summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/67149-h/67149-h.htm
blob: 815331a507572be5008bc1721b5ae686b5ec8c4d (plain) 
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343
3344
3345
3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
3369
3370
3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376
3377
3378
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
3390
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
3396
3397
3398
3399
3400
3401
3402
3403
3404
3405
3406
3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421
3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428
3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436
3437
3438
3439
3440
3441
3442
3443
3444
3445
3446
3447
3448
3449
3450
3451
3452
3453
3454
3455
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
3466
3467
3468
3469
3470
3471
3472
3473
3474
3475
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
3490
3491
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
3505
3506
3507
3508
3509
3510
3511
3512
3513
3514
3515
3516
3517
3518
3519
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3526
3527
3528
3529
3530
3531
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3538
3539
3540
3541
3542
3543
3544
3545
3546
3547
3548
3549
3550
3551
3552
3553
3554
3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3566
3567
3568
3569
3570
3571
3572
3573
3574
3575
3576
3577
3578
3579
3580
3581
3582
3583
3584
3585
3586
3587
3588
3589
3590
3591
3592
3593
3594
3595
3596
3597
3598
3599
3600
3601
3602
3603
3604
3605
3606
3607
3608
3609
3610
3611
3612
3613
3614
3615
3616
3617
3618
3619
3620
3621
3622
3623
3624
3625
3626
3627
3628
3629
3630
3631
3632
3633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647
3648
3649
3650
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663
3664
3665
3666
3667
3668
3669
3670
3671
3672
3673
3674
3675
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688
3689
3690
3691
3692
3693
3694
3695
3696
3697
3698
3699
3700
3701
3702
3703
3704
3705
3706
3707
3708
3709
3710
3711
3712
3713
3714
3715
3716
3717
3718
3719
3720
3721
3722
3723
3724
3725
3726
3727
3728
3729
3730
3731
3732
3733
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752
3753
3754
3755
3756
3757
3758
3759
3760
3761
3762
3763
3764
3765
3766
3767
3768
3769
3770
3771
3772
3773
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778
3779
3780
3781
3782
3783
3784
3785
3786
3787
3788
3789
3790
3791
3792
3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801
3802
3803
3804
3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811
3812
3813
3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823
3824
3825
3826
3827
3828
3829
3830
3831
3832
3833
3834
3835
3836
3837
3838
3839
3840
3841
3842
3843
3844
3845
3846
3847
3848
3849
3850
3851
3852
3853
3854
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
3861
3862
3863
3864
3865
3866
3867
3868
3869
3870
3871
3872
3873
3874
3875
3876
3877
3878
3879
3880
3881
3882
3883
3884
3885
3886
3887
3888
3889
3890
3891
3892
3893
3894
3895
3896
3897
3898
3899
3900
3901
3902
3903
3904
3905
3906
3907
3908
3909
3910
3911
3912
3913
3914
3915
3916
3917
3918
3919
3920
3921
3922
3923
3924
3925
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
3931
3932
3933
3934
3935
3936
3937
3938
3939
3940
3941
3942
3943
3944
3945
3946
3947
3948
3949
3950
3951
3952
3953
3954
3955
3956
3957
3958
3959
3960
3961
3962
3963
3964
3965
3966
3967
3968
3969
3970
3971
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977
3978
3979
3980
3981
3982
3983
3984
3985
3986
3987
3988
3989
3990
3991
3992
3993
3994
3995
3996
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
4002
4003
4004
4005
4006
4007
4008
4009
4010
4011
4012
4013
4014
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019
4020
4021
4022
4023
4024
4025
4026
4027
4028
4029
4030
4031
4032
4033
4034
4035
4036
4037
4038
4039
4040
4041
4042
4043
4044
4045
4046
4047
4048
4049
4050
4051
4052
4053
4054
4055
4056
4057
4058
4059
4060
4061
4062
4063
4064
4065
4066
4067
4068
4069
4070
4071
4072
4073
4074
4075
4076
4077
4078
4079
4080
4081
4082
4083
4084
4085
4086
4087
4088
4089
4090
4091
4092
4093
4094
4095
4096
4097
4098
4099
4100
4101
4102
4103
4104
4105
4106
4107
4108
4109
4110
4111
4112
4113
4114
4115
4116
4117
4118
4119
4120
4121
4122
4123
4124
4125
4126
4127
4128
4129
4130
4131
4132
4133
4134
4135
4136
4137
4138
4139
4140
4141
4142
4143
4144
4145
4146
4147
4148
4149
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
4158
4159
4160
4161
4162
4163
4164
4165
4166
4167
4168
4169
4170
4171
4172
4173
4174
4175
4176
4177
4178
4179
4180
4181
4182
4183
4184
4185
4186
4187
4188
4189
4190
4191
4192
4193
4194
4195
4196
4197
4198
4199
4200
4201
4202
4203
4204
4205
4206
4207
4208
4209
4210
4211
4212
4213
4214
4215
4216
4217
4218
4219
4220
4221
4222
4223
4224
4225
4226
4227
4228
4229
4230
4231
4232
4233
4234
4235
4236
4237
4238
4239
4240
4241
4242
4243
4244
4245
4246
4247
4248
4249
4250
4251
4252
4253
4254
4255
4256
4257
4258
4259
4260
4261
4262
4263
4264
4265
4266
4267
4268
4269
4270
4271
4272
4273
4274
4275
4276
4277
4278
4279
4280
4281
4282
4283
4284
4285
4286
4287
4288
4289
4290
4291
4292
4293
4294
4295
4296
4297
4298
4299
4300
4301
4302
4303
4304
4305
4306
4307
4308
4309
4310
4311
4312
4313
4314
4315
4316
4317
4318
4319
4320
4321
4322
4323
4324
4325
4326
4327
4328
4329
4330
4331
4332
4333
4334
4335
4336
4337
4338
4339
4340
4341
4342
4343
4344
4345
4346
4347
4348
4349
4350
4351
4352
4353
4354
4355
4356
4357
4358
4359
4360
4361
4362
4363
4364
4365
4366
4367
4368
4369
4370
4371
4372
4373
4374
4375
4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4381
4382
4383
4384
4385
4386
4387
4388
4389
4390
4391
4392
4393
4394
4395
4396
4397
4398
4399
4400
4401
4402
4403
4404
4405
4406
4407
4408
4409
4410
4411
4412
4413
4414
4415
4416
4417
4418
4419
4420
4421
4422
4423
4424
4425
4426
4427
4428
4429
4430
4431
4432
4433
4434
4435
4436
4437
4438
4439
4440
4441
4442
4443
4444
4445
4446
4447
4448
4449
4450
4451
4452
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4460
4461
4462
4463
4464
4465
4466
4467
4468
4469
4470
4471
4472
4473
4474
4475
4476
4477
4478
4479
4480
4481
4482
4483
4484
4485
4486
4487
4488
4489
4490
4491
4492
4493
4494
4495
4496
4497
4498
4499
4500
4501
4502
4503
4504
4505
4506
4507
4508
4509
4510
4511
4512
4513
4514
4515
4516
4517
4518
4519
4520
4521
4522
4523
4524
4525
4526
4527
4528
4529
4530
4531
4532
4533
4534
4535
4536
4537
4538
4539
4540
4541
4542
4543
4544
4545
4546
4547
4548
4549
4550
4551
4552
4553
4554
4555
4556
4557
4558
4559
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
4566
4567
4568
4569
4570
4571
4572
4573
4574
4575
4576
4577
4578
4579
4580
4581
4582
4583
4584
4585
4586
4587
4588
4589
4590
4591
4592
4593
4594
4595
4596
4597
4598
4599
4600
4601
4602
4603
4604
4605
4606
4607
4608
4609
4610
4611
4612
4613
4614
4615
4616
4617
4618
4619
4620
4621
4622
4623
4624
4625
4626
4627
4628
4629
4630
4631
4632
4633
4634
4635
4636
4637
4638
4639
4640
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
4646
4647
4648
4649
4650
4651
4652
4653
4654
4655
4656
4657
4658
4659
4660
4661
4662
4663
4664
4665
4666
4667
4668
4669
4670
4671
4672
4673
4674
4675
4676
4677
4678
4679
4680
4681
4682
4683
4684
4685
4686
4687
4688
4689
4690
4691
4692
4693
4694
4695
4696
4697
4698
4699
4700
4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4708
4709
4710
4711
4712
4713
4714
4715
4716
4717
4718
4719
4720
4721
4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
4730
4731
4732
4733
4734
4735
4736
4737
4738
4739
4740
4741
4742
4743
4744
4745
4746
4747
4748
4749
4750
4751
4752
4753
4754
4755
4756
4757
4758
4759
4760
4761
4762
4763
4764
4765
4766
4767
4768
4769
4770
4771
4772
4773
4774
4775
4776
4777
4778
4779
4780
4781
4782
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
4789
4790
4791
4792
4793
4794
4795
4796
4797
4798
4799
4800
4801
4802
4803
4804
4805
4806
4807
4808
4809
4810
4811
4812
4813
4814
4815
4816
4817
4818
4819
4820
4821
4822
4823
4824
4825
4826
4827
4828
4829
4830
4831
4832
4833
4834
4835
4836
4837
4838
4839
4840
4841
4842
4843
4844
4845
4846
4847
4848
4849
4850
4851
4852
4853
4854
4855
4856
4857
4858
4859
4860
4861
4862
4863
4864
4865
4866
4867
4868
4869
4870
4871
4872
4873
4874
4875
4876
4877
4878
4879
4880
4881
4882
4883
4884
4885
4886
4887
4888
4889
4890
4891
4892
4893
4894
4895
4896
4897
4898
4899
4900
4901
4902
4903
4904
4905
4906
4907
4908
4909
4910
4911
4912
4913
4914
4915
4916
4917
4918
4919
4920
4921
4922
4923
4924
4925
4926
4927
4928
4929
4930
4931
4932
4933
4934
4935
4936
4937
4938
4939
4940
4941
4942
4943
4944
4945
4946
4947
4948
4949
4950
4951
4952
4953
4954
4955
4956
4957
4958
4959
4960
4961
4962
4963
4964
4965
4966
4967
4968
4969
4970
4971
4972
4973
4974
4975
4976
4977
4978
4979
4980
4981
4982
4983
4984
4985
4986
4987
4988
4989
4990
4991
4992
4993
4994
4995
4996
4997
4998
4999
5000
5001
5002
5003
5004
5005
5006
5007
5008
5009
5010
5011
5012
5013
5014
5015
5016
5017
5018
5019
5020
5021
5022
5023
5024
5025
5026
5027
5028
5029
5030
5031
5032
5033
5034
5035
5036
5037
5038
5039
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5045
5046
5047
5048
5049
5050
5051
5052
5053
5054
5055
5056
5057
5058
5059
5060
5061
5062
5063
5064
5065
5066
5067
5068
5069
5070
5071
5072
5073
5074
5075
5076
5077
5078
5079
5080
5081
5082
5083
5084
5085
5086
5087
5088
5089
5090
5091
5092
5093
5094
5095
5096
5097
5098
5099
5100
5101
5102
5103
5104
5105
5106
5107
5108
5109
5110
5111
5112
5113
5114
5115
5116
5117
5118
5119
5120
5121
5122
5123
5124
5125
5126
5127
5128
5129
5130
5131
5132
5133
5134
5135
5136
5137
5138
5139
5140
5141
5142
5143
5144
5145
5146
5147
5148
5149
5150
5151
5152
5153
5154
5155
5156
5157
5158
5159
5160
5161
5162
5163
5164
5165
5166
5167
5168
5169
5170
5171
5172
5173
5174
5175
5176
5177
5178
5179
5180
5181
5182
5183
5184
5185
5186
5187
5188
5189
5190
5191
5192
5193
5194
5195
5196
5197
5198
5199
5200
5201
5202
5203
5204
5205
5206
5207
5208
5209
5210
5211
5212
5213
5214
5215
5216
5217
5218
5219
5220
5221
5222
5223
5224
5225
5226
5227
5228
5229
5230
5231
5232
5233
5234
5235
5236
5237
5238
5239
5240
5241
5242
5243
5244
5245
5246
5247
5248
5249
5250
5251
5252
5253
5254
5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5260
5261
5262
5263
5264
5265
5266
5267
5268
5269
5270
5271
5272
5273
5274
5275
5276
5277
5278
5279
5280
5281
5282
5283
5284
5285
5286
5287
5288
5289
5290
5291
5292
5293
5294
5295
5296
5297
5298
5299
5300
5301
5302
5303
5304
5305
5306
5307
5308
5309
5310
5311
5312
5313
5314
5315
5316
5317
5318
5319
5320
5321
5322
5323
5324
5325
5326
5327
5328
5329
5330
5331
5332
5333
5334
5335
5336
5337
5338
5339
5340
5341
5342
5343
5344
5345
5346
5347
5348
5349
5350
5351
5352
5353
5354
5355
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
5361
5362
5363
5364
5365
5366
5367
5368
5369
5370
5371
5372
5373
5374
5375
5376
5377
5378
5379
5380
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
5386
5387
5388
5389
5390
5391
5392
5393
5394
5395
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
5401
5402
5403
5404
5405
5406
5407
5408
5409
5410
5411
5412
5413
5414
5415
5416
5417
5418
5419
5420
5421
5422
5423
5424
5425
5426
5427
5428
5429
5430
5431
5432
5433
5434
5435
5436
5437
5438
5439
5440
5441
5442
5443
5444
5445
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
5451
5452
5453
5454
5455
5456
5457
5458
5459
5460
5461
5462
5463
5464
5465
5466
5467
5468
5469
5470
5471
5472
5473
5474
5475
5476
5477
5478
5479
5480
5481
5482
5483
5484
5485
5486
5487
5488
5489
5490
5491
5492
5493
5494
5495
5496
5497
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
5503
5504
5505
5506
5507
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
5513
5514
5515
5516
5517
5518
5519
5520
5521
5522
5523
5524
5525
5526
5527
5528
5529
5530
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
5539
5540
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
5563
5564
5565
5566
5567
5568
5569
5570
5571
5572
5573
5574
5575
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
5581
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
5590
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
5600
5601
5602
5603
5604
5605
5606
5607
5608
5609
5610
5611
5612
5613
5614
5615
5616
5617
5618
5619
5620
5621
5622
5623
5624
5625
5626
5627
5628
5629
5630
5631
5632
5633
5634
5635
5636
5637
5638
5639
5640
5641
5642
5643
5644
5645
5646
5647
5648
5649
5650
5651
5652
5653
5654
5655
5656
5657
5658
5659
5660
5661
5662
5663
5664
5665
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
5671
5672
5673
5674
5675
5676
5677
5678
5679
5680
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
5689
5690
5691
5692
5693
5694
5695
5696
5697
5698
5699
5700
5701
5702
5703
5704
5705
5706
5707
5708
5709
5710
5711
5712
5713
5714
5715
5716
5717
5718
5719
5720
5721
5722
5723
5724
5725
5726
5727
5728
5729
5730
5731
5732
5733
5734
5735
5736
5737
5738
5739
5740
5741
5742
5743
5744
5745
5746
5747
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752
5753
5754
5755
5756
5757
5758
5759
5760
5761
5762
5763
5764
5765
5766
5767
5768
5769
5770
5771
5772
5773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
5786
5787
5788
5789
5790
5791
5792
5793
5794
5795
5796
5797
5798
5799
5800
5801
5802
5803
5804
5805
5806
5807
5808
5809
5810
5811
5812
5813
5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
5820
5821
5822
5823
5824
5825
5826
5827
5828
5829
5830
5831
5832
5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
5846
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
5856
5857
5858
5859
5860
5861
5862
5863
5864
5865
5866
5867
5868
5869
5870
5871
5872
5873
5874
5875
5876
5877
5878
5879
5880
5881
5882
5883
5884
5885
5886
5887
5888
5889
5890
5891
5892
5893
5894
5895
5896
5897
5898
5899
5900
5901
5902
5903
5904
5905
5906
5907
5908
5909
5910
5911
5912
5913
5914
5915
5916
5917
5918
5919
5920
5921
5922
5923
5924
5925
5926
5927
5928
5929
5930
5931
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
5938
5939
5940
5941
5942
5943
5944
5945
5946
5947
5948
5949
5950
5951
5952
5953
5954
5955
5956
5957
5958
5959
5960
5961
5962
5963
5964
5965
5966
5967
5968
5969
5970
5971
5972
5973
5974
5975
5976
5977
5978
5979
5980
5981
5982
5983
5984
5985
5986
5987
5988
5989
5990
5991
5992
5993
5994
5995
5996
5997
5998
5999
6000
6001
6002
6003
6004
6005
6006
6007
6008
6009
6010
6011
6012
6013
6014
6015
6016
6017
6018
6019
6020
6021
6022
6023
6024
6025
6026
6027
6028
6029
6030
6031
6032
6033
6034
6035
6036
6037
6038
6039
6040
6041
6042
6043
6044
6045
6046
6047
6048
6049
6050
6051
6052
6053
6054
6055
6056
6057
6058
6059
6060
6061
6062
6063
6064
6065
6066
6067
6068
6069
6070
6071
6072
6073
6074
6075
6076
6077
6078
6079
6080
6081
6082
6083
6084
6085
6086
6087
6088
6089
6090
6091
6092
6093
6094
6095
6096
6097
6098
6099
6100
6101
6102
6103
6104
6105
6106
6107
6108
6109
6110
6111
6112
6113
6114
6115
6116
6117
6118
6119
6120
6121
6122
6123
6124
6125
6126
6127
6128
6129
6130
6131
6132
6133
6134
6135
6136
6137
6138
6139
6140
6141
6142
6143
6144
6145
6146
6147
6148
6149
6150
6151
6152
6153
6154
6155
6156
6157
6158
6159
6160
6161
6162
6163
6164
6165
6166
6167
6168
6169
6170
6171
6172
6173
6174
6175
6176
6177
6178
6179
6180
6181
6182
6183
6184
6185
6186
6187
6188
6189
6190
6191
6192
6193
6194
6195
6196
6197
6198
6199
6200
6201
6202
6203
6204
6205
6206
6207
6208
6209
6210
6211
6212
6213
6214
6215
6216
6217
6218
6219
6220
6221
6222
6223
6224
6225
6226
6227
6228
6229
6230
6231
6232
6233
6234
6235
6236
6237
6238
6239
6240
6241
6242
6243
6244
6245
6246
6247
6248
6249
6250
6251
6252
6253
6254
6255
6256
6257
6258
6259
6260
6261
6262
6263
6264
6265
6266
6267
6268
6269
6270
6271
6272
6273
6274
6275
6276
6277
6278
6279
6280
6281
6282
6283
6284
6285
6286
6287
6288
6289
6290
6291
6292
6293
6294
6295
6296
6297
6298
6299
6300
6301
6302
6303
6304
6305
6306
6307
6308
6309
6310
6311
6312
6313
6314
6315
6316
6317
6318
6319
6320
6321
6322
6323
6324
6325
6326
6327
6328
6329
6330
6331
6332
6333
6334
6335
6336
6337
6338
6339
6340
6341
6342
6343
6344
6345
6346
6347
6348
6349
6350
6351
6352
6353
6354
6355
6356
6357
6358
6359
6360
6361
6362
6363
6364
6365
6366
6367
6368
6369
6370
6371
6372
6373
6374
6375
6376
6377
6378
6379
6380
6381
6382
6383
6384
6385
6386
6387
6388
6389
6390
6391
6392
6393
6394
6395
6396
6397
6398
6399
6400
6401
6402
6403
6404
6405
6406
6407
6408
6409
6410
6411
6412
6413
6414
6415
6416
6417
6418
6419
6420
6421
6422
6423
6424
6425
6426
6427
6428
6429
6430
6431
6432
6433
6434
6435
6436
6437
6438
6439
6440
6441
6442
6443
6444
6445
6446
6447
6448
6449
6450
6451
6452
6453
6454
6455
6456
6457
6458
6459
6460
6461
6462
6463
6464
6465
6466
6467
6468
6469
6470
6471
6472
6473
6474
6475
6476
6477
6478
6479
6480
6481
6482
6483
6484
6485
6486
6487
6488
6489
6490
6491
6492
6493
6494
6495
6496
6497
6498
6499
6500
6501
6502
6503
6504
6505
6506
6507
6508
6509
6510
6511
6512
6513
6514
6515
6516
6517
6518
6519
6520
6521
6522
6523
6524
6525
6526
6527
6528
6529
6530
6531
6532
6533
6534
6535
6536
6537
6538
6539
6540
6541
6542
6543
6544
6545
6546
6547
6548
6549
6550
6551
6552
6553
6554
6555
6556
6557
6558
6559
6560
6561
6562
6563
6564
6565
6566
6567
6568
6569
6570
6571
6572
6573
6574
6575
6576
6577
6578
6579
6580
6581
6582
6583
6584
6585
6586
6587
6588
6589
6590
6591
6592
6593
6594
6595
6596
6597
6598
6599
6600
6601
6602
6603
6604
6605
6606
6607
6608
6609
6610
6611
6612
6613
6614
6615
6616
6617
6618
6619
6620
6621
6622
6623
6624
6625
6626
6627
6628
6629
6630
6631
6632
6633
6634
6635
6636
6637
6638
6639
6640
6641
6642
6643
6644
6645
6646
6647
6648
6649
6650
6651
6652
6653
6654
6655
6656
6657
6658
6659
6660
6661
6662
6663
6664
6665
6666
6667
6668
6669
6670
6671
6672
6673
6674
6675
6676
6677
6678
6679
6680
6681
6682
6683
6684
6685
6686
6687
6688
6689
6690
6691
6692
6693
6694
6695
6696
6697
6698
6699
6700
6701
6702
6703
6704
6705
6706
6707
6708
6709
6710
6711
6712
6713
6714
6715
6716
6717
6718
6719
6720
6721
6722
6723
6724
6725
6726
6727
6728
6729
6730
6731
6732
6733
6734
6735
6736
6737
6738
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746
6747
6748
6749
6750
6751
6752
6753
6754
6755
6756
6757
6758
6759
6760
6761
6762
6763
6764
6765
6766
6767
6768
6769
6770
6771
6772
6773
6774
6775
6776
6777
6778
6779
6780
6781
6782
6783
6784
6785
6786
6787
6788
6789
6790
6791
6792
6793
6794
6795
6796
6797
6798
6799
6800
6801
6802
6803
6804
6805
6806
6807
6808
6809
6810
6811
6812
6813
6814
6815
6816
6817
6818
6819
6820
6821
6822
6823
6824
6825
6826
6827
6828
6829
6830
6831
6832
6833
6834
6835
6836
6837
6838
6839
6840
6841
6842
6843
6844
6845
6846
6847
6848
6849
6850
6851
6852
6853
6854
6855
6856
6857
6858
6859
6860
6861
6862
6863
6864
6865
6866
6867
6868
6869
6870
6871
6872
6873
6874
6875
6876
6877
6878
6879
6880
6881
6882
6883
6884
6885
6886
6887
6888
6889
6890
6891
6892
6893
6894
6895
6896
6897
6898
6899
6900
6901
6902
6903
6904
6905
6906
6907
6908
6909
6910
6911
6912
6913
6914
6915
6916
6917
6918
6919
6920
6921
6922
6923
6924
6925
6926
6927
6928
6929
6930
6931
6932
6933
6934
6935
6936
6937
6938
6939
6940
6941
6942
6943
6944
6945
6946
6947
6948
6949
6950
6951
6952
6953
6954
6955
6956
6957
6958
6959
6960
6961
6962
6963
6964
6965
6966
6967
6968
6969
6970
6971
6972
6973
6974
6975
6976
6977
6978
6979
6980
6981
6982
6983
6984
6985
6986
6987
6988
6989
6990
6991
6992
6993
6994
6995
6996
6997
6998
6999
7000
7001
7002
7003
7004
7005
7006
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
7012
7013
7014
7015
7016
7017
7018
7019
7020
7021
7022
7023
7024
7025
7026
7027
7028
7029
7030
7031
7032
7033
7034
7035
7036
7037
7038
7039
7040
7041
7042
7043
7044
7045
7046
7047
7048
7049
7050
7051
7052
7053
7054
7055
7056
7057
7058
7059
7060
7061
7062
7063
7064
7065
7066
7067
7068
7069
7070
7071
7072
7073
7074
7075
7076
7077
7078
7079
7080
7081
7082
7083
7084
7085
7086
7087
7088
7089
7090
7091
7092
7093
7094
7095
7096
7097
7098
7099
7100
7101
7102
7103
7104
7105
7106
7107
7108
7109
7110
7111
7112
7113
7114
7115
7116
7117
7118
7119
7120
7121
7122
7123
7124
7125
7126
7127
7128
7129
7130
7131
7132
7133
7134
7135
7136
7137
7138
7139
7140
7141
7142
7143
7144
7145
7146
7147
7148
7149
7150
7151
7152
7153
7154
7155
7156
7157
7158
7159
7160
7161
7162
7163
7164
7165
7166
7167
7168
7169
7170
7171
7172
7173
7174
7175
7176
7177
7178
7179
7180
7181
7182
7183
7184
7185
7186
7187
7188
7189
7190
7191
7192
7193
7194
7195
7196
7197
7198
7199
7200
7201
7202
7203
7204
7205
7206
7207
7208
7209
7210
7211
7212
7213
7214
7215
7216
7217
7218
7219
7220
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
7226
7227
7228
7229
7230
7231
7232
7233
7234
7235
7236
7237
7238
7239
7240
7241
7242
7243
7244
7245
7246
7247
7248
7249
7250
7251
7252
7253
7254
7255
7256
7257
7258
7259
7260
7261
7262
7263
7264
7265
7266
7267
7268
7269
7270
7271
7272
7273
7274
7275
7276
7277
7278
7279
7280
7281
7282
7283
7284
7285
7286
7287
7288
7289
7290
7291
7292
7293
7294
7295
7296
7297
7298
7299
7300
7301
7302
7303
7304
7305
7306
7307
7308
7309
7310
7311
7312
7313
7314
7315
7316
7317
7318
7319
7320
7321
7322
7323
7324
7325
7326
7327
7328
7329
7330
7331
7332
7333
7334
7335
7336
7337
7338
7339
7340
7341
7342
7343
7344
7345
7346
7347
7348
7349
7350
7351
7352
7353
7354
7355
7356
7357
7358
7359
7360
7361
7362
7363
7364
7365
7366
7367
7368
7369
7370
7371
7372
7373
7374
7375
7376
7377
7378
7379
7380
7381
7382
7383
7384
7385
7386
7387
7388
7389
7390
7391
7392
7393
7394
7395
7396
7397
7398
7399
7400
7401
7402
7403
7404
7405
7406
7407
7408
7409
7410
7411
7412
7413
7414
7415
7416
7417
7418
7419
7420
7421
7422
7423
7424
7425
7426
7427
7428
7429
7430
7431
7432
7433
7434
7435
7436
7437
7438
7439
7440
7441
7442
7443
7444
7445
7446
7447
7448
7449
7450
7451
7452
7453
7454
7455
7456
7457
7458
7459
7460
7461
7462
7463
7464
7465
7466
7467
7468
7469
7470
7471
7472
7473
7474
7475
7476
7477
7478
7479
7480
7481
7482
7483
7484
7485
7486
7487
7488
7489
7490
7491
7492
7493
7494
7495
7496
7497
7498
7499
7500
7501
7502
7503
7504
7505
7506
7507
7508
7509
7510
7511
7512
7513
7514
7515
7516
7517
7518
7519
7520
7521
7522
7523
7524
7525
7526
7527
7528
7529
7530
7531
7532
7533
7534
7535
7536
7537
7538
7539
7540
7541
7542
7543
7544
7545
7546
7547
7548
7549
7550
7551
7552
7553
7554
7555
7556
7557
7558
7559
7560
7561
7562
7563
7564
7565
7566
7567
7568
7569
7570
7571
7572
7573
7574
7575
7576
7577
7578
7579
7580
7581
7582
7583
7584
7585
7586
7587
7588
7589
7590
7591
7592
7593
7594
7595
7596
7597
7598
7599
7600
7601
7602
7603
7604
7605
7606
7607
7608
7609
7610
7611
7612
7613
7614
7615
7616
7617
7618
7619
7620
7621
7622
7623
7624
7625
7626
7627
7628
7629
7630
7631
7632
7633
7634
7635
7636
7637
7638
7639
7640
7641
7642
7643
7644
7645
7646
7647
7648
7649
7650
7651
7652
7653
7654
7655
7656
7657
7658
7659
7660
7661
7662
7663
7664
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
7670
7671
7672
7673
7674
7675
7676
7677
7678
7679
7680
7681
7682
7683
7684
7685
7686
7687
7688
7689
7690
7691
7692
7693
7694
7695
7696
7697
7698
7699
7700
7701
7702
7703
7704
7705
7706
7707
7708
7709
7710
7711
7712
7713
7714
7715
7716
7717
7718
7719
7720
7721
7722
7723
7724
7725
7726
7727
7728
7729
7730
7731
7732
7733
7734
7735
7736
7737
7738
7739
7740
7741
7742
7743
7744
7745
7746
7747
7748
7749
7750
7751
7752
7753
7754
7755
7756
7757
7758
7759
7760
7761
7762
7763
7764
7765
7766
7767
7768
7769
7770
7771
7772
7773
7774
7775
7776
7777
7778
7779
7780
7781
7782
7783
7784
7785
7786
7787
7788
7789
7790
7791
7792
7793
7794
7795
7796
7797
7798
7799
7800
7801
7802
7803
7804
7805
7806
7807
7808
7809
7810
7811
7812
7813
7814
7815
7816
7817
7818
7819
7820
7821
7822
7823
7824
7825
7826
7827
7828
7829
7830
7831
7832
7833
7834
7835
7836
7837
7838
7839
7840
7841
7842
7843
7844
7845
7846
7847
7848
7849
7850
7851
7852
7853
7854
7855
7856
7857
7858
7859
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
7866
7867
7868
7869
7870
7871
7872
7873
7874
7875
7876
7877
7878
7879
7880
7881
7882
7883
7884
7885
7886
7887
7888
7889
7890
7891
7892
7893
7894
7895
7896
7897
7898
7899
7900
7901
7902
7903
7904
7905
7906
7907
7908
7909
7910
7911
7912
7913
7914
7915
7916
7917
7918
7919
7920
7921
7922
7923
7924
7925
7926
7927
7928
7929
7930
7931
7932
7933
7934
7935
7936
7937
7938
7939
7940
7941
7942
7943
7944
7945
7946
7947
7948
7949
7950
7951
7952
7953
7954
7955
7956
7957
7958
7959
7960
7961
7962
7963
7964
7965
7966
7967
7968
7969
7970
7971
7972
7973
7974
7975
7976
7977
7978
7979
7980
7981
7982
7983
7984
7985
7986
7987
7988
7989
7990
7991
7992
7993
7994
7995
7996
7997
7998
7999
8000
8001
8002
8003
8004
8005
8006
8007
8008
8009
8010
8011
8012
8013
8014
8015
8016
8017
8018
8019
8020
8021
8022
8023
8024
8025
8026
8027
8028
8029
8030
8031
8032
8033
8034
8035
8036
8037
8038
8039
8040
8041
8042
8043
8044
8045
8046
8047
8048
8049
8050
8051
8052
8053
8054
8055
8056
8057
8058
8059
8060
8061
8062
8063
8064
8065
8066
8067
8068
8069
8070
8071
8072
8073
8074
8075
8076
8077
8078
8079
8080
8081
8082
8083
8084
8085
8086
8087
8088
8089
8090
8091
8092
8093
8094
8095
8096
8097
8098
8099
8100
8101
8102
8103
8104
8105
8106
8107
8108
8109
8110
8111
8112
8113
8114
8115
8116
8117
8118
8119
8120
8121
8122
8123
8124
8125
8126
8127
8128
8129
8130
8131
8132
8133
8134
8135
8136
8137
8138
8139
8140
8141
8142
8143
8144
8145
8146
8147
8148
8149
8150
8151
8152
8153
8154
8155
8156
8157
8158
8159
8160
8161
8162
8163
8164
8165
8166
8167
8168
8169
8170
8171
8172
8173
8174
8175
8176
8177
8178
8179
8180
8181
8182
8183
8184
8185
8186
8187
8188
8189
8190
8191
8192
8193
8194
8195
8196
8197
8198
8199
8200
8201
8202
8203
8204
8205
8206
8207
8208
8209
8210
8211
8212
8213
8214
8215
8216
8217
8218
8219
8220
8221
8222
8223
8224
8225
8226
8227
8228
8229
8230
8231
8232
8233
8234
8235
8236
8237
8238
8239
8240
8241
8242
8243
8244
8245
8246
8247
8248
8249
8250
8251
8252
8253
8254
8255
8256
8257
8258
8259
8260
8261
8262
8263
8264
8265
8266
8267
8268
8269
8270
8271
8272
8273
8274
8275
8276
8277
8278
8279
8280
8281
8282
8283
8284
8285
8286
8287
8288
8289
8290
8291
8292
8293
8294
8295
8296
8297
8298
8299
8300
8301
8302
8303
8304
8305
8306
8307
8308
8309
8310
8311
8312
8313
8314
8315
8316
8317
8318
8319
8320
8321
8322
8323
8324
8325
8326
8327
8328
8329
8330
8331
8332
8333
8334
8335
8336
8337
8338
8339
8340
8341
8342
8343
8344
8345
8346
8347
8348
8349
8350
8351
8352
8353
8354
8355
8356
8357
8358
8359
8360
8361
8362
8363
8364
8365
8366
8367
8368
8369
8370
8371
8372
8373
8374
8375
8376
8377
8378
8379
8380
8381
8382
8383
8384
8385
8386
8387
8388
8389
8390
8391
8392
8393
8394
8395
8396
8397
8398
8399
8400
8401
8402
8403
8404
8405
8406
8407
8408
8409
8410
8411
8412
8413
8414
8415
8416
8417
8418
8419
8420
8421
8422
8423
8424
8425
8426
8427
8428
8429
8430
8431
8432
8433
8434
8435
8436
8437
8438
8439
8440
8441
8442
8443
8444
8445
8446
8447
8448
8449
8450
8451
8452
8453
8454
8455
8456
8457
8458
8459
8460
8461
8462
8463
8464
8465
8466
8467
8468
8469
8470
8471
8472
8473
8474
8475
8476
8477
8478
8479
8480
8481
8482
8483
8484
8485
8486
8487
8488
8489
8490
8491
8492
8493
8494
8495
8496
8497
8498
8499
8500
8501
8502
8503
8504
8505
8506
8507
8508
8509
8510
8511
8512
8513
8514
8515
8516
8517
8518
8519
8520
8521
8522
8523
8524
8525
8526
8527
8528
8529
8530
8531
8532
8533
8534
8535
8536
8537
8538
8539
8540
8541
8542
8543
8544
8545
8546
8547
8548
8549
8550
8551
8552
8553
8554
8555
8556
8557
8558
8559
8560
8561
8562
8563
8564
8565
8566
8567
8568
8569
8570
8571
8572
8573
8574
8575
8576
8577
8578
8579
8580
8581
8582
8583
8584
8585
8586
8587
8588
8589
8590
8591
8592
8593
8594
8595
8596
8597
8598
8599
8600
8601
8602
8603
8604
8605
8606
8607
8608
8609
8610
8611
8612
8613
8614
8615
8616
8617
8618
8619
8620
8621
8622
8623
8624
8625
8626
8627
8628
8629
8630
8631
8632
8633
8634
8635
8636
8637
8638
8639
8640
8641
8642
8643
8644
8645
8646
8647
8648
8649
8650
8651
8652
8653
8654
8655
8656
8657
8658
8659
8660
8661
8662
8663
8664
8665
8666
8667
8668
8669
8670
8671
8672
8673
8674
8675
8676
8677
8678
8679
8680
8681
8682
8683
8684
8685
8686
8687
8688
8689
8690
8691
8692
8693
8694
8695
8696
8697
8698
8699
8700
8701
8702
8703
8704
8705
8706
8707
8708
8709
8710
8711
8712
8713
8714
8715
8716
8717
8718
8719
8720
8721
8722
8723
8724
8725
8726
8727
8728
8729
8730
8731
8732
8733
8734
8735
8736
8737
8738
8739
8740
8741
8742
8743
8744
8745
8746
8747
8748
8749
8750
8751
8752
8753
8754
8755
8756
8757
8758
8759
8760
8761
8762
8763
8764
8765
8766
8767
8768
8769
8770
8771
8772
8773
8774
8775
8776
8777
8778
8779
8780
8781
8782
8783
8784
8785
8786
8787
8788
8789
8790
8791
8792
8793
8794
8795
8796
8797
8798
8799
8800
8801
8802
8803
8804
8805
8806
8807
8808
8809
8810
8811
8812
8813
8814
8815
8816
8817
8818
8819
8820
8821
8822
8823
8824
8825
8826
8827
8828
8829
8830
8831
8832
8833
8834
8835
8836
8837
8838
8839
8840
8841
8842
8843
8844
8845
8846
8847
8848
8849
8850
8851
8852
8853
8854
8855
8856
8857
8858
8859
8860
8861
8862
8863
8864
8865
8866
8867
8868
8869
8870
8871
8872
8873
8874
8875
8876
8877
8878
8879
8880
8881
8882
8883
8884
8885
8886
8887
8888
8889
8890
8891
8892
8893
8894
8895
8896
8897
8898
8899
8900
8901
8902
8903
8904
8905
8906
8907
8908
8909
8910
8911
8912
8913
8914
8915
8916
8917
8918
8919
8920
8921
8922
8923
8924
8925
8926
8927
8928
8929
8930
8931
8932
8933
8934
8935
8936
8937
8938
8939
8940
8941
8942
8943
8944
8945
8946
8947
8948
8949
8950
8951
8952
8953
8954
8955
8956
8957
8958
8959
8960
8961
8962
8963
8964
8965
8966
8967
8968
8969
8970
8971
8972
8973
8974
8975
8976
8977
8978
8979
8980
8981
8982
8983
8984
8985
8986
8987
8988
8989
8990
8991
8992
8993
8994
8995
8996
8997
8998
8999
9000
9001
9002
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016
9017
9018
9019
9020
9021
9022
9023
9024
9025
9026
9027
9028
9029
9030
9031
9032
9033
9034
9035
9036
9037
9038
9039
9040
9041
9042
9043
9044
9045
9046
9047
9048
9049
9050
9051
9052
9053
9054
9055
9056
9057
9058
9059
9060
9061
9062
9063
9064
9065
9066
9067
9068
9069
9070
9071
9072
9073
9074
9075
9076
9077
9078
9079
9080
9081
9082
9083
9084
9085
9086
9087
9088
9089
9090
9091
9092
9093
9094
9095
9096
9097
9098
9099
9100
9101
9102
9103
9104
9105
9106
9107
9108
9109
9110
9111
9112
9113
9114
9115
9116
9117
9118
9119
9120
9121
9122
9123
9124
9125
9126
9127
9128
9129
9130
9131
9132
9133
9134
9135
9136
9137
9138
9139
9140
9141
9142
9143
9144
9145
9146
9147
9148
9149
9150
9151
9152
9153
9154
9155
9156
9157
9158
9159
9160
9161
9162
9163
9164
9165
9166
9167
9168
9169
9170
9171
9172
9173
9174
9175
9176
9177
9178
9179
9180
9181
9182
9183
9184
9185
9186
9187
9188
9189
9190
9191
9192
9193
9194
9195
9196
9197
9198
9199
9200
9201
9202
9203
9204
9205
9206
9207
9208
9209
9210
9211
9212
9213
9214
9215
9216
9217
9218
9219
9220
9221
9222
9223
9224
9225
9226
9227
9228
9229
9230
9231
9232
9233
9234
9235
9236
9237
9238
9239
9240
9241
9242
9243
9244
9245
9246
9247
9248
9249
9250
9251
9252
9253
9254
9255
9256
9257
9258
9259
9260
9261
9262
9263
9264
9265
9266
9267
9268
9269
9270
9271
9272
9273
9274
9275
9276
9277
9278
9279
9280
9281
9282
9283
9284
9285
9286
9287
9288
9289
9290
9291
9292
9293
9294
9295
9296
9297
9298
9299
9300
9301
9302
9303
9304
9305
9306
9307
9308
9309
9310
9311
9312
9313
9314
9315
9316
9317
9318
9319
9320
9321
9322
9323
9324
9325
9326
9327
9328
9329
9330
9331
9332
9333
9334
9335
9336
9337
9338
9339
9340
9341
9342
9343
9344
9345
9346
9347
9348
9349
9350
9351
9352
9353
9354
9355
9356
9357
9358
9359
9360
9361
9362
9363
9364
9365
9366
9367
9368
9369
9370
9371
9372
9373
9374
9375
9376
9377
9378
9379
9380
9381
9382
9383
9384
9385
9386
9387
9388
9389
9390
9391
9392
9393
9394
9395
9396
9397
9398
9399
9400
9401
9402
9403
9404
9405
9406
9407
9408
9409
9410
9411
9412
9413
9414
9415
9416
9417
9418
9419
9420
9421
9422
9423
9424
9425
9426
9427
9428
9429
9430
9431
9432
9433
9434
9435
9436
9437
9438
9439
9440
9441
9442
9443
9444
9445
9446
9447
9448
9449
9450
9451
9452
9453
9454
9455
9456
9457
9458
9459
9460
9461
9462
9463
9464
9465
9466
9467
9468
9469
9470
9471
9472
9473
9474
9475
9476
9477
9478
9479
9480
9481
9482
9483
9484
9485
9486
9487
9488
9489
9490
9491
9492
9493
9494
9495
9496
9497
9498
9499
9500
9501
9502
9503
9504
9505
9506
9507
9508
9509
9510
9511
9512
9513
9514
9515
9516
9517
9518
9519
9520
9521
9522
9523
9524
9525
9526
9527
9528
9529
9530
9531
9532
9533
9534
9535
9536
9537
9538
9539
9540
9541
9542
9543
9544
9545
9546
9547
9548
9549
9550
9551
9552
9553
9554
9555
9556
9557
9558
9559
9560
9561
9562
9563
9564
9565
9566
9567
9568
9569
9570
9571
9572
9573
9574
9575
9576
9577
9578
9579
9580
9581
9582
9583
9584
9585
9586
9587
9588
9589
9590
9591
9592
9593
9594
9595
9596
9597
9598
9599
9600
9601
9602
9603
9604
9605
9606
9607
9608
9609
9610
9611
9612
9613
9614
9615
9616
9617
9618
9619
9620
9621
9622
9623
9624
9625
9626
9627
9628
9629
9630
9631
9632
9633
9634
9635
9636
9637
9638
9639
9640
9641
9642
9643
9644
9645
9646
9647
9648
9649
9650
9651
9652
9653
9654
9655
9656
9657
9658
9659
9660
9661
9662
9663
9664
9665
9666
9667
9668
9669
9670
9671
9672
9673
9674
9675
9676
9677
9678
9679
9680
9681
9682
9683
9684
9685
9686
9687
9688
9689
9690
9691
9692
9693
9694
9695
9696
9697
9698
9699
9700
9701
9702
9703
9704
9705
9706
9707
9708
9709
9710
9711
9712
9713
9714
9715
9716
9717
9718
9719
9720
9721
9722
9723
9724
9725
9726
9727
9728
9729
9730
9731
9732
9733
9734
9735
9736
9737
9738
9739
9740
9741
9742
9743
9744
9745
9746
9747
9748
9749
9750
9751
9752
9753
9754
9755
9756
9757
9758
9759
9760
9761
9762
9763
9764
9765
9766
9767
9768
9769
9770
9771
9772
9773
9774
9775
9776
9777
9778
9779
9780
9781
9782
9783
9784
9785
9786
9787
9788
9789
9790
9791
9792
9793
9794
9795
9796
9797
9798
9799
9800
9801
9802
9803
9804
9805
9806
9807
9808
9809
9810
9811
9812
9813
9814
9815
9816
9817
9818
9819
9820
9821
9822
9823
9824
9825
9826
9827
9828
9829
9830
9831
9832
9833
9834
9835
9836
9837
9838
9839
9840
9841
9842
9843
9844
9845
9846
9847
9848
9849
9850
9851
9852
9853
9854
9855
9856
9857
9858
9859
9860
9861
9862
9863
9864
9865
9866
9867
9868
9869
9870
9871
9872
9873
9874
9875
9876
9877
9878
9879
9880
9881
9882
9883
9884
9885
9886
9887
9888
9889
9890
9891
9892
9893
9894
9895
9896
9897
9898
9899
9900
9901
9902
9903
9904
9905
9906
9907
9908
9909
9910
9911
9912
9913
9914
9915
9916
9917
9918
9919
9920
9921
9922
9923
9924
9925
9926
9927
9928
9929
9930
9931
9932
9933
9934
9935
9936
9937
9938
9939
9940
9941
9942
9943
9944
9945
9946
9947
9948
9949
9950
9951
9952
9953
9954
9955
9956
9957
9958
9959
9960
9961
9962
9963
9964
9965
9966
9967
9968
9969
9970
9971
9972
9973
9974
9975
9976
9977
9978
9979
9980
9981
9982
9983
9984
9985
9986
9987
9988
9989
9990
9991
9992
9993
9994
9995
9996
9997
9998
9999
10000
10001
10002
10003
10004
10005
10006
10007
10008
10009
10010
10011
10012
10013
10014
10015
10016
10017
10018
10019
10020
10021
10022
10023
10024
10025
10026
10027
10028
10029
10030
10031
10032
10033
10034
10035
10036
10037
10038
10039
10040
10041
10042
10043
10044
10045
10046
10047
10048
10049
10050
10051
10052
10053
10054
10055
10056
10057
10058
10059
10060
10061
10062
10063
10064
10065
10066
10067
10068
10069
10070
10071
10072
10073
10074
10075
10076
10077
10078
10079
10080
10081
10082
10083
10084
10085
10086
10087
10088
10089
10090
10091
10092
10093
10094
10095
10096
10097
10098
10099
10100
10101
10102
10103
10104
10105
10106
10107
10108
10109
10110
10111
10112
10113
10114
10115
10116
10117
10118
10119
10120
10121
10122
10123
10124
10125
10126
10127
10128
10129
10130
10131
10132
10133
10134
10135
10136
10137
10138
10139
10140
10141
10142
10143
10144
10145
10146
10147
10148
10149
10150
10151
10152
10153
10154
10155
10156
10157
10158
10159
10160
10161
10162
10163
10164
10165
10166
10167
10168
10169
10170
10171
10172
10173
10174
10175
10176
10177
10178
10179
10180
10181
10182
10183
10184
10185
10186
10187
10188
10189
10190
10191
10192
10193
10194
10195
10196
10197
10198
10199
10200
10201
10202
10203
10204
10205
10206
10207
10208
10209
10210
10211
10212
10213
10214
10215
10216
10217
10218
10219
10220
10221
10222
10223
10224
10225
10226
10227
10228
10229
10230
10231
10232
10233
10234
10235
10236
10237
10238
10239
10240
10241
10242
10243
10244
10245
10246
10247
10248
10249
10250
10251
10252
10253
10254
10255
10256
10257
10258
10259
10260
10261
10262
10263
10264
10265
10266
10267
10268
10269
10270
10271
10272
10273
10274
10275
10276
10277
10278
10279
10280
10281
10282
10283
10284
10285
10286
10287
10288
10289
10290
10291
10292
10293
10294
10295
10296
10297
10298
10299
10300
10301
10302
10303
10304
10305
10306
10307
10308
10309
10310
10311
10312
10313
10314
10315
10316
10317
10318
10319
10320
10321
10322
10323
10324
10325
10326
10327
10328
10329
10330
10331
10332
10333
10334
10335
10336
10337
10338
10339
10340
10341
10342
10343
10344
10345
10346
10347
10348
10349
10350
10351
10352
10353
10354
10355
10356
10357
10358
10359
10360
10361
10362
10363
10364
10365
10366
10367
10368
10369
10370
10371
10372
10373
10374
10375
10376
10377
10378
10379
10380
10381
10382
10383
10384
10385
10386
10387
10388
10389
10390
10391
10392
10393
10394
10395
10396
10397
10398
10399
10400
10401
10402
10403
10404
10405
10406
10407
10408
10409
10410
10411
10412
10413
10414
10415
10416
10417
10418
10419
10420
10421
10422
10423
10424
10425
10426
10427
10428
10429
10430
10431
10432
10433
10434
10435
10436
10437
10438
10439
10440
10441
10442
10443
10444
10445
10446
10447
10448
10449
10450
10451
10452
10453
10454
10455
10456
10457
10458
10459
10460
10461
10462
10463
10464
10465
10466
10467
10468
10469
10470
10471
10472
10473
10474
10475
10476
10477
10478
10479
10480
10481
10482
10483
10484
10485
10486
10487
10488
10489
10490
10491
10492
10493
10494
10495
10496
10497
10498
10499
10500
10501
10502
10503
10504
10505
10506
10507
10508
10509
10510
10511
10512
10513
10514
10515
10516
10517
10518
10519
10520
10521
10522
10523
10524
10525
10526
10527
10528
10529
10530
10531
10532
10533
10534
10535
10536
10537
10538
10539
10540
10541
10542
10543
10544
10545
10546
10547
10548
10549
10550
10551
10552
10553
10554
10555
10556
10557
10558
10559
10560
10561
10562
10563
10564
10565
10566
10567
10568
10569
10570
10571
10572
10573
10574
10575
10576
10577
10578
10579
10580
10581
10582
10583
10584
10585
10586
10587
10588
10589
10590
10591
10592
10593
10594
10595
10596
10597
10598
10599
10600
10601
10602
10603
10604
10605
10606
10607
10608
10609
10610
10611
10612
10613
10614
10615
10616
10617
10618
10619
10620
10621
10622
10623
10624
10625
10626
10627
10628
10629
10630
10631
10632
10633
10634
10635
10636
10637
10638
10639
10640
10641
10642
10643
10644
10645
10646
10647
10648
10649
10650
10651
10652
10653
10654
10655
10656
10657
10658
10659
10660
10661
10662
10663
10664
10665
10666
10667
10668
10669
10670
10671
10672
10673
10674
10675
10676
10677
10678
10679
10680
10681
10682
10683
10684
10685
10686
10687
10688
10689
10690
10691
10692
10693
10694
10695
10696
10697
10698
10699
10700
10701
10702
10703
10704
10705
10706
10707
10708
10709
10710
10711
10712
10713
10714
10715
10716
10717
10718
10719
10720
10721
10722
10723
10724
10725
10726
10727
10728
10729
10730
10731
10732
10733
10734
10735
10736
10737
10738
10739
10740
10741
10742
10743
10744
10745
10746
10747
10748
10749
10750
10751
10752
10753
10754
10755
10756
10757
10758
10759
10760
10761
10762
10763
10764
10765
10766
10767
10768
10769
10770
10771
10772
10773
10774
10775
10776
10777
10778
10779
10780
10781
10782
10783
10784
10785
10786
10787
10788
10789
10790
10791
10792
10793
10794
10795
10796
10797
10798
10799
10800
10801
10802
10803
10804
10805
10806
10807
10808
10809
10810
10811
10812
10813
10814
10815
10816
10817
10818
10819
10820
10821
10822
10823
10824
10825
10826
10827
10828
10829
10830
10831
10832
10833
10834
10835
10836
10837
10838
10839
10840
10841
10842
10843
10844
10845
10846
10847
10848
10849
10850
10851
10852
10853
10854
10855
10856
10857
10858
10859
10860
10861
10862
10863
10864
10865
10866
10867
10868
10869
10870
10871
10872
10873
10874
10875
10876
10877
10878
10879
10880
10881
10882
10883
10884
10885
10886
10887
10888
10889
10890
10891
10892
10893
10894
10895
10896
10897
10898
10899
10900
10901
10902
10903
10904
10905
10906
10907
10908
10909
10910
10911
10912
10913
10914
10915
10916
10917
10918
10919
10920
10921
10922
10923
10924
10925
10926
10927
10928
10929
10930
10931
10932
10933
10934
10935
10936
10937
10938
10939
10940
10941
10942
10943
10944
10945
10946
10947
10948
10949
10950
10951
10952
10953
10954
10955
10956
10957
10958
10959
10960
10961
10962
10963
10964
10965
10966
10967
10968
10969
10970
10971
10972
10973
10974
10975
10976
10977
10978
10979
10980
10981
10982
10983
10984
10985
10986
10987
10988
10989
10990
10991
10992
10993
10994
10995
10996
10997
10998
10999
11000
11001
11002
11003
11004
11005
11006
11007
11008
11009
11010
11011
11012
11013
11014
11015
11016
11017
11018
11019
11020
11021
11022
11023
11024
11025
11026
11027
11028
11029
11030
11031
11032
11033
11034
11035
11036
11037
11038
11039
11040
11041
11042
11043
11044
11045
11046
11047
11048
11049
11050
11051
11052
11053
11054
11055
11056
11057
11058
11059
11060
11061
11062
11063
11064
11065
11066
11067
11068
11069
11070
11071
11072
11073
11074
11075
11076
11077
11078
11079
11080
11081
11082
11083
11084
11085
11086
11087
11088
11089
11090
11091
11092
11093
11094
11095
11096
11097
11098
11099
11100
11101
11102
11103
11104
11105
11106
11107
11108
11109
11110
11111
11112
11113
11114
11115
11116
11117
11118
11119
11120
11121
11122
11123
11124
11125
11126
11127
11128
11129
11130
11131
11132
11133
11134
11135
11136
11137
11138
11139
11140
11141
11142
11143
11144
11145
11146
11147
11148
11149
11150
11151
11152
11153
11154
11155
11156
11157
11158
11159
11160
11161
11162
11163
11164
11165
11166
11167
11168
11169
11170
11171
11172
11173
11174
11175
11176
11177
11178
11179
11180
11181
11182
11183
11184
11185
11186
11187
11188
11189
11190
11191
11192
11193
11194
11195
11196
11197
11198
11199
11200
11201
11202
11203
11204
11205
11206
11207
11208
11209
11210
11211
11212
11213
11214
11215
11216
11217
11218
11219
11220
11221
11222
11223
11224
11225
11226
11227
11228
11229
11230
11231
11232
11233
11234
11235
11236
11237
11238
11239
11240
11241
11242
11243
11244
11245
11246
11247
11248
11249
11250
11251
11252
11253
11254
11255
11256
11257
11258
11259
11260
11261
11262
11263
11264
11265
11266
11267
11268
11269
11270
11271
11272
11273
11274
11275
11276
11277
11278
11279
11280
11281
11282
11283
11284
11285
11286
11287
11288
11289
11290
11291
11292
11293
11294
11295
11296
11297
11298
11299
11300
11301
11302
11303
11304
11305
11306
11307
11308
11309
11310
11311
11312
11313
11314
11315
11316
11317
11318
11319
11320
11321
11322
11323
11324
11325
11326
11327
11328
11329
11330
11331
11332
11333
11334
11335
11336
11337
11338
11339
11340
11341
11342
11343
11344
11345
11346
11347
11348
11349
11350
11351
11352
11353
11354
11355
11356
11357
11358
11359
11360
11361
11362
11363
11364
11365
11366
11367
11368
11369
11370
11371
11372
11373
11374
11375
11376
11377
11378
11379
11380
11381
11382
11383
11384
11385
11386
11387
11388
11389
11390
11391
11392
11393
11394
11395
11396
11397
11398
11399
11400
11401
11402
11403
11404
11405
11406
11407
11408
11409
11410
11411
11412
11413
11414
11415
11416
11417
11418
11419
11420
11421
11422
11423
11424
11425
11426
11427
11428
11429
11430
11431
11432
11433
11434
11435
11436
11437
11438
11439
11440
11441
11442
11443
11444
11445
11446
11447
11448
11449
11450
11451
11452
11453
11454
11455
11456
11457
11458
11459
11460
11461
11462
11463
11464
11465
11466
11467
11468
11469
11470
11471
11472
11473
11474
11475
11476
11477
11478
11479
11480
11481
11482
11483
11484
11485
11486
11487
11488
11489
11490
11491
11492
11493
11494
11495
11496
11497
11498
11499
11500
11501
11502
11503
11504
11505
11506
11507
11508
11509
11510
11511
11512
11513
11514
11515
11516
11517
11518
11519
11520
11521
11522
11523
11524
11525
11526
11527
11528
11529
11530
11531
11532
11533
11534
11535
11536
11537
11538
11539
11540
11541
11542
11543
11544
11545
11546
11547
11548
11549
11550
11551
11552
11553
11554
11555
11556
11557
11558
11559
11560
11561
11562
11563
11564
11565
11566
11567
11568
11569
11570
11571
11572
11573
11574
11575
11576
11577
11578
11579
11580
11581
11582
11583
11584
11585
11586
11587
11588
11589
11590
11591
11592
11593
11594
11595
11596
11597
11598
11599
11600
11601
11602
11603
11604
11605
11606
11607
11608
11609
11610
11611
11612
11613
11614
11615
11616
11617
11618
11619
11620
11621
11622
11623
11624
11625
11626
11627
11628
11629
11630
11631
11632
11633
11634
11635
11636
11637
11638
11639
11640
11641
11642
11643
11644
11645
11646
11647
11648
11649
11650
11651
11652
11653
11654
11655
11656
11657
11658
11659
11660
11661
11662
11663
11664
11665
11666
11667
11668
11669
11670
11671
11672
11673
11674
11675
11676
11677
11678
11679
11680
11681
11682
11683
11684
11685
11686
11687
11688
11689
11690
11691
11692
11693
11694
11695
11696
11697
11698
11699
11700
11701
11702
11703
11704
11705
11706
11707
11708
11709
11710
11711
11712
11713
11714
11715
11716
11717
11718
11719
11720
11721
11722
11723
11724
11725
11726
11727
11728
11729
11730
11731
11732
11733
11734
11735
11736
11737
11738
11739
11740
11741
11742
11743
11744
11745
11746
11747
11748
11749
11750
11751
11752
11753
11754
11755
11756
11757
11758
11759
11760
11761
11762
11763
11764
11765
11766
11767
11768
11769
11770
11771
11772
11773
11774
11775
11776
11777
11778
11779
11780
11781
11782
11783
11784
11785
11786
11787
11788
11789
11790
11791
11792
11793
11794
11795
11796
11797
11798
11799
11800
11801
11802
11803
11804
11805
11806
11807
11808
11809
11810
11811
11812
11813
11814
11815
11816
11817
11818
11819
11820
11821
11822
11823
11824
11825
11826
11827
11828
11829
11830
11831
11832
11833
11834
11835
11836
11837
11838
11839
11840
11841
11842
11843
11844
11845
11846
11847
11848
11849
11850
11851
11852
11853
11854
11855
11856
11857
11858
11859
11860
11861
11862
11863
11864
11865
11866
11867
11868
11869
11870
11871
11872
11873
11874
11875
11876
11877
11878
11879
11880
11881
11882
11883
11884
11885
11886
11887
11888
11889
11890
11891
11892
11893
11894
11895
11896
11897
11898
11899
11900
11901
11902
11903
11904
11905
11906
11907
11908
11909
11910
11911
11912
11913
11914
11915
11916
11917
11918
11919
11920
11921
11922
11923
11924
11925
11926
11927
11928
11929
11930
11931
11932
11933
11934
11935
11936
11937
11938
11939
11940
11941
11942
11943
11944
11945
11946
11947
11948
11949
11950
11951
11952
11953
11954
11955
11956
11957
11958
11959
11960
11961
11962
11963
11964
11965
11966
11967
11968
11969
11970
11971
11972
11973
11974
11975
11976
11977
11978
11979
11980
11981
11982
11983
11984
11985
11986
11987
11988
11989
11990
11991
11992
11993
11994
11995
11996
11997
11998
11999
12000
12001
12002
12003
12004
12005
12006
12007
12008
12009
12010
12011
12012
12013
12014
12015
12016
12017
12018
12019
12020
12021
12022
12023
12024
12025
12026
12027
12028
12029
12030
12031
12032
12033
12034
12035
12036
12037
12038
12039
12040
12041
12042
12043
12044
12045
12046
12047
12048
12049
12050
12051
12052
12053
12054
12055
12056
12057
12058
12059
12060
12061
12062
12063
12064
12065
12066
12067
12068
12069
12070
12071
12072
12073
12074
12075
12076
12077
12078
12079
12080
12081
12082
12083
12084
12085
12086
12087
12088
12089
12090
12091
12092
12093
12094
12095
12096
12097
12098
12099
12100
12101
12102
12103
12104
12105
12106
12107
12108
12109
12110
12111
12112
12113
12114
12115
12116
12117
12118
12119
12120
12121
12122
12123
12124
12125
12126
12127
12128
12129
12130
12131
12132
12133
12134
12135
12136
12137
12138
12139
12140
12141
12142
12143
12144
12145
12146
12147
12148
12149
12150
12151
12152
12153
12154
12155
12156
12157
12158
12159
12160
12161
12162
12163
12164
12165
12166
12167
12168
12169
12170
12171
12172
12173
12174
12175
12176
12177
12178
12179
12180
12181
12182
12183
12184
12185
12186
12187
12188
12189
12190
12191
12192
12193
12194
12195
12196
12197
12198
12199
12200
12201
12202
12203
12204
12205
12206
12207
12208
12209
12210
12211
12212
12213
12214
12215
12216
12217
12218
12219
12220
12221
12222
12223
12224
12225
12226
12227
12228
12229
12230
12231
12232
12233
12234
12235
12236
12237
12238
12239
12240
12241
12242
12243
12244
12245
12246
12247
12248
12249
12250
12251
12252
12253
12254
12255
12256
12257
12258
12259
12260
12261
12262
12263
12264
12265
12266
12267
12268
12269
12270
12271
12272
12273
12274
12275
12276
12277
12278
12279
12280
12281
12282
12283
12284
12285
12286
12287
12288
12289
12290
12291
12292
12293
12294
12295
12296
12297
12298
12299
12300
12301
12302
12303
12304
12305
12306
12307
12308
12309
12310
12311
12312
12313
12314
12315
12316
12317
12318
12319
12320
12321
12322
12323
12324
12325
12326
12327
12328
12329
12330
12331
12332
12333
12334
12335
12336
12337
12338
12339
12340
12341
12342
12343
12344
12345
12346
12347
12348
12349
12350
12351
12352
12353
12354
12355
12356
12357
12358
12359
12360
12361
12362
12363
12364
12365
12366
12367
12368
12369
12370
12371
12372
12373
12374
12375
12376
12377
12378
12379
12380
12381
12382
12383
12384
12385
12386
12387
12388
12389
12390
12391
12392
12393
12394
12395
12396
12397
12398
12399
12400
12401
12402
12403
12404
12405
12406
12407
12408
12409
12410
12411
12412
12413
12414
12415
12416
12417
12418
12419
12420
12421
12422
12423
12424
12425
12426
12427
12428
12429
12430
12431
12432
12433
12434
12435
12436
12437
12438
12439
12440
12441
12442
12443
12444
12445
12446
12447
12448
12449
12450
12451
12452
12453
12454
12455
12456
12457
12458
12459
12460
12461
12462
12463
12464
12465
12466
12467
12468
12469
12470
12471
12472
12473
12474
12475
12476
12477
12478
12479
12480
12481
12482
12483
12484
12485
12486
12487
12488
12489
12490
12491
12492
12493
12494
12495
12496
12497
12498
12499
12500
12501
12502
12503
12504
12505
12506
12507
12508
12509
12510
12511
12512
12513
12514
12515
12516
12517
12518
12519
12520
12521
12522
12523
12524
12525
12526
12527
12528
12529
12530
12531
12532
12533
12534
12535
12536
12537
12538
12539
12540
12541
12542
12543
12544
12545
12546
12547
12548
12549
12550
12551
12552
12553
12554
12555
12556
12557
12558
12559
12560
12561
12562
12563
12564
12565
12566
12567
12568
12569
12570
12571
12572
12573
12574
12575
12576
12577
12578
12579
12580
12581
12582
12583
12584
12585
12586
12587
12588
12589
12590
12591
12592
12593
12594
12595
12596
12597
12598
12599
12600
12601
12602
12603
12604
12605
12606
12607
12608
12609
12610
12611
12612
12613
12614
12615
12616
12617
12618
12619
12620
12621
12622
12623
12624
12625
12626
12627
12628
12629
12630
12631
12632
12633
12634
12635
12636
12637
12638
12639
12640
12641
12642
12643
12644
12645
12646
12647
12648
12649
12650
12651
12652
12653
12654
12655
12656
12657
12658
12659
12660
12661
12662
12663
12664
12665
12666
12667
12668
12669
12670
12671
12672
12673
12674
12675
12676
12677
12678
12679
12680
12681
12682
12683
12684
12685
12686
12687
12688
12689
12690
12691
12692
12693
12694
12695
12696
12697
12698
12699
12700
12701
12702
12703
12704
12705
12706
12707
12708
12709
12710
12711
12712
12713
12714
12715
12716
12717
12718
12719
12720
12721
12722
12723
12724
12725
12726
12727
12728
12729
12730
12731
12732
12733
12734
12735
12736
12737
12738
12739
12740
12741
12742
12743
12744
12745
12746
12747
12748
12749
12750
12751
12752
12753
12754
12755
12756
12757
12758
12759
12760
12761
12762
12763
12764
12765
12766
12767
12768
12769
12770
12771
12772
12773
12774
12775
12776
12777
12778
12779
12780
12781
12782
12783
12784
12785
12786
12787
12788
12789
12790
12791
12792
12793
12794
12795
12796
12797
12798
12799
12800
12801
12802
12803
12804
12805
12806
12807
12808
12809
12810
12811
12812
12813
12814
12815
12816
12817
12818
12819
12820
12821
12822
12823
12824
12825
12826
12827
12828
12829
12830
12831
12832
12833
12834
12835
12836
12837
12838
12839
12840
12841
12842
12843
12844
12845
12846
12847
12848
12849
12850
12851
12852
12853
12854
12855
12856
12857
12858
12859
12860
12861
12862
12863
12864
12865
12866
12867
12868
12869
12870
12871
12872
12873
12874
12875
12876
12877
12878
12879
12880
12881
12882
12883
12884
12885
12886
12887
12888
12889
12890
12891
12892
12893
12894
12895
12896
12897
12898
12899
12900
12901
12902
12903
12904
12905
12906
12907
12908
12909
12910
12911
12912
12913
12914
12915
12916
12917
12918
12919
12920
12921
12922
12923
12924
12925
12926
12927
12928
12929
12930
12931
12932
12933
12934
12935
12936
12937
12938
12939
12940
12941
12942
12943
12944
12945
12946
12947
12948
12949
12950
12951
12952
12953
12954
12955
12956
12957
12958
12959
12960
12961
12962
12963
12964
12965
12966
12967
12968
12969
12970
12971
12972
12973
12974
12975
12976
12977
12978
12979
12980
12981
12982
12983
12984
12985
12986
12987
12988
12989
12990
12991
12992
12993
12994
12995
12996
12997
12998
12999
13000
13001
13002
13003
13004
13005
13006
13007
13008
13009
13010
13011
13012
13013
13014
13015
13016
13017
13018
13019
13020
13021
13022
13023
13024
13025
13026
13027
13028
13029
13030
13031
13032
13033
13034
13035
13036
13037
13038
13039
13040
13041
13042
13043
13044
13045
13046
13047
13048
13049
13050
13051
13052
13053
13054
13055
13056
13057
13058
13059
13060
13061
13062
13063
13064
13065
13066
13067
13068
13069
13070
13071
13072
13073
13074
13075
13076
13077
13078
13079
13080
13081
13082
13083
13084
13085
13086
13087
13088
13089
13090
13091
13092
13093
13094
13095
13096
13097
13098
13099
13100
13101
13102
13103
13104
13105
13106
13107
13108
13109
13110
13111
13112
13113
13114
13115
13116
13117
13118
13119
13120
13121
13122
13123
13124
13125
13126
13127
13128
13129
13130
13131
13132
13133
13134
13135
13136
13137
13138
13139
13140
13141
13142
13143
13144
13145
13146
13147
13148
13149
13150
13151
13152
13153
13154
13155
13156
13157
13158
13159
13160
13161
13162
13163
13164
13165
13166
13167
13168
13169
13170
13171
13172
13173
13174
13175
13176
13177
13178
13179
13180
13181
13182
13183
13184
13185
13186
13187
13188
13189
13190
13191
13192
13193
13194
13195
13196
13197
13198
13199
13200
13201
13202
13203
13204
13205
13206
13207
13208
13209
13210
13211
13212
13213
13214
13215
13216
13217
13218
13219
13220
13221
13222
13223
13224
13225
13226
13227
13228
13229
13230
13231
13232
13233
13234
13235
13236
13237
13238
13239
13240
13241
13242
13243
13244
13245
13246
13247
13248
13249
13250
13251
13252
13253
13254
13255
13256
13257
13258
13259
13260
13261
13262
13263
13264
13265
13266
13267
13268
13269
13270
13271
13272
13273
13274
13275
13276
13277
13278
13279
13280
13281
13282
13283
13284
13285
13286
13287
13288
13289
13290
13291
13292
13293
13294
13295
13296
13297
13298
13299
13300
13301
13302
13303
13304
13305
13306
13307
13308
13309
13310
13311
13312
13313
13314
13315
13316
13317
13318
13319
13320
13321
13322
13323
13324
13325
13326
13327
13328
13329
13330
13331
13332
13333
13334
13335
13336
13337
13338
13339
13340
13341
13342
13343
13344
13345
13346
13347
13348
13349
13350
13351
13352
13353
13354
13355
13356
13357
13358
13359
13360
13361
13362
13363
13364
13365
13366
13367
13368
13369
13370
13371
13372
13373
13374
13375
13376
13377
13378
13379
13380
13381
13382
13383
13384
13385
13386
13387
13388
13389
13390
13391
13392
13393
13394
13395
13396
13397
13398
13399
13400
13401
13402
13403
13404
13405
13406
13407
13408
13409
13410
13411
13412
13413
13414
13415
13416
13417
13418
13419
13420
13421
13422
13423
13424
13425
13426
13427
13428
13429
13430
13431
13432
13433
13434
13435
13436
13437
13438
13439
13440
13441
13442
13443
13444
13445
13446
13447
13448
13449
13450
13451
13452
13453
13454
13455
13456
13457
13458
13459
13460
13461
13462
13463
13464
13465
13466
13467
13468
13469
13470
13471
13472
13473
13474
13475
13476
13477
13478
13479
13480
13481
13482
13483
13484
13485
13486
13487
13488
13489
13490
13491
13492
13493
13494
13495
13496
13497
13498
13499
13500
13501
13502
13503
13504
13505
13506
13507
13508
13509
13510
13511
13512
13513
13514
13515
13516
13517
13518
13519
13520
13521
13522
13523
13524
13525
13526
13527
13528
13529
13530
13531
13532
13533
13534
13535
13536
13537
13538
13539
13540
13541
13542
13543
13544
13545
13546
13547
13548
13549
13550
13551
13552
13553
13554
13555
13556
13557
13558
13559
13560
13561
13562
13563
13564
13565
13566
13567
13568
13569
13570
13571
13572
13573
13574
13575
13576
13577
13578
13579
13580
13581
13582
13583
13584
13585
13586
13587
13588
13589
13590
13591
13592
13593
13594
13595
13596
13597
13598
13599
13600
13601
13602
13603
13604
13605
13606
13607
13608
13609
13610
13611
13612
13613
13614
13615
13616
13617
13618
13619
13620
13621
13622
13623
13624
13625
13626
13627
13628
13629
13630
13631
13632
13633
13634
13635
13636
13637
13638
13639
13640
13641
13642
13643
13644
13645
13646
13647
13648
13649
13650
13651
13652
13653
13654
13655
13656
13657
13658
13659
13660
13661
13662
13663
13664
13665
13666
13667
13668
13669
13670
13671
13672
13673
13674
13675
13676
13677
13678
13679
13680
13681
13682
13683
13684
13685
13686
13687
13688
13689
13690
13691
13692
13693
13694
13695
13696
13697
13698
13699
13700
13701
13702
13703
13704
13705
13706
13707
13708
13709
13710
13711
13712
13713
13714
13715
13716
13717
13718
13719
13720
13721
13722
13723
13724
13725
13726
13727
13728
13729
13730
13731
13732
13733
13734
13735
13736
13737
13738
13739
13740
13741
13742
13743
13744
13745
13746
13747
13748
13749
13750
13751
13752
13753
13754
13755
13756
13757
13758
13759
13760
13761
13762
13763
13764
13765
13766
13767
13768
13769
13770
13771
13772
13773
13774
13775
13776
13777
13778
13779
13780
13781
13782
13783
13784
13785
13786
13787
13788
13789
13790
13791
13792
13793
13794
13795
13796
13797
13798
13799
13800
13801
13802
13803
13804
13805
13806
13807
13808
13809
13810
13811
13812
13813
13814
13815
13816
13817
13818
13819
13820
13821
13822
13823
13824
13825
13826
13827
13828
13829
13830
13831
13832
13833
13834
13835
13836
13837
13838
13839
13840
13841
13842
13843
13844
13845
13846
13847
13848
13849
13850
13851
13852
13853
13854
13855
13856
13857
13858
13859
13860
13861
13862
13863
13864
13865
13866
13867
13868
13869
13870
13871
13872
13873
13874
13875
13876
13877
13878
13879
13880
13881
13882
13883
13884
13885
13886
13887
13888
13889
13890
13891
13892
13893
13894
13895
13896
13897
13898
13899
13900
13901
13902
13903
13904
13905
13906
13907
13908
13909
13910
13911
13912
13913
13914
13915
13916
13917
13918
13919
13920
13921
13922
13923
13924
13925
13926
13927
13928
13929
13930
13931
13932
13933
13934
13935
13936
13937
13938
13939
13940
13941
13942
13943
13944
13945
13946
13947
13948
13949
13950
13951
13952
13953
13954
13955
13956
13957
13958
13959
13960
13961
13962
13963
13964
13965
13966
13967
13968
13969
13970
13971
13972
13973
13974
13975
13976
13977
13978
13979
13980
13981
13982
13983
13984
13985
13986
13987
13988
13989
13990
13991
13992
13993
13994
13995
13996
13997
13998
13999
14000
14001
14002
14003
14004
14005
14006
14007
14008
14009
14010
14011
14012
14013
14014
14015
14016
14017
14018
14019
14020
14021
14022
14023
14024
14025
14026
14027
14028
14029
14030
14031
14032
14033
14034
14035
14036
14037
14038
14039
14040
14041
14042
14043
14044
14045
14046
14047
14048
14049
14050
14051
14052
14053
14054
14055
14056
14057
14058
14059
14060
14061
14062
14063
14064
14065
14066
14067
14068
14069
14070
14071
14072
14073
14074
14075
14076
14077
14078
14079
14080
14081
14082
14083
14084
14085
14086
14087
14088
14089
14090
14091
14092
14093
14094
14095
14096
14097
14098
14099
14100
14101
14102
14103
14104
14105
14106
14107
14108
14109
14110
14111
14112
14113
14114
14115
14116
14117
14118
14119
14120
14121
14122
14123
14124
14125
14126
14127
14128
14129
14130
14131
14132
14133
14134
14135
14136
14137
14138
14139
14140
14141
14142
14143
14144
14145
14146
14147
14148
14149
14150
14151
14152
14153
14154
14155
14156
14157
14158
14159
14160
14161
14162
14163
14164
14165
14166
14167
14168
14169
14170
14171
14172
14173
14174
14175
14176
14177
14178
14179
14180
14181
14182
14183
14184
14185
14186
14187
14188
14189
14190
14191
14192
14193
14194
14195
14196
14197
14198
14199
14200
14201
14202
14203
14204
14205
14206
14207
14208
14209
14210
14211
14212
14213
14214
14215
14216
14217
14218
14219
14220
14221
14222
14223
14224
14225
14226
14227
14228
14229
14230
14231
14232
14233
14234
14235
14236
14237
14238
14239
14240
14241
14242
14243
14244
14245
14246
14247
14248
14249
14250
14251
14252
14253
14254
14255
14256
14257
14258
14259
14260
14261
14262
14263
14264
14265
14266
14267
14268
14269
14270
14271
14272
14273
14274
14275
14276
14277
14278
14279
14280
14281
14282
14283
14284
14285
14286
14287
14288
14289
14290
14291
14292
14293
14294
14295
14296
14297
14298
14299
14300
14301
14302
14303
14304
14305
14306
14307
14308
14309
14310
14311
14312
14313
14314
14315
14316
14317
14318
14319
14320
14321
14322
14323
14324
14325
14326
14327
14328
14329
14330
14331
14332
14333
14334
14335
14336
14337
14338
14339
14340
14341
14342
14343
14344
14345
14346
14347
14348
14349
14350
14351
14352
14353
14354
14355
14356
14357
14358
14359
14360
14361
14362
14363
14364
14365
14366
14367
14368
14369
14370
14371
14372
14373
14374
14375
14376
14377
14378
14379
14380
14381
14382
14383
14384
14385
14386
14387
14388
14389
14390
14391
14392
14393
14394
14395
14396
14397
14398
14399
14400
14401
14402
14403
14404
14405
14406
14407
14408
14409
14410
14411
14412
14413
14414
14415
14416
14417
14418
14419
14420
14421
14422
14423
14424
14425
14426
14427
14428
14429
14430
14431
14432
14433
14434
14435
14436
14437
14438
14439
14440
14441
14442
14443
14444
14445
14446
14447
14448
14449
14450
14451
14452
14453
14454
14455
14456
14457
14458
14459
14460
14461
14462
14463
14464
14465
14466
14467
14468
14469
14470
14471
14472
14473
14474
14475
14476
14477
14478
14479
14480
14481
14482
14483
14484
14485
14486
14487
14488
14489
14490
14491
14492
14493
14494
14495
14496
14497
14498
14499
14500
14501
14502
14503
14504
14505
14506
14507
14508
14509
14510
14511
14512
14513
14514
14515
14516
14517
14518
14519
14520
14521
14522
14523
14524
14525
14526
14527
14528
14529
14530
14531
14532
14533
14534
14535
14536
14537
14538
14539
14540
14541
14542
14543
14544
14545
14546
14547
14548
14549
14550
14551
14552
14553
14554
14555
14556
14557
14558
14559
14560
14561
14562
14563
14564
14565
14566
14567
14568
14569
14570
14571
14572
14573
14574
14575
14576
14577
14578
14579
14580
14581
14582
14583
14584
14585
14586
14587
14588
14589
14590
14591
14592
14593
14594
14595
14596
14597
14598
14599
14600
14601
14602
14603
14604
14605
14606
14607
14608
14609
14610
14611
14612
14613
14614
14615
14616
14617
14618
14619
14620
14621
14622
14623
14624
14625
14626
14627
14628
14629
14630
14631
14632
14633
14634
14635
14636
14637
14638
14639
14640
14641
14642
14643
14644
14645
14646
14647
14648
14649
14650
14651
14652
14653
14654
14655
14656
14657
14658
14659
14660
14661
14662
14663
14664
14665
14666
14667
14668
14669
14670
14671
14672
14673
14674
14675
14676
14677
14678
14679
14680
14681
14682
14683
14684
14685
14686
14687
14688
14689
14690
14691
14692
14693
14694
14695
14696
14697
14698
14699
14700
14701
14702
14703
14704
14705
14706
14707
14708
14709
14710
14711
14712
14713
14714
14715
14716
14717
14718
14719
14720
14721
14722
14723
14724
14725
14726
14727
14728
14729
14730
14731
14732
14733
14734
14735
14736
14737
14738
14739
14740
14741
14742
14743
14744
14745
14746
14747
14748
14749
14750
14751
14752
14753
14754
14755
14756
14757
14758
14759
14760
14761
14762
14763
14764
14765
14766
14767
14768
14769
14770
14771
14772
14773
14774
14775
14776
14777
14778
14779
14780
14781
14782
14783
14784
14785
14786
14787
14788
14789
14790
14791
14792
14793
14794
14795
14796
14797
14798
14799
14800
14801
14802
14803
14804
14805
14806
14807
14808
14809
14810
14811
14812
14813
14814
14815
14816
14817
14818
14819
14820
14821
14822
14823
14824
14825
14826
14827
14828
14829
14830
14831
14832
14833
14834
14835
14836
14837
14838
14839
14840
14841
14842
14843
14844
14845
14846
14847
14848
14849
14850
14851
14852
14853
14854
14855
14856
14857
14858
14859
14860
14861
14862
14863
14864
14865
14866
14867
14868
14869
14870
14871
14872
14873
14874
14875
14876
14877
14878
14879
14880
14881
14882
14883
14884
14885
14886
14887
14888
14889
14890
14891
14892
14893
14894
14895
14896
14897
14898
14899
14900
14901
14902
14903
14904
14905
14906
14907
14908
14909
14910
14911
14912
14913
14914
14915
14916
14917
14918
14919
14920
14921
14922
14923
14924
14925
14926
14927
14928
14929
14930
14931
14932
14933
14934
14935
14936
14937
14938
14939
14940
14941
14942
14943
14944
14945
14946
14947
14948
14949
14950
14951
14952
14953
14954
14955
14956
14957
14958
14959
14960
14961
14962
14963
14964
14965
14966
14967
14968
14969
14970
14971
14972
14973
14974
14975
14976
14977
14978
14979
14980
14981
14982
14983
14984
14985
14986
14987
14988
14989
14990
14991
14992
14993
14994
14995
14996
14997
14998
14999
15000
15001
15002
15003
15004
15005
15006
15007
15008
15009
15010
15011
15012
15013
15014
15015
15016
15017
15018
15019
15020
15021
15022
15023
15024
15025
15026
15027
15028
15029
15030
15031
15032
15033
15034
15035
15036
15037
15038
15039
15040
15041
15042
15043
15044
15045
15046
15047
15048
15049
15050
15051
15052
15053
15054
15055
15056
15057
15058
15059
15060
15061
15062
15063
15064
15065
15066
15067
15068
15069
15070
15071
15072
15073
15074
15075
15076
15077
15078
15079
15080
15081
15082
15083
15084
15085
15086
15087
15088
15089
15090
15091
15092
15093
15094
15095
15096
15097
15098
15099
15100
15101
15102
15103
15104
15105
15106
15107
15108
15109
15110
15111
15112
15113
15114
15115
15116
15117
15118
15119
15120
15121
15122
15123
15124
15125
15126
15127
15128
15129
15130
15131
15132
15133
15134
15135
15136
15137
15138
15139
15140
15141
15142
15143
15144
15145
15146
15147
15148
15149
15150
15151
15152
15153
15154
15155
15156
15157
15158
15159
15160
15161
15162
15163
15164
15165
15166
15167
15168
15169
15170
15171
15172
15173
15174
15175
15176
15177
15178
15179
15180
15181
15182
15183
15184
15185
15186
15187
15188
15189
15190
15191
15192
15193
15194
15195
15196
15197
15198
15199
15200
15201
15202
15203
15204
15205
15206
15207
15208
15209
15210
15211
15212
15213
15214
15215
15216
15217
15218
15219
15220
15221
15222
15223
15224
15225
15226
15227
15228
15229
15230
15231
15232
15233
15234
15235
15236
15237
15238
15239
15240
15241
15242
15243
15244
15245
15246
15247
15248
15249
15250
15251
15252
15253
15254
15255
15256
15257
15258
15259
15260
15261
15262
15263
15264
15265
15266
15267
15268
15269
15270
15271
15272
15273
15274
15275
15276
15277
15278
15279
15280
15281
15282
15283
15284
15285
15286
15287
15288
15289
15290
15291
15292
15293
15294
15295
15296
15297
15298
15299
15300
15301
15302
15303
15304
15305
15306
15307
15308
15309
15310
15311
15312
15313
15314
15315
15316
15317
15318
15319
15320
15321
15322
15323
15324
15325
15326
15327
15328
15329
15330
15331
15332
15333
15334
15335
15336
15337
15338
15339
15340
15341
15342
15343
15344
15345
15346
15347
15348
15349
15350
15351
15352
15353
15354
15355
15356
15357
15358
15359
15360
15361
15362
15363
15364
15365
15366
15367
15368
15369
15370
15371
15372
15373
15374
15375
15376
15377
15378
15379
15380
15381
15382
15383
15384
15385
15386
15387
15388
15389
15390
15391
15392
15393
15394
15395
15396
15397
15398
15399
15400
15401
15402
15403
15404
15405
15406
15407
15408
15409
15410
15411
15412
15413
15414
15415
15416
15417
15418
15419
15420
15421
15422
15423
15424
15425
15426
15427
15428
15429
15430
15431
15432
15433
15434
15435
15436
15437
15438
15439
15440
15441
15442
15443
15444
15445
15446
15447
15448
15449
15450
15451
15452
15453
15454
15455
15456
15457
15458
15459
15460
15461
15462
15463
15464
15465
15466
15467
15468
15469
15470
15471
15472
15473
15474
15475
15476
15477
15478
15479
15480
15481
15482
15483
15484
15485
15486
15487
15488
15489
15490
15491
15492
15493
15494
15495
15496
15497
15498
15499
15500
15501
15502
15503
15504
15505
15506
15507
15508
15509
15510
15511
15512
15513
15514
15515
15516
15517
15518
15519
15520
15521
15522
15523
15524
15525
15526
15527
15528
15529
15530
15531
15532
15533
15534
15535
15536
15537
15538
15539
15540
15541
15542
15543
15544
15545
15546
15547
15548
15549
15550
15551
15552
15553
15554
15555
15556
15557
15558
15559
15560
15561
15562
15563
15564
15565
15566
15567
15568
15569
15570
15571
15572
15573
15574
15575
15576
15577
15578
15579
15580
15581
15582
15583
15584
15585
15586
15587
15588
15589
15590
15591
15592
15593
15594
15595
15596
15597
15598
15599
15600
15601
15602
15603
15604
15605
15606
15607
15608
15609
15610
15611
15612
15613
15614
15615
15616
15617
15618
15619
15620
15621
15622
15623
15624
15625
15626
15627
15628
15629
15630
15631
15632
15633
15634
15635
15636
15637
15638
15639
15640
15641
15642
15643
15644
15645
15646
15647
15648
15649
15650
15651
15652
15653
15654
15655
15656
15657
15658
15659
15660
15661
15662
15663
15664
15665
15666
15667
15668
15669
15670
15671
15672
15673
15674
15675
15676
15677
15678
15679
15680
15681
15682
15683
15684
15685
15686
15687
15688
15689
15690
15691
15692
15693
15694
15695
15696
15697
15698
15699
15700
15701
15702
15703
15704
15705
15706
15707
15708
15709
15710
15711
15712
15713
15714
15715
15716
15717
15718
15719
15720
15721
15722
15723
15724
15725
15726
15727
15728
15729
15730
15731
15732
15733
15734
15735
15736
15737
15738
15739
15740
15741
15742
15743
15744
15745
15746
15747
15748
15749
15750
15751
15752
15753
15754
15755
15756
15757
15758
15759
15760
15761
15762
15763
15764
15765
15766
15767
15768
15769
15770
15771
15772
15773
15774
15775
15776
15777
15778
15779
15780
15781
15782
15783
15784
15785
15786
15787
15788
15789
15790
15791
15792
15793
15794
15795
15796
15797
15798
15799
15800
15801
15802
15803
15804
15805
15806
15807
15808
15809
15810
15811
15812
15813
15814
15815
15816
15817
15818
15819
15820
15821
15822
15823
15824
15825
15826
15827
15828
15829
15830
15831
15832
15833
15834
15835
15836
15837
15838
15839
15840
15841
15842
15843
15844
15845
15846
15847
15848
15849
15850
15851
15852
15853
15854
15855
15856
15857
15858
15859
15860
15861
15862
15863
15864
15865
15866
15867
15868
15869
15870
15871
15872
15873
15874
15875
15876
15877
15878
15879
15880
15881
15882
15883
15884
15885
15886
15887
15888
15889
15890
15891
15892
15893
15894
15895
15896
15897
15898
15899
15900
15901
15902
15903
15904
15905
15906
15907
15908
15909
15910
15911
15912
15913
15914
15915
15916
15917
15918
15919
15920
15921
15922
15923
15924
15925
15926
15927
15928
15929
15930
15931
15932
15933
15934
15935
15936
15937
15938
15939
15940
15941
15942
15943
15944
15945
15946
15947
15948
15949
15950
15951
15952
15953
15954
15955
15956
15957
15958
15959
15960
15961
15962
15963
15964
15965
15966
15967
15968
15969
15970
15971
15972
15973
15974
15975
15976
15977
15978
15979
15980
15981
15982
15983
15984
15985
15986
15987
15988
15989
15990
15991
15992
15993
15994
15995
15996
15997
15998
15999
16000
16001
16002
16003
16004
16005
16006
16007
16008
16009
16010
16011
16012
16013
16014
16015
16016
16017
16018
16019
16020
16021
16022
16023
16024
16025
16026
16027
16028
16029
16030
16031
16032
16033
16034
16035
16036
16037
16038
16039
16040
16041
16042
16043
16044
16045
16046
16047
16048
16049
16050
16051
16052
16053
16054
16055
16056
16057
16058
16059
16060
16061
16062
16063
16064
16065
16066
16067
16068
16069
16070
16071
16072
16073
16074
16075
16076
16077
16078
16079
16080
16081
16082
16083
16084
16085
16086
16087
16088
16089
16090
16091
16092
16093
16094
16095
16096
16097
16098
16099
16100
16101
16102
16103
16104
16105
16106
16107
16108
16109
16110
16111
16112
16113
16114
16115
16116
16117
16118
16119
16120
16121
16122
16123
16124
16125
16126
16127
16128
16129
16130
16131
16132
16133
16134
16135
16136
16137
16138
16139
16140
16141
16142
16143
16144
16145
16146
16147
16148
16149
16150
16151
16152
16153
16154
16155
16156
16157
16158
16159
16160
16161
16162
16163
16164
16165
16166
16167
16168
16169
16170
16171
16172
16173
16174
16175
16176
16177
16178
16179
16180
16181
16182
16183
16184
16185
16186
16187
16188
16189
16190
16191
16192
16193
16194
16195
16196
16197
16198
16199
16200
16201
16202
16203
16204
16205
16206
16207
16208
16209
16210
16211
16212
16213
16214
16215
16216
16217
16218
16219
16220
16221
16222
16223
16224
16225
16226
16227
16228
16229
16230
16231
16232
16233
16234
16235
16236
16237
16238
16239
16240
16241
16242
16243
16244
16245
16246
16247
16248
16249
16250
16251
16252
16253
16254
16255
16256
16257
16258
16259
16260
16261
16262
16263
16264
16265
16266
16267
16268
16269
16270
16271
16272
16273
16274
16275
16276
16277
16278
16279
16280
16281
16282
16283
16284
16285
16286
16287
16288
16289
16290
16291
16292
16293
16294
16295
16296
16297
16298
16299
16300
16301
16302
16303
16304
16305
16306
16307
16308
16309
16310
16311
16312
16313
16314
16315
16316
16317
16318
16319
16320
16321
16322
16323
16324
16325
16326
16327
16328
16329
16330
16331
16332
16333
16334
16335
16336
16337
16338
16339
16340
16341
16342
16343
16344
16345
16346
16347
16348
16349
16350
16351
16352
16353
16354
16355
16356
16357
16358
16359
16360
16361
16362
16363
16364
16365
16366
16367
16368
16369
16370
16371
16372
16373
16374
16375
16376
16377
16378
16379
16380
16381
16382
16383
16384
16385
16386
16387
16388
16389
16390
16391
16392
16393
16394
16395
16396
16397
16398
16399
16400
16401
16402
16403
16404
16405
16406
16407
16408
16409
16410
16411
16412
16413
16414
16415
16416
16417
16418
16419
16420
16421
16422
16423
16424
16425
16426
16427
16428
16429
16430
16431
16432
16433
16434
16435
16436
16437
16438
16439
16440
16441
16442
16443
16444
16445
16446
16447
16448
16449
16450
16451
16452
16453
16454
16455
16456
16457
16458
16459
16460
16461
16462
16463
16464
16465
16466
16467
16468
16469
16470
16471
16472
16473
16474
16475
16476
16477
16478
16479
16480
16481
16482
16483
16484
16485
16486
16487
16488
16489
16490
16491
16492
16493
16494
16495
16496
16497
16498
16499
16500
16501
16502
16503
16504
16505
16506
16507
16508
16509
16510
16511
16512
16513
16514
16515
16516
16517
16518
16519
16520
16521
16522
16523
16524
16525
16526
16527
16528
16529
16530
16531
16532
16533
16534
16535
16536
16537
16538
16539
16540
16541
16542
16543
16544
16545
16546
16547
16548
16549
16550
16551
16552
16553
16554
16555
16556
16557
16558
16559
16560
16561
16562
16563
16564
16565
16566
16567
16568
16569
16570
16571
16572
16573
16574
16575
16576
16577
16578
16579
16580
16581
16582
16583
16584
16585
16586
16587
16588
16589
16590
16591
16592
16593
16594
16595
16596
16597
16598
16599
16600
16601
16602
16603
16604
16605
16606
16607
16608
16609
16610
16611
16612
16613
16614
16615
16616
16617
16618
16619
16620
16621
16622
16623
16624
16625
16626
16627
16628
16629
16630
16631
16632
16633
16634
16635
16636
16637
16638
16639
16640
16641
16642
16643
16644
16645
16646
16647
16648
16649
16650
16651
16652
16653
16654
16655
16656
16657
16658
16659
16660
16661
16662
16663
16664
16665
16666
16667
16668
16669
16670
16671
16672
16673
16674
16675
16676
16677
16678
16679
16680
16681
16682
16683
16684
16685
16686
16687
16688
16689
16690
16691
16692
16693
16694
16695
16696
16697
16698
16699
16700
16701
16702
16703
16704
16705
16706
16707
16708
16709
16710
16711
16712
16713
16714
16715
16716
16717
16718
16719
16720
16721
16722
16723
16724
16725
16726
16727
16728
16729
16730
16731
16732
16733
16734
16735
16736
16737
16738
16739
16740
16741
16742
16743
16744
16745
16746
16747
16748
16749
16750
16751
16752
16753
16754
16755
16756
16757
16758
16759
16760
16761
16762
16763
16764
16765
16766
16767
16768
16769
16770
16771
16772
16773
16774
16775
16776
16777
16778
16779
16780
16781
16782
16783
16784
16785
16786
16787
16788
16789
16790
16791
16792
16793
16794
16795
16796
16797
16798
16799
16800
16801
16802
16803
16804
16805
16806
16807
16808
16809
16810
16811
16812
16813
16814
16815
16816
16817
16818
16819
16820
16821
16822
16823
16824
16825
16826
16827
16828
16829
16830
16831
16832
16833
16834
16835
16836
16837
16838
16839
16840
16841
16842
16843
16844
16845
16846
16847
16848
16849
16850
16851
16852
16853
16854
16855
16856
16857
16858
16859
16860
16861
16862
16863
16864
16865
16866
16867
16868
16869
16870
16871
16872
16873
16874
16875
16876
16877
16878
16879
16880
16881
16882
16883
16884
16885
16886
16887
16888
16889
16890
16891
16892
16893
16894
16895
16896
16897
16898
16899
16900
16901
16902
16903
16904
16905
16906
16907
16908
16909
16910
16911
16912
16913
16914
16915
16916
16917
16918
16919
16920
16921
16922
16923
16924
16925
16926
16927
16928
16929
16930
16931
16932
16933
16934
16935
16936
16937
16938
16939
16940
16941
16942
16943
16944
16945
16946
16947
16948
16949
16950
16951
16952
16953
16954
16955
16956
16957
16958
16959
16960
16961
16962
16963
16964
16965
16966
16967
16968
16969
16970
16971
16972
16973
16974
16975
16976
16977
16978
16979
16980
16981
16982
16983
16984
16985
16986
16987
16988
16989
16990
16991
16992
16993
16994
16995
16996
16997
16998
16999
17000
17001
17002
17003
17004
17005
17006
17007
17008
17009
17010
17011
17012
17013
17014
17015
17016
17017
17018
17019
17020
17021
17022
17023
17024
17025
17026
17027
17028
17029
17030
17031
17032
17033
17034
17035
17036
17037
17038
17039
17040
17041
17042
17043
17044
17045
17046
17047
17048
17049
17050
17051
17052
17053
17054
17055
17056
17057
17058
17059
17060
17061
17062
17063
17064
17065
17066
17067
17068
17069
17070
17071
17072
17073
17074
17075
17076
17077
17078
17079
17080
17081
17082
17083
17084
17085
17086
17087
17088
17089
17090
17091
17092
17093
17094
17095
17096
17097
17098
17099
17100
17101
17102
17103
17104
17105
17106
17107
17108
17109
17110
17111
17112
17113
17114
17115
17116
17117
17118
17119
17120
17121
17122
17123
17124
17125
17126
17127
17128
17129
17130
17131
17132
17133
17134
17135
17136
17137
17138
17139
17140
17141
17142
17143
17144
17145
17146
17147
17148
17149
17150
17151
17152
17153
17154
17155
17156
17157
17158
17159
17160
17161
17162
17163
17164
17165
17166
17167
17168
17169
17170
17171
17172
17173
17174
17175
17176
17177
17178
17179
17180
17181
17182
17183
17184
17185
17186
17187
17188
17189
17190
17191
17192
17193
17194
17195
17196
17197
17198
17199
17200
17201
17202
17203
17204
17205
17206
17207
17208
17209
17210
17211
17212
17213
17214
17215
17216
17217
17218
17219
17220
17221
17222
17223
17224
17225
17226
17227
17228
17229
17230
17231
17232
17233
17234
17235
17236
17237
17238
17239
17240
17241
17242
17243
17244
17245
17246
17247
17248
17249
17250
17251
17252
17253
17254
17255
17256
17257
17258
17259
17260
17261
17262
17263
17264
17265
17266
17267
17268
17269
17270
17271
17272
17273
17274
17275
17276
17277
17278
17279
17280
17281
17282
17283
17284
17285
17286
17287
17288
17289
17290
17291
17292
17293
17294
17295
17296
17297
17298
17299
17300
17301
17302
17303
17304
17305
17306
17307
17308
17309
17310
17311
17312
17313
17314
17315
17316
17317
17318
17319
17320
17321
17322
17323
17324
17325
17326
17327
17328
17329
17330
17331
17332
17333
17334
17335
17336
17337
17338
17339
17340
17341
17342
17343
17344
17345
17346
17347
17348
17349
17350
17351
17352
17353
17354
17355
17356
17357
17358
17359
17360
17361
17362
17363
17364
17365
17366
17367
17368
17369
17370
17371
17372
17373
17374
17375
17376
17377
17378
17379
17380
17381
17382
17383
17384
17385
17386
17387
17388
17389
17390
17391
17392
17393
17394
17395
17396
17397
17398
17399
17400
17401
17402
17403
17404
17405
17406
17407
17408
17409
17410
17411
17412
17413
17414
17415
17416
17417
17418
17419
17420
17421
17422
17423
17424
17425
17426
17427
17428
17429
17430
17431
17432
17433
17434
17435
17436
17437
17438
17439
17440
17441
17442
17443
17444
17445
17446
17447
17448
17449
17450
17451
17452
17453
17454
17455
17456
17457
17458
17459
17460
17461
17462
17463
17464
17465
17466
17467
17468
17469
17470
17471
17472
17473
17474
17475
17476
17477
17478
17479
17480
17481
17482
17483
17484
17485
17486
17487
17488
17489
17490
17491
17492
17493
17494
17495
17496
17497
17498
17499
17500
17501
17502
17503
17504
17505
17506
17507
17508
17509
17510
17511
17512
17513
17514
17515
17516
17517
17518
17519
17520
17521
17522
17523
17524
17525
17526
17527
17528
17529
17530
17531
17532
17533
17534
17535
17536
17537
17538
17539
17540
17541
17542
17543
17544
17545
17546
17547
17548
17549
17550
17551
17552
17553
17554
17555
17556
17557
17558
17559
17560
17561
17562
17563
17564
17565
17566
17567
17568
17569
17570
17571
17572
17573
17574
17575
17576
17577
17578
17579
17580
17581
17582
17583
17584
17585
17586
17587
17588
17589
17590
17591
17592
17593
17594
17595
17596
17597
17598
17599
17600
17601
17602
17603
17604
17605
17606
17607
17608
17609
17610
17611
17612
17613
17614
17615
17616
17617
17618
17619
17620
17621
17622
17623
17624
17625
17626
17627
17628
17629
17630
17631
17632
17633
17634
17635
17636
17637
17638
17639
17640
17641
17642
17643
17644
17645
17646
17647
17648
17649
17650
17651
17652
17653
17654
17655
17656
17657
17658
17659
17660
17661
17662
17663
17664
17665
17666
17667
17668
17669
17670
17671
17672
17673
17674
17675
17676
17677
17678
17679
17680
17681
17682
17683
17684
17685
17686
17687
17688
17689
17690
17691
17692
17693
17694
17695
17696
17697
17698
17699
17700
17701
17702
17703
17704
17705
17706
17707
17708
17709
17710
17711
17712
17713
17714
17715
17716
17717
17718
17719
17720
17721
17722
17723
17724
17725
17726
17727
17728
17729
17730
17731
17732
17733
17734
17735
17736
17737
17738
17739
17740
17741
17742
17743
17744
17745
17746
17747
17748
17749
17750
17751
17752
17753
17754
17755
17756
17757
17758
17759
17760
17761
17762
17763
17764
17765
17766
17767
17768
17769
17770
17771
17772
17773
17774
17775
17776
17777
17778
17779
17780
17781
17782
17783
17784
17785
17786
17787
17788
17789
17790
17791
17792
17793
17794
17795
17796
17797
17798
17799
17800
17801
17802
17803
17804
17805
17806
17807
17808
17809
17810
17811
17812
17813
17814
17815
17816
17817
17818
17819
17820
17821
17822
17823
17824
17825
17826
17827
17828
17829
17830
17831
17832
17833
17834
17835
17836
17837
17838
17839
17840
17841
17842
17843
17844
17845
17846
17847
17848
17849
17850
17851
17852
17853
17854
17855
17856
17857
17858
17859
17860
17861
17862
17863
17864
17865
17866
17867
17868
17869
17870
17871
17872
17873
17874
17875
17876
17877
17878
17879
17880
17881
17882
17883
17884
17885
17886
17887
17888
17889
17890
17891

