, there did not escape either Mallorcan -slingers, Celts, Andalusians, or Africans; many fell dead as soon as -they took the disease. The bad policy of leaving their dead bodies -unburied on the plains, a prey to dogs, &c., contributed in no -small degree to the propagation and virulence of the epidemic. This -pestilence was distinguished by the remarkable symptoms of violent -dysentery, severe fever, acute pains in all parts of the body, anguish, -and great depression of both mind and body. Similar disasters have -attended expeditions and long campaigns in warm climates within our -own time, as our expeditions into Egypt, Flanders, Brabant, the West -Indies, &c. testify. - -Annis 393 and 383 B.C. the armies of Gaul and Rome were afflicted with -sore pestilence. In the latter year, there were many months of severe -drought in Andalusia and along the southern coasts, from the Pyrenees -as far as Cape St. Vincent; great famine ensued, with pestilential -diseases. - -Rome was revisited by pestilence anno 366 B.C.: it raged -dreadfully for three years, and swept away the great Camillus with -multitudes of his people. When the disease was at its height, it is -reported that 10,000 citizens died daily: it prevailed terribly in the -months of September, October, and November, and the Sibylline books and -Lectisternium were resorted to in vain. To add to their calamities and -distress, the earth opened in the midst of Rome, giving rise to the -tragical and superstitious decease of Marcus Curtius, by his throwing -himself, for the salvation of the city, into the awful chasm on the -site of which the lake Alba soon after arose. - -Orosius in describing this pestilence says, “This was such a pestilence -as generally proceeds from irregular seasons, extreme drought, heat -of the spring, moisture in the summer and autumn;” which implies -that irregular seasons inducing a pestilential constitution of the -atmosphere, according to the doctrines of Hippocrates, who dictated -medicine to all the world in those days, were productive of pestilence. - -Anno 362 B.C. The war of Sicily being ended by the death of -Dionysius the greater, the Republic of Carthage sent a captain named -Bostan as the governor of Mallorca, Minorca, Iberia, and Formentera, in -order that he should negociate with the Saguntians, and draw them over -to their side. - -The city of Saguntum, now called Murviedro, was visited by an epidemic -pestilence. There was a great scarcity of provisions, and many deaths -occurred, even among the nobles. The people became sorrow-stricken and -disheartened, as reported by the magistrates to their new governor. -It may be inferred that the pestilence raged with severity, from its -having affected the higher orders. - -Annis 346 B.C. and 405 from the foundation of Rome, -extraordinary inundations, with great damage to the cattle, fields, -and buildings, occurred. All the cities along the coasts on the -Mediterranean Sea suffered also from earthquakes; Saguntum, a principal -city, having suffered the most. Annis 332, 296, and 291 B.C. -Rome was again visited by pestilence, which was particularly fatal to -breeding women and to breeding cattle. A similar visitation affected -Rome anno 272 B.C. - -Anno 237 B.C. the commotions of the elements in the shape of -earthquakes, severe drought, with the want of sufficient food, caused -great mortality among cattle and men in Spain, especially at Cadiz. - -Anno 218 B.C. the toils of war and the forced marches of -the Carthaginian armies on their route to besiege Saguntum, and -the unflinching and brave defence by wearying out the assailants, -(says Mariana,) caused great pestilence among them. There were also -earthquakes and pestilence in several provinces of Spain, also great -storms at sea, throwing on the land quantities of fish, some of which -were unknown until this occurrence. There was also a fatal epizootic -among the dogs and birds. - -Anno 216 B.C. In the summer of this year a fatal pestilence -began in the vicinity of Carthage. It was supposed that this putrid -disease arose from the crowded state of all places, from the multitude -of sailors and soldiers there at the time, the country being in a badly -cultivated state, the scarcity and bad quality of provisions, and -from the stagnant lake, which had always been viewed as a source of -disease. For a considerable period it was limited to the place where -it originated, but after a time other provinces became affected. Both -rich and poor fell victims to this dire disease: some of the principal -families suffered; and Hamilca, the wife of Hannibal, and their -offspring, were among its numerous victims. - -Anno 206 B.C. a vast pestilence, preceded by immense swarms -of locusts, occurred in the land near Capua. The same historian, Livy, -relates that the Roman and Rhodian fleets, anchored at Phaselis in -the Gulf of Pamphylia in the midst of summer, and in an unwholesome -situation, suffered from pestilential diseases,--especially the rowers, -who were subjected to hard labour, and exposed to the burning rays -of the sun. He continues, that violent pestilence ravaged all Italy -annis 182 and 181 B.C. This continued for several years; -severe drought for six months, and consequent dearth of corn happened, -followed by terrible storms, pernicious seasons, and awful commotions -of the elements, coldness, dampness, moisture and dryness, noxious -vapours, and putrid exhalations. This extraordinary season was followed -by a great pestilence among cattle and among the inhabitants of Rome, -in the summer and autumn of the year 177 B.C. This pestilence -continued for four years, from 177 to 173, during which period swarms -of locusts deluged Apulia, as the Pontine provinces were covered the -previous year. So destructive were their ravages, that Sicinius the -prætor was commissioned with an army to drive them away! - -“Pestilentia quæ priore anno ingruerat in boves, eo verteret in hominum -morbos; qui inciderant haud facile septimum diem superabant: qui -superaverant longinquo, maximæ quartanæ implacabantur, morbo. Servitia -maxime moriebantur, eorum strages per omnes vias insepultorum erat. -Ne liberorum quidem funeribus subficiebat. Cadavera intacta a canibus -ac vulturibus tabes absumebat; satisque constabat, nec illo, nec -priore anno in tanta strage boûm hominumque vulturiûm usquam visum.” -The translation of this pithy passage conveys that the pestilence -which first attacked cattle, fastened upon men,--those who survived -the seventh day did so with great difficulty, and were subsequently -afflicted by disease (or fever) of a quartan form. The poor and lower -classes were those who suffered most, their dead carcases lying about -the highways,--dogs and vultures left the carcases untouched which were -consumed by corruption,--neither in this nor in a former year was -there a vulture seen. From this graphic detail we may infer that the -beasts of the field were first attacked, then mankind; that the disease -underwent a sort of crisis on the seventh day, terminating either -in death or chronic distemper, as we see to be the case in our own -days; viz. consumption, dropsy, diseases of the liver and spleen, and -ague;--that it was most fatal among the lower orders, who are generally -more distressed in times of scarcity, and from other causes more -susceptible of disease, such as cold, damp abodes, and poor diet;--that -carnivorous animals were sick themselves, refusing to touch the carrion -carcases; in fact, the infected provinces were entirely deserted by -vultures;--lastly, that the malady was similar to our yellow, bilious, -remittent fever, in all its symptoms, as we see it occurring amongst us -in various places--the West Indies, America, &c. - -Orosius gives us an account of another pestilence, which devastated -Rome, anno 144 B.C. - -In the year 140 before the Christian era, the war of Viriathus having -been concluded, the proconsul Q. Pompeius Rufus commenced blockading -Numantia (now Algeria). The plan of his operations being to charge the -air with mephitic vapours, he determined on turning the course of the -river Douro, and inundating the country round about by means of its -waters, which would have the effect not only of spoiling the atmosphere -by its moist exhalations, but of inducing famine also, by the -destruction of all vegetation. These attempts were, however, fruitless, -inasmuch as the Numantians, being a robust and warlike people, resisted -the consequences of the proconsul’s attempts against them. Having -foreseen his intentions, they had supplied themselves with abundant -provisions, which they had intercepted from the Roman legions; while, -on the other hand, the Roman soldiers themselves fell victims to their -own measures, pestilence having broken out among them--a malignant -dysentery, equal in severity and fatality to that which formerly had -laid waste the army of Lucullus. - -After this period to about that of 134 B.C., Scipio Æmilianus, -called the Numantine, organized his army, and having established -admirable rules of hygiene and semeiotics, whereby he preserved his -former strength and health, began to devastate the plains of Numantia, -of Vacca, and Palestine. The want of water which was experienced in the -latter place (Palestine) forced them to make wells to obtain drinkable -water, but unfortunately the water thus obtained proved to be of a -character productive of a malignant epizootic, which destroyed their -horses and other beasts of burthen: the pestilence among their cattle -increasing, obliged them to change their quarters to the plains of -Numantia in order to winter there. - -Anno 130 B.C. The famous Numantines, so much dreaded by the -Romans on account of their valorous resistance, were not less feared by -the Greeks, than the horrible pestilence which prevailed in Numantia. -The Greek, Appianus Alexandrinus, speaks of them with admiration and -dread. The Numantine people, who had hitherto resisted the corrupted -condition of the air, ultimately suffered such exhaustion for want of -food, their stores having been consumed, that after having subsisted on -dressed skins of animals for several days, they fell into the frightful -necessity of becoming anthropophagi, so that from feeding on the bodies -of those who fell defending their country, pestilence arose, which -hastened the downfall of their city. - -Anno 126 B.C. Epidemic pestilence prevailed with great -mortality in Africa. Orosius, Justin, and Livy, who have described -it, attribute this pestilence to the stench arising from the putrid -carcases of dead locusts, which were brought over by a strong east -wind in such multitudes that they devoured every green thing, even -to the bark of trees; they were subsequently driven by a south wind -into the Mediterranean, and being again washed on shore in the warm -season of the year, putrefied, and produced this awful pestilence, -which destroyed 800,000 in Numidia alone. On the sea-coast of Carthage -200,000 perished. Of such terrible visitations by insects, which to -this day exist in the East at particular seasons, carrying destruction -in their course, Lord Carnarvon gives a description in his ‘History -of Portugal and Gallicia.’ It will convey a pretty good idea of their -destructiveness and of the distressing consequences. Speaking of -natural exhibitions, of which he was an eye-witness in Africa, he -writes thus: “A fall of locusts is beyond description the most awful -imaginable--a most dreadful scourge, which is considered in eastern -and northern countries the most unfailing manifestation of the wrath -of God. Travelling along the western coast of Africa, I once beheld -this terrible infliction. These creatures fell in thousands and tens -of thousands around us and upon us along the sands on which we were -riding, and on the sea that was beating at our feet; yet we were -removed from their most oppressive influence; for, a few hundred yards -to our right, darkening the air, the great innumerable host came on, -slowly and steadily advancing in a direct line and in a mighty moving -column. The fall of locusts from this central column was so great, that -when a cow directly under the line of flight, attempting ineffectually -to graze in the field, approached her mouth to the grass, there rose -immediately so dense a swarm, that her head was for the moment almost -concealed from sight, and as she moved along, bewildered by this worse -than Egyptian plague, clouds of locusts rose up from under her feet, -visible even at a distance, as clouds of dust when set in motion by -the wind on a stormy day. At the extremity of the field I saw the -husbandmen bending over their staffs, and gazing with hopeless eyes -upon that host of death which swept like a destroying angel over the -land, and consigned to ruin all the prospects of the year; for wherever -that column winged its flight, beneath its withering influence the -golden glories of the harvest perished, and the leafy honours of the -forest disappeared. There stood those ruined men silent and motionless, -overwhelmed with the magnitude of their calamity, yet conscious of -their utter inability to control it, while further on, where some -woodland lay in the immediate line of the advancing column, heath set -on fire, and trees kindling into a blaze, testified the general horror -of a visitation which the ill-fated inhabitants endeavoured to avert by -such a frightful remedy. They believed that the smoke arising from the -burning forest, ascending into the air, would impede the direct march -of the column, throw it into confusion, and drive the locusts out to -sea, and thus deliver the country from their desolating presence.” - -During the civil wars which were excited by Sylla and Marius, the Roman -armies lost 10,000 men by plague in the year 89 B.C. - -Anno 60 B.C. Spain, according to the opinion of several -ancient and modern writers, both foreign and national, was one of -the countries most subjected to the frightful disease of leprosy. -Sauvages has asserted that there were no lepers in France, save those -that came from Spain and America. Senertus states that in Spain and -Africa elephantiasis (leprosy) is more frequent than in any other -part of the world. Dr. Casal coincides in this opinion, as may be -seen in his ‘Natural and Medical History of the Principality of the -Asturias;’ and, finally, the Academic Memoirs of Seville speak of its -existence in those countries, as owing to their communication with -the Arabs and Jews, without denying, however, that the prevalence of -the disease may have been influenced by the peculiar constitution of -Spain. Accordingly its dry and burning temperature has contributed -considerably, as it would appear, to locate this terrible disease, -especially in the kingdom of Andalusia, and in the principality of the -Asturias. The use of pork and other salted provisions, so commonly -employed as articles of diet in ancient Spain, is supposed to have -acted powerfully in perpetuating the disease, inasmuch as the opinions -of Ubilis and other physicians go to show that these sorts of aliment -are powerful generators of the malady. The first appearance of leprosy -in Spain coincides with its introduction into Italy, after having been -prevalent in the army of Pompey the Great about sixty years, more or -less, before the coming of Christ. The sons of the celebrated general -proceeded with the army of their father from Italy to Spain, to stem -the invasion of Cæsar, and this was in all probability the cause of its -first introduction into that country,--at least, it is so considered by -some writers. - -Anno 49 B.C. The continued heavy rains and tempestuous -seasons, the like of which had never been seen by the oldest -inhabitants, caused frightful inundations of the rivers Cinca and -Segre. Epidemic pestilence, peculiar to an atmosphere surcharged with -moisture and poisonous exhalations, appeared immediately after. The -shepherds were obliged to withdraw their flocks in order to save them -from the waters, which, together with the increased price of corn -and of other food amongst the neighbouring populace, multiplied the -misfortunes of the army of Julius Cæsar, who had not only to combat -against the bravery of the Pompeians, but also against the trials of -famine and pestilence. Their distress would have been greater and more -lamentable, had not some of the neighbouring tribes, who had recently -become their allies, succoured them with the necessaries of life, which -were sent in under the escort of 500 Ilecaones, a tribe who occupied -the banks of the Ebro. - -In the time of Mark Antony, anno 30 B.C., a pestilence of so -general a character prevailed, that it seems to have spread over the -whole world. Dion Cassius mentions this pestilence, which continued for -five years, destroying vast numbers of the inhabitants of Jerusalem: -it was also very destructive at Rome and in Palestine. The celebrated -triumvir died about this period of the pestilence, as mentioned by -Nuestro Alonso of Freylas in his ‘History of Pestilences.’ - -The next account of epidemic pestilence we have, is given by Tacitus, -who relates that in the East, in Asia Minor, fourteen years after the -commencement of the Christian era, pestilence prevailed; a severe -earthquake about this time was experienced; a comet is also mentioned -as having been seen, whose tail, it is said, with one fell swoop -hurled down a dozen cities at once. Another pestilence is recorded by -Suetonius as having raged with great mortality at Babylon: it caused a -multitude of Jews to remove to Seleucia. This year was marked by great -famine, in fulfilment of the prophecy of Agabus (Acts xi. 28). During -the reign of Claudius Cæsar, at this period, pestilence was rife in -Greece and Italy. - -Pliny and Tacitus both give an account of those periods of mortality -from the year of our Lord 40 to 53 and 54, when most of the officers -of Rome died of pestilential disease: “ex omnium magistratuum genere -plerique mortem obierunt.” It was during the year 40 that the great -eruption of Etna occurred, which frightened Caligula from Sicily. -Dire famine was also experienced, which, with pestilence, extended -from Italy almost to India. Babylon was almost depopulated about -this period.--A.D. 88, pestilence carried off 30,000 of the -people of Rome. Tacitus gives an affecting account of the ravages of -this plague. The houses were filled with dead bodies, and the streets -with funerals; neither age, sex, nor condition were exempted from -it; slaves and plebeians were suddenly carried off by it amidst the -lamentations of their wives and their children, who were also seized -with the disease while administering to the sick and mourning over the -lifeless bodies of the dead. Pliny, Orosius, and other writers describe -this pestilential period as exceedingly fatal. Earthquakes, eruptions -of volcanoes emitting sulphureous vapours, inundations, tempestuous -seasons, and other awful commotions of nature, characterized this -period all over the inhabited globe. In June, a comet appeared; on -the 1st of November following, a tremendous ebullition of burning -lava issued from the crater of Vesuvius, deluging the country, and -Herculaneum and Pompeii sunk in a moment: these cities, with their -inhabitants, were buried in one universal mass. Thunder and lightning -pierced the heavens, and the ashes and smoke from the burning gulf -discharged into the air were wafted to Rome, Syria, and Africa, the -inhabitants whereof trembled lest the world should be destroyed or -turned into chaos; the fish in the neighbouring seas were killed. -These calamities were preceded by a long drought in Italy during the -summer; and in the autumn of A.D. 80 a terrible pestilence -broke out in Rome, and destroyed for some time 10,000 citizens daily. -Eight years after, A.D. 88, an epidemic pestilence appeared in -the north of England, and continued for some time; in 92, it carried -off 150,000 persons in Scotland. - -Philo, the Jewish philosopher, gives a description of a ‘loimic’ -pestilence which occurred during that century, and appositely conveys -the mode of diffusion and the circumstances of the confluent small-pox. -He says, “The clouds of dust suddenly falling on men and cattle -produced over the whole skin a severe and intractable ulceration; the -body immediately became tumid with efflorescences (ἐξανθήσεσιν) or -purulent phlyctenæ, which appeared like blisters excited by a secret -fire beneath. Men necessarily undergoing much pain and universal -soreness from ulceration and inflammation (φλογώσεως) suffered not -less in body than in mind by the severe affliction, for a continuous -ulcer was observable from head to foot.” These observations of Philo -are intended as a comment on Exodus, ch. ix. v. 9: it shall be “a boil -breaking forth with blains.” He finishes by observing, that it should -rank among pestilential diseases (ἐν τοῖς λοιμώδεσι νόσοις), or as -the infliction of a tainted atmosphere (πληγὴ ἀπ’ ἀέρος καὶ οὐρανοῦ). -From a passage in Dion Cassius’ Roman History, it would appear that -some mode of inoculation had been attempted in the reign of Domitian, -A.D. 92, and revived in that of Commodus. - -A.D. 110, a severe earthquake was felt in Shropshire, in -England. Four years after, 114, a similar shock, but more extensive, -was experienced in China, which caused the destruction of much property -and of many lives. During the same period a pestilence prevailed in -Wales, which carried off 45,000 of its inhabitants, after a hot summer -and an inclement autumn. In fact, in those days there frequently -happened great inundations, especially of the river Severn: at one time -immense numbers were drowned in their beds, when 5000 head of cattle -were destroyed. A.D. 115, a tremendous earthquake laid waste -the city of Antioch. Five years after, A.D. 120, Nicomedia and -several neighbouring cities were swallowed up; and, A.D. 128, -Cæsarea and Necropolis met with a similar fate from a severe earthquake. - -A.D. 133, a great drought existed in England, and the Thames -was almost dried up. This condition of the seasons was followed by -pestilence; and thirteen years after, Scotland was visited with an -epidemic, to the great destruction of its inhabitants. - -Arabia was ravaged by pestilence in the year of our Lord 158. The -disease appeared in Rome during the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus -and Lucius Verus, preceded by a more destructive plague in Asia, which -the great Ammianus Marcellinus, the philosophic hero, asserted arose -from the foul air of a small box which a Roman soldier had opened -at the capture of Seleucia. This opinion was in accordance with the -superstition of the times. At that period the elements were greatly -deranged: commotions of the physical world, inundations of rivers, -agitations of the earth, devastations from locusts, caterpillars, -and every variety of the insect tribe, famine, putrid vapours, with -great inclemencies and irregularities of the seasons, foretold the -approach of the awful pestilence which in the same year desolated Rome: -its symptoms were, a burning fever and gangrene of the extremities, -particularly of the feet. These times were also distinguished by wars -and rumours of wars: 450,000 Romans were butchered in Syria and in -Cyprus by the Jews. Fourteen cities were destroyed by earthquakes, -amongst which was Antioch, with 100,000 inhabitants: 580,000 were -supposed altogether to have perished by the sword, famine, and -pestilence. - -Aurelius Victor, speaking of the emperor M. Antoninus, gives a lucid -description of those calamitous times. He says, “Unless he had been -born for these times, all the affairs of the Roman empire would have -been ruined assuredly as if by one fall; for there was rest no where -from arms, and wars burned through all the East, Illyricum, Italy, and -Gaul. The motions of the earth, with annihilation of cities, inundation -of the rivers, thick pestilences, species of locusts infested the -fields; indeed, nothing can be said or conceived, by which mortals used -to be wasted with the severest agonies, which have not raged during his -administration.” - -A.D. 173, there was a severe winter, and consequently a famine -in England; a pestilence broke out the summer following, and continued -to the autumn and subsequent winter. In this year, as also in 175 and -178, Rome was visited by epidemic pestilence, which committed great -ravages among the soldiery. Five years after, it was again afflicted -with disease; and in A.D. 195, plague prevailed in all Italy. -“A great pestilence,” says the historian, “raged in all Italy, and -became most violent in Rome by reason of the great concourse of people -assembled from all quarters of the world. The emperor, by the advice of -his physicians, retired to Laurentum, a cool place beautifully shaded -with laurels, on the supposition that the sweet smell of those plants -counteracted contagion. The people of the city were also advised by the -physicians to fill their noses and ears with sweet-smelling ointments, -and to use perfumes, in order to prevent the action of human effluvia -and of the contagious air. These precautions, however, as might -have been expected, proved of little avail: the distemper proceeded -unchecked, and men and cattle continued to perish therefrom in -multitudes. Five thousand died daily in Rome for a considerable time, -and famine with pestilence persisted for three years.” (See Herodian, -Dion Cassius, &c.) - -A.D. 203, there was an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. - -In the year 211, a plague, preceded by an earthquake and a great -inundation of the river Trent, appeared in the British Isles. -A.D. 218, the river Tweed overflowed; and dire pestilence -followed four years after, destroying 100,000 lives in Scotland. - -Mortal pestilence affected the whole world A.D. 250. Italy, -Ethiopia, Egypt, Asia, France, Spain, and various other parts suffered -great ravages from disease. “For twelve years subsequently,” says -Zosimus, “a pestilential fever followed the Scythians, and devoured the -scanty remains of the human race.” “Pestilence has contaminated the -face of the earth,” says Jornandes, a learned historian. - -A.D. 252, Alexandria and other districts suffered from -epidemic pestilence, which continued its ravages with great fury -for twelve or fifteen years. This pestilence was not, however, one -uniform disorder, but was comprised of several different kinds, such -as dysentery, ignis sacer, or scurvy, typhomania, remittent fevers, -&c. According to Cedrenus, there were at the time singular exhalations -and dews, which resembled the ichors of dead bodies: “hence,” he says, -“constant loimoi, with other severe and unmanageable disorders (βαρέα -καὶ ἀνίατα νοσήματα), which destroyed multitudes of the people.” - -A.D. 262. During the reign of Gallienus 5000 citizens of Rome -perished daily. Cyprian, a bishop of Carthage, a man of erudition (see -reprint, Fell, fol. Oxon. Amst. 1700), in detailing the symptoms of -this horrific pestilence, thus writes: “The symptoms were, a dejection -of spirits, exhaustion of strength, incessant involuntary evacuations, -violent fever of the bowels, with destruction of the sight, hearing, -and feeling.” Aurelius Victor asserts of this pestilence, that it -spread rapidly all over Rome, and arose from heavy cares and depression -of mind, as well as from a pestiferous state of the atmosphere. We may -here recognize all the terrible symptoms of that devastating disease -Cholera, which, beginning in the year 1817, ravaged the four quarters -of the globe, and continued for a series of years. Several earthquakes -were experienced this year in Europe, Asia, and Africa, with three -days’ darkness. A.D. 272, there was another eruption of -Vesuvius. - -A.D. 292, pestilence and famine prevailed in England -and Wales; it also raged with great intensity in those places, -A.D. 310, carrying off, in the latter, 40,000 persons. - -A.D. 302, epidemic pestilence (_loimos_), preceded by -famine, broke out in Syria. The account of this pestilential disorder -by George Cedrenus appears to be similar to that by Eusebius; he -says: “At this time almost every evil that can be enumerated fell -upon men--famine, loimos, and drought, with misfortune of a certain -disorder; it was an ulcer, the denomination of which was answerable to -its affinity with the fiery anthrax, spreading over the whole body: it -proved highly dangerous in all respects to the persons affected, but -by a particular determination to the eyes in most cases, it produced -blindness in thousands of men, women, and children.” Nicephorus says of -this disease--“It originated in famine, and was called anthrax; it was -an ulceration attracting or draining out humours, with an intolerable -stench, which, in spreading over the bodies, extended to and affected -with violence the eyelids (κανθοὶ), and occasioned blindness both in -males and females.” We are further informed by Eusebius and Cedrenus -that the army of Gallienus, in Armenia, was affected with pestilence, -which extended to every city in the eastern provinces, and even to -villages and lone houses. The great mortality among the poor was -attributable more to famine than to the disease; they were obliged to -eat hay, grass, roots, &c. The rich, however, were not exempt from this -pestilence, but were also carried off in great numbers. The emperor -Diocletian, according to Cedrenus, died of the malady: “he was affected -with severe pains over the whole body,--a violent phlogosis preyed upon -his inward parts, and his flesh melted like wax. In the progress of the -complaint, he became totally blind; his throat and tongue putrefied, -so that worms came from his mouth, and he emitted an odour not less -offensive than that of dead bodies in the sepulchres.” This malady was -evidently confluent small-pox. - -A.D. 325, epidemic pestilence, preceded by famine, prevailed -all over Britain, and in many other parts of the world. During the -years 336, 355, 358, 362, 367, 368, and 375, deadly disease, with -famine and earthquakes, were again experienced in the British Isles. In -Wales alone, in the latter year, 43,000 persons died from pestilence. -A terrible earthquake was felt in Macedonia, and 150 cities were -swallowed up in Asia and Greece. Ammianus Marcellinus mentions a plague -which broke out in Amida, a city of Persia, during its siege by Sapor, -which was attributed to the distresses of war, and to the corruption of -unburied bodies lying about in the streets, plains, &c. - -A.D. 361, there was a terrible famine in Italy. Four years -after, 365, severe shocks of an earthquake, with inundations round -the Mediterranean, did much damage. 50,000 persons were drowned at -Alexandria in the month of July. Italy and Syria suffered from plague, -which continued until 394. An inundation of the Nile nearly destroyed -the cities of Alexandria and Libya; and rain, storms, and drought -were experienced in Judea, which was also visited by immense swarms -of locusts. These phenomena were succeeded by dire pestilence. There -were several earthquakes at intervals between the months of September -and November, which destroyed many places in Europe. During the years -400, 407, 417, and 419, pestilence desolated Asia, Africa, and Europe; -a severe earthquake shook Cibyra, and destroyed many villages in its -neighbourhood: in 419, an earthquake swallowed up several cities in -Palestine. A.D. 442, pestilence swept away great numbers in -England this year. A.D. 446, on the 17th of September, at -Constantinople, a severe earthquake, attended with fire, pestilence, -and famine, caused great misery. The walls of the town with seventeen -towers were thrown down. A.D. 458, an earthquake destroyed -nearly all Antioch on the 14th of September. Pestilence, about the same -period, again broke out in England, and in various other regions, as -related by Echard. The Greek ecclesiastical historian Nicephorus, and -other writers, state that it prevailed more remarkably in Cappadocia, -Galatia, and Phrygia. Isodorus tells us that so great were the famine -and disease in Spain, in A.D. 443, that men fed with fury upon -each other. - -From the year 450 until 467, pestilence raged in Rome; it revisited -the city A.D. 473. The year previously, 472, on the 11th -of November, at noon, there occurred an eruption of Vesuvius, which -ejected flames that were seen at Constantinople, obscured the sun at -noon day, and ravaged all Campania: there were ashes four inches deep -on the tops of houses many miles distant. A.D. 480, a severe -earthquake was experienced at Constantinople, which lasted forty days, -causing much destruction of life and property. Epidemic pestilence -infested Scotland; and Asia and Africa were nearly depopulated by -epidemic disease. - -A.D. 502, Scotland was visited by epidemic disease, which -destroyed both men and beasts. A.D. 512, there was an eruption -of Vesuvius. A.D. 517, Palestine suffered from pestilence, -as did the inhabitants of Wales ten years after, in 527. The year -previous, 526, Antioch with several other cities was nearly destroyed -by an earthquake; it also suffered from a similar visitation two years -after, 528, when 4800 of its inhabitants were buried in its ruins. - -A.D. 540, so dire a famine was experienced in Italy, that -parents were reduced to the cruel necessity of eating their children. -About the same period, during the reign of Justinian, a destructive -pestilence ravaged the greater part of Europe and Asia for more than -half a century. It was at first observed to be plague in its usual -form only, attended with tumours in the groin or axillæ, or behind the -ears; but in its progress it was found to consist of various disorders, -corresponding, in their leading features, according to the description -by Evagrius, to “the true pestilence.” These disorders consisted of -pestilential or scarlet sore throat, and dysentery, with small-pox and -measles. This fatal epidemic is shown to have continued in Asia until -the year 590. Some authors have computed the number destroyed during -this pestilential period at two millions. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - FROM A.D. 543 TO 1330. - - -A.D. 543, there was a terrible famine, during which, Procopius -says, 50,000 labourers died of hunger in the narrow region of Picenum, -and a still greater number in the southern provinces. In one place, -seventeen travellers were lodged; they were murdered and eaten: two -women who were detected in the commission of this atrocious crime -were slain. Earthquakes were experienced all over the world. In 544, -dysentery, which continued until 548, similating in severity the true -plague, committed great ravages in France. - -A.D. 552, a severe earthquake was experienced at -Constantinople, doing much damage. Nine years after, 561, a similar -shock was felt at Rome, and also at Constantinople. The year following -there was so great a frost that the Danube was frozen over. - -France, Germany, Italy, and various other countries of Europe,--in -fact, the whole inhabited globe,--suffered awfully from pestilence in -the years of our Lord 565–66, 583, 587, 589–90–91, 596 to 610: in the -course of 580, Antioch was again shaken by a severe earthquake. There -prevailed during this period, in the year 589, in Spain, writes St. -Gregory, bishop of Tours, a very singular pestilence, the principal -symptoms of which were pimples, or pustules, with buboes in the groins: -such great havoc did it make, that the houses were as so many tombs, -and the town as one vast cemetery: it was supposed that this disease -was brought from Marseilles in a vessel, as it had raged there the -year previously. St. Gregory, in his ‘History of the Franks,’ also -gives these particulars of this pestilential period: “In the fifth year -of the reign of king Childebert (A.D. 580), great floods, -tempests, earthquakes, hail, and several prodigies, were succeeded by -a dreadful plague; for almost every district of France was occupied -by a dysentery, in which the patients were affected with violent -vomitings, fever, headache, and excruciating pains in the loins: -what they discharged from their mouths was green or yellowish.” This -epidemic was particularly fatal to infants and children: “Parvulos -adolescentes arripuit letoque subegit: perdidimus dulces et charos -nobis infantulos,” &c. King Childebert recovered with difficulty, but -he lost his two sons. Austrigilda, queen of Orleans, sunk under the -disease; she retained to the last the ferocious and vindictive spirit -of the times, having exacted a promise from the king Gunthran that her -two physicians should be put to death if they did not save her; soon -after she expired, both of them were stabbed by the king’s order. The -Count d’Angoulême also died of the pestilence; the corpse appeared -black and charred, as if it had been laid over coals of fire. - -Paulus Diaconus describes the Ligurian pestilence which raged during -this period, A.D. 566, in the time of Narses: “Cœperunt nasci -inguinibus hominum vel in aliis delicatioribus locis glandulæ in modum -nucis seu dactyli, quas mox sequebatur febrium intolerabilis æstus, ita -in triduo homo extingueretur: sin vero aliquis triduum transegisset, -habebat spem vivendi. Erat autem ubique luctus, ubique lacrymæ,” &c. -He concludes with the following passages: “Nulla vox in rure, nullus -pastorum sibilus, nullæ insidiæ bestiarum in pecudibus, nulla damna -in dominos volucribus. Sata transgressa metendi tempus, intacta -expectabant messorem: vinea amissis foliis, radiantibus uvis, illæsa -manebat. Nulla erant vestigia commeantium; nullus cernebatur percussor, -et tamen visum oculorum superabant cadavera mortuorum. Pastoralia loca -versa fuerunt in sepulturam hominum, et habitacula humana facta fuerunt -confugia bestiarum.” - -Procopius, a Greek historian of Cæsarea, secretary to Belisarius, a -general during the reign of Justinian, records some important facts -of this pestilence, which ravaged the whole world; it lasted four -months at Constantinople, and, when at its height, it is supposed that -10,000 perished daily in that city. Nicephorus also describes this -pestilential period, and remarks that “certain little marks appeared -on the doors and outside of their houses, on their garments, and on -their utensils; some white crusts of a peculiar deposition from the air -adhered to all things, as damp moulds do on the walls or dwellings, and -dew on grass.” - -In the year 590, at Rome, in the time of Pope Pelagius the Second, -there was a horribly destructive pestilence prevalent, and also in -Spain. The air was observed to be impregnated with a kind of mist and -fœtidness, which by irritation induced a sneezing; hence the custom -of saluting a person sneezing with the expression “Dominus tecum,” or -some similar expression, a practice which has reached our time. The -year following, 591, Britain suffered from a severe pestilence, also -Turenne, and the provinces of Arragon and Vivares. This disease was -called _inguinaria_, because buboes were formed more particularly -in the groin. In the year 610, pestilential small-pox committed great -ravages at Mecca. - -A.D. 614, epidemic elephantiasis prevailed in Italy, and three -years subsequently, an epidemic pestilence, resembling the true plague. - -In Syria, Arabia, &c., a great pestilence prevailed A.D. 639 -and 640. - -A.D. 654, Constantinople was devastated by a severe pestilence. - -In the year of our Lord 664, a sudden pestilence (man-cyalm), after -depopulating the southern coasts of Britain, infected the provinces of -the Northumbrians, and, spreading for a long time in every direction, -destroyed great numbers. The year following, 665, it reached Italy, -causing great destruction of life. Fordum (Scriptores, xv. vol. iii. -page 646) cites a Greek historian to the effect that dire mortality -prevailed, A.D. 669, all over Europe, which did not spare the -remotest islands, Great Britain and Ireland. England also suffered -greatly, A.D. 672, from pestilence, at which period universal -disease appeared in Syria and Mesopotamia. England and Ireland were -revisited by pestilence, A.D. 679, beginning in the month of -July, and continuing until the end of September. Rome suffered from -similar ravages the following year, and in A.D. 683, England -again suffered from severe epidemic disease, which lasted three years. -A.D. 685, Syria and Libya were laid waste by disease. Ireland -suffered from a severe epidemic the same year. - -From a singular portion of history which has been preserved in the -records of the church of Mayo, we find that the ‘ignis sacer,’ or -pestilence originating from famine, was similar to and contemporary -with the pestilence ‘man-cyalm,’ which raged among the British after -the departure of the Romans from Britain (664). - -According to the records, two kings of Erin summoned the principal -clergy and laity to a council at Temora, in consequence of a general -dearth, the land not being sufficient to support the increasing -population. The chiefs (majores populi) decreed that a fast should be -observed both by clergy and laity, so that they might with one accord -_solicit God in prayer to remove by some species of pestilence the -burthensome multitudes of the inferior people_, and thus enable the -residue to subsist more commodiously. “Omnes majores petebant ut nimia -multitudo vulgi per infirmitatem aliquam tolleretur, quia numerositas -populi erat occasio famis.” St. Gerald and his associates suggested -that it would be more conformable to the Divine Nature, and not more -difficult, to multiply the fruits of the earth, than to destroy its -inhabitants. An amendment was accordingly moved, “to supplicate the -Almighty not to reduce the number of the men till it answered the -quantity of corn usually produced, but to increase the produce of the -land, so that it might satisfy the wants of the people.” However, the -nobles and clergy, headed by St. Fechin, bore down the opposition, and -called for a pestilence on the lower orders of the people. According to -the records, God’s judgment immediately fell upon the wicked authors -of the petition. The two kings who had summoned the convention with -St. Fechin, the kings of Ulster and Munster, and a third of the nobles -concerned, were cut off by the pestilence--‘Budhe connail,’ which was -by some called ‘pestis flava,’ by others ‘infirmitas icteritia.’ - -A.D. 685, there happened an eruption of Vesuvius. - -In the year of our Lord 690, rains deluged Italy: six years after, 696, -pestilence prevailed in Constantinople, and during the years 703 and -713, Scotland also suffered from epidemic pestilence. Small-pox caused -great mortality in Spain, A.D. 714. - -A.D. 717, 30,000 persons were carried off at Constantinople by -pestilence: it again appeared in the years 724 and 729. In the year 732 -great numbers perished from pestilential disease at Norwich in England, -and also in Syria. - -A.D. 740, the world was again visited by dismal pestilence, -which continued, with varied intensity, for 260 years, until the year -1000. During this period, 749, an earthquake destroyed many cities in -Syria. Among the many writers on the subject, Baronius, P. Diaconus, -Cedrenus, and Magdenburgh, make mention of an epidemic pestilence -which raged in Calabria, in Naples, also in Constantinople; in which -latter place the mortality was so great, that the living were unable to -bury their dead, cart-loads being huddled together into a vast common -excavation of the earth, while great numbers were left unburied. Short -mentions the prevalence of a fatal pestilence in Wales, A.D. -762, which afterwards extended all over England, continuing until -771. In Chichester alone it is stated that 34,000 persons perished. -Pestilence raged in France A.D. 779, and invaded Scotland -784. Lancisius and Bartianus in their Annals relate the occurrence of -disease in various parts of the world, which destroyed immense numbers -of cattle, especially in Germany, where the mortality was great among -the horned tribe. A.D. 801, St. Paul’s at Rome was thrown down -in the month of April; and in France, Germany, and in various parts of -Italy also, a severe earthquake was experienced. So intensely cold was -it in A.D. 806, that the Rhone was frozen over: the cold was -from 18 to 20 degrees centigrade below zero. Lancisius and Bartianus -also give an account of a pestilence that arose from excessive rains -and cold damp weather, A.D. 817 and 820, and prevailed through -all the dominions of Gaul. The crops failed from excess of moisture, -and famine ensued. The following winter was very severe: the Rhine and -the Danube continued one solid body of ice for _thirty days_, -and epidemic pestilence ensued in the spring, which persisted all the -summer and autumn. The succeeding winter, in 822, was very severe: the -snow lay on the ground twenty-nine weeks, and caused great destruction -to both men and beasts. A long drought followed in the summer, and -pestilence was the consequence: it was attended with such fatality, -that, A.D. 825, it killed almost all the inhabitants in France -and Germany. - -In the year 853, epidemic pestilence broke out in Scotland: two -years after, earthquakes and violent tempests were experienced; and -in A.D. 856 there occurred an earthquake and a tremendous -inundation of the Tiber, which were succeeded by severe epidemic -sore throats, anginas, &c., as recorded by Baronius, Murator, Short, -and Magdenburgh. A.D. 859, the Mediterranean was so frozen -over, that carriages were driven on the Adriatic Sea. In 863, -epidemic pestilence ravaged Scotland; and in the year 874, myriads -of grasshoppers or locusts, of an immense size, with six feet and -two teeth as hard as flint, overspread Gaul. They devoured every -green thing, and were afterwards driven into the British Channel by a -strong east wind; their dead bodies were washed on shore, where they -putrefied, and therefore were supposed to have caused the epidemic -pestilence, which destroyed a third part of the maritime inhabitants -of Gaul. In 883, famine and pestilence afflicted Italy, and the year -following, pestilential disease raged at Oxford, which also affected -the cattle, destroying great numbers. Soon after this period, when -Alfred the Great had just finished the rebuilding of London, which -had been burnt and destroyed by the Danes, a plague occurred which -raged throughout the land for three years, carrying off many great -men and ministers of state, as well as others. About the same time, -A.D. 896, a mortal famine and pestilence, from intemperate -seasons, happened in Gaul, Germany, Italy, and various other places -in Europe. The frost, twelve years afterwards, A.D. 908, -was so severe, that most of the rivers in England were frozen over. -A.D. 912, a great part of London was again destroyed by fire. -A.D. 922, a pestilential fever was prevalent, and very fatal -in Scotland. - -A.D. 929, the winter was severe. The Thames was frozen over -for thirteen weeks: a dreadful famine and disease followed; and in 937, -pestilence arising from great heat and long drought again raged for -some time in England. - -A.D. 940, epidemic pestilence of severe character appeared in -the north of Europe amongst the cattle, being fatal to numbers. This -murrain amongst the cattle was followed by disease in man, from which -in Scotland alone 40,000 persons perished. In the year 964, the emperor -Otho’s army was almost entirely destroyed by pestilence. A malignant -fever or plague prevailed in London in 965, and a grievous famine -happened, in 976, in London, and also in Italy. In the year 981, great -mortality prevailed amongst the Lacedemonians; and six years after, -987, England suffered from malignant fevers, which destroyed many of -its inhabitants, whilst a sort of flux caused great mortality among -the cattle. A.D. 993, there was an eruption of Vesuvius. In -997, burning fevers and agues were fatal in England; and in the year -1005, pestilence, in the shape of the true plague, began and continued -for three years in various parts of the globe, more than half the -human race perishing therefrom. Thousands died from famine in Italy. -A.D. 1007, another eruption of Vesuvius. - -Notwithstanding the great length of the pestilential period (260 years) -just noticed, in A.D. 1009, the earth became deluged with -rains and pestilence, which began among the Saxons. In the years 1012, -1019, 1020, 1021, and 1024, dreadful pestilential seasons followed. -A.D. 1017, it rained the colour of blood in Aquitaine for the -space of three days. - -In the year 1025, the summer was wet and cold, and pestilence raged in -England and in other parts of Europe. - -A.D. 1027, an extraordinary convulsive disease--which was -called ‘the dance of St. John or St. Vitus,’ on account of the -Bacchantic leaps by which it was characterized, and which gave to -those affected, whilst performing their wild dance and screaming and -foaming with fury, all the appearance of persons possessed,--first -showed itself in some persons near the convent church of Kolbig, not -far from Bernburg. According to an oft-repeated tradition, eighteen -peasants, some of whose names are still preserved, are said to have -disturbed divine service on Christmas eve, by dancing and brawling -in the churchyard; whereupon the priest Ruprecht inflicted a curse -upon them, that they should dance and scream for a whole year without -ceasing. This curse is said to have been completely fulfilled, so that -the unfortunate sufferers at length sunk knee-deep into the earth, and -remained the whole time without nourishment, until they were finally -released by the intercession of two pious bishops. It is said, that -upon this they fell into a deep sleep, which lasted _three days_, -and that four of them died, the rest continuing to suffer all their -lives from a trembling of their limbs. This tradition, divested of the -embellishments of crafty priesthood, will show the disease to have been -what we now call Chorea or St. Vitus’ dance. - -A.D. 1029 and 1031, epidemic pestilence again pervaded Europe, -especially England and Gaul, after tempestuous seasons, devastations -of locusts, meteors, eruptions of volcanoes, comets, intolerable -vicissitudes of the weather, and famine had caused great havoc. - -A.D. 1033, a pestilence infested England; and two years afterwards, -1035, in the month of June, so intense was the cold that all the corn -and fruits were destroyed. There was another eruption of Vesuvius the -year following. A.D. 1042, it snowed heavily during harvest-time; it -rained excessively throughout the year in many parts of Europe; the -sea overwhelmed Flanders, and a terrible commotion of the elements -was the precursor of famine and pestilence in England, Gaul, Germany, -&c.; cattle and men were equally destroyed. The following year, 1043, -there was another eruption of Vesuvius, and also one in A.D. 1048. A.D. -1063 the river Thames was frozen over for fourteen weeks. Pestilential -diseases, such as fluxes, pleurisies, fevers, &c., carried off many -hundred thousands of Saracens marching to invade Rome in the year 1064: -this pestilential epidemic continued until 1066. A.D. 1067, leprosy -being on the increase in Spain, lazar-houses for the lepers were first -established at Valencia by Ruy Diaz de Villar, which were called ‘Cid -Cunpandor.’ About this period an awful plague swept away a great part -of the inhabitants of Egypt and Arabia. The following year, 1068, a -great pestilence raged in York and Durham (in England), and a terrible -plague devastated Constantinople. A.D. 1075, so intense was the cold -this year that the Thames was frozen over from the month of November -until April the following year, 1076; with the exception of a very few -days, there was scarcely any thaw during all this period. A.D. 1077, -London was nearly destroyed by fire. About this period, and two years -after, famine, pestilence, and locusts made great havoc in Italy, -Russia, Flanders, and in England. - -In the years 1087–88 and 1089, very rainy, cold summers and extreme -winters were experienced in England, Gaul, and Germany, when pestilence -and famine did much mischief in those countries. There were also famine -and epidemic disease in Italy. In the latter year, 1089, erysipelas -prevailed epidemically in France, causing great mortality. A.D. 1090, -a terrible earthquake was felt throughout England, which was followed -by a great scarcity of fruit and a late, unproductive harvest. The year -following, a severe storm was felt in several parts of England; the -wind was at south-west, especially at Winchelscomb, Gloucestershire, -where the steeple of the church was thrown down; there was much thunder -and lightning; the crucifix with the image of the Virgin was broken -in pieces. On the 5th of October, during the storm a thick mist for -several hours darkened the sky. A few days after, on the 17th, a -thunder-storm from the south-west destroyed upwards of 500 houses in -London: it unroofed Bow church; and at Old Sarum the steeple was struck -down, with many dwelling-houses. - -A.D. 1093, a tremendous inundation occurred in Syria, by -which prodigious numbers of the inhabitants and cattle, such as oxen -and horses, were destroyed. A.D. 1096–97, 1100, 1103–4, and -1105, pestilence and famine happened from unhealthy seasons; there -occurred excessive rains, terrible inundations, severe winters, -inclement summers, variable autumns, multitudes of worms (papiliones), -and violent hurricanes in England, Palestine, and Holland, in which -latter place 100,000 persons were drowned by the inroads of the sea. It -was during this period, A.D. 1100, that the lands of Godwin, -earl of Kent, to this day called the ‘Goodwin Sands,’ were inundated. -1104, a comet was seen. The disease which prevailed in England was -an erysipelatous epidemic fever, in which the limbs of the sick were -discovered to be thickly beset with black and livid spots, like -carbuncles in the plague. Two years after, fevers, fluxes, &c., were -rife, and pestilence continued to prevail in various parts of Europe -in the years 1108–9, 1110–11. There appeared a comet in the years -1107 and 1110. A.D. 1113, the water of the Medway failed so -greatly, that the smallest boats could not float in its channel. The -Thames about the same period was so low between the Tower and London -Bridge that women and children waded over. Owing to so great an ebb of -the ocean, the sands were laid bare for a whole day for several miles -from the shore: pestilence ravaged Judea. A.D. 1116, severe -earthquakes were experienced in the month of December in various parts -of England, especially in Shropshire. Two years previously, 1114, -several bridges, being built of wood, were broken down in England by -the ice, when it thawed after the severe frost. - -From the year 1120, a pestilential period equal in intensity and -destructiveness to that between the years 740 and 1000 (a period of -260 years), preceded by famine, murrain, &c., commenced, and continued -to ravage various parts of the globe until 1392 (272 years), a brief -notice of which, taken from the chronicles, will show its extent and -fatality. - -From A.D. 1120 unto 1125, erysipelas raged epidemically -with great mortality in England, and it has been computed that, by -it, a third of the population perished in those years. A.D. -1126–27 and 1128 a destructive pestilence again prevailed in England. -A.D. 1130, a severe earthquake was felt in Shropshire in the -month of September. A.D. 1133, the Po was frozen over from -Cremona to the sea, and the year after, 1134, an earthquake occurred, -just as King Henry was about to embark for Normandy, when flames of -fire burst out of certain rifts of the earth with great violence. On -the 2nd of August there was an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. -1136, and the year following, a severe earthquake swallowed up the city -of Catania, with more than 15,000 of the inhabitants. Dismal pestilence -occurred again in England, lasting twelve years, from 1133 unto 1146; -famine also added to the miseries of the inhabitants, and much cattle -were destroyed by murrain, and for want of provender. - -From the year 1150 to 1169 severe winters and dry summers were -experienced; there were frequent inundations and earthquakes; and -famine and pestilence swept the world, especially Scotland, Ireland, -Italy, Gaul, Sicily, Judea, Asia, and Africa. A.D. 1164, -there was a great inundation in Friesland, which covered nearly -the whole country, and destroyed vast numbers of the inhabitants. -A.D. 1167, Henry II.’s palace in Dublin, at which he spent -his Christmas, was built of wattles, with a straw roof, and the sides -formed of clay. A.D. 1172, great mortality from dysentery -was experienced in England; and two years after, small-pox, measles, -epidemic catarrh, scarlet fever, quinsies, and pleurisies were greatly -prevalent: similar maladies were rife in various other parts of the -world from 1175 to 1193. A.D. 1179, about Christmas, at a -place called Oxen-hall, near Darlington, in the bishopric of Durham, -the earth raised itself up like a lofty tower, and thus remained for -several hours, when on a sudden it sunk down again with a horrid -noise, and formed a deep pit, which continues until this day: it is -supposed that the wells that are now called Hell-kettles were formed -by this convulsion of nature. A.D. 1183 and following years, -a severe pestilence scourged England, and the plague raged at Rome. -A.D. 1185, an earthquake overthrew the church at Lincoln; -at the same time other places in the neighbourhood suffered from the -shock. Castile, and principally the city of Leon, suffered from a most -cruel plague which spared neither sex nor grade, visiting palaces as -well as the hovels of the poor. Many of the bishops were carried off. - -A.D. 1190. The old chronicler Geoffrey de Vinsauf describes a -terrible famine and pestilence that happened in 1190, “in the army of -the Crusaders at the siege of Acre, owing to the villany of the Marquis -of Montferrat, the governor of Tyre, who not only refused to supply -the soldiers with food, but would not either allow of the townsfolk to -send them provisions.” So great was the famine and the scarcity, that -“a moderate measure of wheat which a man could carry under his arm -was sold for 100 aurei, a chicken for twelve sols, and an egg for six -deniers. The men were reduced to feed on their horses, which they were -compelled to kill, not even the entrails being rejected. Men of high -rank and the sons of great men fed upon grass even; and herbs such as -they once despised and believed not fit for human use, the greatness -of the famine made now most sweet to the starving. The public ovens -were constantly occupied by men fighting for the bread, and noblemen, -suffering from the pangs of hunger, became thieves and stole the loaves -from the bakers’ shops.” To add to their misery, heavy rains fell, and -pestilence broke out amongst them, so that a thousand deaths happened -daily. De Vinsauf says, “The unusual showers, by their constant and -continuous fall, had such an injurious effect upon the soldiers, that, -with the excess of the affliction, their limbs becoming swollen, the -whole body was affected as with the dropsy, and from the violence of -the disease the teeth of some of them were loosened and fell out.” -But few of those attacked recovered. Every section of this old work, -descriptive of this pestilence, ends with a fierce imprecation on the -Marquis for his desertion and perfidy. - -A.D. 1193 and 1194, there was a famine in Italy, and -pestilence swept England, continuing till 1196. “The common people -perished in every quarter for lack of food, and the fiercest pestilence -followed, in the form of acute fever, which destroyed such numbers that -scarcely any were left to minister unto the sick; the customary funeral -service ceased, and in many places large ditches were made, into which -the dead were thrown.”--(Chron. W. Humford, vol. ii. p. 546–7.) There -was, A.D. 1196, a great famine and plague in the principality -of Catalonia, and 1199, pestilential fever raged at Cordova, in which -the celebrated physician Averrhoes observed that every patient who was -bled before purging invariably died. - -England again suffered severely from epidemic pestilence in the year -1200, and also in the following year. A.D. 1205, a severe -frost was experienced in England from the 14th of January unto the 22nd -of March. - -A.D. 1206, on the last day of the month of February, there -was an eclipse of the sun, which lasted six hours--the darkness was -as great as at midnight. This phenomenon was followed by abundant and -continued rains, inundations, and severe epidemic pestilence in Spain. - -The years 1210–1213, 1217, 1218, and 1220, were marked by ordinary -seasons, except in Spain, Italy, and Friesland. In the former place, -Spain, 1217, the drought was so great as not only to destroy the -harvests, but the pasture had the appearance of having been burnt -up; famine was the consequence, with disease both in men and cattle. -In Italy the plague, it is said, scarcely left a tenth part of the -inhabitants alive, and in Damietta it is asserted that only three -persons out of 70,000 survived. In Friesland, A.D. 1218, -there was an inundation which destroyed cattle, houses, and many -persons. In 1221, excessive rains, floods, frosts, and inclement heats -induced a famine and pestilence, which almost desolated the whole of -Europe; in some countries, the living were exhausted burying the dead, -and in some cities scarcely a person survived the terrible destruction. - -A.D. 1222, there was a severe thunder-storm in England with -lightning, which destroyed several churches; the summer was excessively -dry; frost and deep snow in April had destroyed the blossoms of the -fruits; the country was deluged with rains in autumn, and swept with -tempestuous winds; and the plague raged with uncontrollable fury in -Germany, Hungary, Gaul, Egypt, and other countries: the animals also -suffered from disease. The winter of 1225 was rigorous, following the -great drought. In 1224 a dearth ensued, and there was a great mortality -among sheep. - -A.D. 1228, abundant rains, followed by a hot summer, the -subsequent winter being a severe one, induced fatal disease, and an -inundation at Friesland destroyed 100,000 persons. - -The inundation of the Tiber, which happened A.D. 1230, drowned -all the lower city of Rome, the river rising even to the stairs of -St. Peter’s church: July and August following were exceedingly hot; -famine ensued, and afterwards pestilence commenced and continued until -A.D. 1235. England suffered also from pestilence, which -decimated the population; in that year 20,000 persons, it is supposed, -died of starvation alone in London. About this period, leprosy -became so common in England that it was made the subject of several -legislative enactments. - -During this year, 1230, when King Don Jayme seized on the island of -Mallorca, a frightful and lethal pestilence prevailed not only among -the poor and wretched, but also among the higher orders; in the course -of only one month, several nobles and individuals of the first families -of Aragon and Catalonia died. The desolation which this dire pestilence -caused was such that it almost depopulated the island, and forced the -king to send galleys to Catalonia in search of colonists, he having -given an order to Don Pedro Cornel for 100,000 reals to bring from -Aragon 150 gentry,--caballeros or nobles. This pestilence increased -with another no less fatal disease, viz., ‘the Sacred Persian or St. -Anthony’s fire;’ so that this great monarch, anxious for the safety of -his people, established in the island, by his mandate of 13th September -of the same year, the hospital of St. Anthony for the reception and -treatment of all suffering from so terrible a malady, as appears in -the history of the kingdom of Mallorca written by the chronicler or -historian Don Vincente Mut. In imitation of this establishment, and of -that founded in Castro Xerez in 1214, other hospitals were erected for -the same purposes in Madrid, Saragossa, and in various other provinces -of the kingdom. Twenty-three years after, another hospital, called -after St. Lazarus, was established in the city of Seville, similar to -that which was built in the city of Valencia in the year 1067. The -Annals of Seville, written by Zurita and Don Alonso Melgado, state -that this hospital was founded by King Alonso the Wise. About this -time, 1230, Denmark, Italy, and Gaul were visited by a severe epidemic -pestilence, as also were various other parts of Europe; it continued -until 1236. - -A.D. 1233 it thundered and lightened for thirteen days, with -heavy rains, which destroyed all vegetation in England, when famine -and disease were the consequences. At this time most of the houses in -London were built of wood and wattles, and thatched with straw; the -windows were without glass, and there were neither chimneys nor boarded -floors; common straw was used for the king’s bed. The Mediterranean -was frozen over; loaded waggons also crossed the Adriatic in front of -Venice. A.D. 1234 and the year following, 1235, the Thames -rose so high at Westminster, that the lawyers and other members of the -court were brought out of the Hall in boats. A.D. 1237, the -dancing disease, similar to that which was rife A.D. 1027 at -Kolbig, broke out amongst upwards of 100 children at Erfurt; they were -said to have been suddenly seized with this singular malady, and to -have proceeded dancing and jumping along the road to Armstadt; when -they arrived at that place they fell exhausted to the ground, and, -according to the account of an old chronicle, many of them died, after -they were taken home by their parents, and the rest remained afflicted -to the end of their lives with a permanent tremor. The years 1238 and -1239 were also destructive years in Europe. - -A.D. 1240, the fish died on the coast of England; inclement -seasons prevailed, and pestilence appeared in various parts of that -country. Two years after, A.D. 1242, excessive rains swelled -the river Thames, and inundated the country round about Lambeth on the -Surrey side. The year following was remarkable for the appearance of -meteors and drought; deadly pestilence prevailed in various parts of -England. A.D. 1247, pestilence again occurred in England; it -broke out in the month of September. A.D. 1249, an earthquake -threw down St. Michael’s on the Hill without Glastonbury; a severe -shock was felt also about the same period in Somersetshire. - -In the same year, 1249, a dreadful pestilence ravaged the armies of -St. Louis the Crusader, caused, says Joinville, his historian, by the -decomposition of the dead bodies of those who had been slain in two -great battles fought a few days previously. They had been thrown into -the river by the Saracens, and when they floated, were arrested by -the low bridge, which was the means of communication between the two -divisions of the French troops. The river was covered with them from -bank to bank, so that the water could not be seen a good stone’s-throw -from the bridge upwards. The pious king caused the bodies of the -Christians to be removed from the river and buried in deep graves; -those of the Saracens were thrust under the arch of the bridge, and -floated down to the sea. This occurred during Lent, and all that time, -being obliged by their creed to live on fish, the soldiers could get no -other than eelpouts,--a gluttonous fish, which fed on the dead bodies. -The disease which broke out among them, Joinville says, dried up the -flesh on their legs to the bone, and the skin became tanned as black -as the ground, or like an old boot that has long lain behind a coffer -(evidently a kind of dry gangrene). In addition to this miserable -disorder, those affected by it had another sore complaint in the mouth, -from eating such fish, that rotted the gums, and caused a most stinking -breath: very few escaped death that were thus attacked; and the surest -symptom of its being fatal was a bleeding at the nose; when that took -place, none recovered. Starvation was soon added to their miseries, for -the enemy was enabled so to blockade them, that the provision-boats -could not reach them. The disorder so increased in the army, that the -barbers were forced to cut away very large pieces of flesh from the -gums to enable their patients to eat. The mortality was very great -indeed, but what number thus perished miserably is not mentioned by -Joinville. - -In the year 1250 the summer was rainy and tempestuous, and a hard -winter followed. The old town of Winchelsea was swallowed up by the -sea, and an earthquake was felt at St. Albans, that did much damage. -The summer of 1251 was intolerably hot; there was a famine in Italy, -and epidemic pestilence traversed all England, and was attended with -great mortality; a thunder-storm occurred, during which the chimney of -the chamber where the queen and her children lay at Windsor was struck -down, and the whole apartment violently shaken; large oaks in the park -were torn up by the roots: the lightning was so terrible as to surpass -any that had occurred in the memory of man. A.D. 1252, the -late frost in spring, succeeding drought, destroyed the vegetation; -there were heavy rains in July; at Michaelmas the plague began to rage -in London, and pervaded all England, continuing until August in the -following year, thus affording an instance of this disease beginning in -autumn, running through the winter, and terminating in the summer. The -winter of 1254 was severely cold; a murrain appeared among sheep, and -a mortal disease among horses called ‘the evil of the tongue.’ - -A.D. 1255–56 and 1258, the tides rose uncommonly high; a comet -was observed in 1256; the rivers swelled with excessive rains, tempests -levelled buildings, the summers were wet, the crops failed by the -destroying power of the elements, and dearth, famine, and pestilence -caused great havoc amongst the inhabitants of England; 15,000 persons -perished in London alone from hunger. “The inundations in autumn,” -says M’Culloch, “destroyed the crops; fatal fevers prevailed, -principal in the summer, during the dog-days, when to one cemetery -alone, that of St. Edward’s, 2000 bodies were carried.” Long droughts -succeeded, and the mortality continued until 1257. _A.D._ 1264, -a murrain destroyed much cattle in England, especially horses; and in -A.D. 1266, swarms of the palmer-worms destroyed all vegetation -in Scotland. In 1269, excessive seasons existed; pestilence destroyed -the Crusaders on their march to the Holy Land, and the French king and -his son perished by it. A.D. 1274, a grievous rot broke out -amongst the sheep, which persisted for twenty-five or twenty-eight -years, destroying almost all the sheep in England. From the year -1277 to that of 1340 similar seasons, inundations, famines, and -pestilence reigned at different times and in different places, among -the inhabitants of Britain, Italy, Poland, Denmark, Prussia, Zealand, -Egypt, Germany, Bohemia, Spain, &c. - -A.D. 1278. In the month of June, this year, the dancing mania -again occurred on the Mosel Bridge at Utrecht, when 200 fanatics began -to dance, and would not desist until a priest passed who was carrying -the host to a person who was sick, upon which, as if in punishment of -their crime, the bridge gave way, and they were all drowned. - -A.D. 1283, King Philip of France invaded Spain with an army -consisting of 200,000 infantry and 8600 cavalry; when at Gerona, -this army suffered from pestilence, 4000 being carried off by it. -Innumerable swarms of flies, said to be as big as acorns, were -generated, and attacked both men and horses, numbers of whom were -killed by their poison. This pestilential season was attributed to a -miracle wrought by St. Narcissus. - -According to the veterinary surgeons Martin Arrendondo and Fernando -Calvo, in the introduction to the Commentaries of the celebrated -Francisco de la Reyna, mention is made of an epizootic of great -severity, which occurred in one of the cities of the kingdom of -Seville, A.D. 1301, by which there died more than 1000 horses. The -above-mentioned authors derive their information from a paragraph of -Laurenciscus Rasius, in his work entitled ‘Hippiatria or Marescalia,’ -in which, when speaking of the diseases of horses, he thus writes: -“Dicta autem infirmitas (febris) epidemialis est, et ex ipsa anno CCCI. -fuerunt in urbe mortui plusquam mille.” - -A.D. 1285, a severe thunder-storm was experienced in various -parts of England: as the king and queen were holding converse in their -bed-room, a flash of lightning passed by them, doing them no injury; -but it struck and killed two of their attendants who were in an -ante-room. It was about this period that water was conveyed to London -by means of leaden pipes after fifty years’ labour. Severe dysentery -prevailed in various parts of the kingdom, as also an epidemic, -simulating the influenza of the present day, complicated with typhoid -symptoms, which persisted for upwards of ten years. A.D. 1299, -a comet was seen. The seasons for three years were inhospitable; severe -catarrhs with fluxes pervaded England. - -A.D. 1302, great drought prevailed in Spain similar to those -which had occurred for centuries past; famine ensued, when pestilence -raged with great violence, carrying off thousands in various parts of -the country. - -A.D. 1307–8, 1309, and 1310, intemperate seasons were -experienced, and famine was the consequence, more especially in -England, Ireland, and Scotland, with great mortality in the latter -country. It was about this period that coals were first brought into -use in England. Various parts of London, as shown by Stow, were in a -filthy condition, which, with the mode of living, and the disgusting -habits of the inhabitants, gave ample cause for the outbreak of -pestilence. Fleet ditch was “of such breadth and depth,” so says Stow, -“that ten or twelve ships’ navies at once, with merchandise, were -wont to come to the bridge Fleete; for some time this canal had been -neglected, and became an intolerable nuisance in a variety of ways.” It -was not until 1733 that it was arched over, when the Fleet Market was -built on it. Pope denounces the filthy condition of Fleet ditch in the -following lines of his ‘Dunciad:’ - - “By Bridewell all descend - (As morning prayer and flagellation end) - To where Fleet ditch, with disembouging streams, - Rolls the large tribute of dead dogs to Thames, - The _king_ of dykes! than whom no sluice of mud - With deeper sable blots the silver flood: - ‘Here trip, my children! here at once leap in, - Here prove who best can dash through thick and thin; - And who the most in love of dirt excel-- - Or dark dexterity of groping well; - Who flings most filth, and wide pollutes around - The stream, be his the weekly journals’ bound; - A pig of lead to him who dives the best; - A peck of coals a-piece shall glad the rest.’” - -A.D. 1316, a peculiar disease prevailed in England,--fever, -with severe dysentery, which raged with an intensity and mortality -equal to the true plague: scarcity amounting to famine was experienced -at the same time, wheat selling at 45_s._ per quarter, equal in -those days to £30 sterling of our money. A.D. 1327, a comet -was seen; the year following, an earthquake, the greatest ever felt in -England, occurred on the 14th of November. - -A.D. 1330, the weather was so tempestuous in England, and the -rains fell so heavily, that the harvest did not begin until Michaelmas. -A storm from the westward overthrew several houses and did much damage, -tearing up forest trees of immense size by the roots. Five years after, -1335, there was a grievous famine in England, which was succeeded by -pestilence, and attended with great mortality. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - FROM A.D. 1333 TO 1418. - - -Proceeding in the annals of antecedent ages, we have now to record a -series of mighty revolutions in the organism of the earth, accompanied -by general and awful commotions of the elements. - - “Earthquakes, Nature’s agonizing pangs, - Oft shake th’ astonish’d isles;--the Solfaterre - Or sends forth thick, blue, suffocating streams, - Or shoots to temporary flame. A din - Wild through the mountains’ quivering rocky caves, - Like the dread crash of tumbling planets, roars. - When tremble thus the pillars of the globe, - Like the tall cocoa by the fierce north blown, - Can the poor brittle tenements of man - Withstand the dread convulsion? Their dear homes - (Which, shaking, tottering, crashing, bursting, fall) - The boldest fly; and on the open plain - Appall’d, in agony the moment wait - When, with disrupture vast, the waving earth - Shall ‘whelm them in her sea-disgorging womb. - Nor less affrighted are the bestial kind: - The bold steed quivers in each panting vein, - And staggers bathed in deluges of sweat; - The lowing herds forsake their grassy food, - And send forth frighted, woeful, hollow sounds; - The dog, thy trusty sentinel of night, - Deserts his post assign’d, and piteous howls. - Wide ocean feels - The mountain waves, passing their custom’d bounds, - Make direful, loud incursions on the land, - All-overwhelming: sudden they retreat, - With their whole troubled waters; but anon - Sudden return, with louder, mightier force. - The black rocks whiten, the vex’d shores resound; - And yet more rapid, distant they retire. - Vast coruscations lighten all the sky - With volumed flames; while thunder’s voice - From forth his shrine, by night and horror girt, - Astounds the guilty, and appals the good.” - -The great events to which we allude began, in the year 1333, first -in China. Here parching drought, succeeded by famine, laid waste the -tract of country watered by the rivers Kiang and Hoai. Rain, about this -period, fell in torrents in and about Kingsai, destroying, it is said, -by the floods more than 400,000 persons. The mountain Tsincheou, in -falling, formed vast chasms in the earth. About this time, according -to the diary of Ramon Vila, there were experienced dire famine and -pestilence at Barcelona, which in a very short time carried off 10,000 -persons. - -In the succeeding year, 1334, inundations occurred in the neighbourhood -of Canton. Soon after, at Tche, after an unexampled drought, pestilence -arose and carried off 500,000 human beings. Hecker graphically -describes the unprecedented and universal commotions of this period. -An earthquake happened near Kingsai, and subsequent to the falling-in -of the mountains of Ki-ming-Chan, a lake was formed, of more than a -hundred leagues in circumference, where thousands found their grave. -In Houkouang and Ho-nan a drought prevailed for five months, and -innumerable swarms of locusts destroyed the vegetation; famine and -pestilence, as is usually the case, following in their train. It is -remarkable, that, simultaneously with a drought and renewed floods -in China, in 1336, many uncommon atmospheric phenomena and, in the -winter-time, frequent thunderstorms were observed in the north of -France; and, so early as the eventful year 1333, an eruption of Etna -took place. According to the Chinese annals, 4,000,000 persons perished -by famine in the neighbourhood of Kiang in 1337; and deluges of rain, -swarms of locusts, and an earthquake which lasted six days, caused an -incredible devastation. - -During this year, 776 of the Ejira, or 1334 of the Christian era, -Mohamed Ben Abdalla Ben Alkhatrib, a native of the city of Granada, -being a physician and a member of an illustrious family versed in -all species of cosmography, acquired considerable authority and -importance amongst many of the Moorish kings of Granada; but, towards -the termination of his valuable life, fortune became adverse; for -having been accused of treason during the reign of Ebn Alahmoz, he was -thrown into prison, and shortly afterwards died, leaving, amongst other -works on medicine and the veterinary art, one on the mode of avoiding -plague, which is cited by Casiri in his ‘Biblioteca Arábigo Hispana -Escurialense,’ tom. ii. pp. 71 and 72. - -A.D. 1338, Kingsai was visited by an earthquake of ten -days’ duration; at the same time France suffered from failure in the -harvest. From this period until 1342 there was in China a succession of -inundations, earthquakes, and famines. It seemed as though everywhere -on the tops of mountains springs were made to burst forth, and dry -tracts were deluged in an inexplicable manner. Great floods also -occurred in the vicinity of the Rhine, in France, &c. In the year -following, 1343, the mountain Hong-tchang, in China, fell in; and in -Pien-tcheou and Leang-tcheou, three months after, rain followed, and -unheard-of inundations, which destroyed seven cities: - - “Towers, temples, palaces - Flung from their deep foundations; roof on roof - Crush’d horrible, and pile on pile o’erturn’d, - Fall total!” - -In Egypt and in Syria violent earthquakes took place, and in China they -became from this time more and more frequent; for they recurred, in -1344, in Ven-tcheou, where the sea overflowed. A dreadful earthquake -was experienced at Lisbon, where vast numbers of the inhabitants -perished by the falling of the buildings. A.D. 1345, in -Ki-tcheou, and also in both the following years in Canton, great -commotions were experienced, especially subterraneous thunder. -Meanwhile floods and famine devastated various districts until 1347, -when the fury of the elements subsided in China. - -Whilst pestilence was thus raging, China, Syria, Greece, Egypt, -Asia, and Africa suffered from it, A.D. 1346; and the year -following, 1347, a pestilence similar to that which subsequently -committed such ravages in the south of Gaul, Spain, and England (1348), -raged in Italy and Sicily. - -1345. Guido de Gaullaco informs us that in Spain, in the month of -March, there broke out a pestilence, which he affirms spread all over -the world, leaving scarcely a fourth part of the human race alive. -Andres Laguna, Martinez de Leyva, Duarte Nunhez, and other medical -writers, speak with horror and astonishment of this terrific plague, -which, they say, lasted five years. - -Abu Giaphar Ahmed Ebn Ali Ebn Khatemar, a native of the city of -Almeria, and one of the Arabian physicians, who, according to Casiri, -was instructed in the history of the great pestilences, which nearly -the entire world suffered from in the years of the Egira 748, 749, -and 750, or of the Christian epoch 1347–48 and 1349, quotes the -following passage: “The pestilence first broke out in Africa, whence -it extended through all parts of Egypt and Asia, and finally attacked -Italy, France, and Spain; but in the city of Almeria, where it raged -with great malignity, it lasted nearly eleven months, namely, from -the beginning of the month Rabiu, the first month of the year of the -Egira 749, and of the Christian epoch 1348, until the commencement of -the following year.” The work which contains the description of this -pestilence consists of ten chapters, and is entitled ‘Morbi in posterum -vitandi Descriptio et Remedia.’ Don Miguel Casiri makes mention of it -in his Codex of the year 1780. - -Abu Abdalla Mohamed Ben Alkhatrib, a native of Granada and brother -of the other Alkhatrib, also wrote a work on the causes and cure of -the pestilence that affected the city of Granada in the year of the -Egira 749, and of our Lord 1348, entitled ‘Quæsita de morbo horribili -perutilia;’ and Casiri alludes to this work also in his Codex. - -Villanius, the historian of Florence, gives an account of a pestilence -which commenced in A.D. 1346 in Upper Asia: it first appeared -in Cathay; it arose from a most filthy smelling vapour, supposed to -have proceeded from a certain fiery body, which either fell down from -the atmosphere, or was eructated from the earth. This vapour, like a -fire, consumed all that stood in its way,--animals, horses, trees, &c., -for the space of fifteen days’ journey all around; and some most filthy -little beasts furnished with feet and tails, as also worms and a small -kind of snake in numberless multitudes, fell at the same time from -the atmosphere upon the earth; the stench and putrefaction from these -infected the very air and all the circumjacent regions. A pestilence -having arisen from them, spread around, depopulating the whole of -Asia, and subsequently Egypt, Greece, and Italy; thence it spread into -France, Spain, and England, and at length into Germany. In the city -of Florence alone, says Villanius, there perished 60,000 persons, but -St. Anthony computes the number to have been 100,000. There prevailed -about this period, or at the commencement of the year 1347, epidemic -pestilence, in the shape of pleurisies, quinsies, and spotted fevers, -which at last terminated in the real Oriental plague, with buboes and -carbuncles: it was reported that 50,000 were carried off in London -in one week, and the deaths at Norwich were almost equally numerous. -About this period, 100,000 persons perished from pestilence at Venice: -Lubeck lost 90,000, while the deaths from similar disease were computed -at 200,000 in the kingdom of Spain. This pestilence persisted in many -parts during the following year. - -In the beginning of 1348 pestilence universally prevailed over Europe -and in other quarters of the globe; it commenced in Syria, spread along -the shores of the Pontic Sea, and of Greece and Illyria, passed into -Italy and Sicily, and thence to the island of Mallorca: according to -Zurita, it almost depopulated that island in less than a month, more -than 5000 persons having been carried off by it. In the same year, -continues Zurita, a general pestilence extended from the East to the -ultimate boundaries of the West, comprising in its ravages the kingdom -of Valencia and the principalities of Catalonia. In the month of June -it broke out in the city of Valencia, and its virulence was such, -especially in the maritime parts, that, as before noticed, scarcely -any part of Europe escaped,--persons died suddenly; from Italy it -passed into Sicily, Sardinia, and so on to Mallorca. So great was the -mortality at Barcelona, that in the month of June, during the usual -annual solemn procession, which caused a number of priests, &c., from -Scio to be present, thousands died, and amongst them four magistrates -and almost all the Council of Ciento. During this period, says another -author, the signs of terrestrial commotions were exhibited in Europe. - -During the reign of Edward III. it rained in England from Midsummer -unto Christmas, when a pestilential period commenced. A disease termed -‘Sorte Diod,’--the black pestilence, or death,--committed the most -terrific ravages; the lungs were principally affected. Fracastorius, in -his ‘Syphilis,’ describes the malady. The translation runs thus: - - “A hundred years twice told have took their flight - Since Saturn mix’d with Mars his hated light, - Who, with their baleful influence, did infest - The rich and potent nations of the East: - Hence raged a dreadful pest before unknown, - Which seized the lungs, and made the breast its throne; - Four days it tyrannized with dreadful sway, - When life in purple streams broke out and fled away.” - -This malady was accompanied by fever, difficulty of breathing, and -spitting of blood; the respiration was so laborious that the sick were -obliged to be always in an upright posture; deglutition was difficult, -attended with flushed countenance and great restlessness: at the -onset the cough was violent, but without loss of blood; after a short -time, the expectoration becoming bloody, hemorrhage succeeded, when -death ensued in three days: spots and abscesses sometimes formed when -the disease was protracted unto the fifth day. After the disease had -persisted for some months, the lungs were no longer affected, but the -glands of the axillæ and of the groins, and the parotids, swelled and -suppurated. In England it lasted nine years. There were 50,000 buried -in one year in the Charterhouse churchyard in London. A murrain among -the cattle succeeded this pestilence, and there was a great scarcity -of all sorts of provisions. Greenland was entirely depopulated by this -pestilence. - -During the year 1348, the island of Cyprus was also visited by a most -terrific pestilence; a tremendous earthquake shook the foundations of -the island, and was accompanied by so frightful a hurricane, that the -inhabitants who had slain the Mahometan slaves, in order that they -might not themselves be subjugated by them, fled in dismay in all -directions. The sea overflowed,--the ships were dashed to pieces on the -rocks, and few outlived the dreadful event, whereby this fertile and -blooming island was converted into a desert. Before the earthquake, -it is recorded by Deguignes (p. 225) that a pestiferous wind spread -so poisonous an odour, that many, being overpowered by it, fell down -suddenly and expired in dreadful agonies. This phenomenon resembles -many such noticed by ancient authors. This peculiar condition of the -atmosphere was evident to the senses; borne by the winds, it spread -from land to land, carrying disease over whole portions of the earth. -It has been further recorded that, during this period, 1348, an -unexampled earthquake, on the 25th of January, shook Greece, Italy, -and the neighbouring countries. Naples, Rome, Pisa, Bologna, Padua, -Venice, and many other cities suffered considerably; whole villages -were swallowed up; castles, houses, and churches were overthrown, and -thousands of people were buried under their ruins. In Carinthia, thirty -villages, together with all the churches, were demolished; more than a -thousand corpses were drawn from under the rubbish: the city of Villach -was completely destroyed, and very few of its inhabitants were saved; -when the earth ceased to tremble, it was found that mountains had been -moved from their position, and that many hamlets were left in ruins. -It is recorded that during this earthquake the wine in casks became -turbid,--a statement which may be considered as furnishing a proof that -changes causing a decomposition of the atmosphere had taken place; -similar destructive earthquakes extended as far as the neighbourhood of -Basle, and recurred from time to time until 1360 throughout Germany, -France, Silesia, Poland, England, and Denmark also, much further north. -In the month of August, 1349, says Walsingham, black death broke out -at Southampton, destroying half the population. According to another -estimate, (Rymer, Fœdera,) A.D. 1348–49, and 1350, one-tenth -part of the people did not survive. In a royal edict, issued December, -1349, it is said, “Non modica pars populi est defuncta;” in another, -1350, “Magna pars populi est defuncta.” This pestilence spread over -France and Germany, and invaded the northern parts of Europe in the -year 1349. - -In the years of our Lord 1350 and 1351 sore disease prevailed in -Ireland, Holland, and in England; its infallible signs were, a great -fever, vomiting, and spitting of blood, hemorrhage from the nose, -mouth, ears, eyes, stomach, and bowels, indicating an universal -disorganization of the system. Here we have the worst symptoms -observable in the bilious remittent or yellow fever of the West Indies -and other parts. It traversed all Germany, Russia, Hungary, Spain, -and Gaul. In Denmark it spread terror and dismay, and it decimated -Iceland; it persisted during the summer, autumn, winter, and spring of -those years; and for several years after, violent peripneumoniæ raged -in Asia, Egypt, and various other parts of the globe.--A.D. -1352. During this year scarcely one-fourth part of the Oxford students -survived the plague. (A. Wood, Ath. Oxon., A.D. 1349–52.) It -fell with redoubled violence on workmen and servants. The same year -great numbers were carried off by pestilence in Montpelier. A great -many of the lower orders of society died of the plague in England. -This disease caused great ravages in Denmark, and also in Iceland; the -Greenland merchants were all destroyed by it: it seized the monks and -regular clergy of all descriptions; 133 out of 140 members died of one -society in Montpelier. A similar mortality happened in the Magdalen -Society; not one out of 140 in Marseilles survived; 66 Carmelites -perished in Avignon. This plague began in a monastery of crowded, idle, -voluptuous monks. Cattle suffered greatly in many countries; 6000 sheep -died in one pasture in England. Pestilence and famine, it is supposed, -carried off in China, about this period, at least 900,000 of its -inhabitants: in London, 50,000 bodies were interred in one graveyard. -The following estimate of deaths during the above awful period was -considered below the actual number of victims: in Venice 100,000 died; -Basle, 14,000; Erfurt, 16,000; Strasburgh, about the same number; -Paris, 50,000; Norwich, in England, 50,000; Marseilles, in one month, -56,000! Florence, 60,000; Avignon, 62,000; London, 100,000; in Lubeck, -90,000; in Spain, two-thirds of the population were destroyed; and -Ireland was nearly depopulated. - -A.D. 1355, a peculiar kind of madness was epidemic in England; -those affected fled into the woods, and wandered about the fields. -(Hecker.) Three years after, epidemic pestilence ravaged England, -Africa, Cyprus, and also Italy and Florence, which last city, says -Petrarch, lost 100,000 citizens. The same kind of pestilence also -afflicted Gaul, Ireland, and Scotland. Stow, in his Chronicle, gives -a very graphic description of the foregoing pestilential period from -1348 up to 1357. The pestilence he describes as a new disease. He -says: “There began amongst the East Indians and Tartarians a certain -pestilence, which at length waxed so general, infecting the middle -regions of the air so greatly, that it destroyed the Saracens, Turks, -Syrians, Palestinians, and the Grecians with a wonderful or rather -incredible death; insomuch that those people being exceedingly dismayed -with the terror thereof, consulted among themselves, and thought it -good to receive the Christian faith and sacraments; for they had -intelligence that the Christians which dwelt on this side of the Greek -Sea were not so greatly troubled with sickness and mortality more than -common.” “At length this terrible slaughter passed over into those -countries which are on this side the Alps, and thence to the parts -of France which are called Hesperia, and so on, by order, along into -Germany and Dutchland; and the seventh year after it began, it came -into England, and first began in the towns and ports joining on the -sea-coasts, Dorsetshire, where, even as in other countries, it made -the country quite void of inhabitants, so that there were almost none -left alive. Thence it passed into Devonshire and Somersetshire, and -even into Bristol, and raged in such sort that the Gloucestershire men -would not suffer persons from Bristol to have any access unto them or -into their country by any means; but at length it came to Gloucester, -yea, and to Oxford and London, and finally it spread over all England, -and so wasted and spoiled the people, that scarce the tenth person of -all sorts was left alive; churchyards were not sufficient and large -enough to bury their dead in: they chose certain fields appointed for -the purpose, amongst which was the piece of ground denominated the -Churchyard of the Holy Trinity, near East Smithfield, opened by one -John Cory. One Walter Manny also purchased a piece of ground called -Spital Croft, containing thirteen acres, in which were interred during -the next year 50,000 bodies; in Norwich, no less than 37,104 persons, -besides Mendicants and Dominicans, and in Yarmouth 7502; so that the -living which was previously worth 700 marks was reduced to £40 per -year.” “What time this pestilence had wasted all England, the Scots, -greatly rejoicing, mocked and swore ofttimes, ‘By the vile death of the -Englishmen;’ but the sword of God’s wrath slew and consumed the Scots -in no less numbers than it did the other. It also wasted the Welshmen, -and within a while passed over into Ireland, where it destroyed a great -number of English people that dwelt there; but such as were right -Irish-born, that dwelt in the hilly country, it scarcely touched, so -that few of them died thereof.” - -A.D. 1360. Thunder-storms, accompanied by heavy rains and -lightning, did much damage in various parts of England; houses were set -on fire, crops and cattle were destroyed, and pestilence, in the shape -of fevers and disorder of the bowels, carried off numbers. - -On the 21st of January, two years after, A.D. 1362, a feast -was instituted, and a solemn mass celebrated in Scio, with divine -worship in all the churches, convents, and other public places, at -which all the clergy of the place assisted; and on the 15th of February -a papal jubilee was published for the repose of the souls of all those -who had perished by the pestilence, which had recently carried off vast -numbers. - -A.D. 1363, a dreadfully severe winter presaged noxious seasons -in Europe. Andalusia was afflicted with a terrible pestilence, which -having seized an almost incredible number of its inhabitants, is -marked among the ancient writings as the second mortality, in order to -distinguish it from the first of 1350, during which King Don Alonso -died in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar. This pestilence made such -an impression on the minds of all Spaniards, that in a sepulchral -inscription in the church of St. Pablo, we read that it was erected -during the second mortality, A.D. 1363. Two years after, -A.D. 1365, pestilence carried off 20,000 of the inhabitants of -Cologne and its vicinity. - -From the year 1368 unto 1370, epidemic pestilence ravaged England and -Ireland; four years after, it continued to lay England waste. A similar -pestilence, about the same time, prevailed with great mortality in -Italy and in Gaul. - -A.D. 1371, pestilence was rife at Barcelona; and on the -13th of June, imprecatory processions were instituted in each of the -parishes of that place on account of the pestilence, which lasted for -one year. A comet was seen this year. - -A.D. 1372, pestilence invaded Germany, Egypt, Greece, and all -the East. Lubeck lost 90,000 of its inhabitants. - -A.D. 1373, the use of coals was forbidden by Act of -Parliament, under the idea that the smoke in London corrupted the air. - -In the year of our Lord 1374, the epidemic dancing disease of St. -Guy and St. John prevailed in Holland and in the Rhenish provinces, -and an analogous malady, called ‘Tarantisme’ and ‘Tigretier,’ among -the Abyssinians; a similar disease also prevailed in the Shetland -Islands, where it had existed from time to time, as it is said, -for one hundred years previously. The disease also prevailed in -France, and the sufferers were called ‘Convulsionnaires;’ it was -evidently the malady which we now term St. Vitus’ Dance or Chorea, -but prevailing epidemically. Hecker gives the following account of -this strange malady, as it occurred about this period also in Germany; -it was evidently a disease similar to that which broke out, A.D. -1027, in Bernburg, prevailed A.D. 1237 at Erfurt among children, and -subsequently among adults, A.D. 1278, at Utrecht. He says “that the -effects of the ‘Black Death’ had not yet subsided, and the graves of -millions of its victims were scarcely closed when a strange delusion -arose in Germany, which took possession of the minds of men, and, -in spite of the divinity of our nature, hurried away body and soul -into the magic circle of hellish superstition. It was a convulsion -which, in the most extraordinary manner, infuriated the human frame, -and excited the astonishment of contemporaries for more than two -centuries, since which time it has never re-appeared. It was called -the Dance of St. John or of St. Vitus, on account of the Bacchantic -leaps by which it was characterized, and which gave to those affected, -whilst performing their wild dance, and screaming and foaming with -fury, all the appearance of persons possessed. It did not remain -confined to particular localities, but was propagated by the sight of -the sufferers, like a demoniacal epidemic, over the whole of Germany -and the neighbouring countries to the north-west, which were already -prepared for its reception by the prevailing opinion of the times. - -“So early as the year 1374, assemblages of men and women were seen -at Aix-la-Chapelle, who had come out of Germany, and who, united by -one common delusion, exhibited to the public, both in the streets -and in the churches, the following strange spectacle. They formed -circles hand-in-hand, and, appearing to have lost all control over -their senses, continued dancing, regardless of the by-standers, for -hours together, in wild delirium, until at length they fell down to -the ground in a state of exhaustion. They then complained of extreme -oppression, and groaned as if in the agonies of death, until they -were swathed in cloths bound tightly round their waists, upon which -they again recovered, and remained free from complaint until the next -attack. This practice of swathing was resorted to on account of the -tympany which followed these spasmodic ravings, but the by-standers -frequently relieved patients in a less artificial manner by thumping -and trampling upon the parts affected. While dancing, they neither saw -nor heard, being insensible to external impressions through the senses, -but were haunted by visions, their fancies conjuring up spirits, whose -names they shrieked out; and some of them afterwards asserted that they -felt as if they had been immersed in a stream of blood, which obliged -them to leap so high. Others during the paroxysm saw the heavens open -and the Saviour enthroned with the Virgin Mary, according as the -religious notions of the age were strangely and variously reflected in -their imaginations. - -“Where the disease was completely developed, the attack commenced with -epileptic convulsions. Those affected fell to the ground senseless, -panting and labouring for breath; they foamed at the mouth, and -suddenly springing up, began their dance amidst strange contortions. -Yet the malady doubtless made its appearance very variously, and was -modified by temporary or local circumstances, whereof non-medical -contemporaries but imperfectly noted the essential particulars, -accustomed as they were to confound their observations of natural -events with their notions of the world of spirits. - -“It was but a few months ere this demoniacal disease had spread from -Aix-la-Chapelle, where it appeared in July, over the neighbouring -Netherlands. In Liege, Utrecht, Tongres, and many other towns of -Belgium, the dancers appeared with garlands in their hair, and their -waists girt with cloths, that they might, as soon as the paroxysm -was over, receive immediate relief on the attack of the tympany. -This bandage was, by the insertion of a stick, easily twisted tight; -many, however, obtained more relief from kicks and blows, which they -found numbers of persons ready to administer; for where the dancers -appeared, the people assembled in crowds to gratify their curiosity -with the frightful spectacle. At length the increasing number of the -affected excited no less anxiety than the attention that was paid to -them. In towns and villages they took possession of the religious -houses; processions were everywhere instituted on their account, and -masses were said, and hymns were sung, while the disease itself, of the -demoniacal origin of which no one entertained the least doubt, excited -everywhere astonishment and horror. In Liege the priests had recourse -to exorcisms, and endeavoured by every means in their power to allay an -evil which threatened so much danger to themselves; for the possessed, -assembling in multitudes, frequently poured forth imprecations against -them and menaced their destruction. They intimidated the people also -to such a degree that there was an express ordinance issued, that no -one should make any but square-toed shoes, because these fanatics had -manifested a morbid dislike to the pointed shoes which had come into -fashion immediately after the great mortality in 1350. They were still -more irritated at the sight of red colours, the influence of which -on the disordered nerves might lead us to imagine an extraordinary -accordance between this spasmodic malady and the condition of -infuriated animals; but in the St. John’s dancers this excitement was -probably connected with apparitions, consequent on their convulsions. -There were likewise some of them who were unable to endure the sight -of persons weeping.” “A few months after this dancing malady had made -its appearance at Aix-la-Chapelle, it broke out at Cologne, where the -number of those possessed amounted to more than five hundred; and about -the same time at Metz, the streets of which place are said to have been -filled with eleven hundred dancers. * * * * * Girls and boys quitted -their parents, and servants their masters, to amuse themselves at the -dances of those possessed, and greedily imbibed the poison of mental -infection. Above a hundred unmarried women were seen raving about, in -consecrated and unconsecrated places, and the consequences were soon -perceived. Gangs of idle vagabonds, who understood how to imitate -to the life the gestures and convulsions of those really affected, -roved from place to place, seeking maintenance and adventures, and -thus wherever they went spread this disgusting spasmodic disease like -a plague; for in maladies of this kind the susceptible are infected -as easily by the appearance as by the reality. At last it was found -necessary to drive away these mischievous guests, who were equally -inaccessible to the exorcisms of the priests and the remedies of the -physicians. It was not, however, until after four months that the -Rhenish cities were able to suppress these impostures, which had so -alarmingly increased the original evil.” - -A.D. 1375, on the 20th of June, an imprecatory procession -was instituted at Scio, on account of the dreadful pestilence which -broke out there, and which raged more than twelve months. (_Vide_ -Capmany, ‘Historical and Chronological Compendium of Plagues,’ p. 66.) - -A.D. 1379, epidemic pestilence prevailed in England, -especially in the northern parts of the island. A.D. 1380, -there was a general inundation in Spain, from which resulted epidemic -pestilence, characteristic of an atmosphere surcharged with moisture. -Three years after, 1383, was a period most fatal to Seville, in -consequence of a pestilence having broken out there, which extended -through its entire length and breadth. This terrible infliction was -called by the old inhabitants the third mortality: it was preceded by -inundations and extraordinary showers, which act unquestionably as -predisposing causes of disease. A severe earthquake destroyed several -churches A.D. 1382. - -We have seen that the years 1350 and 1363 were denominated the years of -the first and second mortality. The precautionary measures that were -adopted to meet such evils were the formation of various hospitals -for the treatment of the sick, instituted by the bishop, dean, and -ecclesiastical and secular chapters. The physicians and surgeons not -only contributed by their science to the relief of the plague-stricken, -but also with their personal charity and the salaries which were -assigned them by the city authorities. A hospital was founded under the -protection of St. Cosmo and St. Amien in the parish of St. Salvalo, the -patronage of which was given to the city. - -A.D. 1384. During this year the third plague of Mallorca -broke out; it caused considerable mortality, according to the account -given by Vincente Mut in his history of that kingdom. Numbers of the -soldiers of the army of Don Juan, the first king of Castile, who were -in garrison at Lisbon, fell sick in consequence of the severity of the -atmospheric changes, to which they were unaccustomed. The losses and -sufferings of the Castilian camp increased every day, and hundreds of -them became ill, and consequently the king was induced to change his -position and remove his armada to Seville. - -At the commencement of 1386 there was in Gallicia much sickness among -the soldiers commanded by Tornas Moraix: the character of the epidemic -is but imperfectly given, but history states the mortality to have been -very great. - -A.D. 1387, the army of the King of Portugal and of the Duke -of Lancaster suffered from severe pestilence in Benavento, and in the -towns of Matillas, Arzon, Villalobos, Rales, and Valderas, owing to the -scarcity of provisions. In the years 1388 and 1389, violent tempests, -preceded by great drought, happened; a famine ensued, when anginas and -dysenteries prevailed in England and in other parts of the world. The -disease affected children principally, and continued unto 1400. During -this period, 1391, the disease was especially mortal in England, being -felt most severely in Norfolk and at York. The year previously, 1390, -when King Edward was on his march and within two leagues of Chartres, a -violent storm arose, with thunder and lightning, which killed 6000 of -his horses and upwards of 1000 of his best troops. - -A.D. 1394, a great mortality occurred from epidemic pestilence -in the kingdom of Valencia and in the principality of Catalonia, -arising from great heat; nearly 10,000 persons, a greater part of -whom were young, died in the city of Valencia alone. This pestilence -occurred during the reign of King Don Juan.--A.D. 1396. On the -9th of December of this year, King Don Martin retired to the city of -Perpignan in consequence of Barcelona being visited by pestilence. - -A.D. 1400. The continued heavy rains and sterility having -induced famine in Seville, caused also great mortality and pestilence, -which diminished the population wonderfully. The author of the Annals -of Seville mentions that this plague occurred at centenary periods. - -A.D. 1401. A comet was seen. Pestilence broke out at Florence. -30,000 persons died of epidemic disease this year in London. Five -years after, London was revisited by deadly pestilence. In Bourdeaux -a malignant dysentery destroyed 14,000 persons, and a similar disease -was equally fatal in Aquitaine and Gascony. A.D. 1407, the -Mediterranean was frozen over for fifteen weeks.--A.D. 1411. -Two diseases, very similar, appeared in France this year, and were -equally general; the first was called ‘Tac,’ the second ‘Ladendo:’ -both were accompanied by severe cough. In the Ladendo there seems to -have been some affection of the kidney of an inflammatory nature: -the pain was as severe as in a fit of the stone, and was followed by -fever, loss of appetite, and incessant cough, which terminated very -frequently in unpleasant eruptions about the nose and mouth; the -disease ran its course generally in fifteen days, and was unattended -by danger, notwithstanding the severity of the symptoms. Three years -after, an epidemic disease of a similar nature re-appeared in France, -when it received the name of ‘Coqueluche:’ it was attended with severe -hoarseness, and was so general that all public business in Paris was -interrupted by it. - -A.D. 1410. Epidemic pestilence broke out at Seville this year; -it commenced in Niebla, Gibraleon, and Trigueros, and extended thence -to Seville, where it raged from March unto August. On the 30th of May -and on the 5th of August an earthquake was felt at Barcelona, and -epidemic pestilence prevailed, which lasted until the anniversary of -the Nativity. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - FROM A.D. 1418 TO 1530. - - -A.D. 1418, Strasburgh was visited by the ‘Dancing Plague,’ -and the same infatuation existed amongst the people there, as in the -towns of Belgium and the Lower Rhine A.D. 1374; many who were -seized on seeing the affected, excited attention at first by their -confused and absurd behaviour, and then by their constantly following -the swarms of dancers. These were seen day and night passing through -the streets, accompanied by musicians playing on bagpipes, and by -innumerable spectators attracted by curiosity, to whom were added -anxious parents and relations who came to look after those among the -misguided multitude who belonged to their respective families. - -Imposture and profligacy played their part in this city also, but the -morbid delusion itself seems to have predominated. On this account -religion could only bring provisional aid, and therefore the Town -Council benevolently took an interest in the afflicted: they divided -them into separate parties, to each of which they appointed responsible -superintendents, to protect them from harm, and perhaps also to -restrain their turbulence. They were thus conducted on foot and in -carriages to the chapels of St. Vitus, near Zabern, and Rotestein, -where priests were in attendance to influence their misguided minds -by masses and other religious ceremonies. After divine worship was -completed, they were led in solemn procession to the altar, where they -made some small offering of alms, and where, it is probable, many, -through the influence of devotion and the sanctity of the place, were -cured of this lamentable aberration. - -It is worthy of observation, at all events, that the dancing mania -did not recommence at the altars of the saint, that from him alone -assistance was implored, and that through his miraculous interposition -a cure was expected, which was beyond the reach of human skill. The -personal history of St. Vitus is by no means unimportant in this -matter. He was a Sicilian youth, who, together with Modestus and -Crescentia, suffered martyrdom at the time of the persecution of -the Christians under Diocletian, in A.D. 303. The legends -respecting him are obscure, and he would certainly have been passed -over without notice among the innumerable apocryphal martyrs of the -earliest centuries, had not the transfer of his body to St. Denys, and -thence in the year 836 to Corvey, raised him to a higher rank. From -this time forth it may be supposed that many miracles were performed at -his new sepulchre, which were of essential service in confirming the -Roman Catholic faith among the Germans, and St. Vitus was soon ranked -among the fourteen saintly helpers (Nothelfer or Apotheker). His altars -were multiplied, and the people had recourse to them in all kinds of -distresses; they revered him as a powerful intercessor. As the worship -of these saints was, however, at that time stripped of all historical -connexions, which were purposely obliterated by the priesthood, a -legend was invented at the beginning of the fifteenth century, or -perhaps even so early as the fourteenth, that St. Vitus had, just -before he bent his neck to the sword, prayed to God that he might -protect from the dancing mania all those who should solemnize the day -of his commemoration and fast upon its eve, and that thereupon a voice -from heaven was heard, saying, “Vitus, thy prayer is accepted.” Thus -St. Vitus became the patron saint of those affected with the dancing -plague, as St. Martin of Tours was at one time the succourer of persons -in small-pox; St. Anthony, of those suffering under the ‘hellish fire;’ -and as St. Margaret was the Juno Lucina of pregnant women. - -A.D. 1426, the Baltic was frozen over, and on the 28th of -September a severe earthquake was felt in England. Dantzic was visited -by pestilence and famine; and the year following, England suffered from -epidemic pestilence, and a severe earthquake, which occurred on the -14th of July. - -A.D. 1429, epidemic pestilence prevailed at Barcelona, as -is proved by the donation of £8 and 16 sueldos, which were paid to a -chaplain for his labour in removing for burial the dead bodies found in -the churches and elsewhere. - -A.D. 1434, there was a severe frost in England, which lasted -from the 24th of November to the 10th of February in the following year. - -This year, 1436, the seasons were inclement and rainy, and there was -a dearth of corn in various parts of Europe. Epidemic coughs, small -pox, and fevers swept away many thousands from the face of the earth. -The moisture which existed during the preceding year in Spain, was -excessive; it did not cease raining and snowing in Castile from the -29th of October, 1434, to the 7th of January in the following year, -1435. - -Four years after, 1439, the city Huesca, in the kingdom of Aragon, -suffered from such a cruel pestilence, that, following the credulity -of the times, Alonso de Burgos says in his Treatise on Plague, “that -the disease in Huesca only yielded to a solemn and general vow which -the city made, to celebrate a feast on the day of the Conception of the -Virgin, and to observe its vigil with an absolute fast.” - -A.D. 1438, there was a famine in England. During a storm on -the 25th of November a heavy gust of wind blew off the leads of the -Grey Friars Church, in London, and almost beat down the whole side of a -street called the Old Exchange. - -A.D. 1441. During this year, brother Diego de Herrera -complained of an itching, or leprosy, all over his body: the physicians -declared the disease to be communicable, and obliged him to live -outside the monastery of Mejorada--a fact showing that this disease had -existed previously in Spain, and that the physicians were acquainted -with its characters. These observations are to be found in the life of -the illustrious Senhor Don Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of Granada. - -A.D. 1443, there was a severe frost in England from the -14th of November until the 10th of February in the following year. -A thunder-storm with severe lightning did much damage to St. Paul’s -Church and to that of Waltham Cross; they were fired by the lightning -on Candlemas day. From about this period until 1450, famine and -pestilence were destructive to millions of the human race, especially -in Italy, Gaul, Germany, Asia, and Spain. About the same date, King Don -Alonso of Aragon, surnamed the Wise, conquered the kingdom of Naples. -The great obstacles which presented themselves before accomplishing the -subjugation of the provinces of Abruzzo, coupled with the sufferings -caused by a protracted and desperate war, subjected the numerous -cavalry employed in the service to attacks of disease. Great numbers -of their horses died from a particular kind of epizootic. This great -mortality caused the king to order his major domo, one Manuel Diaz, -to call together all the veterinary surgeons of his cavalry and the -surgeons of the infantry, in order that they should compose a work on -farriery--thus giving rise to the renewal of that most useful art, as -noted in the Spanish Hippiatria, or Veterinary of Spain. - -A.D. 1446, the sea broke down the dykes at Dort, in Holland, -on the 17th of April, and drowned 100,000 persons. - -A.D. 1448. “Owing to the heavy rains of the previous year, -1447,” says Martinez de Leiva, “a severe pestilence prevailed, -which was attributed to the excess of moisture, conjoined with the -unprecedented heat:” it was rife in various parts of Spain. On the 11th -of October, public prayers were offered up at Barcelona on account -of this pestilence and of other calamities, such as earthquakes, &c. -During this year great mortality occurred in the army of King Alonso -V., encamped in the neighbourhood of Pomblein. - -A.D. 1450, in the month of June, a pestilence broke out -in the city of Saragossa. Zurita, who in his Annals of Aragon gives -an account of this pestilence, specifies but little, although it is -known to have raged for some time, and to have extended to Barcelona, -where it continued for two years after (1452). On the Sabbath, the -22nd of April, the authorities of this city, Barcelona, despatched -a state-messenger to the monasteries of Saint Gerónimo de la Murta, -of the district of Ebro, de Monte Alegre, de Poblet, de Santa Cruce, -and de Escala Dei, to solicit the brethren to implore the Almighty to -relieve them from the sore pestilence with which the city was visited. -On the 13th of June of this year, the Queen Donna Maria retired, with -her Court, from the city, for fear of the pestilence. - -A.D. 1456. There were two comets observed this year: three -years after, 1459, the Baltic was so frozen over, that people travelled -on the ice from Denmark to Lubeck, Wismar, Rostock, and Stralsund. - -A.D. 1465, pestilence again visited Italy. On the 6th of -December of this year, the brothers Miguel Capelier and Leonardo -Crestia, of the order of St. Francis of the Convent of Jesus, were -deputed by the corporation of the city of Barcelona to implore the -interposition of the Almighty to free the city from pestilence. The -year following, Cadiz was nearly depopulated by a plague. Other parts -of Spain suffered also from epidemic pestilence; so much so, that on -the 7th of January, 1466, the Council of Ciento voted that the Feast of -St. Sebastian should not be observed, on account of the epidemic which -was raging at Barcelona. Further, on Thursday, the 13th, the Council -of Thirty-two determined that an image of the guardian angel should -be erected; and on the 17th of November following there was a solemn -procession ordered. - -A.D. 1468, epidemic pestilence raged at Parma. - -A.D. 1471, Pope Sextus erected a brothel at Rome, and the -Roman prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to 20,000 -ducats a year. - -A.D. 1472, a comet was seen. The year following, 1473, -excessive heat and drought prevailed, which persisted for three years. -About this period, 1474, the city of Valencia suffered from a severe -epidemic. Luis Alcanyis, a famous Valencian physician, published a -treatise in the Limosin language (that of the Troubadours), without -giving either the place of printing or the year of publication; but -it seems that he flourished about this period (1474), and that his -treatise was written in consequence of the epidemic under notice: -it was entitled, ‘Regiment preservatiu é curatiu de la Pestilencia, -compost per Mestre Luis Alcanyis, Mestre en Medicina.’ - -A.D. 1475–76, the Danube was fordable in Hungary, and swarms -of locusts destroyed all vegetation there and in Poland. The second -pestilence, which devastated the island of Mallorca, according to the -authority of Don Vincente Mut, occurred. A Board of Health was formed -by the governor of Mallorca, Don Berengario Blanels, in order to -prescribe rules for government and remedial measures. This ‘Morbeira,’ -or Board of Health, was composed of a magistrate, a knight, a -physician, a surgeon, a tradesman, and a merchant. Quarantine for forty -days was established. In this year there was published a work entitled -‘De Epidemiâ et Peste, Magistri Vallestii Tarentini, Artium Medicinæque -Doctoris eximii,’ which was translated by Dr. Juan Villar into the -Castilian language. In the latter year (1476), the Council of One -Hundred ordered an imprecatory chapel to be consecrated at St. Roque, -in consequence of the prevalence of a terrible plague at Barcelona, -which lasted from the 27th of March until the 13th of November. On the -13th of July in the same year, a solemn procession took place, in which -were exhibited the bodies of St. Severus and St. Innocent. - -A.D. 1477, in the reign of their Catholic majesties Don -Fernando de Aragon and Doña Isabel de Castilla, there broke out a -wretched pestilence of leprosy, which may be said to have prevailed -epidemically, so numerous were the cases. The duty of examining those -affected, and of expelling them from the cities and villages, was a -task exclusively imposed on the priests, in accordance with divine -authority, as laid down in Leviticus chap. xiii. Epidemic pestilence, -attended with bubo, prevailed in Italy, and raged without interruption -until 1485. Swarms of locusts committed great ravages in various parts -of the South of Europe, from the year 1478 until 1482. Within this -period, say in the years 1480 and 1481, malignant epidemics appeared -in the train of drought and famine in Switzerland and Germany; while -putrid fever, accompanied by phrenitis, prevailed in Westphalia, Hesse, -and Friesland. There never had been, in the memory of the inhabitants -of these places, so many _ignes fatui_ as during this period. The -harvests also failed, rendering it necessary to obtain supplies of -provisions from Thuringia. - -A.D. 1482, France, under the fearful reign of Louis XI., after -two years of scarcity, became the scene of a devastating plague: it -raged in the form of an inflammatory fever, with delirium, accompanied -by such intense cephalalgia, that many are reported to have dashed out -their brains against the walls of their houses, or to have rushed into -the water. - -A.D. 1483, there was so great an inundation in -Gloucestershire, that all the country round about was overflowed, and -many persons were drowned in their beds. The waters did not abate -for ten days,--thus preventing the Duke of Buckingham from passing -the river into Wales to join the Welsh, who had risen against King -Richard III., and consequently being indirectly the cause of the duke’s -misfortunes and of his violent death. Barcelona was again visited by -a pestilence, which lasted upwards of a year. The river Severn in -England overflowed; epidemic pestilence was the consequence. During -the following years, 1484–85, it extended all over England, having -first broken out at Shrewsbury, where, according to the testimony of -Dr. Caius, who resided in that town, 960 died in a few days. Some -authorities have spoken of this pestilence as having occurred under -circumstances extremely favourable to the generation of a malignant -disease, for it is said to have first appeared in the army of the Earl -of Richmond, afterwards King Henry VII., upon his landing at Milford -Haven in 1485. This army consisted of foreign troops, brought over -in crowded transport-vessels. They were described by a contemporary -historian, Philip de Comines, as the most wretched soldiery he ever -beheld, collected, it is probable, from jails and hospitals, and -buried in filth. The disease soon spread to London, where it raged -from the beginning of August to the end of October, having assumed a -particular type: it was termed ‘sudor Anglicus,’ or sweating sickness, -and proved to be a mortal epidemic. It also prevailed in Ireland. The -symptoms were those of a violent inflammatory fever, which, after a -short time, caused great prostration of strength. There were also -present, oppression at the stomach, and violent headache, accompanied -by lethargic stupor, and the body was covered with a profuse fœtid -perspiration. The progress of this singular malady was very rapid, a -crisis always taking place within the space of a day and a night. The -internal heat from which the patient suffered was intolerable, yet -every thing cold, or even cool, was certain death. Two lord mayors and -six aldermen died in one week. The disease attacked the most robust and -strong, and spread without interruption over the entire kingdom, from -east to west. In a very short period vast numbers of the population -fell victims to this strange epidemic. Many of those who recovered from -the first attack were seized a second, and some even a third time. -Persons of rank, of the ecclesiastical and civil classes, were not -exempt; and great was the consternation when the disease broke out in -Oxford. The heads of colleges and the students fled in all directions, -and this celebrated university was deserted for six weeks. Three months -later, it appeared at Croyland, and carried off Lambert Fossedyke, -abbot of the monastery, on the 14th of November. During this period, -epidemic pestilence was rife in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, -and Egypt. - -A.D. 1485. This year, pestilence broke out in Seville, the -mortality from which was increased by the heavy rains and inundations -of the subsequent winter. The year following, Saragossa and other parts -of the kingdom of Aragon suffered from epidemic pestilence: it was of -a peculiar bubonic or glandular kind, the cure of which was attributed -to the intercession of Santo Pedro Arbues, one of the first Grand -Inquisitors of Spain, murdered by the populace for his cruelties, and -afterwards canonized by the papacy. - -A.D. 1488, pestilence prevailed in Andalusia, which must -have been very fatal, especially in the army which King Don Ferdinand -commanded, although no correct accounts of its mortality are on record. - -In the year 1489, Barcelona was again visited by a dire pestilence: -it broke out on the 3rd of November, and lasted until the 16th of -September in the following year. In vol. i. of the ‘Biblioteca Halleri’ -there is a memoir published by Pedro Martyr de Anglesia, in which is -noted a certain disease accompanied by a pain in the joints, fœtid -ulcers in the mouth, and pustules, which are regarded by some modern -writers as the symptoms of the French pox (morbus Gallicus). - -A.D. 1490, a bilious remittent fever was rife in various parts -of Europe. A putrid fever, supposed by some to have arisen from the -unburied bodies in Granada, raged with dreadful violence; by others it -was stated to have been imported by some soldiers who came from the -island of Cyprus, in which place this kind of fever was endemic. - -A.D. 1492. Epidemic variola was unknown to the Indians until -it was conveyed to the East by the commercial intercourse of the Dutch: -it was also supposed to have been introduced into America by a negro -slave of Pamfilo Narvaes, when that Spanish general proceeded to Mexico -against his enemy, Hernando Cortés. The inhabitants of Zempoala lost -great numbers, and 16,000 Indians fell its victims. - -In the year 1493, says Don Vincente Mut, there happened the fifth -plague in the island of Mallorca; it was called the plague of Boja, -and was so termed from the name of the man who is supposed to have -introduced it into the island. - -During this period, Barcelona was revisited by pestilence, which -lasted from the 13th of June until the 4th of October. That the -venereal disease was not introduced from America into Europe this -year, by means of the troops of Admiral Christobal Colon, is a point -which has been already demonstrated in history. Astruc exhibits great -erudition in showing that the disease was not known before the years -1494 and 1496. In the list of writers of the kingdom of Valencia, -furnished by Vincente Ximeno, we learn that a Pedro Pintor was born -in that capital A.D. 1420, and died at Rome in 1503: he was -physician to Alexander the Sixth, who was also a Valencian, having -been born in the part called Xativa. From the historical writings of -Pintor, and of contemporary authors, it seems evident, as suggested by -Dr. Sanchez, that the venereal disease, during its first prevalence, -was a pestilential fever, which was communicable through the genitals, -and otherwise; and that at that period there was no discredit or stigma -attached to those who were afflicted with it: it was not considered to -be _contra bonos mores_. The Valencian author, following up the -astrological notions of his time, attributes the disease to the same -causes as epidemic plagues or pestilences. - -During the vernal equinox of this year, this description of pestilence -broke out in the city of Rome, as is gathered from the following -quotation: “Talis autem epidemia in urbe Romanâ contigit anno 1493 -mense Martii, post introitum solis in primum minutum Arietis.” This -disease was first noticed in the month of August. - -Pedro Pintor, according to Cotunnius, professor of anatomy at Naples, -was amongst the earliest writers upon the venereal disease: his work, -entitled ‘De Morbo Fœdo his temporibus affligente,’ was published at -Rome A.D. 1500. He attributed the origin of the disease to a -conjunction of the planets, and no doubt he was acquainted with the -circumstance of the disease being propagated by cohabitation with a -diseased person. Several of the inhabitants of Rome were attacked -A.D. 1493, and the disease became common there until 1499; it -principally attacked the limbs with excruciating pains and pustular -eruptions, against which the physicians employed mercurial ointment -mixed with lead,--an invention said to be due to a Portuguese. So rife -did the pestilence become, that, according to Ruy Diaz de Isla, a -native of Andalusia, their majesties Don Fernando de Aragon and Doña -Isabel de Castilla gave instructions to their physicians to attend to -those stricken with the disease, who were received into the hospital of -San Salvador. Great numbers of the first professors and physicians of -the land investigated the symptoms of the disease, and after treating -it with the thousand and one remedies thought of with but little -success, it was considered to be a chastisement from Heaven which befel -all constitutions and conditions. - -With reference to the origin of this pestilence--the venereal disease, -there are various opinions. When it broke out in the French army -at Naples A.D. 1495, the French called it ‘the disease of -Naples,’ and said that at the siege of that place there were certain -merchants who barrelled the flesh of men slain in Barbary, which they -sold for tunny! and that from such food the disease originated. It is -certain that cannibals are much infested with the venereal disease. -It was known in England before 1162, and was called ‘Brenning’ or -‘Burning.’ This appears from Bishop Winton’s records of the public -stews. The disease is well described by one Arden, who was surgeon to -Richard II., in 1156, in a work expressly written on the subject. - -A.D. 1495, King Don Fernando convoked the Cortes in the city -of Tarragona, in consequence of the pestilence raging at Saragossa: it -was attended by buboes, carbuncles, &c.; and in the following year, -1496, it appeared in a petechial form among the soldiers employed -in Granada. Syphilis also prevailed at Naples amongst the troops of -Charles VIII. - -In the year 1496, an epidemic ulceration, as it was then called, of the -skin (epidemic scurvy), invaded the inhabitants of Germany, Portugal, -Ireland, and other countries. - -A.D. 1497, Barcelona was again visited by epidemic -pestilence: it made its appearance about the 18th of July, and -continued until November. Gaspar Torella, a native of Valencia, -physician and domestic prelate to Alexander VI., wrote a work upon -the Morbus Gallicus, which was printed at Rome, according to Haller’s -account, in the year 1497. Astruc makes mention of another work, -entitled ‘Ex Coitu cum Impurâ Muliere.’ - -In the year 1498, Francisco Lopez de Villalobos, physician to Charles -V. and to his son Philip II., published in Salamanca a folio work -entitled ‘Sumario de la Medicina.’ Juan de Banos, in the first ten -numbers of his ‘Voyages of the Portuguese to the East Indies,’ gives -a circumstantial account of a pestilence which seized on the crews of -their fleet after they had passed the Cape of Good Hope. The malady -commenced with erysipelas and putrescence of the gums, so that those -who were attacked were unable to take food; their bodies were racked -with excruciating pains, and the stench from them was intolerable. This -disease was evidently scurvy. - -A.D. 1499, a great plague prevailed in Britain, carrying off -thousands; 30,000 were reported to have perished from it in London -alone. The king found it advisable to retire with all his Court to -Calais. In Brussels, epidemic pestilence victimized daily 500 persons; -mould-spots (signacula) were observed in Germany and in France. There -was a great mortality from murrain in cattle in Germany, and very -extensive destruction of all vegetation by blights and caterpillars. -The inhabitants of both France and Germany suffered greatly from severe -epidemic disease during this period; it assumed a glandular form, and -continued until the year 1503. This pestilence, says Schenckius, was -accompanied in some parts of Europe by famine, which was followed by -a most vehement intemperature of the seasons; for a winter preceded, -so terribly severe as to kill the brute creation everywhere, and the -heat of the summer was of such cruel intensity that trees were set on -fire by the heat of the sun: in fine, this year may be said to have -been the commencement of a century of putrid malignant diseases,--a -century replete with grand phenomena affecting human life in general. -In the year 1501, epidemic pestilence, says Luis Lobera de Avila, made -its appearance at Barcelona; it began about the middle of October, and -spread to various other parts of Spain. The disease, according to the -superstition of the times, was attributed to a celestial influence. -During this period, the use of guaiacum, or holy wood, in the treatment -of the venereal disease, was discovered: it was afterwards introduced -into Italy about the year 1517, where its utility was first made known -by a Spanish presbyter. Plague again visited Barcelona, and sadly -crippled its commerce. The viceroy of Sicily prohibited the entry of -shipping coming thence. - -In the year 1504, China was nearly depopulated by pestilence. There was -also a great mortality in Ireland from epidemic disease; and plague, -about the same period, raged in Spain, in which country a severe -earthquake was experienced on the 5th of April: it did a great deal of -mischief, especially in Andalusia. About the same period a dreadful -shock was felt at Lisbon, which continued for eight days, overthrowing -several churches and more than 1500 houses, under the ruins of which -upwards of 20,000 persons met their death. Several of the neighbouring -towns were swallowed up, with vast numbers of their inhabitants. The -year following, two comets were observed. Spotted fever was rife all -over Europe, and pestilence prevailed in Lisbon. - -In the summer of the year 1505, the sweating sickness again reared -its head in England; the disease first broke out in London: it was -of a much milder form than that which prevailed in the year 1485; it -disappeared towards the close of the autumn, and appears to have been -confined to England: no remarkable phenomena were observed here during -this pestilence; it was otherwise, however, in other parts of Europe. -The summer was wet, and the winter following a severe one; comets were -seen in this and the following year, and an eruption of Vesuvius took -place. - -A.D. 1506. From the 15th to the 26th of January, there blew -a violent storm from the south-west, which drove the King of Castile, -Philip of Austria, with his consort Joanna, from the Netherlands to -Weymouth; and as, some days before, a golden eagle falling from St. -Paul’s Church in London had crushed a black eagle which ornamented some -lower building, evil predictions were promulgated among the people -respecting the fate of this son of the Emperor. - -Spain suffered greatly from severe pestilence in the year 1507, writes -Don Miguel Martinez de Leyva,--especially Barcelona, which place may -be said to have been scarcely ever free of pestilence. In the diary of -Ramon Vila it is stated that the pestilence was at its height in the -months of April, May, June, and July. On the 14th of August letters -were addressed to the governors of Sicily and Mallorca, informing -them that, in consequence of the cessation of the pestilence at -Barcelona, the royal family and the nobility had returned to the city. -The Portuguese physician Pedro Bayro, who had had much experience in -foreign parts, and of whom Don Nicolas Antonio makes memorable mention, -wrote a work entitled ‘Novum ac perutile Opusculum de Pestilentiâ et -de Curatione ejusdem per utrumque regimen, præservativum, scilicet, -et curativum. Turin, 1507.’ In this and the following year, 1508, -mention is made of swarms of locusts in the neighbourhood of Seville; -in fact, they are reported to have overrun Spain. Epidemic pestilence -followed, especially at Cadiz. Constantinople was nearly depopulated -by pestilence, which spared neither age nor sex. Germany also suffered -from epidemic encephalitis and malignant pneumonia. - -A.D. 1510, a violent and universal catarrh prevailed over -Europe; in France it was called ‘Coqueluche’ (monk’s-hood), from the -practice of covering the patient’s head with a cap to protect him -from the air, which was considered very detrimental in this disease. -So general was the malady in France, that historians assure us that -but few of the inhabitants escaped.--A.D. 1511 a plague, and -1513 a malignant dysentery occurred in Verona.--A.D. 1515, -Spain was revisited by epidemic pestilence. A severe earthquake was -felt in Denmark, which threw down the steeple of the great church in -Copenhagen, and did much damage besides. - -The sweating sickness again made its appearance, A.D. 1517, -in England, having broken out in London, which was crowded with -poor. From a scarcity of artizans about this time, it happened that -great numbers of foreigners emigrated from Genoa, Lombardy, France, -Germany, and Holland to London, and were engaged in the most lucrative -branches of employment. This circumstance appears to have increased -the prevalent distresses of the lower orders, and a great insurrection -of English artizans followed. The popular commotion was, however, -soon suppressed without any considerable damage; and Henry VIII., on -a solemn day appointed at Westminster for passing judgment upon the -prisoners apprehended on the occasion of the riots, bestowed pardon on -them, for he saw into the causes of their discontent, and very soon -after caused restrictive alien laws to be enacted. The higher classes -enjoyed no immunity from this pestilence; their ranks were thinned, -and no precaution seemed to avert death from their abodes. Ammonius -of Lucca, a scholar of some celebrity, private secretary to the king, -was cut off, after having boasted to Sir Thomas More, only a few hours -before his death, that by moderation and good management he had secured -both his family and himself from disease. Lords Grey and Clinton fell -victims to this malady, as did many knights, courtiers, and officers. -So rapid and violent was this disease in its course, that it carried -off those who were attacked in two or three hours, so that the first -shivering fit was the announcement of death; many who were in good -health at noon-day were corpses by the evening. This disease arrived at -its height about seven weeks after its first appearance, and continued -its ravages for six months. Many learned men at Oxford and Cambridge -were carried off by this terrible disease, at a time, too, when the -sciences were much cultivated and were flourishing. The town of Calais -was visited, and, what was very remarkable, none but the English -residents there suffered; the Frenchmen enjoyed an immunity from the -disease, which did not even spread to any other part of France,--at -least there is no account of its having done so. This same year Germany -was visited by a brain fever--an epidemic encephalitis. An earthquake -caused great destruction in Suabia. Another disease of much more -importance appeared in Holland, lasting only eleven days,--an epidemic -œsophagitis (diphtherite) it was considered to be, and from its -dangerous and inexplicable symptoms it spread terror and horror around; -it was so malignant and rapid in its course, that unless assistance was -procured within the first eight hours, the patient was past all hope -of recovery before the close of the day. Sudden pains in the throat, -with violent oppression about the region of the heart, threatened -suffocation, and at length actually produced it. From the journal of -Tyengius it would appear that this epidemic extended towards the south, -and in the same summer appeared at Basle, when in the space of eight -months it destroyed 2000 persons. Small-pox raged with great mortality -at this time in Hispaniola. - -A.D. 1518. Marselio Ficino, in his work on the plague, -written according to Haller in 1518, describes the treatment that was -adopted, consisting chiefly in the application of cupping-glasses below -the carbuncles. In the city of Cascante, in the kingdom of Navarre, -there broke out an epizootic, which caused great destruction among -the horses of the regiments quartered there; the principal feature -of the pestilence was extensive apostemes on the head and throat, -attended with an insatiable thirst and hectic fever. About the period -of the earthquakes which were experienced in Xativa A.D. -1517, epidemic disease prevailed in many parts of Spain: it extended -subsequently to the city of Valencia, and caused great mortality in -1519. The public authorities, because of the general prevalence of -disease and the consequent mortality, withdrew to Murviedro. - -A.D. 1521, in June, rogatory prayers were offered up in -consequence of the dreadful pestilence which ravaged Barcelona. The -plague raged at Dresden also. - -The last plague of Mallorca, of which notice is taken by Don Vincente -Mut, occurred in the year 1523. Great numbers were carried off by it. -The city of Valencia also suffered from a similar pestilence, which was -attributed to atmospheric poison. The year following, 1524, a bubonic -pestilence, as it was termed, raged with great fierceness, and carried -off 50,000 of the inhabitants of Milan. The plague was also rife in -the city of Xativa, and the greatest pestilence from which the city of -Seville ever suffered, occurred about this time, and persisted for some -years. - -A.D. 1525, the sweating sickness, which had been for some -time raging in England, extended to other parts of Europe, and in the -course of five years spread over Lower Germany, the Low Countries, -Holland, Zealand, Brabant, Flanders, Denmark, Norway, and France. So -rapid was this disease, that on making its appearance in any place, it -would seize on 600 and upwards in a day, while of this number, when -so seized, rarely more than six recovered, so destructive was it. The -distemper was generally supposed to have been caused by some poisonous -quality of the atmosphere. - -A.D. 1527, mention is made by Franco of a pestilence which -broke out at Xativa. Great numbers of the Imperial army of Italy were -destroyed by pestilence after the sacking of Rome; it also carried -off thousands at Wurtemburg. Hailstorms were prevalent about this -period in Italy. Cardinal Gastaldi relates that, in the following -year, 1528, the kingdom of Aragon was visited by severe plague, the -cause of which was superstitiously attributed to the ringing of the -great bell of Velilla.[1] Deadly fevers were rife in London, which, -in the autumn, degenerated into sweating sickness: it invaded Cork, -in Ireland, and Italy also. From this period (1528) until 1534, there -was experienced much suffering from famine, preceded by moisture and -great heat: repeated inundations occurred, and continuous summer fogs -prevailed in Italy. Petechial fevers were very destructive: the French -army before Naples lost great numbers from spotted fevers. The ‘trousse -galante’ carried off, it is said, a fourth part of the population of -France during this period: this disease was attributed to elemental -disturbances; the spring was cold, and the summer wet, so that the -growing corn was destroyed, and a dire famine was the consequence -throughout France, it being more distressing than the period of -scarcity in the time of Louis XI. on account of its long persistence; -for the failure of the harvest continued for five years in succession, -during which period all natural order of the seasons appeared to be -reversed. A damp heat prevailed in the autumn and in winter. The course -of all vegetation was changed; scarcely had the trees shed their leaves -in autumn, when they began to bud again and the fruit-trees to bear -blossoms. The disease was a highly inflammatory fever, which proved -fatal in a very short time, very frequently in the space of a few -hours. In many cases of those who recovered, the hair and the nails -dropped off, and convalescence was tedious, leaving the constitution -much shaken. These symptoms were evidently the same as those observed -in what was termed the ‘Dandy fever,’ which prevailed in later times -in France and in the West India Islands in the year 1828. During this -period drought, swarms of locusts, and fiery meteors were observed in -the north of Germany. - - -A.D. 1529, epidemic pestilence prevailed and carried off -many distinguished persons in England. Contemporaries agree in their -accounts of the dreadful weather all over Europe; the winter, however, -was mild, and vegetation particularly advanced; violets were gathered -at Erfurt in the middle of February: throughout the spring and summer -wet weather continued to prevail; constant torrents of rain deluged -the fields, and misery and famine spread in every direction. A heavy -rain of four days’ continuance in the south of Germany, in June, -was called the ‘St. Vitus’ Torrent,’ and was considered a hitherto -unheard-of event; whole districts were under water, and many perished -therefrom. An universal storm occurred again in August, occasioning -great floods, especially in Thuringia and Saxony: the sun was rarely -seen through the dark clouds during the latter part of summer and -the whole of the autumn: with the exception of some suffocatingly -hot days, the weather remained gloomy, cold, and wet, so that the -people fancied they were breathing the foggy air of Britain. Violent -remittent pestilence appeared in Amsterdam: Tyengius describes it as -having broken out on the 20th of September, in the afternoon, during -a misty foggy state of the atmosphere: it committed great ravages -for the period of five days, when it disappeared as suddenly as it -arose. In various parts of the German States the birds of the air -became diseased; in the neighbourhood of Freyburg, in the Breisgau, -they were found dead in great numbers, scattered under the trees, with -boils as large as peas under their wings, indicating a disease that -no doubt extended far beyond the Rhine. The river fish, from some -cause, became unfit for food, and the sweating sickness broke out -at Hamburgh, where it destroyed daily from forty to sixty persons. -This pestilence lasted about a fortnight at Hamburgh, and 2000 of its -inhabitants fell its victims: it afterwards spread all over Germany; -it prevailed at Lubeck, Stettin, and in Zwickau. Earthquakes were -experienced in Italy; blood-coloured rain fell at Cremona; a comet was -seen in July; and disease prevailed among the porpoises in the Baltic. -The famine in Germany this year is described by various authorities -as being frightful. Suabia, Lorraine, Alsace, and the southern -districts bordering on the Rhine suffered especially: in those places -the misery was equal to that in France. In the Venetian territory, -thousands perished from hunger, as was the case all over Upper Italy. -In Pomerania, a peculiar kind of debility or lassitude affected the -inhabitants: in the midst of their work, and without any conceivable -cause, persons became palsied in their hands and feet, rendering them -incapable of any exertion. About this period a pestilence, which was -called ‘the English disease,’ broke out at Brussels, and carried off -many of its inhabitants. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - FROM A.D. 1530 TO 1613. - - -A.D. 1530, the sweating plague raged in Germany, and epidemic -scurvy prevailed in Denmark: two years after, various parts of the -world were visited by what were called spotted or petechial fevers. In -the month of March, pestilence broke out in Aragon and in the city of -Saragossa: Italy and Spain suffered also from a gangrenous sore-throat. -In October, the Tiber overflowed, and the dykes in Holland were -suddenly burst by inundation, to the destruction of much property and -of many lives. - -A.D. 1531. A comet was seen this and the following year. -The Tagus overflowed in the month of February, destroying nearly the -half of Portugal. Pestilence followed, and devastated several cities, -especially Lisbon, as recorded by Cardinal Gastaldi. - -A.D. 1533, the kingdom of Aragon suffered much from the great -want of corn. Amongst the preventive measures taken, was the bull of -Pope Adrian VI. against forestallers. Notwithstanding all the measures -that were adopted, the want of food (what there was even being of bad -quality), with the excessive heat, &c., caused pestilence, which was -very fatal, especially in the city of Huesca, and, as it was said, only -terminated on the intercession of the Virgin _de los Dolores_. -The year following, 1534, the city of Narbonne suffered from plague. -Epidemic disease raged in Cork and also in Dresden A.D. 1535. -England, the year following, suffered from pestilence, which continued -for three years, 1537, 1538, and 1539. Mortal dysentery prevailed all -over Europe. In the latter year, the river Lea in England was nearly -dried up, and pestilence carried off great numbers in its vicinity. -The summer in Europe was so hot, that in many parts the woods took fire -spontaneously. The South of Europe was infested with swarms of locusts, -and plague was rife in Hungary during the war of the Turks in that -country. - -The famous Ruy Diaz de Isla published this year (1537) one of the best -works which had hitherto appeared on the venereal disease. In order to -avoid giving offence to any nation by using the popular names, such -as the French disease, the Neapolitan, &c., he denominated his work, -‘A Treatise of All Saints against the serpentine disease which came -from the Spanish island Hispaniola; a Treatise compiled in the great -and famous Hospital of All Saints, in the renowned city of Lisbon.’ -Its author, following the opinion prevalent in his time, attributes -the origin of this disease to Hispaniola, where the natives call it -‘le llamaban, buainaras, bipas, taynas olias.’ The reason assigned -for using the appellation ‘serpentine’ is, because the disease was -considered to be analogous to the foulness of that reptile. - -A.D. 1541, pestilence raged with great violence in -Constantinople, and carried off vast numbers. The year following, 1542, -clouds of red locusts, which came from Turkey, passed over Sclavonia, -Croatia, Austria, and Italy, and alighted in Spain in such numbers that -they destroyed every green thing. About this period the celebrated -Andres Laguna proposed for the cure of the plague an infusion of -carlina (white thistle), a drachm of which, after it had been infused, -was to be taken daily. - -A.D. 1543, epidemic pestilence visited the city of Metz, -causing a frightful mortality. Two years after, 1545, a pestilential -epidemic, similar to that which prevailed so extensively A.D. -1528, called ‘la trousse galante,’ made its appearance in various parts -of Europe, slaying the robust and young; it was equal in awfulness and -mortality to the pestilence which in the days of Moses destroyed the -first-born of Egypt: the disease first appeared in Savoy, and over a -great part of France; it continued until the following year, 1546. -Parè, and a Flemish physician, Sanders, describe the symptoms of this -malady, which was attended, as in 1528, with the loss of the hair and -of the nails: its attack was rapid and very fatal. Patients at the -onset suffered from an overwhelming weight in the body, and a violent -headache, which soon deprived them of all consciousness; and stupor -ensued, with relaxation or loss of power of the sphincter muscles: in -most cases an eruption was observed, of which no mention is made in -former outbreaks of the malady; Sanders does not, however, distinctly -state its nature. 10,000 English residents died from pestilence in the -course of this year and the year following at Boulogne. The bubonic -plague made its appearance in the Netherlands. - -A.D. 1547, heavy rains inundated Tuscany. Pestilence raged all -over Europe, especially in England, Holland, and Germany. The city of -Dresden also suffered from it. Mould-spots and red water were observed -in the north of Germany. The year following, pestilence continued in -England and also in Prussia, causing great mortality in both countries. -The kingdom of Murcia suffered from epidemic disease, and the question -arose, as had been frequently the case before, whether the disease -was contagious or not: great difference of opinion thereon prevailed. -Portugal also suffered about this period from pestilence. - -A.D. 1549, vast numbers of caterpillars appeared in Germany -and destroyed all the herbage; they were followed by pestilence, -especially in the North, where petechial fever destroyed great numbers. - -An epidemic catarrh, as well as dysentery, raged in France from 1550 -until 1553. There had been great death in various parts of Spain, -and pestilence raged in Valencia: it was attributed to the effects -of damaged grain, which had been introduced for the support of the -inhabitants of that city. Don Pedro Jacobo Esteve makes mention of -these circumstances, in his commentary entitled ‘In Hippocratis librum -secundum Epidemiarum seu popularium morborum Commentarium.’ Seville -also suffered from pestilence. It was about this period that the last -attack of sweating sickness occurred in London; stinking mists were -first experienced on the banks of the Severn, which were overflowed. -On the 15th of April, 1551, the disease again broke out at Shrewsbury, -gradually extending in the course of the stinking mists, or fogs, -all over England. In the month of July it reached London, where the -mortality was very considerable: it is stated that 120 died of the -disease in a day in the city of Westminster. Two sons of Charles -Brandon, both Dukes of Suffolk, were carried off by it. This epidemic -subsided about the month of September in England, and was noticed as -being the fifth and last sweating sickness in this country. - -Caius (John) published his ‘Booke, or Counseill against the disease -commonly called the Sweate, or sweatynge sicknesse, very necessary -for everye personne and much requisite to be had in the hands of all -sorts, for their better instruction, preparacion and defence against -the soubdin comyng and fareful assaultyng of the same disease (1552).’ -About the same period, a mortal pestilence raged in Messina, blood -being in many instances discharged from the pores of the body of those -who were affected, three days before death. A similar disease prevailed -in Paris; in fact, epidemic pestilence may be said to have ravaged -various parts of Europe, especially Hungary, Transylvania, &c. - -Senertus informs us, that pestilence not only overran Europe, but -almost the whole inhabited world. The spring of the year 1551 was -dry and cold, and the summer wet; inundations, earthquakes, meteors, -mock-suns, great tempests, and summer fogs were noticed: malignant -fevers prevailed in Suabia, and epidemic influenza was rife in -Spain. The two following years, malignant fevers overran Germany and -Switzerland; scurvy prevailed in Denmark. - -A.D. 1555, the summer was hot, and heavy rains fell: febrile -diseases became very prevalent in England and France, and continued -with redoubled violence during the succeeding summer, which was also -excessively hot and dry: excessive commotions of the elements and -severe seasons marked this period. The city of Valencia suffered from -epidemic variola. Don Miguel Juan Pasqual, an eminent physician, makes -mention of this pestilence in his work ‘De Febre Pestilenti.’ About -this period, according to Cardinal Gastaldi, when the Emperor Charles -V. invaded the French territories, pestilence destroyed great numbers -of the peasantry and of the Spanish soldiery. - -A.D. 1556, a whole province of the mountainous part of China -was in a moment absorbed into the earth; all the towns with their -inhabitants were buried in the ruins, and an immense lake of water -took its place, which remains to this day. A comet was seen this year. -Vienna about this time suffered from epidemic pestilence, as also -did Holland the year following; the disease continued until 1558. -This disease commenced in the form of influenza in various parts of -Europe, and in France, Italy, and Germany; Spain also suffered from -its violence, which was greater in some countries than in others, viz. -Florence and Tuscany. In France, malignant dysentery was the most -predominant malady; agues in Holland, and petechial or spotted fever -in Spain; the last-named disease was as fatal as the true plague. -A Spanish writer, Andres Laguna, physician to Charles V., Philip -II., and Julius III., wrote a work on this pestilence, (as did many -other eminent physicians,) entitled, ‘Discurso breve sobre la Cura y -Preservacion de la Pestilentia.’ In going minutely into the symptoms -described by these authors, we recognize all the symptoms of bilious -remittent or yellow fever, synocha, &c., as prevalent now-a-days, and -termed ‘Andalusian fever.’ - -A.D. 1557. A new infirmity, as it was then considered to be, -broke out this year in Spain, which nearly depopulated the peninsula: -it continued with great destruction until 1570. This new pestilence -was supposed to have originated with the Saracens, after the war of -Granada, that is, after King Don Fernando de Aragon, and Doña Isabel, -Queen of Castile, had conquered the city of Granada. That this disease -originated with the Spanish Arabs, was known from the fact that all -their disbanded soldiery communicated the disease to the inhabitants of -the cities and towns, as Luis de Torro relates in his work entitled ‘De -Febre Puncticulari,’ &c., to which type this pestilence belonged. - -A.D. 1558, the city of Murcia suffered from pestilence, on -account of which the bishops and principal inhabitants deserted the -city. This fatal epidemic extended to all parts around Murcia and -to the kingdom of Valencia. The Jesuit Fathers assumed the temporal -as well as the spiritual care of the plague-striken. Many of the -attendants fell victims to the disease, amongst whom was the celebrated -Dr. Pedro de Cabera, son of the Viscount of the same name, together -with the padre Marco Antonio Fontoba. - -Barcelona also at this period suffered from mortal pestilence; it -commenced in January, and continued unto July, when it ceased. - -A.D. 1563, there was a great dearth of corn and other -provisions in London; famine and disease were the result, and 20,000 -persons perished in consequence. France suffered from pestilence, and -Barcelona was again visited by it. Burgos--a city in which all the -reverend Fathers of the Society of Jesus, who administered the rites to -the dying, perished,--was nearly devastated by plague, as noticed by -Franco; in fine, many European cities suffered more or less during this -year from epidemic disease; among which were, Frankfort, Magdenburg, -Dantzic, Hamburgh, Wismar, Lubeck, Bostack, and Dresden. - -A.D. 1564, an epidemic prevailed in the form of fatal quinsies -and spotted fever, in various parts of Europe. Barcelona again suffered -from pestilence, which broke out in the month of June, and lasted -unto November following. The city of Saragossa also suffered from a -cruel epidemic, from May unto December, during which period there died -10,000 persons in the city alone: it was supposed that the disease was -introduced from France by means of the clothes of persons who had died -there from the disease. Dr. Porcell, who was singularly successful -in treating the disease, wrote a work on it, and dedicated it to Don -Philip II.; it was entitled ‘Informacion y Curacion de la peste de -Zaragoza, y preservacion contra peste en general, por Juan Porcell -Sardo, Doctor en Medicina, Zaragoza.’ The symptoms of this malady were, -intense cephalalgia, sleeplessness and delirium, vomiting of bilious -matter, urgent thirst, nausea, accompanied by pain in the stomach: -dissection showed nothing particular in the humors; the gall-bladder -was extremely large, and distended with black viscid bile,--sometimes, -however, it was found empty. There was yellowness of the skin, and a -similar tinge was observed internally. - -A.D. 1565, a pestilential epidemic prevailed in France, in -which bleeding was said to have been fatal to many; the disease raged -with great severity at Lyons. Charles IX. having inquired of his -physicians the most judicious mode of treatment, they expressed their -disapprobation of venesection. Seville and various other parts of Spain -suffered from a similar disease, which, however, was not very fatal; -great numbers are said to have owed their preservation to the use of -treacle, immense quantities of which the Catholic king Philip II. sent -to the Christian king Charles IX. Schenckius describes this pestilence -as having been preceded by a sharp frost in December, the distemper -having commenced in January: the air being filled with gross vapours -was supposed to have given rise to this malady. - -Wierus informs us, that this pestilence afflicted all mankind; it was -preceded by small-pox and measles; it proved very fatal, depopulating -towns and cities, among which were Constantinople, Alexandria, Leyden, -London, Dantzic, Vienna, Cologne, and the whole tract of the Upper -Rhine, even unto Basle. The malady was accompanied by glandular tumors -in the neck; it was an aggravated form of quinsy, proving fatal to many -in one day. The sick were taken with vomiting, followed by a swelling -of the tongue,--afterwards loss of speech and difficulty of swallowing -anything, even in a liquid form; suffocation and death soon followed. - -A.D. 1566, a pestilence began at Comorra, called in Latin -‘Morbus Hungaricus’ and ‘Lues Pannonica.’ The Emperor Maximilian’s -army, while carrying on hostilities against the Turks, lost many -thousands by this disease. The symptoms were as follow: - -It began generally in the latter part of the day, towards evening, -with cold shiverings, succeeded in a short time by great heat and -insatiable thirst, lasting for some hours. There was pain in the head -and stomach. On the second, or third day at furthest, delirium set in. -The tongue was dry and black; the teeth were covered with sordes: some -spit blood; others suffered from diarrhœa. The sufferers generally were -covered with spots like flea-bites, chiefly on the breast. Stoppage -of the urine was considered a fatal sign. A similar spotted fever was -also prevalent at Paris the year following, 1567, carrying off great -numbers; it raged in many parts of Europe, continuing for three years: -it subsequently degenerated into a dreadful pestilence--the true -plague, and prevailed for the four following years. - -A.D. 1568, Seville was visited by epidemic pestilence. Dr. -Andres Zamudio de Alfaro wrote a treatise on this malady, as did also -Francisco Franco, a native of Xativa, in the kingdom of Valencia, -physician to his Serene Highness the King of Portugal. Franco in his -work, alluding to the celebrated poet Ausias March, whose work he says -should be written in letters of gold, quotes the following therefrom: - - “Merge scient no te locas per joch - Com la calor no surt à part estrema - Lignorant veu que lo malat no crema - He jutial sa puix que mostra bon toch, - Lo pacient no podra dir son mal - Tot aflebit ab llengua mal diserta - Gest è color asats fan descuberta - Gart de la fan que tant com lo dir val.” - -During this year, 1568, the sea broke down the dykes, and almost all -Friesland was under water. Seventy-two villages were inundated, and -more than 20,000 persons lost their lives. Pestilence ensued. - -A.D. 1570, epidemic pestilence was prevalent all over Spain; -it was similar to the maladies which prevailed some years previously, -and were called ‘febris diaria,’ and another, called sudorific fever, -of which Luis de Torro speaks: “Nonne pestilens aliquando diaria et -nostris diebus quædam appellata sudorifica visæ sunt, quarum nec -nomen quidam prisci audierunt?” It was carried to America through our -commercial intercourse, and prevailed with great mortality in the -city of Mexico. Dr. Francesco Bravo, a native of Ossuna, a celebrated -physician, wrote an extensive work on this subject, entitled ‘Opera -medicinalia’ in quibus quam plurima extant scitu medico necessaria,’ -in quatuor libros digesta,’ which he dedicated to Don Martin Enriquez. -During this year, A.D. 1570, epidemic pestilences in the shape -of measles, erysipelas, malignant fever, &c., prevailed in various -parts of the world. 400,000 persons were drowned in Holland by the -inundation caused by the breaking down of the dykes. In Poland the -plague, and in Basle a malignant fever, were especially fatal. - -A.D. 1572, the city of Augusta de Alemania was visited by a -pestilence, as recorded by Agricola. Dresden suffered from plague. - -A.D. 1574, a remarkable aurora borealis was observed on the -14th of November. Pestilence, causing great mortality, prevailed in -various parts of Spain and Italy; and during the months of September, -October, and November of the same year, epidemic disease was rife -in London: it continued during the following year, and prevailed in -Verona, Venice, Africa, the Levant, and in Egypt: it persisted for -three years, until 1577. In the latter year, pestilence occurred at -Oxford, owing to some prisoners having been brought for trial in a -filthy state, from the foul condition of the cells: a stench arose, -which was supposed to have emanated from their persons. Some of the -judges and justices, among whom was Robert Bell, Lord Chief Baron, -and many of the jurors, with the high sheriff, died; and from the -6th to the 12th of July it is reported that 510 persons died from -the infection: it was termed in consequence ‘the black assizes.’ The -symptoms were described as consisting of a violent pain in the head, -with delirium; distress in the abdomen, and general prostration of -strength. Some were of opinion that this disease was generated by the -confinement of the prisoners, and that although they themselves did not -suffer from it, they communicated it to others by contagion: others -were of opinion that the disease was not in any way contagious. - -The Court was held in a yard of the castle, a short distance from the -river Isis, the banks of which are low. It is recorded that a great -damp breath or fog existed at the time, the weather being excessively -hot and sultry. The physicians could not give the disease a name: -although it did not appear to them to be the true plague, it was as -destructive as that pestilence generally is. - -A.D. 1579, the summer was moist and rainy, and was succeeded -by a cold dry north wind; the winter was open and chilly. An epidemic -catarrh pervaded all Europe: it began in Sicily, and showed itself -in Italy, Venice, and Constantinople: it infected Hungary, Bohemia, -and Saxony, and it afterwards prevailed in Norway, and raged in -Sweden, Poland, and Russia. The symptoms were, violent fever for some -days,--four or five generally,--with pains in the head and chest, -and severe cough, terminating in profuse perspiration. 4000 persons -died of it in Rome, 8000 in Lubeck, and 3000 in Hamburgh; and great -numbers were carried off in other places by epidemic pestilence. -Whilst this fatal catarrh ravaged Europe, one of the most destructive -plagues ever known began at Grand Cairo. Prosper Alpinus reports the -deaths from November, 1580, to July in the following year,--a period -of eight months,--to have amounted to 500,000. It has frequently been -observed that epidemic anginas, catarrhs, measles, &c., generally -precede great and destructive plagues or pestilences,--a fact that -has been frequently noticed in our day. The terrible pestilence -cholera, of 1817 and subsequent years, was preceded by influenza, -&c. For the constitution of the seasons, by which these diseases are -caused, becomes increased in its malignancy and powers by the repeated -accumulation of the peculiar poison, and it consequently induces -the highest gradation of disease, pestilence, or plague,--all these -distempers being essentially similar, differing in appearance only, as -modified by climate, season, &c., and also by the duration and energy -of various efficient causes. This year the plague raged at Marseilles. - -A.D. 1580, a comet was seen. In the month of August, epidemic -catarrh broke out in Spain, and raged with such violence at Madrid, -that it almost depopulated the city. Variola prevailed principally -amongst children, to whom it was fatal in the city of Seville. The year -following, this city suffered from plague. - -A.D. 1582, epidemic pestilence prevailed in various parts -of Spain; Cadiz suffered greatly. Dr. Juan de Carmona, a celebrated -physician and philosopher, wrote a work on the disease, entitled -‘Tractatus de Peste ac Febribus cum puncticulis, _vulgò_ -tabardillo.’ In this work, which was dedicated to the Inquisitorial -Tribunal of Llerena, the author endeavoured to show that the -puncticular fever was unknown to the ancients, and that bleeding from -the arm was of great service in pestilential fevers: he states that -by this method he treated more than 10,000 persons, and always with -fortunate results, provided the practice was not contra-indicated by -the presence of buboes, carbuncles, and menstrual or hemorrhoidal -fluxes; he did not find the celebrated bezoar stone so efficacious as -it was represented to be, although it was in great repute amongst the -practitioners of Seville and other parts. - -A.D. 1582, an earthquake was felt at Peru for 500 leagues, -some time after the city of Arequipa was overthrown. Pestilence -continued to prevail in various provinces of Spain the following year, -1583, with carbuncles, anginas, &c. Francisco Valles speaks of leprosy -in his work entitled ‘De iis quæ scripta sunt phisice in libris sacris, -sive de sacra philosophia.’ Plague, famine, and war destroyed numbers, -this year, in Flanders, and epidemic pestilence ravaged Moravia, and -was rife in London, Germany, and Holland. Egypt and Rome also suffered -from famine and disease. - -A.D. 1585 and 1586, the winters were severe, and the summers -dry and hot; famine ensued; universal catarrh with general pestilence -followed, and prevailed all over Europe. The plague raged at Narva -and Revel, in Livonia, in the Gulf of Finland, 59° of north latitude: -6000 persons died at Revel. Thuanus considered that the disease arose -from the effects of war and the inclemencies of the weather--“a belli -incommoditationibus et cœli inclementiâ.” In the archbishopric of -Toledo small-pox broke out: the disease was remarkable, inasmuch as -almost all who were attacked were old persons, according to Andres de -Leon; ‘en su practico de morbo Gallico.’ Plague raged in Dresden in -both these years. On the 9th of July in the latter year, 1586, a severe -earthquake was felt, which shook Lima, and ran 170 leagues along the -coast, and 50 leagues across the mountainous parts. - -A.D. 1587, epidemic small-pox broke out in the city of -Madrid: 5000 persons and upwards died of it in a short time. The two -following years, 1588 and 1589, a pestilence, similar to that of 1583, -appeared, and lasted three years: it committed frightful devastation in -Seville and its neighbourhood. In the latter year, plague prevailed in -Barcelona, and lasted from June to December; it was supposed to have -been imported from France. - -A.D. 1590. A comet was seen this year during the reign -of Philip II. The city of Valladolid was attacked with petechial -pestilence. The celebrated Francisco Valles de Covarrubias depended -principally on local depletion by means of cupping-glasses for its -treatment. A dispute arose this year among the Italian physicians as -to the virtue of blisters in the treatment of the plague which was -prevailing there. - -During the summer of 1592 the drought was extreme, and the autumn was -sultry and variable. The river Thames was fordable at London, and -epidemic pestilence destroyed 18,000 persons in that city. Various -other parts of England also suffered from it, especially Shropshire, -where it was very fatal. The city of Dresden suffered from plague in -this and the preceding year, 1591. - -A.D. 1593, the island of Malta was ravaged by plague: the -year following, the city of Seville was visited by pestilence, which, -according to the authority of Rosell and Bezon, lasted for the four -consecutive years, 1594–97. Pestilence was also rife in many provinces -of Spain, especially in the year 1596. A comet was observed. - -Malignant fevers prevailed in England about these periods, and London -was devastated by pestilence in 1599, as was also Lichfield, Leicester, -Kendal, Carlisle, Penrith, and Richmond. Pegu, in Asia, was nearly -depopulated the same year by famine and disease. Constantinople -suffered from pestilence: seventeen princesses, sisters of the Sultan -Mahommed, were carried off, three dying in one day. A mortal pestilence -destroyed much cattle in Italy, and plague carried off 70,000 of the -inhabitants of Lisbon and Spain. - -A.D. 1600 and 1602, great numbers perished in Muscovy; it is -recorded that 500,000 died of famine and plague, and in Livonia 30,000 -are said to have been carried off. In the latter year, 1602, the summer -and winter were cold and dry. Catarrh and acute fevers epidemically -scourged the human race; great famine prevailed for a series of years, -the crops having failed for several years successively. In Muscovy -the plague raged for three years; parents devoured their children; -and cats, rats, dogs, &c., were also used for food: all the ties of -nature seem to have been forgotten during this dreadful suffering; -the powerful overcame the weak, and human flesh was exposed for sale -in the shambles in the markets. Multitudes were found dead with their -mouths filled with straw and other filthy substances. Sacred history -affords us similar examples of wretchedness,--parents devouring their -children (2 Kings vi.); it occurred during the siege of Samaria by -Ben-hadad, king of Syria, (verses 28, 29,) “And the king said unto her, -What aileth thee? And she answered, This woman said unto me, Give thy -son, that we may eat him to-day, and we will eat my son to-morrow. So -we boiled my son, and did eat him: and I said unto her on the next day, -Give thy son, that we may eat him; and she hath hid her son.” Similar -disasters happened at the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (Ezekiel -v. 10). - -About this period, 1600, the city of Granada was visited by -pestilential epidemics, which were very fatal; Fernando Bustos -gives an account of them. Gallicia suffered from epidemic -small-pox.--A.D. 1601, plague visited the city of Seville; -it carried off many of the higher classes.--A.D. 1602, in -the middle of March, pestilence broke out in the city of Jaen; the -principal symptoms were those of the true plague, attended by buboes -and glandular swellings: this pestilence soon extended to Seville, -Madrid, Valladolid, Burgos, Saragossa, Toledo, Cordova, Malaga, Velez, -Ecija, Antequera, Granada, Andujar, and to other places. - -A.D. 1603, plague prevailed in England; 36,000 of the -inhabitants of London perished by it. A similar pestilence raged at -Paris, continuing for three or four years, and carrying off weekly 2000 -persons during some portion of that time. This pestilence was supposed -by the physicians to have been imported into London, notwithstanding -the inclement seasons, and the famine and disease amongst the -cattle, dumb animals, and even among dogs. The year following, 1604, -the puncticular fever extended and raged with great violence all -over Spain, attacking old and young; none escaping. A.D. -1605, various parts of Spain were afflicted by epidemic pestilence, -especially Arbucias, where it was very fatal. - -A.D. 1606. Epidemic pestilence prevailed all over Europe this -year, and continued for some years after; it extended to America, -where it attacked the company of emigrants taken out by George Popham, -who were settled at a place in America called Sagadahoe, a patent -having been granted by King James to some London merchants to form a -settlement there. Hutchison, Purchas, and Gorges, in their histories -of New England and Massachusetts, describe this unfortunate adventure. -Various provinces in Spain suffered from bubonic pestilence, which -was remarkable as having been confined principally to children; great -mortality from it occurred at Barcelona. - -It was about this time that a mortal pestilence broke out in the fleet -of Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, who were on their way -to Virginia in America. It was a spotted fever, with yellowness of -the skin, attended by bilious vomiting, hemorrhages, &c.,--symptoms -which characterize yellow fever in the present day. It raged with an -intensity equal to the true plague: it was preceded by bad weather -and gales of wind lasting four days, which, with the crowded state of -the ships, was sufficient to account for all their sufferings. The -vessel in which Sir George Somers embarked was wrecked on the island of -Bermuda, where Sir George died of the pestilence. The weather during -this period was very inclement in England: heavy rains and inundations -of the Severn deluged the country round about Bristol: epidemic -pestilence soon after followed in Somersetshire and Norfolk. A comet -was seen this year. - -A.D. 1609, in the month of July, pestilence broke out in the -cities of Citaro, Potraso, Castelnuovo, Padua, and other places of -Venice and Albania,--in fact, throughout the entire jurisdiction of -Ragusa. In August, the pestilence extended to Seville. - -A.D. 1610, plague showed itself in the suburbs of the city -of Granada, to which place it soon extended, causing great mortality. -The year following, it prevailed in various parts of Spain, and -Constantinople suffered awfully from pestilence about the same time; -it carried off 200,000 of the inhabitants. “Such clouds, or swarms, of -grasshoppers,” says Short, “so plagued their city and country about, -that they darkened the sun, and left not any green herb or leaf in all -the country; they entered the bedchambers; they were nearly as large -as dormice, and had red wings.” The year following, 1611, Goelenius -writes, in his account of the plague which raged at Hesse and other -parts of Germany, followed by a great pestilence among pigs and cattle -in 1612, that a sudden and amazing quantity of spiders appeared; swarms -of locusts laid waste the vegetable kingdom in Provence, tempests -destroyed great numbers of shipping at sea, many dead bodies were -drifted on the English shores as also on the shores of Holland, and -a province, under the dominion of France, was nearly destroyed by -inundation. The summer in England was hot and dry, and malignant fevers -carried off great numbers. - -A.D. 1613, epidemic pestilence occurred in various parts of -France; and in Montpelier there was a malignant fever, with livid spots -and carbuncles. Riverius states, that one-third of those who were -attacked with it died. At Lausanne, where pestilence raged with great -violence, there was such an abundance of flies as was never remembered -to have occurred previously,--“tanta ubique fuit muscarum copia, ut -post hominum memoriam vix similis visa fuerit.” (Hildanus.) Pestilence -also raged at Constantinople, where the physicians, supposing that -the cats spread the contagion, advised the Emperor, Achmet I., to -transport them to the desert island of Scutari. Spain, this year, -suffered from malignant sore-throat, which raged with such severity, -that it was considered to have been more fatal than in the year of the -_garratillos_ (quinsy). The year following, the winter was very -severe, the summer cold and wet, and the autumn variable. The most -deadly small-pox laid waste Crete, Alexandria, Calabria, Turkey, Italy, -Dalmatia, Venice, Germany, France, Poland, Flanders, Persia, and Asia; -it prevailed also, with great severity, in England. In some of these -countries, measles was also prevalent. The mortality from the natural -small-pox, at that period, equalled in fatality the plague in its worst -form. About this period, water was first brought by means of the New -River to London by Sir Hugh Middleton. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - FROM A.D. 1616 TO 1704. - - -A.D. 1616, Germany was greatly troubled with epidemic agues. -Two years after, violent tempests, inundations, volcanic eruptions, -meteors, &c. distinguished this pestilential period or season. A -malignant angina prevailed at Naples: the plague infested Bergen, -Norway, Denmark, Egypt, the Levant, and many other places; and a -terrible yellow pestilence, in both North and South America, swept -away thousands of the Aborigines (Indians). Hutchison says, that the -Massachusetts tribe in North America, consisting of 30,000 persons, was -reduced to 300! Gorges writes, that the disease occurred in the summer -and autumn for several years, commencing A.D. 1618, and ending -in 1623. This distemper the Indians described as a spotted putrid -fever, with ulcers, and yellowness of the skin and eyes, and bleeding -from the mouth and ears. This pestilence must have been of domestic -origin, as no known intercourse had been held with any part of this new -continent; it evidently was endemic--a bilious pestilence. - -A.D. 1617, a terrible inundation occurred in Catalonia in -Spain, from continued heavy rains, during which more than 50,000 -persons lost their lives: the year following, a comet appeared. From -this time until 1623, Malta, Naples, Hungary, France, and England -suffered from epidemic diseases, such as small-pox, plague, &c. Seville -was visited by gangrenous sore-throat about this time; and in 1619, -many places in the Levant suffered from epidemic pestilence. In 1620, -Antonio de Fonseca, a Portuguese physician of the city of Lisbon, wrote -a work entitled ‘De Epidemiâ febrili, grassante in exercitû Regis -Catholici in inferiori Palatinato.’ During this year a heavy snow-storm -was experienced, which continued for thirteen nights and days; upwards -of 20,000 sheep in one district, Eskdale Moor, were destroyed by it and -famine conjoined. - -A.D. 1622, London was visited by epidemic pestilence, which -continued for four years. In the first year there died 8000; in the -second, 11,000; in the third, 12,000; and in the fourth, 35,417. Plague -also broke out about this period in Amsterdam, and persisted, as it is -stated, eight years. Pestilence was prevalent in many parts of Spain. -In July, the Council of One Hundred, at Barcelona, received advice that -pestilence had broken out at Argel; orders were given, in consequence, -for the exclusion of all slaves and goods coming thence. - -A.D. 1625, plague broke out in London, and raged with varied -intensity all over England; 30,000 persons were carried off by it in -London alone. Epidemic disease also prevailed in Italy, Denmark, and -Egypt. Inundations occurred in Spain. In the month of January, the -river Tormes departed from its bed, destroying cattle and houses in -Salamanca. Seville suffered similarly from the overflowing of the -Guadalquivir; and in the year following, 1626, pestilence carried off -60,000 persons at Lyons. France continued to suffer from pestilence the -two following years. - -A.D. 1629, epidemic pestilence broke out in Narbonne; it also -prevailed at Amsterdam, and at Cambridge in England, where it raged -mortally: yellow pestilence was rife at the same time in America, and -plague raged at Marseilles. - -A.D. 1630, the principality of Catalonia suffered from plague -in different parts: Drs. Mas, Mox, and Rosell described the disease in -their works: its symptoms were those of the malady which we now term -Andalusian fever,--a yellow bilious fever. The city of Guadix suffered -from pestilence of the puncticular type at the same time: it continued -there for two years and upwards. Gangrenous ergotism prevailed in many -of the provinces of France, as reported by Dr. Thullier, physician to -the Duc de Sully, the prime minister of Henry IV. The first symptom of -this extraordinary malady was a numbness of the legs, then pain with -slight swelling, devoid of inflammation, to which succeeded rapidly -coldness, lividness, mortification, and dropping off of the limbs. In -many instances, the nose, fingers, hands, arms, feet, legs, thighs, -sphacelated spontaneously, and dropped off. The following extraordinary -account of a similar disease occurring in a family at Watlesham, in -Suffolk, was transmitted to the Royal Society of London, and published -in its ‘Transactions’ for the year 1762. The report was drawn up by -Charlton Wollaston, M. D., F. R. S.: it was as follows: - -John Downing, a labourer at Watlesham, in the month of January, 1762, -had a wife and six children; the eldest, a girl about fifteen years of -age, the youngest aged four months; at that time all were very well, as -the man himself and neighbours assured Dr. Wollaston. On Sunday, the -10th of January, the eldest girl complained in the morning of a pain -in her left leg, particularly in the calf, increasing severely towards -evening. The same evening another girl (her sister), ten years old, -complained also of violent pain in the leg. On the Monday the mother -and another child, and on the Tuesday all the rest of the family, -except the father, were affected in the same manner. Their pains were -excessive, insomuch that the whole neighbourhood was alarmed by the -loudness of their shrieks. The left leg only in most of the cases was -affected; but in some, both legs were diseased. The infant was removed -from its mother’s breast as soon as it fell ill, and survived only a -few weeks. The nurse told Dr. Wollaston that it, too, seemed to be in -violent pain, and that its legs became black before death. - -Dr. Wollaston’s inquiries were very minute; he was told that in about -four, five, or six days, the diseased leg became somewhat less painful, -and gradually turned black, appearing at first covered with spots as -if it had been bruised; then commenced the affection of the other -leg, with the same excruciating pains, and in a few days thereafter -that also began to mortify: in a very little time both legs were -perfectly sphacelated: the mortified parts separated from the sound -spontaneously, the attending surgeon having in most of the cases no -other trouble than merely to saw through the bone, with little or no -pain to the patient: the separation took place generally about two -inches below the knee; in some, rather lower, and in one instance the -feet separated at the ankles without any surgical aid; in others the -separation was less perfect. The eldest girl had one leg taken off, and -the other was entirely sphacelated, but the surgeon delayed removing -it, owing to a large abscess which had formed under the hamstrings, -attended with a swelling of the thigh. The mother’s right foot came -off at the ankle-joint, while the other leg, wasted to the bone, was -black and extremely fœtid, what little remained of flesh being quite -putrid and almost dried. In one child alone was one of the legs saved, -but with the loss, however, of two toes even from that. Three of the -children lost both legs, and another child both its feet. The father -was attacked about two weeks after the rest of the family, but in a -slighter degree, the pain being confined to two fingers of his right -hand, which turned blackish and withered for some time, but then got -better, and he recovered the use of them. - -It is remarkable that during the time of this dreadful calamity the -whole family are said to have appeared well in some respects; that is -to say, they ate heartily, and even slept well when the pain began to -abate. When Dr. Wollaston saw them, they all seemed free from febrile -symptoms, except the girl already mentioned, who had an abscess in the -ham. The mother looked emaciated, and had but very little use of her -hands. The rest of the family seemed well; one poor boy in particular -looked as healthy and florid as possible, and was sitting on his bed, -quite jolly, drumming with his stumps! - -On inquiry, it was evident that this disease proceeded from eating -bread made from spoiled wheat. Another labouring man, who had eaten of -the same bread, was affected with a numbness in both hands for about -four weeks from the 9th of January: they were continually cold, and the -skin peeled off his fingers’ ends: one thumb, he says, remains without -any sensation. A nurse who had lived with them from the beginning of -their illness was not affected. - -A.D. 1631, there was an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. An -erysipelatous epidemic was prevalent in various parts of Europe. In -the month of April a decree was published in Spain prohibiting all -intercourse with France, where pestilence was rife. The year following, -1632, a similar decree was published prohibiting intercourse with -Narbonne. Plague broke out at Dresden, and continued until the year -1637. A.D. 1633, Newcastle-upon-Tyne was inundated; many lives -and much property were destroyed. The year following, 1634, plague -raged with great violence at Ratisbon; and in 1635, epidemic pestilence -carried off 20,000 of the inhabitants of Leyden; it also was very fatal -in many parts of Germany. - -A.D. 1636, frequent and excessive rains induced epidemic -fevers during the summer and autumn in Barcelona and in other parts -of Spain; plague raged in London, destroying 10,000 persons. Nemiguen -suffered greatly from disease. Epidemic pestilence was also rife in -Egypt; and, according to Diemmerbroeck’s account, also in Holland and -Denmark. Constantinople with Natolia suffered greatly from disease of -a similar kind.--A.D. 1638, malignant fevers with small-pox -prevailed in the United States, and also along the coasts of South -America: and a new disease, which continued for ten years, attacked the -inhabitants, principally on the coasts of St. Andres, Malaga, Puerto de -Santa Maria, and Xeres de la Frontera. Many provinces in the interior -also suffered from it, as Burgos, Nieto, Viana, and other cities of -Navarette. A severe earthquake was felt at Naples and in Sicily; it -swallowed up several towns and more than 30,000 persons: it occurred -in the month of March. The year following there was a severe frost in -England, which continued for nine weeks, commencing on the 24th of -December. London was visited by epidemic pestilence of a severe type; a -similar disease was also rife in other parts of Europe.--A.D. -1640, many portions of South America inhabited by Spaniards suffered -from yellow pestilence. - -A.D. 1642, in the month of January, heavy rains fell -continuously for sixteen days at Seville, during which time the -Guadalquivir overflowed its banks, destroying much property in Castile, -as also many of the inhabitants. The settlers at Newhaven, in the -United States of America, and those on the banks of the Delaware river, -suffered from pestilence, during this year. In the subsequent year, the -city of Boston suffered from epidemic disease, as did also many other -parts of the States. A malignant fever broke out in the army of the -Earl of Essex, whilst besieging Reading, in England; the king’s army -also suffered. Great numbers in both armies having died, it ultimately -extended to Oxford and to all the villages within ten miles. It first -appeared like a putrid synochus; after the middle of summer it raged -with increased violence and in a greatly aggravated form; spots began -to appear and pustules, attended with great prostration of strength; -many had buboes as in the true plague. During the dog-days the disease -was considered and treated as a mild form of plague. - -A.D. 1644, epidemic malignant disease broke out at Madrid, -causing great mortality. Denmark and England also suffered from -malignant fevers, which were followed by dysentery. The preceding -summer had been excessively hot, and there were also heavy and frequent -showers, with dews at night. - -A.D. 1646, inundations took place in Holland, in Zealand, and -in Friesland. Earthquakes were felt in many parts of the world; in -Chili, several mountains of the Andes sunk into the earth, one after -another. A comet was seen about this period. The ravages of locusts -were great during this and the two subsequent years. Pestilence caused -great destruction in Andalusia: plague raged in London, extending -to other parts of the kingdom, especially to Newark, Stafford, and -Totnes. About the same time it likewise occasioned great mortality in -Ireland. Epidemic catarrh prevailed in America, affecting equally the -Dutch, English, and Swiss colonists. Pestilential yellow fever was -rife throughout the West Indies, especially in Barbados and St. Kitts; -it has been computed that in the two islands 12,000 perished. Various -parts of Spain suffered from epidemic pestilence during this and the -following years: the city of Valencia suffered great mortality from an -epidemic; it was of so general a character, that it seized on old and -young. - -A.D. 1649, epidemic small-pox prevailed in the city of -Boston, United States; plague revisited London and Shropshire, and was -destructive in Ireland. Spain suffered dreadfully this year, especially -in the southern provinces, where, it is said, disease carried off -200,000 persons. Marseilles also suffered greatly. This year, says -Fray Francisco de Cabrera, was the most tragic ever known in Seville, -at least since 1246; the violence of the pestilence ceased about May, -when the city was one entire hospital. There was great mortality -also at Marbella, a port of the Mediterranean. In France, a very hot -summer, with much thunder and lightning, was experienced, which did -great mischief in Guienne, Bourdeaux, and other provinces, firing -hayricks, granaries, &c. Several of the Members of the Parliament of -Aix were found dead in their beds after a tempestuous night of thunder -and lightning; and the day following, the roof of the house in which -Parliament was assembled fell in, and killed several members. - -A.D. 1650, the winter was open, and the spring cold and wet. -Severe influenza prevailed all over Europe, and was succeeded by a -general pestilence during the hot summer and autumn. It prevailed in -the form of ague in Denmark, and of inflammatory fever in France. This -epidemic, in rather a formidable character, called by some writers -‘ignis sacer’ and ‘fièvre St. Antoine,’ and by the French ‘ergot,’ -raged during this period with great mortality in Sologne. The disease -was not ascribed so much to the scarcity of food, as to a diseased -state of the rye. It commenced with lassitude and debility, followed -by torpor, swelling, and burning heat, with excruciating pains in -the lower limbs, which became shrivelled and dark, and at length -gangrenous. There was reason, however, to believe that this malady was -the result of insufficient food, amounting almost to starvation, and -not of diseased grain. The lower classes, as is generally the case, -suffered most. Pestilence also caused great ravages in Russia and -Poland. Clouds of locusts were seen to enter the former country in -three different places: they afterwards spread over Poland to Lithuania -in such astonishing multitudes, that the air was darkened and the earth -blackened with their numbers. In very many places they were found -heaped up upon each other to the depth of _four feet!_ in others -they covered the surface of the ground like a black cloth. The trees -bent with their weight; and the damage sustained by the country was -beyond computation. - -The city of Carmona was visited by epidemic pestilence, as was also -the neighbouring country. The disease which pervaded Andalusia soon -spread with great mortality through the populations of Catalonia, -Aragon, and Valencia. In the month of February the Council of One -Hundred (Ciento) of Barcelona were occupied with the pestilence which -was ravaging Tortosa. In May the same Council declared Gerona to be -in a pestilential condition. The year following, 1651, the city of -Huesca, as also Alcubierre and a greater part of the population of -Aragon, suffered from pestilence of rather a formidable character. -Barcelona soon became affected; the disease raged there with extreme -violence. Dr. Salvador wrote a work describing this pestilence: it -was entitled ‘Breve Tratado de la Peste y fiebre pestilente, en -el qual se trata de su esencia, causas, dignocion, preservacion y -purificacion.’--A.D. 1652, a comet was seen. - -A.D. 1653. In Girona, at present called Gerona y Osterlique, -pestilence broke out, and raged with violence. The year following, -1654, epidemic disease again made its appearance in England and also -in Denmark. In the month of April it broke out in Chester in England. -Pestilential disease at this period was also rife in Turkey, Russia, -Presburg, Hungary, Italy, Egypt, Malta, Sardinia, Leyden, Riga, and -Amsterdam: 200,000, it is stated, died from it in Moscow alone, 9000 in -Riga, 13,200 at Amsterdam, and 13,000 at Leyden. - -Two years after (1656), 240,000 persons were destroyed by mortal -pestilence in Naples; a great number--9000--in Benevento, 10,000 at -Genoa, the like number at Rome, and in the Neapolitan territories -generally it is supposed 400,000 perished. Cardinal Gastaldi, -speaking of the pestilence at Rome, states that it was one of the -most horrible diseases Rome had ever suffered from. The same author -eulogizes the precautionary measures adopted by the Spaniards and -the Portuguese. Franco, a physician of Carmona, in his work entitled -‘Elysius jucundarum Quæstionum Campus medicis imprimis utilis,’ lauds -as great alexipharmics the properties of the unicorn and of the bezoar -concretion. - -In the spring of 1658, epidemic catarrh prevailed all over Europe, and -in the following autumn degenerated into malignant fever: it caused -great mortality in England and France, where the seasons were very -intemperate. Epidemic disease was also rife in North America during -this period. The fever which prevailed in England was of a peculiar -kind--a pernicious intermittent: it was universal, and raged with as -great destructiveness as the plague. A similar disease, we are informed -by Morton, continued for some years previous to the plague of 1665. -Oliver Cromwell died of it; and Morton states that his own father also -perished by it, and that he himself and his whole family were infected. -“Matrem pientissimam, fratres, sorores, servos, ancillas, nutrices -conductitias, quotquot erant intra eosdem nobiscum parietes, ac fere -omnes ejusdem ac vicinorum pagorum incolas, hoc veneno infectos et -decumbentes vidi.” He proceeds to say that the cold weather afterwards -checked the disease in some measure,--yet the seeds of it seem to have -been by no means destroyed; for it still continued to show itself -under other forms: “durante enim brumâ, intermittentes quartanas, -tertianas, quotidianas, ab ejusdem veneni mitiore gradu oriundas, fere -æque epidemias videre erat ac in autumno συνεχέας seu remittentes; -neque mehercule sæviente gelu penitus defecerunt istæ febres -continentes. Atque equidem hancce febrem hoc pacto sub typo συνεχέος -præsertim simplicis et legitimæ, quotidianæ scilicet, vel tertianæ, -maxime vulgarem fuisse, et tempore autumnalis plus minus epidemiam, -usque ad annum 1664 observavi.” He informs us likewise, that in the -two years immediately succeeding the great plague, dysenteries were -very frequent; so that in the autumn of 1667, “civitas fere universa -hoc morbo correpta videbatur, atque singulis septimanis 345 plus minus -fluxu et torminibus confecti fatis cedebant.” - -It was during this year (1658) that remarkable phenomena were observed -in various parts of Europe. The most tempestuous and inclement weather -was experienced; and on the day on which Oliver Cromwell died, there -arose a dreadful storm in England, which was felt all over Europe, and -from its severity seemed to threaten all nature. - -Two years after, A.D. 1660, there was an eruption of Vesuvius. - -A.D. 1661, a comet made its appearance, and an earthquake was -again felt with great severity at Chili: China suffered in a similar -manner the same year, 300,000 persons having been buried in Pekin alone. - -The year following, A.D. 1662, great drought was experienced -in England; the springs were dried up, the rivers were very low, and -an epizootic prevailed with great mortality among cattle: it was of -rather a remarkable character, being a disease of the liver; a small -worm (entozoa), especially in sheep, it is said, seemed to prey on -the liver, lungs, and bowels: Venice was also visited by pestilence, -of which it is said 60,000 persons died. Puerperal fever was very -destructive this year at Leipsic and at Copenhagen. - -A.D. 1663, severe pestilence prevailed in England. The -illustrious Sydenham graphically describes the various epidemic -maladies which prevailed all over England from the year 1661 unto 1680. -Inflammatory fevers and quinsies, he says, were more frequent in London -than they were ever before known to be. During the summer of 1664, in -the month of May, a comet was seen and a malignant fever prevailed, -which could not in many cases be distinguished from the true plague; -and in the month of June it became greatly aggravated. From the 2nd -of November the true plague raged with violence, and continued with -great mortality for eighteen months, unto May, 1666. Among the signs -foreshowing the advent of the plague, it is said that birds, wild fowl, -and wild beasts left their accustomed haunts, and but few swallows were -seen. In the summer of 1664, there were such multitudes of flies, that -the insides of houses swarmed with them; ants were generated in great -numbers, and might have been taken up from the highways in handsful; -the ditches were filled with frogs and various kinds of insects. - -The plague was ushered in with seven months’ dry weather and westerly -winds: it commenced on the highest parts of London, in the parish of -St. Giles in the Fields, whence it extended rapidly to St. Martin’s, -Westminster, Highgate, Hampstead, and Acton; all these parishes and -villages were soon infected. - -“The disease,” says Mr. Boghurst, a medical practitioner, who resided -in the metropolis during the whole period of the prevalence of the -disease, “spread not altogether by contagion at first, nor began only -at one place, and spread farther and farther as an eating and spreading -sore doth all over the body, _but fell upon several places of the -city and suburbs like rain even at the first_,--as St. Giles’, St. -Martin’s, Chancery Lane, Southwark, Houndsditch, and some places within -the city, as at Proctors’ Houses.” Boghurst further states that “this -year, 1665, in which the plague hath raged so much, no alteration nor -change appeared in any element, vegetable or animal, besides the body -of man, _except only the season of the year and the winds_; the -spring being continually dry for six or seven months together, there -being no rain at all, but a little sprinkling shower or two about -the latter end of April, which caused a pitiful crop of hay in the -spring: in the autumn there was a pretty good crop, but all other -things were healthy and sound, and all sorts of fruits, such as apples, -pears, cherries, plums, grapes, melons, cabbages, &c.; all roots, as -parsnips, carrots, turnips; all flowers, and medicinal simples, were -as plentiful, large, fair, and wholesome, and all grain as plentiful -and as good as ever.” 68,596 persons are reported to have been carried -off this year by the plague in London alone. A comet was seen in 1665, -and an earthquake shook Oxford. Immediately after the great fire, on -the 2nd September, 1666, which destroyed 13,200 houses, fatal dysentery -was very prevalent. During this period, a plague infested the island -of Malta; yellow pestilence, or fever, prevailed in the island of St. -Domingo, as also in many other of the West Indian Islands; Holland and -Prussia suffered from severe epidemic disease: and the year following, -1667, a miliary pestilence raged in Bavaria; Spain suffered from -epidemic pestilence, from which no province escaped: it caused great -mortality, and was rapidly fatal. Don Pedro Vasquez, a physician of -Toledo, describes the symptoms as being those of quinsy, attended with -malignant fever, in his work entitled ‘Morbi Essentia qui non solum -per hanc insignem urbem Tolitanam, sed per totam Hispaniam sparsim -grassatur, quem vulgus garratillo appellat, Apologetica Disceptatio; et -ea quæ in curatione hujus morbi sunt animadvertenda.’ - -The same year, A.D. 1667, Salamanca and Lisbon suffered from -pestilence. Yellow fever appeared in the United States of America in -A.D. 1668, and was especially destructive in the cities of -New York and Philadelphia; in the subsequent year, the inhabitants of -Norway were visited by pestilence in the shape of malignant measles, -which with small-pox was also rife in England. About this time, a -terrible earthquake occurred at Naples, which destroyed great numbers -of lives and houses in Benevento. The Archbishop was dug out of the -ruins, and became afterwards Pope Benedict XIII. - -A.D. 1670, gangrenous ergotism broke out in Aquitaine, in -Sologne, and in the Galinois district; it continued until 1674, by -which time it had extended to Montagris and the neighbourhood. - -A.D. 1672, in the month of December, there fell in the West -of England a shower of rain that froze into ice as soon as it touched -the boughs of trees or anything above ground, and by the increase of -size of the icicles, it broke all down with its weight. The ice on the -sprig of an ash weighing three-quarters of a pound amounted to sixteen -pounds. The rain that fell on the snow immediately became ice without -sinking into the snow, so intensely cold was the weather. About this -time, a strange phenomenon occurred; while the English were waiting -for the flow of the tide, in order to land on the coast of Scheveling, -they were disappointed; as the next tide flowed but two hours, when an -ebb for many hours succeeded, which carried the English fleet again to -sea before the return of the flow: the Hollanders were thus preserved -from an invasion, as it were, by a miracle. In Spain, great sterility -of the land and epidemic disease prevailed. In the month of May, the -Council of One Hundred were informed that pestilence had broken out on -the French frontiers. Miliary pestilence prevailed in Hungary; and in -the early part of the year following, 1673, an epidemic of a violent -character broke out in Spain, which continued until 1684; it was -described by Valcarcel as being of a tertiary type. The disease was of -a mild form in the months of May and June, but increased in malignancy -in August, September, and October to such a degree that it destroyed -nearly half the inhabitants of Barcelona. - -A.D. 1675 and 1676, virulent small-pox and measles again broke -out in England. In the former year (1675), 11,300 persons were carried -off by plague in the island of Malta: a miliary epidemic was very fatal -in Hamburgh, and, according to Escobar, the inhabitants of the city of -Carthagena suffered from epidemic tertian fevers. - -A.D. 1677, a comet was observed. Pestilence again broke out -in Murcia and Carthagena; thousands died of small-pox in Charleston, -Massachusetts, United States, and a plague desolated many parts of -Europe. From this year until 1679, epidemic pestilence overspread -Spain; and, according to the statements of several historians, the -capitals of Granada, Cordova, and Seville suffered greatly. - -A.D. 1678. A comet was observed this year also. An inundation -occurred in Gascony, when the water spouted in jets from the sides -of an adjacent mountain in overwhelming quantities. Plagues ravaged -Algeria and Morocco.--The year following, mortal pestilence prevailed -in Vienna, and in Malaga and other parts of Andalusia. - -A.D. 1679, pestilence and famine were rife in Germany from -June until the month of December the following year, 1680: two comets -were observed. Dresden suffered from plague, and cholera prevailed in -England. - -A.D. 1681, there was a great fire in Southwark, on the Surrey -side of the Thames, and 600 houses were destroyed. Bronchial disease -was prevalent in England: a mortal angina, which caused death in -twenty-four hours, raged in Italy, Poland, Switzerland, and Germany; -and at the same time a petechial fever prevailed in Dublin and in other -parts of Ireland: pestilence was rife in the island of Sardinia and in -different parts of Castile; it also broke out in the city of Esmirna, -and extended to Carthagena, Murcia, and Oran, and soon after to Malaga, -Antequera, Granada, Moron, Ronda, Lucena, Andujar, and other districts; -and thence to Xeres, Santa Maria, and Cadiz. - -A.D. 1682, there was an eruption of Vesuvius, and the city of -Catania was destroyed by an earthquake; there was also an eruption of -Etna, which destroyed 60,000 of the inhabitants. A comet was seen this -year. - -A.D. 1683, there was a comet seen, and earthquakes were felt -in many parts of England. The winter was very inclement; and the frost -was so severe at Christmas, that the river Thames was frozen over below -Gravesend for thirteen weeks. Epidemic pestilence broke out in Argel -and other parts of Berberia. The winters of this year and the following -were the coldest ever experienced by the oldest inhabitants in Europe; -the summers were rainy, and the autumns cold: epidemic disease spread -over both continents--Europe and America. Pestilence, say Drs. Sastre -and Puiz of Spain, prevailed over nearly the entire world; the city of -Vich was greatly afflicted. Epidemic pestilence also prevailed with the -greatest violence on the coasts of Spain; the Hungarian fever did much -mischief in Leyden. The three following years the summers were hot and -dry; grasshoppers overspread Languedoc in France, the subsequent autumn -being cold and wet. Malignant fevers were very destructive in Europe -and America. - -A.D. 1686, Friesland was inundated, and thousands of men and -cattle were drowned. The following year, an earthquake shook the island -of Jamaica and Lima. There occurred also an inundation in Yorkshire; a -rock opened visibly, and water was thrown into the air to the height -of an ordinary church steeple: a comet was observed. Yellow pestilence -caused great mortality in the West Indies, especially in the island of -Martinique, where it was called ‘Maladie de Siam,’ from the supposition -that it had been imported from that country. - -A.D. 1688. Catarrhs, pleurisies, and dysentery were epidemic, -this year, both in Europe and America; and during the following years, -1689–90 and 1691, pestilence prevailed with great severity in Germany, -Italy, various parts of Spain, and in the United States of America: it -was preceded in America by hot and moist weather. - -A.D. 1690, about the beginning of June, all the legumina and -springing corn were spotted with mildew; grapes and other fruits were -destroyed, or rendered unfit for use, and the leaves of herbs, shrubs, -&c., were eaten to the stems by various insects. Much rain fell during -the first seven months of the year and after the autumnal equinox in -Lombardy. “All the animals suffered,” observes Ramazzini; “even bees -and silkworms perished; and the cicadæ did not sing this year; swine -died of suffocation,--but the greatest destruction was among cattle.” -He applies the title ‘pestilential’ to the disease affecting men in the -season which proved so fatal to cattle. Miliary or sweating pestilence -committed great ravages in Stuttgart, Dusseldorf, Erfurt, and Jena. -Bilious remittent or yellow fever was prevalent in the United States of -America; it raged with great violence in Charleston. Various parts of -Spain, about this period, suffered from epidemic pestilence, especially -Perpignan and Bellagardi; disease was also rife in Italy. A severe -earthquake was felt this year all over Ireland. - -A.D. 1692, the summer was hot and dry, and on the 7th of -June an awful earthquake swallowed up Port Royal, Jamaica; Lima also -suffered from a similar shock: 2000 citizens were drowned in the former -place: - - “Earthquakes, Nature’s agonizing pangs, - Oft shake th’ astonish’d isles.” - -Mosquitoes and flies were generated in great numbers, and yellow -malignant or bilious remittent fever carried off 3000 of the -inhabitants of Port Royal, Jamaica. The same year, yellow fever was -also very fatal at Barbados, and continued to be so for several years. - -The year following, 1693, an earthquake was felt in England, France, -and Germany; 60,000 persons, out of 254,000 inhabitants, perished about -the same period from a shock in Sicily. - -A.D. 1694, an eruption of Vesuvius took place, and Messina was -destroyed by an earthquake. Epidemic catarrh raged among men and horses -in various parts of Europe. The seamen and troops under Sir Francis -Wheeler, sent to conquer the island of Martinique in the West Indies, -suffered dreadfully from yellow pestilence, which, during the same -year, was rife in the United States of America; the inhabitants of -Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, were carried off in great numbers: -a Dr. Gamble strangely describes it as being a new disease; it was -called ‘the new distemper, or Kendall’s fever,’ at Barbados, where it -prevailed, causing great mortality. Miliary fever broke out in Berlin, -and continued for some time: it was not very fatal. - -A.D. 1695, pestilence broke out amongst the American Indians. -The inhabitants of the island of Bermuda suffered from yellow fever; -and the following years, a similar disease prevailed in the United -States of America, especially in Connecticut, New Hampshire, &c. - -A.D. 1698, a comet was seen. Spain suffered again from -epidemic disease; it was very fatal in Cerdena: Don Manuel de Alsivia -wrote a work describing the malady. The disease was supposed to have -been taken out to South America; various parts of the coast having -suffered severely from this pestilence, Buenos Ayres especially, it -spread to a considerable distance, and Lima was nearly depopulated by -it; for it nearly devastated the country, sparing neither Spaniard, -white, creole, mustee, mulatto, nor negro. North America also suffered -from pestilence: at this period, a dreadful disease affected the -Anglo-Americans; the inhabitants of Charleston and Philadelphia -suffered in the following year, 1699. There was an awful earthquake in -China, and nearly 400,000 persons were destroyed. A comet was seen this -year. The disease which affected the Anglo-Americans was considered -to be similar to, and as severe as the epidemic which had devastated -Barbados a few years previously. Fatal catarrh prevailed in England, -and plague in various places in the Levant: France also suffered from -pestilential catarrh, and an epizootic among the cattle, especially -among horses. Capmany describes the disease as being a bilious plague, -which at this time prevailed in Liorna, Geneva, Cerdena, Narbonne, and -Nismes. - -A.D. 1700. Upon the death and in accordance with the will -of Charles II., and in obedience to the orders of Maria Theresa of -Austria, the celebrated and spirited Don Felipe VI. was invited to -Spain. The civil wars, which arose in consequence, produced great -devastation and ruin in the land, and were succeeded by an epidemic -of a severe type: it is supposed to have originated from the corrupt -and irregular habits of the soldiery, who were composed of different -nations; its form was that of a malignant exanthematous fever, attended -with delirium. Escobar speaks of the disease as being contagious. -Pestilential angina, says Bruno Fernandes, in his recent observations, -was so fatal to children, that at the commencement of this century but -few escaped its ravages, and the disease was in every way the most -fatal that had been experienced for a long time: it was called miliary -or sweating pestilence, at Breslau; and was very destructive to the -inhabitants of the island of Milo, in the Levant. In the North of -Europe it was followed by small-pox. During the subsequent seven years -of this century, epidemic pestilence prevailed in various parts of the -world,--England, Scotland, Friesland, the United States of America, &c. - -A.D. 1701, there happened an eruption of Vesuvius: the year -following, 1702, the family seat of Borge, near Frederickstadt, in -Norway, sunk, with all its towers and battlements, into an abyss one -hundred fathoms deep, and its site was instantly filled with water, -which formed a lake three hundred ells long and one hundred and thirty -broad. Many persons, together with upwards of 200 head of cattle, -perished. A comet was seen about this period; and in the next year, -1703, small-pox and scarlatina raged at Boston, United States; in other -of the States they were attended with fever of a most malignant type. -During this period the drought was extreme; the autumn was sultry, with -cold damp nights, north winds, and frequent showers; bilious plague -broke out in the city of New York, and was more fatal than at any other -previous period; it was termed ‘the great sickness.’ Ergotism prevailed -throughout the whole country of Freiburg. A dreadful thunder-storm was -experienced in England on the 26th and 27th of November of this year, -which frightened the whole kingdom; the houses in London were violently -shaken, and many fell; the water rose to a great height at Westminster -Hall, and London Bridge was choked up with the wrecks of boats, &c.; -fourteen ships of war were lost during the storm, with great numbers -of seamen. The damage done by it in London alone was computed at -one million pounds sterling: at the same time Rome was shaken by an -earthquake, and the city of Aquila, in the kingdom of Naples, was -destroyed; many thousand persons were buried in its ruins. The year -following, 1704, there was an eruption of Vesuvius. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - FROM A.D. 1705 TO 1795. - - -A.D. 1705, in the city of Ceuta, an epidemic malignant fever -broke out, and raged with dreadful violence, causing great mortality. -The appearances on dissection, as reported by Don Antonio de la Locha, -proto-medicus of the army, were as follow: “The blood was observed to -be coagulated in the ventricles of the heart, especially in that of the -right side, and also in the vena cava (in the immediate neighbourhood -of the heart); the pulmonary artery was similarly engorged. In the -aorta the blood was also very thick, but in moderate quantity: the -pulmonary veins were nearly empty. These phenomena were not observed in -all cases, since in the majority the blood was only thickened and not -coagulated; and the cause of this difference,” observes the reporter, -“was according to the greater or less degree of power of the malignant -ferment.” In the month of April, pestilential disease broke out at -Tunis: in the May following, Malaga was attacked by it; and in August, -the island of Cerdena suffered greatly from its violence. - -A.D. 1706, a comet was visible, and thunderstorms were -experienced in many parts of England. The next year an eruption of -Vesuvius occurred, and an island, five miles round, rose from the -bottom of the sea in the Archipelago: - - ----“His hand the lightning forms, - He heaves old Ocean, and he wings the storms.” - -A.D. 1708, a severe storm, with thunder and lightning, was -experienced at Ipswich and Harrogate. A universal catarrh overspread -all Europe and America, and was followed by pestilential fevers. -Lanciscus relates that a similar epidemic appeared and raged with much -severity in Italy, principally at Rome: he describes the malady as -beginning with a running at the nose, or coryza, attended with pains in -the limbs, extending over the whole body, but felt more especially in -the chest. In the spring, peripneumoniæ prevailed; chills and flushes -suddenly seized persons, and were accompanied by severe cough, spitting -of blood, and turbid, scanty urine; the respiration was laborious, and -a general yellowness of the body was observed. In the years following, -A.D. 1709, 1710, and 1711, various parts of the coast of South -America suffered from putrid or yellow pestilence, especially in the -Brazilian territory; vast numbers were carried off of all complexions, -from the mulatto to the black. Seville and various other parts of -Spain were visited by dire pestilence at this period; it caused great -consternation amongst the inhabitants throughout Andalusia. The -celebrated Spanish physician, Dr. Don Diego Villalon, was famous for -its treatment. Plague or pestilence raged at Dantzic; a prodigious -number of insects, especially of spiders, had been noted in the city of -Seville the year previously. This pestilence continued for some time; -in fact, the five following years may be said to have been remarkable -for general and aggravated epidemic disease all over Europe. Horned -cattle and horses were observed to suffer greatly from an epizootic. In -Holland alone it is reported that 300,000 head of cattle were destroyed -by it. - -A.D. 1709, Sologne was again visited by gangrenous ergotism, -a fourth part of the rye crop having been infected with the ergot -or spur. About this period, memorable for hard frosts, this disease -appeared in the cantons of Lucerne, Zurich, and Berne; it also -prevailed in those places in the years 1715 and 1716, and also -epidemically four or five times within the space of ten years at -Orleans. - -A.D. 1710. Copenhagen and many parts of Sweden suffered from -sweating sickness this year: its victims at Stockholm were 30,000; and -it is reported that 25,000 died of it in Copenhagen in six months. -Pestilence raged in Lithuania; and the troops under General Nicholson, -destined to cooperate with the fleet of England in the reduction of -Canada in North America, encamped at a place called Wood Creek, in the -province of New York, were affected with a sore epidemic distemper, -which carried off great numbers. - -A.D. 1711, a murrain broke out among cattle in Italy and -Germany; the disease was supposed to be a sort of typhus fever, but -was in fact, more properly speaking, a fatal dysentery. The following -year, A.D. 1712, a miliary or sweating pestilence raged at -Mümpelgart. There was an eruption of Vesuvius that year. - -A.D. 1713, in consequence of small-pox being rife at -Constantinople, inoculation was practised: the following year, a fatal -epidemic raged among the horses and horned cattle in England, by which -70,000 head were destroyed: it was supposed to have been occasioned by -the excessive heat and drought during the summer months: great numbers -of insects were generated. - -A.D. 1715, small-pox and measles were epidemic in many parts -of Europe, and malignant yellow pestilence raged in the United States -of America. Thomas Hacket, of Duck Creek, states that the disease was -equal in intensity to that which raged in London in 1665. Miliary fever -prevailed at Breslau and at Turin. - -A.D. 1716, a dreadful storm, with heavy rains, thunder and -lightning, did much damage throughout England. On the 6th of March, an -aurora borealis was visible for three days. The noble city of Aguilar -de Campo, situated on the seashore, having suffered about this time -from cold and damp weather, epidemic variola broke out in the month of -March, and was the prelude to a pestilential sore-throat, or quinsy, -which lasted until December, 1719. - -A.D. 1717, there was another eruption of Vesuvius, and -Friesland was again inundated. Half the province of Groningen was -ruined by it, and 2500 of its inhabitants perished: it occurred on the -24th and 25th of December. Various parts of the country suffered: all -the Lower Elbe was under water, and it is stated that fully 20,000 -persons were drowned. From this period until the year 1721, according -to Dr. Casal, southern winds prevailed, with dry, cold weather, which -suddenly changed to a dry heat, lasting for weeks; after this, copious -rains fell, accompanied by frequent changes in the direction of the -winds. In the autumn, an epidemic jaundice became so general, that -nearly a tenth part of the population of the Asturias suffered from it. -Pestilence in the shape of the true plague carried off 80,000 persons -in Aleppo. We are told by Didier that this year the fields were barren -and the fruits bad, so that the poor, among whom the disease chiefly -raged at Marseilles, were almost starved during its prevalence. Mr. -Secretary Craggs applied to Dr. Mead to be advised as to the most -effectual remedy for or preventive of the plague. - -A.D. 1718. A comet made its appearance this year, and a severe -shock of an earthquake was experienced in China. In the following year, -an aurora borealis was observed, which was supposed to have been not -more than thirty-eight miles high. - -A.D. 1720, Marseilles was visited by a dreadful plague, which -raged with great fury. In order to mitigate the disease, the king’s -ministers commissioned Don Josef Fornés, a native of Hostal-Rich, to -proceed to the university of Montpelier, in order to consult with the -physicians of that university as to the best means of prevention and -cure. All social affection became extinct, the consequences being as -dreadful as those of the disease itself. Husbands and wives, parents -and children, and the dearest friends and connexions, hastened to -escape from each other, and an exclusive selfishness took possession -of every heart. The symptoms of this terrible scourge were variable: -shiverings were often followed by a quick pulse, which soon gave way -under pressure. The warmth of the skin was generally natural, whilst a -burning heat was felt within, and an almost inextinguishable thirst. -The tongue became white, the speech faltering, eyes glaring, face red -or congested, and sometimes livid; pains at the heart were frequent; -nausea and bilious vomitings, with looseness of the bowels and -hemorrhage, were always fatal symptoms. The most characteristic sign -of the malady was buboes in the groin or arm-pit, but these were not -always attendant, especially when the disease proved rapidly fatal, as -was the case in many instances. Toulon, Aix, and Arles also suffered -greatly from this pestilence: the deaths were estimated at one-third of -the whole population! In a district of Provence where the population -amounted to 247,899 persons, 87,659 perished. Miliary fever was -exceedingly prevalent and fatal in the canton de Bray, in Lower Seine. - -A.D. 1722, Port Royal, Jamaica, was destroyed by an -inundation. Deadly yellow pestilence succeeded, the year following. -Hoffman, Schenckius, and other authors give an account of an epizootic -which prevailed this year in several parts of Spain. About the same -time, an epidemic pestilence, much more malignant than that which had -occurred in 1706, broke out in Granada, accompanied with exanthematous -eruptions. The city of Placentia was also visited by pestilential -fever, the best remedy for which Dr. Morena found to be stimulants, -such as wine, &c. Inoculation for small-pox was introduced into England -this year by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. The Princesses Amelia and -Caroline were among the first thus treated. A sore throat, attended -with dizziness and pain in the limbs, prevailed in London and was fatal -to numbers; measles were rife in America. - -Plague did much mischief at Vienna, Hungary, and in the East: it -continued for two years. Dysentery raged in Upper Saxony, and ergotism -in Silesia. - -A.D. 1723, yellow pestilence prevailed in many parts of -Spain, especially in the cities on the coast. Lisbon also suffered -from pestilence, the predominant symptom of which was black vomit. -Miliary fever prevailed at Frankfort on the Maine. Don Vincente Boibid, -a celebrated physician of Madrid, published a work entitled ‘Breve -Reflexion ό crisis medica sobre el Dolor Colico, con animo de remediar -tan continuos y largos tormentos como suele excitar quando molesta por -medio de un anticolico especifico, que le vence en media hora: y á -veces en una.’ This physician attributed the pestilence prevalent in -Spain to the use of fruit and snow-water. The year following, epidemic -catarrh prevailed chiefly amongst children in the principality of the -Asturias. Palermo was nearly destroyed by an earthquake; 6000 persons -perished. From this period unto 1727, malignant fevers prevailed all -over Europe and America. Louis, king of Spain, died this year from -small-pox, as did also the Duchess of Bedford. In the latter year, -inoculation was practised on criminals. - -A.D. 1726, a series of anomalous diseases was prevalent in -Granada, and caused great mortality. Leprosy began to spread in the -city of Lebrija, in Andalusia; it lasted until 1764. About this period -a severe earthquake shook Palermo in September, and upwards of 6000 -persons were buried in the ruins. - -A.D. 1727, epidemic mania prevailed in Spain. Dr. Casal -makes mention of its having carried off many members of the Council -of Pilona. Carthage was visited by pestilence, similar to that which -prevailed in the year 1637. - -A.D. 1728, influenza was epidemic in Spain: it was named by -Pedro de Rotundis, ‘un catarro sufocativo.’ Yellow fever was very -fatal to the inhabitants of Charleston, United States: it was termed -‘a bilious plague,’ from its severity. A similar disease carried -off great numbers of the population of Carthagena and Portobello, -in South America: the most fatal symptom was black vomit. This -disease made great havoc among the crews of the vessels under Don -Domingo Justiniani, and of the galleons under Lopez Pintado. Epidemic -pestilence was rife in Poland, Austria, and Siberia. The island of -Bourbon, as described by Don Ulloa, was afflicted with plague, as was -also Tripoli, Damascus, and Aleppo. Scarlet fever raged in Edinburgh, -and chincough in England. About this period, miliary fever, or -sweating pestilence, prevailed, with great mortality, at Chambery, -Annecy, St. Jean de Maurienne (Savoy), at Carmagnola, Vercelli, Ivrea, -and Biella. The seven following years, 1729–1735, pestilence raged in -Vienna, Pignerol, Fossano, Nizza, Rivoli, Asti, Larti, Acqui, Basle, -Silesia, Thrasburg (Lower Rhine), Trino, Frésneuse (Lower Seine), -Vimeux (Seine-et-Oise), Orleans (Loiret), Plouviers (Loiret), Meaux, -Villeneuve, St. George (Seine et Maine), Bohemia, Denmark, Sweden, and -Russia. - -A.D. 1730, the Thames rose to an uncommon height, and -inundated Westminster. An earthquake nearly destroyed the whole of -Chili. Epidemic pestilence commenced at Cadiz; the disorder was called -‘el vomito negro,’ and it was supposed to have been imported from South -America; at least so states Dr. Don Francisco Fernandez Navarette: -it extended in all directions to various parts of the Continent, and -persisted unto 1738, in which year a frightful dysentery invaded -the coast of Malaga and Seville, and, in fact, all the seaboard of -Andalusia. During the prevalence of this pestilence, animals were first -affected, especially those that were domesticated; birds which fed on -grain also suffered severely, such as poultry, pigeons, &c. Numerous -insects, called by the Spaniards ‘largostus,’ were generated previously -to the breaking out of this epidemic disease. - -A.D. 1731, a shock of an earthquake was felt, on the 29th of -July, in China; and on the 20th of the March previous, Naples was so -shaken, that many houses were thrown down, and upwards of 2000 persons -were destroyed. - -A.D. 1732, 1500 persons died, in London, of pestilential -fever, in one week, during the month of April; yellow fever was -destructive to the inhabitants of many of the States of America. The -year following, influenza overspread Spain and many other parts of -Europe. The island of Mallorca suffered greatly. This epidemic gave -rise to many excellent dissertations, which were published in the city -of Palma. - -A.D. 1734, an earthquake destroyed many houses and five -churches in China, and many persons also lost their lives; it occurred -in the month of August. About the latter end of this year, in the month -of October, according to Albrecht, an epidemic dysentery, with swelling -of the head, attacked poultry, especially geese, in the environs of the -town of Coburg: they died with their bills open. - -A.D. 1735, plague destroyed thousands in Egypt; various -pestilential epidemics raged for more than ten years, afflicting -France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, Calabria, Switzerland, -New Spain, Aleppo, Tangiers, and Smyrna; yellow pestilence, or fever, -ravaged the United States of America, especially the cities of New -York, Boston, Charleston, Philadelphia, and Albany; it extended also -to the tribe of the Mohigan Indians, and was rife in the West Indies: -in Barbados it caused great mortality. During the winter, in North -America, which was cold and wet, a distemper, affecting the throat and -respiratory organs, nearly exterminated the young children. - -A.D. 1736, the lower orders of the population of Seville -suffered from privations and disease, especially in the suburban -districts, at St. Roque, Calzada, and Bernardo. In the same year, -epidemic pestilence raged with great violence, at Grand Cairo, from -the 1st of February to the 12th of March: more than 100,000 persons -were carried off; 7000 were buried daily for some days. On the 24th of -December, the river rose to an extraordinary height. The summer of this -year was intensely hot in England, and swarms of gnats were so immense -all over the country, especially in Salisbury in Wiltshire, as almost -to constitute a plague; they appeared in dense clouds, and ascended -above the height of the steeple of the cathedral. Ergotism again broke -out in Silesia, in Suborth, and at Wealtemburgh, in Bohemia. Dr. Saine -describes the disease as beginning with a disagreeable titillation of -the feet, as if ants were creeping on them (formication), which was -soon succeeded by a violent cardialgia, or pain in the stomach; the -hands were next affected, then the head--many cried out that their -hands and feet were on fire: epilepsy was one of the concomitants of -the disease. - -A.D. 1737, a comet was seen, and there was an eruption of -Vesuvius. - -A.D. 1738, another comet was seen in February; drought -prevailed in Spain, and famine and pestilence followed: the malady, -however, was not of a mortal character. - -A.D. 1740, epidemic disease was rife in Ireland; it proved -fatal to great numbers in the city of Dublin, and continued throughout -the following year. Lord Chancellor Jocelyn, writing from Ireland, in -the year 1741, to his brother Chancellor, Lord Hardwicke, in England, -mentions the distressed state of the country at this period, owing to -the entire failure of the potato crops, which was followed by famine -and disease to a frightful extent: fevers, attended with convulsions, -were epidemic in Germany: and the vomito negro was destructive to the -inhabitants of Spain; it prevailed at Malaga, and in many other of its -provinces. Pestilence broke out at Tobolsk, in Siberia, first attacking -horned cattle and horses, and afterwards human beings; it prevailed in -the form of pestilential carbuncle. - -A.D. 1742–3, two comets were seen. In the archives of the -Franciscan Convent of San Diego de Carthagena it is recorded that -pestilence prevailed amongst the members, nearly all of whom suffered -severely, three only escaping. - -A.D. 1745, a murrain broke out amongst the cattle in Turkey, -and was succeeded by a dire plague, which raged with great violence, -especially in Constantinople. This murrain among the cattle spread -and afflicted various parts of Europe; it was very destructive in -Switzerland, then diffused itself through Germany, Poland, and -Holland, and ultimately reached England: its progress was marked by -the appearance of a bluish mist in the atmosphere. Professors Sauvages -and Chaumel speak of a murrain as occurring about this period in the -Viverais district of France: puerperal fever was epidemic there at the -same time. An earthquake destroyed Lima and Callao, in Peru, on the -28th of October; out of 3000 inhabitants at Lima, only one individual -escaped. - -A.D. 1747, a comet was seen; and on the 14th of October -the Thames rose to a very great height. In the spring of this year, -there broke out in the territory of Huesca of Aragon, an epidemic of -malignant catarrh, which was succeeded by petechial fever. In the -Asturias, in March, the weather was variable and inclement, and an -epidemic icterus, or jaundice, attended with fever of a malignant -type, broke out, and continued unto the following May: it caused great -mortality. Two hundred thousand of the inhabitants were taken off by -pestilence in Constantinople about this time. Dysentery prevailed in -various parts of the United States of America, especially at Hartford -and Newhaven; yellow fever succeeded, and continued unto the year 1755. - -A.D. 1748, swarms of locusts settled down in and about London, -doing much damage to the vegetation. Two comets were seen this year. - -A.D. 1750, two earthquakes were experienced in London, the one -on the 8th of February, the other a month after, on the 8th of March. -The then lord mayor, one alderman, two judges, and the greater part of -the jury, with a number of spectators, caught the jail distemper in -the month of May at the Old Bailey. About this period, a shock from an -earthquake was felt at Philippoli in Romania, by which more than 4000 -persons were destroyed. Two years after, in the month of August, 200 -mosques and a great part of the city of Adrianople were destroyed by a -similar catastrophe. - -A.D. 1751, there was an eruption of Vesuvius; famine and -pestilence were rife in the kingdoms of Isen and Cordova; the breaking -out of the pestilence being attributed to the arrival of mendicants -at the ports of Malaga. The year following, a terrific storm was -experienced in Charleston, South Carolina, United States, on the 15th -of September, during which the town and neighbourhood were inundated, -from which there resulted much loss of life and destruction of -property. Two years subsequently, there was an eruption of Vesuvius; -and on the 15th of July, a severe earthquake was felt in the Morea: -it swallowed up many villages and their inhabitants. Constantinople -and Grand Cairo suffered from a similar catastrophe on the 2nd of -September; two-thirds of their houses were destroyed, and upwards of -40,000 persons. A mortal distemper seized on cattle in England; 30,000 -cows were reported to have died of it in Cheshire alone. From this -period until 1760, epidemic pestilence prevailed in various parts -of the globe; dysentery of a malignant type in the Northern States -of America, malignant fever in Normandy, gangrenous sore-throat in -Ireland and France, and a petechial fever in Constantinople, which -destroyed 150,000 persons. Famine and plague carried off great numbers -in Syria, Smyrna, and Cyprus: in the latter place disease destroyed -30,000 victims; Aleppo, Jerusalem, and Damascus also suffered from -epidemic pestilence. In the former place (Aleppo) the winter had been -severe, and had destroyed all vegetation; the cold was very intense; -the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer, exposed in the open air, -sunk entirely into the ball of the tube; millions of olive-trees that -had hitherto withstood the blast of fifty winters were blighted, and -thousands of persons perished from cold. The failure of the crop in -the succeeding harvest occasioned a universal famine with all its -attendant miseries. In many places the inhabitants were driven to -such extremities, that women ate their own children as soon as they -had expired in their arms from the want of nourishment; and numbers -of persons from the mountains and adjacent villages came daily to -Aleppo to offer their wives and children for sale for a few dollars, -to procure a temporary subsistence for themselves, and dogs and -human creatures might hourly be seen scratching together on the same -dunghill, and contending for a bone or a piece of carrion. Pestilence -followed closely on the heels of this famine, which lasted till 1758; -60,000 persons were swept away by it in the city and its environs. -Vast numbers of horses during this year died in London and in the -neighbourhood from a murrain. Yellow fever of extreme malignity swept -the West Indian Islands and the coast of Africa, as recorded by Lind, -who describes the mortality to have been produced by a pestilential -vapour, which arose in the south-east of the Guinea coast, and -traversed immense swamps: in several towns, among the negro population, -the mortality was so great that there were not sufficient left to bury -the dead, and the gates at Cape Coast Castle were shut for the want of -sentinels to guard them, the whites suffering equally with the blacks -from the fatal scourge. Yellow fever was also rife in the United States -of America during this and the following year, especially in New York -and Philadelphia. An atrabilious fever raged at Senegal. - -A.D. 1755, on the 24th of April, an earthquake was felt -in Peru; it destroyed the city of Quito and great numbers of its -inhabitants. On the 27th of the following May, the island of Mitylene, -in the Archipelago, was destroyed by an earthquake, and about the same -period the city of Lisbon was shaken, and 70,000 persons perished in -the ruins. Half the island of Madeira was laid waste by an earthquake. -This awful commotion extended 5000 miles, even to Scotland. - -A.D. 1757, on the 29th of October, an earthquake was felt in -the island of Malta: a severe frost was experienced in England during -this and the following year; a comet was also visible. About the same -time a severe shock of an earthquake was felt in the Azores. The year -following, 1759, three comets were seen; an earthquake on the 5th of -December destroyed Tripoli, and was as severely felt at Balbec. - -A.D. 1760, a violent earthquake occurred on the 30th of -October in Syria; it did a great deal of mischief: there was an -eruption of Vesuvius. Until this time, extraordinary as it may appear, -there was not any such thing as a privy in Madrid: it was customary to -throw the ordure out of the windows at night, and it was removed by -scavengers the next day. An ordinance having been issued by the king -that every householder should build a privy, the people violently -_opposed_ it as an arbitrary proceeding, and the _physicians_ -remonstrated against it, alleging that the filth absorbed the -unwholesome particles of the air, which otherwise would be taken into -the human body! His Majesty, however, persisted, but many of the -citizens, in order to keep _their food wholesome_, erected their -privies close to their kitchen fireplaces. - -During this year the city of Carthagena again suffered from epidemic -pestilence, which persisted until 1763; the disease was a tertian -fever, which became very virulent during the dog-days, and caused -great mortality amongst the inhabitants of that city and the adjoining -provinces. The island of Cyprus suffered from plague about this time. -It also prevailed generally over the Ottoman empire; Constantinople, -Aleppo, Smyrna, Salonica, Broussa, Aden, Antioch, Antab, Killis Ourfah, -Diarbekr, Monsol, and many other large towns and villages experienced -its severity. Scanderoon, for the first time this century, suffered -considerably; the other Frank settlements on the sea-coast of Syria -being exempt, with the exception of Tripoli. - -A.D. 1761, in the northern parts of the United States of -America, severe catarrh or influenza prevailed in the spring; it -changed its character to malignant yellow fever during the summer -and autumn. This disease was also prevalent in the West Indies. The -symptoms were slight cold, followed by extraordinary prostration of -strength, laborious respiration, cough, obtuse pains at the precordia -and in the chest and limbs. The malady presented the signs of a bilious -distemper, the countenance becoming yellow; insensibility or coma, and -sometimes delirium, supervened, when the patient was taken off with -all the symptoms of a regular bilious plague or yellow fever. About -this period a deadly epizootic broke out among the dogs in Madrid; it -extended over the entire kingdom: the disease, it would appear, was -confined to the canine race, no other kind of domestic animal having -suffered from it. - -The Paving Act, which may be regarded as a useful sanitary measure, -was passed in England. A tremendous shock of an earthquake, attended -with volcanic eruptions, was experienced in the Azores in the month of -April. - -The year following, A.D. 1762, a comet was visible; and on the -9th of February the river Thames rose to a very great height. The heat -and drought this year in the United States of America exceeded all the -extraordinary seasons hitherto noticed. The inhabitants were greatly -distressed for want of water; bilious remittent fever raged in many -of the States in the following autumn, especially in Philadelphia. At -the Havannah, about the same period, great mortality was occasioned by -a similar epidemic. Pestilence also raged in Siam and in Bengal, in -Syria, and in various parts of Egypt. The influence of similar seasons -was experienced in England and Ireland, and also in France, where -pestilence was rife. - -The summer of 1763 was moist and sultry; the Indians of Massachusetts -and at a place called Martha’s Vineyard in the United States of America -were swept away in vast numbers by a yellow or bilious pestilence. An -epidemic catarrh called ‘the snuffles’ was very destructive to cattle, -especially to horses, in Denmark. Pestilence again prevailed among the -canine race at Madrid; the poultry died of it at Genoa, and horned -cattle in France, as also in Sweden. This extensive prevalence of -epizootic disease indicated a pestilential condition of the atmosphere -and a disturbed state of the seasons: the disease first attacked and -proved fatal to dumb animals, and afterwards man became its victim: its -ravages were attended with great mortality. - -Malignant fever at this period assailed all Naples, destroying, as -has been asserted, 20,000 inhabitants: it was preceded by famine. An -earthquake was felt at Comorra, in Hungary; 1500 houses were thrown -down, and many lives were lost, the sufferers being buried under the -ruins. - -A.D. 1764, on the 26th of December, a severe shock of an -earthquake was felt at Lisbon: a comet was visible. The treatment of -small-pox was greatly modified about this time by the introduction -of the cooling regimen, which was first recommended in England by -the Suttons. In the same year epidemic pestilence broke out in the -principality of Estremadura, and was very fatal: various other parts -of Spain suffered from the invasion of a similar disease; it carried -off great numbers at Cadiz, and its outbreak was attributed in a great -measure to the distresses occasioned by the Portuguese war; it was -a miliary fever, attended with glandular swellings, especially of -the parotids. Rain fell heavily during the months of April and May -in Carthagena, and consequently tertian fevers were prevalent; and -there perished of that disease upwards of 2000 persons in the city -during those two months. Pestilential disease ravaged Suabia, and -both Scotland and Ireland suffered greatly at this time from epidemic -pestilence. - -Lethal epidemic disease prevailed in Austria; and in the greater part -of the United States of America bilious remittent fever, similar to -that prevalent in the West Indian Islands, carried off vast numbers. -The pestilence in Ireland was marked by all the symptoms of bilious -remittent or yellow fever. - -A.D. 1765, on the 4th of June, an earthquake was felt along -the banks of the Ganges: a shock was experienced on the 19th of May -previously in the Pyrenean mountains. A severe storm occurred on the -east coast of Britain, and many seamen perished in consequence. Spital, -near Berwick, suffered greatly from this catastrophe. - -A.D. 1766, there was an eruption of Vesuvius: earthquakes were -felt in various quarters this year; at Constantinople on the 22nd of -May, when 880 persons were buried in the ruins of the fallen houses; -a severe shock was experienced at Cuba, and St. Jago was completely -demolished, on which occasion hundreds lost their lives. The earth -opened in the Abruzzi in Naples, and many thousands were engulphed. The -river Taina on the 14th of November overflowed its banks, and destroyed -more than 12,000 houses with their occupants at Montauban in France. -Two comets were visible about this period. The summer was hot and dry -all over Europe, and in both the Americas; vegetable productions -were scarce in all these countries, and the winter following was -severe in both hemispheres; the mercury fell in many places 20° below -zero. Malignant catarrh swept over Europe; a murrain destroyed cattle -in the United States of America, the horses and horned cattle, &c. -perishing, especially in New England and New Jersey. A similar murrain -attacked cattle in Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Mecklenburg in Germany. -The following year, puerperal fever was fatal in Normandy. Small-pox -carried off at Pekin nearly 100,000 persons, principally young -children. There was about this period an eruption of Vesuvius; Spain -suffered from severe epidemic pestilence. In the month of December a -catarrh of a peculiar type broke out in Madrid, extending far and wide -over the Continent: it was not particularly fatal. - -A.D. 1768, a severe storm destroyed ninety-six public edifices -and 4048 private houses on the 25th of October at the Havannah; many -lives were lost in the ruins. Pestilence again broke out in the city of -Carthagena, and raged with great violence and fatality. Vast numbers -of caterpillars infested Northampton and Massachusetts, in the United -States, and destroyed all traces of verdure. The summer following -was hot and rainy; small-pox, dysentery, and hydrophobia prevailed -in Boston and in other parts of the States: anginas were also rife. -Yellow pestilence raged in the island of Jamaica. In Holland, about -this period, 30,000 head of horned cattle and sheep were destroyed by a -murrain. - -Irregular seasons deteriorated the produce of the earth, and famine -and pestilence were the consequence. A dreadful famine and pestilence -in the year 1769 carried off, as has been recorded, _three millions -and upwards_ of the inhabitants of Bengal. The falls of rain had -been unfrequent and of short duration, so that every thing in the shape -of vegetation was parched up and unproductive. The grain crop was -almost a total failure, and as the two former crops had been scanty, -the unfortunate people in the hour of extremity had no resource; they -were driven by the cravings of hunger to the woods, where they perished -in thousands, after devouring the bark of trees and the remains of -putrefying vegetables. - -Various parts of Spain suffered from epidemic pestilence this year. Don -Manuel Antonio Bela, a physician of some eminence, wrote and published -a work entitled ‘Una Disertacion sobre los cometas que no causan ni -anuncian enfermedades publicas,’ for the purpose of refuting the idea -that comets and other meteoric phenomena influence the production of -epidemic disease. - -A comet was noticed this year; and the year following, 1770, was -remarkable for the severity of an earthquake which was experienced in -the island of St. Domingo. There was also an eruption of Vesuvius, and -deadly pestilence raged in many parts of Europe, carrying off great -numbers. The mortality from murrain at this period was great among -cattle in Sardinia, Holland, Flanders, &c. In Poland and Russia alone -upwards of 20,000 persons died of famine and disease: it is recorded -that 168,000 fell victims to a dire pestilence which prevailed in -Bohemia. In the city of Constantinople, during this year, 1000 bodies -were buried daily for some weeks. During this and the following year, -1771, a singular epidemic destroyed the foxes in the United States of -America. Tertian fevers of a malignant type again broke out in the -city of Carthagena, and the persons residing in the convent of St. -Diego again suffered from pestilence, which continued the two following -years: out of fifty-three padres of the convent, one only escaped. -Puerperal fever was fatally epidemic at Vienna. - -A.D. 1771, there was an inundation in the North of England, -and there occurred also an eruption of Vesuvius. A.D. 1772, -strange phenomena were observed with regard to the body of Thomas -Beaufort, Duke of Exeter, which had been buried 345 years in the -abbey at St. Edmund’s Bury; when the leaden coffin was opened, the -flesh, hair, and toe and finger nails appeared perfect and sound, -as though he had not been interred many hours. On an incision being -made on the breast, the flesh cut as firm as in a living subject, -and there was even an appearance of blood. A similar phenomenon was -observed A.D. 1494, when the body of one Alice Hackney, -which had been interred 175 years, was accidentally dug up in the -churchyard of St. Mary’s Hill, London: the skin was whole, and the -joints of the arms, legs, &c. were pliable, the parts exhibiting a -natural appearance, as though she were but recently dead. A dreadful -hurricane happened this year in the Caribbean Islands. Plague raged at -Moscow, and, it is stated, carried off 133,299 persons within eighteen -months. Epidemic catarrh and measles prevailed in the United States -of America; small-pox was rife in Scotland; and the pestilence, which -was still raging in Carthagena, extended to other provinces of Spain. -Plague carried off great numbers in Bassora; 80,000 persons are said -to have fallen victims to the frightful pestilence; in short, famine -and disease about this time, induced by long and continued drought -and excessive heat, destroyed an incredible number of lives in the -peninsula of the Ganges. Baraillon gives an account of a most singular -pestilence with which France was afflicted in the year 1774: it was -termed Epidemic Convulsions, ‘sur une epue d’epilepsie qui reconnoit -pour cause le virus exanthematique malaire.’ A similar malady about -this period was rife in the United States of America. In England, -epidemic catarrh prevailed to a great extent; it was attended with sore -throat. Blight or mildew destroyed the oats in Scotland, and in the -United States of America wheat suffered from blast or blight; a bed of -oysters perished from disease at Wellflat Harbour, at Cape Cod, and -the lobsters disappeared from York Island, in the United States. In -the month of July, a murrain broke out among the horned cattle in the -province of Labourd, in France, and proved very destructive. It was -a sort of ramollissement of the brain, according to the authority of -Ignacio de Michelena, Juan de Ordoi, and Martin de Lorz. Dr. Alsinet, -a celebrated physician of Aranjuez, wrote a work this year on the -treatment of the tertian fever, which had been so prevalent all over -Spain: his plan of treatment consisted in giving emetics during the -intervals of the paroxysms, and bark immediately on the approach of the -cold fit; in cases of pernicious and malignant tertian, he gave double -doses. Puerperal fever was again epidemic at Vienna, and was attended -with great mortality. - -A.D. 1773, the town of Guatimala in Mexico, with all its -riches and eight thousand families, was swallowed up by an awful -earthquake, and every vestige of its former existence obliterated, the -spot being now indicated by a frightful desert four leagues distant -from the nearest town. - -The Severn this year was turned from its natural course by a great mass -of land moving from its place across the current near Bildewas Bridge -in Shropshire: this happened on the 27th of May. The year following, -a severe earthquake was felt at Altdorf in Switzerland on the 10th of -September. - -A.D. 1775, on the 8th of September, a severe earthquake shook -Wales and its neighbourhood. On the 19th of October, thunderstorms did -much damage in the North of England; it was about this time that the -three Dublin packets foundered at sea: and on the 14th of November, a -tremendous hurricane was experienced on the coast of Holland. - -A.D. 1776, on the 10th of July a shock of an earthquake -was experienced at Andries in Italy, which overthrew the town, and -destroyed vast numbers of its inhabitants. - -A.D. 1777, a dreadful hurricane visited St. Petersburgh; it -was attended by an inundation on the 14th of September, which did much -damage. - -A.D. 1778, an earthquake did much harm at Smyrna on the 3rd -of July. This same year, after the British army had vacated the city -of Philadelphia, United States, bilious, yellow, or remittent fever -prevailed to a great extent amongst the inhabitants. The plague was -rife at Constantinople; an epidemic angina ravaged Manchester and -various other parts of England, and the city of Carthagena in Spain -again suffered from pestilence, similar to that which was observed -A.D. 1771; it continued, in fact, in an aggravated form, the -following years until 1779, and caused great mortality. - -A.D. 1780, the winter was severe, both in Europe and America. -In England, on the 14th of January, the mercury fell 26° below zero, -and in Glasgow 46° below the same point. The summer of this year was -very hot; bilious remittent fevers raged in Philadelphia and in other -parts of the States; a ‘break-bone fever,’ as it was called, also -prevailed extensively, but was not fatal. The thermometer at times -stood at 102°. At this time cholera prevailed in the East Indies, and -is reported to have carried off at Hurdwar, during a festival which -is annually held there, some 20,000 persons, and during the following -year, 1781, to have assailed, in its most malignant form, a division -of the Bengal troops stationed at Garigani. During the summer of -1780, epidemic pestilence broke out in various parts of Spain: it -first made its appearance in a village of Passages in the month of -May, and continued for some time; it was supposed to have arisen from -intramural burial, the stench from the overcrowded graveyards being -intolerable. The burning heats, this year, may be said to have caused -much suffering in several parts of Europe, there having been scarcely -any rain; the summer having been succeeded by a heavy, cloudy winter, -predisposed the inhabitants of various parts of Europe to catarrhal -fevers: pernicious epidemics also prevailed in many parts of Spain; and -a malignant fever was rife amongst the inhabitants of Pampeluna: the -city of Olite was also similarly affected; after a time it extended to -Bericayú, Andosella, Mendaira, Toledo, Vidaurreta, and other cities and -places. In Pampeluna it persisted for six years, until 1787. A disease -termed ‘Andalusian fever’ prevailed this year in South America among -the Spanish colonists, and also at Rio de Janeiro and other Brazilian -settlements. At Tauris, 15,000 dwellings were demolished, and vast -multitudes were swallowed up by an earthquake. - -From the year 1781 down to 1789, epidemic pestilence committed great -havoc in various parts of the world. In England, an epizootic was fatal -to horses and horned cattle: of one hundred and sixteen horses located -in one barrack stable, all but thirteen were attacked; seventy-eight -died. The Channel fleet were great sufferers from epidemic disease; -11,732 sick were sent to Haslar Hospital; 1457 had scurvy; 240 -dysentery, and 5539 suffered from severe fever. This may be taken as -a specimen of the health of the British navy down to the close of the -eighteenth century. Epidemic puerperal fever, about this period, was -very fatal in London. Measles raged in New York, Philadelphia, and in -other parts of the United States; and numerous cases of hydrophobia -occurred in the more southern States. In the month of July the weather -was so hot that the thermometer in the shade stood at 103°. In the -state of Maryland there was great mortality among horses and horned -cattle; and fish at this period died in vast quantities on the coasts -of Lapland and Norway. - -A.D. 1782, in the month of July, there was a dreadful fire -at Constantinople, which destroyed upwards of 7000 houses; and in the -following month, a similar catastrophe caused the destruction of 20,000 -more, many lives being lost: from the consequent crowding together -of the inhabitants, and from other suffering, famine and pestilence -followed. The epidemic pestilence which attacked the Bengal troops the -year previously at Garigani, extended to Sir E. Hughes’ squadron then -stationed in the East, and caused great mortality. The inhabitants -of the provinces of Languedoc and Roussillon were attacked with a -terrific epidemic, which caused great devastation. The governor of -Catalonia, in consequence of the great mortality, sent Dr. Masdevall -to inquire into the character of the epidemic, whether it was, as -it was publicly reported to be, the true plague, and whether it was -or was not contagious. Earthquakes during this year were frequent -in Calabria; they continued from time to time for four years, until -the end of 1786, producing many fissures, landslips, lakes, ravines, -falls of the sea-cliffs, and other changes, which taken together -afford one of the finest examples of the complicated alterations which -may result from a series of subterranean movements, even though of no -great apparent violence at the time. During this calamitous period, the -city of Messina in Sicily was destroyed, and 40,000 persons perished -by an earthquake; the city of Thessalonica suffered from a similarly -severe shock. A most intense frost commenced this year in England on -Christmas-day; it continued until the end of February in the following -year. A frightful epidemic broke out in the city of Lerida, which ran -rapidly through the extent of Tarragona, Manresa, Llasanes, Solsona, -Igualada, and Villafranca del Panades; it soon after prevailed over -nearly the whole of Catalonia. Pestilence broke out also in Tortosa and -in several of its districts; it soon extended all over the kingdom of -Aragon. This disease was principally variola. - -A.D. 1784, nearly all the districts in the province of -Alcarria, especially Pastrana, suffered from pestilence,--an epidemic -tertian fever, which commenced in the month of November. About this -period, there was a great scarcity of water occasioned by the previous -hot and burning weather during a dry summer. The following spring was -rainy and damp, and there broke out exanthematous fevers, rheumatisms, -and intermittent quotidians, throughout all Spain; the small-pox, -which had prevailed the year before, and which at first appeared in a -benign form, soon degenerated, and assumed a malignant character. Dr. -Don Felix Ibañez, a physician of the city of Huete, but long resident -at Pastrana, describes the various diseases of this period in a work -entitled ‘Topographia Hipocratica ó Descripcion de la Epidemia de -Calenturas, tercianas intermittentes, malignas, continuo-remittentes -perniciosas, complicadas que re han padecido en la provincia de la -Alcarria desde el año 1784, hasta 1790, y 1791, y riguentes,’ &c. - -The following year, 1785, epidemic tertian prevailed in Andalusia. -Dr. Don Juan Manuel Alvarez, of Constantina, wrote a work on the -pernicious intermittent fevers of this and the previous years, which -had been so extensively prevalent in the Peninsula: the disease was -felt more severely in Carthagena than during any other previous year; -it was exceedingly malignant, and destroyed vast numbers. Intemperate -seasons were attended with inundations from rains, so heavy as to form -lakes in some places. The city of Lerida suffered from variola. - -A.D. 1786, in the city del Viso, on the confines of the -province of La Mancha, a frightful epidemic broke out, and destroyed -great numbers of the inhabitants. The city of St. Roque suffered -in the autumn from a similar pestilence: it proved to be a form of -pernicious intermittent. Dr. Don Josef Masdevall’s practice was -adopted in its treatment, and proved as successful as it had hitherto -done; it consisted of what he termed ‘la opiata antifebril y mixtura -antimonial.’ This year, Brother Miguel de Acero y Aldovera wrote a work -on the pernicious effects of intramural interments. The vomito negro -prevailed this year in the Havannah; its outbreak was attributed to the -emanations from putrid hides. In the Madras Reports, it is stated that -pestilential cholera was very destructive at Arcot. - -A.D. 1787, there took place on the coast of Coromandel an -inundation proceeding from a severe hurricane; a district called Uppora -was overflowed by the sea on the 20th of May, when upwards of 12,000 -persons lost their lives, and much property in cattle and houses was -destroyed. There was a violent storm that did much damage in England -and Ireland. There was also an eruption of Vesuvius. - -A.D. 1788, severe frost occurred in England, commencing in -November, and continuing till the following March. - -In the month of October, A.D. 1789, an almost universal -darkness overspread the land in America, and the most severe -pestilences on record occurred all over the United States, in the form -of anginas, croup, ulcerated sore-throat, putrid bilious fevers, &c. -Dr. Manson describes one of the epidemics thus; “slight influenza, -stinging pain in the jaws and limbs, soreness of the muscles of the -neck, attended with severe fever.” The measles, which occurred the year -previously, appear to have been the prelude to a series of epidemics -which raged for thirty years. Influenza was very severe in the cities -of New York and Philadelphia, and rapidly affected the other parts of -the States, wherever the same conditions of weather and atmosphere -prevailed: this disease also traversed the barren wilderness, seizing -on the Indian population, attacked seamen at sea, and raged with great -mortality through the western hemisphere, from the 15° to 45° of -northern latitude. Scarlet fever was also prevalent at Philadelphia, -and carried off great numbers of the young. These epidemics generally -exhibited as the predominant feature the superabundance of biliary -secretions, which were vomited. - -A.D. 1790, the winter was very mild in America, there having -been but little frost until the month of February. In spring, catarrhs -prevailed; plethoric and consumptive persons suffered most, and were -the principal victims: measles appeared in autumn. The year following, -1791, the winter commenced early, and was very severe; the spring and -summer were dry and cold: catarrhs again prevailed: yellow fever broke -out in New York, and carried off numbers: scarlatina and hooping-cough -were also rife. About this period a kind of black worm, resembling a -caterpillar, appeared in Maryland, and destroyed the grass and corn; -they were represented as appearing in legions. At the same time a -blight destroyed the fruit and other vegetable productions; and another -distinct species of worm, called the palmer-worm, answering to the -description given in Sacred History, infested the land, devouring even -the forest trees, and destroying all woodwork. The thermometer at -Salem rose to 80° for fifty days, and for twelve days stood at 90°: -in various other parts of the States it varied from 90° to 102°. The -bilious plague, as reported by Dr. Rush, prevailed at Philadelphia. -The island of Grenada in the West Indies suffered from a similar -pestilence. Bilious remittent fever was also prevalent on the coast -of Africa: the plague raged in Egypt, and typhus fever committed great -ravages in England: yellow pestilence laid waste the Havannah; and a -severe murrain afflicted the horned cattle in Hungary, Servia, and -other European countries. - -A.D. 1791, a tremendous earthquake was felt in Sicily, which -destroyed many lives and much property; it was equal in severity to -the shock experienced the year before at Borgo di San Sepolcro, during -which an opening in the earth swallowed up many houses with their -inhabitants. On the 2nd of February, this year, the Thames rose to an -extreme height, and overflowed many parts of Westminster. - -A.D. 1792. This was a pestilential year in Egypt; it is -recorded that 800,000 persons died from plague. The winter of the -previous year, 1791, was very severe, and the spring wet and rainy -in the southern parts of the United States; the summer was cold up -to June, cold north-west winds prevailing. In May and June, locusts -appeared in the State of New York, and devoured the grain; the wheat -insect continued its ravages with great destruction to the crops in -Long Island and also in Maryland and north of the Elk ridge. In the -month of July, yellow fever raged terribly, causing great mortality in -the city of Charleston. A kind of caterpillar destroyed the lime-trees -in Philadelphia, and in the month of August, scarlet fever carried off -numbers in that city, as well as in New York, and in a place called -Bethlem. - -A.D. 1793, the spring was dry, the summer intensely hot and -showery, with hail, and the autumn dry and cold. A fatal dysentery -swept off vast numbers in Georgetown, Coventry; a nervous fever was -prevalent at a place called Fairfield. Yellow fever raged to an -alarming extent in Philadelphia, carrying off in the course of four -or five months upwards of 4000 persons: it was also fatal in Boston. -In the following year it prevailed in Baltimore, and at Norfolk in -Virginia. About this period a similar epidemic caused great destruction -in the island of Dominica and other of the West Indian islands: in -Dominica it continued for three years, until 1796. - -A.D. 1794, an awful earthquake was felt at Naples, and -Vesuvius, pouring forth its flames, overwhelmed the city of Torre del -Greco. The following year, the weather was uncommonly bad, the spring -cold and late, the summer suffocatingly hot, damp, and rainy, whilst -south winds were prevalent,--the fruits perished from mould. There was -a disease among vegetables, especially the potatoes and cabbages. A -dense moisture penetrated into the inmost recesses of the houses, even -into desks, bureaux, &c., and the walls appeared covered with a damp -white mould, which destroyed the paper-hangings. Millions of mosquitoes -and other insects were generated; in fact, a pestilential constitution -of the air, answering to the description given by Hippocrates and -other writers, was evidenced by these signs. Yellow fever raged with -great violence in many parts of the United States of America, viz. in -Philadelphia, New York, Charleston, &c., and continued until 1800. “In -the whole course of my life,” says Professor Kemp, writing to Dr. Baily -on yellow fever, “I never experienced a state of air so distressingly -debilitating, and unfriendly to my spirits.” On the 6th of February, -this year, a severe shock of an earthquake was felt at Vienna. At this -period 10,000 persons lost their lives in three towns of Turkey by a -similar catastrophe. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - FROM A.D. 1795 TO 1848. - - -A.D. 1795, a severe earthquake was felt on the 17th of -July at Manchester and in its neighbourhood: there was a second -shock afterwards on the 18th of October. On the 6th of November, -in the same year, a violent storm destroyed many lives and much -property in England. On the 24th of the following month, December, -a severe frost set in, and continued until the 23rd of January. -Murrain committed great ravages in Lombardy amongst horned cattle. -Professor Count Moscati and Drs. Deho, Bonvicini, and Gherardini -published a description of its symptoms, amongst which were observable -great rigidity and tension in the necks of animals, and also great -sensibility along the spinal column, towards the termination of the -malady. Two years after, 1797, a similar epidemic prevailed in the -Venetian States, especially in Friuli: horses, sheep, and poultry -suffered from this malady, as well as horned cattle. A severe -earthquake, this year, 1796, destroyed the whole country between Santa -Fé and Panama, including the cities of Cusco and Quito; 40,000 of the -inhabitants were in one second hurled into eternity. The seasons were -intemperate in the United States. Bilious remittent or yellow fever -prevailed at New York, Charleston, Boston, Newburyport, Philadelphia, -and in various others of the States. The year following, 1797, the -epidemic continued to cause great mortality in the States, especially -in Norfolk, Providence, Portland, and Savannah, and it extended thence -to New Orleans: it commenced with the symptoms of common remittent -fever, and increased progressively in violence, carrying off numbers of -the inhabitants. - -A.D. 1798. The preceding winter was severe and long. The -summer, this year, was remarkably dry and sultry; the rivers afterwards -inundated the adjoining country, heavy rains falling at the same -time. Catarrhs, pleurisies, and sore throats prevailed, with bilious -fevers. In the autumn, grasshoppers infested the country round about -Pennsylvania and New England, and a pestilential fever commenced and -spread dismay among the inhabitants: many were carried off by it. -The citizens of New York, Philadelphia, Wilmington, Newport, Albany, -Boston, Portsmouth, and New London, suffered greatly from this disease, -which exhibited both bubo and carbuncle, with many other symptoms of -the true plague. A peculiar fog or vapour was observed in New York -during the most fatal period of this pestilence, especially in the -month of September. Lake and marsh fevers prevailed also about this -period in the low and swampy districts, such as Milford, &c. This -yellow pestilence was less generally characterized by inflammatory -action, and venesection was attended with less salutary effects than on -former occasions. - -A.D. 1799. In Barbary, 3000 died daily from severe pestilence: -at Fez alone, 247,000 persons are said to have perished in consequence. -In Morocco, pestilence was preceded by famine, induced by extreme -elemental disturbance. At Mogador it broke out, in April, in the form -of virulent small-pox; by July it had assumed the type of the most -deadly species of plague: this fatal disease ceased in October, after -carrying off numbers. At a small village called Diabet, situated about -two miles south-east of Mogador, it raged with great violence for -twenty-one days, carrying off during that period one hundred persons -out of one hundred and thirty. Many populous villages, in the extensive -Shellah province of Haha, suffered in a similar manner. The birds -deserted their former abodes during the prevalence of this pestilence. -The Emperor, it is reported, had the plague twice during the time. - -The summer in the United States of America, this year, 1799, was sultry -and dry, with much thunder and lightning, succeeded by deluging rains; -the autumn was variable, and the winter severe; the following spring -was cold and late, and yellow fever showed itself to a certain extent -in many of the States. - -A.D. 1800, malignant yellow fever commenced at Baltimore, -and raged in Boston, and in various other of the principal districts -of the Union. In the autumn of this year, Cadiz became desolate from -a similar pestilence; by the middle of September the deaths amounted -to 200 daily: at this period the air, from its stagnant state, says -Arejula, became so vitiated, that its noxious qualities affected even -the lower orders of animals: canary birds died with blood issuing -from their bills; and in none of the neighbouring towns, which were -afterwards infected, did any sparrows appear during the epidemic. We -saw, continues Arejula, many of the domestic animals die with some -of the same symptoms as those presented by persons labouring under -the disease. Dogs were affected by the epidemic more than any other -animals; the cats next, and the horses, then poultry and canary birds; -dogs and cats were also subject to hemorrhages, but more so to the -black vomit, and to dark fœtid evacuations. The horses which I saw die, -he says, had that marble coldness of the extremities, or the general -convulsions, so remarkable in this disease. Another author, Fellows, -states that all the physicians in Cadiz and in Malaga who have written -on this disorder, and with whom he had conversed, confirmed to him -the facts as detailed by Arejula. The inhabitants of Xeres suffered -greatly from this yellow pestilence; it also prevailed at Malaga, and -in various other parts of Spain: it persisted unto 1804. - -A.D. 1801, anginas, pleurisies, and yellow pestilence -continued to prevail for several years in the United States of America, -and in other places: typhus was rife in Ireland and England, especially -in London, from which city and countries it is scarcely ever absent. - -A.D. 1802, a very hot and dry summer was succeeded in November -by incessant heavy rain: thick fogs spread over the country, and -enveloped such places in central Germany as were inaccessible to -ventilation; amongst others, the small Franconian town of Roettingen, -situated on the river Tauber, and surrounded by mountains. Towards -the end of the month an extremely fatal disease broke out, which -was without example in the memory of its oldest inhabitants, it -being totally unknown to them previously. The young and strong were -suddenly seized with pain and anguish at the heart, with violent -palpitations, and lacerating pains in the nape of the neck; profuse, -sour, ill-smelling perspiration broke out over the entire body, and -a suffering, as though a violent rheumatic fever had seized on the -tendinous expansions, accompanied this terrible malady: in the worst -cases a spasmodic trembling ensued, the patient fainted, the limbs -became rigid, and death closed the scene, frequently within twenty-four -hours from the commencement of the attack. - -A.D. 1803. Influenza overspread the British Isles in the -spring of this year, causing great mortality: in severity it was -similar to those prevalent A.D. 1762 and 1782, as described by -Sir George Baker. - -Tommasini describes a yellow pestilence which raged at Leghorn and at -Lucca A.D. 1804. A similar disease was also prevalent in the -West Indian Islands about this period, especially in the islands of -Martinique and Grenada. The year following, 1805, spotted typhus, or -petechial pestilence, was rife in various parts of the United States, -and caused great mortality. - -A.D. 1809, epidemic pestilence suddenly made its appearance -amongst the British troops occupying Portugal. - -A.D. 1810, in the month of October, yellow pestilence appeared -at Gibraltar: of the population of this fortress, amounting to 14,000, -only twenty-eight escaped the malady; twelve of these had had the -disease previously in the West Indies and elsewhere. A.D. -1811, puerperal fever was prevalent and lethal in Somersetshire. - -A.D. 1812, Constantinople suffered dreadfully from plague, -which carried off 160,000 persons. Since the severe winter of 1794–95, -this country (England) had not experienced such an intense and -continued cold as occurred during the present season, from the 30th of -November, 1813, to February, 1814. The early part of December was raw, -chilly, and occasionally foggy; frost, which was severe, commenced the -day after Christmas-day: on the 27th it was accompanied by a thick fog, -which, towards noon, became so dense as to render all objects invisible -at a short distance, even with the aid of torches, so as to prevent the -departure of mail-coaches and of other carriages; numerous accidents -occurred in and near London. This singular and dark state of the -atmosphere, which was extremely offensive both to the eyes and lungs, -continued for the space of seven days, with scarcely any change, even -at noon, except the appearance of a dim light during the latter; and -as the frost increased, the houses, shrubs, and trees became thickly -covered with the freezing humidity of the fog. This state of things -terminated at the end of the week with a heavy fall of snow, which -continued until the streets were covered to the depth of several feet, -to the great interruption of all communication with the country for -several days. In the last week of January, from a partial thaw, immense -masses of ice were brought down the Thames, which, on the recurrence of -frost, became so united as to be capable of supporting the weight of -great multitudes of people, who were entertained in the booths erected -upon the ice during the fair near Blackfriars Bridge. The wind blew -almost invariably from the east and north-east, and was frequently very -high, rendering the cold more intense: on many days the temperature was -as low as 15° of Fahrenheit, and it was said to have fallen on some -nights as low as 11°, and even lower. The effects of this severity of -the cold were aggravated amongst the lower orders by the difficulty of -procuring fuel, in consequence of the great scarcity of coals, which -cost double the usual price. Persons of all ages suffered from severe -influenza, attended with fever of a rather malignant type: children, -and persons who had passed the middle period, as usual, suffered the -most, from their vital powers being less energetic than during the -intermediate periods of existence. During the months of October and -November (1813) typhus fever became more frequent than it had been for -several years previously: it prevailed mostly in the filthy courts -of Saffron Hill, near Hatton Garden, which are almost exclusively -inhabited by the lowest kind of Irish labourers. Scarlatina was also -rife, but was not very fatal. These diseases were not, however, -confined to the places where they first appeared; they soon showed -themselves in the crowded districts in the eastern and north-eastern -parts of the town, and in the Borough, and were greatly prevalent in -the alleys about Essex Street, in Whitechapel, near Golden Lane, Old -Street, and in many filthy courts about Cow Cross and Chick Lane, -in the vicinity of Smithfield: they were also rife in the districts -near Kent Street, in the parishes of St. George and St. Saviour, in -Southwark, in the courts running into Shoe Lane, Clare Market, the -Strand, at Somers Town, and, singular to say, they broke out last of -all in St. Giles’, the district proverbially the receptacle of beggary -and vice. - -During this year (1813), yellow pestilence again made its appearance -at Gibraltar; it raged from October till the month of December, when -it subsided, after causing great destruction of the troops then in -garrison. The civilians suffered an equal mortality. In the year -following (1814), this epidemic again broke out in the month of August, -and disappeared about the end of October; it was not again heard of on -the rock until 1828. - -A.D. 1813, plague made its appearance in the island of Malta, -where it had not been known previously for 138 years,--not since the -year 1675. From the month of April to that of November, 4483 persons -were carried off by it; it also raged at Gozzo, Corfu, &c. - -A.D. 1815, the harvest was unfavourable all over Europe, and -several provinces of Naples were threatened with famine. On the 27th -of December, a suspicious epidemic broke out at Noya: it consisted of -a hot nervous fever, rapidly running its course, with gangrenous and -malignant boils and carbuncles; women were the first and most frequent -victims; children also suffered in a similar proportion; old persons -were more exempt. The disease soon afterwards appeared at Cagliari, -and it is stated not to have presented any of the characteristics of -the plague, although it was very fatal. This pestilence was preceded -by a famine, which commenced among the poor: other diseases prevailed -at the same time: the prevalence of a south wind seemed to increase -its propagative powers; it continued about six months, when it ceased -suddenly in the following year, 1816. - -About this period, A.D. 1815, pestilential disease was -developed in the island of Corfu; it first made its appearance at -a little village called Marathea, in the district of Lefchimo. -Tully states that nothing could equal the wretched appearance of -the village,--poverty, with all its miserable train of attendants, -presenting itself to view at every step. Near this village stagnant -pools and marshes everywhere presented themselves: rains set in earlier -than usual, and were followed by a long drought and heat, unnatural for -the advanced season of the year, with a constant sirocco or south-east -wind: so rapidly fatal was this pestilence, that more than a fourth -part of the inhabitants were carried off in a few days. It is recorded -that out of 700 seized in this small village, only 78 recovered! - -During the same year, the fall of rain in the East was remarkable, -especially during the rainy season, when it was indeed excessive,--and -that which rendered it the more worthy of notice was, that the Ganges, -the Soane, and the Coossee rivers burst their boundaries, and destroyed -a vast extent of agricultural property in the neighbouring districts. -The cold season that followed was also damp, and not bracing; and again -the hot or summer season that followed was also moist. The winter -which followed was unfortunately also damp, and the atmosphere during -the subsequent summer, A.D. 1816, was exceedingly loaded -with moisture in the shape of dense fogs; drought followed, for the -heat was intense; few north-westers, it is said, occurred to temper -the air, and those which did were accompanied with little or no rain: -towards the end of the month of May, the thermometer had risen to -98° in the shade,--a very uncommon height in Bengal. This scorching, -burning weather continued uninterrupted unto the middle of June. In -the remaining portion of June and in July the rains fell moderately -in Calcutta and in its vicinity; but in the month following, August, -the showers became scanty and rare, while the days and nights were -oppressively hot. In the western part of the provinces the great -drought which succeeded dried up the rivers, so that apprehensions -were entertained for the safety of the rice cultivation. The 1st of -September ushered in a most unexpected change: rain came down in -deluges, and continued unabated during the entire month: it caused a -greater and more extensive inundation than had happened within the -recollection of the oldest inhabitant. - -The morbid effects of a long train of anomalous weather then became -evident amongst the people. Low fevers of a typhoid character -prevailed, accompanied by a malignant sore-throat,--a disease -previously unknown there, according to the Bengal Report. - -A.D. 1817 was the commencement of a pestilential period, -during which disease raged rampant all over the habitable globe, and so -continued for a series of years: yellow pestilence prevailed with great -violence, and caused great mortality at Savannah, New Orleans, Mobile, -Natchez, the Havannah, Baltimore, Charleston, and elsewhere in the -United States. - -Pestilential cholera commenced and committed great ravages, especially -in India, where it prevailed with an intensity and fatality equal to -those of a similar malady which was fatal to thousands of the human -race A.D. 260. This pestilence broke out in the month of -August, it is said, at a place called Jessore, a populous town in the -centre of the Delta of the Ganges, the capital of the Sunderbunds, -distant from Calcutta about sixty English miles, and there it caused -great mortality, proving fatal to almost all on whom it seized. -Jessore is described as being a crowded, filthy place, surrounded by -impenetrable and marshy jungles, and consequently exposed to all the -horrors of a malarious and ill-ventilated atmosphere. In the course -of a few weeks, 10,000 of the inhabitants perished in this district -only. In the September following, it broke out in Calcutta, where it -committed great ravages. It spread thence along the banks of the Ganges -in a north-westerly direction, not then extending further to the east -than Muzufferpore. It also attacked with great violence the English -army assembled in Bundelcund, under the Marquess of Hastings, on the -banks of the Sinde, in the most central part of India. Five thousand -men perished between the 15th and 20th of November, 9000 of the troops -dying altogether during this attack of the epidemic. The roads were -covered with the dying and the dead. - -A.D. 1818. This dreadful epidemic extended to Jaulnah, on the -Madras side of the Indian peninsula, and in August of the same year -it reached Bombay; in fact, it may be said to have extended itself to -every part of India, and to many of the neighbouring countries, which -are to this day suffering from it, but in a mitigated degree. In March, -10,000 perished from it in Banda and its environs. Hutta, Saugur, -Ougein, and Kotah also suffered in a similar proportion. An equal -number died of cholera in the same month in Allahabad. In April and -May, Cawnpore, Meerhut, Agra, and Delhi were attacked, and the disease -raged in these towns with great severity. About the same time, Lucknow -and Fyzabad, cities in Oude, were ravaged by it, and 30,000 perished in -Goruckpore alone. In October, the disease broke out in Madras, and in -Ceylon in the following December. During this period, it proved very -destructive to the inhabitants of the Mauritius, raged violently in -the Burmese Empire, in the kingdom of Aracan, and in the peninsula of -Molucca. Yellow pestilence also raged at the same time in the United -States, and continued the two following years, 1819 and 1820, carrying -off great numbers in many of the States, especially in New York and -Philadelphia; it was also rife in the West Indian Islands, in Bermuda, -in British Guiana, and in various parts of the South American continent. - -The year 1819 was marked by great commotions of the elements, and -a general spread of epidemic pestilence all over the world; its -prevalence was remarked in all the four quarters of the globe, each -portion having been visited by the forms of disease peculiar to its -several climates. A tract of country, the Ullah-Bund, in the Delta -of the Indus, extending nearly fifty miles in length and sixteen -in breadth, was upheaved ten feet; while adjoining districts were -depressed, and the features of the Delta completely altered. The island -of Penang, Sumatra, Singapore, the kingdom of Siam, and the isles of -France and Bourbon were infected with pestilential cholera. In the -single town of Bankok, the capital of Siam, 40,000 persons perished by -this dire destruction. - -During the year 1820 cholera extended to Tonquin, Cambogia, -Cochin-China, Southern China, Canton, the Philippines, &c. - -A.D. 1821, Xeres was visited by yellow pestilence; the British -troops suffered severely, and the civilians in greater proportion; -it prevailed also with great destruction at Cadiz, a city which -had suffered between the years 1800 and 1821, from eleven epidemic -pestilences of a similar type. (_Vide_ Professor Salva, of -Barcelona, on Yellow Fever.)--Sir James Fellows, in his reports on -the pestilential disorders of Andalusia during these years, asserts, -as before remarked, that the air from its stagnant state became so -vitiated that its noxious qualities affected even dumb animals. The -winter in America this year was mild until the end of December; the -spring was wet and cold, and the summer dry and sultry, with uncommon -heat; all vegetable productions seemed to wither, and the drought was -so great that the wells or springs were dried up; the thermometer rose -to 90° and 100° in May; and intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers, -with dysenteries, prevailed in the swampy districts. In the month of -August, yellow pestilence made its appearance at New York, and was soon -rife at Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and at Charleston; it was also -prevalent at New Orleans, Natchez, Mobile, Alabama, and the Havannah, -and extended along the low banks of the Mississippi river. From this -period until 1822, the disease, although diminished in severity, yet -carried off great numbers in the various districts. - -Destructive cholera, which may be said not to have subsided at all, -visited, this year, 1821, the island of Java, Bantam, Mendura, -Borneo, and various other parts in the Indian Archipelago. In Java -it is reported that 102,000 persons were carried off by it, 17,000 -of whom belonged to the town of Batavia, one of the most unhealthy -towns in the East. This same year, this dreadful pestilence, in the -month of July, reached Muscat in Arabia, in its western course, where -10,000 persons lost their lives, and during the remainder of the year -committed great ravages in various places in the Persian Gulf. In the -following month, August, it appeared in Persia, and raged with violence -at Bassora and at Baghdad. In Bassora, 18,000 lives, being one-third -of the population, were sacrificed in eleven days, and a similarly -fearful destruction befel Baghdad. In Bushire, where it broke out in -July, 1821, its ravages were most fearful. The bazaars were closed, the -houses abandoned, the unburied dead lay in heaps in the streets, and -the surviving population sought safety in flight. In Shiraz one-eighth -of the population perished. - -In the years 1822–24, it revisited Tonquin and also Pekin, Central -and Northern China, the Moluccas or Spice Islands, Amboyna, Macassar, -Assam, and most of the other eastern countries. In Ispahan the epidemic -did not inflict much damage, but at Erzeroom it attacked the army of -the victorious Abbas Mirza, and swept his ranks from front to rear, -the terror-stricken soldiery throwing away their arms, and flying from -before the invisible destroyer. During these years, 1822–24, extending -to 1827–29–30, this pestilence prevailed in many of the principal -cities of Persia, and also in Chinese Tartary: it ravaged most of the -populous cities of Mesopotamia, Syria, and Judæa, and reached within -150 miles of the Georgian frontiers of Russia: it was also rife at -Orenburg and Astrachan, beyond which it seems not to have extended -until the years 1828–29, when it appeared at Orenburg, the capital of -the province of that name, situated on the Tartar frontier, 400 miles -north of the Caspian Sea. During this period, disease was rife in -various other parts of the world. - -There was a great scarcity, A.D. 1822, and epidemic typhus -prevailed to a great extent in the west of Ireland, involving other -parts of that unfortunate country. An awful earthquake occurred about -this period at Chili, by which an immense tract of ground, 1000 square -miles, was elevated from two to six feet above its original level, and -a great part of the bottom of the sea remained bare and dry at high -water, with beds of oysters, mussels, and other shellfish adhering to -the rocks on which they grew. The fish being all dead, and exhaling -most offensive effluvia, disease consequently ensued. Ordinary typhus -prevailed in Paris, during which time many cases of spasmodic yellow -fever, as it was termed, were observed. - -A.D. 1823, the Laplanders are stated to have suffered greatly -in their cattle from murrain; upwards of 5000 head were carried -off,--wolves even being destroyed by it, so intense and general -among the lower animals was the distemper. Yellow fever this year -prevailed in Lisbon and in the Island of Ascension, and also in various -settlements on the African coast, especially at Sierra Leone. The -two years following, 1824–25, pestilence was rife in Lisbon. Yellow -pestilence, in the latter year, devastated many places on the coast of -South America, especially in the Brazils. Yellow fever prevailed at -Rio de Janeiro. The drought was excessive, but was succeeded by heavy -rains, common in this quarter of the globe. At one settlement alone, -Aracaty, the mortality in a short time was estimated at 30,000. Great -numbers died during their efforts to reach the coast for water; wild -as well as domestic animals perished. The drought, with its attendant -misery and deadliness, was so great, that to this day the inhabitants -speak of the calamity with horror. About this period, small-pox -committed great ravages in Hamburgh; and at Grand Cairo 30,000 persons -died of pestilence. - -A.D. 1826, epidemic typhus prevailed all over Ireland, and -caused great mortality. Dr. Graves, in his Lectures, refers to very -many well-marked cases of yellow fever. He says, “We have had this year -numerous cases which in their symptoms and their morbid anatomy agree -essentially with yellow fever,--yellow skin, black vomit, &c.” - -A.D. 1827. In the early part of this year, Groningen, -Friesland, North Holland, Belgium, and Lower Germany suffered from -epidemic influenza. The previous summer (1826) was followed by moist -weather, and the countries were damp from inundations. The epidemic -raged with such mortality, that the Dutch Government found it necessary -to adopt strong measures to relieve the sickness which affected nearly -the whole population. - -Yellow fever was prevalent in the United States; remittent fever -was also rife in various parts of England; the symptoms amounted in -severity to those of pestilence, and were such as had scarcely been -seen in England since the days of Sydenham. - -This year, a singular malady--a sort of rheumatic fever, occasioning -great agony,--broke out in the island of St. Thomas, in the West -Indies, and affected almost every one of a population amounting to -12,000 persons. It obtained from the negroes the cognomen of ‘dandy -fever.’ It proved to be an exceedingly painful disease, crippling -persons for weeks and months, and obliging them to move about on -crutches; it was, however, rarely fatal: it spread generally all -over the West Indian Islands. A similar disease prevailed the year -following, A.D. 1828, in Paris, and was considered by the -Parisians as being of an extraordinary character. A writer thus -describes the malady:--It was generally unaccompanied with any great -degree of fever, but affected the whole nervous system in a most -peculiar manner; especially by a most painful sense of formication -in the hands and feet, as well as a degree of numbness which seized -first upon the members, and thence extended over the whole body. -The formication and painful numbness of the extremities were so -characteristic of the complaint, that at Paris and elsewhere in France -it was known by the name of ‘mal des pieds et des mains.’ - -The cellular tissue, in this disease, became affected after a while; -the hands and feet swelled, and œdema attacked the face and several -other parts of the frame: immense numbers suffered from it in France. -The sensations were compared to those caused by the punctures from -the points of a thousand needles, or of some such sharp instrument; -an intense degree of heat aggravated the sufferings, and many could -scarcely move their body or extremities without great agony; cramps and -spasmodic contractions were present in many cases; the digestive organs -were greatly disordered, and symptoms of cholera morbus were sometimes -developed in the course of the disease; eruptions of various kinds -occurred on the body; sleep was prevented by excessive pain and general -disturbance of the system; delirium sometimes supervened; the sight -and hearing, and the sense of smell, were altogether lost in some, but -in others only partially impaired. In some, convalescence followed in -a few weeks; in others, not until several months had elapsed. Great -numbers fell victims to the malady, and many perished ultimately from -its sequelæ. - -This year, A.D. 1828, Gibraltar was again visited by yellow -pestilence, which attacked both the military and civilians; it -commenced in the month of September; it broke out among, and was -for some time confined to, the filthiest and most crowded parts, or -districts, on the rock, but it ultimately seized on all ranks and -classes of society. It was observed to prevail to a greater extent and -more severely in some situations than in others, particularly along -the line of wall facing the sea,--few of the soldiers stationed there -escaping an attack, so that it was soon found necessary to withdraw -the sentries stationed in the neighbourhood. From this period to 1834, -there was great famine in Italy; the seasons were moist and hot; -repeated inundations occurred there, and south winds and summer fogs -prevailed. The French army encamped before the city of Naples lost -great numbers by pestilence. A disease called ‘la trousse galante’ -carried off immense numbers in France. There were during this period -great failures of the crops in England and elsewhere in Europe, -occasioned by wet and mild winters, followed by hot summers: epidemic -pestilence was the consequence. - -The breaking out of epidemic pestilence in Orenburg, in August, A.D. -1829, was attended with some extraordinary phenomena,--the atmosphere -was suddenly filled with dense masses of small green flies, which -in Asia are looked upon as the forerunners of pestilence, and are -therefore called plague-flies; the streets swarmed with these insects, -and on quitting their houses, the inhabitants were literally covered -from head to foot with them. - -A.D. 1830. A blight or disease, this year, made its appearance -in the potato and other crops in various parts of Germany, in Ireland, -and in America. In 1832, it was more general and severe in some -situations than in others. - -Cholera about this period showed itself on the borders of the Black -Sea, penetrating thence into the centre of European Russia, where it -continued throughout the winter. Towards the beginning of autumn, it -commenced with great violence in the Georgian frontier of Persia, -having appeared in June, 1830, in the Persian province of Ghilan, -on the Caspian shore; from the southern parts of which it extended -northward, along the west Caspian shore, until it reached Baku, Tiflis, -Astrachan, and numerous other places, in its progress into the very -heart of the Russian empire. At Astrachan, from July to the end of -August, 4000 died in the city, and 21,270 in the entire province. 2367 -persons died of it in Saratov; and shortly afterwards, of 1792 Don -Cossacks attacked, 1334 perished. At Penza, situate about 140 miles -north of Saratov, 1200 of the population were seized in the course of -a fortnight, and 800 sunk under it. At Nischnei Novgorod, where the -epidemic soon afterwards broke out, 1863 persons were taken ill, of -whom nearly a thousand died. The mortality in Bessarabia and Moldavia -was appalling: Jassi, the capital of Moldavia, was almost depopulated. -This insatiable malady continued to spread, carrying death in its -course westward and northward, through Russia, Poland, Moldavia, the -duchy of Posen, Silesia, and Austria, visiting Warsaw, with other towns -in Poland, and extending, May, 1831, to Riga and Dantzic; and in June -and July to St. Petersburgh and Cronstadt: it reached Berlin on the -last day of August, Vienna in September, and Hamburgh on the 7th of -October. - -A.D. 1831, cholera followed the Russian army employed in -the subjugation of Poland; it also proved very destructive in Warsaw -and in many other places during the months of April and May. In June -it prevailed in Cracow and other adjoining places, extending in its -course to Gallicia, Hungary, Smyrna, and Constantinople; it raged with -such intensity at Cairo, that 10,400 Mahomedans, besides Jews and -Christians, were carried off. During this year, whilst cholera was -progressing over the continent of Europe, it appeared at Mecca, where -it proved very destructive to the ‘Hadji,’ or pilgrims. In August, it -broke out at Alexandria, and nearly at the same time all the towns in -the Delta of the Nile suffered from its violence. This year, when the -pestilence was at its height at Baghdad, the population of the city was -computed to be 80,000; of this number, 7000 perished during the first -fortnight: the epidemic continued to increase in severity, until the -maximum rate of mortality for some days was 5000 daily: 50,000 are -supposed to have been carried off in this devoted city during the two -months it was devastated by this awful pestilence. In destructiveness -it was equal to any former visitation on record; it was, however, to be -attributed, not so much to the effects of pestilential miasmata, as to -concurring circumstances which obliged the inhabitants to congregate -densely in particular parts of the city. The rivers Euphrates and -Tigris are flooded twice in the year, first in the spring, from the -melting of the snow in the mountains of Armenia, and afterwards in -the autumn, from the periodical rains. The country round about was -inundated, this year, to an uncommon degree, beyond any traditional -example,--the lower part of the country particularly. At Baghdad the -waters were for a time kept from bursting into the town by means of -the walls, but on the night of the 26th of April a part thereof on -the north-west side of the city was undermined, and fell. The waters -immediately rushed in and caused the destruction of about 7000 houses, -burying 15,000 persons in the ruins: many of these were lying sick -of the pestilence; and there was besides a large number of unburied -dead. In consequence of the daily fall or partial ruin of houses from -the encroachments of the waters before their subsidence occurred, the -inhabitants were crowded together, and from being deprived of their -usual resources for the disposal of their dead, the sickening horrors -of the pestilence were accumulated tenfold before the eyes of the -unfortunate survivors, and thus constituted an additional aggravation -of their sufferings. The burial-places were laid under water, and while -the disposition and power lasted to bury their dead, every open space, -says an eye-witness,--the streets, the courtyards of mosques, and even -stables,--were turned up to furnish graves. In one stable-yard, which -the terrace of our house overlooked, says the same writer, nearly one -hundred graves were opened, and filled in the course of one day and a -half; it was a fearful sight indeed to see the uncoffined dead brought -in barrows and on the backs of asses, and laid upon the ground, till -the graves were made ready for them. As the mortality increased, the -dead were thrown out into the streets, and were greedily devoured by -the ravenous dogs which swarm in all the cities of the East. He did -much, then, who took the dead of his household to the river side and -threw them in. The pressure of famine was also greatly felt,--the -inundation cut off all supplies from the country round about; no fresh -provisions of any kind could be had, and although the higher classes, -who generally had a stock of corn on hand, were preserved from absolute -want, nevertheless respectable persons were seen in crowds begging from -door to door for food. - -To continue: about the month of May, an epidemic disease made its -appearance in Paris, which on comparison presented symptoms analogous -to those of the epidemic pestilence described by Sauvages as occurring -A.D. 1743, and also to that described by Ruyoux, A.D. 1762. The term -‘la grippe’ was thought applicable to it. - -As occurred in the epidemics of which we have spoken, and as has been -observed in former times, and noted by Rivére, Senertus, Sydenham, -Loes, Huxham, and many others, a remarkable analogy was noticed between -the ‘medical constitution’ which had existed for some months past, -and the development of this epidemic. All authors who have given -descriptions of catarrhal epidemics similar to that of which we are -writing, agree in saying that they have almost invariably followed cold -and moist seasons, and that they seemed more immediately to be produced -by sudden atmospheric vicissitudes. - -These facts harmonize with those observed in Paris. The malady -commenced with symptoms of coryza, attended by cough and snuffling; -dyspnea, with severe bronchial irritation, supervened, when the -paroxysm all at once became greatly aggravated. One symptom was -remarked as being pretty general and prominent, viz., a feeling of -lassitude and fatigue of the limbs, with more or less great moral -prostration: the disease was not very fatal, and generally lasted -for eight or ten days. During this period an extraordinary epidemic -prevailed at a village called Mandroros, in Russia,--gangrene of the -spleen. From the singular nature of this disease, a description will -probably be found interesting. It commenced without any premonitory -symptoms; the patient was suddenly seized with a feeling of burning -at the pit of the stomach, accompanied by an insupportable pain in -the left hypochondria; lassitude, with vomiting of a greenish bitter -fluid, bowels naturally active, urine scanty, loss of appetite, and -laborious respiration. Putrid appearances supervened in the course of a -few hours, followed by meteorismus, borborygmi, yellowness of the skin, -and of the scleroticæ; facies Hippocratica, cramps, cold extremities, -and death. This disease, it is said, was not contagious, but epidemic, -and it is further stated to have resembled that which was called ‘the -plague of Siberia.’ After death, decomposition of the corpses took -place rapidly, a black spot first appearing over the splenic region. -Necrotomy showed the spleen in an engorged and gangrenous condition. - -In October, 1831, cholera made its appearance in Sunderland, and a -month after in Newcastle-upon-Tyne; it visited Houghton-le-Spring, -North Shields, Tynemouth, South Shields, Gateshead, and other places. -The first appearance of it in London is reported to have taken place in -the following year, 1832, in the month of February, in the immediate -vicinity of the shipping; but solitary cases were met with in the close -filthy quarters of the very poor, early in December. In Scotland it had -made its appearance previously about Christmas; and in the following -January, Leith and Edinburgh suffered greatly. During this period -it broke out in France, Holland, and in the peninsula generally. In -the summer of 1832 cholera prevailed throughout England, Scotland, -Ireland, and Wales, and in the Channel Islands, Jersey, Guernsey, &c., -and also among the emigrants arriving at Quebec; from the latter city -it extended to Montreal, Kingston on the Lake Ontario, and to the -surrounding neighbourhood. Soon afterwards, New York and Albany, in -the United States, were attacked, and in due time the disease extended -to Philadelphia, to Newcastle on the Delaware river, and to many other -parts of the United States; it raged at New Orleans, as did also yellow -fever: it made its appearance at the Havannah in the month of July, -1833. During the spring of that year influenza spread over every part -of Great Britain and Ireland: it had raged previously in Russia and the -northern parts of Germany, where it had inflicted great mortality in -its course. - -On the 26th of March, Paris was again invaded by cholera, and the -inhabitants of Calais also suffered greatly; in Paris, at least 20,000 -persons had fallen victims to this scourge by the end of September. -During this year and the following, it raged throughout Spain, and was -especially destructive in Madrid. Numerous places on the borders of the -Mediterranean were visited by this pestilence, and it re-appeared in -London and in other places in this country, as well as in North America. - -From the year 1833 to 1838, plague raged with great violence, carrying -off vast numbers, in Constantinople, Cairo, Alexandria, and Smyrna. - -A.D. 1834, cholera was rife at Gibraltar; it extended to the rock, and -no one seems to have escaped the disease. A singular phenomenon, a -shower of fish, was noticed on the 17th of May in the neighbourhood of -Allahabad. The zemindars of the village have furnished the following -particulars, which were confirmed by other accounts:--About noon, the -wind being from the west, and a few distant clouds visible, there was -a blast of high wind accompanied with much dust, of a reddish yellow -colour, with which the atmosphere was greatly charged. The blast -appeared to extend in breadth about 400 yards; immense trees and large -buildings were thrown down, and when the storm had passed away, the -ground all about the village was found strewed with small fish to the -extent of two bijahs: the fish were all of the chalwa species (_clopea -cultrata_, Shakespeare Dictionary); they were a span or rather less -in length, and from one sear to one and a half in weight; when found -they were all dead and dry. The Jumna runs about three miles south of -the village, and the Ganges fourteen W. by E. The fish were not fit -for eating, and it was said that when put in the pan for dressing they -turned into blood! - -The writer of a history of cholera, published in the ‘Lancet,’ says: -“From the earliest times it has been a matter of common observation -that plagues and murrains among the lower animals not unfrequently -either preceded or accompanied the visitations to which mankind were -subjected. Thus, at the siege of Troy, we are told by Homer: - - μετὰ δ’ ἰὸν ἔηκε· - Δεινὴ δὲ κλαγγὴ γένετ’ ἀργύρεοιο βιοῖο. - Οὐρῆας μὲν πρῶtον ἐπῴχετο, καὶ κύνας ἀργούς· - Αὐτὰρ ἔπειτ’ αὐτοîσι βέλος ἐχεπευκὲς ἐφιεἰς - Βάλλ’.” - -In India, we are informed that poultry and dogs frequently perished -during the prevalence of cholera, and with similar symptoms. At -Marienburgh, in Prussia, in the year 1831, the fish in the large ponds -in that government are all said to have perished during the prevalence -of the epidemic, and forty tons of them were buried from the single -pond of Dinperburgh. In Warsaw, some examples of a disease resembling -cholera were also noticed among the lower animals. - -In the beginning of this year, A.D. 1834, the Egyptian -dominions of the Pasha suffered greatly from the ravages of pestilence -or plague. It first appeared in Alexandria, where it was reported to -have been brought from Malta: sanitary precautions were adopted, but -the prejudices of the people rendered them unavailing, and they were -consequently abandoned as being useless. By the end of February, the -deaths in Alexandria amounted to 200 daily. The disease then extended -to Grand Cairo, and soon after stretched up the valley of the Nile, -sweeping off the greater part of the population. In the month of March, -the deaths were computed to be from 300 to 400 daily at Cairo; in -May they had increased to nearly 2000. The town of Fua, situated on -the banks of the Nile, containing a population of 2500 inhabitants, -was stated to have lost 1800 in a very short period. The distemper -disappeared as the year advanced, but its ravages, together with the -long-continued military exertions of the Pasha, left Egypt almost -depopulated. - -In the early part of the year 1835, there happened an eruption of -Vesuvius, which has been thus described by an eye-witness:--A new -crater having burst out, a stream of red-hot lava issued therefrom, in -the direction of Castelmare, spreading itself over several miles in a -few hours’ time, its course being marked by flames rising in volumes -from the ground over which it flowed. The intense heat occasioned by -this body of fire was felt at Sorrento. The same year, an earthquake -was experienced in South America on the 20th of February; it caused -the destruction of the cities of Talar and Carico, with the towns of -Conquenes, Linares, and Chillian: not a house was left standing in a -place called Conception, and the workmen who were engaged repairing -the cathedral of that city were buried in the ruins. In the month -of June, hail and thunderstorms did much damage in various parts of -England; on the 9th, 10th, and 11th, different parts of the country -suffered greatly; the destruction of glass in the neighbourhood of -Cambridge, on the 9th, was estimated at £2000. In Newmarket a similar -loss of property occurred. In Durham the lightning struck the western -tower of the cathedral, and hurled down an immense mass of stone, -which, alighting upon the pavement beneath, was dashed into innumerable -fragments, at the moment when a party of students belonging to the -university, who had been inspecting a monument recently erected, -alarmed by the crash, rushed from the cathedral; two of the party were -killed instantly by the falling ruin, and ten others were severely -wounded. About this period, in the month of January, the little village -of Raffhaten, on the frontiers of Wallachia, was the locality in which -there occurred the singular phenomenon of a shower of meteorolites: -about 6 A.M., on the 29th of January, the inhabitants were -aroused from sleep by a noise as of a heavy shower of hail, which was -immediately succeeded by a violent crashing of windows; great was the -astonishment subsequently to find that the earth, for the space of -nearly two leagues in circumference, was covered with a vast number of -small stones, the smallest of them being about a quarter of an inch -in diameter, while the largest were about the size of a marble; they -were of a light slate colour, and very heavy, as much so as pieces of -metal of the same size; when put into the fire, they burnt like coal, -emitting a considerable quantity of gas at the same time. - -On the 10th of August the shock of an earthquake was felt in different -parts of the county of Lancaster: at Clitheroe two shocks were -experienced,--the first, occurring about twelve at night, was slight; -the second happened about half-past three in the morning; a rumbling -noise like distant thunder was first heard, and was instantaneously -followed by a violent shaking of the doors, windows, and furniture in -all the houses in the district; many persons started from their beds -in great terror, and rushed into the streets. It was felt at Downham, -Wisewell, Pendleton, Milton, Waddington, and in all the surrounding -villages to Blackpool. The shock was also felt at Liverpool, at -Ulverstone, Kendal, Garstang, Preston, and Blackburn, where it caused -serious and general alarm. - -Cholera, this year, 1835, was rife at Leghorn, where it carried off -sixty or seventy persons daily. On the 25th of August, Odessa suffered -from a severe shock of an earthquake; it was first felt about five -in the afternoon, when a thick smoke of vapour arose at the foot of -Mount Ard-scheh (on the side of which Kassarich is situated), from -which columns of flames burst with a tremendous noise; it was like the -eruption of a volcano. At the same moment the earth was felt to rock, -and a terrible earthquake began, the shocks of which continued for -seven successive hours, accompanied with heavy thunder; persons felt -as though they were on the ocean when agitated violently by a storm: -about two thousand houses were thrown down; confusion and terror were -at their height; the inhabitants fled into the country, but many were -overtaken in their flight and buried in the ruins: an incredible number -thus perished. Up to the 1st of September, there were three or four -shocks daily, but of a trifling nature, doing but little mischief. -About this time the inhabitants of Kassarich, who had taken up their -abode in the fields, or fled into the villages, were able to return -to the town; all the villages to the distance of more than 140 miles -had suffered dreadfully; a great number of lives had been lost in -most of them, and many houses and other property had been destroyed. -The following are those who suffered the most;--at Tanlusia upwards -of sixty houses were thrown down, and many lives lost; great numbers -were killed at Tapirarchi, and Kerwer suffered greatly. The village -of Mantzofir was that which suffered the most. In Welekes only one -house was left standing, and great numbers lost their lives. Wersan -was completely swallowed up, as was also Kumetzi, on the site of which -a great lake afterwards arose. This year, 1835, may be said to have -been marked by a series of commotions; for in the month of November, in -the middle of the night, an earthquake was felt generally throughout -Calabria, Citra, &c.; it was followed by ten shocks at intervals. In -the midst of these commotions, Castiglioni, a commune in the district -of Cosenza, was levelled with the ground, and the greater part of the -population met an untimely death. The small village of Bonello shared -a similar fate. In Leppano, in Ronda, in Casole, and various other -places, great sufferings from the falling of the houses were endured. -Epidemics were prevalent all this year and the year following, 1836, -in various parts of the globe. In Europe, America (North and South), -and in the greater part of the West Indian Islands, an apoplectic, -pernicious fever, as it was termed, was prevalent in the northern -hemisphere. - -A.D. 1836. For two days the weather was exceedingly -boisterous, and the wind blowing hard from the north-east. On Sunday, -the 1st of May, the stormy winds increased, the land was darkened with -heavy clouds of dust, and the Thames all day appeared as rough as a -troubled sea. The effects of the storm were visible both on the land -and sea: numbers of houses were unroofed, and nursery gardens, with -other property, destroyed. - -On the 18th of October, at about eight in the evening, the heavens -presented one of the most splendid of those phenomena known as the -‘auroræ boreales,’ or northern lights. There first appeared a large -luminous arch extending nearly from north to south, from which -streamers extended very low in the sky, running from north-east to -south-west, and increasing in number until they began to approach the -zenith, apparently with an accelerated velocity. Suddenly the whole -hemisphere was covered with them. This splendid scene, however, lasted -only about forty seconds: the variety of colours disappeared, and the -beams lost their lateral motion, and were converted, as is usual, into -flashing radiations, which kept diminishing in splendour until the -whole disappeared, leaving only a pale white light near the horizon. - -A.D. 1837, cholera prevailed at Rome, causing great mortality, -from 200 to 300 dying daily. Of the frightful mortality of this dire -scourge one writer states, that in the Indian peninsula, from the years -1817 to 1830, of a population numbering somewhat more than 4,000,000, -1,800,000 became victims. Another author gives the following summary of -the numbers carried off during this pestilential period:-- - -At Erivan and Tauris one-fourth of the population were destroyed. In -Syria its ravages were extremely varied; in some localities, one-half -of the populace were carried off; whilst in others, as in Tripoli, -only one in about 200 died. At Tiflis, three-fourths of those seized -perished; at Astrachan, two-thirds were carried off. Out of 16,000 -attacked in the province of Caucasus, 10,000 fell victims; at Moscow, -one-half, and at Orenburg only one-fifth of the inhabitants perished. -Out of 54,000 and upwards attacked in the Russian provinces, more than -31,000 died. In Hungary, 400,000 were said to have been seized, and -more than half were destroyed. In this country (England) and in Wales, -according to the Tables furnished by Dr. Merriman, from the Reports -sent in for the Privy Council, out of 62,000 attacked, 20,578 died. -In Ireland, out of 54,552 who were taken ill, 21,171 fell victims. -In the countries of Asia not subject to European dominion, the data -respecting the ravages of this disease were extremely vague and scanty, -although there is reason to believe that in some of them they were more -extensive than in India. - -Yellow fever prevailed in various parts of the United States from -the year 1834 until 1839, especially in Charleston. The causes were -supposed to have been dependent on the extreme heat of the summer,--the -elevation of temperature having been greatly beyond what was ever -before known. The town was also crowded by strangers, who were employed -to rebuild the city after its conflagration: they were badly lodged; -and, in consequence of the high wages that were given, an immense -number of dissolute and intemperate persons were attracted to the city. -It was chiefly among this class that the disease prevailed. - -A.D. 1837, influenza appeared in London in the first week -in January, the weather during the preceding four months having been -singularly wet, cold, and stormy; large quantities of snow having -fallen and collected on the ground, even in the streets of London, -where it lay for weeks together. The evaporation of the cold water, -the result of the succeeding thaw, rendered the air cold and damp -for a long time. In the month of November, this year, a hurricane of -great violence occurred from the south-west. On Christmas-day there -was a storm of wind and snow simultaneously all over the west of -Europe,--snow having fallen even in the streets of Lisbon and Palermo: -it fell so heavily in England, that it impeded intercourse throughout -the country. It was remarkable that snow fell at Canton in February, a -thing unknown to the oldest inhabitants. The French army marching upon -Constantina, in Algiers, suffered severely from three days of incessant -snow. Tremendous hurricanes were experienced about this period over -every part of the European and American seas. The weather in England -was uncertain and fluctuating from Christmas to the middle of February, -when influenza broke out: its duration in London was six or seven -weeks; half the population were attacked, and the ordinary rates of -mortality during this time were very nearly doubled. The aged and the -very young were those who principally suffered. The inhabitants of -Russia, Sweden, and Denmark suffered greatly. In Copenhagen, according -to Dr. Otto, at least 30,000 were labouring under the disease at one -time, in the month of January. Influenza was rife also in Scotland, -where it was observed earlier than in England, and it broke out -generally in the northern and eastern parts of England before it showed -itself in the southern and western. Paris was visited by this epidemic -a month later than London, the disease having previously prevailed in -Calais and other intervening places. It broke out with great severity -in the northern coast of Spain, being aggravated by the events of the -civil war then raging in Biscay and Navarre. An epidemic having the -character of the influenza of the northern hemisphere was also rife at -Sydney and the Cape of Good Hope in the latter part of the year 1836. - -Towards the latter end of March, 1838, yellow fever broke out among -the garrison and the inhabitants in the island of Ascension, and -committed great ravages. The disease was preceded by heavy rains for -several days: large collections of water formed in consequence, which -evaporated under the influence of a burning sun. One of the most -extensive of these occurred in a foul and offensive site, surrounded -by low dwelling-houses occupied by Portuguese prisoners, the majority -of whom were attacked. The men employed in pumping out this water, -complained much of its offensive effluvium; they also suffered from -the fever, and that most severely. The epidemic extended to the crews -of several ships of war which touched at the island, and many of the -seamen and officers perished. - -A.D. 1839. In the month of February, an epidemic pestilence -broke out, and proceeded with the rapidity of lightning at Mount St. -Bernard. It was characterized by typhoid symptoms, and attended by a -lengthened delirium, with occasional short, lucid intervals; out of -one family consisting of twenty-one individuals, three only survived: -it was confined exclusively to those living on the mountain. Epidemic -erysipelas raged with great intensity at Algiers during this period; -epidemic disease also prevailed in the district of Coulommiers in -France, termed ‘sudor miliaris.’ The premonitory symptoms varied very -generally: some of those attacked, when they awoke, found themselves -inundated with perspiration; in some, the disease was preceded for -some days by prostration of strength, with pains in the joints, &c.: -a prominent symptom was a pain and sensation of smothering in the -epigastric region; this feeling was greater or less in proportion -to the quantity of perspiration, which in some was so profuse that -on lifting up the bed-clothes a dense vapour was seen to arise: an -eruption appeared after the third or fourth day; ten days after, -the epidermis became wrinkled and fell off in the shape of scaly -furfuraceous matter. The most fatal cases were those in which agonizing -pains were experienced at the epigastrium. The autopsiæ exhibited -vesicular eruptions in the intestinal canal. Petechial fever was very -prevalent at St. Petersburgh this year (1839); it affected persons -in a peculiar manner; during their illness, there was no delirium or -appearance of disorder of the intellectual faculties; they spoke and -acted sensibly, but after the subsidence of the malady, towards the end -of the third or fourth week, they awoke as it were to a consciousness -of their condition. Measles also raged epidemically. Yellow fever, -this year (1839), was very destructive at Galveston in the republic of -Texas. - -A.D. 1840, blight appeared in Germany among the crops, -especially the potato; it prevailed to so great an extent, Dr. Martius -reports, as to cause a very serious alarm, and even to threaten the -total extinction of that esculent. At the same time, the island of -Arran, with other parts of the Highlands of Scotland, suffered from a -similar disease among the potato crops: it prevailed there from 1839 to -1842, destroying at least half the vegetation. - -A.D. 1841, plague raged in Syria, and at Erzeroum with great -violence. During this period, extending to the year following, 1842, -an epidemic religious ecstasy, as it was called, prevailed in Sweden. -This singular epidemic malady was distinguished by two prominent and -remarkable symptoms,--one physical, consisting of spasm, or involuntary -contractions or contortions, &c.; the other, mental, being an ecstasy, -more or less involuntary, during which the patients fancied themselves -divinely inspired, and felt impelled to speak of supernatural things -which they fancied they saw; they were occasionally moved to preach. It -was the female portion of the community that suffered most. Anything -offensive to the mind re-acted convulsively on the body, causing a -sort of chorea, which it was attempted to distinguish or divide into -two distinct forms of the disease, called mental and physical chorea. -Several thousand persons were attacked by the disease; it was rarely -fatal. Persons who had been affected, when convalescing, felt languid -and debilitated, both in body and mind. Yellow fever at this period -was fatal at Key West, East Florida, in the United States. Early in -1841 remittent fever occurred among the crew of the ‘Wanderer’ a ship -belonging to the Royal Navy, chiefly among the boats’ crews who had -been employed in the rivers Nunez and Pongos. Seventy persons were -taken ill, and nine died. In the course of this year, remittent fever -prevailed in many other Queen’s ships employed on the African coast to -put down the slave trade. - -A.D. 1843. Blight seized on the potato crop this year -throughout the United States, and also in British America. Epidemic -erysipelas, known by the popular name of ‘the black tongue,’ broke -out in November, 1843, in Ripley county, United States, and traversed -most of the townships of the Delaware, Dearborn county, &c. This -disease, Dr. Sutton says, “has either assumed several characters, or -we have several epidemics traversing the country together: one was -erysipelas connected with cynanche tonsillaris, or swelling of some -of the lymphatic glands in the throat; and another was considered to -be a typhoid pneumonia, sometimes accompanied by enlargement of the -axillary glands. These two diseases,” continued the writer, “have -been so intimately connected in my practice, that it has been a -question to me whether the last was not a pulmonic erysipelas, the -premonitory symptoms in each disease being alike, the character of -the fever in each being the same, and it was often the case that one -form of the disease changed into that of the other. The disease was -not generally fatal.” Boston, in the autumn of this year, was visited -by an epidemic fever; it prevailed also at a place called Erie in -the county of New York, during the months of October and November. -This little town, or rather settlement, Erie, is made up of some -half-dozen houses, containing a population of forty-three persons, of -which number twenty-eight were seized between the 19th November and -7th December, ten of them dying of the disease. Some disputes existed -in this little community, and the generality of them were of opinion -that the wells had been poisoned by some evil-disposed persons: there -was not, however, the least foundation for any such supposition. The -disease commenced with rigors, chills, pain in the loins and head; -typhoid symptoms supervened, the tongue becoming brown and dry; low -muttering delirium was noticed, also a cough, with expectoration of a -muco-purulent character. Another small town which about this period -was visited by a very fatal disease, yellow fever, is an inland -settlement in Wilkinson county, Mississippi, containing a population -of 750 inhabitants. It is situated about forty miles from Natchez, on -high ground, 340 feet above the level or bank of the Mississippi with -a gradual slope in all directions; there is no creek, pond, or low -land near the town,--in short, on a review of the town and surrounding -country, it would be pronounced to be one of the most eligible sites -in the south for a healthy settlement. At the time there was no yellow -fever prevalent at New Orleans,--in fact, there had not been any case -of the disease in any place along the river; consequently it could not -have been imported. Nearly every one in the town was seized; and the -mortality was great, seven to ten dying daily in so small a population -for the first week. The disease was very rapid in its progress; the -patients were suddenly seized with violent pains in the head and loins, -and with burning fever; in a short time vomiting of a blackish fluid, -similar to coffee-grounds, ensued, and in a few hours death closed the -scene. - -A.D. 1842 and 1843, cholera in a sporadic form raged with -considerable violence in many parts of Persia, continuing at intervals -during the two subsequent years. - -A.D. 1844, yellow pestilence committed great ravages at Goree, -in Senegal. - -During the year 1845, the blight among the potatoes spread rapidly -through Germany, Holland, Belgium, the northern parts of France, and -over the greater portion of England, Scotland, and Ireland. This -pestilence re-appeared the year following, 1846. A phenomenon worthy of -notice was observed during the prevalence of this disease,--to wit, the -existence of a mist or fogs immediately previous to the blight in the -crops. In Holland, a thick stinking mist, which extended very widely, -was observed in 1845, antecedent to the potato blight. M. Petit states -that it was generally remarked in France that the disease made its -appearance after a fog. In England the same phenomenon was observed. - -In the spring of 1845 remittent fever broke out on board the ‘Eclair,’ -while on the coast of Africa; the first persons attacked being those -who had been engaged in boat-service. The vessel at the time lay off -the Sherbro’ river, and the boats had been employed for some time -exploring its creeks, and those in the Seabar branch of that river. -The disease continued to spread among the boats’ crews; and after a -while those seamen who had not been out of the ship became subject to -the fever, which committed such fearful ravages among them that at -last the ‘Eclair’ was ordered home as a _dernier ressort_. The -disease then presented all the characters of genuine yellow fever. On -the voyage, the ‘Eclair,’ after having been refused pratique at Goree, -put in at Boa Vista, one of the Cape de Verd Islands, where the crew -were landed, and stayed some days; but the epidemic continued to seize -its victims, and the crew consequently, both the sick and sound, were -again received on board, and the vessel got under weigh for England. -Before she reached Madeira, Captain Estcourt, Dr. M’Clure, and Mr. -Hartmann, the assistant surgeon, died, Mr. Machonchy, the surgeon to -the ship, expiring the day after. Mr. Sydney Bernard, assistant surgeon -of the ‘Growler,’ having volunteered his services, was appointed in -Mr. Machonchy’s place, and performed his duties to the last. On the -arrival of this floating pest-house in England, pratique was refused, -and the healthy, the sick, and the dying were all kept on board. The -result was the loss of several more lives, the disease not ceasing -until about a fortnight after her arrival at the Motherbank. Mr. Sydney -Bernard and Lieutenant Isaacson, the officer in command, were among its -latest victims. The deaths on board from the endemic, from first to -last, amounted to seventy-four. Fever prevailed very extensively in Boa -Vista, after the departure of the ‘Eclair,’ and was very fatal; great -numbers of the inhabitants were attacked. - -In 1846, during the march of the Mormon worshippers across the desert, -on their road to the new state of Deseret or Utah, after their -expulsion from Nauvoo, they were greatly afflicted by endemic disease, -chiefly remittent and yellow fevers. In one camp alone, 31 per cent. -suffered, and the road was marked throughout with the graves of those -who perished. They also suffered much from a kind of strange scorbutic -disease, which they named the ‘black canker,’ and which was frequently -fatal. - -At this time it was remarked, a few days before disease fastened on the -potatoes, that a dense cloud, resembling a thick fog, overspread the -entire country; it differed from a common fog in being quite dry and -having a disagreeable odour. - -To continue: this year and the following, 1847, epidemic remittent -fever was prevalent in Scotland. In Glasgow it was noticed that a -remarkable change had taken place in the epidemic constitution. -Exanthematous typhus--a sort of continued fever, characterized along -with other symptoms by an eruption over the body resembling measles, -running a course on an average of twenty-one days, carrying off -about 10 per cent.,--was supplanted by a remittent fever, sometimes -attended with petechiæ, but not with the measly eruption: it was also -often accompanied by jaundice. Epistaxis was very frequent; when the -disease occurred in women about the menstrual period, the discharge was -universally copious, and very many women in a state of pregnancy, who -were seized with the malady, aborted; a crisis generally was formed on -the seventh day; relapses were frequent,--in fact, almost invariable -under any and every precaution: the mortality amounted to about 3½ per -cent.; about 15,000 persons fell victims to this disease, principally -those residing in the ill-ventilated and filthy parts of the town,--the -poor and distressed. The smallness of the mortality compared with the -severity of the symptoms, and the debility it left behind, was a matter -of surprise. This malady appears to have been very similar to that -which prevailed in Dublin in 1826. Rutty, in his diseases of Dublin -during forty years, mentions several epidemics which resembled the -malady at Glasgow. They occurred in 1740, 1745, 1764, and 1765. There -is also some resemblance between this fever and that which prevailed in -Dublin in 1816, as reported by Dr. Stokes. - -In the early part of 1845 cholera prevailed with great violence -along the banks of the Indus, and about the same period proved very -destructive in Afghanistan. Thence it extended into Persia, traversing -that country from east to west, spread northwards into Tartary, and -southwards into Kurdistan, and also into the pashalic of Baghdad. In -September it prevailed at Herat and Samarcand, and in the November -following at Bokhara. The extreme malignancy of the disease may be -understood by the description given of many of the cases. “Those who -were attacked dropped suddenly down in a state of lethargy, and at the -end of two or three hours expired without any convulsions or vomiting, -but from complete stagnation of the blood, which no remedies could -restore to circulation.” - -During this period there took place in Kurrachee, near the mouth of -the Indus, the most terrific outburst of the pestilence that can be -conceived, which in the course of a few days swept off 8000 victims. -The description given by an eye-witness of the scene at Kurrachee, as -Dr. Gavin Milroy says (in his very excellent pamphlet on cholera), is -so full of fearful and instructive interest, as regards some of the -most striking characters of pestilential visitations, that we cannot -withhold a brief account of its leading particulars:-- - -The heat had been intense during the first fortnight in June, but the -station remained tolerably healthy. On Sunday, the 14th, the atmosphere -was more than usually stagnant and oppressive; one correspondent -who was present says, “The very heavens seemed drawn down upon our -shoulders; the feeling was suffocating.” A dark portentous-looking -cloud crept up the sky as the troops were proceeding to church, and -a sudden gust of wind threatened the building: it passed away almost -as suddenly as it came; and when the worshippers retired, the air was -as still as when they assembled. At the same hour did the pestilence -appear; before midnight nine soldiers of the 86th regiment were dead, -and men began to be brought to the hospital in such numbers, that -it was difficult to make arrangements for their reception; it was a -fearful night. With morning, came the tidings that the pestilence -was overspreading the town, and that fifty persons had already fallen -victims to its deadly poison. How awful must have been the rapidity -of the attack, when we learn that sometimes, within little more than -five minutes, hale and hearty men were seized, cramped, collapsed, -and dead! Men attending the burial of their comrades were attacked, -carried to the hospital, and were themselves buried the next morning. -Pits were dug in the churchyard, morning and evening; sewn up in their -bedding, and coffinless, the dead were laid side by side, one service -being read over all! For the next five days it raged with appalling -fury; it then abated in its intensity, but continued to hover about the -place for another week. Within less than a fortnight, 900 Europeans, -including 815 fighting men, were swept away. Besides these, 600 native -soldiers and 7000 of the camp-followers and inhabitants of the town had -been hurried into eternity. About this time, a virulent fever raged at -Sukkur, about 180 miles from Kurrachee, which proved fatal in a few -hours. Hyderabad, intermediate between the two places, was visited -almost immediately afterwards by cholera. Mr. Alexander Thom, surgeon -of the 86th regiment, at the time of the explosion at Kurrachee, thus -expresses himself: “I have witnessed disease of a severe and fatal -kind, and cholera itself in an apparently grave form, but I never could -have anticipated, even in India, its appearance in so appalling a -shape as that in which it was recently developed in the 86th regiment: -it burst forth almost literally like a thunder-clap, followed by a -lethiferous blast, proving almost instantaneously fatal.” - -A.D. 1846, fearful mortality from famine and epidemic -pestilence occurred in Gallicia: during the first half-year, 1234 -deaths occurred, and for the like period in the subsequent year the -mortality was 5188! During this time the weather was distressingly hot -in Canada, North America, the thermometer frequently standing 96° and -98°; numbers were carried off daily by fever. Epidemic cholera, after -raging with very great violence for two years in Persia, towards the -end of the summer of 1846, broke out at Tauris and Teheran, and during -the autumn advanced to places nearer to the Russian frontiers. On the -16th of November, 1846, cases occurred at the village of Ialiany, and -also in the same month at Leukoran; and it is worthy of remark, that -these were the places first attacked in 1830. The disease also appeared -at Bakrou, and advanced in December to Schêmakha and Derbent; and in -the month of February, 1847, to the town of Konba. Its appearance at -Ialiany and in the district of Talysch was marked with that malignity -which for the most part characterizes the commencement of cholera. We -observe at Ialiany a remarkable instance of the influence of the trade -and locality tending to foster it, selecting for its victims those who -had but recently recovered from the fever of the country: the cholera -almost invariably carried off every one attacked, nine-tenths falling -victims to the disease. In the localities of the trans-Caucasian -provinces, the attacks became less violent, and without the towns -the disease no longer presented a malignant type. Towards the end of -February, it was supposed that the disease had ceased, but in the -following month, March, it recommenced with redoubled violence, and -in April spread destruction with fearful rapidity. Traversing the -shores of the Caspian sea, it reached Tiflis in May. It also appeared -in this month on the other side of the Caucasus, at Kizliar, whence, -re-ascending the Terek, it penetrated to Mozdok, at the end of June to -Piatigorsk and to Georgierk, and entered Staowpol in the first week of -July. - -From October, 1846, to June, 1847, there occurred in the Caucasus and -trans-Caucasian provinces no less than 17,055 cases of cholera, of -which 6318 died. Astrachan suffered greatly from cholera, great numbers -of the inhabitants having been carried off, as was also the case in -Moscow. From official accounts received from St. Petersburgh, it -appeared the inhabitants of the western town Alexandrof were attacked -with cholera, and also the district of Olgapol, in Podolia. The latter -is about thirty miles distant from the Austrian frontiers. - -A.D. 1846 and 1847, an epizootic or murrain destroyed much -cattle in Europe, principally oxen; dogs, horses, and sheep suffering -comparatively less. Great numbers of horned cattle were destroyed in -Wallachia. A kind of pleuro-pneumonia afflicted both men and beasts in -various parts of Scotland, principally in East Lothian, as well as in -Aberdeenshire, extending throughout the North; it also prevailed in -Ayrshire to some extent. - -In the month of January of the latter year, 1847, influenza prevailed -on the coast of Portugal and in the south-east of Spain: it also -appeared in Newfoundland and in New Zealand; and in the month of March, -in Valparaiso; in April, on the coast of Syria: in July, August, and -September, it broke out on the west coast of Africa, south of the -equator; during which time (in August) it raged at Hong-Kong. In the -month of December, Paris was assailed by this malady, which was also -rife at Madrid; it was termed ‘la grippe,’ and seized more than half -the population: five thousand persons were said to have been laid up by -this wide-spreading disease at one time in Paris. About this period, -the island of Java was visited by epidemic diseases. Virulent small-pox -committed great havoc, and then typhus prevailed in Ireland; the -mortality among the medical profession was great, it being calculated -that one-fifteenth of the entire medical community died there during -the year. There was great mortality from typhus at Prague, between the -16th of December, 1846, and the 16th of December, 1847; the deaths -during that time amounting to 5192. During the latter year, 1847, -cholera was rife in Moscow, Stockholm, St. Petersburgh, and Cronstadt; -various parts of Europe were visited by influenza, the greater part of -the inhabitants of Copenhagen having suffered therefrom: the disease -also prevailed at Marseilles, attacking half the population of 80,000 -persons; its character, however, was mild. - -During the last fortnight of November, 1847, an epidemic of rather a -remarkable character broke out, and prevailed in the North of Scotland, -commencing in Dundee, travelling over the entire coast as far as -Kinnaird’s Head, and extending westerly, involving Huntly, Keith, -Elgin, and Inverness; it first affected the system by pain in the -throat, followed by headache, sickness at stomach, and expectoration of -a dark, bilious-looking substance. To such an extent did this malady -prevail, that the University and King’s College, then in session, were -closed; half the students at Marischal College and the university -were laid up; those at the grammar schools were afflicted in the -same proportion. At Edinburgh and Montrose the malady prevailed to -an alarming extent, the schools generally having been visited; 810 -scholars belonging to the schools in the latter place suffered at one -time. The weather, which had been damp and rainy, was considered to -be the principal cause. Yellow fever prevailed at New Orleans, from -the 5th of July to the 22nd of October; it carried off 2544 persons. -Cholera this year prevailed at Trebizond, situated on the oriental -shores of the Black Sea. An author of eminence states that the -inhabitants of this city suffered cruelly: Constantinople was afflicted -about the same time by dire pestilence, which was fatal to numbers. We -have also an account of famine and pestilence in Silesia. The famine -and distress at Rybensk and Plesg were appalling; in many parts of the -latter place 4500 died more than in the preceding year, which was also -very fatal; from 15 to 20 per cent. of the inhabitants were cut off -by disease. In Rybensk great numbers died daily from famine, and the -Committee of Relief stated that hundreds of orphan children were seen -standing beside the corpses of their parents crying for bread. - -During the last two years, epidemic pestilence was rife and fatal in -various parts of the world. In the latter year, 1847, influenza raged -all over England; and with the following observations, taken as the -substance of the Registrar-General’s Report, dated January 30, 1848, -this History of Epidemic Pestilences will conclude: - -The meteorological phenomena were particularly remarkable prior to -the breaking out of the influenza. The population were inadequately -supplied with potatoes, from scarcity caused by the disease which had -existed the previous years,--a sort of blight. Scurvy became prevalent -at the beginning of the year. In April, typhus became epidemic, and -the mortality was increased. Diarrhea, dysentery, and cholera also -prevailed. The wind blew, from the first week in October, S. S. W. -and S. W. The weather was universally warm; a brilliant aurora was -observed, and shook the magnets, October 24th. It appeared eight times -during the quarter. On Tuesday, November 16th, there was a remarkable -darkness; the wind changed to N. W., and amidst various changes still -blew from the north over Greenwich at the rate of 160 and 250 miles a -day. The mean temperature of the air suddenly fell from 11° above to -10° below the average. On Sunday, it was 54°; Friday, 32°; on Friday -night, 27°. The earth was frozen; the wind was calm three days, and -on Saturday evening a dense fog lay over the Thames and London for -the space of five hours. No electricity stirred in the air during the -week,--all was still, as if Nature held her breath at the sight of the -destroyer come forth to sacrifice her children. On Monday, the sky -became overcast, the air damp; the wind changed in the night to S. by -E., and passed for four days over Greenwich at the rate of 200 and 300 -miles a day. The temperature suddenly rose, and remained from 2° to 9° -above the average throughout the week ending on the 27th of November. -Influenza broke out: in the first week in December, 2454 persons -died; the week following, 2416 persons, and in six weeks, 11,339. The -epidemic in that time carried off 5000 over and above the mortality of -the season. The country districts do not appear to have been affected -to any extent,--a fact which shows how much purity of the air has to do -with the outbreak of epidemic diseases. - -Influenza, it has been observed, is often associated with other -epidemics: it preceded and accompanied the plague or ‘black death’ in -the fourteenth century; it preceded the great plague in London, A.D. -1665; it followed epidemic typhus A.D. 1803; preceded typhus A.D. 1837, -and occurred in the midst of the typhoid epidemic in the year 1847. -Influenza also preceded and followed epidemic cholera, 1831 to 1833. In -short, it may be said that influenza has from time immemorial pretty -generally preceded and accompanied epidemic pestilence in every quarter -of the globe, as is noted by the Registrar-General to have been the -case in England, A.D. 1728, 1733, 1743, 1758, 1762; five years after, -A.D. 1767, 1775, 1782; again, A.D. 1788, A.D. 1803, 1831, 1832, and -following year, 1833, as also A.D. 1846 and 1847. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - NATURE AND CAUSES OF EPIDEMIC PESTILENCES. - - -We have abundant reason for the belief that nothing is fortuitous; but, -on the contrary, that everything in this world of ours is the effect -of design; all things around us bearing evident stamp of the skill and -beneficence of its Omnipotent Author. - - “Thus at thy potent nod, EFFECT and CAUSE - Walk hand in hand accordant to thy Laws; - Rise at Volition’s call; in groups combined, - Amuse, delight, instruct, and serve mankind.” - -The histories of epidemic pestilences or diseases--because of the vast -numbers of persons on whom they seize at one and the same time, and -also because of their intensity and destructiveness,--are not only of -greater importance to mankind than are the generality of maladies, -but they are also of deep interest in as far as concerns questions of -pathology. Epidemics are also exceedingly interesting in a physical and -moral point of view,--their histories, and the investigation of their -causes, leading to an insight into the organism of the world, in which -the sum of organic life is subjected to the greater powers of nature; -for it would appear, as far as human knowledge extends, that all -organized bodies, from a variety of causes as dissimilar as they are -complicated and numerous, are more or less susceptible of change and -decay. Thus we see disease assail and carry off mankind at all times -and in all regions: murrain is destructive of dumb animals, while -blight spares not the vegetable kingdom, from the sturdiest oak to the -most diminutive herbage; in fine, all nature is subjected, in various -degrees, to the devastating tendency of the elements in their general -evolutions in the mundane economy, based on immutable laws, arising -from original and supreme provision: - - “Wonder-working hand, - ---- in majestic silence sways at will - The mighty movements of unbounded nature.” - -Considering that epidemic pestilences or diseases have been from time -immemorial more destructive of mankind than all other maladies, or than -even famine and the sword combined, it is somewhat surprising that a -comprehensive and efficient investigation of such an important class of -diseases, founded on enlarged and scientific views, has never yet been -made,--in fact, has scarcely ever been attempted. Such apathy to minute -enquiry into the nature and causes of epidemics, and the indifference -evinced to every-day occurrences, so much attended to by the ancients, -is culpable in the extreme; for nothing can be more injurious to the -cause of truth, or tend more to retard scientific pursuits, than -such disregard of the nature of things, for daily experience alone -is sufficient to show that every effect in the physical world has -an antecedent cause, which is at all times open to experiment and -investigation, and which, however obscure at first, may often be -explained and understood by means of close observation and steady -perseverance in our researches. - -Epidemics are acute diseases which run through their stages with -rapidity, consequently making it absolutely necessary that we should be -prepared not only to relieve those attacked with promptitude, but, if -possible, to prevent others being affected, which can only be done by -attending to the results of an unprejudiced investigation concerning -all that is known of the laws by which they are governed--the causes -whence they arise, and their mode of extension. - -To the ancients, who were accurate observers of nature and of nature’s -laws, we are indebted for much valuable information as regards the -universal distempers termed Epidemic Pestilences,[2] and although -amongst their writings we may not at first sight recognize many -diseases according to our modern nomenclature, nevertheless by careful -perusal and investigation we shall be enabled to identify some of them -sufficiently to show the wisdom and the superiority of the arrangements -of our predecessors, when compared with the confusion and worse than -uselessness of many of the nosological distinctions and classifications -made since the days of Hippocrates, tending, as they do, not only to -divert us from the true character of disease, but also to mislead us in -our practical views. - -The records of antiquity show that all kinds of pestilences, including -febrile diseases, have been known under various appellations from -the earliest ages of the world. From the beginning of the Jewish -nation,--from the first settlement of the Israelites in unhealthy Egypt -to the present day, we find noticed a series of plagues or pestilences -overspreading the various parts of the habitable globe, and destroying -millions of the human species; and if we refer to the histories of -ancient nations, as well as to the modern annals of medicine, we shall -find therein recorded the same character of diseases, arising from -like causes, occurring during similar seasons, happening in similar -localities, and marked pretty generally by the same circumstances. -The assumption, therefore, of the existence of any new disease, as -propounded by some modern authorities, would represent the Divine Power -as dispensing with the laws of nature,--in short, would imply nothing -less than the suspension or alteration of the operation of those laws -which the Almighty in his wisdom imposed on nature at the creation; - - “By whose almighty word - They all from nothing came; - And all shall last - From changes free; - His firm decree - Stands ever fast;”-- - ---laws which the pious Psalmist of Israel in his contemplations on the -divine goodness and greatness of Jehovah, as displayed in the kingdom -of Nature, describes as the admirable chain of natural causes and -effects formed and preserved by him in this lower world:--whatsoever -the Lord pleaseth, He doeth in heaven and in the earth, in the sea, -and in all deep places. He causeth the vapours to ascend from the ends -of the earth, He maketh the lightnings for the rains, He bringeth the -wind out of his treasure, He smote the first-born of Egypt from man to -beast, He covereth the heaven with clouds, He prepareth the rain for -the earth, &c.--The supposition of the existence of any new disease -in our day is consequently untenable, but to be accounted for because -of our inability to trace diseases under the same names and precise -characteristic symptoms described by our predecessors in the study of -nature; in fact, the comparatively modern origin of some diseases may -be said to rest on the absence or deficiency of distinct and express -notice of them in the writings of the ancients, arising in some measure -from false or imperfect translations from the original, and from the -practice of the ancients in referring different malignant maladies to -the same pestilential constitution; for be it remembered that they -considered all febrile diseases bore such affinity to each other, that -they classed all pestilential epidemic distempers under one general -head or term, viz., PESTILENCE, PLAGUE, or FEVER; under the head -of consumption, they noted all chronic diseases; and boils, scabs, -pustules, blotches, carbuncles, &c., were included under that of skin -diseases. - -Further, with reference to modern nomenclature, we now hear pestilence -called plague in Egypt, yellow fever in America and elsewhere, bilious -remittent and intermittent, and also yellow fever in the West Indies, -and typhus or nervous fever in Great Britain: we read also of the same -epidemics which the ancients called pimples, pustules, apostemes, and -gangrenous sores, now being called distinct and confluent small-pox, -carbuncles, &c.: and I repeat that the perusal of ancient writings, -both sacred and profane, not only affords us ample evidence of the -origin, nature, causes, progress, and violence of such maladies -in the primitive ages of the world, but they also demonstrate the -identity of ancient pestilence and modern plague,--the resemblance -of ancient and modern fevers,--the similitude of burning boils and -modern carbuncle,--the like appearance of pustules and small-pox,--all -tending to prove that no _material_ alteration in the nature of -any diseases, or of their causes, has taken place since the first -population of the world; AND, ABOVE ALL, THAT THEY DISPLAY THE -PERPETUAL UNIFORMITY OF PROVIDENCE IN THE ENTIRE OPERATIONS OF NATURE’S -WORKS. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - OF THE CAUSES OF EPIDEMIC PESTILENCES. - - “Docebo causas, quas diligentiâ experientiâque comperi.” - - -Experience has taught us that the phenomena of epidemic pestilences -or diseases are various and dissimilar, observing no regular course -or succession, but commencing and ceasing at periods influenced by -certain changes of the seasons, and modified by various circumstances, -especially such as locality and habit of body. - -The chronicles of all nations are replete with notices respecting -the remarkable commotions of nature, which have proved from time -to time so inimical both to the animal and the vegetable kingdoms; -and on carefully reviewing the facts detailed in the histories of -epidemic pestilences or diseases, it will be readily perceived that, -during certain periods or seasons, ELEMENTAL DISTURBANCE has -enveloped, as it were, the entire globe, carrying death and misery into -every quarter. I am, therefore, of opinion that the grand phenomena of -nature, exhibited in the commotions of our physical world, supply us -with abundant materials for the explication of all epidemic pestilences -or diseases; that the latter are consequently assignable to natural -causes, without searching for or hunting after mysterious agencies, to -the neglect of those which Nature is constantly presenting to our view. - -I am fully aware that ascertaining the causes of maladies of any -description is a matter attended with much difficulty, not only from -the variety and impalpable nature of the causes themselves, but also -from the peculiar functions and various idiosyncrasies of the living -system on which such causes act; numerous conditions being found -capable of modifying the effects of a common cause of disease, viz. -the season of the year, peculiar state of the atmosphere, especially -as regards heat and humidity, circumstances of locality, the different -temperaments of individuals exposed to their agency, the influence of -previous ailments,--all these concurring more or less in the production -of diversified forms of disease. - -By way of illustration and with reference to atmospheric influence--the -_grand exciting_ cause of disease,--every practitioner is familiar -with certain conditions which are favourable to the production of -certain disorders, such as common catarrh or cold, and its more -aggravated form termed influenza,--hooping-cough, bowel affections, -gastric fevers, &c. The effects of external temperature first produce -on the functions of the skin (which connects us with the exterior -world) an augmentation or diminution of the natural discharges, by -suddenly changing or disturbing the balance of the circulating fluids -between the external and internal parts or surfaces, irrespective -of the perspiratory process, commonly termed sweat, there being -innumerable chemical agents more poisonous and of greater importance -as to their elimination from the system in the shape of insensible -perspiration. I repeat, that the effects of external temperature, by -causing a repercussion of the cutaneous exhalations (sensible and -insensible), so damage the _vitality_ of the system, as to be the -_exciting_ cause of disease; and, although from our imperfect -knowledge, it scarcely admits of investigation, setting aside chemical -research, so that we cannot explain or define the precise peculiarity -of each and every condition of the atmosphere favourable to the -production of each variety of disorder, the effects of such external -temperature are, however, not the less certain and obvious to our -senses. The agencies are all natural, comprised in the excess of state -or change acting on individuals whose susceptibility varies greatly -from moral as well as from physical _predisposing_ causes; but -our inability to define their peculiar conditions or auræ, as noticed -by Hippocrates, Sydenham, Bacon, and others, no more militates against -our reasoning upon their visible effects, than a knowledge of the -gravitating principle or power is essential to the proof of gravity. - -But to the subject of the causes,--the exciting and the predisposing -of disease; it should be premised that when attributing epidemic -pestilences or diseases to natural causes, it must not be supposed or -inferred that any one of such causes, as heat, cold, moisture, drought, -&c., will alone be sufficient to induce disease: to effect that, there -must be a combination of these causes in continuance and succession, in -occasion and variation, as also in circumstance and virulence. - -It has always appeared to me that a proper and sufficient distinction -is never, or rather, has never, been made, between the predisposing and -the exciting causes of disease--an error which leads to much confusion -and to contradictory conclusions on all sides. _Par exemple_, -in a Report on the epidemic pestilence which raged some years ago in -Ireland, it was unanimously determined, (so says the Report,) “that the -predisposing causes were, rapid atmospherical vicissitude, low marsh -and other effluvia.” Here we have the exciting cause, ‘atmospheric -vicissitude,’ jumbled together with a predisposing cause, ‘marsh -effluvia;’ while on the other hand, in recent Reports on cholera from -various authorities, we have marsh and other effluvia assigned as the -exciting causes, which, on reflection, will strike any one as being -obviously fallacious, inasmuch as if marsh and other effluvia are to -be considered as exciting causes, instead of predisposing to disease, -we should scarcely ever find those places free from pestilence where -these matters are supposed to be engendered, whereas we see various -localities in South America,--in British Guiana, for instance, and even -in Ethiopia,--which have been condemned as the hot-bed and nursery of -pestilence, where putrefaction is supposed to concoct and concentrate -its most lethal poisons,--still enjoy their seasons of salubrity: it -is, I repeat, from the absence of such distinctions as to the exciting -and the predisposing causes, coupled with the non-consideration of -the great variety of circumstances, both past and present, local and -general, individual and common, which are influential in the production -of disease, that so much uncertainty and disputation as to the causes -of epidemic pestilences have arisen. Such distinctions will appear to -be more important and necessary for the prevention and mitigation of -epidemic pestilence or disease, when properly considered, inasmuch as -the predisposing causes, which are in a great degree under our control, -are always in existence or operation to a greater or less extent, while -the exciting causes may be said to be of only occasional occurrence. - -As before observed, the causes of diseases are described as the -predisposing and the exciting. The former, the predisposing causes, -I understand to be,--the want of light; impure air (especially -from defective ventilation), in which are included malaria and all -other noxious vapours, from whatever source arising; a scanty and -impoverishing diet; and, though last, not least, habit of body, induced -by the irregular and artificial life of man in a state of civilization, -which, by enervating the system, induces the predisposition to disease -by rendering the human frame more susceptible to external impressions; -the grand excitants of disease, such as elemental disturbance, -consisting of variations of temperature and the state of the -surrounding medium, as to hygrometric influence, electrical tension, &c. - -Naturalists in all ages have concurred in the opinion that sudden -atmospheric mutations act injuriously on the subjects of the vegetable -kingdom as well as on those of the animal, and it will, I presume, be -admitted that the existence of the vegetable kingdom is necessary for -the support of the animal,--the physiology of both reflecting much -light on each other. We see the vegetable kingdom assailed by disease -termed _blight_,--‘pestiferous blight,’ as it has been called -by some; these blights are but pestilences affecting the vegetable -kingdom, and have ever been attributed to natural causes, elemental -disturbance, &c. - -At the periods which have been remarkable for the occurrence of -blights, animals--such as horned cattle--have been known to suffer -sooner or later; and man also, as I shall in the course of these -pages fully show. Reasoning analogically, therefore, may we not -conclude that that state or condition of the elements which induces -blights,--pestilences in the vegetable,--will also act injuriously on -the animal kingdom, more especially on the human race, men being, from -habit of body, &c., more prone to or susceptible of disease? - -Referring to the annals of history, which so abundantly show that -the ancients considered all universal distempers as originating in -the disturbed states of the seasons, I will cite a few instances -(commencing with sacred history) explanatory of the causes of universal -maladies, termed epidemic pestilences or diseases. - -In the books of the Old and New Testaments we find beautifully -described the great causes of pestilence inducing their effects in -regular succession and with absolute certainty. The books of God, in -tracing the hand of Omnipotence through the medium of secondary causes, -producing effects punitive of guilty mortals, attribute all diseases to -the immediate interposition of Divine Providence: - - “Pestis et ira Deûm Stygiis sese extulit undis.” - -And why?--Because God is the first great cause, the original creator of -all things, the preserver and governor of all things in heaven and on -the earth, and likewise the sole disposer of the elements. - -Seeing, therefore, that our Creator, while possessing the sovereignty -of the universe, may employ what agents he pleases for the execution -of his purposes, we, in investigating the causes of all distempers, -without in the slightest degree impugning their divine origin, can -perceive that the Almighty Disposer of events effected his purposes by -the employment of natural means;--further, in expounding the causes of -disease, as existing in natural and common things, and modification of -beings and things of this natural world, we can do equal homage to the -Almighty’s wisdom and goodness, omnipotence, justice, mercy, judgment, -and providence, as we can in displaying them as immediately inflicted -on guilty man. Yea, more glorious do the attributes of the Most High -appear in the sublime mysteries of nature! - -To particularize: when the governors of the five cities, Gath, Ekron, -Askelon, Gaza, and Ashdod, met for the purpose of contriving to rid -themselves of the ark which the Philistines had captured from the -Hebrews, it would appear that they were cognizant of the natural means -adopted by the Almighty to effect his purposes, although they, in their -impiety, doubted the divine origin of their affliction by pestilence. -Overlooking the omnipotence and all-wise direction of their Creator, -they exhorted the people to bear patiently that which had befallen -them, and to believe in no other causes of the pestilence which was -effecting their destruction _than those springing from the operations -of nature, which at certain revolutions of time produce such mutations -in the bodies of men, in the earth, in plants, and in all things grown -out of the earth, as to excite disease_. - -With reference to elemental disturbance, the prophet Amos (ch. iv. -vss. 8 and 9) first describes the occurrence of a great drought, -then the generation of insects--the palmer-worm and the canker-worm, -which destroyed all foliage and herbage: vegetables, orchards, and -olive-yards, all fell a sacrifice, and induced a grievous famine, -succeeded by a dire pestilence. - -Habakkuk, in his prayer, (chap. iii.) makes allusion to a great -pestilence preceded by earthquakes and great commotions of the -elements; the sun and moon standing still in their habitations, the -mountains trembling, and the waters overflowing, causing famine and -pestilence, to the destruction of 14,000 persons. - -Again, in the 28th chapter of Deuteronomy, which contains the promised -cursings and blessings of the Almighty on his people, we have a -proverbial figure of speech, _expressively_ illustrative of the -natural means employed by our Creator in effecting his purposes: “And -thy heaven shall be brass, and the earth iron;” the one denoting a -drought, during which the heavens will yield no rain, inferring also -extreme heat; the other, the unproductiveness of the earth, yielding -no fruit,--the effects of such drought being to induce famine, and -ultimately disease. The experience of our own times exemplifies in the -fullest manner the concurrence, from _physical causes_, of famine -with pestilence--facts which the prophets of old always connected, -viz., the sword, famine, and pestilence, as being three evils which -generally accompanied or followed each other; and we cannot conceive -a doubt as to the association not being accidental, especially of the -two latter, but arising from their dependence upon similar atmospheric -phenomena. - -Jeremiah (chap, iv., vss. 11 and 13), in describing the approach -of the armies of Babylon, compares them to the drying, parching, -scorching, and blasting winds of Egypt, Africa, Arabia, and Asia, which -wither and destroy the fruit of the earth, melting and oppressing all -living creatures; and he likens them to clouds of dust and whirlwinds -traversing those pestiferous countries of the East, where the heat -and drought, the dews and damps, heavy rains, the cold north winds of -winter and spring, succeeded by the suffocating heats of summer and -autumn, generate pestilence and cutaneous diseases. - -In turning to the history of Egypt,--to this day a hot-bed of -pestilence,--we have graphically pictured a series of events occurring -and ending in the production of pestilential disease. The waters of the -rivers were first turned red, the fish died, and stank therein, causing -putrefaction of their bodies, while the waters became unfit for use, -either by men or beasts: secondly, swarms of frogs infected the land, -penetrating into the very houses; these were succeeded by a host of -insects, lice, flies, &c.: thirdly, the beasts of the field suffered -from murrain; and finally, man suffered from boils, blains, &c. If we -look into the topography of Egypt, we shall find abundant causes to -account for its great and continued insalubrity;--the whole country -lies near the tropic of Cancer; it is bounded towards the east by the -Red Sea, on the west by the deserts of Libya, on the north by the -Mediterranean, and on the south by Abyssinia or Upper Ethiopia. All the -lower country is encompassed by the arms of the Nile, and is inundated -annually by that father of rivers, when it overflows: it rises -twenty-four feet in perpendicular height at the medium increase of four -inches daily, and it continues from the end of June to the beginning -of September, when it begins gradually to subside. The inhabitants sow -their corn and vegetables in October and November, immediately after -the retiring of the waters; their harvest-time is in March and April. -Volney observes that the surface of the land successively assumes the -appearance of an ocean of fresh water, of a miry morass, of a green -level plain, and of a parched desert of sand and dust, and all in such -rapid succession that it can never be otherwise than insalubrious. - -To recapitulate more fully. In that calamitous period in the days -of Moses, as shown in the history of Egypt already alluded to, the -season was distinguished by an extraordinary phenomenon, the waters -being turned to the colour of blood by the addition of some remarkable -materials or insects which killed all their fish, and caused the waters -to stink in all the low lands of Egypt, so that they could not drink -the waters of the river or of their ponds for seven days; this peculiar -condition of the waters, and the heat of the atmosphere, engendered -swarms of frogs, which, it is stated, came up into their houses, into -their very bed-rooms, entered into their ovens, and even into their -dough. Some great commotion of the elements, or a great and sudden -change of the weather, killed the frogs in their houses, villages, and -fields. When the people gathered their carcases into heaps, so great -were their numbers that the whole land stank with their putrefying -bodies; lice began afterwards to infect the inhabitants, as well as -the bodies of domestic animals; swarms of noisome insects, such as -flies, &c., succeeded the general putrefaction of the dead frogs, -and as the excesses of the seasons continued and increased, a mortal -pestilence among domestic animals, cattle and horses, camels, oxen and -sheep, ensued. This was the presage to an awful pestilence among men, -according to the common course of nature; indeed the Egyptians had not -recovered the loss of their cattle, when fiery pustules, apostemes, -and putrid ulcers infested their own bodies. After this succession of -evils, a dreadful storm of hail arose and destroyed cattle, herbs, and -fruit; in this tremendous tempest, we read that the lightning, mingled -with hail, ran along the ground, and was so very dismal and grievous in -its appearance and effects, that Pharaoh and all his people trembled as -if the pillars of nature had been shaken to their very foundation, and -the world was about to come to an end: to add to these dire calamities, -hosts of locusts were brought by the east wind over all the land of -Egypt; they rested on all the coasts and borders of the land, covering -the face of the earth, so that the ground was blackened by them; while -they devoured the residue of the herbs which the hailstorm had spared, -not one green thing remaining in the land of Egypt. - -Soon after this, a strong west wind began to blow, which cast all -the locusts into the Red Sea, where they were drowned; their bodies -being subsequently washed on shore, stank intolerably, and became a -great auxiliary cause of pestilence amongst the inhabitants. Meantime -three days of astonishing darkness spread over all the land, and the -inhabitants could not see each other, neither did they rise from -their seats; pestilence meanwhile was rife in the land. This terrible -distemper first seized all the young and robust, all the first-born -of man and beast--from the first-born of the king to that of the -slave,--yea, there was not a house in which there were not some dead; -so tremendous was the stroke that the sacred historian calls it the -immediate judgment of God to punish their wickedness. And behold it -happened in the dead of the night, says the devout narrator, that the -Lord smote all the first-born of Egypt, from the first-born of Pharaoh -that sat on the throne to the first-born of the maid-servant that -stands behind the mill, and even the firstlings of the beasts;--in -short, so dreadful was the calamity and destruction that the Egyptians -cried out, “We be all dead men!” - -Looking to all the foregoing circumstances detailed, can we hesitate -to attribute the terrible malady which prevailed in Egypt to any but -the pestilential constitution of the season?--can we suppose the -operation of any other than natural causes, such as long drought, -excessive heats, hot burning winds, clouds of suffocating dust and -sand; heavy rains succeeding the drought; storms of hail mingled with -lightning; famine, the consequence of the destruction produced by the -locusts and devouring insects; the noxious emanations from dead frogs -which had been destroyed by the dismal commotions of the elements; and -the insufferable stench arising from the carcases of the quantity of -dead animals? Can we imagine, I ask, any other causes to have been in -existence to produce such awful pestilence than those of the sudden -great changes of the weather, inundations of the rivers, and the -universal corruption of dead animal and vegetable matter throughout the -dominion of Egypt? I reiterate the question,--have we not abundance of -material to account for this terrible infliction on the people of Egypt? - -About this period of dire suffering of the Egyptians from pestilence, -the first dreadful epoch of Spanish epidemiology is recorded as having -commenced; the date, however, has been variously given. By some writers -it is fixed about the time of David, 1017 B.C., when 70,000 -persons were destroyed in three days by pestilence; by other writers -it is stated to have commenced amongst the Spanish 1100 B.C. -There were _twenty-five_ years of drought in Spain without -interruption; springs were dried up; rivers became fordable, their -waters being almost stagnant; there was neither pasture for beasts, nor -fruit for man; so great was the barrenness of the land, that there was -scarcely anything green to be found, except some few olive-trees on the -banks of the Ebro and the Guadalquivir: such, says the historian, was -the melancholy state of ancient Spain, “full of dreadful mortalities, -plagues, and miseries of every description, which, with emigration to -other lands, nearly depopulated our country.” - -The Greek poet, Homer, describes the causes of the pestilence which -attacked the armies at the siege of Troy as being attributable to the -extreme heat of the weather and the unfriendly seasons. He styles the -sun Apollo: - - “On mules and dogs th’ infection first began, - And last the vengeful arrows fix’d on man; - But let some prophet or some sacred sage - Explore the cause of Great Apollo’s rage.” - -Thucydides, another celebrated Greek historian, describes a similar -condition of the atmosphere with physical irregularities, as causing an -awful pestilence at Athens: - - τεκμήριον δὲ τῶν μὲν τοιούτων ὀρνίθων ἐπίλειψις σαφὴς ἐγένετο, - καὶ οὐχ ἑωρῶντο οὔτε ἄλλως οὔτε περὶ τοιοῦτον οὐδέν· οἱ δὲ κύνες - μᾶλλον αἴσθησιν παρεῖχον τοῦ ἀποβαίνοντος διὰ τὸ ξυνδιαιτᾶσθαι. - -Lucretius, in imitating Thucydides, thus expresses himself: - - “Nec tamen omnino temere illis solibus ulla - Comparebat avis, nec noctibus secla ferarum - Exibant sylvis; languebant pleraque morbo - Et moriebantur; cum primis fida canum vis - Strata viis animam ponebat in omnibus ægram; - Extorquebat enim vitam vis morbida membris.” - - “No longer birds at noon, nor beasts at night, - Their native woods deserted; with the pest - Remote they languish’d and full frequent died; - But chief the dog his generous strength resign’d, - Tainting the highways, while the ruthless bane - Through every limb his sickening spirit drove.” - -The poet Ovid, in the seventh book of his Metamorphoses, in describing -the terrible pestilence which occurred in the island of Egina (see -‘History of Pestilences’), represents the pestilence as arising from -the following causes:--He exhibits the earth covered with dense clouds, -darkness, and suffocating heat; the deadly south winds blowing for four -months, the very vapours of disease; the lakes and fountains infected, -the air poisoned, and the entire land infested with venomous serpents, -as happened to the people of old. The plague or pestilence first -attacked horses, oxen, mules, sheep, dogs, cats, and even birds, and -then it affected mankind; death was sudden, and the streets were choked -with the carcases of men and beasts, and universal nature seemed to be -suffering from premature caducity. - -In order to show the identity of this pestilence with the plague of -Egypt, the bilious remittent or yellow pestilence of the West Indies -and the United States, the disease termed Andalusian fever which has -from the earliest ages made such havoc in Spain and the adjoining -country, and also with the pestilence which has more than once -visited both England and Ireland in days of yore, we have collected -the symptoms of that disease from Ovid’s poetical enumeration of the -morbid phenomena, which were,--great heat in the bowels, flushings -of the face, difficulty of breathing, bilious vomiting, pains in the -head, with obstinate constipation, great prostration of strength, -unquenchable thirst, delirium, often attended with coma, great anguish, -dry black tongue, cough, &c., which proceeded to a fatal termination in -the course of two, three, or four days: the following is a translation -or imitation of the original. - - “A dreadful plague from angry Juno came, - To scourge the land that bore her rival’s name, - Before her fatal anger was reveal’d, - And teeming malice lay as yet conceal’d. - At first we only felt th’ oppressive weight - Of gloomy clouds, then teeming with our fate, - And labouring to discharge the sultry heat: - But ere four moons alternate changes knew, - With deadly blasts the fatal south wind blew, - Infected all the air, and poison’d as it flew. - Our mountains, too, a dire infection yield, - For crowds of vipers creep along the field, - And with polluted gore and baneful teems - Taint all the lakes and venom all the streams. - The young disease with milder rage began, - Seized on birds and beasts, approaching man; - The labouring oxen fall before the plough-- - The ploughmen wonder, stare, can’t imagine how; - The tabid sheep, with sickly bleatings pine, - Their wool decreasing as their strength decline; - The warlike steeds, by inward foes compell’d, - Neglect their honours and desert the field; - Enerved and languid, seek a base retreat, - And at the mangers groan, but wish’d a nobler fate. - The stags forget their speed, the boars their rage, - Nor can the bears the stronger herds engage: - A common faintness now invades them all, - In woods and fields promiscuously they fall. - The air exhales the stench, and, strange to say, - The ravenous birds and beasts avoid the prey; - The putrid bodies rot upon the ground, - And spread the dire contagion all around. - Meanwhile the plague acquires a larger size, - It feasts on men, and scorns a meaner prize. - Intestine heats begin the civil war, - And flushings first the latent flame declare, - And fiery breath, which seem’d like burning air. - Their black dry tongues are swell’d and scarcely move, - And short thick sighs from panting lungs evolve: - They gasp for air, with vainest hopes to sate - Their raging flames, but that augments their heat. - No bed, no covering, can the sicken’d bear-- - All on the ground exposed to open air, - They lie, and hope to find a pleasing coolness there. - The burning earth, with hot oppression curst, - Returns the heat which they imparted first. - All remedies they try, all med’cines use, - Which nature could supply or art produce: - Invincible, it mocks the vain design, - And art and nature foil’d--declare the cause divine.” - -Hippocrates, the great founder and parent of rational medicine, in his -book on Epidemic Distempers, accurately delineates the vicissitudes of -the weather and the different seasons of the year, attributing to them -the causes of all diseases. He thus describes a state of atmosphere -producing a most extraordinarily dismal pestilence and mortality: A -season marked by abundant showers, a south wind following drought; a -hot and sultry autumn, with abundant rain; a humid, open, light, and -warm winter, extremes of cold after the conversion of the sun under -the equinox, with winds blowing, with snow and sudden great change of -weather. - -“Annus austrinus, imbribus abundans atque in totum ventis tranquillus -fuit. Quum autem paulo superioribus anni temporibus justo majores -siccitates viguissent, sub Arcturum sperantibus austris multum fuit. -Autumnus obscurus, nebulosus, cum aquarum abundantiâ, hyems austrina -humida et levis. Longo vero post solis conversionem intervallo juxta -Æquinoctium, extremæ hyemes adfuerunt; jamque sub Æquinoctium ipsum -Aquilonares venti cum nivibus non ita diu speravere. Ver rursus -austrinum a flatibus quietum, aquæ multæ et continentes ad canem -usque. Æstas verum calida, æstus præfocantes magna. Anniversarii venti -(Etesias vocant) pauci disjunctim speravere. Sub Arcturum rursus -spirantibus aquilonibus aquæ multæ.”--(On Epidemics, bk. iii. sect. 3.) - -Again, in section 8 and 18 we have: “In aëre considerandum quanta insit -caliditas, frigiditas, crassitudo, tenuitas, siccitas, humiditas an -plenior an vero minor et copiosior. In quibus quænam mutationes et ex -quibus fiunt, quomodoque se habeant, animadvertere oportet,”--plainly -signifying that a pestilential constitution of the seasons consists of -atmospheric vicissitudes, heat and cold, dryness and moisture out of -season and in excess. - -Galen, the great commentator on the works of his master, assigns two -causes to pestilence; the one, a great irregularity of the seasons, and -consequently a pestilential state of the air; the other, a vitiated -condition of the human body from corrupt and defective food, impure -air, &c., by which means it is rendered liable to disease: here we have -the exciting and the predisposing causes of disease clearly pointed -out. - -Further, in illustration of continued drought inducing famine with its -other evils, disease and mortality, we may quote Tasso’s beautiful -description of the sufferings of the Christian army under the walls of -Jerusalem: - - “The leaves grew wan, upon the wither’d sprays - The grass and growing herb all parched were; - Earth cleft in rifts, in floods each stream decay, - And barren clouds with lightning bright appear. - Still was the air, the rack nor came nor went, - But o’er the land, with lukewarm breathing flies - The southern wind, from sun-burnt Afric sent, - Which thick and warm, his interrupted blast, - Upon their bosoms, throats, and faces cast. - - Nor yet more comfort brought the gloomy night; - In her thick shades was burning heat up roll’d, - Her sable mantle was embroider’d bright, - With blazing stars and gliding fires for gold. - Nor to refresh (sad earth’s) thy thirsty sprite - The niggard Moon let fall her May-dews cold, - And dried up the vital moisture was - In trees, in plants, in herbs, in flowers, in grass. - - And little Silve, that his store bestows - Of purest crystal on the Christian hands, - The pebbles naked in his channel shows, - And scanty glides above the scorched sands. - - * * * * * - - The sturdy bodies of the warriors strong, - Whom neither marching far, nor tedious way, - Nor weighty arms which on their shoulders hung, - Could weary make, nor death itself dismay, - Now weak and feeble cast their limbs along, - Unwieldy burthens on the burning clay; - And in each vein a smouldering fire there dwelt, - Which dried their flesh, and solid bones did melt. - - Languish’d the steed, late fierce, and proffer’d grass - His fodder erst despised and from him kest; - Each step he stumbled, and which lofty was - And high advanced before now fell his crest; - His conquest gotten, all forgotten pass, - Nor with desire of glory swell’d his breast; - The spoils won from his foe, his late rewards, - He now neglects, despises, nought regards. - - Languish’d the faithful dog, and wonted care - Of his dear lord and cabin both forgot; - Panting he laid, and gather’d fresher air - To cool the burning in his entrails hot; - But breathing (which wise nature did prepare - To ‘suage the stomach’s heat) now booted not, - For little ease, (alas!) small help they win, - That breathe forth air, and scalding fire suck in.” - -The learned prelate Eusebius gives a very philosophical description -of the impure state of the atmosphere during a great pestilence which -ravaged the Roman empire. He writes thus: “The air was so noxious, -every where deranged with corrupt vapours, fumes from the earth so -putrid, winds from the sea, exhalations from marshes and rivers so -injurious, that a certain poisonous liquor, as it were from putrid -carcases, was brought by the elements, and covered the subjacent seats -or benches, walls, and sides of houses, and the dew appeared like the -sanies of dead bodies.” (See edit. Paris. 1628.) - -Tacitus, in his description of Rome, notes the occurrence, every third -or fourth year, of what they termed “tempus grave aut annus pestilens,” -and he gives the following tetrastichon-- - - “Rome voracious of men subdues the lofty necks of heroes; - Rome full of fevers is frightful with the seeds of death; - Roman fevers are faithful by their lasting course, - When they once invade, seldom quit the living man.” - -If the site of Rome with its other concomitants be considered, we shall -readily understand why pestilences were there so rife. It is situated -in a level country on the low banks of the Tiber, surrounded by the -extensive Ostiensian and Pontine marshes, exposed to the powerful -rays of the sun, and subject to inundations and other commotions of -the elements; further the inhabitants having been constantly engaged -in war, did not cultivate their lands sufficiently to produce food -for half the population, nor had they any established commercial -intercourse with other countries, from which they could be supplied in -times of scarcity. From their perpetual inroads agriculture was also -interrupted among all the adjoining nations, and the far-famed Romans -were often reduced to the necessity of feeding upon grass, leaves, -and unwholesome roots, or of consuming the provender stored for their -cattle, till men and beasts, and, it is said, birds and fish, perished -together, so pestilential were the seasons; “vulgato per omne genus -animalium morbo.” - -I might go on multiplying authorities _ad infinitum_ to show -that previously to the middle of the seventeenth century those ages -were full of physical and political miseries, sufficient to account -for the frequent outbreak of fatal maladies; and we shall also find -that subsequently to that period all those countries that have -adopted judicious regulations in the construction of their dwellings, -in widening their streets, improving the drainage, and securing an -adequate supply of the three grand essentials to vitality,--light, air, -and water, have proportionately experienced a corresponding immunity -from pestilence, a notable exemplification of which we have in this -our own country, although we are far, very far, in this the nineteenth -century, from the improved condition that our wealth and the repeated -warnings of disease which have been vouchsafed us, especially since the -year 1832,--now nearly twenty years,--should have given rise to. - -It was not, however, until after the great fire in 1666, at the -rebuilding of London, as it were, that any measures were taken to -secure the public health. In the year 1665, during the time of the -great and terrible plague, our streets were narrow, and the houses, -which were built of wood, closed inwards towards each other, one -story projecting considerably above the other, till they seemed -almost to touch each other at the top, and looking upwards from the -street towards the sky was very like looking up from the bottom of a -well. There were scarcely any sewers; the streets were damp and wet, -and nearly everything in the shape of offal was thrown into them, -while certain corporate bodies, the ecclesiastical authorities even, -contended stoutly for the right of sending their swine into the -streets to feed upon such garbage as they found plentifully therein. -It would also appear that the general habits of the citizens in no way -counteracted the bad effects of their faulty architecture by domestic -cleanliness. - -The celebrated Erasmus asserts that the interior of the dwellings in -London was disgusting to the last degree. He plainly ascribed ‘the -sweating sickness,’ which was a species of plague, to the incommodious -form and bad position of the houses, the filthiness of the streets, and -the sluttishness within doors. In a letter to a physician of Cardinal -Wolsey’s, in which he gives an account of the domestic habits of our -countrymen in those days, he says, “There is a degree of uncleanliness, -and even of filth, pourtrayed, of which we can have no conception in -our times.” He continues: “The floors are commonly of clay, strewed -with rushes, which were occasionally removed, but underneath lies -unmolested an ancient collection of beer, grease, fragments of fish, -spittle, the excrements of dogs, cats, and everything that was nasty.” -Hentzer observes, that even the floor of the presence-chamber of the -Queen Elizabeth, in Greenwich Palace, “was covered with hay after the -English fashion;” and Hume remarks, as a proof of the meanness of -living in those days, “that the comptroller of the household of Edward -the Sixth paid only 30s. a year for his house in Channel Row, which -like the generality of the streets of London was unpaved and undrained, -and contained an accumulation of the offal and such filth as was -habitually thrown into them.” - -Sydenham, who writes of the changes produced in the amount of disease -according to locality, the constitutions of the seasons, &c., notices -that London in his day was ill-built, ill-drained, ill-supplied with -water, and the neighbouring country to the very suburbs so badly -cleared, as to subject the inhabitants to a return of agues regularly -in spring and autumn; and in the journal of De Foe we have assigned -as one of the many causes of the pestilence that occurred in this -country in 1665, the crowded state of the city and suburbs, which were -prodigiously full in consequence of the disbanding of the armies after -the restoration of the royal family and of the monarchy. Our city, says -De Foe, was computed to have had in it 100,000 inhabitants _more_ -than it ever entertained before; some computed the number as being -twice as many, so that pestilence became in one year (1665) more -terribly destructive from the immense numbers crowded together, aided -by peculiar elemental disturbances, which had been rife for several -years previously; pestilence indeed may be said to have existed in -London continuously from the year 1661 unto 1666. - -In the year 1665 the terrible plague became aggravated in the month -of July, from the sultriness of the atmosphere, cold nocturnal dews -or damp fogs, frequent cold showers and cold winds alternating with -the warmth and dryness of the air; in short, every extreme vicissitude -seemed to exist in that dismal period of disease and death, producing -agues, bilious disorders, bowel complaints, &c. In the next month the -great general pestilence appeared to swallow up as it were all previous -diseases in one common destruction. Indeed, from the month of August -all other diseases were absorbed in the pestilence: all distempers, -commencing in their usual form, were uniformly resolved into the deadly -plague; and in the month of September, says the great historian, -“Death rode triumphant among the devoted inhabitants of London; having -borrowed the fatal scythe of Time, he mowed down the people like grass, -and immerged the poor remains in horror and despair.” - -Having advanced thus much in support of the natural causes of universal -distempers or epidemic pestilences, culled from the histories of -pestilences from the earliest ages, we arrive at the consideration of -that ‘vexata quæstio,’--contagion. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - OF CONTAGION. - - -Contention on such a subject as contagion is not to be wondered at, -when we consider the obscurity attendant on all that relates to subtle -agencies (the supposed qualities of contagion); and inasmuch as we -observe that different effects arise from the same causes, as also -similar effects from different causes in the human body, a vast field -is necessarily opened up for contention, as every impartial observer -will admit. - -That the doctrine of contagion is of comparatively modern origin -(subsequently to Hippocrates), historical research fully shows, and it -would be really an endless, if not an unprofitable, task to review the -innumerable arguments of which contagionists and their opponents have -from time to time availed themselves in support of their respective -opinions, especially when the controversialists can enlist on the one -side such names as Chisholm, Clark, Cleghorn, Pringle, Bianchi, Lind, -Meade, Warren, and a host of others, as contagionists, and on the other -side, as non-contagionists, such men as Hillary, Huck, Hunter, Jackson, -Bouland, Pinckard, Bancroft, Scott, Rush, Miller, Caldwell, Chervin, -besides very many others of more modern date. - -With reference to our present subject, contagion, it has always been -with me a difficulty to understand the precise or real sense in which -contagionists generally write; and I must confess my inability to -comprehend the meaning they attach to the term contagion, and also to -that of infection, so contradictory are their applications of the terms -_contagion_ and _infection_, some using them synonymously, -others making distinctions, between contagion and infection, of such -arbitrary signification, that they are really neither definite nor -intelligible; whilst contagionists themselves often depart from their -_avowed_ principles. For example, Papôn, in his work entitled -‘Epoques Mémorables de la Peste,’ considers the undoubted causes of -plague to be uncultivated lands, marshy soil, corrupt lakes, filthy -cities, concurring with occasional causes, such as intemperature of -the seasons and famine, whilst the bent of his researches is evidently -to prove that in every modern plague _foreign_ contagion was the -cause! - -Dr. Meade, notwithstanding his advocacy of contagion, like most other -contagionists, is guilty of inconsistency in stating, “that a corrupt -state of the air attends all plagues.” - -Again, Dr. Patrick Russell, a great contagionist, when giving a most -minute account of the origin, spread, and decline of the plague, admits -the inutility of quarantine laws for the prevention of contagion, and, -curiously enough, he lays much stress on what he terms “a pestilential -constitution of the air.” - -Dr. Hamilton, another great contagionist, affirmed that the influenza -which prevailed in England,--in fact, all over Europe, in the year -1782, was contagious, and that the malady was propagated by contagion -only; yet at the same time he informs us that, “in different places, -many hundreds were seized with pestilence at one and the same time:” -and Dr. (afterwards Sir Gilbert) Blane, also a contagionist, speaks -of the influenza as having affected mariners in the very midst of the -ocean! - -It would appear, however, that to reconcile conflicting opinions, -various modern writers of experience and talent have endeavoured -to show that epidemic diseases, _not_ contagious at their -commencement, may acquire that character from confined air, filth, and -other accumulations. That impure air, want of light, crowding together -_unwashed_ numbers, &c., will by predisposition contribute to -the production and aggravation of disease, as we observe to be the -case in jails, hospitals, and in camp, I can fully understand; but -that epidemic diseases, such, for instance, as plague, yellow fever, -or cholera, are ever propagated by contact--contagion, I, after -twenty-five years’ residence in pestilential countries, have no reason -to believe; for I have seen epidemics seize on vast numbers at once,--I -have sometimes seen them attack a whole people, or a part thereof, -whilst at other times they have prevailed amongst the inhabitants of -particular provinces and cities only. On what principle of contagion -or infection, I would ask, can such universality or partiality of -disease be accounted for or explained? Surely not from any cognizable -property of contagion. All that I have ever read and seen of the nature -of epidemics militates against the doctrine of contagion, whilst all -that has been adduced, as far as my researches show, in support of -contagion, has been of a negative, or at all events not of a positive, -nature. - -Epidemic diseases, which have appeared and spread at different -seasons,--in fact, at all times of the year,--in the middle of summer, -for instance, as well as in the depth of winter,--which have also been -found traversing whole continents, continuing their course for many -successive months, and often assuming a definite direction or progress, -often affecting large masses of people living on the same spot, while -others in adjoining localities are exempt,--cannot, I contend, be -attributed to contagion, but to the qualities and influences of the -surrounding atmosphere, coupled with enervating habits, &c. - -AGAIN, CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ARE RECOGNIZABLE BY THE DETERMINATE -PERIODS OF THEIR PHENOMENA, ESPECIALLY AS REGARDS SPECIFICATION, AS -ALSO BY THEIR MODE OF PROPAGATION, WHILST, IF EPIDEMIC PESTILENCES WERE -DEPENDENT ON, OR CAUSED BY, CONTAGION, THEY WOULD NEVER CEASE UNTIL -WHOLE COMMUNITIES BECAME EXTINCT! - -A period of one hundred and sixty years has elapsed (up to the year -1832) since the occurrence of any plague or aggravated pestilence in -this our own country, notwithstanding our intercourse with countries -where awful pestilence may be said always to exist. Whence, then, I -would ask, our immunity for so long a period, if pestilence BE -IMPORTABLE AND CONTAGIOUS? for it would appear that in spite of -our increased intercourse and commerce with pest-ridden spots, our -freedom from pestilence has been greater, manifestly from the change in -our moral and physical condition since the seventeenth century, which -has given rise to a degree of public health to which our ancestors -were strangers when pestilence was rife in our land, and which is not -attributable, as some may suppose, to the vigilant enforcement of those -bugbears, ‘quarantine laws,’ of which a recent writer very justly -observes, “that they are not only absurd and needlessly burthensome to -commerce, but perverse and barbarous in the extreme, independent of -the injurious fears induced, being as dangerous to communities as they -militate against common sense and HUMANITY.” - -Whilst on the subject of quarantine, the question may be asked,--How -is it that so little has been elicited in support of contagion from -the working of lazarettos?