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
<title>A Child’s History Of the World , by V. M. Hillyer&mdash;A Project Gutenberg eBook</title>
<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
<style type="text/css">

body {
    margin-left: 10%;
    margin-right: 10%;
}

    h1,h2 {
    text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
    clear: both;
}

h1  {font-size: 200%;
     font-weight: normal;}

p {
    margin-top: .51em;
    text-align: justify;
    margin-bottom: .49em;
}

.p2       {margin-top: 2em;}
.p4       {margin-top: 4em;}
.p6       {margin-top: 6em;}

hr {
    width: 33%;
    margin-top: 2em;
    margin-bottom: 2em;
    margin-left: 33.5%;
    margin-right: 33.5%;
    clear: both;
}



hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;}


div.chapter {page-break-before: always;}
h2.nobreak  {page-break-before: avoid;}

ul.index { list-style-type: none; }
li.ifrst {
    margin-top: 1em;
    text-indent: -2em;
    padding-left: 1em;
}
li.indx  {
    margin-top: .5em;
    text-indent: -2em;
    padding-left: 1em;
}
li.isub1 {
    text-indent: -2em;
    padding-left: 2em;
}


table {
    margin-left: auto;
    margin-right: auto;
}



.tdl      {text-align: left;}
.tdr      {text-align: right;}
.tdc      {text-align: center;}
.tdrb   {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
.tdrt      {text-align: right;
            vertical-align: top;}
.tdlt      {text-align: left;
             vertical-align: top;}

.tds     {text-align: left;
          font-variant: small-caps;}

.tdlb      {text-align: left;
            font-size: 150%;}

.tdcp      {text-align: center;
            padding-left: 2em;}


.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
    position: absolute;
    left: 92%;
    font-size: smaller;
    text-align: right;
    font-style: normal;
    font-weight: normal;
    font-variant: normal;
} /* page numbers */


.blockquot {
    margin-left: 5%;
    margin-right: 10%;
}

.blockquota {
    margin-left: 5%;
    margin-right: 10%;
    font-size: 85%;
}

.blockquotb {
    margin-left: 55%;

    font-size: 85%;
}


.xxxlarge {font-size: 250%;}
.xxlarge  {font-size: 150%;}
.xlarge  {font-size: 140%;}
.large   {font-size: 120%;}
.medium  {font-size: 85%;}
.little  {font-size: 75%;}
.more    {font-size: 70%;}
.tiny    {font-size: 60%;}

.c        {text-align: center;}

.pad4       {padding-left: 4.5em;}

.pad5       {padding-left: 2em;}

.pad6       {padding-left: 10em;}

.pad7       {padding-left: 15em;}

.pad8       {padding-left: 11em;}

.pad9       {padding-left: 14em;}

.pad10       {padding-left: 13em;}

.pad6a       {padding-left: .5em;}

.pad6b       {padding-left: 1em;}

.pad6c       {padding-left: 1.5em;}

.pad6d       {padding-left: 2em;}

.pad6e       {padding-left: 2.5em;}

.pad6f       {padding-left: 3em;}

.pad11       {padding-left: 5.5em;}

.pad12       {padding-left: 6.5em;}

.pad13       {padding-left: 7.5em;}

.pad14       {padding-left: 8.5em;}

.pad15       {padding-left: 12em;}

.pad6g       {padding-left: 4em;}

.padr       {padding-right: .5em;}

.pad6h       {padding-left: 5em;}

.pad6i       {padding-left: 6em;}



.ph2 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;
      font-size: 160%;
      }

.narrow    {margin-left: 15%;
            margin-right: 15%;}

.pc        {margin-left: 42%;
            margin-bottom: 0;}

.pca        {margin-left: 30%;
             margin-top: 0;}

.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}

.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;}

.u        {text-decoration: underline;}


.gesperrta
{
    letter-spacing: 0.6em;
    margin-right: -0.2em;
}


.caption  {font-weight: bold;
text-align: center;
font-size: 80%;}

.captiona  {font-weight: bold;
margin-left: 7em;
font-size: 80%;}

/* Images */

img {
    max-width: 100%;
    height: auto;
}


.figcenter {
    margin: auto;
    text-align: center;
    page-break-inside: avoid;
    max-width: 100%;
}

.figcenter1 {
    padding-top: 4em;
    margin: auto;
    text-align: center;
    page-break-inside: avoid;
    max-width: 100%;
}

.figcenter2 {
    padding-top: 6em;
    margin: auto;
    text-align: center;
    page-break-inside: avoid;
    max-width: 100%;
}

.figleft {
    float: left;
    clear: left;
    margin-left: 0;
    margin-bottom: 1em;
    margin-top: 1em;
    margin-right: 1em;
    padding: 0;
    text-align: center;
    page-break-inside: avoid;
    max-width: 100%;
}


.figright {
    float: right;
    clear: right;
    margin-left: 1em;
    margin-bottom: 1em;
    margin-top: 1em;
    margin-right: 0;
    padding: 0;
    text-align: center;
    page-break-inside: avoid;
    max-width: 100%;
}


/* Footnotes */

.footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}

.footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}

.fnanchor {
    vertical-align: super;
    font-size: .8em;
    text-decoration:
    none;
}

/* Poetry */
.poetry-container {text-align: center;}
.poetry           {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;
                   font-size:85%;}

 .poetry           {display: inline-block;}
.poetry .stanza   {margin: 1em auto;}
.poetry .verse    {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;}

@media print { .poetry {display: block;} }


.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;}

/* Transcriber's notes */
.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA;
    color: black;
     font-size:smaller;
     padding:0.5em;
     margin-bottom:5em;
     font-family:sans-serif, serif; }



    </style>
  </head>
<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 67149 ***</div>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
</div>




<h1>
A CHILD’S HISTORY<br />
OF THE WORLD
</h1>


<p class="p6 u c">By V. M. HILLYER</p>



<p class="pad6">
A CHILD’S GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD<br />
A CHILD’S HISTORY OF THE WORLD<br />
CHILD TRAINING<br />
THE DARK SECRET
</p>


<p class="p2 u c">With EDWARD G. HUEY</p>

<p class="pad6">
A CHILD’S HISTORY OF ART
</p>


<div class="figcenter1">
<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" />
</div>




<p class="c xxxlarge p2">
A CHILD’S HISTORY<br />
OF THE WORLD
</p>

<p class="c p2">
BY</p>

<p class="c xxlarge">
V. M. HILLYER
</p>

<p class="c more">
HEAD MASTER OF CALVERT SCHOOL<br />
AUTHOR OF “CHILD TRAINING,” “KINDERGARTEN<br />
AT HOME,” ETC.
</p>

<p class="c p2">
<i>With Many Illustrations by</i><br />
CARLE MICHEL BOOG<br />
<span class="little">AND</span><br />
M. S. WRIGHT
</p>

<div class="figcenter2">
<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<p class="c p4">
D. APPLETON-CENTURY COMPANY<br />
<span class="smcap">Incorporated</span></p>

<p class="c">
<span class="smcap">New York</span>        <span class="smcap pad7">London</span></p>

<p class="c">
1934
</p>




<p class="c p2">
<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1924, by<br />
The Century Co.</span></p>

<p class="pad8">
All rights reserved. This book, or parts<br />
thereof, must not be reproduced in any<br />
form without permission of the publisher.
</p>


<p class="c little p6">
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v"></span></p>

<p class="ph2">LIST OF STORIES</p>
</div>

<table summary="LIST OF STORIES">

<tr>
<td class="tdr"><span class="tiny">STORY</span></td>
<td class="tdl"></td>
<td class="tdr"><span class="tiny">PAGE</span></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">1</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Things Started</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c1">3</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">2</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Umfa-Umfa and Itchy-Scratchy</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c2">10</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">3</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fire! Fire!! Fire!!!</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c3">16</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">4</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">From an Airplane</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c4">20</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">5</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Real History Begins</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c5">24</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">6</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Puzzle-Writers</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c6">30</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">7</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Tomb-Builders</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c7">36</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">8</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Rich Land Where There Was No Money</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c8">42</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">9</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Wandering Jews</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c9">49</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">10</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fairy-Tale Gods</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c10">56</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">11</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Fairy-Tale War</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c11">64</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">12</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Kings of the Jews</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c12">70</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">13</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The People Who Made Our A B C’s</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c13">74</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">14</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hard as Nails</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c14">79</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">15</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Crown of Leaves</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c15">84</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">16</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Bad Beginning</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c16">89</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">17</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Kings with Corkscrew Curls</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c17">94</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">18</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A City of Wonder and Wickedness</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c18">99</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">19</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Surprise Party</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c19">103</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">20</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Other Side of the World</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c20">109</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">21</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rich Man, Poor Man</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c21">114</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">22</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rome Kicks Out Her Kings</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c22">119</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi"></span></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">23</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Greece vs. Persia</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c23">124</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">24</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fighting Mad</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c24">132</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">25</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">One against a Thousand</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c25">137</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">26</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Golden Age</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c26">143</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">27</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">When Greek Meets Greek</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c27">151</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">28</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wise Men and Otherwise</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c28">156</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">29</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Boy King</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c29">162</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">30</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Picking a Fight</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c30">168</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">31</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Boot Kicks and Stamps</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c31">173</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">32</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The New Champion of the World</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c32">177</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">33</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Noblest Roman of Them All</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c33">184</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">34</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">An Emperor Who was Made a God!</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c34">191</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdrt">35</td>
<td class="tdl">“<span class="smcap">Thine is the Kingdom, the Power, and the<br />
                 Glory</span>”</td>
<td class="tdrb"><a href="#c35">197</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">36</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Blood and Thunder</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c36">203</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">37</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Good Emperor and a Bad Son</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c37">210</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">38</td>
<td class="tdl"> I &mdash; H &mdash; &mdash; S &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; V &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash;</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c38">215</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">39</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Our Tough Ancestors</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c39">219</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdrt">40</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">White Toughs and Yellow Toughs Meet the<br />
                Champions of the World</span></td>
<td class="tdrb"><a href="#c40">225</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">41</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nightfall</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c41">231</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">42</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Being Good</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c42">236</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">43</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Camel-Driver</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c43">242</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">44</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Arabian Days</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c44">250</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">45</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Light in the Dark Ages</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c45">257</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">46</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Getting a Start</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c46">264</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">47</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The End of the World</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c47">269</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">48</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Real Castles</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c48">272</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">49</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Knights and Days of Chivalry</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c49">278</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">50<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii"></span></td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Pirate’s Great Grandson</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c50">284</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">51</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Great Adventure</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c51">292</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">52</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Tit-Tat-To; Three Kings in a Row</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c52">297</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">53</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Bibles Made of Stone and Glass</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c53">304</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">54</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">John, Whom Nobody Loved</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c54">311</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">55</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Great Story-Teller</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c55">316</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdrt">56</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">“Thing-a-ma-jigger” and “What-cher-ma-call-it”;<br />
                or, A Magic Needle and a Magic<br />
                Powder</span></td>
<td class="tdrb"><a href="#c56">322</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">57</td>
<td class="tdl">THELON GEST WART HATE VERWAS</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c57">327</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">58</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Off with the Old, On with the New</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c58">333</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">59</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Sailor Who Found a New World</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c59">337</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">60</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fortune-Hunters</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c60">346</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdrt">61</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Land of Enchantment; or, The Search<br />
                for Gold and Adventure</span></td>
<td class="tdrb"><a href="#c61">354</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">62</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Born Again</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c62">359</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">63</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Christians Quarrel</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c63">365</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">64</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">King Elizabeth</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c64">372</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">65</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Age of Elizabeth</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c65">378</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">66</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James the Servant; or, What’s in a Name?</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c66">384</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">67</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A King Who Lost His Head</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c67">390</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">68</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Red Cap and Red Heels</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c68">395</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">69</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Self-Made Man</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c69">402</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">70</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Prince Who Ran Away</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c70">407</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">71</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">America Gets Rid of Her King</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c71">412</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">72</td>
<td class="tdl"><img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c72">420</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">73</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Little Giant</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c73">428</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">74</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">From Pan and His Pipes to the Phonograph</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c74">435</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">75</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Daily Papers of 1854-1865</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c75">443</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii"></span></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">76</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Three New Postage Stamps</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c76">449</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">77</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Age of Miracles</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c77">454</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">78</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Germany Fights the World</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c78">460</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">79</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Yesterday, To-day, and To-morrow</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#c79">465</a></td></tr>

</table>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix"></span></p>




<p class="pad9">
This page is not for you, boys and girls.<br />
It is for that old man or woman&mdash;twenty,<br />
thirty, or forty years old, who may peek<br />
into this book; and is what they would<br />
call the
</p>

<p class="ph2">PREFACE</p>


<p>To give the child some idea of what has gone
on in the world before he arrived;</p>

<p>To take him out of his little self-centered, shut-in
life, which looms so large because it is so close
to his eyes;</p>

<p>To extend his horizon, broaden his view, and
open up the vista down the ages past;</p>

<p>To acquaint him with some of the big events
and great names and fix these in time and space
as a basis for detailed study in the future;</p>

<p>To give him a chronological file with main
guides, into which he can fit in its proper place all
his further historical study&mdash;</p>

<p>Is the purpose of this first <span class="smcap">Survey of the
World’s History</span>.</p>


<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x"></span></p>


<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi"></span></p>


<p class="pad10">
This part is not for you, either. It is for<br />
your father, mother, or teacher, and is<br />
what they would call the
</p>

<p class="ph2">INTRODUCTION</p>


<p><span class="smcap">In</span> common with all children of my age, I was
brought up on American History and given no
other history but American, year in and year out,
year after year for eight or more years.</p>

<p>So far as I knew 1492 was the beginning of
the world. Any events or characters before that
time, reference to which I encountered by any
chance, were put down in my mind in the same
category with fairy-tales. Christ and His
times, of which I heard only in Sunday-school,
were to me mere fiction without reality. They
were not mentioned in any history that I knew
and therefore, so I thought, must belong <i>not</i> to a
realm in time and space, but to a spiritual realm.</p>

<p>To give an American child only American
History is as provincial as to teach a Texas child
only Texas History. Patriotism is usually given
as the reason for such history teaching. It only
promotes a narrow-mindedness and an absurd<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii"></span>
conceit, based on utter ignorance of any other
peoples and any other times&mdash;an intolerant
egotism without foundation in fact. Since the
World War it has become increasingly more and
more important that American children should
have a knowledge of other countries and other
peoples in order that their attitude may be intelligent
and unprejudiced.</p>

<p>As young as nine years of age, a child is
eagerly inquisitive as to what has taken place in
the ages past and readily grasps a concept of
World History. Therefore, for many years Calvert
School nine-year-old pupils have been
taught World History in spite of academic and
parental skepticism and antagonism. But I have
watched the gradual drift toward adoption of
this plan of history teaching, and with it an ever-increasing
demand for a text-book of general history
for young children. I have found, however,
that all existing text-books have to be largely
abridged and also supplemented by a running
explanation and comment, to make them intelligible
to the young child.</p>

<p>The recent momentous studies into the native
intelligence of children show us what the average
child at different ages can understand and what
he cannot understand&mdash;what dates, figures of
speech, vocabulary, generalities, and abstractions
he can comprehend and what he cannot comprehend&mdash;and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii"></span>
in the future all text-books will have
to be written with constant regard for these intelligence
norms. Otherwise, such texts are very
likely to be “over the child’s head.” They will
be trying to teach him some things at least that,
in the nature of the case, are beyond him.</p>

<p>In spite of the fact that the writer has been
in constant contact with the child mind for a
great many years, he has found that whatever
was written in his study had to be revised and
rewritten each time after the lesson had been
tried out in the class-room. Even though the
first writing was in what he considered the simplest
language, he has found that each and every
word and expression has had to be subjected
again and again to this class-room test to determine
what meaning is conveyed. The slightest
inverted phraseology or possibility of double
meaning has oftentimes been misconstrued or
found confusing. For instance, the statement
that “Rome was <i>on</i> the Tiber River” has quite
commonly been taken to mean that the city was
literally built <i>on top</i> of the river, and the child
has had some sort of fantastic vision of houses
built on piles in the river. A child of nine is still
very young&mdash;he may still believe in Santa Claus&mdash;younger
in ideas, in vocabulary and in understanding
than most adults appreciate&mdash;even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv"></span>
though they be parents or teachers&mdash;and new information
can hardly be put too simply.</p>

<p>So the topics selected have not always been
the most important&mdash;but the most important
that can be understood and appreciated by a
child. Most political, sociological, economic, or
religious generalities are beyond a child’s comprehension,
no matter how simply told. After
all, this History is only a preliminary story.</p>

<p>Excellent biographies and stories from general
history have been written. But biographies from
history do not give an historic outline. They do
not give any outline at all for future filling in;
and, indeed, unless they themselves are fitted
into such a general historical scheme, they are
nothing more than so many disconnected tales
floating about in the child’s mind with no associations
of time or space.</p>

<p>The treatment of the subject in this book is,
therefore, chronological&mdash;telling the story of
what has happened century by century and epoch
by epoch, not by nations. The story of one
nation is interrupted to take up that of another
as different plots in a novel are brought forward
simultaneously. This is in line with the
purpose, which is to give the pupil a continuous
view or panorama of the ages, rather than Greek
History from start to finish, then, retracing the
steps of time, Roman History, and so on. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv"></span>
object is to sketch the whole picture in outline,
leaving the details to be gradually filled in by
later study, as the artist sketches the general
scheme of his picture before filling in the details.
Such a scheme is as necessary to orderly classification
of historical knowledge as is a filing system
in any office that can function properly or
even at all.</p>

<p>The Staircase of Time is to give a visual idea
of the extent of time and the progressive steps
in the History of the World. Each “flight”
represents a thousand years, and each “step” a
hundred&mdash;a century. If you have a spare wall,
either in the play-room, attic, or barn such a
Staircase of Time on a large scale may be drawn
upon it from floor to reaching height and made a
feature if elaborated with pictures or drawings
of people and events. If the wall faces the
child’s bed so much the better, for when lying
awake in the morning or at any other time, instead
of imagining fantastic designs on the wall-paper,
he may picture the crowded events on the
Staircase of Time. At any rate, the child should
constantly refer either to such a Staircase of
Time or to the Time Table as each event is
studied, until he has a mental image of the Ages
past.</p>

<p>At first a child does not appreciate time values
represented by numbers or the relative position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi"></span>
of dates on a time line and will wildly say twenty-five
hundred <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> or twenty-five thousand <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>
or twenty-five million <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> indiscriminately.
Only by constantly referring dates to position
on the Staircase of Time or the Time Table can
a child come to visualize dates. You may be
<i>amused</i>, but do not be <i>amazed</i>, if a child gives
776 thousand years <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> as the date for the First
Olympiad, or says that Italy is located in Athens,
or that Abraham was a hero of the Trojan War.</p>

<p>If you have ever been introduced to a roomful
of strangers at one time, you know how futile it is
to attempt even to remember their names to say
nothing of connecting names and faces. It is
necessary to hear something interesting about
each one before you can begin to recall names
and faces. Likewise an introduction to World
History, the characters and places in which are
utterly unknown strangers to the child, must be
something more than a mere name introduction,
and there must be very few introductions given
at a time or both names and faces will be instantly
forgotten. It is also necessary to repeat new
names constantly in order that the pupil may
gradually become familiarized with them, for
so many strange people and places are bewildering.</p>

<p>In order to serve the purpose of a basal outline,
which in the future is to be filled in, it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii"></span>
necessary that the Time Table be made a permanent
possession of the pupil. This Time
Table, therefore, should be studied like the multiplication
tables until it is known one hundred
per cent and for “keeps,” and until the topic connected
with each date can be elaborated as much
as desired. The aim should be to have the pupil
able to start with Primitive Man and give a
summary of World History to the present time,
with dates and chief events without prompting,
questioning, hesitation, or mistake. Does this
seem too much to expect? It is not as difficult
as it may sound, if suggestions given in the text
for connecting the various events into a sequence
and for passing names and events in a condensed
review are followed. Hundreds of Calvert
children each year are successfully required
to do this very thing.</p>

<p>The attitude, however, usually assumed by
teachers, that “even if the pupil forgets it all,
there will be left a valuable impression,” is too
often an apology for superficial teaching and
superficial learning. History may be made just
as much a “mental discipline” as some other
studies, but only if difficulties of dates and other
abstractions are squarely met and overcome by
hard study and learned to be remembered, not
merely to be forgotten after the recitation. The
story part the child will easily remember, but it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii"></span>
is the “who and when and where and why” that
are important, and this part is the serious study.
Instead of, “A man, once upon a time,” he
should say, “King John in 1215 at Runnymede
because&mdash;”</p>

<p>This book, therefore, is not a supplementary
reader but a basal history study. Just enough
narrative is told to give the skeleton flesh and
blood and make it living. The idea is not how
much but how little can be told; to cut down one
thousand pages to less than half of that number
without leaving only dry bones.</p>

<p>No matter how the subject is presented it is
necessary that the child do his part and put his
own brain to work; and for this purpose he
<i>should be required to retell each story after he
has read it</i> and should be repeatedly questioned
on names and dates as well as stories, to make
sure he is retaining and assimilating what he
hears.</p>

<p>I recall how once upon a time a young chap,
just out of college, taught his first class in history.
With all the enthusiasm of a full-back who has
just kicked a goal from field, he talked, he sang;
he drew maps on the blackboard, on the floor, on
the field; he drew pictures, he vaulted desks, and
even stood on his head to illustrate points. His
pupils attended spellbound, with their eyes wide
open, their ears wide open, and their mouths<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix"></span>
wide open. They missed nothing. They drank
in his flow of words with thirst unquenched; but,
like Baron Munchausen, he had failed to look at
the other end of the drinking horse that had been
cut in half. At the end of a month his kindly
principal suggested a test, and he gave it with
perfect confidence.</p>

<p>There were only three questions:</p>

<p class="pad5">
(1) Tell all you can about Columbus.<br />
(2)   <span class="gesperrta"> “   “   “   “    “</span>   Jamestown.<br />
(3)   <span class="gesperrta"> “   “   “   “    “</span>   Plymouth.<br />
</p>

<p>And here are the three answers of one of the
most interested pupils:</p>

<p class="pad5">
(1) He was a <i>grate</i> man.<br />
(2)  <span class="gesperrta">“  “  “   “    “</span><br />
(3)  <span class="gesperrta">“  “  “   “    “</span> <i>to</i>.
</p>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx"></span></p>


<p class="c">Here is the</p>

<p class="c large">STAIRCASE OF TIME</p>

<p class="narrow">It starts far, far, below the bottom of the
pages and rises up, <span class="smcap">Up</span>, UP to where we
are NOW&mdash;each step a hundred years,
each flight of steps a thousand. It will
keep on up until it reaches high heaven.
From where we are NOW let us look
down the flights below us and listen to
the Story of what has happened in the
long years gone by.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii"></span></p>


<p class="c large">TIME TABLE</p>

<p class="c">with</p>

<p class="c xlarge">DATES AND OTHER FOOD<br />
FOR THOUGHT</p>

<p><i>Don’t devour these dates all at once, or they’ll
make you sick, and you’ll never want to see one
again.</i></p>

<p><i>Take them piecemeal, only one or two at a time
after each story, and be sure to digest them
thoroughly.</i></p>

<table summary="table">

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdr"><span class="tiny">PAGE</span></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Beginning of the Earth</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">First Rain-storm</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Plants</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Mites</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Insects</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Fish</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Frogs</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Snakes</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Birds</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Animals</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Monkeys</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">People</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv"></span></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">4000</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Bronze Age Begins</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">3400</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Menes</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">2900</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Cheops</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">2300</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Chaldean Eclipse</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1900</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Abraham Leaves Ur</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1700</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Israelites go to Egypt</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1300</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Exodus; Iron Age Begins</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1200</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Trojan War</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1100</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Samuel; Saul</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1000</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Homer; Solomon; Hiram</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">900</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Lycurgus</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>

<tr>
<td class="tdr">776</td>
<td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
<td class="tdl">First Olympiad</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">753</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Founding of Rome</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">700</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Nineveh at Top</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">612</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Fall of Nineveh</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Draco; Solon</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a>-115</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">538</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Fall of Babylon</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">509</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">End of Kings at Rome</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">500</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Brahmanism</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Buddhism</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Confucius</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">490</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Marathon</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">480</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Thermopylæ;</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Salamis</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">480</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Golden Age</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">430</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Peloponnesian War</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">336</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> }</td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdr"></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxv"></span>323</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> }</td>
    <td class="tdl">Alexander the Great</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">202</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Zama</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">100</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Birth of Julius Cæsar</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">55</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> }</td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdr"></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">54</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> }</td>
    <td class="tdl">Conquest of Britain</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">44</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Death of Julius Cæsar</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">27</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Augustus and the Empire</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">4</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Birth of Christ</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Nero</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Titus</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">79</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Pompeii destroyed</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">179</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Marcus Aurelius</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">323</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Constantine</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">476</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Downfall of Rome</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">622</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">The Hegira</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">732</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Tours</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">800</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Charlemagne</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">900</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">King Alfred the Great</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1000</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">First Discovery of America</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1066</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">William the Conqueror</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1100</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">The Crusades</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1215</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">King John; Magna Charta</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1300</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Marco Polo</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdrt">1338</td>
    <td class="tdlt"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Beginning of One Hundred<br />
                    Years’ War; Crécy; Black<br />
                    Death; Joan of Arc</td>
    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1440</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Invention of Printing</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1453</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Fall of Constantinople</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_335">335</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvi"></span></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdrt">1492</td>
    <td class="tdlt"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Columbus; Discovery of<br />
                    America</td>
    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1497</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Vasco da Gama</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1500</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">The Renaissance</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">The Reformation</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Charles V</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">King Henry VIII</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Elizabeth</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_372">372</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1588</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Spanish Armada</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1600</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Shakspere</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1640</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Charles I and Oliver Cromwell</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Cardinal Richelieu</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">Louis XIV</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1700</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Peter the Great</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1750</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Frederick the Great</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1776</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">American Revolution</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_412">412</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1789</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">French Revolution</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_420">420</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1800</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Napoleon</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_428">428</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1861</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">Civil War</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1914</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> }</td>
    <td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdr"></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">1918</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> }</td>
    <td class="tdl">The Great War</td>
    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_460">460</a></td></tr>

</table>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1"></span></p>


<p class="c xxxlarge">
A CHILD’S HISTORY<br />
OF THE WORLD</p>

<p class="c xlarge">
BEGINS HERE
</p>


<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c1">1</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">How Things Started</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Once</span> upon a time there was a boy&mdash;</p>

<p>Just like me.</p>

<p>He had to stay in bed in the morning until
seven o’clock until his father and mother were
ready to get up;</p>

<p>So did I.</p>

<p>As he was always awake long before this time,
he used to lie there and think about all sorts of
curious things;</p>

<p>So did I.</p>

<p>One thing he used to wonder was this:</p>

<p>What would the world be like if there were&mdash;</p>

<p>No fathers and mothers,</p>

<p>No uncles and aunts,</p>

<p>No cousins or other children to play with,</p>

<p><i>No people at all, except himself</i> in the whole
world!</p>

<p>Perhaps you have wondered the same thing;</p>

<p>So did I.</p>

<p>At last he used to get so lonely, just from
thinking how dreadful such a world would be,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4"></span>
that he could stand it no longer and would run
to his mother’s room and jump into bed by her
side just to get this terrible thought out of his
mind;</p>

<p>So did I&mdash;for <i>I was the boy</i>.</p>

<p>Well, there <i>was</i> a time long, long, long ago
when there were no men or women or children,
<i>NO PEOPLE</i> of any kind in the whole world.
Of course there were no houses, for there was no
one to build them or to live in them, no towns or
cities&mdash;nothing that people make. There were
just wild animals&mdash;bears and wolves, birds and
butterflies, frogs and snakes, turtles and fish.
Can you think of such a world as that?</p>

<p class="pad6">
Then,</p>

<p class="pad10">
long, long, long
</p>

<p>before that, there was a time when there were
<i>NO PEOPLE</i> and <i>NO ANIMALS</i> of any
sort in the whole world; there were just growing
plants, trees and bushes, grass and flowers. Can
you think of such a world as that?</p>

<p class="pad6">
Then,</p>

<p class="pad10">
long, long, long,<br />
long, long, long
</p>

<p>before that, there was a time when there were
<i>NO PEOPLE, NO ANIMALS, NO
PLANTS</i>, in the whole world; there was just
bare rock and water everywhere. Can you think
of such a world as that?</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5"></span></p>

<p class="pad6">
Then,</p>

<p class="pad10">
long, long, long<br />
long, long, long&mdash;you might<br />
<span class="pad4">keep on saying&mdash;</span><br />
“long, long, long,” all day, and<br />
<span class="pad4">to-morrow, and all</span><br />
<span class="pad4">next week, and next</span><br />
<span class="pad4">month, and next</span><br />
<span class="pad4">year, and it would</span><br />
<span class="pad4">not be long enough&mdash;</span></p>

<p>
before this, there was a time when there was
<i>NO WORLD AT ALL!</i>
</p>

<p>There were only the Stars</p>

<p>Nothing else!</p>

<p>Now, real Stars are not things with points
like those in the corner of a flag or the gold ones
you put on a Christmas tree. The real stars in
the sky have no points. They are huge burning
coals of fire&mdash;coals of fire. Each star, however,
is so huge that there is nothing in the world now
anywhere nearly as big. One little bit, one little
scrap of a star is bigger than our whole world&mdash;than
our whole world.</p>

<p>One of these stars is our Sun&mdash;yes, our Sun.
The other stars would look the same as the Sun
if we could get as close to them. But at that
time, so long, long ago, our Sun was not just a
big, round, white, hot ball as we see it in the sky
to-day. It was then more like the fireworks you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6"></span>
may have seen on the Fourth of July. It was
whirling and sputtering and throwing off sparks.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">The sun sputtering and throwing off sparks.</p>
</div>

<p>One of these sparks which the Sun threw far
off got cool just as a spark from the crackling log
in the fireplace gets cool, and this cooled-off spark
was&mdash;</p>

<p class="pad6">
What do you suppose?<br />
See if you can guess&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7"></span><br />
It was our World!&mdash;yes, the World<br />
on which we now live.
</p>

<p>At first, however, our World or Earth was
nothing but a ball of rock. This ball of rock was
wrapped around with steam, like a heavy fog.</p>

<p>Then the steam turned to rain and it rained
on the World,</p>

<p class="c gesperrta">
a a a<br />
n n n<br />
d d d<br />
<br />
i i i<br />
t t t<br />
<br />
r r r<br />
a a a<br />
i i i<br />
n n n<br />
e e e<br />
d d d
</p>

<p>until it had filled up the hollows and made enormously
big puddles. These puddles were the
oceans. The dry places were bare <i>rock</i>.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came the first living things&mdash;<span class="more"><i>tiny plants</i></span>
that you could only have seen under
a microscope. At first they grew only in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8"></span>
water, then along the water’s edge, then out on
the rock.</p>

<p>Then dirt or soil, as people call it, formed all
over the rock and made the rock into land, and
the plants grew larger and spread farther over
the land.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came the first <span class="more"><i>tiny animals</i></span> in the
water. They were wee <i>Mites</i> like drops of
jelly.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came things like <i>Insects</i>,
some that live <i>in</i> the water, some <i>on</i> the water,
some <i>on</i> the land, and some <i>in</i> the air.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came <i>Fish</i>, that live only in
the water.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came <i>Frogs</i>, that live in the
water and on the land, too.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came <i>Snakes</i> and huge <i>lizards</i>
bigger than alligators, more like dragons; and
they grew so big that at last they could not move
and died because they could not get enough food
to eat.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came <i>Birds</i> that lay eggs and
those <i>Animals</i> like foxes and elephants and cows
that nurse their babies when they are born.</p>

<p>Then, after this, came <i>Monkeys</i>.</p>

<p>Then, last of all, came&mdash;what do you
suppose? Yes&mdash;<i>People</i>&mdash;men, women, and
children.</p>

<p>Here are the steps; see if you can take them:</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9"></span></p>

<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="table">

<tr><td class="tds">Star,</td>
    <td class="tds">Sun;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Sun,</td>
    <td class="tds">Spark;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Spark,</td>
    <td class="tds">World;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">World,</td>
    <td class="tds">Steam;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Steam,</td>
    <td class="tds">Rain;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Rain,</td>
    <td class="tds">Oceans.</td></tr>

</table>

<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="table">

<tr><td class="tds">Oceans,</td>
    <td class="tds">Plants;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Plants,</td>
    <td class="tds">Mites;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Mites,</td>
    <td class="tds">Insects;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Insects,</td>
    <td class="tds">Fish;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Fish,</td>
    <td class="tds">Frogs;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Frogs,</td>
    <td class="tds">Snakes.</td></tr>

</table>

<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="table">

<tr><td class="tds">Snakes,</td>
    <td class="tds">Birds;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Birds,</td>
    <td class="tds">Animals;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Animals,</td>
    <td class="tds">Monkeys;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">Monkeys,</td>
    <td class="tds">People;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds"></td>
    <td class="tds">And here we are!</td>
    <td class="tds"></td></tr>




</table>

<p>What do you suppose will be next?</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c2">2</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Umfa-Umfa and Itchy-Scratchy</p>


<p><span class="smcap">How</span> do you suppose I know about all these
things that took place so long ago?</p>

<p>I don’t.</p>

<p>I’m only guessing about them.</p>

<p>But there are different kinds of guesses. If
I hold out my two closed hands and ask you to
guess which one has the penny in it, that is one
kind of a guess. Your guess might be right or
it might be wrong. It would be just luck.</p>

<p>But there is another kind of a guess. When
there is snow on the ground and I see tracks of a
boot in the snow, I guess that a man must have
passed by, for boots don’t usually walk without
some one in them. That kind of a guess is not
just luck but common sense.</p>

<p>And so we can guess about a great many things
that have taken place long ago, even though there
was no one there at the time to see them or tell
about them.</p>

<p>Men have dug down deep under the ground in
different parts of the world and have found there&mdash;what
do you suppose?</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11"></span></p>

<p>I don’t believe you would ever guess.</p>

<p>They have found the heads of arrows and
spears and hatchets.</p>

<p>The peculiar thing about these arrows and
spears and hatchets is that they are not made
of iron or steel, as you might expect, but of stone.</p>

<p>Now, we are sure that only men could have
made and used such things, for birds and fish
or other animals do not use hatchets or spears.
We are also sure that these men must have lived
long, long years ago before iron and steel were
known, because it must have taken long, long
years for these things to have become covered up
so deep by dust and dirt. We have also found
the bones of the people themselves, who must
have died thousands upon thousands of years
ago, long before any one began to write down
history. So we know that the people who were
living on the earth then were working and playing,
eating and fighting&mdash;doing many of the same
things we are to-day&mdash;especially the fighting.</p>

<p>This time in the pre-history of the world, when
people used such things made of stone, is therefore
called <span class="smcap">The Stone Age</span>.</p>

<p>These First Stone Age People we call <i>Primitive</i>,
which simply means First as a Primer means
First Reader. Primitive People were wild animals.
Unlike other wild animals, however, they
walked on their hind legs.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12"></span></p>

<p>These First People had hair growing, not just
on their heads, but all over their bodies, like some
shaggy dogs. They had no houses of any sort in
which to live. They simply lay down on the
ground when night came. Later, when the earth
became cold, they found caves in the rocks or in
the hillsides where they could get away from
the cold and storms and other wild animals. So
men, women, and children of this time were
called <i>Cave People</i>.</p>

<p>They spent their days hunting some animals
and running and hiding from others. They
caught animals by trapping them in a pit covered
over with bushes, or they killed them with a club
or a rock if they had a chance, or with stone-headed
arrows or hatchets. They even drew
pictures of these animals on the walls of their
caves, scratching the picture with a pointed stone,
and some of these pictures we can still see to-day.</p>

<p>They lived on berries and nuts and grass-seeds.
They robbed the nests of birds for the eggs, which
they ate raw, for they had no fire to cook with.
They were blood-thirsty; they liked to drink the
warm blood of animals they killed, as you would
a glass of milk.</p>

<p>They talked to each other by some sort of
grunts&mdash;</p>

<p>“Umfa, umfa, glug, glug.”</p>

<p>They made clothes of skins of animals they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13"></span>
killed, for there was no such thing as cloth. And
yet, although they were real men, they lived so
much like wild animals that we call such people
<i>savages</i>.</p>

<p>Primitive Men were not pleasant people. They
were fearful and cruel creatures, who beat and
killed and robbed whenever they had a chance.</p>

<p>A cave man got his wife by stealing a girl
away from her own cave home, knocking her
senseless, and dragging her off by her hair, if
necessary. The men were fighters but not brave.
They would kill other animals and other men if
the others were weaker or if they could sneak
upon them and catch them off their guard,
but if others were stronger they would run and
hide.</p>

<p>Their only rule of life was hurt and kill what
you can, and run from what you can’t. This is
what we call the first law of nature&mdash;every man
for himself. They knew if they didn’t kill they
would be killed, for there were no laws nor police
to protect them.</p>

<p>These primitive cave people are our ancestors,
and we get from them many of their wild ways.
In spite of our religion and manners and education,
there are many men still living who act in
the same way when they get a chance.</p>

<p>Jails are made for such men.</p>

<p>Suppose you had been a boy or a girl in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14"></span>
Stone Age, with a name like Itchy-Scratchy. I
wonder how you would have liked the life.</p>

<p>When you woke up in the morning, you would
not have bathed or even washed your hands and
face or brushed your teeth or combed your hair.</p>

<p>You ate with your fingers, for there were no
knives or forks or spoons or cups or saucers, only
one bowl&mdash;which your mother had made out of
mud and dried in the sun to hold water to drink&mdash;no
dishes to wash and put away, no chairs, no
tables, no table manners.</p>

<p>There were no books, no paper, no pencils.</p>

<p>There was no Saturday or Sunday, January or
July. Except that one day was warm and sunny
or another cold and rainy, they were all alike.
There was no school to go to. Every day was a
holiday.</p>

<p>There was nothing to do all day long but make
mud pies or pick berries or play tag with your
brothers and sisters.</p>

<p>I wonder how you would like that kind of life!</p>

<p>“Fine!” do you think?&mdash;“a great life&mdash;just
like camping out?”</p>

<p>But I have only told you part of the story.</p>

<p>The cave would have been cold and damp and
dark, with only the bare ground or a pile of
leaves for a bed. There would probably have
been bats and big spiders sharing the cave with
you.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15"></span></p>

<p>You might have had on the skin of some
animal your father had killed but as this only
covered part of your body and as there was no
fire, you would have felt cold in winter, and when
it got very cold you might have frozen to death.</p>

<p>For breakfast you might have had some dried
berries or grass-seed or a piece of raw meat, for
dinner the same thing, for supper still the same
thing.</p>

<p>You would never have had any bread or milk
or griddle-cakes with syrup, or oatmeal with
sugar on it, or apple pie or ice-cream.</p>

<p>There was nothing to do all day long but
watch out for wild animals&mdash;bears and tigers;
for there was no door with lock and key, and a
tiger, if he found you out, could go wherever you
went and “get you” even in your cave.</p>

<p>And then some day your father, who had left
the cave in the morning to go hunting, would not
return, and you would know he had been torn to
pieces by some wild beast, and you would wonder
how long before your turn would come next.</p>

<p>Do you think you would like to have lived
then?</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c3">3</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Fire! Fire!! Fire!!!</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first things are usually the most interesting&mdash;the
first baby, the first tooth, the first
step, the first word, the first spanking. This
book will be chiefly the story of first things;
those that came second or third or fourth or fifth
you can read about and study later.</p>

<p>Primitive People did not at first know what
fire was. They had no matches nor any way of
making a light or a fire. They had no light at
night. They had no fire to warm themselves by.
They had no fire with which to cook their food.
Somewhere and sometime, we do not know exactly
when or how, they found out how to make
and use fire.</p>

<p>If you rub your hands together rapidly, they
become warm. Try it. If you rub them together
still more rapidly, they become hot. If
you rub two sticks together rapidly, they become
warm. If you rub two sticks together very, very,
very rapidly, they become hot and at last, if you
keep it up long enough and fast enough, are set
on fire. The Indians and boy scouts do this and
make a fire by twisting one stick against another.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17"></span></p>

<p>This was one of the first inventions, and this
invention was as remarkable for them at that time
as the invention of electric light in our own times.</p>

<p>People of the Stone Age had hair and beards
that were never cut, because they had nothing to
cut them with, even had they wanted them short,
which they probably didn’t.</p>

<p>Their finger-nails grew like claws until they
broke off.</p>

<p>They had no clothes made of cloth, for they
had no cloth and nothing with which to cut and
sew cloth if they had.</p>

<p>They had no saws to cut boards, no hammer
or nails to fasten them together to make houses
or furniture.</p>

<p>They had no forks nor spoons; no pots nor
pans; no buckets nor shovels; no needles nor
pins.</p>

<p>The People of the Stone Age had never seen
or heard of such a thing as iron or steel or tin
or brass or anything made of these metals. For
thousands and thousands of years Primitive
People got along without any of the things that
are made of metal.</p>

<p>Then one day a Stone Age Man found out
something by accident; a “discovery” we call it.</p>

<p>He was making a fire; and a fire, which is to
us such a common, every-day thing, was still to
him very wonderful. Round his fire he placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18"></span>
some rock to make a sort of camp-fire stove.
Now, it happened that this particular rock was
not ordinary rock but what we now call “ore,”
for it had copper in it. The heat of the fire melted
some of the copper out of the rock, and it ran
out on the ground.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">A cave man discovering copper.</p>
</div>

<p>What were those
bright, shining
drops?</p>

<p>He examined
them.</p>

<p>How pretty
they were!</p>

<p>He heated some
more of the same
rock and got some
more copper.</p>

<p>Thus was the
first metal discovered.</p>

<p>At first people used the copper for beads and
ornaments, it was so bright and shiny. But they
soon found out that copper could be pounded
into sharp blades and points, which were much
better than the stone knives and arrow-heads
they had used before.</p>

<p>But notice that it was not iron they discovered
first, it was copper.</p>

<p>We think people next discovered tin in somewhat
the same way. Then, after that, they found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19"></span>
out that tin when mixed with copper made a still
harder and better metal than either alone. This
metal, made of tin and copper together, we now
call bronze; and for two or three thousand years
people made their tools and weapons out of
bronze. And so we call the time when men used
bronze tools, and bronze weapons for hunting
and fighting, the Bronze Age.</p>

<p>At last some man discovered iron, and he soon
saw that iron was better for most useful things
than either copper or bronze. The Iron Age
started with the discovery of iron, and we are still
in the Iron Age.</p>

<p>As people who lived in the Bronze and Iron
Ages were able, after the discovery of metal, to
do many things they could not possibly have
done before with only stone, and as they lived
much more as we do now, we call people of the
Bronze and Iron Ages “civilized.”</p>

<p>You may have heard in your mythology or
fairy tales of a Golden Age also, but by this is
meant something quite different. The Golden
Age means a time when everything was beautiful
and lovely and everybody wise and good. There
have been times in the World’s History which
have been called the Golden Age for this reason.</p>

<p>But I am afraid there never has been really a
golden age&mdash;only in fairy-tales.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c4">4</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">From an Airplane</p>


<p><span class="smcap">People</span> of the Bronze and Iron Ages thought
the world was flat, and they knew only a little
bit of the world, the small part where they lived;
and they thought that if you went too far the
world came to an end where you would</p>

<p class="pad6">
TU<br />
<span class="pad6a">M</span><br />
<span class="pad6b">B</span><br />
<span class="pad6c">L</span><br />
<span class="pad6d">E</span><br />
<br />

<span class="pad6e">O</span><br />
<span class="pad6f">F</span><br />
<span class="pad6f">F</span><br />
</p>


<p>The far-away land which nobody knew they
called the Ultima Thule. This is a nice name to
say&mdash;Ultima Thule, Ultima Thule&mdash;far-away
Ultima Thule.</p>

<p>If we should go up in an airplane and look
down on the world at the place where the first
civilized people once lived, we should see two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21"></span>
rivers, a sea and a gulf, and from so high up in
the air they would look something like this:</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Map of Mesopotamia and Mediterranean.</p>
</div>

<p>Now, you probably have never even heard
of these rivers and seas, and yet they have been
known longer than any other places in the world.
One of these lines is the Tigris River, and the
other is the Euphrates. They run along getting
closer and closer together until at last they join
each other and flow into what is called the Persian
Gulf.</p>

<p>You might make these two rivers in the
ground of your yard or garden or draw them on
the floor if your mother will let you. Just for
fun you might name your drinking-cup “Tigris”
and your glass “Euphrates.” Then you might
call your mouth, into which they both empty,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22"></span>
the “Persian Gulf,” for you will hear a great
many new names by and by, and as grown-up
people give names to their houses and boats, to
their horses and dogs, why shouldn’t you give
names to things that belong to you? For instance,
you might call your chair, your bed, your
table, your comb and brush, even your hat and
shoes, after these strange names.</p>

<p>Then, if we flew in our airplane to the west, we
should see a country called Egypt, another river,
the Nile, and a sea now named the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean simply means “between
the land,” for this sea is surrounded by land. It
is, indeed, almost like a big lake. It is supposed
that long, long ago in the Stone Age, there was
no water at all where this sea now is, only a dry
valley, and that people once lived there.</p>

<p>Along the Nile in Egypt and the Tigris and
Euphrates were the only civilized nations living
in the Bronze Age. The rest of the World
people knew nothing about. There may have
been Cave Men living in other parts of the
World, but it is only of the people in these two
places that we have any written history until
after the Iron Age began.</p>

<p>All of the people who lived in the country of
the Tigris and Euphrates were white. We don’t
know how nor when nor where colored people
first lived, though it is interesting to guess. There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23"></span>
were, we think, just three different white families
and from these three families all the white
people in the world are descended. Yes, your
family came from here, ’way, ’way, ’way, ’way,
back. So you will want to know the names of
these three families and which one was your own.
They were:</p>

<p class="c">
The Indo-Europeans, often called Aryans,<br />
The Semites, and<br />
The Hamites.
</p>

<p>Most of us belong to the Aryan family, some
are Semites, but very few in this part of the
World are Hamites.</p>

<p>If your name is Henry or Charles or William,
you are probably an Aryan.</p>

<p>If it is Moses or Solomon, you are probably
a Semite.</p>

<p>If it is Shufu or Rameses, you are probably
a Hamite.</p>

<p>The Aryans came from higher up on the map
than the other two families, we think. They
were the first people to tame wild horses and to
use them for riding and drawing carts. They
also had tamed cows which they used for milk,
and sheep for their wool.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c5">5</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Real History Begins or ’Way ’Way Back<br />
to the Time of the Gipsies</p>

<p>
<span class="smcap">You</span> can remember the big things that have
happened in your own lifetime.</p>

<p>And you have of course heard your father
tell about things that happened in his own life&mdash;how
he fought the Germans in the Great War,
perhaps.</p>

<p>And if your grandfather is still living, he can
tell you still other stories of things that took
place when he was a boy before even your father
was born.</p>

<p>
Perhaps your<br />
<span class="pad4">great,</span><br />
<span class="pad11">great,</span><br />
<span class="pad12">grandfather</span></p>

<p>
may have been living when Washington was
President, and <i>his</i></p>
<p>
<span class="pad4">great,</span><br />
<span class="pad11">great,</span><br />
<span class="pad12">great,</span><br />
<span class="pad13">great,</span><br />
<span class="pad14">grandfather</span>
</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25"></span></p>
<p>may have been living when there were only wild
Indians in this country.</p>

<p>Although these ancestors, as they are called,
are dead long since, the story of what did happen
in all their lifetimes ’way, ’way back has been
written down in books and this story is history&mdash;“his
story” one boy named it.</p>

<p>Christ was living in the Year 1&mdash;no, not the
first year of the world, of course.</p>

<p>Do you know how many years ago that was?</p>

<p>You can tell if you know what year this is
now.</p>

<p>If Christ were living to-day, how old would
He be?</p>

<p>Nineteen hundred and more years may seem
a long time. But perhaps you have seen or heard
of a man or a woman who was a hundred years
old. Have you?</p>

<p>Well, in nineteen hundred years only nineteen
men each a hundred years old might have lived
one after the other&mdash;nineteen men one after the
other since the time of Christ&mdash;and that doesn’t
seem so long after all!</p>

<p>Everything that happened <i>before</i> Christ was
born is called <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, which you can guess are the
initials of Before Christ, so <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> stands for Before
Christ. So much is easy.</p>

<p>Everything that has happened in the world
<i>since</i> the time of Christ is called <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> This is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26"></span>
not so easy for though <span class="allsmcap">A.</span> might stand for After,
we know <span class="allsmcap">D.</span> is not the initial of Christ. As
a matter of fact, <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> are the initials of two Latin
words, “Anno Domini.” Anno means “in the
year,” Domini “of the Lord”; so that Anno
Domini is “in the year, of the Lord,” which in
ordinary, every-day language means of course
“since the time of Christ.”</p>

<p>The things I have told you that I have had to
guess at we call Before-History, or <i>Pre-History</i>&mdash;which
means the same thing. But the things
that have happened in the lifetime of people,
who have written them down&mdash;the stories I don’t
have to guess at&mdash;we call <i>History</i>.</p>

<p>The first history that we feel fairly sure is
really true begins with the Hamite family. The
Hamites, you remember, were one of the three
families of the white race I have already told you
about who lived by the Tigris and Euphrates.
We think that they moved away from the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers and went down to Egypt
long before history began.</p>

<p>Of course they didn’t pack all their furniture
on a big wagon and move to Egypt,
as you might move from the house where
you now live to another. They lived in
tents then and not in houses at all, and they only
moved along a day’s journey at a time as campers
or Gipsies might do. In fact, Gipsy is short<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27"></span>
for Egyptian. When they got tired of one place
or had eaten up everything there was near-by,
they rolled up their tents, packed them on camels,
and moved a little farther along to a new place.
And so camping here for a while, then gradually
moving farther along to the next good place and
camping there, they at last got as far off as the
land we now call Egypt. When they finally
reached Egypt they found it such a fine country
in which to live that there they stayed for good
and were called Egyptians.</p>

<p>Why do you suppose they found Egypt such
a fine country in which to live? It was chiefly
on account of a habit of the river Nile&mdash;a bad
habit you might at first think it&mdash;a habit of flooding
the country once every year.</p>

<p>It rains so hard in the spring that the water
fills up the river Nile, overflows its banks, and
spreads far out over the land, but not very deep.
It is as if you had left a water-spigot turned on
and the water running, or had begun to water
your garden with a hose, and then you had gone
off and forgotten it.</p>

<p>But the people know when the overflow is
coming and they are glad for it to come, so they
put banks around some of it so that it is stored
up for watering the land during the rest of the
year when there is no rain. After most of the
water has dried up, it has left a layer of rich,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28"></span>
dark, moist earth over the whole country. In
this earth it is easy to grow dates, wheat, and
other things which are good for food.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Menes, 3400 B. C.</p>
</div>

<p>If it were not for this yearly overflow of the
Nile, the country of Egypt would be a sandy
desert in which no plant or living thing would
grow&mdash;for all plants as well as animals must have
water and will die without it. Egypt, without
water, would be like the great Sahara Desert,
which is not far away. It is the Nile, therefore,
that makes the land so rich and Egypt such an
easy and cheap country to live in, for food grows
with little or no labor and costs almost nothing.
Besides this, the climate is so warm that people
need little clothing and do not have to buy coal
or make fires to heat their houses. So it was to
this country that the Hamites at last came, finally
settled down, and were thereafter called
Egyptians.</p>

<p>The first Egyptian king
whose name we know was
Menes, but we do not know
much about him. We believe
he built some kind of waterworks
so that the people might
better use the water of the
Nile, and he probably lived
about 3400 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> He may have lived either earlier
or later, but as this is an easy date to remember,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29"></span>
we shall take it for a starting-point. You might
remember it by supposing it is a telephone number
of a person you wanted to call up:</p>

<p>Menes, First Egyptian king . . 3400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>


<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30"></span></p>
<h2 class="nobreak" id="c6">6</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Puzzle-Writers</p>


<p><span class="smcap">People</span> of the Stone Age had learned how to
talk to each other, but they could not write, for
there was no such thing as an alphabet or written
words, and so they could not send notes or
messages to one another or write stories. The
Egyptians were the first people to think of a way
to write what they wanted to say.</p>

<p>The Egyptians did not write with letters like
ours, however, but with signs that looked like
little pictures, a lion, a spear, a bird, a whip.
This picture-writing was called hieroglyphics&mdash;see
if you can say “Hi-e-ro-glyph-ics.” Perhaps
you have seen, in the puzzle sections of a newspaper,
stories written in pictures for you to guess
the meaning. Well, hieroglyphics were something
like that.</p>

<p>Here is the name of an Egyptian queen, whom
you will hear about later&mdash;written in hieroglyphics;
her name you would never guess from
this funny writing. It is “Cleopatra.”</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Cleopatra in hieroglyphic<br />
writing.</p>
</div>

<p>A king’s or queen’s name always had a line
drawn around it, like the one you see around the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31"></span>
above name in order to mark it more prominently
and give it more importance. It was something
like the square or circle your
mother may put around her
initials or monogram on her
letter-paper.</p>

<p>But there was no paper in
those days and so the Egyptians
wrote on the leaves of a
plant called papyrus that
grew in the water. It is from
this name “papyrus” that we
get the name “paper.” Can
you see that “paper” and “papyrus”
look and sound something
alike? The Egyptians’
books were written by hand, of course, but they
had no pencils nor pens nor ink to write with.
For a pen they used a reed, split at the end, and
for ink a mixture of water and soot.</p>

<p>Their books were not made of separate pages
like our books, but from a long sheet of papyrus-leaves
pasted together. This was rolled up to
form what was called a scroll, something like a
roll of wall-paper, and was read as it was unrolled.</p>

<p>Stories of their kings and battles and great
events in their history they used to write on the
walls of their buildings and monuments. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32"></span>
writing they carved into the stone, so that it
would last much longer than that on the papyrus-leaves.</p>

<p>All the old Egyptians, who wrote in hieroglyphics
and knew how to read this writing, had
died long since, and for a great many years no
one knew what such writing meant. But a little
over a hundred years ago a man found out by
accident how to read and understand hieroglyphics
once again. This is the way he happened
to do so.</p>

<p>The Nile separates into different streams before
it flows into the Mediterranean Sea. These
separate streams are called mouths and one
of these mouths has been given the name “Rosetta.”</p>

<p>One day a man was digging nearby this
Rosetta Mouth when he dug up a stone something
like a tombstone with several kinds of writing
on it. The top writing was in pictures which
we now call hieroglyphics, and no one understood
what it meant. Below this was written what
was supposed to be the same story in the Greek
language, and a great many people do understand
Greek. All one had to do, therefore, to
find out the meaning of the hieroglyphics, was to
compare the two writings. It was like reading
secret writing when we know what the letters
stand for. You may have tried to solve a puzzle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33"></span>
in the back of your magazine, and this was just
such an interesting puzzle, only there was no
one to tell the answer in the next number.</p>

<p>The puzzle was not so easy as it sounds, however,
for it took a man almost twenty years to
solve it. That is a long time for any one to spend
in trying to solve a puzzle, isn’t it? But after
this “key” to the puzzle was found, men were
able to read all of the hieroglyphics in Egypt and
so to find out what happened in that country long
before Christ was born.</p>

<p>This stone is called the Rosetta Stone, from
the Rosetta Mouth of the Nile where it was
found. It is now in the great British Museum
in London and is very famous, because from it
we were able to learn so much history which we
otherwise would not have known.</p>

<p>Egypt was ruled over by a king who was called
a Pharaoh. When he died his son became the
Pharaoh and so on. All the other people were
divided into classes, and the children in each
class usually became just what their fathers had
been. It was very unusual for an Egyptian to
start at the bottom and work up to the top, as
a poor boy in this country may do, though once
in a great while this happened even in Egypt, as
we shall see by and by.</p>

<p>The highest class of people were called priests.
They were not like priests or ministers of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34"></span>
church nowadays, however, for there was no
church at that time. The priests made the religion
and rules, which every one had to obey as
everybody does the laws of our land.</p>

<p>But the priests were not only priests; they
were doctors and lawyers and engineers, as well.
They were the best-educated class, and they
were the only people who knew how to read and
write, for it was very difficult, as you might suppose,
to learn how to read and write hieroglyphics.</p>

<p>The next highest class to the priests were
the soldiers, and below these were the lower
classes&mdash;farmers, shepherds, shopkeepers, merchants,
mechanics, and last of all the swineherds.</p>

<p>The Egyptians did not worship one God as
we do. They believed in hundreds of gods and
goddesses, and they had a special god for every
sort of thing, who ruled over and had charge of
that thing&mdash;a god of the farm, a god of the home,
and so on. Some of their gods were good and
some were bad, but the Egyptians prayed to
them all.</p>

<p>Osiris was the chief god, and Isis was his wife.
Osiris was the god of farming and judge of the
dead. Their son Horus had the head of a hawk.</p>

<p>Many of their gods had bodies of men with
heads of animals. Animals they thought sacred.
The dog and the cat were sacred animals. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35"></span>
ibis, which was a bird like a stork, was another.
Then there was the beetle, which was called a
scarab. If any one killed a sacred animal he was
put to death, for the Egyptians thought it much
worse to kill a sacred and holy creature than to
kill even a human being.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c7">7</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Tomb-Builders</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Tu-tank-amen’s tomb showing foods preserved.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Egyptians believed that when they died,
their souls stayed near by their bodies. So
when a person died they put in the tomb with
him all sorts of things that he had used in daily
life&mdash;things to eat and drink, furniture and
dishes, toys and games. They thought the soul
would return to its own body at the day of judgment.
They wanted their bodies to be kept
from decaying until judgment day, in order that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37"></span>
the soul might then have a body to return to.
So they pickled the bodies of the dead by soaking
them in a kind of melted tar and wrapping
them round and round and round with a cloth
like a bandage. A dead body pickled in this way
is called a mummy, and after thousands of years
the mummies of the Egyptian kings may still be
seen. Most of them are not, however, in the
tombs where they were at first placed. They
have been moved away and put in museums, and
we may see them there now. Although they
are yellow and dried up, they still look like</p>

<div class="poetry-container">
<div class="poetry">
<div class="stanza">
<div class="verse indent0">“Little old men</div>
<div class="verse indent0">All skin and bones.”</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>


<p>At first only kings or important people of the
highest classes were made mummies, but after
a while all the classes, except perhaps the lowest,
were treated in the same way. Sacred animals
from beetles to cows were also made into
mummies.</p>

<p>When an Egyptian died his friends heaped
up a few stones over his body just to cover it up
decently and keep it from being stolen or destroyed
by those wild animals that fed on dead
bodies. But a king or a rich man wanted a
bigger pile of stones over his body than just
ordinary people had. So to make sure that his
pile would be big enough, a king built it for
himself before he died. Each king tried to make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38"></span>
his pile larger than any one else’s until at last
the pile of stones became so big it was a hill of
rocks and called a pyramid. The pyramids
therefore were tombs of the kings who built
them while they were alive to be monuments to
themselves when they were dead. In fact a king
was much more interested in building a home
for his dead body than he was in a home for
his live body. So, instead of palaces, kings built
pyramids. There are many of these pyramids
built along the bank of the Nile, and most of
them were built, we think, just after 3000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>

<p>When a building is being put up nowadays,
men use derricks and cranes and engines to haul
and raise heavy stones and beams. But the
Egyptians had no such machinery, and though
they used huge stones to build the pyramids,
they had to drag these stones for many miles
and raise them into place simply by pushing and
pulling them. The three biggest of all the pyramids
are near the city of Cairo. The largest one
of them, which is called the Great Pyramid,
was built by a king named Cheops. To remember
when he lived, simply think of this as another
telephone number:</p>

<p class="c">
Cheops ..............2900 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span><br />
</p>

<p>It is said that one hundred thousand men worked
twenty years to build his pyramid. It is one of
the largest buildings in the world, and some of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39"></span>
the blocks of stone themselves are as big as a
small house. I have been to the top of it, and
it is like climbing a steep mountain with rocky
sides. I have also been far inside to the cave-like
room in the center where Cheop’s mummy
was placed. There is nothing in there now,
however, except bats that fly about in the darkness,
for the mummy has disappeared&mdash;been
stolen, perhaps.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Cheops building his pyramid.</p>
</div>

<p>Near the Pyramid of Cheops is the Sphinx.
It is a huge statue of a lion with a man’s head.
It is as big as a church, and though it is so big, it
has been carved out of one single rock. The
rock, however, was already there and so did not
have to be carried. The Sphinx is a statue of
the god of the morning, and the head is that of
one of the Egyptian Pharaohs who built a pyramid
near that of Cheops. The desert sand has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40"></span>
covered the paws and most of the body. Though
the sand has been dug away from time to time,
the wind quickly covers the body with sand
again.</p>

<p>The Egyptians carved other large statues of
men and women out of rock. These figures are
usually many times bigger than life-size, and sit
or stand stiffly erect with both feet flat on the
ground and hands close to the body in the position
some children take when they “sit” for their
photograph.</p>

<p>They built huge houses for their gods. These
were called temples and took the place of our
churches. These temples had gigantic&mdash;that’s
the way it is spelled, though it means “giant-ic”&mdash;columns
and pillars. Ordinary people standing
beside them look like dwarfs. Here is one of
these temples, and you can see how different it
is from our churches:</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Egyptian temple.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41"></span></p>

<p>They decorated their temples and pyramids,
and the cases in which the mummies were put,
with drawings and paintings. The pictures
they made, however, looked something like those
a young child might draw. For example, when
they wanted to make a picture of water, they
simply made a zigzag line to represent waves;
when they tried to draw a row of men back of
a row in front, they put those in the back <i>on top</i>
of those in front. To show that a man was a
king, they made him several times larger than
the other men in the picture. When they
painted a picture they used any color they
thought was pretty, usually blue or yellow or
brown. Whether the person or thing was really
that color or not made no difference.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c8">8</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Rich Land Where There Was No<br />
Money</p>