--it being to the interest of those who hold -such views to publish THE LETHAL effects of their lazaretto -occupations. Might we not expect, from the testimony of the responsible -officers in charge of such establishments, to be informed of an awful -annual sacrifice of life in such perilous occupations, from the -terrible exposure of those employed in them in unpacking contagion, as -it were wholesale? Have we any evidence from lazarettos to warrant the -belief in contagion? I think not; at least my _not_ very limited -researches have afforded me no such evidence, and I fear that it is -with the subject of contagion, as with other matters appertaining to -pestilence, that authors seek for the peculiar facts which especially -favour their preconceived opinions, whilst they strain the simple -bearing of facts to answer their own hypotheses. Further, we find -pestilence still as prevalent and destructive as in former years in -those cities in which the march of improvement has not appeared. Thus -Grand Cairo and Constantinople to this day are never free from the -plague. Grand Cairo is always crowded by a vast number of inhabitants -of the lowest order in the most abject state of poverty. The streets -are very narrow and close, and thirty or forty persons often inhabit -one small house. It is situated in a sandy plain at the foot of a -mountain, which, by excluding the winds, makes the heat more stifling. -Through the midst of it passes a great canal, which is filled with -water at the periodical overflowing of the Nile, and after the river -has fallen it is gradually dried up; into this are thrown all manner -of filth, carrion, &c., so that the stench which arises from this and -the mud together is insufferably offensive. At certain periods of the -year the plague preys upon the inhabitants, first appearing amongst the -lowest orders of the people, who are mostly in a wretched condition: -its progress is stopped only when the Nile, by overflowing, washes away -this load of filth; the cold winds, which set in at the same time, -purifying the air. The plague in Constantinople is generally observed -to break out in that part of the city which is low and marshy. - -On searching the ancient records of medicine, and on referring to -history, both sacred and profane, nothing in the shape of evidence can -be found, previously to the time of Hippocrates, to show that epidemic -pestilences were thought to be contagious; in fact, all writers before -the Arabians invariably speak of epidemic diseases as arising from -places, seasons, and constitutions of the air; and nowhere in his -works does the great parent of medicine, the erudite and all-observant -Hippocrates, entertain the idea of contagion:--Δεῖ δὲ καταμανθάνειν τὴν -Κατάστασιν τῶν ‘Ωρέων ἀκριβῶς, καὶ τῶν Νούσων ἑκάστην. - -I would ask of all unprejudiced persons, What could contagion have had -to do with the terrific and wide-spreading outbreak of pestilence at -Kurrachee (see ‘History of Pestilences,’ p. 177), where 8000 victims -were at once seized and carried off in a few days? - -But that which I would urge in support of the -NON-CONTAGIOUSNESS of epidemic pestilences, irrespective -of EVERY other authority, is the remarkable fact, that in -our most ancient medical treatise, the 13th chapter of Leviticus, -no mention whatever is made of epidemic diseases being reckoned -contagious, although at the time when the Levitical code was being -propounded there was no lack of experience in epidemic diseases; -for in the days of Moses the times in Egypt were calamitous -indeed:--pestilence and famine ran riot through the land. Had epidemic -diseases, then so common and lethal in Egypt, been considered -contagious, the presumption is that they would have been enumerated as -such among those which were specified as possessing that character, -viz. leprosy, scabies, lues, &c.; and when we observe such minuteness -displayed in the Mosaic ordinances, to the very freeing of houses from -damp previously to occupation, we cannot suppose that precautionary -directions, as regards such universal and lethal maladies as epidemics, -would have been omitted. With this remarkable fact before us, derived -from sacred authority, I feel at a loss to conjecture the grounds -on which the idea of contagion is _at all entertained_, more -especially as we have the occurrence of pestilential disease not only -foretold, but their very nature and mode of production positively -conveyed to us from the same divine source. - -“The Lord shall smite thee with a consumption, and with a fever, and -with an inflammation, and with an extreme burning,” &c. (Deut. chap, -xxviii.)--“And it shall become small dust in all the land of Egypt, and -shall be a boil breaking forth with blains upon man, and upon beast, -throughout all the land of Egypt.” (Exod. chap, ix.)--“But the hand -of the Lord was heavy upon them of Ashdod, and he destroyed them, and -smote them with emerods” (violent dysentery), “even Ashdod and the -coasts thereof.” (1 Sam. chap, v.)--“I also will do this unto you; I -will even appoint over you terror, consumption, and the burning ague,” -&c. (Levit. chap. xxvi.)--“I will smite the inhabitants of this city, -both man and beast: they shall die of a great pestilence.” (Jeremiah, -chap. xxi.)--The sun and the moon standing still in their habitations, -the mountains trembling, the waters overflowing, causing famine and -pestilence. (Habakkuk, chap. iii.)--“Behold, I will send a blast upon -him.” (2 Kings xix.)--“The Lord shall make the rain of thy land powder -and dust.” (Deut. xxviii.)--“Thy heaven shall be brass, and the earth -iron.” (Ibid.)--“And if the family of Egypt go not up, and come not, -that have no rain, there shall be the plague,” &c. (Zechariah, chap. -xiv.) - -In conclusion: fully impressed with the necessity that for the -purpose of insuring anything like rational conclusions as to the -nature and origin, or causes, of epidemic pestilences, we should -not only enter upon their investigation divested of all prejudice -in favour of _exclusive_ doctrines, but at the same time be -actuated by an impartial desire for COMPREHENSIVNESS, as -being the only, the true way to surmount the innumerable difficulties -attendant on the investigation of universal distempers, and premising -with the opinion that at the onset we should be cognizant of the -_absolutely_ necessary distinction between the predisposing and -the exciting causes of disease, the due consideration of which guides -to preventive or sanitary measures, _I take leave_ to reiterate -my opinion,--an opinion founded on a careful review of the foregoing -history of epidemics,--that all epidemic pestilences or diseases are -to be accounted for on the principle of natural causes, viz., THAT -ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE, CONSISTING OF VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE, -HYGROMETRIC INFLUENCE, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, ELECTRICAL TENSION &C., -ARE THE EXCITING CAUSES; WHILE, ON THE OTHER HAND, WANT OF LIGHT, -IMPURE AIR, ESPECIALLY FROM DEFECTIVE VENTILATION, IN WHICH ARE -INCLUDED MALARIA AND ALL OTHER NOXIOUS VAPOURS, FROM WHATEVER SOURCE -ARISING; SCANTY DIET, AND HABITS INDUCED BY THE IRREGULAR, ARTIFICIAL -LIFE OF MANY, ARE THE PREDISPOSING CAUSES, WHICH BY ENERVATING AND -OTHERWISE SPOILING THE SYSTEM, RENDER IT MORE SUSCEPTIBLE OF EXTERNAL -ATMOSPHERIC IMPRESSIONS IN THE PRODUCTION OF EPIDEMIC PESTILENCE OR -DISEASE. - -Λεγέτω μὲν οὖν περὶ αὐτοῦ ὡς ἕκαστος γιγνώσκει, καὶ ἰατρὸς, καὶ -ἰδιώτης, ἀφ’ ὅτου εἰκὸς ἦν γενέσθαι αὐτὸ, καὶ τὰς αἰτίας ἅστινας -νομίζει τοσαύτης μεταβολῆς ἱκανὰς εἶναι δύναμιν ἐς τὸ μεταστῆσαι -σχεῖν. And now I leave every one, whether physician or not, to pass his -own opinion concerning it, pointing out whence it was likely to arise, -and what causes he thinks sufficient to produce so entire a change in -the constitution of the human body.”--(Thucydides on Epidemics.) - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - PROPHYLAXIS: OR THE MODE OF PREVENTING DISEASE. - - “Organic forms with chemic changes strive, - Live but to die, and die but to revive; - IMMORTAL MATTER braves the transient storm, - Mounts from the wreck, unchanging but in form.” - - -The original mandate of the Creator has provided that by various -natural processes a constant equilibrium shall be preserved and -maintained, so that from age to age, until all the purposes for which -the earth is sustained be completed, the same ends will be accomplished -by the same agency: - - “That very law which moulds a tear - And bids it trickle from its source, - That law preserves the earth a sphere, - And guides the planets in their course.” - -We further know that all organized matter, whether animal or vegetable, -possesses the materials of which they are composed, for a limited time -only, life itself being but a boon, lent to serve the purposes of -Infinite Wisdom-- - - “Which thus alternating with death fulfil - The silent mandates of the Almighty’s will; - Whose hand unseen the works of Nature dooms, - By laws unknown;--who gives and who resumes.” - -Again, on reviewing the histories of bygone ages, we learn that from -the earliest times disease has visited every country with a frequency -and malignancy always proportioned to the intensity of the predisposing -causes. Under the head of Nature and Causes of Disease, I have already -advanced that disease arises from certain conditions or vicissitudes of -the atmosphere, together with the application of other powers producing -direct debility. Over the former, as the exciting, the vital cause, -we have but little control; it is the latter only, the predisposing -causes, that we can attempt to counteract with a fair prospect of -success. Seeing that such predisposing causes more generally arise from -the infraction of the unalterable laws originally laid down for the -government of mankind,--from a neglect of the most obvious laws of our -being,--and that Providence, for the most part, acts by SECONDARY -CAUSES, we should direct our efforts to the arresting of every -condition which _predisposes_ to or aggravates disease, such -condition being more or less subject to human regulations. - -“Prevention,” says the adage, “is better than cure.” When the sources -of sickness have been remedied, the production of the evil has been -limited, if not totally annihilated; it is, therefore, to the adoption -and enforcement, by judicious legislative enactments, of prophylactic -measures, based on scientific views, that we would direct especial -attention; for by such measures we not only, to a great extent, prevent -disease, by rendering the body less susceptible of it, but, when -attacked by it, we lessen its fatality, by placing the vital system in -a normal condition, capable of bearing up against it:-- - - “Salus populi est suprema lex.” - -It is a lamentable fact, that in this our own country, with all its -practical talent, and its great advance in civilization, hitherto so -little progress has been made in a matter deeply involving the moral, -as well as the physical, condition of the great mass of our population. -As one proof out of many of what may be effected by judicious measures, -we may advert to the present condition of our navy, as contrasted -with that of the last century. Formerly we heard among our seamen of -nothing but dysentery, fevers, scurvy, &c., which diseases have been -known to depopulate whole fleets. In the year 1726, when at sea, great -mortality occurred from these scourges in the fleet, consisting of -seven ships, under the command of Admiral Hosier, on the West India -station. He twice lost the crew of his own ship. In the year 1741, also -at sea, half the crew of Captain Anson’s fleet died from scurvy in less -than six weeks after leaving England; and in the year 1780, 11,732 -cases of scurvy, dysentery, and fever were sent to Haslar Hospital -from the Channel fleet! whilst now, from the attention paid to the -construction of our shipping, to ventilation, cleanliness, and diet, we -scarcely meet with these diseases among the seamen, and the wards of -Haslar Hospital, which formerly were crowded with cases of scorbutic -disease, now seldom exhibit a case. - -The two grand essentials for vitality are Light and Air, to which may -be added, Water. These, which are supplied to us by an all-wise and -beneficent Creator in unlimited abundance, are indispensably necessary -to a healthy state of animal life; the absence of the one, or impurity -of the other, as being detrimental to life, should take the lead of all -sanitary measures. - - “Light---- - ----Nature’s resplendent robe! - Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt - In unessential gloom.” - -We know from experience, that the influence of light and atmospheric -temperature upon living bodies is very similar, being manifested by -the strongest stimulating effects; in fact, light is known to be -an important agent in varying the phenomena of the atmosphere, its -stimulating effects being more or less modified by light, according to -the permanence and intensity of such light. The sun being the principal -source of light and heat, their influences may be considered as -inseparable, and acting in concert; if a thermometer were to be removed -from the dark into the light, the mercury would be seen to rise, and, -on the other hand, if it were to be conveyed from the light to the -dark, it would fall. - - “In tubes of glass mercurial columns rise, - Or sink obedient to the incumbent skies; - Or as they touch the figured scale, repeat - The nice gradations of circumfluent heat.” - -Milton beautifully apostrophizes the great luminary, Light, thus: - - “Hail, Holy Light! offering of Heaven’s first-born, - Or of the eternal co-eternal beam, - Bright effluence of bright essence increate,-- - Thy fountain who shall tell? Before the sun-- - Before the heavens thou wert, and at the voice - Of God, as with a mantle, didst invest - The rising world of waters dark and deep.” - -Commencing with the properties of light, we find its influence on -inorganic bodies and vegetables to be unequivocal; in short, it may -be said that so very extensive is its influence, that there is not a -substance which, when exposed to its action, does not experience some -alteration. Without light, independently of the heat which is its -ordinary concomitant, there would scarcely exist a trace of vegetation, -and when we reflect on the remarkable dependence of the animal and -vegetable kingdoms on each other, the animal by the extrication of -carbonic acid gas, affording a fluid essential to vegetation; the -plant, on the other hand, by the emission of oxygen, supplying the -atmosphere with the gas which is equally necessary for the well-being -of the former, we cannot suppose light to be less essential to animal -life. - -The chemical effects of light, and its influence on animal and -vegetable vitality, have much engaged the attention of philosophers:-- - - “O Sun-- - Thou shin’st in boundless majesty abroad, - High gleaming from afar--prime cheerer, heat; - Of all material beings first and best! - Efflux divine! - Without thy quickening glance, our cumbrous mould - Were brute, unlovely mass, inert and dead; - And not as now, the sweet abode of life. - How many forms of Being wait on Thee! - Inhaling spirit; from the unfetter’d mind, - By thee sublimed, down to the daily race, - The mixing myriads of thy setting beam-- - The vegetable world is also thine! - The very dead Creation, from thy touch, - Assumes a mimic life. But this - And all the much-transported Muse can sing, - Are, to thy splendour, dignity, and _use_, - Unequal far! Great delegated Source - Of Light and Life, and Grace and Joy below.” - -With reference to the vegetable kingdom, we see that the most delicate -of the discous plants or flowers turn constantly towards the sun; it is -also well known that the change of position of the leaves of plants, -at different periods of the day, is entirely owing to the agency of -light; plants growing in the shade, or in darkness, are pale, and -without their natural and healthy colour--they become ‘etiolated’ or -blanched. Gardeners avail themselves of a knowledge of this fact, -and, by excluding the light, they obtain celery, lettuce, &c., in a -white state. If a potato be placed in a dark cell, with but one small -aperture for the admission of light, on germinating, the sprout will -turn and grow towards the light, and will continue pale and light until -it reaches the light, and becomes fairly exposed to its stimulus, when -its natural and healthy colour will be assumed. - -Light contributes to the maturity of seeds, fruit, and flowers. -Professor Davy found by experiment that red rose-trees, carefully -excluded from light, produced roses almost of a white colour. -Vegetables are not only indebted to the light for their colour,[3] but -their taste and odour are likewise derived from, or at all events -greatly influenced by, the same source. Light is also an essential -element in the topographical arrangement of plants. The southern slopes -of our hills and mountain ranges are always clothed with a more fully -developed race of plants than the northern; this depends wholly upon -the greater degree of light and heat which the former enjoy. The more -free the exposure, the more readily will most plants blossom, and yield -a rich fruit; so well is this understood in the grape countries on -the Rhine, that the right bank of that river, which faces the sun, is -reckoned to be much more valuable than the left, and commands a higher -price for its wines. - -Turning to the animal kingdom, which is more immediately our province, -we find in that portion of nature an equal dependence on light for its -proper development and vitality. Animals droop when they are deprived -of light; there are instances on record where persons having been long -confined in dark places or dungeons (even though well ventilated), -their whole complexion has become sallow, their general health -deteriorated, pustules, with aqueous humours, have opened out upon -their skin, and they have become languid, and frequently dropsical. -In the absence of light, there is a predominance of the white fluids -of the body; the action of the lymphatic system is exalted, and it -imparts to the organization of animals that remarkable blanched -appearance called ‘etiolement.’ Hence the well-founded supposition, -that the absence of the solar rays of light contributes greatly to the -development of scrofula. - -“Let in the sun, and you shut out the doctor,” says an old Italian -proverb. The effects of the free admission of light, as a point of -great importance to the well-being of every individual, has been proved -by the experiments of Dr. Edwards, who has shown that if tadpoles -be nourished with proper food, and exposed to the renewed action -of water (so that their bronchial respiration may be maintained), -but are entirely deprived of light, the growth continues, but their -metamorphosis into the condition of air-breathing animals is arrested, -and they remain in the form of large tadpoles. Dr. Edwards also -observes, that persons who live in caves and cellars, or in very dark, -narrow streets, are apt to produce deformed children. Rabbits, which -were kept in a dark cellar, were affected with mollities ossium, their -limbs being useless. - -It has been recently stated, that the cases of disease in the dark side -of an extensive barrack at St. Petersburgh, have been uniformly, for -many years, in the proportion of THREE to one to those on the -side exposed to a strong light. - -Dupuytren relates the case of a lady whose maladies had baffled the -skill of several eminent practitioners. This lady resided in one of -the narrow streets of Paris, and in a dark room in which the sun never -shone. After a careful examination, Dupuytren was led to refer her -complaints to the absence of light, and recommended her removal to a -more cheerful situation: the change was followed by the most beneficial -results; all her complaints in a very short time vanished. - -In a series of experiments made by Mr. Simon upon cats, which that -gentleman confined in dark cellars, he found after death disease of -the kidney, resembling that morbid state of the gland generally known -as morbus Brightii (Bright’s disease), and, in other cases, incipient -fatty degeneration of the liver. - -Humboldt has remarked, that among several nations of South America, who -wear very little clothing, he never met with a single individual with -a natural deformity; and the celebrated Linneus, in his account of his -tour through Lapland, enumerates constant exposure to solar light as -one of the causes which render a summer’s journey through high northern -latitudes so peculiarly healthful and invigorating; whilst the reverse -is observed in less favoured regions-- - - ---- “beyond Tornea’s Lake, - And farthest Greenland, to the Pole extreme, - Where, failing gradual, Life itself goes out; - There Winter holds his unrelenting court. - Near the wild Oby live the last of men! - There, half-enliven’d by the distant Sun, - That rears and ripens man as well as plants-- - There human nature wears its lowest form!” - -We will now enter upon the consideration of another of the grand -essentials of vitality. Air-- - - “Vivit Ætherias vitaleis suscipit auras.” - -The word ‘atmosphere’ is of Greek origin, and signifies a body of -vapour in a spherical form. The rapidity of atmospheric air cannot be -explained on any principle but its fluidity; therefore atmospheric -air, the permanently elastic fluid which surrounds the earth, although -invisible, may be said to be material, and to possess all the common -properties of matter; for it occupies space, attracts and is attracted, -and consequently has weight. It likewise partakes of the nature of -a fluid, for it adapts itself to the form of the vessel in which it -is contained, and presses equally in all directions. Its power, when -vitiated, as a cause of disease, can only be determined by a scientific -examination of its properties, especially as regards its affinities -to other things. It should therefore claim the attention of every -individual, professional or non-professional, who has the comfort of -mankind at heart. - -“It is scarcely possible,” says Professor Davy, “duly to appreciate, -in the vast economy of terrestrial adaptations, the importance of the -mechanism by which gases and vapours rapidly permeate each other’s -bulks and become equally diffused. The atmosphere which surrounds the -globe consists of a mixture of several aeriform fluids in certain fixed -proportions, upon the proper maintenance of which, by measure and -weight, the welfare of the whole organic creation depends.” - -One of the principal uses of the atmosphere is to supply animals with -a medium for breathing. Breathing is an essential effort of the human -system. Its immediate effects are the operation of considerable changes -on the blood-- - - “In the blood is life, which vitality depends on air.” - -An outlet is also afforded to carbonic acid gas, and the acquisition -of a quantity of oxygen and nitrogen, which, combining with the -constituent parts of the chyle, convert it into the nature and quality -of nutritious blood. The temperature of the animal is supposed also -to be a consequence of the decomposition of air in the respiratory -process. The processes of respiration and combustion perpetually tend -to the destruction of the vital air, and the substitution of another, -which is a deadly poison to animal life. By means of ventilation -and circulation,--causing currents of air,--such poisonous air is -not allowed to accumulate, but is diffused through the surrounding -space, while the vital gas rushes, by a counter-tendency, to supply -the deficiency which the local consumption may have created; and thus -is explicable one of the self-apparent reasons as to the imperious -necessity for free ventilation. - -Notwithstanding our imperfect acquaintance with the manner in which -water is suspended in the atmosphere, it is well known that the human -body is greatly influenced by the aqueous vapour in such a state of -suspension, and that the sources of poisonous emanations are active in -proportion to the grade of atmospheric humidity and its temperature. -An atmosphere surcharged with humidity not only prevents the cuticular -discharge necessary to a healthy state, but sensibly diminishes the -watery exhalations from the lungs, thereby inducing various morbid -effects on the system. We observe the conversion of volatile bodies -into a gaseous form exemplified in the perfume of flowers being more -sensible during the fall of dew of an evening or in a morning, when the -dew evaporates and is dissipated by the rays of the morning sun: in the -same manner, the exhalation of deleterious matters, such as the filth -of ditches and badly-drained sewers, becomes more active. Excess of -moisture also, by diminishing the vital action, provides another cause -of disease in conjunction with the enervating effects of deleterious -gases: hence the more poisonous properties or injurious action of those -gases in stagnant atmospheres, which are always more humid than where -there is efficient circulation, _i. e._ ventilation. - - “Of what important use to human kind, - To what great ends subservient is the wind! - Where’er the aerial active vapour flies, - It drives the clouds, and ventilates the skies; - Sweeps from the earth Infection’s noxious train, - And swells to wholesome rage the sluggish main. - For, should the sea unagitated stand, - Death, with huge strides, would desolate the land; - The scorching sun, with unpropitious beam, - Would give to grief an everlasting theme; - And baneful vapours, lurking in the veins, - Would fiercely burn with unabating pains. - Such were the plagues that spread o’er Egypt’s land, - When Moses, taught by God, stretch’d forth his hand; - From animated dust fell myriads rose, - And vengeance shed o’er Israel’s harden’d foes.” - -Signal benefit from ventilation was observed some years ago in the -Savoy and Newgate prisons, in both of which the jail fever was, as -it had always been, frequent and very fatal. It was tried on the -recommendation of the great and good Dr. Hales, whose studies and -experiments were constantly directed to the benefit of mankind. The -good effects exceeded even the Doctor’s most sanguine expectations, for -the numbers attacked were greatly decreased, and the fever became less -fatal, after due ventilation had been established, and the supposed -contagion had been thereby arrested. On a reference to the writings -of the benevolent Howard, we shall perceive that he found the prisons -on the Continent perfectly free from pestilential fever, owing to the -apartments in which the prisoners were confined being spacious and -well-aired. - - “Leaves, lungs, and gills the vital ether breathes, - On earth’s green surface, or the waves beneath.” - -Dr. Thomas Bateman, writing on the low fevers of London occurring -among the poor, observes that he has often been surprised, after having -seen a patient in the low muttering delirium of fever while in his own -habitation, to find him with clear intellect and invigorated system -after passing a night in the House of Recovery, although no medicine -whatever had been given. We have ourselves observed the remarkable -and decided effects on the pulse, caused by the removal of patients -suffering from low typhus and other fevers;--their improvement has been -general and decided, merely from the removal from a lower to an upper -ward, where the ventilation has been more perfect. Of the many striking -illustrations of the benefit resulting from the free access of pure -air, the remarkable decrease of disease and death among the carnivora -in the Zoological Gardens, as reported in 1845, since the improvement -of the ventilation, may be instanced. The following statement, -taken from the history of the Dublin Lying-in Hospital, shows in an -extraordinary degree the advantages resulting from free ventilation. In -this hospital, 2944 infants out of 7650 died in the years 1782–83–84 -and 1785, within the first fortnight after their birth,--that is to -say, nearly one child out of every six died of convulsions, which were -called nine days’ convulsions by the nurses. These children foamed at -the mouth, the jaws became locked, the face swelled, and looked blue, -as though they were choking. This last circumstance led the physician -in attendance to attribute the disease and great mortality to the close -and crowded state of the hospital, causing a deficiency of good air. -Air-pipes, with other openings, were contrived,--the rooms were kept -sweet and fresh by means of ventilation,--and the consequences observed -were, that in the year - - 1786 out of 1372 children there died 51 - 1787 „ 1375 „ „ 59 - 1788 „ 1496 „ „ 55 - ---- ---- - 4243 165 - -So that, since ventilation has been properly effected, out of 4243 -children there died 165; whereas the average number of deaths from the -same numbers, previously to ventilation, was 1632! - - “And all proclaim Omnipotence Divine. - - * * * * * - - We view his kind, his life-preserving care, - In all the wondrous properties of AIR. - Were once the energy of _air_ denied, - The heart would cease to pour its purple tide; - The purple tide forget its wonted play, - Nor back again pursue its curious way; - Gross vapours would the springs of life pervade, - And make the brightest human blossom fade.” - -Dr. Barron, among a series of experiments, confined a number of -young rabbits in a close damp situation; many of the animals died at -intervals varying from five to seven weeks from the time of their -incarceration. On the removal of the survivors to dry localities, which -were otherwise favourable to health from being well ventilated, their -condition soon became manifestly improved. This fact has been further -confirmed by the experiments of Sir James Clark and Dr. (now Sir -Robert) Carswell and Dr. Jenner. - -In a report of the sickness which occurred among the Edinburgh Police, -as drawn up by the medical attendant, the effects of an ill-ventilated -station-house are noticed. It furnishes an additional example, if such -were needed, of the importance of pure air and plenty of it. The men -boarded and lodged in this place were originally the healthiest and -youngest men in the force; yet the rate of sickness among them was -very high, as was also the mortality--being more than treble that of -the other part of the force located elsewhere. Out of thirty-seven men -occupying the house in question, only one was found to be free from -functional disorder: the prominent symptoms being great sensibility to -atmospheric changes, copious cold perspirations, a constant sense of -fatigue, with pain in the eye-balls and loss of appetite. - -It would appear that in all propositions for sanitary improvements, -the all-engrossing topic is--the noxious properties of stinking -vapours. The cesspools and sewers seem to be the chief object of -solicitude, even in legislative proceedings; as though there were -no deleterious gases surrounding our globe, inappreciable to the -olfactories, and yet of far more consequence in a sanitary point of -view. Now, although vapours arising from cesspools and imperfect -drainage unquestionably constitute one of the many predisposing causes -to disease, they are not of such paramount importance as ventilation; -for their noxious influence, from whatever source they may arise, -depends more or less on their existence in open or confined places. -The indefatigable Parent Duchâtelet, in his work on ‘HYGIENE -PUBLIQUE,’ has shown that stenches, filthy exhalations, however -disgusting, are not necessarily the cause of disease, when not pent -up, as _à priori_ they might be supposed to be. He informs us -that at one of the most extensive ‘Chantierres d’Equarrissages,’ -situated at Montfauçon, within a mile or two of Paris, occupying a -large open space of ground, where thousands of horses, dogs, and cats -are taken yearly to be slaughtered, and where almost all the ordure -of Paris is collected together, the most abominable stenches are to -be met with: the ground, saturated with the blood of the slaughtered -animals, sends forth a most disgusting fœtor, as do also the enormous -mounds of putrid flesh collected for the purposes of manure, and for -the generation of maggots for feeding poultry! Yet the workmen living -and employed in these places, in the filthy occupation of glue and -music-string making, &c., enjoy an immunity from disease that is truly -astonishing, while their exemption from illness during the destructive -prevalence of cholera in Paris was equally remarkable. The existence -of such disgusting nuisances, as represented by Duchatelet, can by no -means be approved of; but reference to them is made here to show, by -well-ascertained facts, that the remedying of the effluvia arising -from imperfect drainage, cesspools, _et hoc genus omne_, is -not of such VITAL importance as the free admission of the -atmosphere; for we have seen that stagnant air is caused by the want -of a free current, and that it is rendered more humid than usual by the -non-admission of light (which is heat), and further that that humidity -increases the activity of noxious gases, so that where ventilation is -defective, there will always be an accumulation, and consequently -a concentration, of the gases from cesspools, exhalations from the body -by expiration, and from the skin; all these facts, physiologically -considered, will show the vast importance of the access of light and -of pure air, on which all sanitary measures, to be effective, must -be based. Ventilation, by striking at the root of the mischief, will -remedy all its evil consequences. - -Again, it must be recollected that the object of ventilation is not -solely to dissipate and get rid of odours offensive to the olfactories, -but also to supply the system with a vital stimulus--the very -_pabulum vitæ_--the oxygen necessary for the proper performance -of the functions of the different organs, which cannot be obtained in -due proportion from stagnant air--the supply in such an atmosphere from -defective circulation being inadequate to the demand or consumption. -When an animal is inclosed in a limited quantity of atmospheric air, -it dies as soon as the oxygen has been consumed; and no other air -will maintain animal life but oxygen, or a mixture which contains it -in a certain proportion. Further, ventilation, by supplying the vital -stimulus, and inducing a normal condition, also fortifies the system -against atmospheric vicissitudes--the grand excitant of disease. - -Opening up and enlarging drains, or establishing them where none -had previously existed, while the localities are allowed to remain -in a crowded state, will, while such operations are being carried -on, multiply the evil. A commencement must be made by rasing to the -ground the dens of physical and moral iniquity which have been so -disgracefully permitted to exist in the occupancy of those unfortunates -who have it not in their power to remedy the miseries to which it never -was the intention of Creative Wisdom that the meanest reptile should be -subjected, much less Man, once the image of his Creator,--His noblest -work! - -The subjects of Light and Air having been disposed of, we will next -discuss the properties of Water: - - “That chief ingredient in Heaven’s various works, - Where flexile genius sparkles in the gem, - Grows firm in oak, and fugitive in wine.” - -It is a necessary beverage for man and other animals,--is perpetually -used as a solvent for a great variety of solid bodies,--acts an -important part in conveying nourishment to the vegetable world, -and gives salubrity to the atmospherical regions,--in fine, it is -a fluid so generally distributed over our globe, and consequently -so universally known, that to enter into the minutiæ of its various -properties would be superfluous for the purposes of these pages. - - “If there be any universal medicine in nature, - It is water”--says HOFFMAN. - -Considering water dietetically as well as medicinally, it cannot -but be a matter of wonder, to all who know anything of the water -drunk in this great metropolis, that no measures have ever been -taken for the purification of an element so essential to a healthy -existence, although many excellent plans have from time to time -been suggested by persons practically conversant with such matters. -In the Report of a committee of the House of Commons, published so -far back as 1836, it is stated of the water from the Thames, that -it “receives the excrementitious matter from nearly a million and a -half of human beings;--the washings of their foul linen,--the filth -and refuse of many hundred manufactories,--the offal and decomposing -vegetable substances from the markets,--the foul and gory liquid from -slaughter-houses,--and the purulent abominations from hospitals and -dissecting-rooms, too disgusting to detail.” The polluted state of the -water supplied to this vast metropolis is not, however, the only crying -evil. The deficiency in quantity as well as the deleterious quality is -also a matter of just complaint, the supply of this first necessary of -life being insufficient for drinking and culinary purposes, independent -of its uses as an hygienic agent, for personal ablution; the salutary -effects of which we will next consider-- - - “And in the bath prepared my limbs I lave. - Reviving sweets repair the mind’s decay, - And take the painful sense of toil away.” - -The use of the bath has doubtlessly existed from the beginning of -the world. Bathing appears to have been a practice instinctively -adopted by all nations and tribes throughout the universe. Amongst -the North and South American Indians--in Africa--even among the most -barbarous and uncivilized races--bathing is a usage to which they pay -_scrupulous_ attention: yet, strange to say, to this day, personal -ablution is little known or practised in this otherwise proudly -pre-eminent country, as a hygienic agent: it is viewed more as a matter -of luxury, and then but very sparingly had recourse to, even by our -wealthy and middle classes. - -Socrates tells us that “bathing renders a man pure, both in soul and -body.” Clemens Alexandrinus says, it should be practised “for the sake -of HEALTH and cleanliness, and, lastly, of pleasure.” - -The ancient Romans considered the bath as the most important item -in the economy of their lives: they regarded it as indispensable -for health and comfort;--an idea of the magnificence and luxurious -construction of the Roman baths may be formed from the poetical -description by Statius, of the baths of Claudius Etruscus: - - “Nothing there’s vulgar: not the fairest brass - In all the glittering structure claims a place. - From _silver_ pipes the happy waters flow, - In _silver cisterns_ are received below. - See where with noble pride the doubtful stream - Stands fixed with wonder on the shining brim; - Surveys its riches, and admires its state; - Loath to be ravish’d from the glorious seat.” - -The most remarkable bagnios were those of the Emperor Dioclesian and -Antonius Caracalla, with their curiously vaulted roofs, spacious -apartments, and a thousand other ornaments and conveniences. Those of -Dioclesian occupied 140,000 men many years in building them. - -Bathing acts morally, as well as physically. It induces habits of -cleanliness, which are found allied only with self-respect, improved -temperance, intelligence, and morality. - - “This is the purest exercise of Health! - Thus life redoubles; and is oft preserved - By the bold swimmer, in the swift illapse - Of accident disastrous.--Hence the limbs - _Knit into force! and the same Roman arm - That rose victorious o’er the conquer’d earth, - First learn’d, while tender, to subdue the wave!!_ - E’en from the _body’s_ purity, the _mind_ - Derives a secret, sympathetic aid!!” - -Nothing is more soothing to the irritable impulses of the passions, -than the peculiar serenity which the bath imparts. The Romans in their -days of sensuality, invariably had recourse to the bath to relieve the -effects of their dissipation, and of great fatigue from travelling, &c. -Who is there, we would ask, that has not experienced, after a night’s -debauch in the indulgence of luxuries, when the head and heart have -been oppressed, and the nervous energies prostrated, the restorative -and invigorating effects of the bath,--for what allays feverish -irritability and perturbation of the nervous system so admirably as the -_cold_, _tepid_, or _hot bath_, according as the offender may have been -accustomed to use. Everywhere on the Continent, baths are to be had in -the greatest state of perfection. The French perform entire personal -ablution daily. In Italy, Holland, and Germany they patronise the bath -to a great extent, and amongst the Turks and Persians, and throughout -Asia, bathing is imperative as a part of their religion. They consider -it an absolute necessary of life, whilst we, the most refined people in -the world, are satisfied with a change of linen, and that too, very -often over a not very clean under-garment, or body flannel! - -The Hungarians and Russians bathe after the manner of the ancients; -in Russia especially, where the bath makes so much a part of the -system of living, it is used by persons of every age, and under all -circumstances. A Russian considers that the bath is a remedy for all -his ailments; he flies to it on all occasions; men, women at their -lying-in, and children, in almost all sicknesses, and before and after -a journey, &c., resort to the bath as their _solatium_--which, to -use the words of the illustrious Cullen, “imparts a sense of youth, -vigour, and self-complacency.” The Romans for five hundred years -together were without physicians; it was by means of the bath they -effected all their cures of disease, and to this day many nations cure -their maladies by the use of baths,--in which there is nothing so very -marvellous, as the simplicity of such means at first sight may lead -persons to suppose, when we consider the importance of the skin in the -animal economy, that it is not merely the organ of sensation, but that -it is endowed with an extensive and complicated nervous apparatus, -through which its sympathies with the entire organism are managed, and -that it possesses extensive secretory, excretory, and absorbing powers, -the _normal condition_ of these functions being essential not only -to _health_, but _to life itself_. - -Considering our pretensions to all that is refined, there is perhaps no -race of people more devoid of personal cleanliness than ourselves.[4] -This is a fact (however unpleasant the reference to it may be) that -admits of no contradiction, for the greater proportion, including -even the _higher_ and the middle classes of the population of -this country, are never subjected to entire ablution during the whole -period of their lives,--from their childhood to their death. Fancy an -octogenarian sweltering in the accumulated impurities of three-fourths -of a century! - - “Buried in smoke, in filth, and poisonous damps.” - -Can it be wondered at that _he_ hands down to his offspring a -corrupt, a tainted condition of fluids, which entails misery on them in -the shape of scrofula, and every variety of skin disease? - -Independent, however, of any hereditary predisposition to skin and -other diseases, it is too much the custom for persons who merely splash -with water their neck, face, and hands daily,--neglecting to wash their -bodies from year to year, so that the effete matters of the system -become condensed on the skin, thereby obstructing the exhalant pores, -and causing various internal complaints, and very frequently universal -itching,--to reconcile themselves with the idea that their sufferings -have been caused by a scorbutic diathesis, which has been communicated -to them by their progenitors, without any fault of their own, or any -reference to their own filthy personal habits. - -There is perhaps no greater absurdity than the common notion, that -washing the face and hands, and occasionally the feet, constitutes -personal cleanliness, or that such partial ablution can act -hygienically. It is from all parts of the body’s surface (more so from -some than from others, especially from those that are covered) that -chemical compounds and effete elements are eliminated in the shape of -the sensible and insensible perspiration--therefore, to escape the -evils attendant on filthy personal habits, we must not be content with -partial ablution, but extend it to the entire body. - -To all those who may be ignorant of, or any way sceptical on, the -point of the hygienic value of personal ablution, we would recommend -the perusal of the writings of Drs. Andrew Combe, Southwood Smith, -&c.--they will then become acquainted with the important uses and -functions of their _own covering_,--they will find in the -above-mentioned authorities the subject of cuticular economy ably -investigated, and the intimate connexion of the outer and inner skins -(the one being a continuation of the other) clearly set forth, showing -that through the perspiratory system, consisting of openings in the -skin called pores, the temperature of the body is not only managed to a -certain extent, but also that a number of compounds, noxious to animal -life, are removed from the system, by which means the blood and other -fluids are kept in a state of purity. Perspiration, both as to matter -or quality and its quantity, is absolutely necessary for the well-being -of the human body: and in order to give some idea of the injurious -effects of interference with the functions of the skin by the retention -and the necessary accumulation of innumerable chemical agents, we -may refer to Lavoisier and Seguin’s researches on the subject. It -was estimated by them that _eight grains_ of perspiration are -exhaled by the skin in the course of _a minute_, a quantity which -is equivalent to _thirty-three ounces_ in the _twenty-four -hours_. On the cuticular surface it has been computed by them that -there are seven millions of pores, which being blocked up by impurities -for want of personal cleanliness, must prevent the elimination of -their contents, and these being again thrown into the system by the -circulation, cannot but be highly detrimental to health. Again, - -IRRESPECTIVE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SKIN TO EXTERNAL LIFE, IT -IS NO LESS SO TO THE INTERNAL ECONOMY OF THE BODY IN PRESERVING THE -GRAND EQUILIBRIUM OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS (THE BODY BEING A SYSTEM OF -SYSTEMS) BY WHICH THE HUMAN FRAME IS SUPPORTED. - -To a want of personal purification by washing, therefore, the frequency -of many of our most distressing and fatal diseases, such as those of -the lungs and of the kidneys, termed consumption and Bright’s disease, -may be traced, as also the affection so common in this country, and -very justly termed ‘an Englishman’s inheritance,’ ‘dyspepsia,’ by our -making the lungs, the kidneys, and bowels, which are depurating organs -as well as the skin, act the part of scavengers to the entire system, -in the elimination of the greater portion of its impurities, and thus -perform the proper office of the skin. - -“We know,” says an experienced and talented writer, “no country of -Europe where there is so little disposition on the part of the people -as in ours to give themselves even the exhilarating kind of ablution -which is derived from bathing. Dirty faces, dirty clothes, dirty -houses,--in fine, dirt all over,--are the characteristics of our -people; and yet, bad as they are (from necessity generally), we know -that there are worse effects underneath the surface, for where physical -dirt is seen, there also presides _moral degradation_.” - -It is true that within the last few years many praiseworthy exertions -have been used for the purpose of establishing baths and wash-houses -for the poor, which it is to be hoped will meet with further -encouragement and extension; but as fashion rules a large portion of -mankind, even in physic, we would suggest, that in order to secure a -more complete and general use of personal ablution, our leaders of -fashion and the upper classes who have so much to say on the subject -of wash and bath-houses for the poor, should set the example by -establishing baths, after the custom of the Orientals, in their own -private residences; for, in spite of the increase of wealth and luxury, -of the splendour and extent of the houses of recent erection in this -country, baths are very far from being universal. Much may also be -attained by patronising the few excellent but neglected public baths -of this great metropolis; such measures would not only have the effect -of increasing the number of those baths already established, but of -inducing, from the increased facility, that personal purification, -which ultimately would be found to be indispensable. “_Usus est -altera natura._” - -In concluding these our remarks on the three grand essentials to life, -we would observe that it is astonishing with what little amount of -food a human being may live in health and strength, (we of course -allude to those who eat to live,) when supplied in due proportion -with the requisites for vitality,--namely, LIGHT, AIR, and WATER. -Further, we would ask, what can be more monstrous in this enlightened -age, so outrageous of every principle of reason--so contrary to daily -experience and common sense, as “the barring-out the free fresh air, -and the meting-out to mortals of Heaven’s light,” by that blot on -civilization, the window-tax,--a tax which originated in iniquity,[5] -at a time, too, when so much is being agitated about sanitary -measures?[6] We neglect the first principles of vitality, to go -groping into sewers and cesspools, which we repeat are but secondary -considerations, the _ultimatum_ of which will prove to be but little -better than the relief of the olfactories, to tickle the gustatory -nerves by furnishing for our palates, in the shape of Thames water, the -filthy abominations of an overgrown city. - -While on the subject of Prophylaxis, we must not omit allusion to the -barbarous and pestiferous custom of intramural burial, which cannot -be too strongly deprecated, as being not only subversive of every -Christian feeling--from the daily revolting spectacle of violated -sanctuaries--but otherwise demoralizing in the extreme, and poisonous -to the public. “Pessimum est tempore Pestis habitare in locis mortuorum -monumentis propinquis.” - -From the disgusting apathy evinced in this huge metropolis in the -disposal of the dead, it would appear that nothing short of one of -those terrible epidemic inflictions--inflictions with which in former -days the Almighty was wont to visit the iniquities of his people, will -bring those whose immediate province it is to a sense of the evils and -perils of such abominations, which they, in spite of common sense, -actuated by cupidity and fool-hardiness, still perpetuate. - - “Ye who amid this feverish world would wear - A body free of pains, of cares the mind, - Fly the rank city; shun the turbid air; - Breathe not the Chaos of eternal smoke, - And volatile corruption from the dead, - The dying, sickening, and the living world - Exhaled, to sully Heaven’s transparent dome - With dim mortality.” - -That interment, or enclosing the dead in a grave, is a most ancient -custom, there cannot be a doubt. Amongst the ancient Jews to have no -burial was reckoned among the greatest of calamities. The exposure -in any manner of their dead (even criminals) was looked upon as a -pollution of their land. The Egyptians and Asiatics practised interment -from the beginning of time. Subsequently, it became the custom to -_burn_ the bodies of the dead. By Homer’s description of the -funeral of Patroclus, it would appear that the Greeks used burning as -early as the Trojan war. They also had recourse to interment, as is -seen by their historians, who give an account of the manner in which -the body was placed in the grave: Plutarch tells us that they were -laid with their faces towards the east or towards the west; and Cicero -informs us that, in early times, as those of Cecrops, interment was -altogether made use of by the Greeks,--but we have ample testimony -in history that it always took place _without_ their cities, -particularly amongst the Jews and Greeks, from whom the Romans derived -the practice. We have several passages in the New Testament, showing -that the Jews buried their dead _without_ their city. Thus, -the sepulchre in which Joseph of Arimathea laid our Saviour’s body -was in the same place where he was crucified (John xix. 41), which -was near the city (John xix. 20). And we are taught in St. Matthew -(xxviii. 52–53), that, at our Lord’s passion, the graves were opened, -and many bodies of the saints which slept, arose and came out of the -graves after his resurrection, and _went into the Holy City_, and -appeared unto many. - -Servius, in giving an account of the unhappy death of his colleague -Marcellus, which happened in Greece, says that he could not by any -means obtain leave of the Athenians to allow him a burying-place -_within_ the city. The Romans observed the same custom from the -first building of their city; it afterwards became a law, as settled by -the Decemviri, “Neither burn nor bury within the city.” They generally -buried near the highways, in fields appropriated for the purpose. -Their reason seems to have been founded on sacred as well as civil -considerations: among the former, that passengers might see the graves, -and be reminded of their own mortality--hence, as Varro tells us, the -inscription on the monuments, ‘Sta viator!’--among the latter, “that -the air might not be corrupted by the stench of putrifying bodies.” It -is related of Propertius, that he was very earnest in desiring that -he might not be buried after the ordinary custom, near a _road_, -for fear it should disturb his shade. There were, however, exceptions -amongst the Romans to the prohibition of intramural burials, as in the -case of the Vestal Virgins, who, Servius informs us, were allowed by -law a burying-place within the city. The same privilege or honour was -permitted to some extraordinary persons, as to Valerius Publicola and -to Fabricius, to continue to their heirs; yet none of their families -were afterwards interred there, but the body being carried thither, -some one placed a burning torch under it, and then immediately took it -away, as an attestation of the deceased’s privilege, and his receding -from the honour. The body was then removed for burial to another place -without the city. - -The ancient Persians never buried in cities or towns. Their kings were -interred on a high hill on the east of Persepolis: generally throughout -Persia and the Levant, there were no burying-places except those -without the city. - -The cemeteries of the Turks were always without the towns, that the air -might not be corrupted by the vapours arising from the graves: they, -in like manner as the Romans, also bury by the sides of highways, that -travellers may be reminded to pray to God for the deceased. The Chinese -adopt a similar kind of sepulture. Eusebius informs us that when the -Christians, by favour of Constantine, built churches in the cities, -they had their burial-places allotted them outside the cities and towns. - -According to Gregory of Tours, it was not until the latter part of -the sixth century, about A.D. 590, that funeral places and -cemeteries within the towns were consecrated. - -Intramural burials and churchyards, it would seem, originated in the -idea that persons passing the graves of their relatives or friends on -their way to worship, might be reminded to offer up prayers for them; -and the profit might also be another motive. The gross and horrible -indignities now so frequently offered to the dead in consequence of -over-crowding, to the great scandal of our national religion and -character as a Christian people, could never have been contemplated; on -the contrary, it was intended to offer a sacred asylum for the mortal -remains of those whose memories were dear to us. - -It was a maxim, not only with the Jews, but with all nations of the -world, that holy places are polluted by the presence of dead carcases -or of dead men’s bones. Hence we find that when Josiah desired to -profane the altars dedicated to idols, he burned dead men’s bones upon -them, which he took out of the sepulchres that were on the mount (2 -Kings xxiii. 16). And when God threatened by Ezekiel to punish Israel, -he told them that their altars should be desolate: “and I will lay the -dead carcases of the children of Israel before their idols, and I will -scatter your bones round about your altars.” (Ezekiel vi. 5.) As the -Jews by the divine law had ablutions, washings, and purifications for -defilements by the dead, which is called Βαπτισμὸs ἀπὸ νεκρῶν -(Ecclesiasticus xxxiv. 25),--a washing from the pollution contracted -by the touch of a dead body,--so the Gentiles also from them had the -rite of purification for defilements contracted from the dead; for the -_Flamens_ or _Funera Mater_, when dismissing the people after -a funeral, sprinkled them with water to purge them of the pollution -received by the sight of the interment; and on their entering into a -temple, they were first sprinkled with holy water, the ωυραντιεια, so -often mentioned by heathen writers, lest they should appear polluted -before the gods. - -Hosperian informs us that the ancients greatly opposed the innovation -of burying in towns and churches, and on that account the councils of -their bishops made several canons and decrees against intramural and -church burials. - -Whether the ancients burned or interred their dead, they never made -choice of the place of divine worship, either to bury the body or -deposit its ashes. For centuries after Christianity was established, -they never presumed to make God’s temple the carnicle of the dead: on -the contrary, when the ancient mode of burial without the city began -to be neglected, burials in churches were opposed by authority. A law -in the Theodosian Code has these words: “Let no one imagine that the -churches of the Apostles and Martyrs were designed for burial-places -for the dead.” The Emperor Charles the Great has this injunction, “Let -no one bury any dead in the church.” Subsequently, Louis the Pious -most strenuously opposed burying within the churches, requiring “that -the constitutions, used and settled by the ancient Fathers, should be -observed in the burial of the dead.” - -So tenacious were the ancients of anything like desecration of their -churches, that we are told by Baronius that one Borachas being -persecuted by the Gentiles at Gaza, and having been left for dead, the -Christians took him up and carried him into the church; the Gentiles -and some of the authorities, on making inquiry for him, complained that -the Christians had broken the liberty of their city, and had trespassed -against their laws: for that they had brought a dead body into the -city, which ought in no wise to be done; they supposing that Borachas -was dead. - -The being buried in or near a church, we are told, originated with the -first Christian emperor, Constantine, who, although he did not desire -to be buried within the church (a thing in his day unheard-of), was -resolved that his remains should be deposited as near as possible to -it, and they were accordingly inhumed in the porch of the great church -at Constantinople. Subsequently, the practice increased, and persons of -quality claimed a similar privilege; their inferiors again, although -they claimed not the right of being buried within the porches, deemed -it an honour to be buried as near thereto as possible; hence, another -reason assigned for large courts and yards about churches. - - “The melancholy ghosts of dead renown - With penitential aspect, as they pass’d, - All point at earth and smile at human pride.” - -Some time after, Pope Gregory the Great brought into the churches, and -set up in the most solemn manner, relics enshrined in cases of gold, -which were sometimes placed upon, or over, but generally under the -altar. This made persons flock towards them, and bury their dead there, -in the hope that both might receive benefit from such veneration. -Thus, that which was originally considered a profanation, ultimately, -through the corruption of subsequent ages, became not only a means -of satisfying ambitious pride, but also apparently of conferring the -blessings of eternal happiness. - -The custom of interring persons of rank in churches was first -introduced into this country by Cuthbert, the tenth Archbishop of -Canterbury, who in the year A.D. 798 procured the privilege -from the Pope to have churchyards for interment: with reference to -burying in churches, the custom did not arise earlier than the year -1076. In the reign of William the Conqueror, the council held at -Winchester, under Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, by the ninth -canon, opposed burial in churches; it soon after, however, became a -custom, and vaults were built under the altars. - -“It is horrid,” said the Austrian emperor, “that a place of worship--a -temple of the Supreme Being--should be converted into a pest-house for -living creatures.” - -A person who upon his death-bed makes it a condition in his will that -he should be buried in a church or chapel, acts like a madman; he -ought to set his fellow-creatures a good example, and not do all in his -power to destroy their health by exposing them to the effluvia arising -from a corpse in a state of putrefaction. - -The following extract is from a sermon preached in 1552 by Bishop -Latimer, which proves that even at that comparatively early period, -when the population of London could scarcely have been one-fifth of -what it is now, the nuisance of intramural interments was found to be -dangerous to health. “The citizens of Naim,” observed the bishop, “hadd -their buryinge-place withoute the citie, which no doubt is a laudable -thinge; and I doe marvel that London, being soe great a citie, hath -not a burial-place without; for no doubt it is an unwholesome thinge -to bury within the citie, especiallie at such a time when there be -great sicknesses and manie die together. I think, verilie, that many -a man taketh his death in St. Paul’s churchyard, and this I speak of -experience, for I myself, when I have been there some mornings to heare -the sermons, have felt such an ill-savoured and unwholesome savour, -that I was the worse for it a great while after; and I think no lesse -but it is the occasion of great sicknesse and disease.” - -Well would it have been for the inhabitants of this vast metropolis had -Sir Christopher Wren’s plan been carried out at the rebuilding of the -city, after the fire of 1666. All churchyards were to have been removed -without the town. - -In the year 1786, the legislature of Germany passed a law, which was -punctually observed in the empire over which Joseph the Second ruled, -and which we would do well to imitate, instead of using the under-part -of our chapels as store and pest-houses. This law prohibited the -burying of dead bodies in any chapel or church whatever; neither rank -nor affluence can obtain permission to evade it, as in the enforcement -of it no respect is paid to persons. - -Of the injurious and fatal effects of exhalations from overcharging -burial-places, we have a striking illustration, that scarcely admits -of a doubt[7]--at least, as far as predisposition goes. In an old -work, entitled ‘Dr. Dover’s Ancient Physician’s Legacy,’ we have -the following; Dover, it must be understood, was an extraordinary -character, uniting in his own person the profession of physic and -buccaneering. He says:--“When I took by storm the two cities of -Guyaquil, under the line, in the South Seas, it happened that, not long -before, the plague had raged amongst them. For our better security -and the keeping of our people together, we lay in the churches, and -likewise brought thither the plunder of the cities. We were very much -annoyed by the smell of the dead bodies. These could hardly be said to -be buried; for the Spaniards abroad use no coffins, but throw several -dead bodies, one upon another, with only a draw-board over them; so -that it was no wonder we caught the infection. In a few days after we -went on board, one of the surgeons came to acquaint me that several of -my men were taken after a violent manner, with that languor of spirits -that they were not able to move; in less than forty-eight hours, we had -in our ships one hundred and eighty men in this miserable condition.” - -Dr. Adam Clarke, in his ‘Commentary on St. Luke,’ advises that “No -burying-places should be tolerated within CITIES or TOWNS, much less in -or about CHURCHES and CHAPELS. This custom is excessively injurious to -the inhabitants, and especially to those who frequent public worship -in such CHAPELS and CHURCHES. God, decency, and health forbid this -shocking abomination. * * * From long observation I can attest that -CHURCHES and CHAPELS situated in graveyards, and those especially -within whose walls the dead are interred, are perfectly unwholesome; -and many, by attending such places, are shortening their passage to -the house appointed for the living. What increases the iniquity of -this abominable and deadly work is, that the burying-grounds attached -to many CHURCHES and CHAPELS are made a source of PRIVATE GAIN. The -whole of this preposterous conduct is as indecorous and unhealthy as -it is profane. Every man should know that the gas which is disengaged -from putrid flesh, and particularly from a human body, is not only -unfriendly to, but destructive of, animal life. Superstition first -introduced a practice which self-interest and covetousness continue to -maintain.” - -The Rev. Dr. Render, in his ‘Tour through Germany’ published in London, -in the year 1801, mentions the following case:--“In the month of -July, 17--, a very corpulent lady died at----. Before her death, she -begged, as a particular favour, to be buried in the parochial church: -she died on the Wednesday, and on the following Saturday was buried -according to her desire. The day following, the clergyman preached -her funeral sermon: the weather was uncommonly hot; and it ought to -be observed that, for several months preceding her death, a great -drought had prevailed; not a drop of rain had fallen, consequently it -was an uncommonly sultry season. The succeeding Sunday, the Protestant -clergyman had a very full congregation, upwards of 900 persons -attending, that being the day for administering the Holy Sacrament. The -weather still continuing very hot, many were obliged during the service -to walk out for a time, to avoid fainting; whilst some actually fainted -away. It is the custom, in Germany, that when people wish to receive -the sacrament, they neither eat nor drink that day, until the ceremony -is entirely over. The sermon occupied about one hour and a quarter; -after which the bread was consecrated, and, according to custom, -remained uncovered during the ceremony. - -“There were about one hundred and eighty communicants. A quarter of an -hour after the ceremony, before they had quitted the church, more than -sixty of them were taken ill; several died in the most severe agonies; -others, of a more vigorous constitution, survived by the help of -medical assistance; a most violent consternation prevailed throughout -the whole congregation and town. It was concluded that the wine had -been poisoned, and so it was generally believed; the sacristan, and -several others belonging to the vestry, were immediately arrested, and -cast into prison. The clergyman, on the succeeding Sunday, preached -very excitingly, and pointed out to his congregation several others -concerned in the plot. This enthusiastic sermon was printed. The -persons accused underwent very great hardships; during the space of a -week they were confined in a dungeon, and some of them were put to the -torture; but they persisted in asserting their innocence. On the Sunday -following, the magistrate ordered that a chalice of wine, uncovered, -should be placed for the space of an hour upon the altar, which time -had scarcely elapsed when they beheld the wine filled with myriads -of insects; and by tracing them to their source it was at length -perceived, by the rays of the sun, that they issued from the grave of -the lady who had been buried the preceding fortnight. The people not -belonging to the vestry were dismissed, and four men employed to open -the grave and the coffin; in doing which two of them dropped down, and -expired upon the spot; and the other two were only saved by the utmost -exertion of medical talent. It is beyond the power of words to describe -the horrid sight of the corpse when the coffin was opened. The whole -was a mass of entire putrefaction; and it was now clearly demonstrated -that the numerous insects, both large and small, together with the -effluvia which had issued from the body, had caused the pestilential -infection, which was a week before attributed to poison. On this -discovery, those who had been accused of poisoning the wine, &c., were -liberated, and atonement made by the clergyman and magistrate for their -unfounded charge.” - -It was said by St. Cyril, when offering an excuse for the mode of -burial of the Gentiles, “that their temples were only beautiful -monuments of dead men.” How differently would he have expressed himself -with regard to our Christian metropolitan churches or temples of this, -the nineteenth century, which are loathsome receptacles of corruption! - -But a few years ago, in the autumn of 1843, the poisonous effects -of disturbing a graveyard were but too fatally evident. The church -and churchyard of Minchinhampton are very old,--the latter having -served for a burying-ground for the previous five hundred years; it -was consequently densely crowded with dead bodies. In rebuilding the -church, it became necessary, or was thought expedient, to lower the -surface of the graveyard to within a foot or two of the remains of -those buried. Many bodies were disturbed during this process, and -re-interred. The earth so removed of a dark colour--saturated, in fact, -with the product of human putrefaction--was, in a fatal hour, devoted -to the purposes of agriculture! About one thousand cart-loads were -thus employed--some on a new piece of burial-ground, to make the grass -grow quickly, some as manure on the neighbouring fields, some in the -rector’s garden! and some in that of the patron. The seeds of disease -were thus widely sown, and the result was such as any person of common -sense might have expected. The diffusion of a morbid poison which -soon followed, was evinced by an outbreak of fever in this previously -healthy locality. The family of the rector, and the inhabitants of the -streets adjoining the churchyard, were the first attacked, and were -also the greatest sufferers. The rector lost his wife, his daughter, -and his gardener. The patron’s gardener, who had been employed in the -unseemly act of dressing flower-beds with human manure, also died. -In short, wherever the earth had been taken, disease followed. The -children who attended the school took fever as they passed the upturned -surface of the graveyard, went home, and died; but they did not -communicate the disease to those who came near them, nor did it occur -in any person who had not been exposed to the cause of its development. -Seventeen deaths occurred, and upwards of two hundred children were -attacked with measles, scarlet fever, and peculiar eruptions. - -Should not the fearful consequences of such unhallowed proceedings be -viewed as the retributive hand of Heaven, overtaking those concerned -in the desecration of the dead? The appropriation of the soil, which -should have been held as sacred;--of human remains, for the purposes -of agriculture--the cultivation of vegetables and flowers! and by one, -too, holding the sacred office of a pastor. _O tempora! O mores!