<p><span class="smcap">You</span> have read in fairy-tales of a land where
cakes and candy and sugar-plums grow on trees,
where everything you want to eat or to play with
can be had just by picking it. Well, long, long
ago people used to think there had been really
such a country, and where do you suppose they
said it was? Somewhere near the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers&mdash;those rivers with the strange
names I asked you to learn&mdash;and they called
this spot the Garden of Eden. We do not know
exactly where it was, for there is no such place
now quite as wonderful as the Garden of Eden
was supposed to be.</p>

<p>Egypt was a land of one river, the Nile. The
land of the Two Rivers had several names.</p>

<p>Let us suppose we are flying over the country
in an airplane and looking down at the land between
these two rivers. It is called Mesopotamia,
which is two Greek words simply meaning
“Between the Rivers.”</p>

<p>See the land over there by the upper Tigris.
It is called <i>Assyria</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43"></span></p>

<p>See the land near where the rivers join each
other. That is called <i>Babylonia</i>.</p>

<p>See the land near where they empty. That
is called <i>Chaldea</i>.</p>

<p>And see over there is <i>Mount Ararat</i>, where it
is supposed Noah’s Ark rested after the flood.</p>

<p>Here are a lot of new names. A young
friend of mine had a train of toy cars. He had
noticed that the Pullman cars on which he had
ridden had names, and so he gave his toy cars
names also. He called them:</p>

<p class="pad6c">
<span class="smcap">Assyria</span>    <span class="smcap pad6">Mesopotamia</span><br />
<span class="smcap pad6c">Babylonia</span>  <span class="smcap pad14">Ararat</span><br />
<span class="smcap pad6e">Chaldea</span> <span class="smcap pad6">Euphrates</span>
</p>

<p>Babylonia was a very rich country, for the
two rivers brought down and dropped great
quantities of earth just as the Nile did in
Egypt, and this made very rich soil. Wheat,
from which we make bread, is called the staff of
life. It is the most valuable of all foods which
grow. It is supposed that wheat first grew in
Babylonia. Dates in that part of the world are
almost as important a food as wheat. Dates,
too, grow there very plentifully. Now, you may
think dates are something to be eaten almost like
candy but in Babylonia dates took the place of
oatmeal. In the rivers there were quantities of
good fish, and as fishing was just fun, you see
that the people who lived in Babylonia&mdash;the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44"></span>
Babylonians, as they were called&mdash;had plenty of
good food without having to do much work for
it. No one had any money in those days; people
had cows and sheep and goats, and a man was
rich who had much of these “goods.” But if a
man wanted to buy or sell, he had to buy or sell
by trading something he had for something he
wanted.</p>

<p>Somewhere in Babylonia the people built a
great tower called the <i>Tower of Babel</i>, which
you have probably heard about. It was more
like a mountain than a tower. They built other
towers, too. Some say the Tower of Babel and
towers like it were built so that the people
might have a high place to which they could
climb in case of another flood. But others give
a different reason. They say that the people
who built these towers came to Babylonia from
farther north where there were mountains. In
this northern land they had always placed their
altars on the top of a mountain, to be close to
heaven. So when they moved to a flat country
like Mesopotamia and Babylonia, where there
were no mountains, they <i>built</i> mountains in
order to have a high place for the altar on top.
To reach the top of these mountains or towers,
they made, instead of a staircase on the inside, a
slanting roadway that wound around the outside
in somewhat the way a road winds around
a mountain.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45"></span></p>

<p>There was hardly any stone either in or near
Babylonia as there was in Egypt, and so the
Babylonians built their buildings of bricks, which
were made of mud formed into blocks and dried
in the sun. In the course of time, bricks of this
sort crumble and turn back into dust again just
as mud pies that you might make would do.
This is the reason why all that is left of the
Tower of Babel and the other buildings that
were put up so long ago are now simply hills of
clay into which the brick has turned.</p>

<p>The Egyptians wrote on papyrus or carved
their history in stone, but the Babylonians had
neither papyrus nor stone. All they had were
bricks. So they wrote on bricks before they
were dried, while they were still soft clay. This
writing was made by punching marks into the
clay with the end of a stick. It was called
<i>cuneiform</i>, which means wedge-shaped, for it
looked like little groups of wedge-shaped marks,
like chicken-tracks, made in the mud. I have
seen boys’ writing that looked more like cuneiform
than it did like English.</p>

<p>The Babylonians as they watched their flocks
by night and by day watched also the sun and
the moon and the stars moving across the sky.
So they came to know a great deal about these
heavenly bodies.</p>

<p>Did you ever see the moon in the daytime?</p>

<p>Oh, yes, you can.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Babylonians watching eclipse.</p>
</div>

<p>Well, every once in a great while the moon as
it moves across the sky gets in front of the sun
and shuts out its light&mdash;just as, if you should put
a white plate in front of an electric light, the
electric light would be darkened. It may be ten
o’clock in the morning and broad daylight when
suddenly the sun is covered up by the moon as by
a white plate and it becomes night and the stars<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47"></span>
shine out and chickens, thinking it is night, go
to roost. But in a few moments the moon passes
by and the sun shines out once again. This is
called an <i>eclipse</i> of the sun.</p>

<p>Now you probably have never seen an eclipse
of the sun, but some day you may. At that time,
and even to-day when ignorant people see an
eclipse of the sun, they think that something
dreadful is going to happen&mdash;the end of the
world, perhaps, just because they have never
seen such a strange sight before and do not know
that it is a thing that happens regularly and that
no harm comes from it.</p>

<p>Well, nearly twenty-three hundred years
before Christ, 2300 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, the Babylonians told
beforehand just when there was going to be an
eclipse of the sun. They had watched the moon
moving across the sky and they had figured out
how long it would be before it would catch up
with the sun and cross directly over it. So you
see how much the old Babylonians knew about
such things. Men who study the stars and other
heavenly bodies are called astronomers, and
the Babylonians, therefore, were famous astronomers.</p>

<p>The Egyptians worshiped animals; but it
was quite natural that the Babylonians should
worship these wonderful heavenly bodies, the
sun, moon, and stars, and they did.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48"></span></p>

<p>The first king of Babylonia whom we know
much about&mdash;and that much is very little&mdash;was
Sargon I, who may have lived about the same
time that the pyramids were built in Egypt.</p>

<p>About 2100 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> Babylonia had a king known
far and wide for the laws he made. His name
was Hammurabi, and we still have the laws he
made though we no longer obey them; for
they were carved into a stone in cuneiform,
and we have the stone. Sargon and Hammurabi
are strange names like no one’s name
you ever heard before, yet they are real names
of real kings who ruled over real people.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c9">9</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Wandering Jews</p>


<p>“<span class="smcap">You</span> are” spells “Ur.” It is one of the
shortest names I know. It is the name of a
little place in that part of Babylonia called
Chaldea. In this place&mdash;about nineteen hundred
years <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;there lived a man named Abraham.
Abraham had a very large family and though
he had no money he was rich. He had large
herds of sheep and goats, and these were the
chief riches in those days. Now, Abraham believed
in one God, as we do, while his neighbors,
the Babylonians, worshiped idols and the
heavenly bodies, such as the sun, moon, and
stars, as I have just said. Abraham did not like
his neighbors for this reason; and his neighbors
didn’t like him, either, for they thought his
ideas were peculiar or even crazy. So, about
nineteen hundred years before Christ, Abraham
took his large family, his flocks, and his herds
and moved to a land called Canaan, far away
on the edge of the Mediterranean Sea.</p>

<p>Abraham lived to be a very old man, and he
had a large family. One of his grandsons named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50"></span>
Jacob, who was also known by the name of
Israel, had a son Joseph. You probably remember
the Bible story of Jacob’s favorite son
Joseph with the coat of many colors. Joseph’s
brothers were jealous of him, as boys and even
dogs are apt to be jealous of any one who is
liked better than they are. So they put Joseph
into a well and then sold him as a slave to
some Egyptians who were passing by. Then
they told their father Jacob that Joseph had
been killed by wild animals. The Egyptians
took Joseph to far-off Egypt&mdash;far away from
Canaan.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Abraham leaving Ur. 1900 B.C.</p>
</div>

<p>But although Joseph was a slave in Egypt,
and although, as I told you, it was very difficult
for any one to work his way up out of his class
to a higher class, he was so bright that at last
he became one of the rulers in Egypt.</p>

<p>Now, at that time when he was ruler there
came a famine in Canaan and there was no food.
In Egypt, however, there was plenty of food
stored up. So Joseph’s wicked brothers went<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51"></span>
down to Egypt to beg the rulers for bread. They
probably thought by that time their brother was
dead. They did not know that he had become
such a great man and that he was now the ruler
of whom they were begging food. You can
imagine how surprised they were and how
ashamed they must have felt when they found
out that the great ruler was their own brother,
whom they had planned to kill and then had sold
as a slave.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Rameses’ mummy.</p>
</div>

<p>Joseph might have let his brothers starve to
death or put them in prison, or sent them back
to Canaan without anything, if he had wanted
to revenge himself on them. But instead of doing
any of these things, he gave them not only
all the food they wanted and more to take back
home, but made them rich presents besides.
Then he told them to go back and get the rest
of his family and return with them to Egypt,
and he promised to give them a piece of land
called Goshen where there would be no famines
and they might live happily. So they did as they
were told, and Israel and his sons and all their
families came down and settled in Goshen about
1700 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> They were called Israelites, which
means of course the children of Israel, and they
believed they were God’s chosen people. These
are the people we now call the Jews.</p>

<p>After Joseph, who was of course an Israelite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52"></span>
himself, died, the kings or Pharaohs of Egypt
did not like these foreign people who belonged
to the Semite family, and treated them very
badly, as other peoples have always treated the
Jews badly ever since. Though the Jews and
their sons and sons’
sons lived in
Egypt for about
four hundred
years, they were
always hated by
the Egyptians.</p>

<p>Now about four
hundred years
from the time the
Jews first came into
Egypt&mdash;400 from
1700 is 1300 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;there
was a ruler
of Egypt called
Rameses the Great.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Rameses the Great.</p>
</div>

<p>Rameses so hated the Jews that finally he gave
orders to have every Jewish boy baby killed. In
this way he thought to get rid of these people.
One little Jewish boy named Moses, however,
was saved, and when he grew up he became the
greatest leader of his people. Moses wanted to
get the Jews out of this unfriendly country
where the people worshiped false gods. And
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54"></span>so at last he led all his people out of Egypt across
the Red Sea. This was called the Exodus, and
it took place about 1300 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>

<p>After the Jews had left Egypt they first
stopped at the foot of a mountain called Mount
Sinai, while Moses went up to the top where he
could be by himself and learn what God wanted
him and the Jews to do. Moses spent forty days
praying on top of the mountain. When he came
down from the mountain-top, he brought with
him the Ten Commandments, the same Ten
Commandments you may have learned in Sunday-school.
But Moses had been gone so long
that when he came back again to his people he
found them worshiping a golden calf as the
Egyptians had done. They had lived in Egypt
until they had come to think it was all right to
worship idols.</p>

<p>Moses was very angry. It was high time, he
thought, that they should get rid of the bad influence
of their old Egyptian neighbors. And
at last he succeeded in making them worship
God again and gave them the Ten Commandments
for their rule of life. So Moses is called
a lawgiver and the founder of the Jewish religion.
Then Moses died, and the Jews wandered
from place to place for a great many
years before they finally settled in Canaan.</p>

<p>The Jews had no kings. They were ruled by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55"></span>
men called judges, but the judges lived very
simply, just like every one else and not like
kings in palaces with servants and fine robes and
rich jewels. But the Jews wanted a real king as
their enemies had and other nations who were
their neighbors. Strange they wanted a king
which so many countries have tried to get rid
of&mdash;we should think they would have preferred
a President as we have.</p>

<p>So at last a judge who was named Samuel
said they should have a king, and Saul was
chosen. Then Samuel poured olive-oil over
Saul’s head. This may seem a queer thing to do,
but it took the place of putting a crown on his
head and was a sign that he was to be king.
Samuel, therefore, was the last one of their
judges, and Saul was their first king.</p>

<p>All other nations at that time believed as the
Egyptians and Chaldeans did, in fairy-tale gods
or idols. But the Jews alone believed in one
God. They had a Holy Book which had been
written by their prophets. This book is the Old
Testament part of the Christian Bible.</p>

<p>So this is the story of the Wandering Jews
who gave us the Old Testament and the Ten
Commandments, and here is the way they wandered:</p>

<p>
From Ur to Canaan&mdash;1900 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
<p>
From Canaan to Egypt&mdash;1700 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
<p>
From Egypt back to Canaan&mdash;1300 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56"></span></span>
</p>


<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<h2 class="nobreak" id="c10">10</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Fairy-Tale Gods</p>


<p><span class="smcap">There</span> was once a man named Hellen&mdash;strange-sounding
name for a man, isn’t it? He
was not a Semite and not a Hamite. He was
an Aryan. He had a great many children and
children’s children, and they called themselves
Hellenes. They lived in a little scrap of a
country that juts out into the Mediterranean
Sea, and they called their land Hellas. I once
upset a bottle of ink on my desk, and the ink ran
out into a wriggly spot that looked exactly as
Hellas does on the map. Though Hellas is
hardly any bigger than one of our States, its
history is more famous than that of any other
country of its size in the world. We call Hellas
“Greece” and the people who lived there
“Greeks.”</p>

<p>About the same time the Jews were leaving
Egypt, about the time when people were beginning
to use iron instead of bronze, that is,
about 1300 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, we first begin to hear of Hellas
and the Hellenes, of Greece and the Greeks.</p>

<p>The Greeks believed in many gods, not in one
God as we do and as the Jews did, and their
gods were more like people in fairy-tales than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57"></span>
like divine beings. Many beautiful statues have
been made of their different gods, and poems
and stories have been written about them.</p>

<p>There were twelve&mdash;just a dozen&mdash;chief gods.
They were supposed to live on Mount Olympus,
which was the highest mountain in Greece.
These gods were not always good, but often
quarreled and cheated and did even worse
things. The gods lived on a kind of food that
was much more delicious than what we eat. It
was called nectar and ambrosia, and the Greeks
thought it made those who ate it immortal; that
is, so that they would never die.</p>

<p>Let me introduce you to the family of the
gods. I know you will be pleased to meet them.
Most of them have two names.</p>

<div class="blockquot">

<p><i>Jupiter or Zeus</i> is the father of the gods and the
the king who rules over all human beings.
He sits on a throne and holds a zigzag
flash of lightning called a thunderbolt in
his hand. An eagle, the king of birds, is
usually by his side.</p>

<p><i>Juno or Hera</i> is his wife and therefore queen.
She carries a scepter, and her pet bird,
the peacock, is often with her.</p>

<p><i>Neptune or Poseidon</i> is one of the brothers of
Jupiter. He rules over the sea. He
rides in a chariot drawn by sea-horses
and carries in his hand a trident, which
looks like a pitchfork with three points.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58"></span>
He can make a storm at sea or quiet the
waves simply by striking them with his
trident.</p>

<p><i>Vulcan or Hephæstus</i> is the god of fire. He
is a lame blacksmith and works at a
forge. His forge is said to be in the
cave of a mountain, and as smoke and
fire come forth from some mountains they
are called volcanoes after the god Vulcan
inside.</p>

<p><i>Apollo</i> is the most beautiful of all the gods. He
is the god of the sun and of song and
music. Every morning&mdash;so the Greeks
said&mdash;he drives his sun-chariot across the
sky from the east to the west, and this
makes the sun-lighted day.</p>

<p><i>Diana or Artemis</i> is the twin sister of Apollo.
She is the goddess of the moon and of
hunting.</p>

<p><i>Mars or Ares</i> is the terrible god of war, who is
only happy when a war is going on&mdash;so
that he is happy most of the time.</p>

<p><i>Mercury or Hermes</i> is the messenger of the
gods. He has wings on his cap and on
his sandals, and he carries in his hand a
wonderful winged stick or wand, which,
if placed between two people who are
quarreling, will immediately make them
friends. One day Mercury saw two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59"></span>
snakes fighting and he put his wand between
them, whereupon they twined
around it as if in a loving hug, and ever
since the snakes have remained entwined
around it. This wand is called a <i>caduceus</i>.</p>
</div>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Birth of Minerva or Athene.</p>
</div>

<div class="blockquot">

<p><i>Minerva or Athene</i> is the goddess of wisdom.
She was born in a very strange way. One
day Jupiter had a terrible headache&mdash;what
we call a “splitting” headache. It
got worse and worse, until at last he
could stand it no longer, but he took a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60"></span>
very strange way to cure it. He called
Vulcan, the lame blacksmith, and told
him to hit him on the head with his hammer.
Though Vulcan must have thought
this a funny request, of course he had to
obey the father god. So he struck
Jupiter a terrible blow on the head,
whereupon there sprang forth Minerva
in all her armor, and the headache, of
which she had been the cause, had gone.
So she was born from his brain, that is
why she is the goddess of wisdom. Minerva’s
Greek name is Athene, and she
founded a great city in Greece and named
it after herself, Athens. She is supposed
to look out for this city as a
mother does for her child.</p>

<p><i>Venus or Aphrodite</i> is the goddess of love and
beauty. She is the most beautiful of the
goddesses as Apollo is the most beautiful
of the gods. She is said to have been
born from the sea-foam. Cupid, her son,
is a little chubby boy with a quiver of
arrows on his back. He goes about
shooting his invisible arrows into the
hearts of human beings, but instead of
dying when they are hit they at once fall
in love with some one. That is why we
put hearts with arrows through them on
valentines.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61"></span></p>

<p><i>Vesta</i> is the goddess of the home and fireside,
who looks out for the family.</p>

<p><i>Ceres or Demeter</i> is the goddess of the farmer.
These are the twelve gods of the Olympian
family.</p>

<p><i>Pluto</i> is a brother of Jupiter. He rules the
world underground and lives down there.</p>
</div>

<p>There are many other less important gods
and goddesses as well as some gods that are half
human, such as the three Fates and three Graces
and the nine Muses.</p>

<p>Some of the planets in the sky which look
like stars are still called by the names of these
Greek gods. Jupiter is the name of the largest
planet. Mars is the name of one that is reddish&mdash;the
color of blood. Venus is the name of
one that is very beautiful. There is also a Mercury
and a Neptune.</p>

<p>It is hard for us to understand how the
Greeks could have prayed to such gods as these,
but they did. Their prayers, however, were not
like ours. Instead of kneeling and closing their
eyes as we do, they stood up and stretched their
arms straight out before them. They did not
pray to be forgiven for their sins and to be
made better. They prayed for victory over
their enemies or to be protected from harm.</p>

<p>When they prayed they often made the god
an offering of animals, fruit, honey, or wine in
order to please him so that he would grant their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62"></span>
prayer. The wine they poured out on the
ground, thinking the god would like to have
them do this. The animals they killed and then
burned by building a fire under them on an altar.
This was called a sacrifice. Their idea seemed to
be that even though the gods could not eat the
meat of the animals nor drink the wine themselves,
they liked to have something <i>given up</i>
for them. And so even to-day we say a person
makes a sacrifice when he <i>gives up</i> something
for another.</p>

<p>When the Greeks were sacrificing they usually
looked for some sign from the god to see whether
he was pleased or not with the sacrifice and
whether he would answer their prayer and do
what they asked him or not. A flock of birds
flying overhead, a flash of lightning, or any unusual
happening they thought was a sign which
meant something. Such signs were called
“omens.” Some omens were good and showed
that the god would do what he was asked, and
some omens were bad and showed he would not.
Omens were very much like some of the signs
that people believe in even to-day when they
say it is a good sign or good luck if you see the
new moon over the right shoulder or a bad sign
or bad luck if you spill the salt.</p>

<p>Not so very far from Athens is a mountain
called Mount Parnassus. On the side of Mount<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63"></span>
Parnassus was a town called Delphi. In the
town of Delphi there was a crack in the ground,
from which gas came forth, somewhat as it does
from cracks in a volcano. This gas was supposed
to be the breath of the god Apollo, and
there was a woman priest called a priestess who
sat on a three-legged stool or tripod over the
crack so as to breathe the gas. She would become
delirious, as some people do when they are
sick with fever and we say they are “out of their
heads,” and when people asked her questions
she would mutter strange things and a priest
would tell what she meant. This place was
called the Delphic Oracle, and people would go
long distances to ask the oracle questions, for
they thought Apollo was answering them.</p>

<p>The Greeks went to the oracle whenever they
wanted to know what to do or what was going
to happen, and they firmly believed in what the
oracle told them. Usually, however, the answers
of the oracle were like a riddle, so that
they could be understood in more than one way.
For instance, a king who was about to go to
war with another king asked the oracle who
would win. The oracle replied, “A great kingdom
will fall.” What do you suppose the
oracle meant? Such an answer, which you can
understand in two or three ways, is still called
“oracular.”</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c11">11</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Fairy-Tale War</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> history of countries usually begins&mdash;and
also ends&mdash;with war. The first great happening
in the history of Greece was a war. It was
called the Trojan War and was supposed to
have taken place about twelve hundred years
before Christ, or not long after the beginning of
the Iron Age. But we are not only not sure of
the date; we are not even sure that there ever
was such a war, for a great deal of it, we know,
is simply fairy-tale. This is the way the tale
goes.</p>

<p>Once there was a wedding feast of the gods
and goddesses on Mount Olympus, when suddenly
a goddess who had not been invited threw
a golden apple on the table. On the apple was
written these words:</p>

<p class="c medium">
To the Fairest.
</p>

<p>The goddess who had thrown the apple was
the goddess of quarreling; and true to her name
she <i>did</i> start a quarrel, for each of the goddesses,
like vain human beings, thought she was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65"></span>
fairest and should have the apple. At last they
called in a shepherd boy named Paris to decide
which was the fairest.</p>

<p>Each goddess offered Paris a present if he
would choose her. Juno, the queen of the gods,
offered to make him a king; Minerva, the goddess
of wisdom, offered to make him wise; but
Venus, the goddess of beauty, offered to give
him the most beautiful girl in the world for his
wife.</p>

<p>Now, Paris was not really a shepherd boy but
the son of Priam, the king of Troy, which was
a city on the sea-shore opposite Greece. Paris
when a baby had been left on a mountain to die,
but had been found by a shepherd and brought
up by him as his own child.</p>

<p>Paris didn’t care about being wise; he didn’t
care about being king; what he did want was to
have the most beautiful girl in the world for his
wife, and so he gave the apple to Venus.</p>

<p>Now the most beautiful girl in the world was
named Helen, and she was already married to
Menelaus, the king of Sparta. But in spite of
that fact Venus told Paris to go to Sparta in
Greece, where he would find Helen, and then
run away with her. So Paris went to Sparta to
visit King Menelaus and was royally entertained
by him. And then Paris, although he had been
treated so kindly and been trusted, one night<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66"></span>
stole Helen away and carried her off across the
sea to Troy. Though this was in the Iron Age,
it was the way a Cave Man of the Stone Age
might have acted.</p>

<p>Menelaus and the Greeks were naturally very
angry and immediately prepared for war and
sailed off for Troy to get Helen back. Now, in
ancient times all cities had walls built around
them to protect them from the enemy. As there
were no cannons nor guns nor deadly weapons
such as are used in war nowadays, it was very
hard to get into a walled city or capture it.
Troy was protected in this way with walls; and
though the Greeks tried for ten years to capture
it, at the end of the ten years Troy was still unconquered.</p>

<p>So at last the Greeks decided to try a trick to
get into the city. They built a huge horse of
wood, and inside this wooden horse they put
soldiers. They placed the horse in front of the
city walls and then sailed away as if at last they
were giving up the war. The Trojans were told
by a spy that the horse was a gift of the gods
and that they ought to take it into the city. A
Trojan priest named La-oc-o-on, however, told
his people not to have anything to do with the
horse, for he suspected a trick. But people seldom
take advice when told <i>not</i> to do what they
want to do.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67"></span></p>

<p>Just then some huge snakes came out of the
sea and attacked Laocoon and his two sons and,
twining round them, strangled them to death.
The Trojans thought this was a sign from the
gods, or an omen as they would have said, that
they should not believe Laocoon; so they determined
to take the horse into the city against his
advice. The horse was so big, however, that it
would not go through the gates, and in order to
get it inside of the walls they had to tear down
part of the wall itself. When night fell, the
Greek soldiers came out of the horse and opened
the gates of the city. The other Greeks, who
had been waiting just out of sight, returned and
entered through the gates and the hole the Trojans
had made in the wall. Troy was easily conquered
then, and the city was burned to the
ground, and Helen’s husband carried her back
to Greece. For reason of this horse trick, we
still have a saying, “Beware of the Greeks bearing
gifts,” which is as much as to say, “Look
out for an enemy who makes you a present.”</p>

<p>The story of the Trojan War was told in two
long poems. Some people think they are the
finest poems that were ever written. One of
these poems is called the “Iliad,” from the name
of the city of Troy, which was also known as
Ilium. The “Iliad” describes the Trojan War
itself. The other poem is called the “Odyssey”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68"></span>
and describes the adventures of one of the Greek
heroes on his way home after the war was over.
This Greek hero’s name was Odysseus, which
gives the name Odyssey to the book, but he was
also called Ulysses. These poems, the “Iliad”
and the “Odyssey,” were composed by a blind
Greek poet named Homer, who is supposed to
have lived about two hundred years after the war;
that is about 1000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>

<p>Homer was a bard; that is, a singing poet who
went about from place to place and sang his
poems to the people. Usually a bard played on
the lyre as he sang, and the people gave him
something to eat or a place to sleep to pay him
for his songs. Nowadays, instead of a Homer
singing the “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” we have the
organ-grinder and street piano playing their
tunes in front of our houses.</p>

<p>Homer never wrote down his poems, for he
was blind; but the people were very fond of
hearing his songs, and they learned them by
heart, and mothers taught them to their children
after Homer had died. At last, many years
later, another man wrote the poems down in
Greek, and you may some day read them in
Greek, if you study that language, or at least
in an English translation.</p>

<p>Although the Greeks thought so much of
Homer, he could hardly make a living, and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69"></span>
almost had to beg his daily bread. After his
death however, the people of nine different cities
each proudly said that Homer was born in their
city. And so some one has made this rime:</p>

<div class="poetry-container">
<div class="poetry">
<div class="stanza">
<div class="verse indent0">Nine cities claimed blind Homer dead,</div>
<div class="verse indent0">Through which, alive, he’d begged his bread.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<p>Some people now doubt that there ever was
a poet named Homer. Others think that instead
of only one man there must have been several
men, perhaps nine, who composed these poems,
and this might explain how he could be born in
nine different cities.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c12">12</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Kings of the Jews</p>


<p><span class="smcap">While</span> the blind beggar Homer was singing
his wonderful songs through the streets of
Greece, a great king of the Jews was singing
other wonderful songs in Canaan. This king
was named David, and he wasn’t born a king.
He was only a shepherd boy in King Saul’s
army. This is the way he happened to become
king.</p>

<p>At first, as you remember, the Jews had no
kings; but they had asked for kings, and at last
they were given one by the name of Saul.</p>

<p>David had killed the giant Goliath. We all
love this Bible story because we are always glad
when the skilful little chap beats the great, big,
bragging bully.</p>

<p>Well, King Saul had a daughter, and she fell
in love with this brave and athletic young David
the Giant-Killer, and at last they were married.</p>

<p>So after Saul died David became king, and
he was the greatest king the Jews ever had.
Although Saul had been king he had lived in a
tent, not in a palace, and he didn’t even have a
capital city.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71"></span></p>

<p>So David conquered a city in Canaan called
Jerusalem and made this city the capital of the
Jews.</p>

<p>But David was not only a brave warrior and
a great king; he wrote beautiful songs as well.</p>

<p>The blind beggar Homer sang of his fairy-tale
gods. The great King David sang of his
one God.</p>

<p>These songs are the Psalms, which you hear
read and sung in church.</p>

<p>Nowadays even a popular song is popular for
only a few months, but the songs which David
wrote almost three thousand years ago are still
popular to-day! The Twenty-third Psalm,
which starts, “The Lord is my shepherd,” is one
of the most beautiful and a good one to learn
by heart. David likens himself to a sheep and
his Lord to a good shepherd who tenderly looks
out for the comfort and safety of his sheep.</p>

<p>David’s son was named Solomon, and when
David died Solomon became king.</p>

<p>If a good fairy had asked you what you would
rather have than anything in the world, I wonder
what you would have chosen. When
Solomon became king, God is said to have appeared
to him in a dream and asked him what
he would rather have than anything else in the
world. Instead of saying he wanted to be made
rich or powerful, Solomon asked to be made wise,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72"></span>
and God said He would make him the wisest
man that ever lived. Here is a story that shows
how wise he was.</p>

<p>Once upon a time two women came to Solomon
with a baby, and each woman said the baby was
her own child. Solomon called for a sword and
said, “Cut the baby in two, and give each a half.”
One of the women cried out to give the baby to
the other rather than do this, and Solomon then
knew who was the real mother and ordered the
baby to be given to her.</p>

<p>Solomon built a magnificent temple made of
cedar-wood from the famous forest of Lebanon,
and of marble and gold and studded with jewels.
Then he built himself a wonderful palace, which
was so gorgeous and splendid that people came
from all over the world to see it. The Bible tells
us just how large this temple and palace were,
not in feet but in cubits. A cubit was the distance
from a man’s elbow to the end of his middle finger,
which is about one foot and a half.</p>

<p>The queen of Sheba, among others, came a
long distance across Arabia to hear the wise sayings
of Solomon and see his palace and the temple
he had built.</p>

<p>Although the palace and temple were considered
extraordinarily magnificent at that time,
you must remember that this was a thousand
years before Christ.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73"></span></p>

<p>Solomon’s temple and palace have disappeared
long since, and there is left of them neither stick
nor stone. But his wise sayings are preserved in
every language and read by every people in every
part of the world. There are thousands of buildings
now in the world that would make his palace,
if still standing, look like a child’s toy-house.
But no one has ever been able to say any better
the things he said. Do you think you could?
Suppose you try. Here are some of them. They
are called proverbs.</p>

<div class="blockquota">

<p>A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous words
stir up anger.</p>
</div>

<p>
What’s that mean?
</p>

<div class="blockquota">

<p>A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches
and loving favor rather than silver and gold.</p>
</div>

<p>
What’s that mean?
</p>

<div class="blockquota">

<p>Let another man praise thee and not thine own mouth.</p>
</div>

<p>
What’s that mean?
</p>

<p>Solomon was the last great king the Jews ever
had. After he died the Jewish nation gradually
broke up and went to pieces, and the great Jewish
people are to-day without a king, without a capital,
and without a country of their own, but are
found in every other country of the world.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c13">13</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The People Who Made Our A B C’s</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Long</span> before people knew how to write, there
lived a carpenter named Cadmus. One day he
was at work on a house when he wanted a tool
that he had left at home. Picking up a chip of
wood, he wrote something on it and, handing it
to his slave, told him to go to his home and give
the chip to his wife, saying that it would tell her
what he wanted. The slave, wondering, did as
he was told. Cadmus’s wife looked at the chip,
and without a word handed the tool to the amazed
slave, who thought the chip in some mysterious
way had spoken the message. When he returned
to Cadmus with the tool, he begged for the remarkable
chip, and when it was given him, hung
it around his neck for a charm.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Cadmus’ slave and the chip.</p>
</div>

<p>This is the story the Greeks told of the man
they say invented the alphabet. We believe,
however, that Cadmus was a mythical person, for
the Greeks liked to make up such stories, and
we think no <i>one</i> man made the alphabet. But
Cadmus was a Phenician and we do know that
the Phenician people invented the alphabet.
You probably call it your A B C’s, but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75"></span>
Greeks had much harder names for the letters.
They called <i>A</i> “alpha,” <i>B</i> “beta,” and so on.
So the Greek boy spoke of learning his “alpha
beta,” and that is why we call it the “alphabet.”</p>

<p>You may never have
heard of Phenicia or
the Phenician people.
Yet, if there had been
no such country as
Phenicia, you might
now be learning at
school to read and write
in hieroglyphics or in
cuneiform.</p>

<p>Up to this time, you
know, people had very
clumsy ways of writing.
The Egyptians had to draw pictures, and
the Babylonians made writing like chicken-tracks.
The alphabet that the Phenicians invented had
twenty-two letters, and from it we get the alphabet
we use to-day.</p>

<p>Of course, we do not use just the same alphabet
now that the Phenicians did, but some of the letters
are almost, if not quite, like those we now have
after three thousand years. For instance the</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="table">

<tr><td class="tdr">Phenician A</td>
    <td class="tdc">was</td>
    <td class="tdc">written</td>
    <td class="tdl">on its side</td>
    <td class="tdr">&mdash;&#67840;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">E</td>
    <td class="tdc">"</td>
    <td class="tdc">"</td>
    <td class="tdl">backward</td>
    <td class="tdr">&mdash;Ǝ</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">Z</td>
    <td class="tdc">"</td>
    <td class="tdc">"</td>
    <td class="tdl">just the same</td>
    <td class="tdr">Z</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdr">O</td>
    <td class="tdc">"</td>
    <td class="tdc">"</td>
    <td class="tdl"><span class="gesperrta"> " " " </span></td>
    <td class="tdr">O</td></tr>


</table>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76"></span></p>

<p>The Phenicians lived next door to the Jews;
in fact they belonged to the same family&mdash;the
Semites. Their country was just north of the
kingdom of the Jews; that is, above it on the
map and lying along the shore of the Mediterranean
Sea.</p>

<p>The Phenicians had a great king named Hiram
who lived at the same time as Solomon. In fact,
Hiram was a friend of Solomon and sent him
some of his best workmen to help build a temple
at Jerusalem. And yet Hiram himself and
the Phenicians did not believe in the Jewish
God.</p>

<p>The Phenicians worshiped idols, terrible monsters
named Baal and Moloch, which they called
gods of the sun. They also believed in a goddess
of the moon named Astarte and made sacrifices
of live children to her idol, Fe-Fi-Fo-Fum;
this is a real story and not a fairy-tale.
Just suppose you had been a child then!</p>

<p>The Jews, as we have learned, were very religious,
but their neighbors, the Phenicians,
though Semites and therefore relatives, were
business people and thought of nothing but
money, money, money&mdash;all the time. And they
were not particular how they earned it, whether
honestly or not. Nowadays, dealers know that
they must be honest if they are to be very successful,
but the Phenicians were usually tricky in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77"></span>
their trading with people. They always drove
a good bargain and sometimes even cheated when
they had a chance.</p>

<p>The Phenicians made many things to sell, and
then they went far and near to sell them.</p>

<p>They knew how to make beautiful cloth and
glassware and objects in gold and silver and
ivory.</p>

<p>They knew the secret of making a wonderful
purple dye from the body of a little shell-fish
that lived in the water near the city of Tyre.
This dye was known as Tyrian purple from the
name of that city, and it was so beautiful that
kings’ robes were colored with it.</p>

<p>Tyre and Sidon were the two chief cities of
Phenicia, and once upon a time they were two
of the busiest cities in the world.</p>

<p>In order to find people to sell to, the Phenicians
traveled in boats all over the Mediterranean
Sea and even went outside this sea into the Great
Ocean. This opening is now called the Strait
of Gibraltar but was then known as the Pillars
of Hercules. They went as far as the British
Isles. Other people in those days had not dared
to go so far in boats; they thought they would
come to the edge of the ocean and tumble off.
But the Phenicians had no such fear, and so they
were the greatest sailors as well as the greatest
traders of their times. Their ships were built<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78"></span>
from the cedar-trees that grew on the slopes of
their hills, which were called Lebanon.</p>

<p>Wherever the Phenicians found good harbors
for their boats, they started little towns where
they traded with the natives, who at that time
were almost savage. With ignorant savages they
found they could drive a good bargain. For a
few glass beads or a piece of purple dyed cloth
worth very little they could get in return gold
and silver and other things worth a great deal.
On the African coast, one of these towns they
started was called Carthage. Of Carthage we
shall hear more by and by, for it grew to be so
wealthy and important that&mdash;but wait until I
come to that story.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c14">14</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Hard as Nails</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Our</span> story goes back again to Greece, the land
of Homer and the fairy-tale gods and to Sparta,
where Helen once lived.</p>

<p>About nine hundred years before Christ was
born, there lived in Sparta a man named
Lycurgus. That is a hard name, and when you
hear about this man you may think he was hard,
too. Lycurgus wanted his city to be the greatest
in the world.</p>

<p>But first he had to find out what it was that
made a city and a people great.</p>

<p>So he started off and traveled for years and
years visiting all the chief countries of the world
to see if he could learn what it was that made
them great. And this is what he learned.</p>

<p>Wherever the people thought chiefly of fun
and pleasure, of amusing themselves and having
a good time&mdash;he found they were not much good,
not much account&mdash;<i>not</i> great.</p>

<p>Wherever the people thought chiefly of hard
work and did what they ought, whether it was
pleasant or not, he found they were usually good
for something&mdash;some account&mdash;great.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80"></span></p>

<p>So Lycurgus came back to his home Sparta
and set to work to make a set of rules which he
thought would make his people greater than all
other people in the world. These rules were
called a Code of Laws, and I think you’ll agree
they were very hard, and they made the Spartans
hard, too&mdash;as “hard as nails.” We shall see
whether they made the Spartans really great,
also.</p>

<p>To begin with, babies, as soon as they were
born, were examined to see that they were strong
and perfect. Whenever one was found that did
not seem to be so, he was put out on the mountain-side
and left to die. Lycurgus wanted no
weaklings in Sparta.</p>

<p>When boys were seven years old, they were
taken from their mothers and put in a school,
which was more like a soldiers’ camp than a
school, and they never lived anywhere else until
they were sixty years old.</p>

<p>In this school they were not taught the things
you are, but only the things that trained them
to be good soldiers.</p>

<p>There were no such things as school-books then.</p>

<p>There were no spelling-books.</p>

<p>There were no arithmetics.</p>

<p>There were no geographies. No one knew
enough about the world to write a geography.</p>

<p>There were no histories. No one knew much
about things that had happened in the world<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81"></span>
before that time, and of course none of the history
since then that you now study had taken
place.</p>

<p>At certain times, the Spartan boy was whipped,
not because he had done anything wrong, but
just to teach him to suffer pain without whimpering.
He would have been disgraced forever
if he had cried, no matter how badly he was
hurt.</p>

<p>He was exercised and drilled and worked
until he was ready to drop. But still he was
obliged to keep on, no matter how tired or hungry
or sleepy or aching he might be, and he must
never show by any sign how he felt.</p>

<p>He was made to eat the worst kind of food,
to go hungry and thirsty for long periods of
time, to go out in the bitter cold with little or
no clothing, just to get used to such hardships
and able to bear all sorts of discomforts. This
kind of training, this kind of hardening, is therefore
called “Spartan discipline.” How do you
think you would have liked it?</p>

<p>The Spartans’ food, clothing, and lodging
were all furnished them, though it was very poor
food and poor clothing and poor lodging. They
were not allowed good things to eat, soft beds
to lie on, or fine clothing to wear. Such things
were called luxuries, and luxuries, Lycurgus
thought, would make people soft and weak, and
he wanted his people hard and strong.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82"></span></p>

<p>The Spartans were even taught to speak in a
short and blunt manner; they were taught not
to waste words; they must say what they had to
say in as few words as possible. This manner
of speaking we call “Laconic” from the name
Laconia, the state in which Sparta was located.</p>

<p>Once a king wrote to the Spartans a threatening
letter, saying that they had better do what
he told them to, for <i>if</i> he came and took their
country, he would destroy their city and make
them slaves.</p>

<p>The Spartans sent a messenger back with their
answer, and when the letter was opened, it contained
only one word:</p>

<p>“<i>IF!</i>”</p>

<p>Even to-day, we call such an answer, short but
to the point, a Laconic answer.</p>

<p>Did all this hard training and hard work make
the Spartans the greatest people in the world?</p>

<p>Lycurgus did make the Spartans the strongest
and best fighters in the world&mdash;but&mdash;</p>

<p>The Spartans conquered all the peoples
around about them, though there were ten times
as many&mdash;but&mdash;</p>

<p>They made these people their slaves, who did
all their farming and other work&mdash;but&mdash;</p>

<p>We shall see later whether Lycurgus’s idea
was right.</p>

<p>North of Sparta was another great city of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83"></span>
Greece called Athens. There were, of course,
many other towns in Greece, but Sparta and
Athens were the most important. In Athens
the people lived and thought quite differently
from those in Sparta.</p>

<p>The Athenians were just as fond of everything
beautiful as the Spartans were of discipline and
of everything military.</p>

<p>The Athenians loved athletic games of all
sorts just as the Spartans did, but they also
loved music and poetry and beautiful statues,
paintings, vases, buildings, and such things that
are known as the “arts.”</p>

<p>The Athenians believed in training the mind
<i>as well</i> as the body. The Spartans believed the
training of the body was the all-important thing.
Which do you like better, the Athenians’ idea or
the Spartans’ idea?</p>

<p>Once at a big game a very old man was looking
for a seat on the Athenians’ side. There was
no seat empty, and no Athenian offered to give
him one. Whereupon the Spartans called to the
old man and gave him the best seat on their
side. The Athenians cheered the Spartans to
show how fine they thought this act. At this
the Spartans said:</p>

<p>“The Athenians <i>know</i> what is right but they
don’t <i>do</i> it.”</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c15">15</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Crown of Leaves</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Greek</span> boys and young men and even girls
loved all sorts of outdoor sports.</p>

<p>They didn’t play football or baseball or
basketball, but they ran and jumped and wrestled
and boxed and threw the discus&mdash;a thing like a
big, heavy dinner-plate of iron.</p>

<p>From time to time matches were held in different
parts of Greece to see who was the best in
these sports.</p>

<p>The Big Meet, however, took place only once
every four years at a place called Olympia in
southern Greece; and these Olympic games, as
they were called, were the most important affairs
held in Greece, for all the winners from different
parts of the country were here matched
against each other to see who should be the
champion of all Greece.</p>

<p>The time when the games were held was a
great national holiday, for the games were in
honor of the head god Jupiter, or Zeus as the
Greeks called him. People came from all over
the known world to see the games much as they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85"></span>
do now when a World’s Fair is held or a big
football game.</p>

<p>Only Greeks could enter this contest, and only
those who had never committed a crime or broken
any laws&mdash;as a boy nowadays must have a clean
record in order to be allowed to play on his
college or school team.</p>

<p>If there happened to be a war going on at the
time, and there usually was, so important was
this holiday that a truce was declared, and everybody
went off to the games. Nothing could be
allowed to interfere with the games, and even
war was not as important. “Business before
pleasure!” When the games were finished, they
started fighting again!</p>

<p>The Greek boys and young men would train
for four years getting ready for this big event,
and then nine months before the great day they
would go to Olympia to get in training at an
open-air gymnasium near the field.</p>

<p>The games lasted five days and began and
ended with a parade and prayers and sacrifices to
the Greek gods, beautiful statues to whom were
placed all about the field, for this was not only
sport, but a religious service in honor of Jupiter
and the other gods.</p>

<p>There were all sorts of matches&mdash;in running,
jumping, wrestling, boxing, chariot-racing, and
throwing the discus.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86"></span></p>

<p>Any one who cheated would have been put out
and never again allowed to take part. The Greek
believed in what we call being a good sport. He
didn’t brag if he won. He didn’t make excuses
if he lost; he didn’t cry out that the decision was
unfair.</p>

<p>The athlete who won one or more of these
games was the hero of all Greece, and in particular
of the town from which he came. The
winner received no money prize but was crowned
with a wreath made of laurel leaves. This he
valued much more than an athlete nowadays does
the silver cup or gold medal he may win. Besides
receiving the laurel wreath, the winner had songs
written to him by poets, and often statues were
made of him by sculptors.</p>

<p>There were not only athletic matches but contests
between poets and musicians to see who
could write the best poetry or compose and play
the sweetest music on a kind of small harp called
the lyre. The winners of these contests did not
receive a laurel wreath, but they were carried in
triumph on the shoulders of the throng, as you
may have seen the captain of a winning team
picked up and raised aloft by his fellow-players
after he has won.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Greek runner.</p>
</div>

<p>Now, in Greek History the first event which
we can be absolutely sure is true is the record
of the winner of a foot-race in these Olympic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87"></span>
Games 776 years before Christ was born. And
from this event the Greeks began to count their
history dates, as we do now from the birth of
Christ. It was their Year 1.</p>

<p>The four years’ time between the Olympic
Games was called an Olympiad. Up to this time,
they had no calendar that gave the year or date,
so 776 is the date of
the first Olympiad.
Greek History before
that time may have
been partly true, but
we know much of it
was mythical. Beginning
with 776, however,
Greek history is
pretty much all true.</p>

<p>After a long while
they stopped having
the games, but a few
years ago it was
thought it would be a
good thing to start
them again. So, for the first time since before
Christ, new Olympic Games were again held in
1896 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, not in Olympia, however, but in
Athens. The games used to be held only in
Greece. Now they are held each time in a different
country. Only Greeks used to be allowed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88"></span>
to take part. Now, however, athletes from almost
all the countries of the world are invited
to compete. War used to be stopped when the
time for the games arrived. Now the games are
stopped when war is on.</p>

<p>From what we have learned of the Spartans’
training, we might guess that they used to win
most of the athletic prizes, and they did.</p>

<p>Do the Spartans still continue to win most of
the prizes in the New Olympic Games?</p>

<p>No. Not even the Greeks now carry off the
chief prizes.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c16">16</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Bad Beginning</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> you ever heard of the Seven-League
Boots, the boots in which one could take many
miles at a single step?</p>

<p>Well, there is a still bigger boot; it is over five
hundred miles long, and it is in the Mediterranean
Sea.</p>

<p>No, it’s not a real boot, but it would look like
one if you were miles high in an airplane and
looking down upon it.</p>

<p>It is called Italy.</p>

<p>Something very important happened in Italy,
not long after the First Olympiad in Greece.
It was so important that it was called the Year 1,
and for a thousand years people counted from
it as the Greeks did from the First Olympiad,
and as we do now from the birth of Christ. This
thing that happened was not the birth of a man,
however. It was the birth of a city, and this city
was called Rome.</p>

<p>The history of Rome starts with stories that
we know are fairy-tales or myths in the same
way that the history of Greece does. Homer told<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90"></span>
about the wanderings of the Greek, Odysseus.
A great many years later a poet named Vergil
told about the wanderings of a Trojan named
Æneas.</p>

<p>Æneas fled from Troy when that city was
burning down and started off to find a new home.
Finally after several years he came to Italy and
the mouth of a river called the Tiber. There
Æneas met the daughter of the man who was
ruling over that country, a girl by the name of
Lavinia, and married her, and they lived happily
ever after. So the children of Æneas and
Lavinia ruled over the land, and they had children,
and their children had children, and their
children had children, until at last boy twins were
born. These twins were named Romulus and
Remus. Here endeth the first part of the story
and the trouble begins, for they did not live
happily ever after.</p>

<p>At the time the twins were born, a man had
stolen the kingdom, and he feared that these two
boys might grow up and take his stolen kingdom
away from him. So he put the twins in a basket
and set them afloat on the river Tiber, hoping
that they might be carried out to sea or upset and
be drowned. This, he thought, was nearly all
right, so long as he didn’t kill them with his own
hands. But the basket drifted ashore instead of
going out to sea or upsetting, and a mother wolf<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91"></span>
found the twins and nursed them as if they were
her own babies. And a woodpecker also helped
and fed them berries. At last a shepherd found
them and brought them up as if they were his
own sons until they grew up and became men.
This sounds a good deal like the story of Paris
who was left out to die and was found and
brought up by a shepherd also.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Romulus and Remus with the wolf.</p>
</div>

<p>Each of the twins then wished to build a city.
But they could not agree which one was to do
it, and in quarreling over the matter, Romulus
killed his own twin brother Remus. Romulus
then built the city by the Tiber River, on the
spot where he and his brother had been saved
and nursed by the mother wolf. Here there were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92"></span>
seven hills. This was in 753 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and he named
the city Roma after his own name, and the people
who lived there were called Romans. So that
is why, ever afterward, the Roman kings always
said they were descended from the Trojan hero,
Æneas, the great-great-great-grandfather of
Romulus.</p>

<p>Don’t you believe this story? Neither do I.
But it is such an old, old story every one is supposed
to have heard it even though it is only a
legend.</p>

<p>In order to get people for the city which he
had started, it is said that Romulus invited all
the thieves and bad men who had escaped from
jail to come and live in Rome, promising them
that they would be safe there.</p>

<p>Then as none of the men had wives, and there
were no women in his new city, Romulus thought
up a scheme to get the men wives. He invited
some people called Sabines, who lived near-by,
both men and women, to come to Rome to a
big party.</p>

<p>They accepted, and a great feast was spread.
In the middle of the feast, when every one was
eating and drinking, a signal was given, and each
of the Romans seized a Sabine woman for his
wife and ran off with her.</p>

<p>The Sabine husbands immediately prepared
themselves for war against the Romans, who had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93"></span>
stolen their wives. When the battle had begun
between the two armies, the Sabine women ran
out in the midst of the fighting between their
new and old husbands and begged them both to
stop. They said they had come to love their
new husbands and would not return to their old
homes.</p>

<p>What do you think of that?</p>

<p>It sounds like a pretty bad beginning for a
new city, doesn’t it? and you may well wonder
how Rome turned out&mdash;a city that started with
Romulus killing his brother and that was settled
by escaped prisoners who stole the wives of their
neighbors. We must remember, however, that
then they were nearer the time when Primitive
Men lived whose only rule of life was: kill or be
killed, steal or be stolen; and whose usual way
of getting wives was to knock them in the head
and drag them off to their caves while they were
senseless. Besides, they believed in the same
gods as the Greeks, and we have heard how their
gods did all sorts of wicked things themselves.
This, too, was long before Christ was born, and
at that time they did not know anything about the
Christian religion or what we call right and
wrong.</p>

<p>You see I have tried to think of some good
excuses for the actions of these first Romans.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c17">17</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Kings with Corkscrew Curls</p>


<p><span class="smcap">After</span> Rome’s bad start she had one king
after another, and some of these kings were
pretty good and some were pretty bad.</p>

<p>But the most important city in the world at
this time was far away from Rome on the Tigris
River. This city was called Nineveh, and here
lived the kings of the country called Assyria,
which I told you about some time ago.</p>

<p>As usual, the chief thing we hear about Assyria
and the Assyrians is that they were fighting with
their neighbors. This, however, was not the fault
of their neighbors.</p>

<p>The Assyrian kings who lived in Nineveh
wanted more land and power, and so they fought
their neighbors in order to take their land away
from them. These kings had long corkscrew
curls, and you may think that only girls wear
long curls and that a man with curls would be
“girl-like.” But these kings were not at all that
kind. They were such terrible fighters that they
were feared far and near. They treated their
prisoners terribly; they skinned them alive, cut<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95"></span>
off their ears, pulled out their tongues, bored
sticks into their eyes, then bragged about it.
They made the people whom they conquered pay
them huge sums of money and promise to fight
with them whenever they went to war.</p>

<p>And so Assyria became so strong and powerful
that she at last owned everything of importance
in the world, the land between the rivers
called Mesopotamia, and the land to the east,
north, and south, and Phenicia, and Egypt, and
pretty nearly everything except Greece and
Italy.</p>

<p>This big, big country of Assyria was ruled by
the kings at Nineveh, who lived in great magnificence.
They built wonderful palaces for
themselves, and on each side of the way that led
to the palace they placed rows of huge statues
of bulls and lions with wings and men’s heads
as a rich man nowadays might plant a row of
trees along the driveway that leads up to his
home. These winged animals are what are called
cherubs in the Bible.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have heard a particularly sweet
and pretty little baby called a cherub. Isn’t it
strange that these hideous Assyrian monsters
should be called cherubs also?</p>

<p>When the Assyrian kings were not fighting
men they were fighting wild animals, for they
were very fond of hunting with bow and arrow,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96"></span>
and they had pictures and statues made of themselves
on horseback or in chariots fighting lions.
Often they would capture the animals they
hunted alive and put them in cages so that the
people could come and see them. This was something
like a “zoo” such as we have nowadays.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">An Assyrian cherub.</p>
</div>

<p>The rulers of Assyria had very strange names.
Sennacherib was one of the most famous. Sennacherib
lived about 700 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Once upon a time
Sennacherib was fighting Jerusalem. His whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97"></span>
army was camped one night when as they lay
asleep something happened, for when the morning
came, none woke up; all were dead, both men
and horses. An English poet named Byron has
written a poem called “The Destruction of Sennacherib”
describing this event. Perhaps they
were poisoned; what do you think?</p>

<p>Assur-bani-pal was another king who ruled
later&mdash;about 650 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> He was a great fighter
too, but he was also very fond of books and reading;
so Assur-bani-pal started the first public
library. The books in that first public library
were, however, very peculiar. Of course they
were not printed books, and they were not even
made of paper. They were made of mud with
the words pressed into the clay before it dried.
This writing was cuneiform, which I have already
told you about. The books were not arranged
in bookcases, either, but were placed in piles on
the floor. They were, however, kept in careful
order and numbered so that a person who wanted
to see a book in the library could call for it by its
number.</p>

<p>Assyria reached the height of her power during
the reign of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal, and
everything in Nineveh was so lovely for the Ninevites
that the time when Assur-bani-pal reigned
was called the Golden Age.</p>

<p>But although everything in Nineveh was so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98"></span>
lovely for the Ninevites, everywhere else the
Assyrians were hated and feared, for their armies
brought death and destruction wherever they
went.</p>

<p>So it came to pass that not long after Assur-bani-pal
died, two of the neighbors of Nineveh
could stand it no longer. These two neighbors
were the king of Babylon, who lived south, and
a people called the Medes, who lived to the east
and belonged to the Aryan family. So the king
of Babylon and the Medes got together and attacked
Nineveh, and together they wiped that
city off the face of the earth. This was in 612
<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;Six-One-Two&mdash;and the power of Nineveh
and Assyria was killed dead. This, therefore is
called the Fall of Nineveh, the end of Nineveh.
We might put up a tombstone:</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c18">18</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A City of Wonders and Wickedness</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> king of Babylon had beaten Nineveh.
But he didn’t stop with that. He wanted his
Babylon to be as great as Nineveh had been. So
he went on conquering other lands to the left
and right until Babylon, in its turn, became the
leader and ruler of other countries. Was Babylon,
also, in its turn, to fall, as Nineveh had
fallen?</p>

<p>When at last the king of Babylon died, he left
his vast empire to his son. Now, the king’s son
was not called John or James or Charles or anything
simple like that. It was&mdash;Nebuchadnezzar,
and I wonder if his father called him by all that
long name or shortened it to a nickname like
“Neb,” for instance, or “Chad,” or perhaps
“Nezzar.” This is the way Nebuchadnezzar
wrote his name, for he used cuneiform writing.
How would you like to write your name in such
a queer way?</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Name of Nebuchadnezzar in cuneiform writing.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100"></span></p>

<p>Nebuchadnezzar set to work and made the city
of Babylon the largest, the most magnificent and
the most wonderful city of that time and perhaps
of any time. The city was in the shape of a
square and covered more ground than the two
largest cities in the world to-day&mdash;New York
and London&mdash;put together. He surrounded it
with a wall fifty times as high as a man&mdash;fifty
times&mdash;whew!&mdash;and so broad that a chariot could
be driven along on the top, and in this wall he
made one hundred huge brass gates. The Euphrates
River flowed under the wall, across the
city, and out under the wall on the other side.</p>

<p>Nebuchadnezzar could not find any one in
Babylon who was beautiful enough to be his
queen. The Babylonian girls must have felt
pretty bad&mdash;or mad&mdash;about that. So he went to
Media, the country that had helped his father
conquer Nineveh. There he found a lovely princess,
and so he married her and brought her home
to Babylon.</p>

<p>Now, Media was a land of hills and mountains,
whilst Babylon was on level ground and without
even a hill in sight. Nebuchadnezzar’s queen
found Babylonia so flat and uninteresting that
she became homesick, and she longed for her own
country with its wild mountain scenery. So,
just to please her and keep her contented Nebuchadnezzar
set to work and <i>built</i> a hill for her,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101"></span>
but the queer thing was he built it on top of the
roof of his palace! On the sides of this hill he
made beautiful gardens, and these gardens he
planted not only with flowers but also with trees,
so that his queen might sit in the shade and enjoy
herself. These were called Hanging Gardens.
The Hanging Gardens and the tremendous walls
were known far and wide as one of the Seven
Wonders of the world.</p>

<p>Would you like to know what the other Wonders
were?</p>

<p>Well, the pyramids in Egypt were one; the
magnificent statue of Jupiter at Olympia, where
the Olympic Games were held, was another&mdash;so
those with the Hanging Gardens make three.</p>

<p>Nebuchadnezzar believed in idols like those
terrible monsters the Phenicians worshiped. The
Jews away off in Jerusalem believed in one God.
Nebuchadnezzar wanted the Jews to worship his
gods, but they would not. He also wanted them
to pay him taxes, and they would not. So he
sent his armies to Jerusalem, destroyed that city,
burnt the beautiful Temple that Solomon had
built, and brought the Jews and all their belongings
to Babylon. There in Babylon Nebuchadnezzar
kept the Jews prisoners, and there in
Babylon the Jews remained prisoners for fifty
years.</p>

<p>Babylon had become not only the most magnificent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102"></span>
city in the world; it had become also the
most wicked. The people of Babylon gave themselves
up to the wildest pleasures. Their only
thought seemed to be, “Let’s eat, drink, and be
merry”; they thought nothing of the morrow;
the more wicked the pleasure the more they liked
it.</p>

<p>But although Nebuchadnezzar seemed able to
do and able to have everything in the world he
wanted, he finally went crazy. He thought he
was a bull, and he used to get down on his hands
and knees and eat grass, imagining he was a
beast of the field.</p>

<p>And Babylon, in spite of its tremendous walls
and brass gates, was doomed. Babylon was to
be conquered. It didn’t seem possible. How
could it be conquered, and who was to do the
conquering? You would probably never guess.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c19">19</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Surprise Party</p>


<p><span class="smcap">When</span> I was a boy I was always told, and you
have probably been told the same thing:</p>

<p>“You can have no dessert until you have eaten
your dinner.”</p>

<p>No matter whether I was hungry or not, “No
dinner, no dessert.” This was a rule which my
father said was “like the laws of the Medes and
Persians.”</p>

<p>I didn’t know then who the Medes and Persians
were, but I know now that they were two
Aryan families living next to Babylon&mdash;you
remember Nebuchadnezzar had married a
Median girl&mdash;and that they were governed by
laws which were fixed so hard and fast and were
so unchangeable that we still speak of any such
thing that does not change as like “the laws of
the Medes and Persians.”</p>

<p>The Medes and the Persians had a religion
which was neither like that of the Jews nor like
the idol worship of the Babylonians. It had been
started by a Persian named Zoroaster, who was
a wise man like Solomon. He may even have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104"></span>
lived about the same time as Solomon, but probably
a good deal later.</p>

<p>Zoroaster went about among the people, teaching
them wise sayings and hymns. These wise
sayings have been gathered into a book, which is
now the Persian Bible.</p>

<p>Zoroaster taught that there were two great
spirits in the world, the Good Spirit and the Bad
Spirit.</p>

<p>The Good Spirit, he said, was Light, and the
Bad Spirit, Darkness. The Good or Light he
called Mazda; where have you heard that word,
I wonder. So the Persians kept a fire, in which
they thought was the Good Spirit, constantly
burning on their altars, and they had men watch
over this flame to see that it never went out.
These men who watched the flame were called
Magi, and they were supposed to be able to do
all sorts of wonderful things, so that we call such
wonderful things “magic,” and the people who
are able to do them we call “magicians.”</p>

<p>At the time of this story which I’m telling you,
the ruler of the Medes and the Persians was a
great king named Cyrus.</p>

<p>But before I go on with this story I must tell
you about a little country not far from Troy.
This little country was called Lydia. Perhaps
you may know a girl named Lydia. I do. Lydia
was ruled over by a king named Crœsus who was
the richest man in the world. When we want to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105"></span>
describe a man as very wealthy, we still say he
is “as rich as Crœsus.”</p>

<p>Crœsus owned nearly all the gold-mines, of
which there were a great many in that country,
and besides this he collected money in the form
of taxes from all the cities near him.</p>

<p>Before the time of Crœsus people did not have
money such as we have now. When they wished
to buy anything, they simply traded something
they had for something they wanted&mdash;so many
eggs for a pound of meat or so much wine for
a pair of sandals. To buy anything expensive,
such as a horse, they paid with a lump of gold or
silver, which was weighed in the scales to see just
how heavy it was. It is hard for us to think how
people could get along without cents and nickels,
dimes, quarters and dollars&mdash;with no money at
all&mdash;and yet they did.</p>

<p>Crœsus, in order to make things simpler, cut
up his gold into small bits. Now, it was not
easy for every one to weigh each piece each time
it was traded, for he might not have any scales
handy. So Crœsus had each piece weighed and
stamped with its weight and with his name or
initials to show that he guaranteed the weight.
These pieces of gold and silver were only lumps
with Crœsus’ seal pressed into them, but they
were the first real money even though they were
not round and beautifully engraved like our
coins.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106"></span></p>

<p>Now, Cyrus, the great Persian king, thought
he would like to own this rich country of Lydia
with all its gold-mines, so he set out to conquer it.</p>

<p>When Cyrus was on the way Crœsus sent in a
hurry to the oracle in Greece to ask what was
going to happen and who was going to win. You
will remember what I said about the oracle at
Delphi and how people used to ask the oracle
questions&mdash;to have their fortunes told, as nowadays
some people ask the ouija board.</p>

<p>The oracle replied to Crœsus’ question:</p>

<p>“A great kingdom shall fall.”</p>

<p>Crœsus was delighted, for he thought the
oracle meant that Cyrus’ kingdom would fall.
The oracle <i>was</i> right, but not in the way Crœsus
had thought.</p>

<p>A great kingdom did fall, but it was his own
kingdom of Lydia and not Cyrus’ that fell.</p>

<p>But Cyrus was still not satisfied with the capture
of Lydia, and so at last he attacked Babylon.</p>

<p>Now, the people in Babylon who thought of
nothing but pleasure were busy feasting and
drinking and having a good time. Why
should they worry about Cyrus? Their city had
walls that were so high and thick and was protected
by such strong gates of brass that it
seemed as if no one could possibly have captured
it.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Delphic Oracle.</p>
</div>

<p>But you remember that the Euphrates River
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108"></span>ran beneath the walls and crossed right through
the city. Well, one night when the young prince
of Babylon named Belshazzar was having a gay
party and enjoying himself, feeling quite certain
that no one could enter the city, Cyrus made a
dam and turned the waters of the river to one
side. Then Cyrus’ army marched into the city
through the dry river-bed and captured the surprised
Babylonians without even a fight. It is
supposed that some of the Babylonian priests
helped him to do this and even opened the gates,
for Babylon had become so wicked that they
thought it time for it to be destroyed.</p>

<p>Old Lycurgus would have said: “I told you
so. People who think of nothing but pleasure
never come to a good end.”</p>

<p>This surprise party was in 538&mdash;5 and 3 are 8.</p>

<p>Two years later Cyrus let the Jews, who had
been carried away fifty years before from Jerusalem,
return to the home of their fathers, thus
ending the Babylonian Captivity.</p>

<p>To-day the only thing left of this great city of
Babylon, which was once bigger than New York
and London together&mdash;Babylon the Wicked,
Babylon the Magnificent, Babylon with all its
great walls and brass gates and Hanging Gardens&mdash;is
only a mound of earth. A few miles
away is a ruined tower. This tower, we think,
may once have been the Tower of Babel.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c20">20</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Other Side of the World</p>


<p><span class="smcap">There</span> used to be a “missionary box” in my
Sunday-school, and into this box we dropped
our pennies to send a missionary to the heathen.</p>

<p>The heathen, we were told, were people who
lived on the other side of the world and worshiped
idols.</p>

<p>There was the heathen “Chinee,” the heathen
“Japanee,” and the heathen Indian.</p>

<p>These heathen Indians were not our American
Indians. They lived in a country called India
on the other side of the world. India looks on the
map like the little thing that hangs down in the
back of your mouth when the doctor says: “Stick
out your tongue. Say ’Ah.’” Our Indians are
red, but the Indians from India are white. The
white Indians belong to the Aryan family, the
same family that Cyrus belonged to.</p>

<p>Two thousand years before the time of Cyrus,
an Aryan family had moved away from the other
Aryan families in Persia until they had come to
this country we now call India.</p>

<p>In the course of time there came to be four
chief classes of people in India, four chief classes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110"></span>
of society&mdash;high society, low society, and two
classes of society in between. These classes were
called castes, and no one in one caste would have
anything to do with one in another caste. A boy
or girl in one caste would never play with a boy
or girl in another caste. A man from one caste
would never marry a woman in another. No one
from one caste would eat with one in another
caste, even though he were starving. Men in
different castes were even afraid of touching each
other in passing on the street. It was almost as if
they were afraid of catching some horrible
disease.</p>

<p>The highest caste of all were the Fighters and
Rulers. The Rulers were the Fighters, and the
Fighters were the Rulers, for they had to be
fighters in order to keep their rule.</p>

<p>In the next caste were the Priests; and, as
in the case of the Egyptian priests, these men
were not what we think of as priests nowadays.
They were what we should call professional men&mdash;doctors,
lawyers, engineers, etc.</p>

<p>Next came the farmers and tradespeople&mdash;the
butcher, the baker, and candlestick maker.</p>

<p>Fourth and last were the common laborers.
These were the men who knew nothing and could
do nothing but dig or chop wood or carry water.</p>

<p>Below these four castes were still other people
so low and mean that they were called outcastes
or Pariahs. We now call any person who has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111"></span>
done something so disgraceful that no one, not
even the lowest, will have anything to do with
him a “pariah.”</p>

<p>The people in India believed in a god whom
they called Brahma, and so we call their religion
Brahmanism. The Brahmanists believed that
when a person died his soul was born again in the
body of another person or perhaps of an animal.
If he had been good while alive they thought his
soul went into the body of a higher caste man
when he died&mdash;as if he were promoted from one
grade to the next. If, however, he had led a bad
life they thought his soul went into the body of
a lower caste man or even of an animal.</p>

<p>When a man died, his body was not buried, it
was burned. If he were a married man, his wife
was obliged to throw herself alive upon the burning
flames. She was not allowed to live after
her husband was dead. If the wife died, that
was another matter; the man simply got another
wife. In the Brahman temples were hideous
idols, which the people worshiped as gods. These
idols had several heads apiece or many arms, or
many legs, or they had tusks sticking out of their
mouths&mdash;or they had horns coming out of their
heads.</p>

<p>About the year 500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> there was born a prince
in India by the name of Gautama. Gautama
saw so much suffering and trouble in the world
that he felt it was not right that he himself, just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112"></span>
because he by chance had been born rich, should
be happy while others were miserable and unhappy.
So he gave up the life to which he had
been born and brought up, a life of ease and
luxury with all its good things, and spent his
entire time trying to make things better for his
people.</p>

<p>Gautama taught the people to be good; he
taught them to be honest; and he taught them
to help the poor and unfortunate. After a while
people began to call him Buddha, and he was so
holy and pure that at last they thought he must be
god himself, and so they worshiped him as god.</p>

<p>These people who believed in Buddha were
called Buddhists, and many, many Brahmanists
left their hideous idols and became Buddhists.
You see there was no such thing as a Christian
religion as yet, for this was still five hundred
years before Christ was born, and Buddhism
seemed so much better than Brahmanism that
we do not wonder that great numbers of people
became Buddhists.</p>

<p>Buddhists thought their religion was so good
that they wanted everyone to become Buddhists;
so they sent missionaries across country and sea
to the island of Japan just as we send Christian
missionaries now, and this new religion spread far
and wide.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have never met nor seen nor even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113"></span>
heard of a Buddhist, and yet to-day there are
many more Buddhists on the other side of the
world than there are Christians!</p>

<p>About the same time that Gautama was starting
Buddhism in India, a man in China, a teacher
by the name of Confucius, was teaching the
people of China what they ought to do and what
they ought not to do. His teachings filled several
books and formed what came to be a religion
for the Chinese.</p>

<p>Confucius taught his people to obey their parents
and teachers and to honor their ancestors.
This sounds something like one of the Ten Commandments:
“Honor thy father and thy mother.”</p>

<p>Confucius also taught the golden rule, the same
golden rule you are taught to-day, only instead
of saying, “<i>Do</i> unto others as you would be done
by,” he said, “Do <i>not</i> do to others what you
would <i>not</i> want others to do to you.”</p>

<p>In China there are still as many people who
follow the teachings of Confucius as there are
Christians in all the rest of the world. So here
are two religions each as large or larger than the
Christian religion.</p>

<p>China was highly civilized, even at this time,
500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and many inventions were known and
used in that country long before the rest of the
world ever heard of them. Yet we know little of
China’s history until a great deal later.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c21">21</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Rich Man, Poor Man</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Whenever</span> I pass a group of street boys
playing ball, I almost always hear some one
shout, “That’s no fair!”</p>

<p>There always seem to be some players who
think the others are not playing fair. Sides are
always quarreling.</p>

<p>They need an umpire.</p>

<p>When Athens was young there were two sides
among the people&mdash;the rich and the poor, the
aristocrats and the common people&mdash;and they
were always quarreling. Each side was trying
to get more power, and each side said the other
wasn’t playing fair.</p>

<p>They needed an umpire.</p>

<p>Athens had had kings, but the kings took the
side of the rich, and so at last the Athenians
had kicked out the last king, and after that they
would have no more kings.</p>

<p>About the year 600 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> things became so very
bad that a man named Draco was chosen to make
a set of rules for the Athenians to obey. These
rules he made were called the Code of Draco.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115"></span></p>

<p>Draco’s Code made terrible punishments for
any one who broke the rules. If a man stole
anything, even as small a thing as a loaf of bread,
he was not just fined or sent to jail; he was put
to death! And no matter how small the wrong
a man had done, he was put to death for it. Draco
explained the reason for such a severe law by
saying that a thief deserved to be put to death
and should be. A man who killed another deserved
<i>more</i> than to be put to death, but unfortunately
there was no worse punishment to give
him.</p>

<p>You can understand how much trouble the laws
of Draco caused. They were so hard that a
little later another man was called upon to make
a new set of laws. This man was named Solon,
and his laws were very just and good. We now
call senators and other people who make our
laws “Solons” after this man Solon who lived so
long ago, even though their laws are not always
just and good.</p>

<p>Still the people were not satisfied with Solon’s
laws. The upper classes thought the laws gave
too much to the lower classes, and the lower
classes thought they gave too much to the upper.
Both classes, however, obeyed the laws for a
while, although both classes complained against
them.</p>

<p>But about 560 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> a man named Pisistratus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116"></span>
stepped in and took charge of things himself. He
was not elected nor chosen by the people. He
simply made himself ruler, and he was so powerful
that no one could stop him. It was as if a
boy made himself captain or umpire without
being chosen by those on the teams.</p>

<p>There were others from time to time in Greece
who did the same thing, and they were called
tyrants. So Pisistratus was a tyrant. Nowadays
only a ruler who is cruel and unjust is
called a tyrant. Pisistratus, however, settled the
difficulties of both sides, and, though a tyrant in
the Greek sense, he was neither cruel nor unjust.
In fact, Pisistratus ruled according to the laws
of Solon, and he did a great deal to improve
Athens and the life of the people. Among other
things he did, he had Homer’s poems written
down, so that people could read them, for before
this time people knew them only from hearing
them recited. So the people put up with Pisistratus
and also with his son for a while. But
finally the Athenians got tired of the son’s rule
and drove all the Pisistratus family out of Athens
in 510 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>

<p>The next man to try and settle the quarrels of
the two sides was named Clisthenes. It is hard,
sometimes, to learn the name of a stranger to
whom we have just been introduced unless we
hear his name repeated several times. So I will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117"></span>
say over his name so that you can get used to
hearing it:</p>

<p>
<span class="smcap pad6">Clisthenes;</span><br />
<span class="smcap pad15">Clisthenes;</span><br />
<span class="smcap pad9">Clisthenes.</span>
</p>

<p>Your father may be poor or he may be rich.</p>

<p>If he is poor he has one vote when there is
an election.</p>

<p>If he is rich he has
one vote but only one
vote and no more.</p>

<p>If he breaks the
laws, whether he is
rich or whether he is
poor, he must go to
jail.</p>

<p>It was not always
so; it is not always so
even now. But long
ago it was much worse.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Ostracism.</p>
</div>

<p>Clisthenes gave every one a vote&mdash;rich and
poor alike&mdash;and ruled wisely and well.</p>

<p>Clisthenes started something called ostracism.
If for any reason the people wanted to get rid
of a man, all they had to do was to scratch his
name on any piece of a broken pot or jar they
might find and drop it in a voting-box on a certain
day. If there were enough such votes, the
man would have to leave the city and stay away<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118"></span>
for ten years. This was called ostracism, and
a man so treated was said to be ostracized, from
the Greek name for such a broken piece of pottery,
on which the name was written. Even to-day
we use this same word to speak of a person
whom no one will have anything to do with,
whom no one wants around, saying he has been
ostracized.</p>

<p>Have you ever been sent away from the table
to the kitchen or to your room for being naughty?</p>

<p>Then you, too, have been ostracized.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c22">22</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Rome Kicks Out Her Kings</p>


<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 509 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> something happened in Rome.</p>

<p>There were two classes of people in Rome,
just as there were in Athens; the wealthy people
who were called patricians and the poor people
who were called plebeians. We use the same
words now and call people who are rich and
aristocratic “patricians,” and the people who are
poor and uneducated “plebeians.” The patricians
were allowed to vote, but the plebeians
were not allowed to vote.</p>

<p>At last, however, the plebeians had been given
the right to vote. But in 509 Rome had a king
named Tarquin. He didn’t think the plebeians
should be allowed to vote, and so he said they
should not. The plebeians would not stand this,
and so they got together and drove Tarquin out
of the city, as the Athenians had driven out their
king. This was in 509, and Tarquin was the
last king Rome ever had.</p>

<p>After King Tarquin had been driven out,
the Romans started what is called a republic,
something like our own country, but they were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120"></span>
afraid to have only one man as president for fear
he might make himself king, and they had had
enough of kings.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Lictor carrying fasces.</p>
</div>

<p>So the Romans elected
<i>two men</i> each year to be
rulers over them, and these
two men they called consuls.
Each consul had a
body-guard of twelve men&mdash;just
a dozen. These men
were given the name “lictors,”
and each lictor carried
an ax tied up in a
bundle of sticks. This
bundle of sticks with the
ax-head sticking out in the
middle or at the end was
known as “fasces” and signified
that the consuls had
power to punish by whipping
with the sticks or by
chopping off one’s head
with the ax.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have seen
fasces used as ornaments
or as a decoration around
monuments or on buildings like a court-house, city
hall, or capitol. Why do you suppose they are
used in this way?</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121"></span></p>

<p>One of the first two consuls was named Brutus
the Elder, and he had two sons. The king,
Tarquin, who had been driven out of the city,
plotted to get back to Rome and become king
once more. He was able to persuade some
Romans to help him. Among those whom he
persuaded were, strange to say, the two sons of
Brutus&mdash;the new consul of Rome.</p>

<p>Brutus found out this plot and learned that
his own children had helped Tarquin. So Brutus
had his sons tried. They were found guilty,
and in spite of the fact that they were his own
children, he had the lictors put both of them to
death as well as the other traitors to Rome.</p>

<p>Tarquin did not succeed in getting back the
rule of Rome in this way, and so the next year he
tried again. This time he got together an army
of his neighbors, the Etruscans, and with this
army he attacked Rome.</p>

<p>Now, there was a wooden bridge across the
Tiber River, which separated the Etruscans from
the city of Rome. In order to keep the Etruscans
from crossing into the city, a Roman
named Horatius, who had already lost one eye
in fighting for Rome, gave orders to have this
bridge broken down.</p>

<p>While the bridge was being chopped down,
Horatius with two of his friends stood on the far
side of the bridge and fought back the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122"></span>
Etruscan army. When the bridge was cracking
under the blows of the Roman soldiers, Horatius
ordered his two friends to run quickly to the
other side before the bridge fell.</p>

<p>Then Horatius, all by himself, kept the enemy
back until at last the bridge crashed into the river.
Horatius then jumped into the water with all
his armor on and swam toward the Roman shore.
Though arrows the Etruscans shot were falling
all around him, and though his armor weighed
him down, he reached the other side safely. Even
the Etruscans were thrilled at his bravery, and,
enemies though they were, they cheered him
loudly.</p>

<p>There is a very famous poem called “Horatius
at the Bridge,” which describes this brave deed,
and most boys like to learn at least a part of it.</p>

<p>A few years after Horatius, there lived another
Roman named Cincinnatus. He was only
a simple farmer with a little farm on the bank
of the Tiber, but he was very wise and good, and
the people of Rome honored and trusted him.</p>

<p>One day when an enemy was about to attack
the city&mdash;for in those days there always seemed
to be enemies everywhere ready to attack Rome
on any excuse&mdash;the people had to have a leader
and a general. They thought of Cincinnatus
and went and asked him to be dictator.</p>

<p>Now, a dictator was the name they gave to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123"></span>
a man who in case of sudden danger was called
upon to command the army and in fact all the
people for the time being while there was danger.
Cincinnatus left his plow, went with the people to
the city, got together an army, went out and
defeated the enemy, and returned to Rome, all
in twenty-four hours!</p>

<p>The people were so much pleased with the
quick and decided way in which Cincinnatus had
saved Rome that they wanted him to keep right
on being their general in time of peace. Even
though they hated kings so much, they would
have made him king if he would have accepted.</p>

<p>But Cincinnatus did not want any such thing.
His duty done, he wanted to return to his wife
and humble home and his little farm. So in
spite of what many would have thought a wonderful
chance, he did go back to his plow, choosing
to be just a simple farmer instead of being
king.</p>

<p>The city of Cincinnati in Ohio is named after
a society which was founded in honor of this old
Roman, who lived nearly five hundred years
before Christ.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c23">23</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Greece <i>vs.</i> Persia</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Do</span> you know what those two little letters “vs.”
mean between Greece and Persia in the name of
this story?</p>

<p>Perhaps you have seen them used on football
tickets when there was to be a match between two
teams, as, for example, Harvard vs. Yale.</p>

<p>They stand for “versus,” which means
“against.”</p>

<p>Well, there was to be a great match between
Greece and Persia, but it wasn’t a game; it was
a fight for life and death, a fight between little
Greece and great big Persia.</p>

<p>Cyrus, the great Persian king, had conquered
Babylon and other countries, as well, and he had
kept on conquering until Persia ruled most of
the world, all except Greece and Italy.</p>

<p>About the Year 500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> the new ruler of this
vast Persian Empire was a man named Darius.
Darius looked at the map, as you might do, and
saw that he owned and ruled over a large part
of it. What a pity, thought he, that there should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125"></span>
be a little country like Greece that did not belong
to him!</p>

<p>So Darius said to himself, “I must have this
piece of land called Greece to complete my
empire.” Besides, the Greeks had given him
some trouble. They had helped some of his
subjects to rebel against him. Darius said,
“I must punish these Greeks for what they
have done and then just add their country to
mine.”</p>

<p>So he called his son-in-law and told him to go
over to Greece and conquer it.</p>

<p>His son-in-law did as he was told and started
out with a fleet and an army to do the punishing.
But before his fleet could reach Greece it was
destroyed by a storm, and he had to go back
home without having done anything.</p>

<p>Darius was very angry at this, mad with his
son-in-law and mad with the gods who he thought
had wrecked his ships, and he made up his mind
that he himself would go and do the punishing
and conquering the next time.</p>

<p>First, however, he sent his messengers to all the
Greek cities and ordered each of them to send
him some earth and some water as a sign that
they would give him their land and become his
subjects peaceably without a fight.</p>

<p>Many Greek cities were so frightened by the
threat of Darius and by his mighty power that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126"></span>
they gave in at once and sent earth and water
as they were told to do.</p>

<p>But little Athens and little Sparta both hotly
refused to do so, in spite of the fact that they
were only two small cities against the vast empire
of Darius.</p>

<p>Athens took Darius’ messenger and threw
him into a well, saying, “There is earth and
water for you; help yourself”; and Sparta did
likewise. Then these two cities joined their
forces and called on all their neighbors to join
with them to fight for their native land against
Darius and Persia.</p>

<p>So Darius made ready to conquer Athens and
then Sparta.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">A Trireme.</p>
</div>

<p>In order to reach
Athens his army had to
be carried across the sea
in boats. Of course, in
those days there were no
steamboats. Steamboats
were invented thousands
of years later. The only
way to make a boat go
was with sails or with
oars. To make a large boat move with oars, it
was necessary to have a great many rowers&mdash;three
rows one above the other on each side of
the boat.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127"></span></p>

<p>Such a boat was called a trireme, which means
three rows of oars. It took about 600 of these
boats to carry Darius’ army over to Greece.
Each of these 600 boats carried, besides the
rowers or crew, about 200 soldiers. So you can
see for yourself how many soldiers Darius had
in this army, if there were 600 ship-loads of them
and 200 soldiers on each ship. Yes, that is an
example in multiplication&mdash;120,000 soldiers&mdash;that’s
right.</p>

<p>So the Persians sailed across the sea; and this
time there was no storm, and they reached the
shore of Greece safely. They landed on a spot
called the plain of Marathon, which was only
about twenty-six miles away from Athens. You
will see presently why I have told you just the
number of miles&mdash;twenty-six.</p>

<p>When the Athenians heard that the Persians
were coming, they wanted to get Sparta in a
hurry to help, as she had promised to do.</p>

<p>Now, there were no telegraphs or telephones
or railroads, of course, in those days. There was
no way in which they could send a message to
Sparta except to have it carried by hand.</p>

<p>So they called on a famous runner named
Pheidippides to carry the message. Pheidippides
started out and ran the whole way from
Athens to Sparta, about one hundred and fifty
miles, to carry the message. He ran night and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128"></span>
day, hardly stopping at all to rest or to eat, and
on the second day he was in Sparta.</p>

<p>The Spartans, however, sent back word that
they couldn’t start just then; the moon wasn’t
full, and it was bad luck to start when the moon
wasn’t full, as nowadays some superstitious
people think it bad luck to start on a trip on Friday.
They said they would come after a while,
when the moon was full.</p>

<p>But the Athenians couldn’t wait for the moon.
They knew the Persians would be in Athens before
then, and they didn’t want them to get as
far as that.</p>

<p>So all the fighting men in Athens left their
city and went forth to meet the Persians on the
plain of Marathon&mdash;twenty-six miles away.</p>

<p>The Athenians were led by a man named
Miltiades, and there were only ten thousand soldiers
of them. Besides these, there were one
thousand more from a little near-by town, which
was friendly with Athens and wished to stand by
her&mdash;eleven thousand in all. If you figure it out,
you will see that there were perhaps ten times as
many Persians as there were Greeks, ten Persian
soldiers to one Greek soldier.</p>

<p>The Greeks, however, were trained athletes,
as we know, and their whole manner of life made
them physically fit. The Persians were no match
for them. And so, in spite of the small number
of Greeks, the large number of Persians were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129"></span>
beaten, and beaten badly. Of course the Greeks
were far better soldiers than the Persians, for all
their training made them so, but more than all
this, they were fighting for themselves to save
their homes and their families.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have heard the fable of the hound
who was chasing a hare. The hare escaped. The
hound was made fun of for not catching the little
hare. To which the hound replied, “I was
only running for my supper; the hare was running
for his life.”</p>

<p>The Persian soldiers were not fighting for their
homes or families, which were away back across
the sea; and it made little difference to them who
won, anyway, for they were merely hirelings on
slaves; they were fighting for a king because he
ordered them to.</p>

<p>Naturally the Greeks were overjoyed at this
victory.</p>

<p>Pheidippides, the famous runner, who was now
at Marathon, started off at once to carry the joyful
news back to Athens, twenty-six miles away.
The whole distance he ran without stopping for
breath. But he had not had time to rest up from
his long run to Sparta, which he had taken only
a few days before, and so fast did he run this
long distance that as soon as he had reached
Athens and gasped the news to the Athenians in
the market-place he dropped down dead!</p>

<p>In honor of this famous run, they have nowadays,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130"></span>
in the new Olympic Games, what is called
a Marathon race, in which the athletes run this
same distance.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">“The First Marathon Race.”</p>
</div>

<p>This battle of Marathon took place in 490
<span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> and is one of the most famous battles in all
history, for the great Persian army was beaten
by one little city and its neighbor, and the
Persians had to go back to their homes in
disgrace.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131"></span></p>

<p>A little handful of people, who governed themselves,
had defeated a great king with a large
army of only hired soldiers or slaves.</p>

<p>But this was not the last the Greeks were to see
of the Persians.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c24">24</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Fighting Mad</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Darius</span> was now angrier than ever, and still
more determined to whip those stubborn Greeks,
who dared to defy him and his enormous power;
and he began to get ready for one more attempt.
This time, however, he made up his mind that
he would get together such an army and navy
that there would be no chance in the world against
it, and he made a solemn oath to destroy the
Greeks. So for several years he gathered troops
and supplies, but something happened, and in
spite of his oath he did not carry out his plan.
Why? You guessed it. He died.</p>

<p>But Darius had a son named Xerxes&mdash;pronounced
as if it began with a Z.</p>

<p>When I was a boy, there was an alphabet rime
that began, “A is for Apple,” and went on down
to, “X is for Xerxes, a great Persian king.” I
learned the rime, though I did not know at that
time anything either about Xerxes or Persia.</p>

<p>Xerxes was just as determined as his father
had been that the Greeks must be beaten, so he
went on getting ready.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133"></span></p>

<p>But the Greeks also were just as determined
that they must <i>not</i> be beaten, so they, too, went
on getting ready, for they knew the Persians
would sooner or later come back and try again.</p>

<p>At this time there were two chief men in
Athens, and each was trying to be leader. One
was named Themistocles&mdash;pronounced The-mis-to-klees&mdash;and
the other Aristides&mdash;pronounced
Air-is-tie-dees. Notice how many Greek names
seem to end in “es.”</p>

<p>Themistocles urged the Athenians to get ready
for what he knew was coming, the next war with
Persia. Especially did he urge the Athenians to
build a fleet of boats, for they had no boats and
the Persians had a great many.</p>

<p>Aristides, on the other hand, didn’t believe in
Themistocles’ scheme to build boats. He thought
it a foolish expense and talked against it.</p>

<p>Aristides had always been so wise and fair that
people called him Aristides the Just. Some of
the people wanted to get rid of him, because they
thought he was wrong and Themistocles was
right. So they waited till the time came to vote
to ostracize any one they wanted to get rid of.
Do you remember who started this custom?
Clisthenes&mdash;about 500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>

<p>When the day for voting came, a man who
could not write and did not know Aristides by
sight happened to ask his help in voting. Aristides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134"></span>
inquired what name he should write, and
the man replied, “Aristides.”</p>

<p>Aristides did not tell who he was, but merely
said:</p>

<p>“Why do you want to get rid of this man?
Has he done anything wrong?”</p>

<p>“Oh, no,” the voter replied. “He hasn’t done
anything wrong”; but with a long sigh he said,
“I’m so tired of hearing him always called ’The
Just.’”</p>

<p>Aristides must have been surprised by this unreasonable
answer, but nevertheless he wrote his
own name for the voter, and when the votes
were counted there were so many that he was
ostracized.</p>

<p>Though it did not seem quite fair that Aristides
should be ostracized, it was fortunate, as it turned
out, that Themistocles had his way, and it was
fortunate the Athenians went on preparing for
war.</p>

<p>They built a fleet of triremes. Then they got
all the cities and towns in Greece to agree to join
forces in case of war. Sparta, on account of its
fame as a city of soldiers, was made the leader
of all the others in case war should come.</p>

<p>And then, just ten years after the battle of
Marathon, in 480 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, the great Persian army
was again ready to attack Greece. It had been,
brought together from all parts of the vast Persian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135"></span>
Empire and was far bigger than the former
army with its 120,000 men, although that was a
large army for those days.</p>

<p>This time the army is supposed to have consisted
of over two million soldiers&mdash;two million;
just think of that! The question then was how
to get so many soldiers over to Greece. Such a
multitude could not be carried across to Greece
in boats, for even the largest triremes only held
a few hundred men, and it would have taken&mdash;well,
can you tell how many boats, to carry over
two million? Probably many more triremes than
there were in the whole world at that time. So
Xerxes decided to have his army march to Greece,
the long way but the only way round. So they
started.</p>

<p>Now, there is a strip of water called a strait,
something like a wide river, right across the path
the Persian army had to take. This strait was
then called the Hellespont. It is, of course, still
there, but if you look on the map now you will
find it is now called the Dardanelles. But there
was no bridge across the Hellespont, for it was
almost a mile wide, and they didn’t have bridges
as long as that in those days. So Xerxes fastened
boats together in a line that stretched from one
shore to the other shore, and over these boats he
built a floor to form a bridge so that his army
could cross upon it.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136"></span></p>

<p>Hardly had he finished building the bridge,
however, when a storm arose and destroyed it.
Xerxes, in anger at the waves, ordered that the
water of the Hellespont be whipped as if it were
a slave he were punishing. Then he built another
bridge, and this time the water behaved
itself, and his soldiers were able to cross over
safely.</p>

<p>So vast was Xerxes’ army that it is said to
have taken it seven days and seven nights marching
continuously all the time in two long unbroken
lines to get over to the opposite shore.
Xerxes’ fleet followed the army as closely as they
could along the shore, and at last they reached
the top of Greece. Down through the north of
Greece the army came, overrunning everything
before it, and it seemed as though nothing on
earth could stop such numbers of men.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c25">25</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">One Against a Thousand</p>


<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is a little narrow passageway with the
mountains on one side and the water on the other
through which the Persians had to go to reach
Athens. This pass is called Thermopylæ, and
you might guess what Thermopylæ means if you
notice that the first part is like Thermos bottle,
which means “hot” bottle. As a matter of fact,
Thermopylæ meant Hot Gateway, and was so
named because this natural gateway to Greece
had hot springs near-by.</p>

<p>The Greeks decided that it was best to stop
the Persians at this gate&mdash;to go to meet them
there first before they reached Athens. In such
a place a few Greek soldiers could fight better
against a much larger number.</p>

<p>It also seemed wise to send picked Greek
troops to meet the Persians, the very best soldiers
in Greece with the very bravest general to lead
them.</p>

<p>So the Spartan king, who was named Leonidas&mdash;which
in Greek means “like a lion”&mdash;was
chosen to go to Thermopylæ, and with him seven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138"></span>
thousand soldiers&mdash;seven thousand soldiers to
block the way of two million Persians! Three
hundred of these were Spartans, and a Spartan
was taught that he must never surrender, never
give up. A Spartan mother used to say to her
son:</p>

<p>“Come back <i>with</i> your shield or <i>on</i> it.”</p>

<p>When Xerxes found his way blocked by this
ridiculously small band of soldiers, he sent his
messengers ordering them to surrender, to give
themselves up.</p>

<p>And what do you suppose Leonidas replied?</p>

<p>It was what we should expect a Spartan to
answer, brief and to the point; that is, “Laconic.”
He said simply:</p>

<p>“Come and take us.”</p>

<p>As there was nothing left for Xerxes to do but
fight, he started his army forward.</p>

<p>For two days the Persians fought the Greeks,
but Leonidas still held the pass, and the Persians
were unable to get through.</p>

<p>Then a Greek traitor and coward, who thought
he might save his own life and be given a rich
prize by Xerxes, told that king of a secret path
over the mountains by which he and his army
might slip through and get around Leonidas and
his soldiers who blocked the way.</p>

<p>The next morning Leonidas learned that the
Persians had found out this path and were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139"></span>
already on the way to pen him in from behind.
There was still a chance, however, for his men
to escape, and Leonidas told all those who wanted
to do so to leave. Those that remained knew
that the fight was absolutely hopeless and that
it meant certain death for all them. In spite of
this, however, one thousand men, including all
the three hundred Spartans stood by their leader,
for, said they:</p>

<p>“We have been ordered to hold the pass, and
a Spartan obeys orders, and never surrenders, no
matter what happens.”</p>

<p>So there Leonidas and his thousand men
fought to the bitter end until all except one of
their number was killed.</p>

<p>The gateway to the city of Athens was now
open, and things looked very black for the
Greeks, for there was nothing to prevent the
Persians from marching over the dead bodies of
Leonidas and his men straight on to Athens.</p>

<p>The Athenians, wondering what was to happen
to them, hurriedly went to the oracle at Delphi
and asked what they should do.</p>

<p>The oracle replied that the city of Athens itself
was doomed, that it would be destroyed, there
was no hope for it, but that the Athenians themselves
would be saved by wooden walls.</p>

<p>This answer, as was usually the case in whatever
the oracle said, was a riddle, the meaning of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140"></span>
which seemed hard to solve. Themistocles, however,
said that he knew the answer. You remember
that it was he who had been working so hard
to have a fleet of ships built. Themistocles said
that the oracle meant these ships when it spoke
of the wooden walls.</p>

<p>So the Athenians, following the supposed advice
of the oracle, left their city as Themistocles
told them and went on board the ships, which
were not far away, in a bay called Salamis.</p>

<p>The Persian army reached Athens and found
it deserted. So they burned and destroyed the
city as the oracle said. Then they marched on
to the Bay of Salamis, where the Athenians were
on board the ships. There, on a hill overlooking
the bay, Xerxes had a throne built for himself
so that he could sit, as if in a box at the theater
looking at a play, and watch his own large fleet
destroy the much smaller one of the Greeks with
all the Athenians on board.</p>

<p>The Greek fleet was commanded, of course, by
Themistocles. His ships were in this narrow bay
or strait of water, somewhat in the same way that
the soldiers of Leonidas had been in the narrow
valley at Thermopylæ.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Xerxes on his throne watching battle of Salamis.</p>
</div>

<p>Themistocles, seeing that the Bay of Salamis
looked somewhat like the Pass of Thermopylæ,
had an idea. He made believe he was a traitor
like the traitor at Thermopylæ and sent word to
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142"></span>Xerxes that if the Persian fleet divided and one
half stayed at one end of the strait and the other
half closed off the other end of the strait, the
Greeks would be penned in between and caught
as in a trap.</p>

<p>Xerxes thought this a good idea, so he gave
orders to have his ships do as Themistocles had
suggested. But Xerxes, sitting smiling on his
throne, had the surprise of his life. The result
was just the opposite of what he had expected.
With the Persian fleet separated in two parts,
the Greeks in between could fight both halves of
the divided fleet at the same time, and the space
was so narrow that the Persians’ ships got in
the way of each other and rammed and sank their
own boats.</p>

<p>And so the Persian fleet was completely beaten,
and the proud and boastful Xerxes, with most of
his army and all the navy that was left, made a
hasty retreat back to Persia the way they had
come.</p>

<p>And this was the last time the Persians ever
tried to conquer little Greece.</p>

<p>If Themistocles had not had his way and built
such a strong fleet, what do you think would have
become of Athens and Greece!</p>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143"></span></p>
<h2 class="nobreak" id="c26">26</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Golden Age</p>


<p><span class="smcap">When</span> we were talking about the Stone Age
and the Bronze Age, I told you that later we
should also hear of a Golden Age.</p>

<p>Well, we have come to the Golden Age now.
This doesn’t mean that people at this time used
things made of gold, nor that they had a great
deal of gold money. It means&mdash;well, let us see
what sort of a time it was, and then you can tell
what it means.</p>

<p>After the wars with Persia, Athens seemed to
have been cheered up by her victory to do wonderful
things, and the next fifty years after the
Persians were driven out of Greece&mdash;that is, 480
to 430 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>&mdash;were the most wonderful years in
the history of Greece and perhaps the most wonderful
years in the history of the world.</p>

<p>Athens had been burned down by Xerxes.
At the time it happened this seemed like a terrible
misfortune. But it wasn’t. The people
set to work and built a much finer and much
more beautiful city than the old one had been.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144"></span></p>

<p>Now, the chief person in Athens at this time
was a man named Pericles. He was not a king
nor a ruler, but he was so very wise and such a
wonderful speaker and such a popular leader
that he was able to make the Athenians do as he
thought best. He was like the popular captain of
a football team, who is a fine player himself and
can make fine players of all the others on his
team. Athens was his team, and he trained it so
well that any one of the team would have been
able to fill any position no matter how important
it was. Some men became great artists. Some
men became great writers. Some men became
great philosophers. Do you know what philosophers
are? They are wise men who know a great
deal and love knowledge.</p>

<p>The artists built many beautiful buildings,
theaters, and temples. They made wonderful
statues of the Greek gods and goddesses and
placed them on the buildings and about the city.</p>

<p>The philosophers taught the people how to be
wise and good.</p>

<p>The writers composed fine poems and plays.
The plays were not like those we have nowadays
but were all about the doings of the gods and
goddesses.</p>

<p>The theaters were not like those we have nowadays,
either. They were always out of doors,
usually on the side of a hill, where a “grand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145"></span>
stand” could be built facing the stage. There
was little or no scenery, and instead of an
orchestra of musicians there was a chorus of
singers to accompany the actors. The actors
wore false faces or masks to show what their feelings
were, a “comic” mask with a grinning face
when they wanted to be funny and a “tragic”
mask with a sorrowful face when they wanted
to seem sad.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have seen pictures of these masks,
for in the decorations of our own theaters these
same comic and tragic masks are sometimes used.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Tragic and comic masks.</p>
</div>

<p>Athens had been
named after the
goddess Athene,
who was supposed
to watch out for
and look after the
city. So the
Athenians thought she should have a special
temple. Accordingly, they built one to her on
the top of a hill called the Acropolis. This
temple they called in her honor the Parthenon,
meaning the “maiden,” one of the names by
which she was known.</p>

<p>The Parthenon is considered the most beautiful
building in the world, though as you see by
the picture, as it is to-day, it is now in ruins. In
the center of this temple was a huge statue of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146"></span>
Athene made of gold and ivory by a sculptor
named Phidias. We are told that it was the most
beautiful statue in the world as the Parthenon
was the most beautiful building, but it has completely
disappeared, and no one knows what became
of it. One might guess, however, that the
gold and ivory tempted thieves, who may have
stolen it piece by piece.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">The Parthenon.</p>
</div>

<p>Phidias made many other statues on the outside
of the Parthenon, but most of these have
been carried away and put in museums or have
been lost or destroyed.</p>

<p>This statue of Athene and the other sculptures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147"></span>
on the Parthenon made Phidias so famous that
he was asked to make a statue of Jupiter to be
placed at Olympia, where the Olympic Games
were held. The statue of Jupiter was finer even
than the one he had made of Athene and was so
splendid that it was called one of the Seven
Wonders of the World. You remember the
pyramids of Egypt and the Hanging Gardens
of Babylon were two others of the Seven
Wonders.</p>

<p>Phidias is probably the greatest sculptor that
ever lived, but he did a thing which the Greeks
considered a crime and would not forgive. We
do not see anything so terribly wrong in what he
did, but the Greeks’ idea of right and wrong was
different from ours. This is what he did. On
the shield of the statue of Athene that he had
made, Phidias carved a picture of himself and
also one of his friend Pericles. It was merely
a part of the decoration of the shield, and hardly
any one would have noticed it. But according to
the Greek notion it was sacrilege to make a picture
of a human being on a statue of a goddess.
So when the Athenians found out what Phidias
had done they threw him into prison, and there
he died.</p>

<p>The Greeks used different kinds of columns
on their buildings, and these columns are used
in many public and in some private buildings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148"></span>
to-day. I’ll tell you what each kind is like;
then see how many you can find.</p>

<p>The Parthenon
was built in a style
called Doric.</p>

<p>The top of the
column is called the
capital, and the capital
of the Doric
column is shaped like
a saucer with a
square cover on top
of it. There was no
base or block at the
bottom of the
column. It rested
directly on the floor. As the Doric column is
so plain and strong-looking it is called the man’s
style.</p>

<p>The second style is called <i>Ionic</i>.</p>

<p>The capital of the Ionic column has a base, and
the capital has ornaments like curls underneath
the square top, and the column has a base.</p>

<p>As this column is more slender and more ornamental
than the Doric, it is called the woman’s
style.</p>

<p>The third style is called <i>Corinthian</i>.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="captiona">1. Doric.<br /> 2. Ionic.<br /> 3. Corinthian.</p>
</div>

<p>The capital of the Corinthian column is higher
than either of the other two and still more ornamental.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149"></span>
It is said that the architect who first
made this column got his idea for its capital
from seeing a basketful of toys that had been
placed on a child’s grave as was the custom instead
of flowers. The basket had been covered
with a slab, and leaves of the thistle called the
acanthus had grown up around the basket. It
looked so pretty that the architect thought it
would make a beautiful capital for a column,
and so he copied it.</p>

<p>I asked some boys which one could find the
most columns. The next day one boy said he had
seen two Ionic columns, one on each side of the
door of his house. The second had seen ten Doric
columns on the savings-bank. But the third said
he had seen 138 Corinthian columns.</p>

<p>“Where on earth did you see so many?” I
asked.</p>

<p>“I counted the lamp-posts from my house to
the school,” he said. “They were kind of
Corinthian columns.”</p>

<p>One of the friends of Pericles was a man named
Herodotus. He wrote in Greek the first history
of the world. For this reason Herodotus is
called the Father of History, and some day if
you study Greek you may read what he wrote
in his own language. Of course, at that time
there was very little history to write. What has
happened since <i>hadn’t</i> happened then, and before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150"></span>
his time little was known of what had taken place.
So Herodotus’s history was chiefly a story of the
wars with Persia, which I have just told you
about. After that he had to stop; there was
nothing more to write about.</p>

<p>In those days every once in a while a terrible
contagious disease, called a plague, would
break out, and people would be taken sick and
die by the thousands, for the doctors knew very
little about the plague or how to cure it. Such
a plague came upon Athens, and the Athenians
died like poisoned flies. Pericles himself nursed
the sick and did all he could for them, but finally
he, too, was taken sick with the plague and died.
So ended the Golden Age, which has been called
in honor of its greatest man the Age of Pericles.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c27">27</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">When Greek Meets Greek</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Golden Age, when Athens was so wonderful,
lasted for only fifty years.</p>

<p>Why, do you suppose, did it stop at all?</p>

<p>It stopped chiefly because of a fight.</p>

<p>This time, however, the fight was not between
Greece and some one outside, as in the Persian
Wars. The fight was between two cities that
had before this been more or less friendly&mdash;mostly
less&mdash;between Sparta and Athens. It
was a family quarrel between Greeks. And the
fight was all because one of these cities&mdash;Sparta&mdash;was
jealous of the other&mdash;Athens.</p>

<p>The Spartans, as you know, were fine soldiers.
The Athenians were fine soldiers, too. But ever
since Themistocles with the ships he had built
had beaten the Persians at Salamis, Athens had
also a fine fleet, and Sparta had no fleet.
Furthermore, Athens had become the most
beautiful and most cultured city in the whole
world.</p>

<p>Sparta did not care much about Athens’s
beautiful buildings and her education and culture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152"></span>
and that sort of thing; that did not interest
her. What did make her jealous was Athens’s
fleet. Sparta was inland, not on nor near the
sea-shore as Athens was; so she could not have
a fleet at all. Sparta did not intend, however,
to let Athens get ahead of her, and so on one
excuse or another Sparta with all of <i>her</i> neighbors
started a war against Athens with all of <i>her</i>
neighbors.</p>

<p>Sparta was in a part of Greece which was
called by the hard name, the Peloponnesus.
But in those days the boys did not think this a
hard name, for they were as familiar with it as
you are with such a name as Massachusetts, for
instance, which would seem just as hard to a
Greek as Peloponnesus does to you. This war
between Athens and Sparta was therefore
called the Peloponnesian War from the fact
that it was not only Sparta but all of the Peloponnesus
that fought against Athens.</p>

<p>We think a war lasts entirely too long if it
lasts four or five years, but the Peloponnesian
War lasted twenty-seven years! There is a saying,
“When Greek meets Greek then comes a
tug of war!” which means to say, “When two
equal fighters such as Athens and Sparta, both
Greek, meet each other in battle, who knows
how it will end?”</p>

<p>I am not going to tell you about all the battles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153"></span>
that took place during these twenty-seven years,
but at the end of this long and bloody war both
cities were tired and worn out, and the glory of
Athens was gone. Although Sparta was ahead,
neither city ever amounted to much afterward.
The Peloponnesian War ruined them both.
That’s the way war does!</p>

<p>All during the Peloponnesian War there
was a man at Athens by the name of Socrates
who, many think, was one of the wisest and best
men who ever lived. He was called a philosopher
and went about the city teaching the
people what was right and what they ought to
do. But instead of actually <i>telling</i> the people
what he thought was right, he asked them questions
which made them see what was right. In
this way, chiefly by asking questions, he led
people to find out for themselves what he wanted
them to know. This kind of teaching, simply by
asking questions, has ever since been called
Socratic.</p>

<p>Socrates had a snub nose and was bald and
quite ugly, and yet he was very popular with
the Athenians, which may seem strange, for the
Athenians loved beautiful faces and beautiful
figures and beautiful things, and Socrates was
anything but beautiful. It must have been the
beauty of Socrates’s character that made them
forget his ugliness, as I know some boys and girls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154"></span>
who think their teacher is perfectly beautiful just
because she is so good and kind that they love
her, although she is really not pretty at all.</p>

<p>Socrates had a wife named Xantippe. She
had a bad temper and was the worst kind of a
crosspatch. She thought Socrates was wasting
his time, that he was a loafer, as he did no work
that brought in any money. One day she
scolded him so loudly that he left the house,
whereupon she threw a bucket of water on him.
Socrates, who never answered back, merely remarked
to himself:</p>

<p>“After thunder, rain may be expected.”</p>

<p>Socrates didn’t believe in all the Greek gods,
Jupiter, Venus, and the rest, but he was careful
not to say so himself, for the Greeks were very
particular that no one should say or do anything
against their gods. Phidias, you remember, was
thrown into prison for merely putting his picture
on the shield of the goddess Athene, and
one would have been put to death for teaching
young men not to believe in the gods.</p>

<p>At last, however, Socrates, as he had feared
he would be, was charged with not believing in
the Greek gods and with teaching others not to
believe in them. And so for this he was condemned
to death. He was not hanged or put to
death as prisoners are now, however. He was
ordered to drink a cup of hemlock, which was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155"></span>
deadly poison. Socrates’s pupils, or disciples, as
they were then called, tried to have him refuse
to drink the cup, but he would not disobey the
order; and so, when he was nearly seventy years
old, he drank the cup of hemlock and died with
all his disciples around him.</p>

<p>Although this was four hundred years before
Christ was born, and before, therefore, there
were any such things as Christians or a Christian
religion, yet Socrates believed and taught
two things that are just what Christians also
believe.</p>

<p>One of these things he believed was that each
of us has inside a conscience, which tells us what
is right and what is wrong; we don’t have to
read from a book or be told by another what is
right or what is wrong.</p>

<p>Another thing he taught was that there is a
life after death and that when we die our souls
live on.</p>

<p>No wonder he was not afraid himself to die!</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c28">28</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Wise Men and Otherwise</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> you ever been playing in your yard
when a strange boy who had been watching from
the other side of the fence asked to be let into
the game, saying he would show you how to
play? You didn’t want him around, and you
didn’t want him in, but somehow or other he
got in and was soon bossing everybody else.</p>

<p>Well, there was a man named Philip who
lived north of Greece, and he had been watching
Sparta and Athens&mdash;not playing but fighting&mdash;and
he wanted “to get into the game.”
Philip was king of a little country called Macedonia,
but he thought he would like to be king
of Greece, also, and it seemed to him a good
time, when Sparta and Athens were “down and
out” after the Peloponnesian War, to step in
and make himself king of that country. Philip
was a great fighter, but he didn’t want to fight
Greece unless he had to. He wanted to be made
king peaceably, and he wanted Greece to do it
willingly. So he thought up a scheme to bring
this about, and this was his scheme.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157"></span></p>

<p>He knew, as you do, how the Greeks hated
the Persians whom they had driven out of their
country over a hundred years before. Although
the Persian Wars had taken place so long ago,
the Greeks had never forgotten the bravery of
their forefathers and the tales of their victories
over the Persians. These stories had been told
them over and over by their fathers and grandfathers,
and they loved to read and reread them
in Herodotus’s history of the world.</p>

<p>So Philip said to the Greeks:</p>

<p>“Your ancestors drove the Persians out of
Greece, to be sure, but the Persians went back
to their country, and you didn’t go after them
and punish them as you should have done. You
didn’t try ’to get even’ with them. Why don’t
you go over to Persia and conquer it now, and
make the Persians pay for what they did to
you?” Then he slyly added:</p>

<p>“Let me help you. I’ll lead you against
them.”</p>

<p>No one seemed to see through Philip’s
scheme&mdash;nobody except one man. This man
was an Athenian named Demosthenes.</p>

<p>Demosthenes, when he was a boy, had decided
that he would some day be a great speaker
or orator, just as you might say you are going
to be a doctor, or an aviator, or a lawyer when
you grow up.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158"></span></p>

<p>But Demosthenes had picked the one profession
which by nature he was worst fitted for. In
the first place, he had such a very soft, weak
voice that one could hardly hear him. Besides
this, he st-st-stammered very b-b-badly and
could not re-cite even a sh-sh-short p-p-poem
without hesit-t-tating and st-st-stumbling so that
people laughed at him. It seemed absurd, therefore,
that he should aim to be a great speaker.</p>