_ - -Considering the immense importance of the subject, in a moral as -well as in a physical point of view, it is lamentable in the extreme -and truly disgraceful to a nation boasting of its character, general -superiority, and wealth, that a practice (intramural burial) should -obtain, in behalf of which no one single argument can be adduced, but -against which, religion, history, common sense, and daily experience -may be arrayed. - - * * * * * - -On reviewing the foregoing observations, and on seriously contemplating -the condition of the ill-ventilated rooms and workshops, the damp, -dark, and insalubrious cellars,--little better than dungeons,--the -dreary, close, stifling courts, and narrow dark alleys of this vast -metropolis, into which the light of heaven rarely penetrates;--we say, -while contemplating these abodes of our lower classes, (which would -be injurious even to swine,) the culpable apathy, prejudice, and bad -arrangements of those whose duty it is to remedy such crying evils, -cannot but be obvious. In conclusion, we would therefore earnestly -recommend to all such delinquents for their guidance, and to all those -enlisted in the cause of sanitary reform, the salutary directions -as to washing, cleansing, purification, &c., conveyed in the Mosaic -Ordinances, especially in the following passages, as showing with what -minuteness all matters appertaining to health, to the very freeing of -houses from damp, were directed; that we, the enlightened and refined -of the nineteenth century, may profit thereby. - -“34 When ye be come into the land of Canaan, which I give to you for a -possession, and I put the plague of leprosy[8] in a house of the land -of your possession; - -35 And he that owneth the house shall come and tell the priest, saying, -It seemeth to me _there is_ as it were a plague in the house: - -36 Then the priest shall command that they empty the house, before the -priest go _into it_ to see the plague, that all that _is_ in -the house be not made unclean; and afterwards the priest shall go in to -see the house: - -37 And he shall look on the plague, and, behold, IF the plague -_be_ in the walls of the house with hollow strakes, greenish or -reddish, which in sight _are_ lower than the wall; - -38 Then the priest shall go out of the house to the door of the house, -and shut up the house seven days: - -39 And the priest shall come again the seventh day, and shall look: -and, behold, _if_ the plague be spread in the walls of the house; - -40 Then the priest shall command that they take away the stones in -which the plague _is_, and they shall cast them into an unclean -place without the city: - -41 And he shall cause the house to be scraped within round about, and -they shall pour out the dust that they scrape off without the city into -an unclean place: - -42 And they shall take other stones, and put _them_ in the place -of those stones; and he shall take other mortar, and shall plaister the -house. - -43 And if the plague come again, and break out in the house, after that -he hath taken away the stones, and after he hath scraped the house, and -after it is plaistered; - -44 Then the priest shall come and look, and, behold, _if_ the -plague be spread in the house, it _is_ a fretting leprosy in the -house: it IS unclean. - -45 And he shall break down the house, the stones of it, and the -timber thereof, and all the mortar of the house; and he shall carry -_them_ forth out of the city into an unclean place.” - - LEVITICUS, chap. xiv. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY. - - - _Acad._ de la Hist. sobre las Sepulturas, p. 60. - - _Acerbi, Enrico_, Dottrina teorico-pratica del Morbo - petechiale. 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IV. fol. 724. - - _Zurita, Geronimo_, en sus Anales de Aragon y en al lugar - que expressa la cita puesta mas abaxo habla de este sitio de - Pomblin cuya precisa situacion no sobre determinar por ahora. - - - - - GENERAL INDEX. - - Act, a Paving, passed, _p._ 131 - - Adriatic, carriages driven on the, 30 - - Africa, earthquakes in, 21 - - ----, a fall of locusts in, Lord Carnarvon on, 14 - - Agabus, prophecy of, 17 - - Ague, 105 - - Agues and fevers in England, 31 - - Air, charging the, with mephitic vapours, 12 - - ---- essential to vitality, 218 - - ---- impregnated with mist and fœtidness, 27 - - Alexandria and Libya nearly destroyed, 23 - - Alexandrinus, 231 - - Alexipharmics, 107 - - Alfred, the rebuilding of London by, 30 - - Alkhatrib, 46, 48 - - Alonso V., army of, 66 - - Alonso de Burgos, 65 - - Alpinus, 92 - - Alsinet, Dr., 135 - - Alvarez, Dr., 139 - - America, introduction of variola into, 71 - - Ammonius, 77 - - Amos, on elemental disturbance, 194 - - Anacharsis, 7 - - Ancient writings, 188 - - Ancients, the, on epidemics, 186 - - Andalusian fever, the, 87, 100, 137 - - Andres Laguna, 48 - - Angina, 30; - a mortal, 112; - pestilential, 116 - - Anginas and dysenteries in England, 60 - - Animal kingdom, the, 221 - - Animals, carnivorous, attacked with pestilence, 12 - - ---- disease among, 114, 146; - dysentery among, 125; - pestilence among, 98 - - Antioch, earthquake at, 19, 23, 24, 25 - - Apathy on the subject of epidemics, 185 - - Apoplectic fever, 167 - - Aqueous vapour, 224 - - Aquila destroyed by earthquake, 117 - - Arden, 73 - - Army of Gallienus, 22; - of king Alonso V., 66 - - Art of farriery, 66 - - Artaxerxes and Hippocrates, 7 - - Asia, earthquakes in, 21; - long continuance of pestilence in, 24 - - Asia Minor, earthquake in, 16 - - Astruc, 72, 74 - - Athens, morbid phenomena of a plague at, 7; - causes of a pestilence at, 8 - - Atmosphere, the, 223; - constitution of the, 9, 16, 21; - uses of the, 223; - sneezing induced by condition of the, 27; - impure, 204; - moist, 59 - - Atmospheric changes, 60; - influence, 190; - poison, 79 - - Aurelius Victor, 19, 21 - - Aurora borealis, 91, 120, 121, 168 - - Austrigilda, queen of Orleans, 26 - - Avernus, poisonous vapours of the lake, 4 - - Averrhoes, 37 - - - Babylon depopulated, 17 - - Bagnios, 232 - - Baltic, disease among porpoises in the, 82 - - ---- frozen over, the, 64, 67 - - Baraillon, 135 - - Barcelona, earthquake at, 62 - - Baronius, 29, 30 - - Barron, Dr., experiments of, 227 - - Bartianus, 29, 30 - - Bateman, Dr., 225 - - Bath, the use of the, 231; - the ancient Romans, and the, _ib._ - - Bathing, 5, 231 - - Baths, vapour, of the Sætabi, 5 - - ---- and wash-houses, 236 - - Bell of Velilla, the miraculous, 79 - - Bilious plague, 116, 123, 141 - - ---- remittent fever, 71 - - Birds and dogs, epizootic among, 10 - - Black death, the, 50, 183 - - ---- pestilence, the, 50 - - ---- tongue, the, 173 - - ---- worm, 141 - - Blane, Dr., 209 - - Blight, 135, 172, 174, 192 - - Blights, 74 - - Blood-coloured rain, 32, 82 - - Board of Health formed, 68 - - Bodies, unburied, 23 - - Boghurst, Mr., 109 - - Boja, the plague of, 71 - - Bow Church unroofed by storm, 34 - - Brain fever, 78 - - Break-bone fever, 137 - - Breeding women and cattle, pestilence fatal to, 10 - - ‘Brenning,’ 73 - - Bridges broken down by ice, 34 - - Bright’s disease, 235 - - Brothel at Rome, Pope Sextus erects a, 67 - - Bruno Fernandes, 116 - - Buboes formed in the groin, 27 - - Bubonic pestilence, 79 - - ‘Budho connail,’ 29 - - Burial, intramural, 137, 237 - - ---- in churches, 241; - among the Gentiles, 246 - - Burial-grounds, exhalations from overcharged, 243 - - ‘Burning,’ 73 - - ---- of London by the Danes, 30 - - ---- fevers and agues in England, 31 - - - Cadiz, pestilence in, 10 - - Cæsarea, earthquake in, 19 - - Caius (John), 86 - - Caius, Dr., 69 - - Calabria, earthquake in, 138 - - Campaigns in warm climates, 9 - - Campania, famine in, 3 - - Cannibals infested with venereal disease, 73 - - Canton, inundations at, 46 - - Capmany, 59 - - Carnarvon, Lord, on a fall of locusts in Africa, 14 - - Carnivorous animals attacked with pestilence, 12 - - Carriages driven on the Adriatic, 30 - - Carswell, Sir Robert, 227 - - Carthaginians, destroyed by pestilence, 8 - - Casal, Dr., 121, 123 - - ---- on the Asturias, 15 - - Casiri, 47 - - Catania, earthquake at, 112 - - Catarrh, 118, 130; - a fatal, in England, 115; - epidemic, 92, 105, 107, 114; - violent, 76 - - Catarrhs, 43; - preceding pestilences, 92 - - Caterpillars, 74, 85, 142 - - Cattle, disease among, 29; - distemper among, 128; - epizootic among, 108, 115, 119, 130, 131, 138, 180; - flux among, 31; - malignant epizootic among, 13; - murrain among, 31; - pestilence fatal to breeding women and, 10 - - Catullus, 5 - - Cause, God the First Great, 193 - - Causes of a pestilence at Athens, 83 - - ---- of maladies, 189; - instances explanatory of the, 193; - Old and New Testaments on the, _ibid._ - - ---- of pestilence, De Foe on the, 206 - - ---- and nature of epidemic pestilences, 184–207 - - Cedrenus, 21, 22, 29 - - Celestial influence, disease attributed to, 75 - - Cemeteries of the Turks, 239 - - Changes, atmospheric, 60 - - Channel, 126 - - Chapel, an imprecatory, consecrated, 68 - - Charging the air with mephitic vapours, 12 - - Charterhouse churchyard, the, 51 - - Chemical effects of light, 219 - - Childebert, 26 - - Children at Erfurt, the dancing disease among the, 39 - - Chili, earthquake at, 108, 124 - - China, 46; - earthquakes in, 18, 87, 108, 115; - floods in, 46 - - Chinese mode of sepulture, 239 - - Cholera, 21, 112, 137, 151, 152, 154, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 165, - 166, 168, 174, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182, 183; - Reports on, 169 - - ---- of 1817, 93; - at Kurrachee, Dr. Gavin Milroy on the, 177 - - Chorea, epidemic, 56 - - Churches, burial in, 241 - - ----, desecration of, 241 - - Churchyard, the Charterhouse, 51 - - ---- of Minchinhampton, 247 - - Cibyra, earthquake in, 23 - - Cicero, 238 - - Civil wars, 116 - - Clark, Sir James, 227 - - Clarke, Dr. Adam, 244 - - Cleanliness and moderation among the Spaniards, 5 - - Cleanliness, personal, 233 - - Climates, warm, campaigns in, 9 - - Clopea cultrata, the, 163 - - Coals first used in England, 43; - use of, forbidden, 55 - - Cold and wet summer, 32 - - ---- intense, 29, 32, 33 - - ---- weather, 30 - - ---- winters, 113 - - Combe, Dr., 234 - - Comets, 16, 17, 32, 34, 42, 44, 55, 61, 67, 75, 82, 83, 87, 93, - 94, 95, 99, 104, 106, 108, 112, 115, 116, 118, 121, 126, 127, - 129, 131, 132, 134 - - Commotions of the elements, 1, 10, 11, 17, 19, 45, 153 - - ---- of Nature, 189 - - Comorra, earthquake at, 131 - - Condition of London, 205; - of the navy, 217 - - Conflicting opinions on contagion, 209 - - Confluent small-pox, 22 - - Constantine, 241 - - Constantinople, 212; - earthquake at, 24, 25; - earthquake and famine in, 23; - inoculation at, 120 - - Constitution of the atmosphere, 9, 16, 21 - - Consumption, 235 - - Contagion, on, 208–215; - conflicting opinions on, 209; - doctrine of, of modern origin, 208; - Scripture against, 213 - - Contagionists and their opponents, 208 - - Continent, prisons on the, 225 - - Continuance of pestilence for 260 years, 29 - - ‘Convulsionnaires,’ the, 56 - - Convulsive disease, extraordinary, 32 - - ‘Coqueluche,’ the, 62, 76 - - Corn, mildew of, 113 - - Cortes, the, convoked, 73 - - Cotunnius, 72 - - Coughs, epidemic, and fevers, 65 - - Cromwell, death of, 107 - - Cure for the plague, 84 - - Cuthbert, 242 - - Cyprian, 21 - - Cyril, St., 246 - - - Dance of St. Vitus, 32 - - Dancing disease, the, among children at Erfurt, 39 - - ---- ---- of St. Guy, the, 56 - - ---- mania at Utrecht, the, 42 - - ---- plague at Strasburg, 63 - - Dandy fever, the, 80, 156 - - Danes, the burning of London by the, 30 - - D’Angoulême, Count, 26 - - Danube frozen over, 25 - - Darkness, universal, 2 - - Darlington, earthquake near, 36 - - Davy, Professor, 223 - - De Foe on the causes of pestilence, 206 - - Dead bodies of locusts producing pestilence, 30 - - ----, unburied, 8 - - Deadly fevers in London, 79 - - Dearth, 38, 65, 85, 88; - a general, 28 - - Death of Oliver Cromwell, 107 - - ----, the black, 50 - - Deguignes, 51 - - Deluge in Italy, 29 - - Denmark, earthquake in, 77 - - Depopulation of Latium, 3; - of Velitræ, 3 - - Description of an eruption of Vesuvius, 165 - - Desecration of churches, 241 - - Destruction of the army of Xerxes, 4 - - Deuteronomy quoted, 195 - - Devotion, influence of, 63 - - Diaconus, P., 29 - - Dimmerbroeck, 103 - - Diocletian, 22 - - Diodorus Siculus, 5, 8 - - Dion Cassius, 16, 18, 20 - - Dionysius Halicarnassus, 3, 6 - - Disease, a fatal, 147 - - ---- among animals, 114, 146; - among cattle, 29; - among horses, 42; - among Mormonites, 175; - among porpoises in the Baltic, 82 - - ---- attributed to celestial influence, 75; - Bright’s, 235; - exciting causes of, 191; - extraordinary convulsive, 32; - of Naples, 73; - in rye, 106; - predisposing causes of, 191; - the dancing, 39; - of St. Guy, 56; - the English, 82 - - ----, Prophylaxis, or mode of preventing, 216–250 - - Disorders of the bowels, 55 - - Distresses of war, 23 - - Ditch, the Fleet, 44 - - Doctrine of contagion, of modern origin, 208 - - Dogs and birds, epizootic among, 10 - - Domitian, inoculation in the reign of, 18 - - Don Vincente Mut, 79 - - Dort, the sea broke out at, 66 - - Drinking urine, 5 - - Drains, 229 - - Drought, 30, 31, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 46, 60, 68, 69, 81, 95, 108, - 116, 126, 131, 135, 150, 195, 203; - in Judea, 23; - long, in England, 31 - - Dry summers, 35; - weather, 109 - - Duarte Nunhez, 48 - - Dublin Lying-in Hospital, statistics of, 226 - - Duchatelet, 228 - - Dupuytren, 222 - - Dwellings of London, the, 206 - - Dysentery, 21, 24, 104; - a mortal, 83; - in England, 35, 43; - malignant, 2, 61, 77; - malignant, among the Romans, 12; - among animals, 125; - in France, 250; - fever with, 44 - - Dysenteries and anginas in England, 60 - - Dyspepsia, 235 - - - Earth, revolutions in the organism of the, 45 - - Earthquakes, 22, 23, 25, 30, 34, 35, 40, 41, 47, 51, 52, 82, 112, - 114; - at Antioch, 19, 23, 24, 25; - at Barcelona, 62; - at Catania, 112; - at Chili, 108; - at Comorra, 131, 133; - at Constantinople, 23, 24, 25; - at Lima, 94; - at Lincoln, 36; - at Lisbon, 47; - at Naples, 103, 110, 143; - at Odessa, 166; - at Peru, 93; - at Rome, 117; - at Saguntum, 10; - at Seville, 60; - at Vienna, 143; - in Asia Minor, 16; - in Calabria, 138; - in Cæsarea and Necropolis, 19; - in Chili, 124; - in China, 18, 87, 108, 115, 121, 124; - in cities of Palestine, 23; - in Cibyra, 23; - in Denmark, 77; - in England, 33, 44, 64, 65, 144, 166; - in France, Germany, and Italy, 29; - in Greece and Italy, 51; - in Ireland, 114; - in Jamaica, 113, 114; - in London, 127; - in Mexico, 136; - in Nicomedia, 19; - in Peru, 129; - in Rome, 9; - in Shropshire, 18; - in Sicily, 142; - in Spain, 10, 75; - in Suabia, 78; - in Switzerland, 136; - in Syria, 29, 129; - Messina destroyed by, 114; - near Darlington, 36; - near Kingsai, 46; - St. Paul’s at Rome destroyed by, 29; - in Egypt and Syria, 47; - in Europe, 23; - in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 21; - in Xativa, 78 - - Echard, 23 - - ‘Eclair,’ remittent fever on board the, 174 - - Eclipse of the sun, 37 - - Ecstasy, an epidemic religious, 172 - - Edinburgh police, sickness among, 227 - - Edwards, Dr., experiments of, 221 - - Effects of war, 66 - - Egypt, a hot-bed of pestilence, 195 - - ----, earthquakes in, 47; - rain of crimson insects in, 3; - the plague of, 200 - - ---- topography of, 196 - - Electrical tension, 192 - - Elemental disturbance, 189; - Amos on, 194 - - Elements, commotions of the, 1, 10, 11, 17, 19, 33, 45, 153 - - Elephantiasis, epidemic, 27 - - ---- frequent in Spain and Africa, 15 - - Emerods, 2 - - Encephalitis, epidemic, 76 - - England, anginas and dysenteries in, 60; - coals first used in, 43; - dysentery in, 35, 43; - earthquakes in, 33, 44, 64, 65, 144, 166; - epidemic madness in, 53; - erysipelas in, 35; - famine in, 31, 32, 33; - fevers and agues in, 31; - great heat in, 31; - leprosy in, 38; - long drought in, 31; - severe frost in, 31 - - English artizans, insurrection of, 77 - - ‘English disease,’ the, 82 - - Epidemic, an erysipelatous, 103 - - ---- catarrh, 35, 105, 107, 114; - chorea, 56; - coughs and fevers, 65; - dancing disease of St. Guy, 56; - elephantiasis, 27; - encephalitis, 76; - jaundice, 121; - madness in England, 53; - œsophagitis, 78; - religious ecstacy, an, 172; - scurvy, 73; - sore throats, 30; - tertian fevers, 112, 139; - variola, 71 - - ---- pestilences, nature and causes of, 184–207 - - Epidemics, physically and morally, 184; - the ancients on, 186; - Thucydides on, 215 - - Epidemiology, Spanish, the first epoch of, 2 - - Epizootic, an, 43; - among dogs and birds, 10; - among horses, 66, 78; - among cattle, 108, 115, 119, 130, 131, 138, 180; - malignant, among cattle, 13 - - Erasmus, 206 - - Ergot, 105 - - Ergotism, 116, 125; - gangrenous, 100, 111, 119 - - Eruption of Etna, 46, 112; - great, 17 - - ---- of Vesuvius, 20, 21, 24, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 76, 103, 108, - 112, 114, 116, 117, 118, 120, 126, 127, 129, 134, 140, 143; - description of an, 165 - - Eruptions of volcanoes, 32 - - Erysipelas, 173; - in England, 35; - in France, 33 - - Erysipelatous epidemic, an, 103 - - ---- epidemic fever, 34 - - Escobar, 112, 116 - - Essentials for vitality, 218 - - Esteve, 85 - - Etna, eruptions of, 46, 112; - great eruption of, 17 - - Europe, earthquakes in, 21, 23; - introduction of the venereal disease into, 72 - - Eusebius, 22, 204, 239 - - Evagrius, 24 - - Excessive heat, 66, 68; - moisture, 65, 66; - rains, 32, 40, 103 - - Exciting causes of disease, 191 - - Exhalations from overcharged burial-grounds, 243 - - Experiments of Dr. Barron, 227; - of Dr. Edwards, 221 - - Extraordinary convulsive disease, 22 - - ---- showers, 59 - - - Failure in harvest, 47, 69 - - Famine, 3, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 30, 33, - 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 51, 60, 61, 65, 69, - 80, 82, 83, 88, 94, 100, 112, 121, 126, 128, 145, 149, 181 - - ---- in Constantinople, 23; - in England, 31, 32; - in Gaul, Germany, and Italy, 31; - in Italy, 23, 24, 30, 31; - in Italy, Russia, Flanders, and England, 33; - in London, 31; - in Picenum, 25; - in Spain, 23 - - ----, pestilence originating from, 28 - - ----, price of wheat during, 44 - - Famines, 47 - - Farriery, the art of, 66 - - Fast, a, decreed, 28 - - Fatal disease, a, 147 - - Feast of St. Sebastian deferred, 67 - - Fellows, Sir James, 153 - - Fernando Bustos, 96 - - Fernando Calvo, 43 - - Fever, a bilious remittent, 71 - - ----, a hot nervous, 150 - - ----, Andalusian, 87, 100, 137 - - ----, apoplectic, 167 - - ----, a putrid, 71 - - ----, brain, 78 - - ----, break-bone, 137 - - ----, erysipelatous epidemic, 34 - - ----, inflammatory, 69 - - ----, Kendall’s, 115 - - ----, malignant, in London, 31 - - ----, miliary, 120, 122 - - ----, petechial, 128, 171 - - ----, puerperal, 108, 138, 147 - - ----, putrid, with phrenitis, 69 - - ----, remittent, 172, 176; - remittent on board the ‘Eclair,’ 174 - - ----, scarlet, 142 - - ----, spotted, 75, 88 - - ----, the dandy, 80, 156 - - ----, with dysentery, 44 - - ----, yellow, 29, 146, 149, 156, 170, 171, 172, 173 - - Fevers, 33, 34 - - ---- and agues in England, 31 - - ---- and disorders of the bowels, 55 - - ----, deadly, in London, 79 - - ----, epidemic coughs and, 65 - - ----, low, of London, 225 - - ----, malignant, 98, 103 - - ----, spotted, 80 - - ----, tertian, 132 - - Fièvre St. Antoine, 105 - - Filarcus, 5 - - Filthy condition of London, 43 - - Fire, a great, in Southwark, 112; - London destroyed by, 31 - - ---- of London, the great, 205 - - ----, St. Anthony’s, 39 - - Fires, dreadful, 138 - - First epoch of Spanish epidemiology, 2, 198 - - Fish, a shower of, 163 - - ---- unfit for food, 81 - - Flanders, famine in, 33; - overwhelmed, _ibid._ - - Fleet ditch, 44 - - Flies and mosquitoes, 114 - - ----, plague, 158 - - ----, swarms of, 42 - - Floods in China, 46; - in France, 47 - - Florian de Ocampo, 6 - - Flux among cattle, 31 - - Fluxes, 33, 34, 43 - - Fœtidness, air impregnated with, 27 - - Fogs, 146, 174; - summer, 80 - - Fonseca, 99 - - Fordum, 27 - - Fracastorius, 50 - - France, dysentery in, 25; - earthquake in, 29; - erysipelas in, 33; - floods in, 47 - - Franco, 79, 90, 107 - - French pox, 71 - - Frenchmen, immunity of, 78 - - Friesland under water, 90 - - Frost, severe, 65, 66, 103, 113, 129, 139, 140; - severe, in England, 31; - sharp, 89; - on the Danube, 25 - - Frosts, hard, 119 - - Functions and importance of the skin, 235 - - Functius, 3 - - Funeral of Patroclus, 238 - - - Galen, 202 - - Gallienus, the army of, 22 - - Gamble, Dr., 115 - - Gangrene of the extremities, 19; - of the spleen, 162 - - Gangrenous ergotism, 100, 111, 119; - sore-throat, 99, 128 - - Gaol distemper, 127 - - Gaspar Torella, 74 - - Gastaldi, Cardinal, 83, 107 - - Gentiles, mode of burial among, 246 - - Geoffrey de Vinsauf, 36 - - Germany, earthquake in, 29; - famine in, 82 - - Gloucestershire, inundation in, 69 - - Gnats, 125 - - God, the First Great Cause, 193 - - Godwin, Earl, the lands of, inundated, 34 - - Goelenius, 98 - - Gorges, 97, 99 - - Grand Cairo, 212 - - Grasshoppers, 30, 97, 113, 145 - - Gratius Faliscus, 5 - - Graveyard, poisonous effects from disturbing a, 247 - - ‘Great sickness,’ the, 116 - - Greece and Italy, earthquake in, 51 - - Greeks, interment by the, 238 - - Gregory of Tours, 240 - - Groin, tumours in the, 24 - - Guadalquivir, the, overflowed, 100, 104 - - Guaiacum, in venereal disease, 75 - - Guido de Gaullaco, 48 - - Gunthran, King, 26 - - - Habakkuk quoted, 194 - - Habits of London inhabitants, 44 - - Hailstorms, 79 - - Hales, Dr., 225 - - Haller, 74, 78 - - Hamilton, Dr., 209 - - Hard frosts, 119 - - Harvest, bad, 149; - failure in, 47, 69 - - Harvest-time, snow in, 32 - - Haslar Hospital, 138 - - Heat, 121, 131, 150, 199; - excessive, 66, 68, 135; - great, 61, 80; - great, in England, 31 - - Heavy rains, 39, 41, 54, 66, 70, 85, 86, 99, 104 - - Hecker, 46; - his account of the St. Vitus’s dance in 1374, 56 - - Hell-kettles, wells of, 36 - - Herculaneum and Pompeii, 17 - - Herodian, 20 - - Herodotus, 4 - - High tide in the Thames, 39 - - High tides, 42 - - Hippocrates, 7, 143, 186, 201, 212; - Hippocrates and Artaxerxes, 7 - - Histories of ancient nations, 186 - - History of St. Vitus, 64 - - Homer, 164, 238; - on the causes of pestilence, 199 - - Horses, an epizootic among, 66, 78; - disease among, 42 - - Hospital, Haslar, 138; - of St. Anthony, established, 39; - statistics of Dublin Lying-in, 226 - - Hot and moist weather, 113 - - ---- summer, 38, 41, 84, 86, 98, 104, 114, 137, 145, 146 - - Howard, 225 - - Humboldt, 222 - - Hurricane, 51, 169 - - Hutchison, 97, 99 - - Huxham, 161 - - Hygrometric influence, 192 - - - Ice for thirty days, 30 - - Ignis sacer, 21, 28, 105 - - Ignes fatui, 69 - - Immunity of Frenchmen, 78; - of the Spaniards from a pestilence, 4 - - Imposture and profligacy, 63 - - Imprecatory chapel consecrated, an, 68 - - ---- processions instituted, 55, 59 - - Inclement seasons, 40, 41, 42, 43, 65, 105, 108, 112, 131, 142, - 145, 150, 168, 169, 170 - - Inclement seasons in England, Palestine, and Holland, 34 - - ---- weather, 38, 81 - - Inducing famine, 12 - - Infected places deserted by vultures, 12 - - ‘Infirmitas icteritia,’ 29 - - Inflammatory fever, with delirium, 69 - - Influence, atmospheric, 190 - - ---- of devotion, 63 - - ---- of trade and locality, 179 - - Influenza, 123, 124, 130, 147, 148, 156, 169, 170, 180, 181, 182 - - Inguinaria, 27 - - Inoculation at Constantinople, 120; - in the reign of Domitian, 18; - introduced into England, 122 - - Insects, 119, 124, 143; - generation of, 1, 14, 19; - rain of crimson, 3 - - Instances explanatory of the causes of maladies, 193; - of fatal effects from burial-grounds, 243, 245 - - Institution of the Salii, 3 - - Insurrection of English artizans, 77 - - Intemperate seasons, 31 - - Intense cold, 29, 32, 33; - frost, 139 - - Interment by the Greeks, 238 - - Intermittent, a pernicious, 107 - - Intramural burial, 137, 237 - - Introduction of leprosy into Italy, 15; - of variola into America, 71; - of the venereal disease into Europe, 72 - - Inundation in Gloucestershire, 69; - in Syria, 34; - of the Nile, 23; - of the Tiber, 30 - - Inundations, 10, 16, 18, 19, 20, 35, 37, 38, 42, 47, 59, 70, 80, - 83, 99, 100, 103, 104, 112, 113, 120, 134, 140, 160; - at Canton, 46; - round the Mediterranean, 23 - - Ireland, earthquake in, 114 - - Isodorus, 23 - - Italy and Greece, earthquake in, 51 - - ---- deluged, 29; - earthquake in, 29; - famine in, 23, 24, 30, 31, 33; - introduction of leprosy into, 15; - locusts in, 33 - - - Jamaica, earthquake in, 113, 114 - - Jaundice, epidemic, 121 - - Jenner, Dr., 227 - - Jeremiah quoted, 195 - - Jerusalem, siege of, 3 - - Joinville, 40 - - Jornandes, 21 - - Juan de Banos, 74 - - Juan de Carmona, Dr., 93 - - Jubilee, a papal, 55 - - Judea, storms and drought in, 23 - - Justin, 4, 8, 13 - - - Kemp, Prof., 143 - - Kendall’s fever, 115 - - Khatemar, 48 - - Kings of Ulster and Munster cut off by pestilence, 29 - - Kingsai, earthquake near, 46 - - Kurrachee, Dr. Gavin Milroy on the cholera at, 177; - the pestilence at, 212 - - - La grippe, 161 - - La trousse galante, 158 - - Lacedemonians, great mortality among the, 31 - - ‘Ladendo,’ the, 61 - - Lake Alba, 9 - - Lancisius, 29, 30, 119 - - Largostus, 124 - - Latimer, 243 - - Latium depopulated, 3 - - Laurenciscus Rasius, 43 - - Lazar-houses established at Valencia, 33 - - Lazarettos, 211 - - Lectisternium, the, 9 - - Leprosy, 65, 94, 123; - in England, 38; - in Pompey’s army, 15; - in Spain, 15, 33; - introduction of, into Italy, 15; - pestilence of, 68 - - ‘Leprous House,’ the, 249 - - Leviticus, chap, xiv., 250 - - Libya and Alexandria nearly destroyed, 23 - - Light, chemical effects of, 219 - - ---- essential to vitality, 218 - - Ligurian pestilence, the, 26 - - Lima, earthquake at, 94 - - Lincoln, earthquake at, 36 - - Lind, 129 - - Linen, use of, 5 - - Linneus, 222 - - Lisbon, earthquake at, 47 - - Livy, 3, 6, 11, 13 - - Locality, influence of trade and, 179 - - Locusts, 11, 13, 14, 30, 32, 84, 98, 104, 106, 127, 142; - dead bodies of, producing pestilence, 30; - immense swarms of, 23; - in Italy, 33; - swarms of, 46, 68, 69, 76, 81 - - Loes, 161 - - ‘Loimic’ pestilence, a, 18 - - Loimikié, 6 - - Loimoi, 21 - - Loimos in Syria, 21 - - London Bridge, wrecks at, 117 - - London, deadly fevers in, 79; - destroyed by fire, 31; - earthquake in, 127; - famine in, 31; - filthy condition of, 43; - habits of the inhabitants of, 44; - low fevers of, 225; - malignant fever in, 31; - plague in, 104; - starvation in, 38; - the burning of, by the Danes, 30; - the condition of, 205; - the dwellings of, 206; - the great fire of, 205; - the plague of, 207; - the rebuilding by Alfred, 30; - water conveyed to by leaden pipes, 43; - water first brought by the New River to, 98 - - Long continuance of pestilence in Asia, 24 - - ---- rain, 50 - - Lotion, urine as a topical, 5 - - Low fever of London, 225 - - ---- water in the Thames, 34 - - Lucretius, 7, 199 - - Lues Pannonica, 90 - - Luis Alcanyis, 68 - - - Macedonia, earthquake in, 23 - - Madness, epidemic, in England, 53 - - Madrid, sanitary state of, 129 - - Magdenburg, 29, 30 - - Mal des pieds et des mains, 157 - - Maladie de Siam, the, 113 - - Maladies, causes of, 189 - - ---- ----, Old and New Testaments on the, 193; - instances explanatory of the causes of, 193 - - Malignant dysentery, 2, 61, 77; - among the Romans, 12; - epizootic, among cattle, 13; - fevers, 98, 103; - measles, 110; - pneumonia, 76 - - Mania, epidemic, 123 - - Man-cyalm, 27, 28 - - Manson, Dr. 140 - - Marcellinus, 23 - - Marcellus, death of, 238 - - Marcus Curtius, 9 - - Mariana, 8, 10 - - Marselio Ficino, 78 - - Martin Arrendondo, 43 - - Martinez de Leyva, 48, 66 - - Mas, Dr. 100 - - Masdevall, Dr., 138 - - Mass, celebrated in Scio, 55 - - M’Culloch, 42 - - Meade, Dr. 209 - - Measles, 35, 98, 122, 138, 171; - malignant, 110 - - Measles, preceding pestilences, 92 - - ----, small-pox and, 24 - - Measures, precautionary, 60 - - Mediterranean frozen over, 30, 39, 61; - inundations round the, 23 - - Mephitic vapours, charging the air with, 12 - - Merriman, Dr., 169 - - Messina destroyed by earthquake, 114 - - Metamorphosis of tadpoles, 221 - - Meteors, 32, 40, 81, 99 - - Mexico, earthquake in, 136 - - Michaelis, 249 - - Middleton, Sir Hugh, 98 - - Mildew of corn, 113 - - Miliary fever, 120, 122 - - ---- pestilence, 111 - - Milroy, Dr. Gavin, on the cholera at Kurrachee, 177 - - Minchinhampton, churchyard of, 247 - - Miraculous bell of Velilla, 79 - - Mists, stinking, 86 - - ‘Mode of avoiding plague,’ 47 - - Moderation and cleanliness among the Spaniards, 5 - - Modern nomenclature, 188 - - Moist atmosphere, 59 - - Moisture, 80; - excessive, 65, 66 - - ‘Morbeira,’ a, or Board of Health, 68 - - Morbid phenomena of a plague at Athens, 7 - - Morbus Gallicus, 71 - - ---- Hungaricus, 90 - - Morena, Dr., 122 - - Mormonites, disease among, 175 - - Mortal angina, 112 - - Mortality among sheep, 38; - great, among the Lacedemonians, 31 - - Morton, 107 - - Mosaic ordinances, the, 248 - - Mosquitoes, 143; - and flies, 114 - - Mould-spots, or signacula, 74 - - ---- and red water, 85 - - Mountain of Tsincheou, falling of, 46 - - Mox, Dr., 100 - - Murator, 3, 30 - - Murrain, 3, 35, 42, 51, 74, 120, 126, 128, 135, 142, 144, 155, - 164, 180; - among cattle, 31; - among sheep, 42 - - - Naples, earthquakes at, 103, 110, 143; - syphilis at, 73; - the disease of, _ibid._ - - Narses, pestilence in the time of, 26 - - Natural causes for pestilences, 214 - - Nature and causes of epidemic pestilences, 184–207 - - Navy, condition of the, 217 - - Necropolis, earthquake in, 19 - - New River, water first brought by the, to London, 98 - - Newgate, 225 - - Nicephorus, 22, 23, 27 - - Nicomedia, earthquake in, 19 - - Nile, the, 212; - inundation of the, 23 - - Nomenclature, modern, 188 - - Nuestro Alonso, 16 - - - Ocampo, 8 - - Odessa, earthquake at, 166 - - Œsophagitis, epidemic, 78 - - Old and New Testaments on the causes of maladies, 193 - - Ordinances, the Mosaic, 248 - - Organism of the earth, revolutions in the, 45 - - Origin of the venereal disease, 73 - - Orosius, 6, 9, 12, 13, 17 - - Otho’s army destroyed by pestilence, 31 - - Overflow of the Severn, 69 - - Ovid, 200 - - - Palestine, earthquake in cities of, 23 - - Palmer-worms, 42 - - Papal jubilee, a, 55 - - Papiliones, 34 - - Parè, 85 - - Pasqual, 87 - - Patroclus, funeral of, 238 - - Paulus Diaconus, 26 - - Paving Act, a, passed, 131 - - Pedro Bayro, 76 - - Pedro Martyr de Anglesia, 71 - - Peripneumoniæ, 52 - - Pernicious intermittent, a, 107 - - Persians, interment by the, 239 - - Personal cleanliness, 233 - - Peru, earthquakes at, 93, 129 - - Pestiferous blight, 192; - wind, 51 - - Pestilence in Egypt, A.M. 2509, 1; - at Kadesh, 2; - at Baal-peor, 2; - at Ægina, 2; - at Ashdod, 2; - in the time of David, 2; - in Rome, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 27, - 28, 38, 72; - in Campania, 3; - in Italy, 3, 11, 20, 27, 30, 33, 37, 67, 69; - at Jerusalem, 4, 16; - in the army of Xerxes, 4; - immunity of the Spaniards at Syracuse, 4; - in Spain, 6, 8, 10, 20, 23, (singular) 25, 27, 37, 43, 48, 59, - 66, 75, 76, 77, 89, 91, 93, 95, 97, 98; - at Athens, 7; - in Persia, 7; - in Egypt, 8, 20; - in Carthage, 8, 10, 13; - in Andalusia, 9, 55, 71; - in Saguntum, 9, 10; - in Capua, 11; - among the Roman and Rhodian fleets, 11; - in Palestine, 13; - in Numantia, 13; - in Africa, 13; - in Numidia, 13; - among the Roman armies, 15; - in Palestine, 16; - in Asia Minor, 16; - at Babylon, 17; - in Greece and Italy, 17; - from Italy to India, 17; - in the North of England, 18; - in Scotland, 18, 19, 20, 24, 29, 30, 31, 43; - in Wales, 18, 22, 24, 29; - in England, 19, 20, 23, 31, 32, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, - 50, 52, 55, 59, 65, 69, 75, 81, 83, 84, 86; - in Arabia, 19; - in Asia, 19, 20; - in Ethiopia, 20; - in France, 20, 25, 29, 56, 61, 62, 77, 78, 80, 85, 98; - among the Scythians, 21; - in Alexandria, 21; - in England and Wales, 21; - in Syria, 21; - in Britain, 22; - in Amida, 23; - in Italy and Syria, 23; - in Judea, 23; - in Asia, Africa, and Europe, 23; - in Constantinople, 23; - in Cappadocia, Galatia, and Phrygia, 23; - in Asia and Africa, 24; - in Palestine, 24; - in Europe and Asia, 24; - in Germany and Italy, 25; - in the time of Narses, 26; - in Britain, Turenne, and the provinces of Arragon and Vivares, 27; - at Mecca, 27; - in Syria and Arabia, 27; - at Constantinople, 27; - in the south coasts of Britain and provinces of the - Northumbrians, 27; - in Great Britain and Ireland, 27, 28; - in Syria and Mesopotamia, 28; - in Syria and Libya, 28; - in Constantinople, 29; - at Norwich, 29; - in Syria, 29; - in Calabria, Naples, and Constantinople, 29; - at Chichester, 29; - in Germany, 29; - in Gaul, 30; - in France and Germany, 30; - at Oxford, 30; - in London, 31, 41, 42, 49, 61, 77; - in Gaul, Germany, and Italy, 31; - in London, 31; - in the north of Europe, 31; - in Otho’s army, 31; - in England and Europe, 32; - England and Gaul, 32; - in England, Gaul, and Germany, 33; - among the Saracen invaders of Rome, 33; - in Egypt and Arabia, 33; - in York and Durham, 32; - at Constantinople, 33; - in Italy, Russia, Flanders, and England, 33; - in Europe, 34, 38; - in Judea, 34; - in Scotland, Ireland, Italy, Gaul, Sicily, Judea, Asia, and - Africa, 35; - in England and Rome, 36; - in Castile, 36; - in the army of the Crusaders at Acre, 36; - in Catalonia, 37; - at Cordova, 37; - in Damietta, 37; - in Germany, Hungary, Gaul, and Egypt, 38; - in Denmark, Italy, and Gaul, 39; - in the army of St. Louis, the Crusader, 40; - among the Crusaders, 42; - in Britain, Italy, Poland, Denmark, Prussia, Zealand, Egypt, - Germany, Bohemia, and Spain, 42; - at Gerona, 42; - at Barcelona, 46, 50, 55, 61; - at Tche, 46; - in China, Syria, Greece, Egypt, Asia, and Africa, 48; - in Italy and Sicily, 48; - in Granada, 48; - in Upper Asia, 48; - in Cathay, 48; - in Asia, Egypt, Greece, Italy, France, Spain, England, and - Germany, 49; - in Florence, 49; - in Norwich, 49; - in Venice, 49; - in Lubeck, 49; - in Syria, 49; - on the shores of the Pontic, 49; - in Greece and Illyria, 49; - in Mallorca, 38, 49, 60, 68, 71; - in Valencia and Catalonia, 50; - in Sicily and Sardinia, 50; - in Greenland, 51; - in Cyprus, 51; - at Southampton, 52; - in France and Germany, 52; - in Ireland, Holland, and England, 52; - in Germany, Russia, Hungary, Spain, and Gaul, 52; - in Denmark and Iceland, 52; - among the Oxford students, 52; - in Montpelier, 52; - in England, Africa, Cyprus, Italy, Florence, Gaul, Ireland, and - Scotland, 53; - at Cologne, 55; - in England and Ireland, 55; - in Italy and Gaul, 55; - in Germany, Egypt, Greece, and Lubeck, 55; - in Holland and the Rhenish provinces, 56; - in the Shetland islands, 56; - in Seville, 59, 61, 70, 85, 97; - in Gallicia, 60; - in Benavento, Matillas, Arzon, Villalobos, Rales, and Valderas, - 60; - at Norfolk and York, 61; - in Valencia and Catalonia, 61; - at Florence, 61; - in Bourdeaux, Aquitaine, and Gascony, 61; - at Seville, 62; - at Barcelona, 62, 65, 67, 68, 69, 73, 75, 76, 79, 88, 94, 97; - in Dantzic, 65; - at Huesca, 65; - in Italy, Gaul, Germany, Asia, and Spain, 66; - at Saragossa, 67; - at Cadiz, 67; - at Parma, 67; - at Valencia, 68; - in Switzerland and Germany, 69; - in Westphalia, Hesse, and Friesland, 69; - in France, 69, 89; - in Ireland, 70; - in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, and Egypt, 70; - in Saragossa and Aragon, 71; - in Granada, 71; - in Saragossa, 73, 83; - in Germany, Portugal, and Ireland, 73; - among Portuguese crews, 74; - in Britain, 74; - in Brussels, 74; - in France and Germany, 74; - in China, 75; - in Ireland, 75; - in Lisbon, 75; - in Cadiz, 76; - in Constantinople, 76; - in Germany, 76; - in Europe, 76; - in Verona, 77; - in Oxford and Cambridge, 77; - at Calais, 78; - in Germany, 78; - in Holland, 78; - in Hispaniola, 78; - in Navarre, 78; - in Valencia, 78, 79; - at Dresden, 79; - in Milan, 79; - in Xativa and Seville, 79; - in Lower Germany, Holland, Zealand, Brabant, Flanders, Denmark, - Norway, and France, 79; - at Wurtemburg, 79; - at Aragon, 79; - in London, 79; - in Ireland and Italy, 79; - in Amsterdam, 81; - at Hamburg, 81; - in Germany, 82; - at Lubeck, Stettin, and Zwickau, 82; - at Brussels, 82; - in Pomerania, 82; - in Germany and Denmark, 83; - in Aragon, 83; - in Italy and Spain, 83; - in Lisbon, 83; - in Narbonne, 83; - in Cork and Dresden, 83; - in Hungary, 84; - in Constantinople, 84; - at Metz, 84; - in Savoy, France, 84; - England, Holland, and Germany, 85; - in Prussia, 85; - in Murcia and Portugal, 85; - in Valencia, 85; - in London, 86, 88, 91, 95; - in Messina, 86; - in Paris, Hungary, and Transylvania, 86; - in England and France, 86; - among Spanish soldiery, 87; - in Vienna and Holland, 87; - in Spain and France, 87; - in Murcia, 88; - in Europe, 88; - along the Rhine, 89; - at Comorra, 90; - at Seville, 90; - in Friesland, 91; - in Dresden, 91; - in Spain and Italy, 91; - among prisoners at Oxford, 91; - in Europe, 92; - at Marseilles, 93; - in Flanders, Moravia, London, Germany, and Holland, Egypt, and - Rome, 94; - in Madrid, 94; - in Valladolid, 94; - in Dresden, 95; - in Malta, 95; - in England, Constantinople, and Spain, 95; - in Muscovy, 95; - in Granada, 96; - in Gallicia, 96; - in Seville, 96; - at Jaen, 96; - in England, 96; - in Europe, 96; - in the fleet of Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, 97; - in Ragusa, 97; - in Granada, 97; - in Germany, 98, 99; - at Constantinople, 98; - in Crete, Alexandria, Calabria, Turkey, Italy, Dalmatia, Venice, - Germany, France, Poland, Flanders, Persia, and Asia, 98; - in England, 98; - at Naples, Bergen, Norway, Denmark, Egypt, the Levant, North and - South America, Hungary, France, and England, Seville, 99; - London, Amsterdam, Spain, Argel, England, Italy, Denmark, Egypt, - Lyons, France, Narbonne, Cambridge, America, Marseilles, - Catalonia, and Guadix, 100; - in Europe, 103; - in South America, 104; - in the United States of America, 104; - in Oxford, 104; - in Madrid, Denmark, England, and Andalusia, 104; - in Ireland, America, West Indies, Spain, England, France, - Denmark, 105; - in Russia, Poland, Carmona, Andalusia, Tortosa, Gerona, Huesca, - Barcelona, and Girona, 106; - in England, Denmark, Turkey, Russia, Presburg, Hungary, Italy, - Egypt, Malta, Sardinia, Leyden, Riga, Amsterdam, Morocco, - Naples, Rome, France, and North America, 107; - in England, Venice, Leipsic, and Copenhagen, 108; - in Salamanca, Lisbon, the United States, Norway, and England, 110; - in Aquitaine, Sologne, Galinois, Montagris, 111; - in Spain, Hungary, England, Malta, and Hamburg, 111; - in Carthagena, the United States, and Europe, Spain, Algeria, - Morocco, Andalusia, Germany, Dresden, England, Italy, Poland, - Switzerland, Ireland, Sardinia, Malaga, Antequera, Granada, - Moron, Ronda, Lucena, Andujar, Xeres, Santa Maria, and Cadiz, - 112; - in Berberia, in Europe, and America, 113; - among animals, 114; - in Stuttgart, Dusseldorf, Erfurt, Jena, United States, Spain, - Italy, and Jamaica, 114; - in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Barbadoes, Berlin, among the - American Indians, Spain, North America, China, England, - France, Liorna, Geneva, Cerdena, Narbonne, and Nismes, 115; - among the Anglo-Americans, 115; - in Spain, England, Scotland, Friesland, the United States, and - Freiburg, 116; - in Ceuta, Tunis, Malaga, Cerdena, 118; - in Rome, South America, Spain, Andalusia, Dantzic, Holland, - Cologne, Lucerne, Zurich, Berne, Orleans, Sweden, 119; - in Copenhagen, Lithuania, Italy, Germany, Mümpelgart, - Constantinople, England, United States, Breslau, Turin, 120; - in the Asturias, Aleppo, Marseilles, 121; - in Toulon, Aix, and Arles, Provence, in the Lower Seine, Jamaica, - Spain, Granada, Placentia, London, America, Vienna, Hungary, - Upper Saxony, Silesia, Lisbon, Frankfort, 122; - in Granada, Andalusia, Carthage, the United States, South - America, 123; - at Chambery, Annecy, Savoy, Carmagnola, Vercelli, Ivrea, Biella, - Vienna, Pignerol, Fossano, Nizza, Rivoli, Asti, Larti, Acqui, - Basle, Silesia Thrasburg, Trino, Frésneuse, Vimeux, Orleans, - Plouviers, Meaux, Villeneuve, Bohemia, Denmark, Sweden, - Russia, Cadiz, Andalusia, London, United States, Spain, 124; - in Coburg, Egypt, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, - Calabria, Switzerland, New Spain, Aleppo, Tangiers, Smyrna, - United States, West Indies, North America, Seville, Grand - Cairo, England, and Bohemia, 125; - in Spain, Ireland, Germany, Siberia, Turkey, Switzerland, Germany, - Poland, Holland, and England, 126; - in Huesca, the Asturias, Constantinople, United States, London, - Isen and Cordova, 127; - in England, North America, Normandy, Ireland, France, - Constantinople, Syria, Smyrna and Cyprus, Aleppo, Jerusalem - and Damascus, West India Islands, 128; - in Africa, United States, Senegal, 129; - in Carthagena, Cyprus, the Ottoman Empire, United States, West - Indies, Madrid, 130; - in United States, Havannah, Siam, Bengal, Syria, Egypt, France, - Denmark, Madrid, Genoa, Sweden, Naples, 131; - in Spain, Carthagena, Suabia, Scotland, Ireland, Austria, United - States, West Indies, 132; - in Europe, United States, Germany, Spain, Carthagena, Jamaica, - Holland, Bengal, 133; - in Sardinia, Holland, Flanders, Poland, Russia, Bohemia, Vienna, - 134; - Moscow, Bassora, the Ganges, Scotland, United States, France, - 135; - Constantinople, England, Spain, 136; - United States, Spain, South America, 137; - England, United States, Garigani, Languedoc, 138; - Catalonia, Tortosa, Aragon, Alcarria, Andalusia, 139; - Carthagena, La Mancha, Havannah, United States, 140; - America, Grenada, 141; - Africa, Egypt, England, the Havannah, Hungary, Servia, 142; - West India Islands, United States, 143; - United States, Barbary, Morocco, 144, 145, 146; - in England and Ireland, Germany, Gibraltar, Constantinople, 147; - in London, Gibraltar, Malta, 148, 149; - in Corfu, India, United States, Jessore, 150, 151, 152; - Mauritius, United States, West Indies, East Indies, 152, 153; - in the Indian Archipelago, Bassora, Bagdad, China, the Moluccas, - Ispahan, Chinese Tartary, Ireland, France, Lapland, Africa, - South America, 154, 155; - in Rio de Janeiro, Hamburg, Grand Cairo, Germany, United States, - England, West Indies, Gibraltar, 156, 157; - in Naples, France, England, Ireland, America, Russia, Persia, - Poland, Moldavia, Berlin, Vienna, Hamburg, Alexandria, the - Delta of the Nile, 158, 159; - in France, 161; - in England, United States, Russia, Germany, France, Turkey, - Gibraltar, 162, 163; - in India, Prussia, Warsaw, Egypt, Alexandria, Grand Cairo, 164, - 165; - Leghorn, Odessa, Europe, North and South America, West India - Islands, 166, 167; - in Rome, Syria, Moscow, Orenburg, England, Ireland, Asia, United - States, London, 168, 169; - England, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, France, Cape of Good Hope, - Mount St. Bernard, Algiers, St. Petersburg, Texas, 170, 171; - Germany, Scotland, Syria, United States, Africa, 172, 173; - in Persia, Senegal, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, England, - Africa, among Mormonites, 174, 175; - in Scotland, Ireland, Afghanistan, Persia, Tartary, Bagdad, - Kurrachee, 176, 177; - in Gallicia, Persia, Tauris, Teheran, Bakrou, Caucasian Provinces, - Tiflis, the Caucasus, Russia, 178, 179; - Wallachia, Scotland, Portugal, Spain, France, Russia, Turkey, - Marseilles, United States, Trebizond, Silesia, England, 180, - 181 - - Pestilence among animals, 98 - - ----, the black, 50 - - ----, a bubonic, 79 - - ----, dead bodies of locusts producing, 30 - - ----, De Foe on the causes of, 206 - - ----, Egypt a hot-bed of, 195; - fatal to breeding women and cattle, 10; - a filthy smelling vapour causing, 49; - the Kings of Ulster and Munster cut off by, 29; - at Kurrachee, 212; - of leprosy, 68; - a ‘loimic,’ 18; - long continuance of, 29; - long continuance of, in Asia, 24; - the Ligurian, 26 - - ----, a miliary, 111 - - ----, originating from famine, 28; - petechial, 147 - - ----, rains and, 31 - - ----, statistics of, 53 - - ----, the true, 24 - - ----, yellow, 99, 100, 104, 113, 151, 153, 155, 157 - - ----, epidemic, nature and causes of, 184–207 - - ----, natural causes for, 214 - - Pestilential angina, 116; - constitution, 187; - or scarlet sore-throat, 24 - - ‘Pestis flava,’ 29 - - Petechial fever, 80, 128, 171 - - ---- pestilence, 147; - treatment of, 94 - - Pharaoh IV., prodigies in the natural world in the reign of, 1 - - Phenomena, remarkable, 108 - - Philo on a ‘loimic’ pestilence, 18 - - Phrenitis, putrid fever with, 69 - - Picenum, famine in, 25 - - Pintor, 72 - - Plague, 24, 77, 103, 111, 112, 125, 136, 142, 145, 147, 149, 163, - 164, 172; - at Athens, morbid phenomena of a, 7 - - ----, bilious, 116, 141 - - ---- of Boja, the, 71 - - ----, cure for the, 84 - - ----, dreadful, 121, 124 - - ---- of Egypt, 200 - - ---- flies, 158 - - ----, the great, 183 - - Plague in London, 100, 104, 207 - - ----, mode of avoiding, 47 - - ---- of Siberia, the, 162 - - ----, a terrific, 48 - - ----, treatment of, 78, 94 - - Planets, origin of the venereal disease attributed to conjunction - of the, 72 - - Pleurisies, 33, 35 - - Pliny, 17 - - Plutarch, 3, 7, 238 - - Poison, atmospheric, 79 - - Poisonous effects from disturbing a graveyard, 247 - - ---- vapours of lake Avernus, 4 - - Pompeii and Herculaneum, 17 - - Pompey’s army, leprosy in, 15 - - Pope and the Fleet ditch, 44 - - Pope Sextus erects a brothel at Rome, 67 - - Porcell, Dr., 89 - - Porpoises in the Baltic, disease among, 82 - - Potato disease, 172, 174, 176, 182 - - Pox, the French, 71 - - Prayers, public, 66; - rogatory, 79 - - Precautionary measures, 60 - - Predisposing causes of disease, 191 - - Prevention, 217 - - Prisons on the Continent, 225; - Savoy and Newgate, _ibid._ - - Processions, imprecatory, instituted, 55, 59; - solemn, 67, 68 - - Procopius, 25, 26 - - Prodigies in the natural world in the reign of Pharaoh IV., 1 - - Profligacy and imposture, 63 - - Prophecy of Agabus, 17 - - Prophylaxis, or mode of preventing disease, 216–250 - - Prostitutes taxed, 67 - - Puerperal fever, 108, 138, 147 - - Puiz, Dr., 113 - - Purchas, 97 - - Putrid fever, a, 71; - with phrenitis, 69 - - - Quinsies, 88 - - Quinsey, 35, 98, 120 - - Quarantine, 211 - - - Rain, blood-coloured, 82 - - ---- of crimson insects, 3 - - ----, long, 50; - remarkable fall of, 150; - a shower of, frozen, 111; - in torrents, 46 - - Rains and pestilence, 31 - - ----, excessive, 30, 32, 40, 103; - heavy, 39, 41, 54, 66, 70, 85, 86, 99, 104, 170 - - Ramon Vila, 46, 76 - - Rebuilding of London by Alfred, 30 - - Red water and mould-spots, 85 - - Registrar-General’s Report on the Influenza of 1847, 181, 182, 183 - - Remarkable phenomena, 108 - - Remedy for pestilential fever, 122 - - Remittent fever, 172, 176; - on board the ‘Eclair,’ 174 - - Render, Rev. Dr., 245 - - Reports on Cholera, 169 - - Revolution in the organism of the earth, 45 - - Rhone, the, frozen over, 30 - - Rivére, 161 - - Ribeiro, Dr., 5 - - Riverius, 98 - - Rogatory prayers, 79 - - Romans, the ancient, and the bath, 231; - malignant dysentery among the, 12 - - Rome, earthquake at, 9, 117; - Pope Sextus erects a brothel at, 67; - the site of, 204 - - Rosell, Dr., 100 - - Rush, Dr., 141 - - Russell, Dr. Patrick, 209 - - Russia, famine in, 33 - - Rye, disease in, 106 - - Rymer, 52 - - - Sacrifices, 6 - - Sætabi, vapour baths of the, 5 - - Saguntum, earthquake at, 10 - - Saine, Dr., 125 - - Salii, institution of the, 3 - - Salted provisions, the use of, 15 - - Sanchez, Dr., 5, 72 - - Sanitary state of Madrid, 129 - - Sastre, Dr., 113 - - Sauvages, 15, 126 - - Savoy Prison, 225 - - Scarlatina, 116 - - Scarlet fever, 35, 142; - sore-throat, 24 - - Schenckius, 74, 89 - - Scripture against contagion, 213 - - Scurvy, 21, 74; - epidemic, 73 - - Sea broke out at Dort, 66 - - ----, Winchelsea swallowed up by the, 41 - - Seasons, intemperate, 31; - inclement, 34, 40, 41, 42, 43, 65, 105, 108, 112, 131, 133, 142, - 145, 150, 168, 169, 170 - - Senertus, 86, 161 - - Sepulture, Chinese mode of, 239 - - ‘Serpentine Disease,’ the, 84 - - Servius, 238 - - Severe frost, 37, 65, 66, 103, 113, 129, 140; - storm, 118; - winter, 30, 31, 35, 38, 41, 55, 94, 98, 137, 145, 148 - - Severn, the, overflowed, 69 - - Seville, earthquake at, 60 - - Sheep, mortality among, 38; - murrain among, 42 - - Shipping, entry of, prohibited in Sicily, 75 - - Short, 29, 30, 97 - - Shower of fish, a, 163; - of rain, frozen, 111 - - Showers, extraordinary, 59 - - Shropshire, earthquake in, 18 - - Siberia, the plague of, 162 - - Sibylline books, the, 9 - - Sicily, earthquake in, 142; - entry of shipping prohibited in, 75 - - Sickness among the Edinburgh police, 227 - - ‘----, the great,’ 116 - - ----, the sweating, 70, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 86, 114, 119 - - Siege of Jerusalem, 3; - of Troy, 199 - - Signacula, or mould-spots, 74 - - Silius Italicus, 5 - - Simon, Mr., 222 - - Singular pestilence in Spain, 25 - - Site of Rome, the, 204 - - Skin, the functions of the, 235 - - Small-pox, 35, 78, 98, 112, 116, 120; - confluent, 22; - pestilential, at Mecca, 27; - treatment of, 131; - virulent, 111 - - ---- and measles, 24 - - Smith, Dr. Southwood, 234 - - Sneezing induced by conditions of the atmosphere, 27 - - Snow, heavy fall of, 169 - - ---- in harvest-time, 32 - - Snow-storm, a, 100 - - Socrates on bathing, 231 - - Solemn processions, 67 - - Sore throat, gangrenous, 99, 128; - scarlet, 24; - epidemic, 30 - - ‘Sorte-diod,’ the, 50 - - Southwark, a great fire in, 112 - - Spain, earthquake in, 10, 75; - famine in, 23; - leprosy in, 15, 33; - temperature of, 15 - - Spaniards, cleanliness and moderation among the, 5; - their immunity from a pestilence, 4 - - Spanish epidemiology, the first epoch of, 2, 198 - - Spiders, 98, 119 - - Spleen, gangrene of the, 162 - - Sporadic cholera, 174 - - Spotted fever, 75, 80, 88 - - St. Anthony, 64; - St. Anthony’s fire, 39 - - St. Fechin, 28 - - St. Gerald, 28 - - St. Gregory, 25; - St. Gregory’s ‘History of the Franks,’ _ibid._ - - St. Guy, the dancing disease of, 56 - - St. Margaret, 64 - - St. Narcissus, 43 - - St. Paul’s at Rome destroyed by earthquake, 29 - - St. Sebastian, feast of, deferred, 67 - - St. Vitus, dance of, 32; - Hecker’s account of, 56 - - ----’s torrent, 81 - - Stagnant pools and marshes, 150 - - Starvation in London, 38 - - Statistics of pestilence, 53; - of Dublin Lying-in Hospital, 226 - - Statius, 231 - - Stews, public, Bishop Winton on, 73 - - Stinking mists, 86 - - Stokes, Dr., 176 - - Storm, severe, 118; - violent, 61, 76 - - Storms, 2, 10, 11, 16, 65, 108, 120, 127, 133, 140; - in Judea, 23; - in Thuringia and Saxony, 81 - - Stow, 43, 44, 53 - - Strange phenomenon in the tides, 111 - - Strasburg, dancing plague at, 63 - - Suabia, earthquake in, 78 - - Subterraneous thunder, 47 - - ‘Sudor Anglicus,’ the, 70 - - Suetonius, 17 - - Summer, cold and wet, 32; - dry, 35; - fogs, 80; - hot, 18, 38, 41, 84, 86, 98, 104, 114, 137, 145, 146; - wet, 75 - - Sun, eclipse of the, 37 - - Sutton, Dr., 173 - - Swarms of flies, 42; - of locusts, 46, 68, 69, 76, 81 - - Sweating sickness, the, 70, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 86, 114, 119 - - Switzerland, earthquake in, 136 - - Sydenham, 109, 161, 206 - - Symptoms of a pestilence at Carthage, 8 - - Syphilis at Naples, 73 - - Syria, earthquake in, 29, 47; - inundation in, 34; - loimos in, 21 - - - ‘Tac,’ the, 61 - - Tacitus, 16, 17, 204 - - Tadpoles, metamorphosis of, 221 - - Tagus, the, overflowed, 83 - - ‘Tarantisme,’ 56 - - Tasso, 203 - - Temperature of Spain, 15 - - Tempests, 98, 99; - violent, 30, 60 - - Tempestuous seasons, 32; - weather, 44 - - Terrific plague, a, 48 - - Tertian epidemic, 139; - fever, 132; - fevers, epidemic, 112 - - Thames, the, fordable, 95; - frozen over, 31, 33, 113; - high tide in the, 39, 124, 127; - low water in the, 34; - the water of the, 230 - - Thucydides, 7, 199; - on epidemics, 215 - - Thullier, Dr., 101 - - Thunder, subterranean, 47 - - Thunder-storms, 38, 41, 43, 46, 47, 54, 66, 105, 116, 118, 145; - in London, 34 - - Tiber, the, overflowed, 83; - inundation of the, 30 - - Tides, a strange phenomenon in the, 111; - high, 42, 124, 127 - - ‘Tigretier,’ 56 - - Tongue, the black, 173 - - Topography of Egypt, 196 - - Torrent, St. Vitus’s, 81 - - Torrents of rain, 46 - - Trade and locality, influence of, 179 - - Treatment of petechial pestilence, 94; - of plague, 78; - of small-pox, 131; - of the venereal disease, 73 - - ‘Trousse Galante,’ the, 80 - - Troy, the siege of, 199 - - ‘True pestilence,’ the, 24 - - ---- plague in France, 25 - - Tsincheou, falling of the mountain of, 46 - - Tully, 150 - - Tumours in the groin or axillæ, 24 - - Turks, cemeteries of the, 239 - - Tyengius, 78, 81 - - Typhoid epidemic at Mount St. Bernard, 171 - - Typhomania, 21 - - Typhus, 142, 146, 151, 155, 156, 173; - fever, 149 - - - Ubilis, 15 - - Unburied dead bodies, 8, 23 - - Urine as a topical lotion, 5; - drinking, 5; - washing with, 5 - - Use of coals forbidden, 55; - of linen, 5; - of salted provisions, 15 - - Uses of the atmosphere, 223 - - Utrecht, the dancing mania at, 42 - - - Valcarcel, 111 - - Valencia, lazar-houses established at, 33 - - Valles, 94 - - Vapour, a filthy smelling, causing pestilence, 49 - - Vapour baths of the Sætabi, 5 - - Vapours, gross, 89; - poisonous, of the lake Avernus, 4 - - Variola, 140; - introduction of, into America, 71; - epidemic, _ibid._ - - Vegetable kingdom, the, 220 - - Velilla, the miraculous bell of, 79 - - Velitræ depopulated, 3 - - Venereal disease, the, 84; - a pestilential fever, 72; - cannibals infested with the, 73; - guaiacum in, 75; - introduction of, into Europe, 72; - origin of the, 73; - the origin of, attributed to conjunction of the planets, 72; - treatment of the, 73 - - Venetian territory, famine in the, 82 - - Ventilation, 225, 226 - - Vestal Virgins, the, 239 - - Vesuvius, 17; - eruption of, 20, 21, 24, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 76, 103, 108, 112, - 114, 116, 117, 118, 120, 126, 127, 129, 134, 140, 143; - description of an eruption of, 165 - - Vicissitudes of weather, 32 - - Vienna, earthquake at, 143 - - Villalba, 4, 5 - - Villalon, 119 - - Villanius, 48, 49 - - Vincente Mut, 60 - - ---- Ximeno, 72 - - Violent catarrh, 76 - - ---- storm, 76 - - Virulent small-pox, 111 - - Vitality, light and air and water essential to, 218 - - Volcanic eruptions, 99 - - Volcanoes, eruptions of, 32 - - Vomito negro, the, 140 - - Vultures, infected places deserted by, 12 - - - War, distresses of, 23; - effects of, 66; - civil, 116 - - Washhouses and baths, 236 - - Washing with urine, 5 - - Water, 230; - considered dietetically and medicinally, 230; - conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 43; - essential to vitality, 218; - first brought by the New River to London, 98; - of the Thames, 230 - - Weather, dry, 109; - hot and moist, 113; - inclement, 38, 81; - tempestuous, 44; - vicissitudes of, 32 - - Wells of hell-kettles, 36 - - Wet summer, 75 - - Wheat, price of, in famine, 44 - - Wierus, 89 - - Winchelscomb, storm at, 33 - - Winchelsea swallowed up by the sea, 41 - - Wind, a pestiferous, 51 - - Window-tax, the, 237 - - Winters, cold, 113; - mild, 141; - severe, 7, 18, 20, 30, 31, 35, 38, 41, 55, 94, 98, 137, 145, 148 - - Winton, Bishop, on public stews, 73 - - Wollaston, Dr., account of an epidemic of grangrenous ergotism by, - 101 - - Worm, black, 141 - - Wrecks at London Bridge, 117 - - Wren, Sir Christopher, 243 - - - Xativa, earthquake in, 78 - - Xerxes, destruction of the army of, 4 - - - Yellow fever, 29, 146, 149, 156, 170, 171, 172, 173; - pestilence, 99, 100, 104, 113, 151, 153, 155, 157 - - - Zosimus, 21 - - Zurita, 49, 67 - - - - - CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX - - - B.C. - - Years. Page - 1495 1 - 1471 to 1017 2 - 790 545 3 - 594 480 4 - 476 435 6 - 427 404 8 - 393 362 9 - 346 216 10 - 206 177 11 - 144 140 12 - 134 126 13 - 89 60 15 - 49 30 16 - - - A.D. - - 40 to 53 17 - 80 114 18 - 115 158 19 - 173 250 20 - 252 302 21 - 325 375 22 - 361 467 23 - 473 540 24 - 543 589 25 - 580 26 - 590 672 27 - 679 685 28 - 685 801 29 - 806 883 30 - 896 1024 31 - 1017 1042 32 - 1043 1090 33 - 1093 1120 34 - 1120 1179 35 - 1183 1190 36 - 1193 1217 37 - 1218 1230 38 - 1236 1237 39 - 1240 1249 40 - 1250 1254 41 - 1255 1283 42 - 1301 1310 43 - 1316 1335 44 - 1333 1334 46 - 1338 1347 47 - 1346 1349 48 - 1348 49 - 1348 51 - 1348 1352 52 - 1355 1357 53 - 1360 54 - 1362 1373 55 - 1374 56 - 1375 1383 59 - 1382 1389 60 - 1391 1411 61 - 1410 62 - 1418 63 - 1426 64 - 1429 1441 65 - 1443 1450 66 - 1452 1473 67 - 1474 1477 68 - 1478 1485 69 - 1485 70 - 1488 1493 71 - 1494 1499 72 - 1495 1497 73 - 1497 1503 74 - 1501 1505 75 - 1506 1510 76 - 1511 1517 77 - 1518 1519 78 - 1521 1528 79 - 1528 1534 80 - 1529 81 - 1530 1539 83 - 1541 1545 84 - 1546 1553 85 - 1551 1555 86 - 1556 1570 87 - 1558 1564 88 - 1565 89 - 1566 1568 90 - 1570 1577 91 - 1579 1580 92 - 1580 1583 93 - 1585 1590 94 - 1592 1602 95 - 1600 1606 96 - 1609 1610 97 - 1611 1613 98 - 1616 1620 99 - 1622 1630 100 - 1631 1636 103 - 1642 1646 104 - 1649 1650 105 - 1652 1654 106 - 1656 1658 107 - 1658 1663 108 - 1661 1666 109 - 1666 1668 110 - 1670 1676 111 - 1677 1683 112 - 1686 1690 113 - 1692 1694 114 - 1695 1700 115 - 1701 1703 116 - 1704 117 - 1705 1708 118 - 1709 1710 119 - 1711 1717 120 - 1718 1720 121 - 1722 1723 122 - 1726 1728 123 - 1729 1734 124 - 1735 1736 125 - 1737 1745 126 - 1747 1751 127 - 1758 128 - 1755 1760 129 - 1761 130 - 1762 1764 131 - 1765 1766 132 - 1768 1769 133 - 1770 1772 134 - 1774 135 - 1773 1778 136 - 1780 1789 137 - 1782 1786 138 - 1784 1785 139 - 1786 1789 140 - 1790 1791 141 - 1791 1793 142 - 1794 143 - 1795 1797 144 - 1798 1799 145 - 1800 1802 146 - 1803 1812 147 - 1814 148 - 1813 1815 149 - 1815 150 - 1816 1817 151 - 1818 152 - 1819 1821 153 - 1822 1824 154 - 1824 1825 155 - 1826 1827 156 - 1828 157 - 1829 1832 158 - 1831 159–162 - 1833 1838 163 - 1834 164 - 1835 165–167 - 1836 167 - 1836 1837 168 - 1834 1837 169 - 1838 170 - 1839 171 - 1840 1843 172 - 1843 173 - 1842 1845 174 - 1846 175–179 - 1847 179–183 - - - THE END. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] The miraculous bell of Velilla, a little village in Aragon, nine -leagues from Saragossa, about this time (the death of Ferdinand of -Aragon) gave one of those prophetic tintinnabulations which always -boded some great calamity to the country. The side on which the blows -fell denoted the quarter where the disaster was to happen. Its sound, -says Dr. Dormer, caused dismay and contrition, with dismal “fear of -change,” in the hearts of all who heard it. No arm was strong enough to -stop it on these occasions, as those found to their cost who profanely -attempted it. Its ill-omened voice was heard for the twentieth and last -time in March, 1679. As no event of importance followed, it probably -tolled for its own funeral. See the edifying history, in Dr. Diego -Dormer, of the miraculous powers and performances of this celebrated -bell, as duly authenticated by a host of witnesses.--‘Discursos -Varios,’ pp. 198–244. Prescott’s ‘History of Ferdinand and Isabella.’ - -[2] The term Plague or Pestilence, as used here, is meant in its -general sense to express all sorts of distempers; the Hebrew Deber, -which properly signifies plague, being used in the Hebrew tongue, as in -most others, to express every variety of epidemic disease. - -[3] Some time ago, some fagots were sent into the Lings coalpit, -belonging to the Wingerworth Coal Company, for the purpose of filling -up the chasm over the timber, where the roof had given way. A bough of -hawthorn was carelessly thrown aside in an opening, and it is now in -full leaf and blossom. A branch of it was brought out at night; but -the leaves, and blossoms also, began to flag in a few hours after it -was exposed to the fresh air. There is still a part of the thorn in -the pit, 500 yards from the bottom of the shaft, in a healthy growing -state; all the difference observable between a thorn growing on the -top of the ground, and the one above named, is, that the leaf is quite -white, and the blossom without smell. - -[4] A writer punningly remarks, that “Notwithstanding our national -situation, and the dominion we naturally claim and boast of over the -watery element, a degree of Hydrophobia still prevails among us.” - -[5] A.D. 1695, on 31 Dec., the House of Commons resolved to raise -£1,200,000 for supplying the deficiency of the clipped money by a tax -on windows. - -[6] Fortunately for the people, this tax was repealed while these pages -were passing through the press. It was not, however, deemed advisable -to change the language used in the text. - -[7] For further evidence consult, _Diemerbroek_, _Agricola_, _Ammianus -Marcellinus_, _Quincy_, _Wolfius_, and though last, not least, the -works of Mr. GEORGE ALFRED WALKER, that most _indomitable_ advocate for -the prevention of the most disgusting abuses of our dead, with the view -of benefiting the stultified living. - -[8] In explanation of what is meant by this text, ‘Leprous House,’ -Michaelis observes that the walls of houses are often attacked by -something that corrodes and spoils them. The walls become wet and -mouldy from a mural salt, and that to such a degree as, in consequence -of the erosion spreading further and further, to cause the house to -tumble down; the plaster also becomes damaged, and requires frequent -replacing, furniture becoming spoiled, and persons being injured in -their health, by sleeping near such walls. If we experience such -effects in modern Europe, there is room to conclude that they were more -strongly exhibited at the earlier period under notice, and in countries -where the houses were but of one story and low. Taking this, therefore, -for the ‘house leprosy,’ the object of the Mosaic law or ordinance -is sufficiently intelligible. Besides, to this day there are certain -diseases of trees in Egypt and Palestine, to which the name of leprosy -is given. In Switzerland, also, they speak of cancer in buildings on -the same principle, and why should we not understand the leprosy in -buildings of the text as being something of a similar description? -It is true that man, stone, and clothes have not the same diseases; -but from some analogous circumstances, real or fanciful, the diseases -of man may be, and have been, evidently from the above, applied by a -figure of speech to diseases in other things. - -If we believe that the house leprosy here spoken of was anything -relating to the disorder of the same name in man, it will be difficult -to account for the symptoms and mode of treatment; and if we suppose -that the walls of the house had taken a leprous contagion from man, -and were in a condition, when really infected, to transmit it to man, -the very direction to remove the furniture before the entering of the -priest, would lead to the contrary opinion, for removing the furniture -would be calculated to propagate the leprous infection. It was the damp -and unwholesome state of the house to which attention was directed. - - -Transcriber’s Note: - -1. Obvious printers’, spelling and punctuation errors have been - silently corrected. Some original spelling has been retained. - -2. Superscripts are represented using the caret character, e.g. D^r. - -3. Italics are shown as _xxx_. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF EPIDEMIC -PESTILENCES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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