<p>But Demosthenes practised and <i>practised</i> and
<i>practised</i> by himself. He went down on the
sea-shore and put pebbles in his mouth to make
it more difficult to speak clearly. Then he
spoke to the roaring waves, making believe that
he was addressing an angry crowd, who were
trying to drown the sound of his voice, so that
he would have to speak very loud indeed.</p>

<p>So at last, by keeping constantly at it,
Demosthenes did become the greatest speaker
that ever lived. He spoke so wonderfully that
he could make his audience laugh or make them
cry whenever he wanted to, and he could persuade
them to do almost anything he wished.</p>

<p>Now, Demosthenes was the man who saw
through Philip’s scheme for conquering Persia.
He knew that Philip’s real aim was to become
king of Greece. So he made twelve speeches
against him. These speeches were known as
Philippics, as they were against Philip. So<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159"></span>
famous were they that even to-day we call a
speech that bitterly attacks any one a Philippic.</p>

<p>The Greeks who heard Demosthenes were
red-hot against Philip while they listened to
him. But as soon as they got away from the
sound of Demosthenes’s words the same Greeks
became lukewarm and did nothing to stop
Philip.</p>

<p>So at last, in spite of everything that Demosthenes
had said, Philip had his way and became
king over all Greece.</p>

<p>Before, however, he could start out, as he had
promised, to conquer Persia, he was killed by
one of his own men, so that he was unable to
carry out his plan.</p>

<p>But Philip had a son named Alexander.
Alexander was only twenty years old, not old
enough even to vote if he had lived in our country,
but when his father died he became king of
Macedonia and also of Greece.</p>

<p>When Alexander was a mere child, he saw
some men trying without success to tame a
young and very wild horse that shied and reared
in the air so that no one was able to ride it.
Alexander asked to be allowed to try to ride
the animal. Alexander’s father made fun of
his son for wanting to attempt what those older
than he had been unable to do, but at last gave
his consent.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160"></span></p>

<p>Now, Alexander had noticed what the others,
although much older, had not noticed. The
horse seemed to be afraid of its own shadow,
for young colts are easily frightened by anything
black and moving, as some children are
afraid of the dark.</p>

<p>So Alexander turned the horse around facing
the sun, so that its shadow would be behind, out
of sight. He then mounted the animal and, to
the amazement of all, rode off without any further
trouble.</p>

<p>His father was delighted at his son’s cleverness
and gave him the horse as a reward. Alexander
named the horse Bucephalus and became
so fond of him that when the horse died Alexander
built a monument to him and named several
cities after him.</p>

<p>Now, Alexander was a wonderful boy, but
he had such a wonderful teacher named Aristotle
that some people think part, at least, of
his greatness was due to the teacher.</p>

<p>Aristotle was probably the greatest teacher
that ever lived. If there were more great
teachers like Aristotle, it seems likely there
would have been more great pupils like
Alexander.</p>

<p>Aristotle wrote books about all sorts of
things&mdash;books about the stars called astronomy,
books about animals called zoölogy, and books<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161"></span>
on other subjects that you probably have never
even heard of, such as psychology and politics.</p>

<p>For thousands of years these books that
Aristotle wrote were the school-books that boys
and girls studied, and for a thousand years they
were the <i>only</i> school-books. Nowadays, a school-book
is usually old-fashioned a few years after
it is written and is then no longer used. So you
see how remarkable it was that Aristotle’s school-books
should have been used for so long a time.</p>

<p>Aristotle had been taught by a man named
Plato, who was also a great teacher and philosopher.
Plato had been a pupil of Socrates, so
that Aristotle was a kind of “grand-pupil” of
Socrates. You have heard of the Wise Men of
the East. These were the three Wise Men of
Greece.</p>

<p>
<span class="smcap pad6">Socrates</span>,<br />
<span class="smcap pad15">Plato</span>,<br />
<span class="smcap pad9">Aristotle.</span>
</p>

<p>Some day you may read what they wrote or
said over two thousand years ago.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c29">29</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Boy King</p>


<p><span class="smcap">When</span> you are twenty years old, what do
you think you will be doing?</p>

<p>Will you be playing football on your college
team?</p>

<p>Will you be working in a bank, or what?</p>

<p>When Alexander was twenty he was king of
both Macedonia and Greece. But Macedonia
and Greece were entirely too small for this
wonderful young man. He wanted to own a
much bigger country; in fact, he thought he
would like to own the whole world; that was
all&mdash;nothing more.</p>

<p>So Alexander went right ahead with his
father’s plan to conquer Persia. The time had
come to pay back Persia for that last invasion
one hundred and fifty years before.</p>

<p>He got together an army and crossed the
Hellespont into Asia and won battle after
battle against the first Persian armies sent out
to stop him.</p>

<p>He kept moving on, for Persia was a vast
empire.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163"></span></p>

<p>Soon he came to a town where in a temple
there was kept a rope tied into a very far-famed
and puzzling knot. It was called the Gordian
Knot, and it was very famous because the oracle
had said that whoever should undo this knot
would conquer Persia. But no one had ever
been able to untie it.</p>

<p>When Alexander heard the story, he went to
the temple and took a look at the knot. He
saw at once that it would be impossible to untie
it, so, instead of even trying, as others had done,
he drew his sword and with one stroke cut the
knot in two.</p>

<p>So now when a person settles something difficult,
not by fussing with it as one untangles a
snarl, but at a single stroke, cutting through all
difficulties, we say he “cuts the Gordian Knot.”</p>

<p>From that time on, Alexander conquered one
city after another and never lost any battle of
importance until he had conquered the whole of
Persia.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">A scroll, pens and ink.</p>
</div>

<p>Then he went into Egypt, which belonged to
Persia, and conquered that country, too. To
celebrate this victory, he founded a town near
the mouth of the Nile and named it after himself,
Alexandria. Then he started there a great
library which later grew to be so big that there
were said to be five hundred thousand books in
it&mdash;that is, half a million&mdash;and was the largest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164"></span>
library of ancient times. The books were not
like those in the library of Assur-bani-pal nor
the kind we have
now, of course,
because printing
had not been invented.
They
were every one of
them written by
hand, and not on
pages, but on long sheets which were rolled up
on sticks to form a scroll.</p>

<p>In the harbor of Alexandria was a little island
called Pharos, and on this island some years
later was built a remarkable lighthouse named
from the island, the Pharos, and its light could
be seen for many miles. It was really a building
more like a modern sky-scraper with a tower.
It was over thirty stories high, which seemed
most remarkable at that time when most buildings
were only one or two stories high, and its
light could be seen for many miles. So the
Pharos of Alexandria was called one of the
Seven Wonders of the World. You have
already heard of three others, so this makes
the fourth.</p>

<p>Alexandria grew in the course of time to be
the largest and most important seaport of the
ancient world. Now, however, the Pharos and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165"></span>
the library and all the old buildings have long
since disappeared.</p>

<p>But Alexander did not stay very long in any
one place. He was restless. He wanted to
keep on the move. He wanted to see new
places and to conquer new people. He almost
forgot his own little country of Macedonia and
Greece. Instead of being homesick, however, as
most any one would have been, he kept going
farther and farther away from home all the
time. We should call such a man an adventurer
or an explorer, as well as a great general. And
so he kept on conquering and didn’t stop conquering
until he had reached far-off India.</p>

<p>There in India his army, which had stayed on
with him all the way, became homesick and
wanted to go back. They had been away from
home for more than ten years and were so far
off that they were afraid they would never
get back.</p>

<p>Alexander was now only thirty years old, but
he was called Alexander the Great, for he was
ruler of the whole world&mdash;at least, all of it that
was then known and inhabited by civilized
people, except Italy, which was still only a collection
of little, unimportant towns at that time.
When Alexander found there were no more
countries left for him to conquer, he was so disappointed
that he wept!</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166"></span></p>

<p>And so at last, when there was nothing more
to conquer, he agreed to do what his army
begged him and started slowly back toward
Greece.</p>

<p>He got as far as Babylon, the city once so
large and so magnificent. There he celebrated
with a feast, but while feasting and drinking he
suddenly died. So he never reached Greece.</p>

<p>This was in 323 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> when he was but 33
years old. You can remember these figures
easily, for they are all 3’s except the middle figure
in the date, which is one less than 3.</p>

<p>Alexander the Great had conquered the
largest country that has ever been under the rule
of one man, and yet this was not the only reason
we call him the “Great.”</p>

<p>He was not only a great ruler and a great
general, but&mdash;this may surprise you&mdash;he was
also a great teacher. Aristotle had taught him
to be that.</p>

<p>Alexander taught the Greek language to the
people whom he conquered so that they could
read Greek books. He taught them about
Greek sculpture and painting. He taught
them the wise sayings of the Greek philosophers,
Socrates and Plato and his own teacher,
Aristotle. He trained the people in athletics
as the Greeks did for their Olympic Games.
And so we can say that he taught far more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167"></span>
people than any other teacher who has ever
lived.</p>

<p>Alexander had married a beautiful Persian
girl named Roxana, but their only child was a
baby, not born until after his father’s death; so
when the great king died there was no one to rule
after him. He had told his generals before he
died that the strongest one of them should be
the next ruler; to fight it out among themselves,
as we sometimes say, “May the best man win.”</p>

<p>So his generals did fight to see who should
win, and finally four of them, who were victorious,
decided to divide up this great empire
and each have a share.</p>

<p>One of his generals was named Ptolemy I,
and he took Egypt as his share and ruled well;
but the others did not amount to much, and
after a while their shares became unimportant
and went to pieces. Like a red toy balloon
which stretches and stretches as you blow it up,
Alexander’s empire grew bigger and bigger until&mdash;all
of a sudden&mdash;“<i>pop</i>”&mdash;nothing was left but
the pieces.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c30">30</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Picking a Fight</p>


<p>“<span class="smcap">Every</span> dog has his day.”</p>

<p>A tennis or golf champion wins over the one
who was champion before him and then has a
few years during which he is unbeaten. Sooner
or later, however, some younger and better man
beats him and in turn takes the championship.</p>

<p>It seems almost the same way with countries
as with people. One country wins the championship
from another, holds it for a few years,
and then, when older, finally loses it to some
new-comer.</p>

<p>We have seen that</p>

<p>
<i>Nineveh</i> was champion for a while; then<br />
<span class="pad6b"><i>Babylon</i> had her turn; then</span><br />
<span class="pad6d"><i>Persia</i>, had her turn; then</span><br />
<span class="pad6f"><i>Greece</i>; and, lastly,</span><br />
<span class="pad6g"><i>Macedonia</i>.</span>
</p>

<p>You may wonder who was to be the next
champion after Alexander’s empire went to
pieces&mdash;who was to have the next turn.</p>

<p>When Alexander was conquering the world
he went east toward the rising sun, and south.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169"></span>
He paid little attention to the country to the
west toward the setting sun. Rome, which we
have not heard of for some time, was then only
a small town with narrow streets and frame
houses. It was not nearly important enough
for Alexander to think much about. Rome herself
was not thinking of anything then except
keeping the neighboring towns from beating her.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Map of Mediterranean showing Carthage, Spain, etc.</p>
</div>

<p>It is usual to speak of a city as “her” or “she”
as if a city were a girl, but Rome was more like
a small boy whom all the other boys were
“picking” on. In the course of time, however,
Rome began to grow up and was not only able
to take care of herself but could put up a very
stiff fight. She was then no longer satisfied
with just defending herself. So she fought and
won battles with most of the other towns in
Italy, until at last she found herself champion
of the whole of the “boot.” Then she began to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170"></span>
look around to see what other countries there
were outside of Italy that she might conquer.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have noticed that Italy, the
“boot,” seems about to kick a little island as if
it were a football. This island is Sicily, and just
opposite Sicily was a city called Carthage.</p>

<p>Carthage had been founded by the Phenicians
many years before and had become a very rich
and powerful city. As she was by the sea, she
had built many ships and traded with all the
other seaports along the Mediterranean, just as
the old Phenician cities of Tyre and Sidon
had done.</p>

<p>Carthage did not like to see Rome getting so
strong and growing so big and becoming so
powerful. In other words, Carthage was jealous
of Rome.</p>

<p>Rome, on her side, was jealous of the wealth
and trade of Carthage. So Rome anxiously
looked around for some excuse to get into a fight
with her.</p>

<p>Now, you know how easy it is to pick a quarrel
and start a fight when you are “looking for
trouble.” One boy sticks out his tongue, the
other gives him a kick, and the fight is on.</p>

<p>Well, two countries are at times just like
little boys; they start a fight with just as little
excuse, and though they call the fight “war” it
is nothing but a “scrap.” Only there are no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171"></span>
fathers to come along and give them both a
spanking and send them to bed without any
supper.</p>

<p>So it didn’t take long for Rome and Carthage
to find an excuse, and a war was started between
them. The Romans called this fight a
Punic War, for “Punic” was their name for
Phenician, and the Carthaginians were Phenicians.</p>

<p>As Carthage was across the water, the
Romans could not get to her except in boats.
But Rome had no boats. She was not on the
sea-shore, and she knew nothing about making
boats, nor about sailing them, if she had
had them.</p>

<p>The Carthaginians, on the other hand, had
many, many boats, and, like all the Phenicians,
were old and experienced sailors.</p>

<p>But Rome happened to find the wreck of a
Carthaginian ship that had been cast ashore,
and she at once set to work to make a copy of
it. In a remarkably short time she had built
one ship, then another and another, until she
had a great many ships. Then, though she was
new at the game, she attacked the Carthaginian
fleet.</p>

<p>It would seem that the Carthaginians could
easily have won, for the Romans knew so little
about boats. But in sea battles, before this, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172"></span>
fighting had been done by running into the
enemy and ramming and sinking their ships.</p>

<p>The Romans knew they were no match for
the Carthaginians in this sort of fighting. So
they thought up a way in which they could
fight them as on land.</p>

<p>To do this they invented a kind of big hook
which they called a “crow.” The idea was for
a ship to run close alongside a Carthaginian
ship and, instead of trying to sink her, to throw
out this big hook or “crow,” catch hold of the
other ship, and pull both boats dose together.
The Roman soldiers would then scramble over
the sides into the enemy’s boat and fight them
the same way they would on land.</p>

<p>The scheme worked.</p>

<p>This new kind of fighting took the Carthaginians
by surprise, and they were no match for
the Romans at first.</p>

<p>But Rome did not have things all her own
way by any means. The Carthaginians soon
learned how to fight in this fashion, too. So
Rome lost, as well as won, battles both on land
and on sea. But at last she did win, and the
Carthaginians were beaten. Thus ended the
first Punic War.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c31">31</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Boot Kicks and Stamps</p>


<p><span class="smcap">But</span> the Carthaginians were not beaten for
good. They were only waiting for another
chance to get even. As, however, they had been
unsuccessful in attacking Italy from in front
as they had been doing, they made up their
minds to attack her from the back. Their
scheme was to go the long way round through
Spain and down into Italy from the north.</p>

<p>In order to do this, they had first of all to
conquer Spain so that they could get through.
They did this, however, rather easily, for the
Carthaginians had a very great general named
Hannibal. But then came the great difficulty,
to get into Italy by this back way.</p>

<p>Across the top of the “boot,” at the north of
Italy, there are the great mountains called the
Alps. They are miles high and covered even
in summer with ice and snow. There are crags
and steep cliffs along which any one passing
who made a single misstep would be dashed to
death thousands of feet below.</p>

<p>It was the Alps, therefore, that formed a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174"></span>
bigger and better wall than any city or country
could possibly build. Of course the Romans
thought it impossible for any army to climb
over such a terribly high and dangerous wall.</p>

<p>Time and again there have been things that
people call impossible to do, and then some one
has come along and done them.</p>

<p>People said it was impossible to fly.</p>

<p>Then some one did it.</p>

<p>People said it was impossible to cross the
Alps with an army.</p>

<p>Then Hannibal came along, and before the
Romans knew what had happened he had done
it. He had crossed the Alps with his army and
was in at the back door!</p>

<p>The Romans were unable to keep him from
marching on toward their city, winning battle
after battle as he came along. They were unable
to prevent him marching up and down
Italy, conquering other towns in Italy and doing
pretty much as he pleased. It seemed as
if Rome were beaten and she were to lose all
of Italy.</p>

<p>Now, in some games, if you can’t defend
your own goal, it may be a good plan to try
attacking your opponent’s goal.</p>

<p>Rome thought she would try this plan. While
Hannibal was attacking her, she herself would
attack Carthage while its general was away and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175"></span>
there was no strong goal-keeper to defend that
city.</p>

<p>So the Romans sent a young man named
Scipio with an army to do this.</p>

<p>First, however, Scipio went to Spain to cut
Hannibal off from the way he had come, and
this country Scipio reconquered.</p>

<p>Then he went over to Africa to attack Carthage
itself.</p>

<p>The Carthaginians, frightened at being attacked
with their general and his army far off
in Italy, sent as fast as they could for Hannibal
to come home. When at last he arrived, it was
too late. Scipio fought a famous battle at
Zama near Carthage, and the Carthaginians
were beaten, beaten a second time by the
Romans. Thus ended the second Punic War
in 202 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> This is another easy name and
easy date&mdash;just like a telephone number:</p>

<p class="c">
Zama&mdash;two-O-two.
</p>

<p>The Romans had won two wars against
Carthage; you would think that they would now
have been satisfied. But they weren’t. They
thought they had not beaten Carthage badly
enough. They were afraid she was not quite
dead or that she might come to life. They
thought there might be a little spark left that
might start a fire if it weren’t trampled out.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176"></span></p>

<p>Now, it is bad sport to pummel your opponent
after he is beaten, and Carthage was
beaten&mdash;beaten, black and blue&mdash;there was no
hope of her “coming back.” And yet a few
years later the Romans attacked her again for
the third and last time.</p>

<p>Carthage was unable to defend herself, and
the Romans viciously burned the city to the
ground. It is said they even plowed over the
land so that no trace of the city should remain,
and sowed it with salt which prevented anything
growing there. After that Carthage was
never rebuilt, and now it is hard to tell even
where the old city once was.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c32">32</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The New Champion of the World</p>


<p><span class="smcap">You</span> can well imagine how proud all the
Romans now were that they <i>were</i> Romans, for
Rome was the champion fighter of the world.
If a man could toss his head and say, “I am a
Roman citizen,” people were always ready to
do something for him, afraid to do him any
harm, afraid what might happen to them if they
did. Rome was ruler not only of Italy but of
Spain and Africa. Like other nations before
her, once she had started conquering, she kept
on conquering, until by 100 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> she in her turn
was ruler of almost all the countries bordering
the Mediterranean Sea&mdash;all except Egypt.</p>

<p>The New Champion of the World, who was
to be champion for a great many years, was
very businesslike and practical.</p>

<p>The Greeks loved beautiful things, beautiful
buildings, beautiful sculpture, beautiful poems.
The Romans copied the Greeks and learned
from them how to make many beautiful things,
but the Romans were most interested in practical
and useful things.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178"></span></p>

<p>For example, now that Rome ruled the
world, she had to be able to send messengers
and armies easily and quickly in every direction
to the end of her empire and back again. So
it was necessary for her to have roads, for of
course there were no railroads then. Now, an
ordinary road made by simply clearing away
the ground gets full of deep ruts and in rainy
weather becomes so muddy that it can hardly
be used at all.</p>

<p>So Rome set to work and built roads. These
roads were like paved streets. Large rocks were
placed at the bottom for a foundation, smaller
stones placed on top, and large, flat paving-stones
laid over all. Thousands of miles of such
roads she built to all parts of her empire. One
could go from almost anywhere all the way to
Rome on paved roads. We still have an expression,
“All roads lead to Rome.” So well were
these roads made that many of them still exist
to-day, two thousand years after they were built.</p>

<p>The Romans also showed their practical
minds by making two very important city improvements.
If you live in a city, you turn on
a spigot and you get plenty of pure water
whenever you want it. The people in cities at
that time, however, usually had to get their
water both for drinking and for washing from
wells or springs near-by. These springs and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179"></span>
wells often became dirty and made the people
very sick. And so every once in a while because
of such dirty water there were those terrible
plagues, those terribly contagious diseases like
the one I told you about in Athens when people
died faster than they could be buried.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig45.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Roman Aqueduct.</p>
</div>

<p>The Romans wanted pure water, and so
they set to work to find lakes from which they
could get pure water. As oftentimes these
lakes were many miles away from the city, they
then built big pipes to carry the water all the
way to the city. Such a pipe was not made of
iron or terra-cotta as nowadays, but of stone
and concrete, and was called an “aqueduct,”
which in Latin means “water-carrier.” If this
aqueduct had to cross a river or a valley, they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180"></span>
built a bridge to hold it up. Many of these
Roman aqueducts are still standing and in use
to-day.</p>

<p>Now, up to this time waste water, after it
had been used, and also every other kind of dirt
and refuse, was simply dumped into the street.
This naturally made the city or town filthy and
unhealthy and was another cause of plagues.
But the Romans built great underground sewers
to carry off this dirt and waste water and
empty it into the river or into some other place
where it would do no harm and cause no sickness.
Nowadays, every large city has aqueducts
and sewers as a matter of course, but the
Romans were the first to build them on a large
scale.</p>

<p>One of the most important things that Rome
did was to make rules that every one had to
obey; laws, we call them. Many of these laws
were so fair and just that some of our own laws
to-day are copied from them.</p>

<p>All the cities and towns of the Roman Empire
had to pay money or taxes to Rome. So Rome
became the richest city in the world. Millions
of this money, which was brought to her, was
spent in putting up beautiful buildings in the
city, temples to the gods, splendid palaces for
the rulers, public baths and huge open-air
places called amphitheaters where the people
could be amused.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181"></span></p>

<p>The amphitheaters were something like our
football and baseball fields or stadiums. They
did not have football or baseball, however. They
had chariot-races, and deadly fights between
men, or between men and animals. Chariots
were small carts with large wheels drawn by
two or by four horses and driven by a man
standing up. Perhaps you have seen chariot-races
in the circus.</p>

<p>But the sport that the Romans enjoyed most
of all was a Fight of Gladiators. Gladiators
were very strong and powerful men who had
been captured in battle by the Romans. They
were made to fight with one another or with
wild animals for the amusement of the crowd.
These gladiatorial fights were very cruel, but
the Romans enjoyed seeing blood shed. They
liked to see one man kill another or a wild
animal. It was so amusing. The movies would
not have interested them half so much. Usually
the gladiators fought until one or the other was
killed, for the people were not, as a rule, satisfied
until this was done.</p>

<p>Sometimes, however, if a gladiator, who had
been knocked out, had shown himself particularly
brave and a good fighter or a good sport,
the people seated all around the amphitheater
would turn their thumbs <i>up</i> as a sign that his
life was to be spared by the other gladiator. So
the winning gladiator, before killing his opponent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182"></span>
whom he had down, would wait to see what
the people wished. If they turned their thumbs
<i>down</i>, it meant he was to finish the fight by killing
his man.</p>

<p>But although Rome had become such a fine
and beautiful and healthy city in which to live,
the rich people were getting most of the money
that came there from all over the empire. They
were getting richer and richer all the time, while
the poor people, who got nothing, were getting
poorer and poorer all the time. The Romans
brought the people whom they conquered in
battle to Rome and made them work for them
without pay. These were slaves and they did
all the work. It is said that there were more
than twice as many slaves as Romans&mdash;two
slaves for every Roman citizen.</p>

<p>Now, Scipio, who had conquered Hannibal
in the Punic War, had a daughter named Cornelia
Graccha, and she had two sons. They
were very fine boys, and Cornelia was naturally
very proud of them.</p>

<p>One day a very rich Roman woman was visiting
Cornelia and showing off all her rings and
necklaces and other ornaments, of which she
had a great many and was very proud.</p>

<p>When she had shown off all she had, she
asked to see Cornelia’s jewels.</p>

<p>Cornelia called to her two boys, who were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183"></span>
playing outside, and when they came in to
their mother she put her arms around them and
said:</p>

<p>“<i>These</i> are <i>my</i> jewels.”</p>

<p>But boys who are jewels when they are young
do not always turn out to be jewels when they
grow up. So you may wonder how Cornelia’s
jewels tinned out.</p>

<p>When they grew up, the Gracchi, as they
were called, saw such great extravagance among
the rich and such great misery among the poor
that they wanted to do something about it.
They saw that the poor had hardly anything to
eat and no place to live. This did not seem fair.
So they tried to lower the price of food, so that
the poor might be able to buy enough to eat.
Then they tried to find some way to give the
poor at least a small piece of land where they
might raise a few vegetables. They were partly
successful in bringing this about. But the rich
people didn’t like giving up anything to the
poor, and they killed one of the Gracchus
brothers, and later they killed the other one,
also. These were Cornelia’s jewels.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c33">33</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Noblest Roman of Them All</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Here’s</span> a puzzle for you:</p>

<p>A man once found a very old piece of money
that had on it the date “100 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>”</p>

<p>That couldn’t be so. Why not? See if you
can tell without looking at the answer at the
bottom of the page.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> People living 100 years before Christ was born could not have
known when he was to be born and so could not put such a date
on the coins they made.</p>

</div>

<p>In the year 100 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> was born in Rome a boy
who was named Julius Cæsar.</p>

<p>If you had asked him when he was born, he
would have said in the Year 653.</p>

<p>Why do you suppose?</p>

<p>Because Roman boys counted time from the
founding of Rome in 753 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, and Cæsar was
born 653 years after the city was founded. That
makes it 100 years before Christ, doesn’t it?</p>

<p><i>Pirates</i> seemed to be everywhere in the
Mediterranean Sea at that time&mdash;<i>Pirates</i>. Now
that Rome was ruler of the world, there were
many ships carrying gold from different parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185"></span>
of the empire to Rome. So the pirates sailed up
and down, lying in wait to capture and rob these
ships laden with gold.</p>

<p>When Cæsar grew to be a young man, he was
sent off to sea to fight these pirates, and he was
captured by them. The pirates kept Cæsar a
prisoner and sent to Rome saying they would not
let him go unless Rome sent them a great deal
of money. Cæsar knew that he would be killed
if the money was not sent. He knew, too, that
he might be killed, anyway. But he was not only
not afraid but he told the pirates that if he lived
to get back home he would return with a fleet and
punish every one of them. When at last the
money came they let him go, nevertheless. They
thought Cæsar would not dare to do what he said.
They thought he was just “talking big.” At any
rate, they did not believe he would be able to
catch them. Cæsar, however, kept his word, came
back after them as he said he would do, and took
them prisoners. Then he had them all put to
death on the cross, which was the Roman way of
punishing thieves.</p>

<p>The far-off places of the Roman Empire were
always fighting against Rome trying to get rid
of her rule, and had to be kept in order by a
general with an army. As Cæsar had shown such
bravery in fighting the pirates he was given an
army and sent to fight two of these far-off places&mdash;Spain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186"></span>
and a country north of Spain then
known as Gaul, which is now France.</p>

<p>Cæsar conquered these countries, and then he
wrote a history of his battles in Latin, which
of course was his own language. Nowadays this
book, called “Cæsar’s Commentaries,” is
usually the first book which those who study
Latin read.</p>

<p>In 55 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> Cæsar crossed over in ships to the
island of Britain, which is now England, conquered
it, and went back again next year in
54 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span></p>

<p>Cæsar was becoming famous for the way he
conquered and ruled over the western part of the
Roman Empire. Besides this, he was very
popular with his soldiers.</p>

<p>Now there was in Rome at this time another
general named Pompey. Pompey had been successfully
fighting in the eastern part of the
Roman Empire while Cæsar had been fighting in
the west. Pompey had been a great friend of
Cæsar, but when he saw how much land Cæsar
had conquered and how popular he was with his
soldiers, he became very jealous of him. Notice
how many quarrels and wars are caused simply
by jealousy. You have heard of at least two
already.</p>

<p>So while Cæsar was away with his army
Pompey went to the Roman Senate and persuaded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187"></span>
the senators to order Cæsar to give up the
command of his army and return to Rome.</p>

<p>When Cæsar received the order from the
Senate to give up his command and return to
Rome, he thought over the matter for some time.
Then at last he made up his mind that he would
return to Rome, but he would <i>not</i> give up his
command. Instead, he decided that he and his
army would take command of Rome itself.</p>

<p>Now, there was a little stream called the
Rubicon which separated the part of the country
over which Cæsar was given charge from that of
Rome. The Roman law forbade any general to
cross this stream with an army ready to fight&mdash;this
was the line beyond which he must not pass,
for the Romans were afraid that if a general with
an army got too close to Rome he might make
himself king.</p>

<p>When Cæsar decided not to obey the Senate,
he crossed this stream&mdash;the Rubicon&mdash;with his
army and marched on to Rome.</p>

<p>People now speak of any dividing line from
danger as “the Rubicon” and say that a person
“crosses the Rubicon” when he takes a step from
which there is no turning back, when he starts
something difficult or dangerous which he must
finish.</p>

<p>When Pompey heard that Cæsar was coming
he took to his heels and fled to Greece. In a few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188"></span>
days Cæsar had made himself head not only of
Rome but of all Italy. Cæsar then went after
Pompey in Greece and in a battle with his army
beat him badly.</p>

<p>Now that Pompey was out of the way, Cæsar
was the chief ruler of the whole of the Roman
Empire.</p>

<p>Egypt did not yet belong to Rome. So Cæsar
next went there and conquered that country.
Now, in Egypt there was ruling a beautiful queen
named Cleopatra. Cleopatra was so charming
that she seemed able to make every one fall in
love with her. Cleopatra flirted with Cæsar and
so fascinated him that he almost forgot everything
else except making love to her. So although
he had won Egypt he made Cleopatra
queen over that country.</p>

<p>Just at this time some people in the far eastern
part of the empire started a war to get rid of the
rule of Rome. Cæsar left Egypt, traveled
rapidly to the place where the enemy were, made
quick work of conquering them, then sent back
the news of his victory to Rome in the most
laconic (do you remember what that means?)
description ever given of a battle. There were
only three words in the message. Although the
messenger could have carried three thousand as
easily as three words, Cæsar sent a message that
would have been short even for a telegram. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189"></span>
wrote, “Veni, vidi, vici,” which means, “I came,
I saw, I conquered.”</p>

<p>When Cæsar at last got back to Rome, the
people wanted to make him king, or said they
did. Cæsar was already more than king, for he
was head of the whole Roman Empire. But he
wasn’t called king, for there had been no kings
since 509 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, when Tarquin was driven out.
The Romans had been afraid of kings and hated
them, or were supposed to hate them.</p>

<p>A few of the people thought that Cæsar was
getting too much power and believed it would
be a terrible thing to make him a king. They,
therefore, decided on a plot to prevent such a
thing happening. One of these plotters was a
man named Brutus who had been Cæsar’s very
best friend.</p>

<p>One day when Cæsar was expected to visit the
Roman Senate they lay in wait for him until he
should appear&mdash;in the same way I have seen boys
hide around the corner for some schoolmate,
against whom they had a grudge, until he should
come out of school.</p>

<p>Cæsar came along, and just as he was about
to enter the Senate the plotters crowded around
him, and one after another they stabbed him.</p>

<p>Cæsar, taken by surprise, tried to defend himself;
but all he had was his stylus, which was a
kind of pen he used for writing, and he could<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190"></span>
not do much with that, in spite of a famous saying,
“The pen is mightier than the sword.”</p>

<p>When at last Cæsar saw Brutus&mdash;his best
friend&mdash;strike at him, his heart seemed broken
and he gave up. Then, exclaiming in Latin,
“Et tu, Brute!” which means, “And thou, O
Brutus!” he fell down dead. This was in 44 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>

<p>Antony, one of Cæsar’s true friends, made a
speech over Cæsar’s dead body, and his words so
stirred the crowd of people that gathered round
that they would have torn the murderers to pieces
if they could have caught them.</p>

<p>Shakspere has written a play called “Julius
Cæsar,” and the month of July is named after
him.</p>

<p>Now whom do you suppose Antony called
“The Noblest Roman of Them All”?</p>

<p>“Julius Cæsar”?</p>

<p>No, you’re wrong. Brutus, the friend who
stabbed Cæsar, was called, “The Noblest Roman
of Them All.”</p>

<p>Why, do you suppose?</p>

<p>You’ll have to read Antony’s speech at the
end of the play to find out.</p>

<p>Cæsar was pronounced in Latin “Kaiser”; and
in later years the rulers of Germany were called
this, and those of another country by the
shortened form, “Czar.”</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c34">34</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">An Emperor Who Was Made a God</p>


<p><span class="smcap">A man</span> is famous who has a town or a street
named after him.</p>

<p>Will you ever do anything great enough to
have even an alley named after you?</p>

<p>But just suppose a month, one of the twelve
months of the year, was given your name!</p>

<p>Millions upon millions of people would then
write and speak your name forever!</p>

<p>But I’m going to tell you about a man who
not only had a month named after him but who
was made a god!</p>

<p>After Cæsar had been killed, three men ruled
the Roman Empire. One of these three men
was Antony, the friend of Cæsar, who made the
famous speech over his dead body. The second
was Cæsar’s adopted son, who was named
Octavius. The name of the third you don’t need
to know now, for Antony and Octavius soon got
rid of him. Then no sooner had they forced
him out than each of these two began to plot to
get the share of the other.</p>

<p>Antony’s share, over which he ruled, was the
eastern part of the empire. The capital of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192"></span>
part was Alexandria in Egypt, and so Antony
went there to live.</p>

<p>In Egypt Antony fell in love with Cleopatra,
as Cæsar before him had done, and he finally
married her.</p>

<p>Octavius, in the west, which was his share, then
made war on Antony and Cleopatra together,
and in the end beat them both. Antony felt so
bad at being beaten by Octavius that he committed
suicide.</p>

<p>His widow, Cleopatra, thereupon, flirted with
Octavius as she had with Julius Cæsar and
Antony, hoping to make him also fall in love
with her and so win him in that way.</p>

<p>But it was no use. Octavius was a different
kind of man from both Julius Cæsar and Antony.
He was cold-blooded and businesslike. He had
no heart for love-making. He would not let a
woman charm him or turn him aside from his
plan, which was to be the greatest man in the
world!</p>

<p>Cleopatra saw that it was no use trying her
tricks on him. Then she heard that she was going
to be taken back to Rome and paraded through
the streets, as was done with any other prisoners
taken in battle. She could not stand such a shame
as that, and so she made up her mind she would
not be taken back to Rome.</p>

<p>Now, in Egypt there is a kind of snake called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193"></span>
an asp, which is deadly poisonous. Taking one
of these asps in her hand, she uncovered her breast
and let it bite her, and so she died.</p>

<p>Octavius was now ruler over all the countries
that belonged to Rome, and when he returned
home to that city, the people hailed him “Emperor.”
He then gave up the name Octavius and
had himself called “Augustus Cæsar,” which is
like saying, “His Majesty, Cæsar.” This was
in 27 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Rome had got rid of her kings in
509. From now on she had emperors, who were
more than kings, for they ruled over many
countries.</p>

<p>Octavius, now with his name changed to
Augustus Cæsar, was only thirty-six years old
when he became sole master of the Roman world.
Rome was the great capital of this vast empire.
The city of Rome had probably as many people
as New York City proper now has, and the
Roman Empire had perhaps as many people as
the United States has at present.</p>

<p>Augustus set to work to make Rome a beautiful
city. He tore down a great many of the old
buildings made of brick and put up in their place
a remarkable number of new and handsome buildings
of marble. And so Augustus always
bragged that he found Rome brick and left it
marble.</p>

<p>One of the finest buildings in Rome, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194"></span>
Pantheon, was built. Pantheon means the temple
of all the gods. Do not mix this with the
Parthenon in Athens, for the two buildings are
quite different, and though the names look something
alike and sound something alike, they mean
quite different things; Parthenon is from the
goddess Athene Parthenos; Pantheon is from the
two words “Pan theon,” which means “all gods.”</p>

<p>The Pantheon has a dome built of concrete.
This dome is shaped like a bowl turned upside
down, and in the top of the dome is a round
opening called an eye. Though this eye is uncovered,
the height is so great above the floor that
it is said that rain coming through the eye does
not wet the floor beneath but evaporates before
reaching it.</p>

<p>So magnificent did the city become with all
these wonderful buildings, and so permanently
did it seem to be built, that it was known as The
Eternal City and is still so spoken of.</p>

<p>There was a public square in Rome called the
Forum. Here markets were held and the people
came together for all sorts of things. Around
the Forum were erected temples to the gods,
court-houses, and other public buildings. These
court-houses were something like the temples that
the Greeks built, only the columns were put on
the inside of the building instead of on the outside.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Roman forum.</p>
</div>

<p>Triumphal arches also were erected to celebrate
great victories. When a conquering hero returned
from the war, he and his army passed
through this arch in a triumphal parade.</p>

<p>There had been in Rome a great amphitheater
that is supposed to have held more people than
any structure that has ever been built&mdash;two
hundred thousand, it is said, or more than all the
people who live in some good-sized cities. This
was called the Circus Maximus. It was at last
torn down to make room for other buildings.</p>

<p>Another amphitheater was the Colosseum, but
this was not built until some time after Augustus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196"></span>
had died. It held about the same number as the
largest stadium in this country does to-day.
Here were held those fights between men, called
gladiators, and wild animals that I have already
told you about. It is still standing, and, though
it is in ruins, you can sit in the same seats where
the old Roman emperors did, see the dens where
the wild animals were kept, the doors where they
were let into the arena, and even bloody marks
that are said to be the stains made by the slain
men and beasts.</p>

<p>So many famous writers lived at the time of
Augustus that this has been called the Augustan
Age. Two of the best known Latin poets, whom
every school-boy now reads after he has finished
“Cæsar’s Commentaries,” lived at this time.
These poets were Vergil and Horace. Vergil
wrote the “Æneid,” which told of the wanderings
of Æneas, the Trojan, who settled in Italy,
and was the great-great-great-grandfather of
Romulus and Remus. Horace wrote many short
poems called Odes. They were love-songs of
shepherds and shepherdesses and songs of the
farm and country life. People liked his songs,
and many still name their sons after him.</p>

<p>When Augustus Cæsar died, he was made a
god, because he had done so much for Rome;
temples were built in which he was worshiped,
and the month of August was named after him.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c35">35</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">“Thine is the Kingdom, the Power, and<br />
the Glory”</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Augustus Cæsar</span> had been Ruler of the
World.</p>

<p>He had found Rome brick and left it marble.</p>

<p>He had had a month named after him, and</p>

<p>He had been made a god!</p>

<p>Surely no one could ever be greater than he!
Yet a greater than he was living at the very same
time&mdash;a greater ruler of a greater kingdom with
greater power and greater glory, although
Augustus himself knew nothing about Him and
lived and died without ever having heard of Him.
This Man was born in the eastern part of Augustus’s
empire in a tiny little village called
Bethlehem, and His name was Jesus Christ.</p>

<p>For many, many years after Christ was born
no one except His family and friends knew or
cared anything about His birth or paid the slightest
attention to it.</p>

<p>Christ was a Jew, the son of a carpenter. As
a boy and young man He led a very simple and
quiet life working in His father’s shop. He did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198"></span>
not begin to preach until He was more than thirty
years old. Then He went about teaching the
people what we learn to-day as the Christian
religion.</p>

<p>He taught that there was one God over all.</p>

<p>He taught brotherly love, that one should love
one’s neighbor as oneself.</p>

<p>He taught the golden rule; that is, “do unto
others as you would be done by.”</p>

<p>He taught that there was a life after death
for which this short life on earth was only a
preparation; that therefore you should “lay up
your treasures in heaven” by doing good works
here.</p>

<p>The poorer Jews listened to Christ and believed
what He taught them. But they thought
He was going to set them free from the rule of
the Romans, which they hated. The Jewish
priests, however, were afraid of what Christ
taught. He was teaching some things that were
just the opposite of what they themselves taught.
So they plotted to have Him put to death.</p>

<p>Now, the Jews could not put Christ to death
without the permission of the Roman ruler of
that part of the empire where Christ lived. This
ruler was named Pilate. So they went to Pilate
and told him that Christ was trying to make
himself king. Christ of course meant and always
said that He was a heavenly ruler and not an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199"></span>
earthly king. The Jews knew that Pilate would
not care at all what religion Christ taught.
There were all sorts of religions in the Roman
Empire&mdash;those that believed in mythological
gods and those that believed in idols and those
that believed in the sun, moon, and so on&mdash;one
more new religion made little difference to the
Romans, and Christ would not be put to death
simply for teaching another. But the Jews knew
if they could make Pilate believe that Christ was
trying to make himself a king, that was a thing
He could be crucified for. Pilate did not believe
much in what the Jews said against Christ. It
was a small matter to him, one way or the other,
however. But he wanted to please the Jews, so
he told them to go ahead and put Christ to death
if they wanted to. So He was crucified.</p>

<p>Christ had chosen twelve men to teach what
He told them. These twelve men were called
apostles. After Christ was crucified these
apostles went through the land teaching the
people what Christ had taught them. Those who
believed in and followed His teachings were
called disciples of Christ or Christians. The
apostles were teachers; the disciples were pupils.</p>

<p>The Romans thought these disciples of Christ
were trying to start a new world empire, and
that they were against Rome and the emperor and
should be arrested and put in prison. So the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200"></span>
Christians usually held their meetings in secret
places, sometimes even underground, so that they
would not be found and arrested.</p>

<p>But after a while the leaders of the Christians
became bolder. They came out of their secret
places and taught and preached openly, although
they knew they would sooner or later be thrown
into prison and perhaps killed. Indeed, so
strongly did they believe in the teachings of
Christ that they seemed even glad to die for His
sake, as He had died on the cross for them.</p>

<p>In the first hundred years after Christ, there
were a great many Christians put to death because
they were thought traitors. Christians who
died for Christ’s sake were called martyrs.
The first martyr was named Stephen. He was
stoned to death about 33 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>

<p>One of the men who helped in putting Stephen
to death was a man named Saul. Saul was a
Roman citizen and, like other Roman citizens,
was proud of that fact. He thought the Christians
were enemies of his country, and he did
everything he could to have the Christians
punished. Then, all of a sudden, Saul had a
change of heart and came to believe in the religion
of the very people whom he had been fighting.
Whatever Saul did or whatever he believed he
did or believed with his whole soul. Though he
had never seen Christ, he became one of the chief<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201"></span>
Christians and then was made an apostle and was
called by his Roman name, Paul.</p>

<p>Paul preached the new religion far and wide
just as earnestly as he had fought against it at
first. Then he, too, was condemned to death.
Paul, however, was, as I have said, a Roman
citizen, and a Roman citizen could not be put to
death by the ordinary judges who were not
Roman citizens nor in the ordinary way by crucifying.
So Paul appealed to the emperor.
Nevertheless, he was put in prison in Rome and
afterward beheaded. And so he is called St.
Paul.</p>

<p>Peter was another of the chief apostles. Christ
had said to him, “I will give unto thee the keys
of the kingdom of heaven.”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Peter, too, was
thrown into prison, and was sentenced to be
crucified. But he asked to be crucified with his
head downward. He thought it too great an
honor to die in just the same way as his Lord.
On this spot in Rome where Peter was put to
death was built long afterward the largest church
in the world, the Cathedral of St. Peter.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Matthew, xvi, 19.</p>

</div>

<p>As everything before Christ’s birth is called
<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> and everything since His birth is called <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
you would naturally suppose that 0 would be the
date of His birth.</p>

<p>But it was not until some five hundred years<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202"></span>
later that people began to date from Christ’s
birth. And then, when they did begin to date
from this event, they made a mistake. It was
found out that Christ was really born four years
before He was supposed to have been born&mdash;that
is, in 4 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;but when the mistake was found
out, it was then too late to change.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c36">36</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Blood and Thunder</p>


<p><span class="smcap">I once</span> had a big Newfoundland dog, and he
was one of the best friends a boy ever had. I
don’t know who it was that named him; he was
named before I got him; but whoever it was must
either have been ignorant of history or a bad
chooser of names. He was called Nero, and even
a dog would have hated such a name, had he
known whose it once was.</p>

<p>Every good story usually has a villain to make
it interesting. Nero is the prize villain of history.
He was a Roman emperor who lived not long
after Christ, and he is considered the most
terribly cruel and wicked ruler that ever lived.</p>

<p>He killed his mother.</p>

<p>He killed his wife.</p>

<p>He killed his teacher, who was named Seneca.
He was not a bad teacher, either.</p>

<p>We think that Nero ordered both St. Peter and
St. Paul put to death, for they were executed at
this same time.</p>

<p>Nero seemed to take great pleasure in making
others suffer. He loved to see men torn to pieces
by wild beasts; it amused him greatly. I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204"></span>
seen boys who liked to throw stones at dogs just
to hear them yelp, or tear the wings off of butterflies.
Such boys must have some Nero in them;
don’t you think?</p>

<p>If a man was a Christian, that gave Nero
an excuse to torture him horribly. Nero had
some of the Christians wrapped in tar and
pitch, then placed around the garden of his
palace and set fire to, as if they were torches. It
is even said that Nero set Rome on fire just for
the fun of seeing the city burn. Then he sat
in a tower and, while he watched the blaze spreading,
played on a harp. The saying is that “Nero
fiddled while Rome burned”; but there were no
fiddles at that time, and so we know it must have
been a harp. The fire burned day and night for
a whole week and destroyed more than half of
the city. Then Nero laid the blame on the Christians,
who, he said, started the fire. Did you ever
blame another for something you had done?</p>

<p>Some think Nero really was crazy, and we
hope he was, for it is hard to think any human
being who was not crazy could act as he did.</p>

<p>Nero built himself an immense palace and
overlaid it extravagantly with gold and mother-of-pearl.
It was known as Nero’s House of
Gold. At its front door he put up a colossal
statue of himself in bronze fifty feet high. Both
the House of Gold and the statue were later<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205"></span>
destroyed, but the Colosseum, which was built a
few years afterward, was named Colosseum from
this “coloss-al” statue of Nero that was once
there.</p>

<p>Nero was very conceited. He thought he could
write poetry and sing beautifully. Although he
did both very badly, he liked to show off, and no
one dared to laugh at him. Had any one been
so bold as to make fun of him or even to smile,
he would have had that person put to death
instantly.</p>

<p>Even the Roman people who were not Christians
feared and hated Nero. So they voted to
have him put out of the way. But before they
had a chance to do anything, Nero heard what
they were planning, and in order to save himself
the disgrace of being put to death by his own
people he decided to kill himself. He was such
a coward, however, that he couldn’t quite bring
himself to plunge the sword into his heart. But as
he hesitated, holding the sword to his breast and
whimpering, his slave, impatient to finish the job,
shoved the blade in. Thus was Rome rid of its
worst ruler.</p>

<p>So much for the first part of this “blood and
thunder” story. Here is the second part:</p>

<p>The Jews in Jerusalem didn’t like to have
Rome rule over them. They never had. But
they were afraid to do much about it. But in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206"></span>
the Year 70 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> they rebelled; that is, they said
they would no longer obey Rome or pay her
money. The emperor sent his son, who was
named Titus, with an army to put an end to the
rebellion, to punish them as if they were disobedient
children.</p>

<p>The Jews crowded into their city of Jerusalem
to make a last stand against the Romans. But
Titus destroyed that city completely and the
Jews in it, a million of them, it is supposed. Then
he robbed the great temple of all its valuable
ornaments and brought them back to Rome.</p>

<p>To celebrate this victory over Jerusalem an
arch was built in the Forum at Rome, and
through this arch Titus and his army marched in
triumph. On this arch was carved a procession,
showing Titus leaving the city of Jerusalem with
these ornaments. Chief among these ornaments
was a golden seven-branched candlestick he had
taken from the temple. To-day we see many
copies in brass of this famous seven-branched
candlestick. Perhaps you may have one in your
home on the mantelpiece.</p>

<p>The city was rebuilt later, but most of the Jews
who were left have ever since been living in all
the other countries of the earth.</p>

<p>Titus became emperor, but in spite of the way
in which he had massacred so many Jews, he was
not such a bad emperor as you might suppose.
He thought he was doing right in killing these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207"></span>
men because they had rebelled against Rome.
But Titus had a rule of life, much like that the
Boy Scouts now have. This rule was, “Do at
least one good turn a day.”</p>

<p>The third part of this story is the “thunder.”</p>

<p>In Italy there is a volcano named Vesuvius.
You remember that “volcano” came from the
name “Vulcan,” the blacksmith god, and people
imagined that his forge in the heart of a volcano
made the smoke and flame and ashes. From time
to time this volcano, Vesuvius, thunders and
quakes and spouts forth fire and throws up stones
and gas and boils over with red-hot melted rock
called lava. It is the hot inside of the earth exploding.
Yet people build houses and towns
near-by and live even on the sides of the volcano.
Every once in a while their homes are destroyed
when the volcano quakes or pours forth fire. Yet
the same people go right back and build again
in the same place!</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Vesuvius erupting, Pompeii in foreground.</p>
</div>

<p>There was at the time of Titus a little town<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208"></span>
named Pompeii near the base of Vesuvius.
Wealthy Romans used to go there to spend the
summer. Suddenly, one day in the year 79 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
just after Titus had become emperor, Vesuvius
began to spout forth fire. The people living in
Pompeii rushed for their lives, but they hadn’t
time to get away. They were smothered with the
gases from the volcano before they hardly had
time to move and, falling down dead, were buried
deep in a boiling rain of fire and ashes, just where
they happened to be when the eruption, as it was
called, took place.</p>

<p>The people and their houses lay buried beneath
the ashes for nearly two thousand years, and in
the course of time every one had forgotten there
ever had been such a place. People came back
as they had before and built houses over the spot
where every one had forgotten there once was
a city. Then one day a man was digging a well
over the spot where Pompeii had once been. He
dug up a man’s hand&mdash;no, not a real hand, but
the hand of a statue. He told others, and they
set to work and dug and dug to see what else
they could find until the whole town was dug out.
And now one can go to Pompeii and see it very
much as it was in 79 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, before it had ever been
destroyed.</p>

<p>There are houses of the Romans who went
there to spend their vacations. There are shops<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209"></span>
and temples and palaces and public baths and the
theater and the market place or forum. The
streets were paved with blocks of lava, once
melted stone. They still show ruts which were
worn into them by the wheels of the chariots that
the Romans used to drive. Stepping-stones were
placed at some crossings, so that in case of heavy
rains, when the streets were full of water, one
could cross on them from curb to curb. These
stepping-stones are still there. The floors of the
houses were made of bits of colored stone to form
pictures. They are still there. In the vestibule
of one house, there is in the floor a mosaic picture
of a dog. Under it are the Latin words, “Cave
canem.” What does that mean? Can you guess?
It means, “Look out for the dog!” That was a
Roman’s idea of a joke two thousand years ago!</p>

<p>The bones of the people who were caught and
buried alive in the ashes were also found. There
were also found bronze ornaments worn by the
women, vases that decorated the home, lamps
which they used to light the houses, pots and pans
and dishes. Beds and chairs were found just as
they had been buried. Still more remarkable,
cakes were found on the table, a loaf of bread
half eaten, meat ready to be cooked, a kettle on
the fire with the ashes still underneath it&mdash;beans
and peas and <i>one egg</i> unbroken&mdash;probably the
oldest egg in the world!</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c37">37</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Good Emperor and a Bad Son</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> you ever said, “I don’t care,” when you
really did care?</p>

<p>I have. Every one has.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have been naughty and have been
told you could have no dessert or must go to bed
early, and you tossed your head and said, “I
don’t care.”</p>

<p>Well, once upon a time there was a society or
club formed of grown-up people who said they
weren’t ever going to care what happened to
them; whether it was good or whether it was bad
would make no difference. I should call them
the “Don’t Care Club,” but they called themselves
“Stoics,” and they thought the way to be
good was “not to care.”</p>

<p>If a Stoic’s house burned down, he would say
to himself and try to make himself believe, “I
don’t care; it doesn’t matter.”</p>

<p>If some one gave him a million dollars, he
would say, “I don’t care; it doesn’t matter.”</p>

<p>If he was told by the doctor he was going to
die next week, he would say, “I don’t care; it
doesn’t matter.”</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211"></span></p>

<p>This Society of Stoics was started by a Greek
philosopher named Zeno.</p>

<p>Zeno lived in Athens later than those philosophers,
Socrates and Plato, whom you have already
heard about. Zeno said that the only way
to be good and the only way to be happy was
not to care for pleasure and not to mind pain or
suffering but calmly to put up with everything,
no matter how unpleasant or disagreeable it was,
and the Stoics believed him. Even to-day people
who bear troubles and pain and hardships without
a murmur are called stoics.</p>

<p>One of the chief members of the society was a
Roman emperor.</p>

<p>Rome’s worst emperor, Nero, had been dead
a hundred years when there came to the throne
this new emperor, who was just as good as Nero
was bad. This emperor was named Marcus
Aurelius. Although he was so very good and
pious, he was not a Christian. Indeed, Marcus
Aurelius treated the Christians terribly, as they
had been treated terribly by the previous emperors,
for he thought them traitors to the empire.</p>

<p>At this time most of the Romans had very little
religion of any sort. They were not Christians,
but neither did they put much faith in their own
gods, Jupiter and Juno and the rest. They
honored them because they were brought up to
honor them and because they thought if they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212"></span>
didn’t honor them they might have bad luck, so
they took no chances. But instead of believing
in such gods, people usually believed in the teachings
of some wise man or philosopher and obeyed
more or less the rules he made. Zeno was one of
these philosophers, and the Stoics were the members
of this society.</p>

<p>Although Marcus Aurelius was an emperor, he
would rather have been a Stoic philosopher or a
priest. Although he had to be a soldier and a
general, he would rather have been a writer.
When he was off, fighting with his army, he
carried his writing-materials with him, and he
would go to his tent at night and write out his
thoughts. These thoughts he called his “Meditations.”
Here is one of the things he wrote:</p>

<div class="blockquota">

<p>When you find you do not want to get up early in the
morning, make this short speech to yourself. I am getting
up now to do the business of a man. Was I made to do
nothing but doze and keep warm under the covers?</p>
</div>

<p>That was written long years ago, yet your
father might have told you the same thing this
morning.</p>

<p>People read this book of Marcus Aurelius to-day,
either in the Greek in which it was written
or translated into English.</p>

<p>A great many of Marcus Aurelius’ sayings
seem almost as if they might have been in the
Bible. Indeed, some people keep his book by
their bedside as if it were a Bible.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213"></span></p>

<p>One of his rules was, “Forgive your enemies,”
and he seemed almost glad to have enemies so
that he might have a chance to forgive them. Indeed,
he took such a special delight in forgiving
his enemies that he even went out of his way to
do so. Though Marcus Aurelius was not a Christian,
nevertheless he was more Christian in the
way he acted than some of the later emperors
who were supposed to be Christians.</p>

<p>But like many people who are very good
themselves, Marcus Aurelius was unable to
bring up his son to be so. His son was named
Commodus, and Commodus was just as bad as
his father was good. He may have been bored
when a child by too many of his father’s instructions,
for when he grew up and was able to
choose for himself and do as he pleased, instead
of following Zeno and joining the Stoics, he
joined the society of another philosopher called
Epicurus.</p>

<p>Epicurus had lived about the same time as
Zeno. But he had taught what at first seems
almost the opposite of what Zeno taught. Epicurus
said that the chief end and aim of man
and the only good in the world was pleasure;
<i>but</i>, said he, the pleasure must be of the right
kind. Nowadays people who are very fond of
eating nice things, whose whole thought in life
is the pleasure of eating, are called “epicures.”</p>

<p>Commodus’s one thought was pleasure, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214"></span>
the worst kind of pleasure at that. A friend of
mine thought Marcus Aurelius was such a fine
man that he named his son after him, “Marcus
Aurelius Jones,” but when the son grew up he
was not at all like his namesake. The name
“Commodus” would have suited him much better,
for instead of being good and pious, he thought
of nothing but pleasure and he was so bad that
he ended in jail.</p>

<p>Commodus thought nothing of giving his
people a good government; he only thought of
giving himself a good time. He was an athlete
and had beautiful muscles and a handsome figure,
of which he was so proud that he had a
statue made of himself. The statue showed him
as the strong and muscular god Hercules.
Commodus made the people worship him as if
he were this god. Just to show off his muscles
and his muscular ability, he himself took part in
prize-fights&mdash;quite bad taste for an emperor.
He poisoned or killed any one who found fault
with or criticized him. He led a wild and dissipated
life, but at last he met the end he deserved.
He was strangled to death by a
wrestler.</p>

<p>Lycurgus would have said again:</p>

<p>“I told you so.”</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c38">38</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">I &mdash; H &mdash; &mdash; S &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; V &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash;</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> name of this story I’m going to put at
the end, for you wouldn’t know what it means,
anyway, until you have heard the story, and so
it’s no use looking ahead.</p>

<p>All through the years since Christ was crucified,
those who said they believed in Christ had
been terribly treated&mdash;“persecuted,” we call it&mdash;because
they were Christians. They had been
flogged; they had been stoned; they had been
torn with iron hooks; they had been roasted and
burned to death. Yet, strange as it may seem,
in spite of this terrible treatment, more and more
people were becoming Christians every day.
They believed so strongly in life after death, and
they believed that they would be so much happier
after death if they died for Christ’s sake, that
they seemed even glad to suffer and to be killed.
But at last the emperor himself put a stop to all
these persecutions. This is how it happened.</p>

<p>About the year 300 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Rome had an emperor
by the name of Constantine. Constantine was
not a Christian. His gods were the old Roman
gods. He probably did not put much faith in
them, however.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216"></span></p>

<p>Well, once upon a time Constantine was
fighting with an enemy when he dreamed one
night that he saw in the sky a flaming cross.
Beneath this cross were written the Latin
words, “In hoc signo vinces.” In English this
is, “In this sign thou shalt conquer.” Constantine
thought this meant that if he carried the
Christian cross into battle he would conquer.
He thought it would at least be worth while to
give the Christian God a trial. So he had his
soldiers carry the cross, and he did win the battle.
Then immediately he became a Christian himself
and asked every one in the Roman Empire to
become a Christian also. From that time on, all
the Roman emperors who came after Constantine,
all except one, were Christians.</p>

<p>To celebrate Constantine’s victory the Roman
Senate built a triumphal arch in the Forum of
Rome and called it the Arch of Constantine. If
has three openings; the Arch of Titus has
only one.</p>

<p>Constantine’s mother was named Helena.
She was one of the very first to become a Christian
and be baptized. Then she gave up her
life to Christian works and built churches at
Bethlehem and on the Mount of Olives. It is
said that she went to Palestine and found the
actual cross on which Christ had been crucified
three hundred years before and sent part of it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217"></span>
to Rome. When she died she was made a saint,
and so she is now called St. Helena.</p>

<p>Constantine built a church over the spot
where St. Peter was supposed to have been crucified.
Many years later, this church was torn
down so that a much larger and grander church
to St. Peter might be built there.</p>

<p>But Constantine did not care for Rome. He
preferred to live in another city in the Eastern
part of the Roman Empire. This city was
called Byzantium. So he moved from Rome to
Byzantium and made that city his capital.
Byzantium was called New Rome, and then the
name was changed to Constantine’s city. In
Greek, the word for “city” is “polis.” We see
the word used in Anna<i>polis</i> and Indiana<i>polis</i>.
So Constantine’s City became Constantinepolis,
and then shortened to Constantinople.</p>

<p>Hardly had the Roman Empire become
Christian before a quarrel arose between those
Christians who believed one thing and those who
believed another. The chief thing they quarreled
about was whether Christ was equal to God the
Father or not equal to Him. Constantine called
the two disagreeing sides together at a place
called Nicæa to settle the question. There the
leaders of each side argued the matter hotly.
Finally, it was decided that the Christian Church
should believe that God the Son and God the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218"></span>
Father were equal. Then they agreed to put
what they believed in words. This was called a
creed, which means “believe,” and because it
was made at Nicæa it was known as the Nicene
Creed, which many Christians still say every
Sunday.</p>

<p>Before the time of Constantine, there were
no weekly holidays. Sunday was no different
from any other day. People worked or did just
the same things on Sunday as they did on other
days. Constantine thought Christians should
have one day a week for the worship of God&mdash;a
“holy day,” or holiday, as we call it&mdash;so he
made Sunday the Christian day of rest, a “holy
day” such as Saturday was for the Jews.</p>

<p>But although Constantine was head of the
Roman Empire, there was another man whom
all Christians throughout the world looked to as
their spiritual head. This man was the Bishop
of Rome. In Latin he was called “papa,”
which means the same thing in Latin that it does
in English, “father.” So the bishop of Rome
was called “papa,” and this became “pope.” St
Peter was supposed to have been the first
Bishop of Rome. For many centuries the pope
was the spiritual ruler of all Christians everywhere,
no matter in what country they lived.</p>

<p>As now you know what the name of this story
means I’m putting it here:</p>

<p class="c xlarge">In Hoc Signo Vinces</p>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c39">39</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Our Tough Ancestors</p>


<p><span class="smcap">But</span> Rome with the Roman Empire had had
her day. She had risen as high as she could.
It was her turn to fall. She had become as
large as she ever was to be. It was her turn to
be conquered. But you cannot guess what
people were to do the conquering and to be next
in power.</p>

<p>When I was a boy there was a gang of toughs
who lived down by the gas-house and railroad
tracks. They were ragged, unwashed, unschooled,
but terrible fighters. Their leader
was known to us as Mug Mike, and the very
mention of him and his gang struck terror to
our souls. Every now and then they paid our
neighborhood a visit. Once we had offered
fight, but with such terrible results that ever
after at word of their approach the alarm would
be sounded and we would hide indoors.</p>

<p>For ages there had been such a gang of half-civilized
toughs living on the northern borders
of the Roman Empire. Every now and then
they tried to cross over the border into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220"></span>
Roman lands, and the Romans had to be constantly
fighting them to keep them back where
they belonged. Julius Cæsar had fought with
them. So had Marcus Aurelius and so had Constantine.
These wild and warlike people were
called Teutons and&mdash;you may be shocked to
hear it, but&mdash;they are the ancestors of most of us!</p>

<p>They had light hair and blue eyes; that is,
they were what we call blonds. The Greeks
and Romans and other people who lived around
the Mediterranean Sea had black hair and dark
eyes. They were what we call brunettes. If
you have light or brown hair, you are probably
a Teuton. If you have black hair, you are probably
not.</p>

<p>The Teutons were white people, and they
were Aryans, but they were uneducated toughs
and could neither read nor write.</p>

<p>They wore skins of animals instead of clothes
made of cloth. They lived in huts made of
wood, sometimes of branches woven together&mdash;like
a large basket. The women raised vegetables
and took care of the cows and horses.
The men did the hunting and fighting and
blacksmithing. Blacksmithing was very important,
for the blacksmith made the swords and
spears with which they fought and the tools with
which they worked. That is why the name
“Smith” was so honored among them.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221"></span></p>

<p>When the men went to battle they wore the
heads of animals they had killed, an ox’s head,
horns and all, or the head
of a wolf or bear or fox.
This was to make themselves
look fierce and to
frighten the enemy.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Teuton warrior.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Bravery</i> was the chief
thing the Teuton thought
good. A man might lie,
he might steal, he might
even commit murder, but
if he was a brave warrior,
he was called a “good”
man.</p>

<p>The Teutons did not
have a king. They elected
their chiefs, and of course
they always chose the man
who was the bravest and
strongest. But he could
not make his son ruler
after him. So he was
more like a president
than a king.</p>

<p>The Teutons had an
entirely different set
of gods from those of Greece and Rome. Their
chief god, as you might guess, was the god of
war, and they called him Woden. Woden was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222"></span>
also the god of the sky. He was like the two
Greek gods, Jupiter and Mars, put together.
Woden was supposed to live in a wonderful
palace in the sky called Valhalla, and many
tales are told of the wonderful things he
did and of the adventures he had. Wednesday,
which was once Wodensday, is named after
him. That is why there is a letter “d” in this
word, although we don’t pronounce it.</p>

<p>After Woden, Thor was the next most important
god. He was the god of thunder and
lightning. He carried a hammer with which
he fought great giants who lived in the far-off
cold lands and were called “ice-giants.” Thursday,
which was once Thorsday, is named after
him.</p>

<p>Another god was named Tiu, and from his
name we get Tuesday, and another Freya, from
whom we get Friday, so that four out of seven
of our days are named after Teuton gods, in
spite of the fact that we are&mdash;most of us&mdash;Christians
and no longer believe in these gods.</p>

<p>Of the other three days of the week, Sunday
and Monday of course are named after the sun
and moon, and Saturday is named after a Greek
god, Saturn.</p>

<p>From these wild people all fair-haired people
to-day are said to be descended&mdash;the English,
French, German, and such of us whose forefathers
are English or French or German.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223"></span></p>

<p>About the Year 400 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> these Teuton toughs
were becoming particularly troublesome to the
Romans. They began to push their way down
into the northern part of the Roman Empire,
and after a few years the Romans could hold
them back no longer. Two of these Teuton
gangs, or tribes, as they were called, went over
into Britain, and the Romans who were living
there found it wisest to get out, go back to Rome,
and leave the country to the Teutons.</p>

<p>These tribes who settled in Britain were
known as Angles and Saxons. So the country
came to be called the land of the Angles, or,
for short, “Angle-land.” After the words
“Angle-land” were said over for many years,
they became “England,” which is what we call
the country to-day. The people of England
are still known by the full name “Anglo-Saxons,”
and this is the name by which we call
everything descended from these old Teuton
tribes of Angles and Saxons who settled in
Britain about 400 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>

<p>Another gang or tribe called the Vandals
went into Gaul. Gaul is where France is now.
Then they kept on down into Spain, stealing,
smashing, and burning like Mug Mike’s gang
of toughs on Hallowe’en. They crossed over
by boats into Africa. They injured or destroyed
everything they came upon. So to-day
when any one damages or destroys property<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224"></span>
wickedly, we call him a vandal. If you cut up
your desk, tear your books, or scratch names
on walls or fences, you, too, are a vandal.</p>

<p>A tribe called the Franks followed the Vandals
into Gaul, and there they stayed, giving
the name “France” to that country.</p>

<p>The Teutons north of Italy were the Goths.
They had a leader by the name of Alaric. He
was the “Mug Mike” of the gang of Goths.
Alaric and his Goths crossed over the mountains
into Italy and robbed or destroyed everything
of value they could lay their hands on. They
then entered Rome and carried away whatever
they wanted, and the Romans could not stop
them. But the worst was yet to come.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c40">40</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">White Toughs and Yellow Toughs Meet<br />
the Champions of the World</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Teutons were wild toughs but they were
white.</p>

<p>Farther north of the Teutons and to the east
was a tribe of people who were still more savage
and fierce. They were called Huns. They
lived far off in the forests and wilds way beyond
the Teutons, in a part of the country that no
one then knew much about.</p>

<p>The Huns were, we think, not white as the
Teutons were, but yellow. Even the Teutons
themselves, fierce fighters though they were,
feared the Huns, and it was chiefly because
they were afraid of them and wanted to get
away from them as far as they could that the
Teutons went over the borders into the Roman
Empire. It was much easier to fight the
Romans than it was to fight the Huns.</p>

<p>The Huns seemed more like wild beasts than
human beings. Their leader was a dreadful
creature named Attila. He boasted that nothing
ever grew again where his horse had trod.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226"></span>
He and his Huns had conquered and laid waste
the country all the way from the East almost
to Paris. At last the Teutons made a stand
against them and fought a great battle at a
place not so very far from Paris, a place called
Châlons.</p>

<p>The Teutons fought desperately; they fought
madly. It was white toughs against yellow
toughs, and the Huns were beaten. It was
lucky they were beaten, for if they had won,
these dreadful wild, yellow people might have
conquered and ruled the world. The white
toughs were bad enough, but the yellow would
have been worse. So the battle of Châlons, 451
<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, is written in history in capital letters and
large figures&mdash;<span class="xlarge">CHÂLONS 451</span>.</p>

<p>After Attila and his Huns had been beaten
at Châlons they left the Teutons alone, but
they then went after the Romans. Turning
back they went down into Italy, where there
was no one able to stop them. They destroyed
everything as they moved on. The people of
the country didn’t even attempt to fight. They
thought the Huns were monsters and simply
fled before them. So on to Rome the Huns
went.</p>

<p>Now, there was at Rome at this time a Pope
named Leo I, which means Lion. Leo, of
course, was neither a soldier nor a fighting man,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227"></span>
but he and his cardinals and bishops went out
from Rome to meet Attila. They were not clad
in armor, and none of them carried any weapons
with which to fight. The pope and those with
him were dressed in gorgeous robes and richly
colored garments. It seemed as if they must
be slaughtered by Attila and his Huns like
lambs before wolves.</p>

<p>But something strange happened when Attila
and the pope met; exactly what no one
knows. Perhaps Attila was awed by the pomp
and splendor of those Christians. Perhaps he
feared what Heaven might do to him if he destroyed
those holy beings who had come out to
meet him as if from heaven. At any rate, he
did not destroy them, nor did he enter Rome,
but turned about and left Italy, left it for good
and all, and he and his Huns returned to the
unknown land to the north from which they had
come.</p>

<p>Now that the dreaded Attila was out of the
way, the Vandals in Africa saw their chance to
attack Rome. Attila had barely left Italy before
the Vandals crossed over from Africa and
sailed up the Tiber to Rome. They captured
the city without any difficulty, helped themselves
to everything they wanted, and carried
away all Rome’s treasures.</p>

<p>Poor old Rome! She was at last beaten,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228"></span>
beaten for good! She had been the Champion
for a great many years. But now all her
strength was gone. She was old and weak and
no longer able to defend herself against these
gangs of toughs. Rome’s last emperor had the
high-sounding name “Romulus Augustulus,”
the same name as the first king, Romulus, with
the addition of Augustulus, which means the
little Augustus. But in spite of his high-sounding
name, Romulus Augustulus could do nothing.
He was like the little boy living in the
marble house on the avenue, the little boy with
curls and a velvet suit, whom Mug Mike caught
out one day and&mdash;you can guess the rest.
“Great Cæsar’s ghost!” How Cæsar’s ghost
must have felt!</p>

<p>It was the Year 476 that Rome was beaten.
The western half of the empire, of which Rome
had been the capital, broke up into pieces, and
the pieces were ruled over by Teutons. Like
Humpty Dumpty, Rome had had a great fall,
and all the king’s horses and all the king’s men
couldn’t put it together again. Only the eastern
part, of which Constantinople was the capital,
still went on. This eastern half was not
conquered by the barbarians, and it still kept
going for nearly a thousand years longer until&mdash;but
wait till we come to that time in history.</p>

<p>People speak of this date, 476, as the end of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229"></span>
Ancient History. After Ancient History,
there was a time over five hundred years long
which was known as the Dark Ages&mdash;the Night-time
of History. The Dark Ages lasted from
476 to about 1000 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> These centuries are
called the Dark Ages, because during that long
time the Teutons, those uneducated toughs who
were unable even to read and write, were the
chief people in Europe, and they ruled over
those who had once been the educated and cultured
people.</p>

<p>The Teutons, though such rough toughs, barbarians
as they were called, were, strange to
say, quick to learn many things from the
Romans whom they had conquered. Even before
they had conquered Rome, most of the
Teutons had already become Christians.</p>

<p>Of course they had to learn the Latin language
in order to talk to their subjects. But
they changed the Latin a good deal and mixed
it with their own language. This mixture of
their own language with the Latin at last became
Italian. The Teutons who went to Spain
in a like way mixed their language with the
Latin, and this mixture was Spanish. In
France the mixture of the two languages became
French.</p>

<p>In Britain, however, the Anglo-Saxons would
have nothing to do with the Romans and would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230"></span>
not use the Roman language but kept their own
language. After a while this language of the
Anglo-Saxons was called English. The Anglo-Saxons
also kept their own religion, and they
worshiped Thor and Woden and their other
gods until about one hundred years later, or
about 600 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>

<p>At that time some English slaves were being
sold in the slave-market at Rome. They were
very handsome. The pope saw them and asked
who they were.</p>

<p>“They are Angles,” he was told.</p>

<p>“Angles!” exclaimed he; “they are handsome
enough to be ’angels,’ and they should certainly
be Christians.”</p>

<p>So he sent some missionaries to England to
convert the English; to change Angles to
Angels. So at last the English, too, became
Christians.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c41">41</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Nightfall</p>


<p><span class="smcap">It</span> was 500 o’clock by History Time.</p>

<p>Night was coming on.</p>

<p>The Dark Ages had begun.</p>

<p>At least, that is what people call it now. But
people didn’t call it so then.</p>

<p>Crazy people don’t think they are crazy.</p>

<p>Ignorant people don’t think they are ignorant.</p>

<p>So the Dark Ages didn’t think they were
dark.</p>

<p>The ignorant Teutons were ruling over the
pieces of the Western Empire.</p>

<div class="poetry-container">
<div class="poetry">
<div class="stanza">
<div class="verse indent0">They couldn’t read; they couldn’t write.</div>
<div class="verse indent0">They didn’t know much except to fight.</div>
<div class="verse indent0">They didn’t know ’twas dark as night.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<p>At Constantinople, however, a Roman was
still ruling over the Eastern Empire. This
Roman was named Justinian. Now, up to this
time there had been a great many rules or laws
by which the people were governed. But there
were so many of these rules and they were so
mixed up that one law would tell you you could<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232"></span>
do one thing and another would tell you you
couldn’t. It was as if your mother said you
could stay up till nine o’clock to-night and your
father said you must go to bed at eight. It was
hard for people to tell, therefore, what one must
do and what one must not do.</p>

<p>In order to untangle this snarl, Justinian had
a set of laws made for the government of his
people, and many of these were so good and so
just that they are still the law to-day. If you
notice that Justinian begins with “Just,” this
will help you to remember that he was the one
who made <i>just</i> laws.</p>

<p>Another thing Justinian did that has lasted
to the present time. He built in Constantinople
a very beautiful church called Santa Sophia.
Though it is no longer a church, it is still standing
after all these years and is a beautiful sight
to see. Still another thing he did which you
could never guess. It had nothing to do with
war or law or buildings.</p>

<p>Travelers from the Far East, where China
now is, had brought back tales of a wonderful
caterpillar that wound itself up with a fine, thin
thread over a mile long, and they told stories of
how the Chinese unwound this thread and wove
it into cloth of the finest and smoothest kind.
This thread, as you might guess, was called silk,
and the caterpillar that made it was called the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233"></span>
silkworm. People in Europe had seen this
beautiful silk cloth, but how it was made had
been a mystery&mdash;a secret. They thought it so
wonderfully beautiful that it was supposed to
have been made by fairies or elves or even sent
down from heaven. Justinian found out about
these caterpillars and had men bring these silkworms
into Europe so that his people also might
make silk cloth and have silk ribbons and fine
silk garments, and therefore we give him the
honor of starting the manufacture of silk in
Europe.</p>

<p>Outside of Justinian’s empire the ignorant
Teutons were living. It took them nearly a
thousand years to learn as much as any school-boy
now knows, and the first thing they learned
was not reading, nor writing, but the Christian
religion.</p>

<p>About the same time that Justinian lived
there was a king in France named Clovis.
Clovis, of course, was a Teuton and belonged
to the tribe called the Franks, which gave the
name “France” to that country. Clovis believed
in Thor and Woden as all of his people
did. Clovis had a wife named Clotilda, whom
he loved very dearly. Clotilda, though a
Teuton, thought all the fighting and cruelty
which her people seemed to like was wrong.
She had heard about the religion of Christ,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234"></span>
which did not believe in quarreling and fighting,
and she thought she would like to be a
Christian. So she was baptized. Then she
tried to persuade her husband, Clovis, to become
a Christian, also.</p>

<p>Clovis was just then going to war&mdash;the very
thing the Christians preached against. But,
just to please his wife, he promised her, if he
won the battle, he would become a Christian.
He did win, and he kept his word and was baptized
and had his soldiers baptized, also. Clovis
made Paris his capital, and Paris is still the capital
of France.</p>

<p>It was about this same time, also, that a king
named Arthur was ruling in England. Many
stories and poems have been written about him,
which, however, we know are fairy-tales and not
history. But although we know these stories
are not true, they are, nevertheless, interesting&mdash;like
those tales that are told about the heroes of
the Trojan War.</p>

<p>It was said that there was a sword called
Excalibur stuck so fast in a stone that no one
could draw it out except the man who should
be king of England. All the nobles had tried
without success to draw the sword, when one
day a young boy named Arthur pulled it out
with the greatest ease, and he was accordingly
proclaimed king.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235"></span></p>

<p>King Arthur chose a company of the nobles
to rule with him, and as they sat with him at a
Round Table, they were known as the Knights
of the Round Table. Tennyson, the great
English poet, has written in verse an account of
all the doings of King Arthur and his knights
in a long poem called “The Idylls of the King,”
which you will have to read yourself, for we
must go on to the next story.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c42">42</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">“Being Good”</p>


<p><span class="smcap">What</span> do you mean by “being good”?</p>

<p>The Teutons thought “being good” meant
being brave.</p>

<p>The Athenians thought whatever was beautiful
was “good.”</p>

<p>The Stoics thought “not caring” was “being
good.”</p>

<p>The Epicureans thought having a good time
was “being good.”</p>

<p>The martyrs thought “being good” meant suffering
and dying for Christ’s sake.</p>

<p>Ever since the time of the martyrs, Christians
who wanted to be very, very good indeed,
went off into the wilderness and lived by themselves.
They wished to be far away from other
people, so that they could spend all their time
praying and thinking holy thoughts. This, they
believed was “being good.”</p>

<p>One of the strangest of these men who
wanted to get away from others was named St.
Simeon Stylites. He built for himself a pillar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237"></span>
or column fifty feet high, and on the top of it
he lived with room only to sit but not to lie down.
There on the top he lived for many years, day
and night, winter and summer, while the sun
shone on him and the rain rained on him, and he
never came down at all. He could be reached
only by a ladder, which his friends used to bring
him food. High up out of the world, he thought
he could best lead a holy life. That was his idea
of “being good” although we should think such
a person simply crazy.</p>

<p>In the course of time, however, men who
wanted to lead holy lives, instead of living alone
as they had done at first, gathered in groups
and built themselves homes. These men were
called monks, and the house where they lived
was known as a monastery or abbey. The head
monk of such an abbey was called an abbot, and
he ruled over the other monks like a father over
his children, giving them orders and punishing
them when he thought they needed it.</p>

<p>In the five hundreds there lived an Italian
monk named Benedict. He believed very
strongly that one must work if he was to be
holy, that work was a necessary part of being
holy. He thought, also, that monks should
have no money of their own, for Christ had said
in the Bible, “If thou wilt be perfect, go and
sell that thou hast, and give to the poor.” So<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238"></span>
Benedict started a club or order of monks for
those people who would agree to three things:</p>

<p>The first thing they were to agree to was to
have no money.</p>

<p>The second thing was to obey.</p>

<p>The third thing was not to marry.</p>

<p>Monks who joined this club were called
Benedictines.</p>

<p>Now, you might think there would have been
hardly any one who would promise for life three
such things as to have no money, to obey the
abbot&mdash;no matter what he told them to do&mdash;and
never to marry. Nevertheless, there were
a great many men in every country of Europe
who did become Benedictines.</p>

<p>Usually the monks lived in little bare rooms
like prison cells, and ate their very simple meals
together at a single table in a room called the
refectory. They prayed at sunrise and sunset,
and many times during the day besides, and
they even woke up at midnight to say their
prayers. But praying was not all they had to
do. Work of every kind they were obliged to
do, and they did it joyfully, whether the work
was scrubbing floors or digging in the garden.</p>

<p>Oftentimes the monastery was situated in a
barren or swampy spot on land that had been
given the monks because it was no good, or even
worse than no good, dangerously unhealthy.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239"></span>
But the monks set to work and drained off the
water, tilled the soil, and made the waste places
bloom like the rose. Then they raised vegetables
for their table, fodder for their horses
and cattle and sheep. Everything they ate or
used or needed, they raised or made.</p>

<p>But they did not only the rougher hand-work;
they did fine hand-work, too. Printing
had not been invented at
this time; all books had to
be written by hand, and the
monks were the ones who
did this. They copied the
old books in Latin and
Greek. Sometimes one
monk would slowly read
the book to be copied, and
several other monks at one
time would copy what he
dictated. In this way a
number of copies would be made.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Monk writing a manuscript.</p>
</div>

<p>The pages of the books were not made of
paper but of calfskin or sheepskin, called vellum,
and this vellum was much stronger and
lasted much longer than paper.</p>

<p>These old books which the monks wrote were
called “manuscripts,” which means “hand-written.”
Many of these may now be seen in museums
and libraries. Some of these manuscripts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240"></span>
have been beautifully hand-printed with loving
care and the initial letters and borders ornamented
with designs of flowers and vines and
birds and pictures in red and gold and other
colors. If the monks hadn’t done this copying,
many of the old books would have been lost and
unknown to us.</p>

<p>The monks also kept diaries, writing down
from day to day and year to year an account of
the important things that happened. These old
diaries, or chronicles, as they were called, tell us
the history of the times. As there were then no
newspapers, if these chronicles had not been written
we should not know what went on at that
time.</p>

<p>The monks were the best educated people of
those days, and they taught others&mdash;both young
and old&mdash;the things they themselves knew. The
monasteries were also inns for travelers, for
any one who came and asked for lodging was
received and given food and a place to sleep,
whether he had any money to pay or not.</p>

<p>The monks helped the poor and needy. The
sick, too, came to the monastery to be treated
and taken care of, so that a monastery was often
something like a hospital, too. Many people
who had received such help or attention made
rich gifts to the monasteries, so they became
very wealthy, although the monks could own
not so much as a spoon for themselves.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241"></span></p>

<p>So you see the monks were not merely holy
men; they were most useful citizens. They
were in many ways more nearly everything
that Christ would have wished than perhaps any
one large group of men has ever been since. They
were really “<span class="smcap">Good for Something</span>.”</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c43">43</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Camel-Driver</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Every</span> hundred years is called a century, but
a thing that seems a little strange is this&mdash;the
hundred years from 500 to 600 is called the <i>sixth</i>
century, not the fifth; the hundred years from
600 to 700 is called the <i>seventh</i> century, not the
sixth; and so on. Thus 615, 625, 650, and so on
are all <i>seventh</i> century.</p>

<p>Well, we have now reached the seventh century&mdash;the
six hundreds, and we are to hear of a
man who was to make a change in the whole
world. He was neither a Roman nor a Greek
nor a Frank nor a Goth nor a Briton. He was
neither a king nor a general, but only a&mdash;</p>

<p>What do you suppose?</p>

<p><span class="smcap">A Camel-Driver!</span></p>

<p>and he lived in a little town called Mecca in
far-off Arabia. His name was Mohammed.
Mohammed went on an errand for a wealthy
Arabian lady, and the lady fell in love with
him. Although he was a poor camel-driver and
only a servant and she was rich, they were married.
They lived happily together, and nothing
remarkable happened until Mohammed was
forty years old.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Map of Saracenic empire showing Mecca, Medina, Constantinople, Tours, Cordova, Bagdad, Jerusalem, also<br />
Europe.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244"></span>Mohammed had been in the habit of going
out to a cave in the desert to study and think.
One day when he visited this cave he had a
dream, or a vision, as it is called when such
things happen in the daytime when one is awake.
In this vision, so Mohammed said, the angel
Gabriel had appeared and told him that God,
whom the Arabs called Allah, said he must go
forth and teach the people a new religion.</p>

<p>So Mohammed went home to his wife and
told her what had happened, and she believed
his story and became his first follower. Mohammed
then went forth as he had been directed
and taught his relatives and friends what he said
Allah had told him, and they, too, believed what
he said and became his followers.</p>

<p>But when he set out to teach others, who were
not his friends nor relatives, they simply
thought him crazy and perhaps dangerous. So
they got together and planned to get rid of
him&mdash;even kill him if necessary. But he heard
what they were planning, and so he packed up
all his belongings and, with his wife and those
who believed in him, left the city of Mecca and
fled to the town of Medina, a little way off.
This was in 622&mdash;Six-Two-Two&mdash;and was
called the Hegira, which in the Arabic language
means “flight.”</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245"></span></p>

<p>I have told you this exact date, for later as
you will see this religion, which Mohammed
started, grew bigger and bigger, and now at
this very day there are one third as many people
who believe in Mohammed and the religion he
started as there are who believe in Christ and
the religion He started; that is, there are now
one third as many Mohammedans in the world
as there are Christians. The Mohammedans began
to count from the Hegira, 622, calling it the
Year 1 as the Christians did from the Birth of
Christ, as the Greeks did from the First Olympiad,
as the Romans did from the Founding of
Rome. So the Greeks, the Romans, the Mohammedans,
and the Christians each had a different
Year 1.</p>

<p>This new religion was called Islam. From
time to time Mohammed received messages
which he said came from God. Mohammed
himself could neither read nor write, and so he
had some one else write down these messages
on palm-leaves. There were so many of these
messages that when they were finally gathered
together they made a big book. This book is
called the “Koran,” and it is the Mohammedan
Bible and tells what Mohammedans must do
and what they must not do.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Muezzin on minaret<br />
calling to prayer.</p>
</div>

<p>As Mohammed was born in Mecca, Mecca is
the sacred city of the Mohammedans. To
Mecca each good Mohammedan tries to go at
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246"></span>least once in his lifetime, no matter
how far off from it he may
live; and toward Mecca he always
faces when he prays. There
are always pilgrims, as such
travelers are called, wending
their way to Mecca. The Mohammedans
worship in a temple
called a <i>mosque</i>, but they also
pray five times each day wherever
they may be. A man
called a muezzin cries out this
time for prayer. He goes out
on a little balcony on the minaret
of the mosque and calls aloud:
“Come to prayer; come to prayer. There is but
one god and he is Allah.” Then, no matter who
the Mohammedan is, no matter where he may be
or what he may be doing, even though he is in
the street or market-place, whether he is working
or playing, he faces toward Mecca, falls on
his knees, bows
his head and
hands to the
ground and
prays. Sometimes
he carries
a small rug
called a prayer-rug<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247"></span>
with him so that he may have something holy
to kneel on when he prays.</p>

<p>Many people liked this new religion. Those
who believed in Islam were known as Moslems,
and before long, as I have told you, there were
as many Moslems or Mohammedans as there
were Christians. At first the Moslems tried to
persuade others to join simply by talking to them
and telling them how fine their religion was, and
how much better than what they had already had.
But very soon they began to <i>force</i> others to become
Moslems whether they wanted to or not.
Like the highway robber who says, “Money or
your life,” they gave every one a choice. “Money
or your life, or be a Moslem!” This may seem a
strange way for people to make others believe
their religion, but the Moslems said that Allah
wanted all people to be Mohammedans, and
didn’t want any one who was not.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Mohammedan praying.</p>
</div>

<p>Mohammed only lived for ten years after the
Hegira; that is, until 632. But those who came
after Mohammed went on with the new religion
and kept on conquering and making people
Mohammedans with the sword.</p>

<p>The new leaders and rulers of the Mohammedans
were called caliphs. The second caliph
was named Omar. Omar went on to Jerusalem
and built a Mohammedan mosque in the place
where the temple of Solomon had stood. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248"></span>
mosque which Omar built still stands to-day in
the same place in Jerusalem.</p>

<p>The Arabs, or Saracens, as they are also
called, kept on northward toward Europe and
conquered and converted every one to Islam as
they went along. Those they could not convert
they put to death. At last they reached the
City of Constantine, Constantinople, where the
people were Christians. This was the gateway
from Asia to Europe, and the Arabs tried to
get by. But the Christians poured down red-hot
tar and burning oil from the walls of the
city, and the Moslems had to stop. They could
get no farther. Again and again the Moslems
tried to capture the city, but without success.
Finally, they had to give up trying to get into
Europe by this way.</p>

<p>Then they tried the opposite direction from
Mecca, the long, long, way round to Europe.
Across Egypt they went with little difficulty,
converting every one to Islam. Further on still
they kept going, along the coast of Africa, conquering
everything before them until they
reached the ocean. Then they turned north,
took boats, and crossed over the Strait of Gibraltar
and marched on up into Spain. Farther
and farther on they went up into France. It
seemed as if they would soon conquer all of
Europe and make the whole civilized world<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249"></span>
Mohammedan. But finally, near the town of
Tours in France, they met their match. The
king of France had a right-hand man named
Charles who had been nicknamed Charles the
Hammer because he could strike such terrific
blows. Charles was called Mayor of the Palace,
which merely meant that he was the chief servant
of the king, but he was much more able
than the king himself. In fact, the king was
of very little account.</p>

<p>Charles the Hammer, with his French soldiers,
went forth to meet the Moslems, and near
Tours he beat them so badly that they never attempted
to go farther. So Europe at last was
saved from Islam and the Saracens. This battle
of Tours was in 732, just 110 years from the
time of the Hegira. The Mohammedan religion
had only been started 110 years before; yet
in this short time the Mohammedans had conquered
and converted the whole of the country
bordering the Mediterranean from Constantinople
all the way round the southern edge and
as far up into France as Tours. The people
south and east of the Mediterranean are still
Mohammedans to-day.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c44">44</h2>
</div>

<div class="blockquota">
<p>Perhaps you have read the “Arabian Nights.”
This is the story of</p></div>

<p class="c xlarge">Arabian Days</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Moslems had tried to get into Europe
by the front gate and failed.</p>

<p>They had then tried the back gate and failed.</p>

<p>Burning tar and oil had stopped them at
Constantinople.</p>

<p>Charles the Hammer had stopped them at
Tours.</p>

<p>So Europe was saved from the Moslems and
from the Moslem religion of Islam. Yet we
may wonder what Europe would have been like
if the Moslem Arabs had conquered, for the
Arabs were in many ways a great people, and
we have learned many things from them. Here
are some of the things.</p>

<p>The Phenicians invented our alphabet, but
the Arabs invented the figures which we use to-day
in arithmetic. 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on are
called Arabic figures. The Romans used letters
instead of figures, V stood for 5, X for 10, C<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251"></span>
for 100, M for 1000, and so on. Think how
difficult it must have been for a Roman boy to
add such numbers as</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">

<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">IV</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">XII</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="large padr">+</span></td>
    <td class="tdl">MC</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">CXII</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">VII</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
    <td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
</table>

<p>They could not be added up in columns as we
do. And when you think of multiplying and
dividing with Roman numbers, it seems almost
impossible, for example:</p>

<p class="c">
MCMCXVII<br />
× XIX
</p>

<p>Occasionally you may see Roman figures still
used&mdash;on clock-faces, for instance&mdash;but all the
figures that you use every day in your arithmetic
and that your father uses at the bank or
store or office are Arabic figures.</p>

<p>Another thing:</p>

<p>The Arabs built many beautiful buildings;
but these buildings look quite different from
those that the Greeks and Romans and Christians
built. The doors and window-openings,
instead of being square or round, were usually
horseshoe-shaped. On the top of their mosques
they liked to put domes shaped something like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252"></span>
an onion, and at the corners they put tall spires
or minarets from which the muezzin could call
aloud the hour for prayer. They covered the
walls of their buildings with beautiful mosaics
and designs. The Mohammedans, however,
were very careful that these designs were not
copies of anything in nature, for they had a
commandment in the “Koran” something like
the Christian commandment, “Thou shalt not
make ... any likeness of anything that is in
heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or
that is in the water under the earth.” Because
of this commandment they never made drawings
or pictures of any living thing, neither of
plants nor flowers nor animals. They thought
they would be breaking the commandment if
they did. So they made designs out of lines
and curves without copying anything from nature.
These designs were called Arabesques,
and although they were not like anything in
nature, they were often very beautiful.</p>

<p>Still another thing:</p>

<p>In Arabia there grew a little bush on which
were small berries with seeds inside. The sheep
seemed to like these berries and, when they ate
them, became very lively. The Arabs themselves
tried eating the seeds of these berries with
the same effect. Then they made a drink out
of these seeds by roasting and grinding them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253"></span>
and boiling them in water. This was coffee&mdash;which
the Arabs had discovered and which is
now drunk all over the world.</p>

<p>Still another thing:</p>

<p>The Arabs found out that when the juice of
grapes or other fruits or grains spoiled, or fermented,
as we call it, a peculiar change took
place. Any one who drank this changed juice
became greatly excited and even crazy. They
called the new thing to which these juices
changed, “alcohol,” and they were so much
afraid of it and what it did to those who drank
it that they forbade every Mohammedan to
drink anything containing alcohol, such as wine,
beer, or whisky. So the Moslems not only discovered
alcohol, but, believing it to be poison,
they prohibited its use. They have been prohibitionists,
therefore, for more than a thousand
years, while all the rest of the world has been
using wine and beer and other drinks containing
alcohol until the United States only recently
forbade their use in this country.</p>

<p>Still another thing:</p>

<p>Woolen cloth which people used for clothes
was made from the hair of sheep or goats. As
it took the hair of a great many such animals to
make a very little cloth, woolen cloth was expensive.
The Arabs found out a way of making
cloth from a plant, the cotton plant, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254"></span>
of course was much cheaper. Then in order to
decorate the cloth and make it pretty and attractive,
they stamped the plain cloth with
wooden blocks shaped in different forms and
dipped in color. This printed cloth that the
Arabs had invented was called calico.</p>

<p>Still another thing:</p>

<p>The Arabs made swords and knives of such
wonderful steel that the blades could be bent
double without breaking. The blades were said
to be so keen they could cut through the finest
hair if floated on water, a thing that only the
sharpest razor will do, and yet at the same time
so strong that they could cut through a bar of
steel. Such swords were made in the East at
a place called Damascus, which is in Arabia,
and in the West at a place called Toledo, which
is in Spain; and these swords and knives were
known as Damascus or Toledo blades. Unfortunately,
no one now knows the Arab’s secret
for making such marvelous blades. It is what
is called a lost art.</p>

<p>Near where Babylon once was the Arabs
built a city named Bagdad. You have heard
of it if you have ever read any of the “Arabian
Nights,” for most of these stories were told
about Bagdad. It was the eastern capital of
the Moslems. There at Bagdad the Arabs built
a great school that was famous for many, many
years. At Cordova in Spain was the western<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255"></span>
capital of the Moslems, and there they built another
great school.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Mohammedan veiled woman standing by Saracenic ornamented<br />
arch.</p>
</div>

<p>I might tell you many other things these
people did&mdash;how they invented the game of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256"></span>
chess, of all games the one that needs the most
thought; how they made clocks with pendulums
to keep time&mdash;people had no real clocks before;
how they started wonderful libraries of books;
and so on&mdash;but this is enough for the present to
show you what intelligent people they were.</p>

<p>The Arabs were not Aryans. They belonged
to the Semite family, the same family to which
the Phenicians and Jews belong. The Arabs
were as clever as their cousins the Phenicians,
who, you remember, were very clever, but they
were also as religious as their other cousins the
Jews, who, you remember, were very religious.</p>

<p>But the Moslems had peculiar ideas about
women. They thought it was immodest for a
woman to show her face to men, and so every
woman had to wear a thick veil which hid her
face all except her eyes whenever she went out
where there were men. With such a veil she
could see but not be seen.</p>

<p>But here are their two most peculiar ideas:
they believed women were only fit to be slaves to
the men, and they thought that a man might have
as many wives as he wished all at one time!</p>

<p>So we may wonder, then, what Europe would
really have been like if the Moslems had conquered
all the rest of the world at that time&mdash;if
they had left no country Christian&mdash;<i>if we were
all of us Moslems to-day instead of Christians</i>!</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c45">45</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Light in the Dark Ages</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Europe</span> had been “dark” for three hundred
years. You know what I mean.</p>

<p>There were not enough “bright” people to
make it light. Ignorant Teutons had been ruling
over the pieces of the old Roman Empire.</p>

<p>The Arabs were bright, but they were not in
Europe.</p>

<p>But in 800 there was a very “bright light”&mdash;a
man&mdash;a king&mdash;who by his might and power
was able to join the pieces of Europe together
once again to form a new Roman Empire. He
was not a Roman, however, but a Teuton, as you
can tell from his name, which was Charles. He
was a grandson of that Charles the Hammer
who had stopped the Moslems at Tours, and he
was called by the French name Charlemagne,
which means Charles the Great.</p>

<p>Charlemagne at first was king of France alone,
but he was not satisfied to be king of that country
only, and so he soon conquered the countries on
each side of him, parts of Spain and Germany.
Then he moved the capital of his empire from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258"></span>
Paris to a place in Germany called Aix-la-Chapelle,
which was more convenient than Paris
to this larger empire, and besides at Aix-la-Chapelle
there were warm springs which made
fine baths, and Charlemagne was very fond of
bathing and was a fine swimmer.</p>

<p>Italy was then ruled over by the pope. But
the pope was having a good deal of trouble with
some tribes in the north of Italy, and he asked
Charlemagne if he wouldn’t come down and
conquer them. Charlemagne was quite ready
and willing to help the pope, so he went over into
Italy and easily settled those troublesome tribes.
The pope was grateful to Charlemagne for this
and wished to reward him.</p>

<p>Now, Christians everywhere used to make trips
to Rome in order to pray at the great Church
of St. Peter, which had been built over the spot
where St. Peter had been crucified. Well, at
Christmas-time in the Year 800 Charlemagne
paid such a visit to Rome. On Christmas day
he went to the Church of St. Peter and was praying
at the altar when suddenly the pope came
forward and put a crown on his head. The pope
then hailed him “Emperor,” and as the pope
at that time could make kings and emperors,
Charlemagne became emperor of Italy added to
the other countries over which he already ruled.
These countries together were really about the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259"></span>
same as the western part of the old Roman Empire.
So Charlemagne’s empire was now like a
new Roman Empire, but with this big difference:
it was ruled over not by a Roman, but by a Teuton.</p>

<p>Charlemagne started out an ignorant uneducated
Teuton, but he was not like most other
Teutons who didn’t know they were ignorant
and didn’t care whether they were ignorant or
not. He was anxious to know everything there
was to be known. He wanted to be able to do
everything any one could do.</p>

<p>In those days when the Teutons were ruling,
few people had any education, and hardly any
one could read or write. Charlemagne wanted
an education, but there was no one in his own
country who knew enough or was able to teach
him. In England, however, there was a very
learned monk named Alcuin. He knew more
than any one of that time, and so Charlemagne
invited Alcuin to come over from England and
teach him and his people. Alcuin taught Charles
about the sciences; he taught him Latin and
Greek poetry; he taught him the wisdom of the
Greek philosophers.</p>

<p>Charlemagne learned all these things very
easily, but when it came to the simple matter of
learning to read and write he found this too hard.
He did learn to read a little, but he seemed unable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260"></span>
to learn to write. It is said that he slept
with his writing-pad under his pillow and practised
whenever he awoke. And yet he never
learned to write anything more than his name.
He did not begin to study until he was a grown
man, but he kept on studying all the rest of his
life. Except for reading and writing, he became,
next to his teacher, Alcuin, the best-educated
man in Europe.</p>

<p>In spite of the fact that Charlemagne’s daughters
were princesses, he had them taught how to
weave and sew and make clothes and cook just
as if they had to earn their own living.</p>

<p>Although Charlemagne was such a rich and
powerful monarch and could have everything he
wanted, he preferred to eat plain food and dress
in plain clothes. He did not like all the finery
that those about him loved. One day, just to
make his nobles see how ridiculously dressed they
were in silks and satins, he took them out hunting
in the woods while a storm was going on, so that
he could laugh at them. That was his idea of
a good joke. You can imagine how their silk
and satin robes looked after being soaked with
rain, covered with mud, and torn by briers.
Charlemagne thought it was very funny.</p>

<p>But although his tastes were simple in matters
of dress, he made his home a magnificent palace.
He furnished it with gold and silver tables and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261"></span>
chairs and other gorgeous furniture. He built
in it swimming-pools and a wonderful library and
a theater and surrounded it with beautiful gardens.</p>

<p>At this time and all through the Dark Ages
people had a strange way of finding out whether
a person had stolen or committed a murder or
any other crime. The person suspected was not
taken into court and tried before a judge and a
jury to see whether he was telling the truth and
had done the thing or not. Instead he was made
to carry a red-hot iron for ten steps, or to dip
his arm into boiling water, or to walk over red-hot
coals. If he was not guilty it was thought
no harm would come to him, or if he were burned
it was thought that the burn would heal right
away. This was called <i>trial by ordeal</i>. It probably
started from the story told in the Bible of
Shadrach, Meshech, and Abednego, who, you remember,
in the time of Nebuchadnezzar, had
walked through the fiery furnace unharmed because
they had done no wrong. Strange to say,
though Charlemagne was so intelligent, he believed
in the trial by ordeal. To-day we have
no such cruel and unfair way of finding out
whether one is guilty or not. Yet we say of a
person who has a lot of trouble that seems to
be a test of his character, “He is going through
an ordeal.”</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262"></span></p>

<p>While Charlemagne was living, there was a
caliph in far-off Bagdad named Haroun, which is
the Moslem spelling of Aaron. You may have
heard of him if you have read any of the “Arabian
Nights,” for the “Arabian Night” stories
were written at this time, and Haroun is described
in them. Although Haroun was a Mohammedan,
not a Christian, and though he was ruler
of an empire that hated the Christians, nevertheless
he admired Charlemagne very much. To
show how much he thought of him, he sent him
valuable presents; among other things, a clock
which struck the hours, which you remember, was
an invention of the Arabs. This was a great
curiosity, for there were then no clocks in Europe.
People had to tell time by the shadow the
sun cast on a sun-dial, or else by the amount of
water or sand that dripped or ran out from one
jar to another.</p>

<p>Haroun was a very wise and good ruler over
the Moslems, and so he came to be called “al
Rashid,” which means “the Just.” Do you remember
what Greek was also called “the Just”?<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
Haroun used to disguise himself as a workman
and go about among his people. He would
talk with those he met along the street and in the
market-place, trying to find out how they felt
about his government and about things in general.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263"></span>
He found they would talk freely to him
when dressed in old clothes, for then they did not
know who he was but thought him a fellow-workman.
In this way, Haroun learned a great
deal about his people’s troubles and what they
liked or didn’t like about his rule. Then he
would go back to his palace and give orders to
have rules and laws made to correct anything
that seemed wrong or unjust.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Aristides.</p>

</div>

<p>After Charlemagne died there was no one
great enough or strong enough to hold the new
Roman Empire together, and once again it broke
up into small pieces, and “all the king’s horses
and all the king’s men could not put it together
again.”</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c46">46</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Getting a Start</p>


<p><span class="smcap">I once</span> knew a boy who had a red birthmark
on his arm. It was just the shape of England
on the map, and he used to call it “My England.”</p>

<p>England is just a little island.</p>

<p>It was quite an unimportant little island in
900 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>

<p>England is still just a little island.</p>

<p>But it is now the most important island in the
world!</p>

<p>About one hundred years after Charles the
Great&mdash;that is, 900&mdash;there was a king of England
named Alfred. When Alfred was a boy
he had a hard time learning to read, for he did
not like to study. In those days many of the
hand-written books made by the monks had
pretty drawings and letters made in bright colors
and even in gold. One day Alfred’s mother
showed such a book to her children and promised
to give it to the one who could read it first. That
was a game. Alfred wanted to win the book,
and so, for the first time in his life, he really
tried. He studied so hard that in a very short
time he had learned to read before his brothers
and so he won the book.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265"></span></p>

<p>When Alfred grew up, England was being
troubled by pirates. These pirates were cousins
of the English&mdash;a tribe of Teutons called Danes.
The English had long ago become Christians and
civilized, but their cousins, the Danes, were still
rough and wild. They came over from their own
country across the water, landed on the coast of
England, robbed the towns and villages, and then
sailed back to their homes, carrying off everything
valuable they could lay their hands on&mdash;like
bad boys who climb a farmer’s fence and
steal apples from his orchard. At last the Danes
became so bold that they didn’t even run away
after robbing the country; they were like the
bad boys who stick out their tongues and throw
stones at the farmer who comes after them.
The king’s armies went out to punish these
pirates, but, instead of beating, they were beaten.
It began to look as if these Danes, who were
able to do pretty much as they pleased, might
conquer England and rule over the English.</p>

<p>Once when things looked pretty black for
England, King Alfred was without an army.
Alone, ragged, tired out, and hungry, he came
to the hut of a shepherd and asked for something
to eat. The shepherd’s wife was baking some
cakes by the fire, and she told Alfred he should
have one if he watched them while she went out
to milk the cow. Alfred sat down by the fire,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266"></span>
but in thinking about what he could do to beat
the Danes he forgot all about the cakes, and
when the shepherd’s wife returned they were all
burned. Thereupon she scolded him roundly
and drove him off, not knowing that it was her
king that she was treating in this way, for he
never told her who he was.</p>

<p>Alfred decided that the best way to fight the
Danes was not on land but on the water, and
so he set to work to build boats bigger and better
than those the Danes had. After a while he
had something of a fleet, and the boats he built
were bigger than those of the Danes, but they
were so big that they could not go into shallow
water without running aground. The Danes’
boats, on account of their small size, could go
safely close in to shore. In deep water, however,
Alfred’s fleet was very strong and powerful.
This was the first navy that England ever had.
England’s navy is now the largest in the world,
and Alfred the Great was the one who started it
more than a thousand years ago.</p>

<p>After fighting with the Danes for many years,
Alfred finally thought it best to make an agreement
with them and give them a part of England
to live in if they would promise to stop
stealing and live peaceably. So the Danes did
agree to this, and they settled down peaceably on
the land that Alfred gave them&mdash;and then became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267"></span>
Christians. After that there was no further
trouble.</p>

<p>Alfred made very strict laws and severely
punished those who did wrong. Indeed, it is
said that the people of England were so careful
to obey the law in his reign that one might leave
gold by the roadside, and no one would steal it.</p>

<p>Alfred also brought over learned men from
Europe to show his people how to make things
and to teach the boys and girls and the older people
how to read and write. He is also said to
have started a school that is now one of the
greatest places of learning in the world, a university
called Oxford that is now more than a
thousand years old.</p>

<p>But Alfred not only built a navy and made
wise laws and started schools and colleges which
the English had not had before; he did many
other useful things, besides.</p>

<p>He invented, for instance, a way of telling time
by a burning candle. You have heard how wonderful
the clock, that which Haroun-al-Rashid
sent to Charlemagne one hundred years before
was thought to be. Although striking clocks
are, of course, very common nowadays, it was
an extraordinary thing then when there were no
clocks nor watches at all in England. Alfred
found out how fast candles burned down and
marked lines around them at different heights&mdash;just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268"></span>
the distance apart that they burned in one
hour. These were called time-candles.</p>

<p>Candles were also used for lighting, but when
they were carried outdoors they were very likely
to be blown out by the wind. So Alfred put the
candle inside of a little box, and in order that the
light might shine through the box, he made sides
of very thin pieces of cow’s-horn, for glass then
was very scarce. This box with horn sides was
called a horn lamp or “lamphorn,” and after a
while this word when said rapidly became “lanthorn,”
and finally “lantern,” which we still call
such a thing to-day, although horn is, of course,
no longer used, but glass. This is one explanation
of the word as the old spelling was
“lanthorn,” but it seems more likely that lantern
came from the Latin word “lanterna.”</p>

<p>Such inventions may seem very small and unimportant,
and they are when you think of the
marvelous inventions and wonderful machines
that are made by the thousands nowadays. These
inventions of Alfred were no more than the
household ideas for which some magazines now
offer only a dollar apiece. But I have told you
about them just to show you how ignorant and
almost barbarian the English, as well as other
Teuton tribes of Europe, were in those days.
How much superior were the Arab thinkers with
their striking clocks. The English were just
“getting a start.”</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c47">47</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The End of the World</p>


<p><span class="smcap">What</span> would you do if you knew the world
was coming to an end next week, or even next
year?</p>

<p>The people who lived in the tenth century
thought the Bible said<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> something that meant
that the world was coming to an end in the Year
1000&mdash;which was called the millennium from the
Latin word meaning a thousand years.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Book of Revelations, chapter xx.</p>

</div>

<p>Some people were glad that the world was
coming to an end. They were so poor and
miserable and unhappy here that they were
anxious to go to heaven, where everything would
be fine and lovely&mdash;if they had been good here.
So they were particularly good and did everything
they could to earn a place for themselves in
heaven when this old world should end.</p>

<p>Others were not so anxious to have the world
come to an end. But, they thought, if it were
coming to an end so soon, they might as well
hurry up and enjoy themselves here while they
still had a chance.</p>

<p>Well, the Year 1000 came, and nothing happened.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270"></span>At first people simply thought that a
mistake had been made in counting the years&mdash;that
there had not really been one thousand years
since Christ’s birth. The years went by, and
still people waited for the end. They re-read
their Bibles and thought perhaps it meant a
thousand years after Christ’s <i>death</i>, instead of his
birth. As time went on, without any change,
they began to think the end was delayed for some
reason they could not explain. But it was not
for many years after the millennium that people
came at last to realize that the world was not
going to stop after all.</p>

<p>Every once in a while some one who thinks he
knows more than others says the end of the world
is not far off, but we may be quite sure that the
world will keep on going and that it will keep on
going long after we have all grown up and died
and our children have done the same.</p>

<p>At this time, when people were looking for
the end of the world there was in the north of
Europe a tribe of Teutons who were not Christians
and knew and cared nothing about what
the Bible said as to the end of the world. They
belonged to the same family as the Danes who
had come to England in the time of King Alfred.
They were called Norsemen or Vikings. They
were bold seafaring men, even more hardy and
unafraid than the Phenician sailors of old. Their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271"></span>
boats were painted black and had prows carved
with figures of sea-monsters or dragons. They
sailed the northern seas and went farther westward
toward the setting sun than any sailors
had ever gone. They had discovered Iceland
and Greenland, and at last under their chief
who was named Leif Ericson they reached the
shores of America. So about the same year that
the Christians in Europe were expecting the end
of the world&mdash;the Year 1000&mdash;the Vikings had
gone to what they thought was “the end of the
world.”</p>

<p>They called the new country Vineland or
Wineland, because they found grapes, from
which wine is made, growing there. They did
not go far on shore, however, and they thought
this new land was only another small island.
They had no idea it was a new world. But it
was too far away from their own country, and
they found wild savages there who made it so
uncomfortable for them that they sailed back
home leaving the country for good. The Vikings
did nothing more about their discovery, and
people forgot all about this new country until
nearly five hundred years later.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c48">48</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Real Castles</p>


<p><span class="smcap">You</span> may think that castles belong only in
fairy-tales of princes and princesses.</p>

<p>But about the Year 1000 there were castles
almost everywhere over Europe, and they were
not fairy-castles but real ones with real people
in them.</p>

<p>After the downfall of Rome in 476, the Roman
Empire was broken to pieces like a cut-up puzzle-map,
and people built castles on the pieces, and
they kept on building castles up to the fourteen
hundreds. And this is why and how people built
them and why they at last stopped building
them.</p>

<p>Whenever any ruler, whether he was a king
or only a prince, conquered another ruler, he
gave to his generals, who had fought with him
and helped him to win, pieces of the conquered
land as a reward instead of paying them in
money. The generals in turn gave pieces of their
land to the chief men who had been under them
and helped them in battle. These men who were
given land were called lords or nobles, and each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273"></span>
lord was called a vassal of him who gave the
land. Each vassal had to promise to fight with
his lord whenever he was needed. He could not
make this promise lightly in an offhand way,
however. He had to do it formally so that it
would seem more binding. So the vassal had to
kneel in front of
his lord, place
his folded hands
between the
folded hands of
his lord, and
make the solemn
promise to fight
when called upon.
This was
called “doing
homage.” Then
once a year, at
least, thereafter,
he had to make
the same promise
over again. This method of giving away land
was known as the Feudal System.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Castle, drawbridge, moat and knights.</p>
</div>

<p>Each of these lords or nobles then built himself
a castle on the land that was given him, and
there he lived like a little king with all his work-people
about him. The castle was not only his
home, but it had to be a fort as well to protect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274"></span>
him from other lords who might try to take his
castle away from him. So he usually placed it
on the top of a hill or a cliff, so that the enemy
could not reach it easily, if at all. It had great
stone walls often ten feet or more thick. Surrounding
the walls there was usually a ditch
called a moat filled with water to make it more
difficult for an enemy to get into the castle.</p>

<p>In times of peace when there was no fighting
the men farmed the land outside of the castle;
but when there was war between lords, all the
people went inside the castle walls, carrying all
the food and cattle and everything else they had,
so that they could live there for months or even
years while the fighting was going on. A castle,
therefore, had to be very large to hold so many
people and animals for so long a time, and often
it was really like a walled town.</p>

<p>Inside the walls of the castle were many
smaller buildings to house the people and animals
and for cooking and storing the food. There
might even be a church or chapel. The chief
building was, of course, the house of the lord himself
and this was called the <i>keep</i>.</p>

<p>The main room of the keep was the hall, which
was like a very large living-room and dining-room
combined. Here meals were served at
tables which were simply long and wide boards
placed on something to hold them up. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275"></span>
boards were taken down and put away after the
meal was over. That is where we get the names
“boarding” and “boarding-house.” There were
no forks nor spoons nor plates nor saucers nor
napkins. Every one ate with his fingers and
licked them or wiped them on his clothes. Table
manners were more like <i>stable</i> manners. The
bones and scraps they threw on the floor or to
the dogs, who were allowed in the room. Itchy-scratchy!
At the end of the meal a large bowl
of water and towels were brought in so that those
who wished might wash their hands.</p>

<p>After dinner the household was entertained
during the long evenings with songs and stories
by men called minstrels, who played and sang
and amused the company.</p>

<p>Shut up within the castle walls, it seemed as
if the lord and his people would be absolutely
safe against any attacks of his enemies. In the
first place, any enemy would have had to cross
the moat or ditch which surrounded the castle.
Across this moat there was a drawbridge to the
entrance or gate of the castle. In the entrance
itself was an iron gate called a portcullis, which
was usually raised like a window to allow people
to pass. In time of war the drawbridge was
raised. But in case an enemy was seen approaching
and there was no time to raise the drawbridge,
this portcullis could be dropped at a moment’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276"></span>
notice. When the drawbridge was raised there
was no way of getting into the castle except
by crossing the moat filled with water. Any one
trying to do this would have had stones or melted
tar thrown down on him. Instead of windows
in the wall of the castle there were only long
slits through which the fighters could shoot arrows
at the enemy. At the same time, it was
very difficult for any one on the outside to hit
the small crack-like opening with an arrow.</p>

<p>And yet attacks <i>were</i> made on castles. Sometimes
the enemy built a tall wooden tower on
wheels. This they would roll up as closely as
they could get to the walls, and from its top shoot
directly over into the castle.</p>

<p>Sometimes they built tunnels from the outside
right under the ground, under the moat, and
under the castle walls into the castle itself.</p>

<p>Sometimes they built huge machines called
battering-rams, and with these they battered
down the walls.</p>

<p>Sometimes they used machines like great slingshots
to throw stones over the walls. Of course
there were no cannons nor cannon-balls nor guns
nor gunpowder then.</p>

<p>The lord and his family were the society people;
all the others were little better than slaves.
In times of peace most of the common people
lived outside the castle walls on the land called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277"></span>
the <i>manor</i>. The lord gave them just as little as
he could and took from them just as much as he
could. He had to feed and take some care of
them so that they could fight for him and serve
him, just as he had to feed and take care of his
horses that carried him to battle, and the cattle
that provided him with milk and meat. But he
didn’t treat them as well as he did his domestic
animals. The common people had to give their
time and labor and a large part of the crops they
raised to the lord. They themselves lived in
miserable huts more like cow-sheds, with only
one room, and that had a dirt floor. Above this
was perhaps a loft reached by a ladder where
they went to bed. But bed was usually only a
bundle of straw, and they slept in the clothes they
wore during the day.</p>

<p>These work-people were called serfs. Sometimes
a serf could stand this kind of life no
longer, and he would run away. If he was not
caught within a year and a day, he was a free
man. But if he was caught before the year and
a day were up, the lord might whip him, brand
him with hot irons, or even cut off his hands.
Indeed, a lord could do almost anything he
wished with his serfs&mdash;except kill them, or sell
them.</p>

<p>So what do you think of the Feudal System?</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c49">49</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Knights and Days of Chivalry</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Those</span> <i>years</i> in history which I have been
telling you about are known as the <i>days</i> of
chivalry&mdash;which means the times of ladies and
gentlemen. The lord and his family were the
gentlemen and the ladies. All the other people,
by far the greater number, were just common
people.</p>

<p>There were no schools for these common people.
Little was done for them. They were
taught to work and nothing else. The sons of
a lord of a castle, however, were very carefully
taught. But even they were taught only two
things, how to be gentlemen and how to fight.
Reading and writing were thought of no importance;
in fact, it was usually considered a waste
of time to learn such things.</p>

<p>And this is the way the son of a lord was
brought up. He stayed with his mother until he
was seven years old. When he reached the age
of seven he was called a page; and for the next
seven years&mdash;that is, until he was fourteen, he
remained a page. During the time he was a page<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279"></span>
his chief business was to wait on the ladies of the
castle. He ran their errands, carried their messages,
waited on table, etc. He also learned to
ride a horse and to be brave and courteous.</p>

<p>When he was fourteen years old he became a
squire and remained a squire for the next seven
years; that is, until he was twenty-one. During
the time he was a squire he waited on the men, as
he had waited on the ladies when he was a page.
He attended to the men’s horses, went to battle
with them, led an extra horse, and carried another
spear or lance, in case these should be needed.</p>

<p>When he was twenty-one years old, if he had
been a good squire and had learned the lessons
that he was taught, he then became a knight. Becoming
a knight was an important ceremony like
graduating exercises, for the grown boy was now
to take up the business of a man.</p>

<p>To get ready for this ceremony, first, he
bathed. This may not seem worth mentioning,
but in those days one very rarely took a bath,
sometimes not for years. He was then dressed
in new clothes. Thus washed and dressed, he
prayed all night long in the church. When day
came he appeared before all the people and
solemnly swore always to do and to be certain
things:</p>

<p>
To be brave and good;<br />
To fight for the Christian religion;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280"></span><br />
To protect the weak;<br />
To honor women.
</p>

<p>These were his vows. A white leather belt
was then put on him and gold spurs fastened on
his boots. After this had been done he knelt,
and his lord struck him over the shoulders with
the flat side of a sword, saying as he did so, “I
dub thee knight.”</p>

<p>A knight went into battle covered with a suit
of armor made of iron rings or steel plates like
fish-scales, and with a helmet or hood of iron.
This suit protected him from the arrows and
lances of the enemy. Of course if they had had
any shot or shell, armor would have been no
use at all, but they had no such things then.</p>

<p>Knights were so completely covered by their
armor that when sides became mixed up in fighting,
they could not tell one another apart. It
was impossible to know which were friends and
which were enemies.</p>

<p>So the knights wore, on the outside of the coat
that went over their armor, a design of an animal,
such as a lion, or of a plant or a rose or a cross
or some ornament, and this design was known as
a coat of arms. Perhaps your father may use
a coat of arms on his letter-paper to-day, and
if so he has inherited it from some great-great-grandparent
who was a knight.</p>

<p>A knight, as I told you, was first of all taught<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281"></span>
to be a gentleman, and so we still speak of one
who has good manners and is courteous, especially
to ladies, as knightly or chivalrous. When a
knight came into the presence of a lady he took
off his helmet. It meant, “You are my friend,
and so I do not need my helmet.” That is why
gentlemen raise their hats nowadays when they
meet ladies.</p>

<p>But the most important thing the knights had
to learn was to fight. Even their games were
play fights.</p>

<p>Each country and each age has had its own
games or sports in which it has taken special
delight. The Greeks had their Olympic Games.
The Romans had their chariot-races and gladiatorial
contests. We have football and baseball.
But the chief sport of the knights was a kind of
sham battle called the tournament.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Lady with falcon.</p>
</div>

<p>The tournament was held in a field known as
the <i>lists</i>. Large crowds with banners flying and
trumpets blowing would gather around the lists
to watch the sham fight, as crowds nowadays
flock to a big football game waving pennants
and tooting horns. The knights on horseback
took their places at opposite ends of the lists.
They carried lances, the points of which were
covered so that they would not make a wound.
At a given signal, they rushed toward the center
of the field and tried with their lances to throw<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282"></span>
each other off their horses. The winner who
succeeded in throwing the other knights was
presented with a ribbon or a keepsake by one of
the ladies, and
a knight thought
as much of this
trophy of victory
as the winner
of a cup in
a tennis tournament
nowadays.</p>

<p>Knights were
very fond of
hunting with
dogs. But they
also hunted with
a trained bird
called a falcon,
and both lords
and ladies delighted
in this
sport. The falcon
was trained
like a hunting-dog to catch other birds, such as
wild ducks and pigeons and also small animals.
The falcon was chained to the wrist of the lord
or lady, and its head was covered with a hood
as it was carried out to hunt. When a bird was
seen the hood was removed, and the falcon, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283"></span>
was very swift, would swoop upon its prey and
capture it. Thereupon the hunter would come
up, take the captured animal, and put the hood
on the falcon again. The men, however, usually
preferred hunting the wild boar, which was a
kind of pig with sharp tusks, for this was more
dangerous and therefore supposed to be more of
a man’s sport.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c50">50</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Pirate’s <i>Great</i> Grandson</p>


<p><span class="smcap">When</span> Alfred was king the Danes had raided
England.</p>

<p>At the same time their cousins the Norsemen
had raided the coast of France.</p>

<p>King Alfred at last had to give the Danes a
part of the English coast, and they then settled
down and became Christians.</p>

<p>The French king likewise did the same thing.
In order to save himself from further raids, he
gave the Norsemen a part of the French coast.
Then the Norsemen, as the Danes had done, settled
down and became Christians.</p>

<p>These Norsemen who raided France were led
by a very bold and brave pirate named Rollo.
In return for this gift of land Rollo was supposed
to do homage by kissing the king’s foot. But
Rollo thought it beneath him to kneel and kiss
the king’s foot, so he told one of his men to do it
for him. His man did as he was told, but he
didn’t like to do it, either, and so as he kissed the
king’s foot he raised it so high that he tipped his
Majesty over backward.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig62.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286"></span></p>

<p>That part of France which was given the
Norsemen came to be called Normandy, and it is
so called to-day, and the people were known
thereafter as Normans.</p>

<p>In 1066 there was a very powerful duke ruling
over Normandy. His name was William, and
he was descended from Rollo the pirate. Perhaps
your name may be William. Perhaps you
may even be descended from this William.</p>

<p>William was strong in body, strong in will, and
strong in rule over his people. He could shoot
an arrow farther, straighter, and with more
deadly effect than any of his knights. No one
else was strong enough even to bend the bow he
used.</p>

<p>William and his people had become Christians,
but according to their idea the Christian
God was more like their old god Woden under
a new name. William believed that “might made
right,” for he was descended from a pirate, and
he still thought and acted like a pirate. So whatever
he wanted he went after and took, even
though he was supposed to be a Christian.</p>

<p>Now, William was only a duke, not a king,
and he wanted to be a king. In fact, he thought
he would like to be king of England, which was
just across the channel from his own dukedom.</p>

<p>It so happened that a young English prince
named Harold was shipwrecked on the coast<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287"></span>
of Normandy and was found and brought before
William. Now, it seemed likely that some day
Harold would be king of England, and William
thought this a good chance to get England for
himself. So before he would let Harold leave,
he made the young man promise that when his
turn came to be king he would give him England
just as if that country were a horse or a suit of
armor that could be given away. Then, in order
that this promise should be solemnly binding,
William made Harold place his hand on the altar
and swear, just as people place a hand on the
Bible nowadays, when they take an oath. After
Harold had sworn on the altar, William had the
top lifted and showed Harold that below it were
the bones of some of the Christian saints. Swearing
on the bones of a saint was the most solemn
kind of an oath one could possibly take. It was
thought one would not dare to break such an
oath for fear of the wrath of God.</p>

<p>Then Harold returned to England. But when
the time came that he should be king the people
naturally would not let him give England to
William. Besides that, Harold said that such
an oath, which he had taken against his will, an
oath which had been forced on him by a trick,
was not binding. So Harold became king.</p>

<p>When William heard that Harold had been
made king, he was very angry. He said that he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288"></span>
had been cheated and that Harold had broken
his oath. So at once he got ready an army and
sailed over to take the country away from Harold.</p>

<p>As William landed from his boat he stumbled
and fell headlong on the shore. All his
soldiers were shocked and greatly worried by this,
for they thought it very bad luck&mdash;a bad omen,
the Greeks would have called it. But William
was quick-witted, and as he fell he grabbed up
some of the earth in both hands. Then, rising,
he made believe he had fallen on purpose and,
lifting his hands in the air, exclaimed that he had
taken up the ground as a sign that he was going
to have <i>all</i> the land of England. This changed
the bad omen into good luck.</p>

<p>The battle started, and the English fought
furiously to defend themselves against these foreigners
who were trying to take their country
away from them. Indeed, they had almost won
the battle when William gave an order to his men
to pretend they were running away. The English
then followed, wildly rejoicing, and running pell-mell
after the Normans. Just as soon, however,
as the English were scattered and in disorder,
William gave another signal, and his men faced
about quickly. The English were taken by surprise,
and before they could get into fighting
order again, they were defeated, and Harold,
their king, was shot through the eye and killed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289"></span>
This was the battle of Hastings, one of the most
famous battles in English History.</p>

<p>Harold had put up a brave fight. But luck
was against him. Only a few days before this,
he had had to fight a battle with his own brother,
who in a traitorous way had got together an
army against him. We are sorry for Harold,
and yet it was probably better for England that
things turned out as they did&mdash;yet who can tell?</p>

<p>William marched on to London and had himself
crowned king on Christmas day, 1066. Ever
since then he has been known as William the
Conqueror, and the event is called the Norman
Conquest. After this England had a new line
of kings&mdash;a Norman family and a pirate family&mdash;to
rule over her.</p>

<p>William divided England up among his nobles
as if it were a pie, and gave each a share in the
feudal way. They had to do homage to him
as his vassals and promise to fight for him and to
do as he said. Each of William’s nobles built a
castle on the property he was given. William
himself built a castle in London by the Thames
River. On the same spot Julius Cæsar had built
a fort, but it had disappeared; and Alfred the
Great had built a castle there, but it, too, had
disappeared. But the castle William built is
still standing to-day. It is known as the Tower
of London.</p>

<p>William was a splendid boss and very businesslike.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290"></span>He set to work and had a list made of all
the land in England, a list of all the people and
of all the property they had. This record was
called the Domesday Book and was something
like the <i>census</i> now taken in this country every
ten years. This list gave the name of every one
in England and everything each owned, even
down to the last cow and pig. If your ancestors
were living in England then you can look in the
Domesday Book and find their names, how much
land they owned, and how many cows and pigs
they had.</p>

<p>In order that no mischief might take place at
night, William started what was called the <i>curfew</i>.
Every evening at a certain hour a bell was
rung. Then all lights had to be put out, and
every one had to go indoors&mdash;supposedly to bed.</p>

<p>One thing, however, that William did made
the English very angry. He was extremely fond
of hunting, but there was no good place where
he could hunt near London. So in order to have
a place for hunting, he destroyed a large number
of village houses and farms and turned that part
of the country into a forest. This was called the
New Forest, and though it is now nearly nine
hundred years <i>old</i> it is still called New to this
day.</p>

<p>But on the whole, William, although descended
from a pirate, gave England a good government<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291"></span>
and made it a much safer and better place in
which to live than it ever had been under its
former rulers. So 1066 was almost like the
Year 1 for the English.</p>

<p>We think it is remarkable when children of
low-bred immigrants become society leaders,
when, as we say, they rise from overalls to dress-suits,
but here we have the son’s son of a pirate
rising to be king of England, and those living
now who find they are descended from him brag
of it!</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig63.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c51">51</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Great Adventure</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> you ever played the game called “Going
to Jerusalem” in which every one scrambles to
get a seat when the music stops playing?</p>

<p>Well, all during the Dark Ages “Going to
Jerusalem” was not a game but a real journey
which Christians everywhere in Europe wanted
to take and did take if they could. They wanted
to see the actual spot where Christ had been
crucified, to pray at the Holy Sepulcher, and
to bring back a palm-leaf as a souvenir, which
they could show their friends, hang on the wall,
and talk about all the rest of their lives.</p>

<p>So there were always some good Christians&mdash;and
also some bad ones&mdash;“going to Jerusalem.”
Sometimes they went all by themselves, but more
often they went with others. As of course there
were no such things as trains in those days, poor
people had to walk nearly the whole way from
France and from England, from Spain and from
Germany, and so it took them many months and
sometimes years to reach Jerusalem. These
travelers were called <i>pilgrims</i>, and their trip was
called a <i>pilgrimage</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293"></span></p>

<p>Jerusalem at that time belonged to the Turks,
who were Mohammedans. The Turks did not
like these Christian pilgrims who came to see
Christ’s tomb, and they didn’t treat them very
well. Indeed, some of the pilgrims on their return
told frightful stories of the way they had
been treated by the Turks and the way the holy
places in Jerusalem were also treated.</p>

<p>Just before the Year 1100 there was a pope at
Rome named Urban. He was the head of all the
Christians in the world. Urban heard these tales
that the pilgrims told, and he was shocked. He
thought it was a terrible thing, anyway, for the
Holy City, as Jerusalem was called, and the
Holy Land, where Jerusalem was located, to be
ruled over by Mohammedans instead of by
Christians. So Urban made a speech and urged
all good Christians everywhere to get together
and go on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, with
the idea of fighting the Turks and taking the
city of Jerusalem away from them.</p>

<p>Now, there lived at that same time a monk
whom people called Peter the Hermit. A hermit
is a man who goes off and lives entirely by
himself, usually in a cave or hut where no one
can find him or go to see him, where he can spend
all day in prayer. Peter the Hermit thought
such a life was good for his soul, that it made
him a better man to be hungry and cold and uncomfortable.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294"></span></p>

<p>Peter the Hermit had made a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem and was very angry at what he saw
there. So he, too, began to tell people everywhere
he went how disgraceful it was for them
to allow Christ’s tomb to belong to the Mohammedans
and called on every one to start on a
pilgrimage with him to save Jerusalem. He
talked to people in the churches, on the street-corners,
in the market-places, on the roadside.
He was such a wonderful orator that those who
heard him wept at his descriptions and begged
to go with him.</p>

<p>Before long, thousands upon thousands of
people, old and young, men and women, and even
some children had pledged themselves to join a
band to go to Jerusalem and take it away from
the Mohammedans. As Christ had died on the
cross, they cut pieces of red cloth in the form of a
cross and sewed them on the fronts of their coats
as a sign that they were soldiers of the cross.
So these pilgrims were called <i>Crusaders</i>, which
is the Latin word for a cross-bearer. As they
knew they would be gone a long time and perhaps
never return, they sold all they had and left their
homes. Not only poor people but lords and
nobles and even princes joined the army of the
Crusaders, and there were, besides the crowds on
foot, large companies of those who rode on horseback.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295"></span></p>

<p>The plan was to start in the summer of 1096,
four years before 1100, but a great many were so
anxious to get started that they didn’t wait for
the time that had been set. With Peter the Hermit
and another pious man named Walter the
Penniless as their leaders, they started off before
things were really ready.</p>

<p>They had no idea how very far off Jerusalem
was. They hadn’t studied geography nor maps.
They had no idea how long it would take, no
idea how they would get food to eat on their
journey, no idea where they would sleep. They
simply trusted in Peter the Hermit and believed
that the Lord would provide everything and show
them the way.</p>

<p>Onward they marched, “Onward, Christian
Soldiers,” thousands upon thousands, toward the
east and far-off Jerusalem. Thousands upon
thousands of them died from disease and from
hunger on the way. Every time they came within
sight of another city, they would ask, “Is this
Jerusalem?” so little did they know of the long
distance that still lay between them and that
city.</p>

<p>When the Mohammedan army in Jerusalem
heard that the Crusaders were coming they went
forth to meet the Christians and killed almost
all of those who had started out with Peter ahead
of the rest. But those Crusaders that had started<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296"></span>
out later, as had been planned at the beginning,
marched on.</p>

<p>Finally, after nearly four years, only a small
band of that vast throng that had set out so long
before reached the walls of the Holy City. When
at last they saw Jerusalem before them, they
were wild with joy. They fell on their knees and
wept and prayed and sang hymns and thanked
God that he had brought them to the end of
their journey. Then they furiously attacked the
city. The Christians fought so terribly that at
last they beat the Mohammedans and captured
Jerusalem. Then they entered the gates and
killed thousands, so that it is said the streets of
the Holy City ran with blood. This seems
strange behavior for the followers of Christ, who
preached against fighting and commanded, “Put
up thy sword, for he that taketh the sword shall
perish by the sword.”</p>

<p>The Crusaders then made one of their leaders
named Godfrey ruler of the city. Most of the
other Crusaders that were left then went back
home. So ended what is known as the First
Crusade.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c52">52</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Tit-Tat-To; Three Kings in a Row</p>


<p>
<span class="smcap">Here</span> are three kings:</p>

<p>
Richard of England,<br />
Philip of France, and<br />
Frederick Barbarossa of Germany.
</p>

<p>If you say their names over several times, they
keep ringing through your mind and you cannot
seem to stop thinking them whether you want to
or not.</p>

<p>Jerusalem was captured. But it did not stay
captured very long.</p>

<p>The Mohammedans attacked and won it back
again.</p>

<p>So the Christians started a Second Crusade.
Then about once in a lifetime during the next
two hundred years there was one Crusade after
another&mdash;eight or nine in all. Sometimes these
later Crusades won back Jerusalem for a while,
but for a while only. Sometimes they did not
succeed at all.</p>

<p>The Third Crusade took place about a hundred
years after the First; that is, nearly 1200 <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span>
These three kings&mdash;Richard of England, Philip
of France, and Frederick Barbarossa&mdash;started<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298"></span>
on the Third Crusade. But they didn’t all finish.
I will tell you about them in three-two-one order.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig64.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Richard of England, Philip of France, and Frederick Barbarossa</p>
</div>

<p>Frederick’s name, Barbarossa, meant Red
Beard, for in those days it was the custom to give
kings nicknames that described them. Frederick’s
capital was in Aix-la-Chapelle, as Charlemagne’s
had been, but Frederick was king only
of Germany. When a young man he had tried to
make his country as large and powerful as the
new Roman Empire that Charlemagne had
made. But he was not a great enough man, and
so was unable to do what Charlemagne had done.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299"></span>
Frederick was quite old when he started out on
the Third Crusade with the other two kings. But
he never reached Jerusalem, for in crossing a
stream on the way he was drowned. So much for
Frederick, the third king.</p>

<p>The second king, Philip of France, was jealous
of the first king, Richard, because Richard
was so very popular and well liked by the Crusaders.
So Philip finally gave up the Crusade
and went back to France.</p>

<p>Richard of England was then the only king
left on the Crusade. It would have been better
if he, too, had gone back to his country instead
of gallivanting off on a Crusade. But he thought
going on a Crusade was much better sport than
staying at home and working over the difficult
business of governing his people.</p>

<p>But although he had his faults, Richard was
the kind of a man that all men like and all women
love. He was kind and gentle, yet strong and
brave. Richard the Lion-Hearted they called
him. He was hard on wrongdoers but fair and
square. So people loved him, but they feared
him, too, for he punished the wicked and those
who misbehaved. Even long, long after he had
died, mothers would try to quiet a naughty and
crying child by saying: “Hush! If you don’t be
good, King Richard will get you!”</p>

<p class="c">
<span class="little">SO</span><span class="medium">HN</span>O<span class="large">FF</span><span class="xlarge">GO</span><span class="xxlarge">B</span><span class="xlarge">B</span><span class="large">E</span>LL<span class="medium">U</span><span class="little">M</span>!
</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_300"></span></p>

<p>Even Richard’s enemies admired him. The
Mohammedan king of Jerusalem at the time of
this Third Crusade was named Saladin. Saladin,
though being attacked by Richard, admired him
very much and even became his friend. And so
Saladin, instead of fighting Richard, finally made
a friendly agreement with him to treat the Holy
Sepulcher and the pilgrims properly. As this arrangement
was satisfactory to every one, Richard
left Jerusalem to Saladin and started back home.</p>

<p>On his way home Richard was captured by one
of his enemies and put in prison and held for
a large ransom from England. Richard’s
friends did not know where he was and did not
know how to find him.</p>

<p>Now, it so happened that Richard had a favorite
minstrel named Blondel. Blondel had
composed a song of which Richard was very fond.
So when Richard was taken prisoner, Blondel
wandered over the country singing everywhere
this favorite song in the hope that Richard might
hear it and reveal where he was. One day he happened
to sing beneath the very tower where Richard
was imprisoned. Richard heard him and answered
by singing the refrain of the song. His
friends then knew where he was, the ransom was
paid, and Richard was allowed to go free.</p>

<p>When, at last, Richard did reach England, he
still had adventures. This was the time when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301"></span>
Robin Hood was robbing travelers. Richard
planned to have himself taken prisoner by
Robin Hood, so that he might capture him and
bring him to justice. So Richard disguised
himself as a monk and was captured as he had
planned. But he found Robin Hood such a
good fellow after all that he forgave him and
his men.</p>

<p>Richard’s coat of arms was a design of three
lions, one above the other; and this same design
of three lions now forms part of the shield of
England.</p>

<p>After Richard’s Crusade there was a Fourth
Crusade, and then in the year 1212&mdash;which is an
easy date to remember, because it is simply the
number 12 repeated&mdash;one, two, one, two&mdash;there
was a crusade of children only. This was known
therefore as the Children’s Crusade. It was led
by a French boy about twelve years old named
Stephen, who was named after the first Christian
martyr.</p>

<p>Children from all over France left their homes
and their mothers and fathers&mdash;it seems strange
to us that their mothers and fathers let them start
off on such a trip&mdash;and marched south to the
Mediterranean Sea. Here they expected the
waters of the sea would part and allow them to
march on dry land to Jerusalem, as they had read
in the Bible the waters of the Red Sea had done<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302"></span>
to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. But the
waters did not part.</p>

<p>Some sailors, however, offered to take the children
to Jerusalem in their ships. They said they
would do it for nothing, just for the love of the
Lord. But it turned out that these sailors were
really pirates, and as soon as they got the children
on board their ships they steered them straight
across the Mediterranean to Africa into the very
land of their enemies, the Mohammedans. Here,
it is said, the pirates sold the children as slaves.
This is not a Grimm’s Fairy-Tale, and the pirates
were not trapped by the children, so I cannot
make a happy ending, for it was not.</p>

<p>The last or Eighth Crusade was led by a king
of France called Louis. He was so pious and so
devoted to the Lord that he was made a saint
and ever after has been called St. Louis. Yet
this Crusade failed, and ever since Jerusalem has
been ruled by the Mohammedans until just recently,
when, in 1918, it was captured by the
English, and this, then, was really the Last
Crusade.</p>

<p>Not all the Crusaders were good Christians.
Like some people nowadays, a great many were
Christian only in name. In fact, though strange
to say, quite a number of the Crusaders were
nothing but scalawags, looking for excitement
and adventure, and they went on a Crusade
merely as an excuse to rob and plunder.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303"></span></p>

<p>The Crusades did not succeed in their object,
which was to keep Jerusalem for the Christians.
Yet in spite of that, they did a great deal of good.
When the Crusades first started, the Crusaders
were not nearly as civilized as the people they
went to conquer. But travel sometimes teaches
people more than books, and it taught the Crusaders.
They learned the customs of the other
lands through which they went. They learned
languages and literature. They learned history
and art.</p>

<p>There were then no public schools. Only a
very, very few people had any education at all.
So the Crusades did what schools might have
done. They taught the people of Europe and
put an end to the Dark Ages of ignorance.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig65.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c53">53</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Bibles Made of Stone and Glass</p>


<p><span class="smcap">How</span> often do you go to church?</p>

<p>Probably not more than once a week&mdash;on
Sundays.</p>

<p>But in the Middle Ages people usually went to
church every day and often several times a day.
They did not go only when there was a church
service. They went to say their prayers by themselves;
they went to tell their troubles to the
priest, to get advice from him, to burn a candle
to the Virgin Mary, or simply to chat with their
friends.</p>

<p>All during the Crusades, and immediately after
the Crusades, the chief thing that people thought
about was their church.</p>

<p>There was only one church in a neighborhood,
and every one went to the same church for there
were no Baptists, nor Episcopalians, nor Methodists;
all were just Christians.</p>

<p>The church was every one’s meeting-house,
and so people naturally gave as much money and
time and labor as they could to make their church
the best that could be built. That is why there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305"></span>
were built in France and other parts of Europe
at this time many of the finest churches and cathedrals
in the world. These churches and cathedrals
are still standing, and, because they are so
beautiful, people go long distances to see them.</p>

<p>Do you know what a cathedral is? A cathedral
is not just a large church. It is the church of a
bishop. In the chancel of this church there is a
special chair for the bishop. This bishop’s chair
is called in Latin a “cathedra,” and so his church
is named a cathedral after this chair.</p>

<p>These churches and cathedrals were nothing
like the old Greek and Roman temples; they were
not like anything that had ever been built before.</p>

<p>If you have ever built a house out of blocks,
you probably did it this way: first you stood two
blocks upright, and then you laid another block
across the top of these for a roof. This is the
way the Greeks and Romans built.</p>

<p>But the Christians throughout Europe at that
time did not build in this way at all.</p>

<p>When you were building toy-houses, instead of
laying a single block across the two standing ones,
you may perhaps have tried leaning two blocks
together like the sides of a letter A for a roof?
If you did, you know what happened: the two
leaning blocks pushed over the sides, and <i>crash</i>!
everything tumbled. Well, these churches were
built somewhat in this way, with stones arched<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306"></span>
across the standing stone columns. But to keep
the stone arches from pushing over the standing
stone columns the builders put up props or
braces. These props or braces were made of
stone, too, and these props of stone were called
<i>flying buttresses</i>.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig66.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Flying buttresses&mdash;Apse of Notre Dame.</p>
</div>

<p>The people in Italy thought this a crazy way
of building. They thought such buildings must
be shaky and might easily topple over&mdash;like a
house of cards. The Goths who had conquered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307"></span>
Italy in 476 were wild and ignorant and after
that people called anything wild and ignorant
“Gothic.” So people called all buildings such as
I have just described “Gothic,” although the
Goths had nothing to do with the buildings, for
they had all died long years before.</p>

<p>Indeed, from my description you, too, may
think such buildings propped up by flying buttresses
must have been tottering and ugly, but
they were neither. They were not rickety, for
though occasionally one that was not carefully
built did collapse, the largest and best are still
standing to-day. And although there were old-fashioned
people who thought no building was
beautiful that was not built in the Roman or
Greek style, we have come to admire the great
beauty of these so called Gothic buildings.</p>

<p>But there were other ways in which the Gothic
churches were different from the Greek and
Roman temples. Before a Gothic church was
started, a very large cross was first drawn on the
ground with its head towards the east, because
that is the direction of Jerusalem. On this cross-shaped
plan, the church was built so that if you
looked down from above on the finished building,
it was shaped like a cross with the altar always
toward the east.</p>

<p>Gothic churches had beautiful spires or <i>arrows</i>,
which have been likened to <i>fingers pointing to</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308"></span>
<i>heaven</i>. The doorways and windows were not
square or round at the top, but pointed, like
hands placed together in prayer.</p>

<p>Nearly the whole side of a Gothic church was
made of glass. These large windows were not,
however, plain white glass, but beautiful pictures
made of colored glass. Small pieces of different
colors were joined together at their edges with
lead to make what looked like wonderful paintings.
But these pictures were much finer than
ordinary paintings, for the light shone through
the stained glass and made the colors brilliant as
jewels&mdash;blue like the clear sky, yellow like sunlight,
red like a ruby. These pictures in glass
told stories from the Bible. They were like colored
illustrations in a book. So the people who
could not read, and very few could read, were
able to know the Bible stories just by looking
at these beautiful illustrations.</p>

<p>Statues of saints and angels and characters in
the Bible were carved in the stonework of the
church. So the churches were like Bibles of stone
and glass.</p>

<p>Besides these holy beings, strange, grotesque
beasts were also made in stone&mdash;monsters like no
animal that has ever been seen in nature. These
creatures were usually put on the outside edge
or corner of the roof or they were used for waterspouts
and called <i>gargoyles</i>. They were supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309"></span>
to scare away evil spirits from the holy
place.</p>

<div class="figright">
<img src="images/fig67.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Gargoyle.</p>
</div>

<p>No one now knows who were the architects or
the builders of these Gothic churches or who were
the sculptors or artists. Almost
every one did some work on the
church, for it was <i>his</i> church.
Instead of giving money he gave
his time and labor. If he had
any skill, he carved stone or
made stained glass. If he had
no skill he did the work of a common
laborer.</p>

<p>Some of these Gothic churches took hundreds
of years to build, so that the workmen who started
them never lived to see them finished. Some of
the most famous cathedrals are Canterbury
Cathedral in England, the Cathedral of Notre
Dame in Paris, and Cologne Cathedral in Germany.</p>

<p>Cologne Cathedral took the longest of all to
build, as it was not entirely finished until about
seven hundred years after it was begun! The
beautiful Cathedral of Rheims in France was
almost destroyed by the gun-fire of the Germans
in the Great War only a few years ago.</p>

<p>Gothic churches were built, with loving care,
of stone and jeweled glass. Nothing but the best
was thought good enough. To-day almost all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310"></span>
churches are still built with spires, pointed doors
and some stained glass windows, and often the
altar is toward the east. But although they imitate
the Gothic style in these things, they seldom
have stone ceilings, as Gothic churches had, nor
flying buttresses, nor walls of stained glass. The
ceilings are usually of wood, the spire often of
wood, also, and even the whole building of wood
or some cheap material. Real Gothic was enormously
expensive and difficult, and nowadays
people haven’t the time, the money, nor the
interest to build in such a way.</p>

<p>And that is the story of Gothic churches that
the Goths had nothing to do with.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig68.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c54">54</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">John, Whom Nobody Loved</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Richard</span>, the Lion-Hearted, whom everybody
loved, had a brother named John, whom nobody
loved.</p>

<p>This brother John became king, but he turned
out to be a very wicked king.</p>

<p>He is another one of the villains in history,
whom we do not like, but like to hear about, and
like to clap when he gets what he deserves.</p>

<p>John was afraid that his young nephew named
Arthur might be made king in his place, and so
he had him murdered. Some say he hired others
to do the killing; some say he murdered him with
his own hands. This was a very bad beginning
for his reign, but things got worse and worse as
time went on.</p>

<p>John got into a quarrel with the pope in Rome.
The pope at that time was head of all Christians
in the world and said what should be done
and what should not be done in all churches everywhere.
The pope ordered John to make a certain
man bishop in England, and John said he
wouldn’t do it. He wanted another man, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312"></span>
friend of his, to be bishop. The pope then said
he would close up all the churches in England if
John didn’t do as he was told. John said he
didn’t care. Let the pope go ahead and
close up all the churches if he wanted to. So
the pope ordered all churches in England to be
closed until John should give in. Nowadays
this might not have made much difference, but
then, as I have told you, the church was
the one most important thing in every one’s
life; in fact, nothing else mattered so much. The
closing of the churches meant that no services
could be held in any church. It meant that children
could not be baptized, and so, if they died,
it was believed they could not go to heaven. It
meant that couples could not be married. It
meant that the dead could not be given a Christian
burial.</p>

<p>The people of England were shocked. It was
as if Heaven had put a curse on them. They
were afraid that terrible things would happen to
them. Of course the people blamed John, for he
was the cause of the churches’ being closed. They
were so angry at him that he became scared&mdash;afraid
what his people might do to him. When at
last the pope threatened to make another man
king of England in his place&mdash;yes, the pope had
as much power as that&mdash;John in fear and trembling
gave in and agreed to do everything that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313"></span>
at first he had said he would not do and more besides.
But John was pig-headed. He was always
doing the wrong thing and sticking to it.</p>

<p>John had an idea that the world was made for
the king and that people were put upon the earth
simply so that the king might have servants to
work for him, to earn money for him, to do what
he wished them to do. Many of the kings of
olden days felt the same way, though they did not
go as far as John did. John would order people
who were rich to give him whatever money he
wanted. If they refused to give him all he asked,
he would put them in prison, have their hands
squeezed in an iron press until the bones cracked
and the blood ran, or he would even put them
to death.</p>

<p>John got worse and worse until at last his
barons could not stand his actions any longer.
So they made him prisoner and took him to a
little island in the Thames River called Runnymede.
Here they forced John to agree to certain
things which they had written down in Latin.
This was in the Year 1215; and 1215 was a bad
date for John, but a good date for the English
people. This list of things which the barons
made John agree to was called by the Latin name
for a great agreement, which is Magna Carta,
or Charta.</p>

<p>John did not agree to Magna Carta willingly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314"></span>
however. He was as angry and furious as a
spoiled child, who kicks and screams when forced
to do something he does not want to do. But he
had to agree, nevertheless.</p>

<p>John was unable to write his name, and so he
could not sign the agreement as people sign contracts
nowadays. But he wore a seal-ring which
was used by people who could not sign their
names, and this seal he pressed into a piece of
hot wax which was dropped on the agreement
where one would have signed.</p>

<p>John agreed in Magna Carta to give the barons
some of the rights that we think every human
being should have anyway, without an agreement.
For instance, a person certainly has the right
to keep the money that he earns, and he has the
right not to have it taken away from him unlawfully.
A person also has the right not to be put
in prison or be punished by the king or any one
else unless he has done something wrong and unless
he has had a fair trial. These are two of the
rights that John agreed to in Magna Carta.
There were quite a number of others.</p>

<p>John didn’t keep his agreement, however. He
broke it the very first time he had a good chance,
as a person usually does when he is forced to
agree to something against his will. But John
died pretty soon; and so, as far as he was concerned,
Magna Carta didn’t matter much. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315"></span>
kings who came after him were made to agree
to the same things. So ever after 1215 the king
in England was supposed to be the servant of the
people, and not the people servants of the king
as they had been before that time.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig69.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c55">55</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Great Story-Teller</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Far</span> away from England,</p>

<p class="pad6b">Far off in the direction of the rising sun,</p>

<p><span class="pad6d">’Way</span> beyond Italy and Jerusalem and the
Tigris and Euphrates and Persia and all the
other places we have so far heard about, was a
country called Cathay&mdash;C-A-T-H-A-Y.</p>

<p>If you looked down at your feet, and the world
were glass, you would see it on the other side.</p>

<p>Cathay is the same place we now call China.
The people in Cathay belonged to the yellow
race, the same race to which the Chinese belong.</p>

<p>There had been people living in Cathay, of
course, all through the centuries that had passed,
but little was known of this land or of its people.</p>

<p>But in the thirteenth century or twelve hundreds,
one of these tribes of yellow people called
Mongols or Tartars, arose out of the East, like
a black and terrifying thunderstorm, and it
seemed for a while as if they might destroy all
the other countries whose histories we have been
hearing about. The ruler of these people was a
terrible fighter named Genghis Khan. Genghis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317"></span>
Khan had an army of Tartar horsemen who were
terrific fighters. Genghis and his Tartars were
a good deal like Attila and his Huns&mdash;only
worse. Indeed, some people think Attila and his
Huns were Tartars also.</p>

<p>Genghis usually found some excuse for making
war on others, but if he couldn’t find a good excuse
he made up one, for he was bent on conquering.
He and his Tartars thought no more of
killing than would tigers or lions let loose.</p>

<p>So Genghis and his horsemen swept over the
land from Cathay toward Europe. They burned
and destroyed thousands upon thousands of
towns and cities and everything in their way.
They slew men, women, and children by the million.
No one was able to stop them. It seemed
as if they were going to wipe off of the face of
the earth all white people and everything that
white people had built.</p>

<p>Genghis Khan had conquered the whole land
from the Pacific Ocean to the eastern part of Europe.
But at last he stopped. With this kingdom
he seemed to be satisfied. And he might well
have been satisfied, for it was larger than the
Roman Empire or that of even Alexander the
Great.</p>

<p>Even when Genghis died, things were no better,
for his son was just as frightful as his father
and conquered still more country.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_318"></span></p>

<p>But the grandson of Genghis Khan was much
less ferocious than his grandfather had been. He
was named Kublai Khan, and he was quite different
from his father and grandfather. He
made his capital at a place in China now called
Peking and ruled over this vast empire that he
had inherited from his father. Kublai’s chief
interest was in building magnificent palaces and
surrounding himself with beautiful gardens, and
he made such a wonderful capital for himself that
Solomon in all his glory did not live in such splendor
as did Kublai Khan.</p>

<p>Now, far, far off from Peking and the palace
of Kublai Khan, in the north of Italy was a city
built on the water. Its streets were of water,
and boats were used instead of carriages. This
city was called Venice. About the Year 1300
there were living in Venice two men named Polo.
The Polos got an idea in their heads that they
would like to see something of the world. So
these two Venetians, and the son of one of them
named Marco Polo, started off toward the rising
sun looking for adventure, just like boys in story-books
who go off to seek their fortunes. After
several years of travel, always toward the east,
they at last came to the gardens and to the magnificent
palace of Kublai Khan.</p>

<p>When Kublai Khan heard that strange white
men from a far-off place and an unknown country<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319"></span>
were outside the palace, he wanted to see
them. So they were brought into his presence.
They told Kublai Khan all about their own land.
They were good story-tellers, and they made it
interesting. They told him also about the Christian
religion and many other things that he had
never heard of.</p>

<p>The emperor was so much interested in the
Polos and in the stories they told about their
country that he wanted to hear more. So he persuaded
them to stay with him and tell him more.
He gave them rich presents. Then he made them
his advisers and assistants in ruling his empire.
So the Polos stayed on for years and years and
years and learned the language and came to be
very important people in Cathay.</p>

<p>At last after they had spent about twenty years
in Cathay the Polos thought it was about time to
go home and see their own people again. So they
begged leave to return. Kublai Khan did not
want them to go. They were so useful to him and
helped him so much in ruling that he didn’t want
to lose them. But in the end he did let them go,
and they started back to what once had been
their home.</p>

<p>When they at last arrived in Venice, they had
been away so long and had been traveling so far
that no one knew them. They had almost forgotten
how to speak their own language, and they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320"></span>
talked like foreigners. Their clothes had become
worn out and ragged by their long trip. They
looked like tramps, and not even their old friends
recognized them. No one would believe that
these ragged, dirty strangers were the same fine
Venetian gentlemen who had disappeared almost
twenty years before.</p>

<p>The Polos told their townspeople all about
their adventures and the wonderfully rich lands
and cities that they had visited. But the townspeople
only laughed at them, for they thought
them story-tellers.</p>

<p>Then the Polos ripped open their ragged garments,
and out fell piles of magnificent and costly
jewels, diamonds and rubies and sapphires and
pearls&mdash;enough to buy a kingdom. The people
looked in wonder and amazement and began to
believe.</p>

<p>Marco Polo told his stories to a man who wrote
them down and made a book of them called “The
Travels of Marco Polo.” This is an interesting
book for you to read even to-day, although we
cannot believe all the tales he told. We know
that he exaggerated a great many things, for he
liked to amaze people.</p>

<p>Marco Polo described the magnificence of
Kublai Khan’s palace. He told of its enormous
dining-hall, where thousands of guests could sit
down at the table at one time. He told of a bird<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321"></span>
so huge that it could fly away with an elephant.
He said that Noah’s Ark was still on Mount
Ararat, only the mountain was so high and so
dangerous to climb on account of the ice and
snow with which it was covered that no one could
go to see if the ark really were there.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig70.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c56">56</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">“Thing-a-ma-jigger” and “What-cher-may-call-it”<br />
or a Magic Needle and a<br />
Magic Powder</p>


<p><span class="smcap">About</span> this same time that Marco Polo returned
from his travels, people in Europe began
to hear and talk about a magic needle and a magic
powder that did remarkable things, and some
say that Marco brought them back from Cathay,
but this we doubt. The little magic needle when
floated on a straw or held up only at its middle
would always turn towards the north no matter
how much you twisted it. Such a needle put in
a case was called a compass.</p>

<p>Now, you may not see why such a little thing
was so remarkable. But strange as it may seem,
this little thing really made it possible to discover
a new world.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have played the game in which a
child is blindfolded, twisted around several times
in the center of the room, and then told to go toward
the door or the window or some other point
in the room. You know how impossible it is for
one who has been so turned round to tell which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323"></span>
way to go, and you know how absurd one looks
who goes in quite the opposite direction when he
thinks he is going straight.</p>

<p>Well, the sailor at sea was something like such
a blindfolded child. Of course, if the weather
were fine he could tell by the sun or the stars
which way he should go. But when the weather
was cloudy and bad there was nothing for him to
go by. He was then like the blindfolded child.
He might easily become confused and sail in just
the opposite direction from the way he wanted
to go without knowing the difference.</p>

<p>This was perhaps one of the chief reasons why
sailors, before the compass was used, had not
gone far out of sight of land. They were afraid
they might not be able to find their way back.
So only that part of the world was known which
could be reached by land or without going far out
of sight of land.</p>

<p>But, with the compass, sailors could sail on and
on through storm and cloudy weather and keep
always in the direction they wanted to go. They
simply had to follow the little magnetic needle
suspended in its box. No matter how much the
boat turned or twisted or tossed, the little needle
always pointed to the north. Of course sailors
did not always want to go north, but it was very
easy to tell any other direction if they knew which
was north. South was exactly opposite, east was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324"></span>
to the right, and west was to the left. So all they
had to do was to steer the boat on the course in
whatever direction they wished.</p>

<p>It was a long while, however, before sailors
would use a compass. They thought it was bewitched
by some magic, and they were afraid to
have anything to do with such a thing. Sailors
are likely to be superstitious, and they were
afraid that if they took the compass on board it
might bewitch their ship and bring them bad luck.</p>

<p>The other magic thing was gunpowder.</p>

<p>Never before 1300 had there been such things
in Europe as guns or cannons or pistols. All
fighting had been done with bows and arrows or
swords or spears or with some such weapons. A
sword can only be used on a man a few feet away,
but with guns an enemy may be killed and walls
battered down miles away. But after gunpowder
was invented the armor which the old knights
wore was of course no longer of any use, for it
could not protect them from shot and shell. So
gunpowder has changed fighting completely and
made war the terrible thing it has become.</p>

<p>Although Marco Polo was supposed to have
told about gunpowder and its use in cannons as
he had seen it in the East, most people think that
an English monk named Roger Bacon knew
about gunpowder and also about the compass and
perhaps invented them. The monk Bacon knew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325"></span>
about so many things which people at that time
thought were magic that he was supposed to be
in league with the devil, and so he was put in
prison. Bacon was the wisest man of his time,
but he was ahead of his time. If he were living
now he would be honored as a great scientist and
inventor. But people thought he knew <i>too</i> much&mdash;that
any one who knew as much as he did was
wicked&mdash;that he was prying into God’s secrets,
which God did not want any one to know.</p>

<p>Others, however, give the credit or the blame
for the invention of gunpowder to a German
chemist named Schwarz. They say that one day
Schwarz was mixing some chemicals in an iron
bowl with an iron mixer called a <i>pestle</i>, such as
druggists use, when, all of a sudden, the mixture
exploded and shot the iron pestle right up
through the ceiling. Schwarz was much surprised;
he had had a narrow escape from being
killed; but this gave him an idea. Immediately
he set to work to think out a way to use the same
mixture in battle to shoot iron pestles at the
enemy. Some people think it would have been
far better if the pestle had struck and killed Mr.
Schwarz at the time, and if his secret had been
destroyed with him. We might then never have
had the terrible wars and the killing of millions
of human beings which have resulted from this
discovery. It was quite a while, however, before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326"></span>
gunpowder was made strong enough to do
much damage. In fact, it was over a hundred
years before fighting with guns entirely took the
place of fighting with bows and arrows.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig71.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c57">57</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Thelon Gest Wart Hate Verwas</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Is this</span> another Latin heading?</p>

<p>No, it’s English.</p>

<p>Don’t you understand English?</p>

<p>It was 1338, and Edward III was king of
England. Edward III wanted to rule France
as well as England. He said he was related to
the former king of France and had a better right
to the country than the one who was ruling. So
he started a war to take France, and the war he
started lasted more than a hundred years. So
this is known as the Hundred Years’ War and
it is:</p>

<p class="c xlarge">The Longest War that Ever Was!</p>


<p>The English army sailed over from England
and landed in France. The first great battle was
fought at a little place called Crécy. The English
army was on foot and was made up chiefly
of the common people. The French army were
mostly knights clad in armor on horseback&mdash;the
society people.</p>

<p>The French knights on horseback thought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328"></span>
themselves much finer than the common English
soldiers who were on foot, as a man in a motor-car
is likely to look down on the man who is
walking.</p>

<p>The English soldiers, however, used a weapon
called the <i>longbow</i>, which shot arrows with terrific
force, and they completely whipped the
French knights in spite of the fact that the
knights were nobles, were trained to be fighters,
rode on horses, and were protected by armor.</p>

<p>Cannon were used by the English in this battle
for the first time. The cannon, however, did not
amount to much nor do very much harm. They
were so weak that they simply tossed the cannon-balls
at the enemy as one might throw a basketball
or football. They scared the horses of the
French but did little other damage. But this was
the beginning of what was before long to be the
end of knights and armor and feudalism.</p>

<p>The battle of Crécy was only the beginning of
the Hundred Years’ War. The next year after
the battle of Crécy a horribly contagious disease
called the Black Death attacked the people of
Europe. It was like the plague in Athens in the
Age of Pericles, but the Black Death did not attack
just one city or country. It was supposed to
have started in Cathay, but it spread westward
until it reached Europe. There was no running
away from it. It spread far and wide over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329"></span>
whole land and killed more human beings than
any war that has ever been. It was called Black
Death because black spots came out all over the
body of any one who caught it, and he was certain
to die within a few hours or a day or two. There
was no hope. No medicine had any effect. Many
people committed suicide just as soon as they
found they had the disease. Many died just
from fright, actually “scared to death.”</p>

<p>It lasted two years, and millions upon millions
caught the disease. Half of the people of Europe
died of it. Whole towns were wiped out,
and in many places no one was left to bury the
dead. Dead bodies lay where they had fallen&mdash;on
the street, in the doorway, in the market-place.</p>

<p>The crops in the fields went to waste, for there
was no one to gather them. Horses and cows
roamed over the country at will, for there was no
one to care for them. The plague attacked even
sailors at sea, and ships were found drifting about
on the water with not a soul alive left on board,
with not even one left to steer the ship.</p>

<p>What if it had killed every last man, woman,
and child in the world! What then would have
been the future history of the world?</p>

<p>But, as if there were not enough people dead
already, the Hundred Years’ War still went on
year after year. The soldiers who had fought at
Crécy had been dead for years. Their children<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330"></span>
had grown up, fought, and died; their grandchildren
had grown up, fought and died, and
their great-grandchildren had done the same;
and the English army was still fighting in
France. The French prince at that time was
very young and weak, and the French were almost
in despair&mdash;hopeless&mdash;because they had no
strong leader to help them drive out the English
after all these many years.</p>

<p>Now, in a little French village there was living
a poor peasant girl, a shepherdess, called Joan
of Arc. As she watched her flocks of sheep, she
had wonderful visions. She heard voices calling
to her, telling her she was the one who must lead
the French armies and save France from England.
She went to the prince’s nobles and told
them her visions. But they did not put any faith
in her or her visions, and they did not believe she
was able to do the things she thought she could.</p>

<p>To test her, however, they dressed up another
man as the prince and put him on the throne
while the prince stood at one side with the nobles.
Then they let Joan into the room. When Joan
entered the royal hall, she gave one look at the
man who was seated on the throne and dressed up
as prince. Then without hesitating she walked
directly past him and went straight to the <i>real</i>
prince. Before him she knelt and said, “I have
come to lead your armies to victory.” The prince<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331"></span>
at once gave her his flag and a suit of armor, and
she rode out at the head of all the army and had
him crowned king.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig72.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Joan of Arc at the stake.</p>
</div>

<p>The French soldiers took heart again. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332"></span>
seemed as if the Lord had sent an angel to lead
them, and they fought so hard and so bravely that
they won many battles.</p>

<p>The English soldiers, however, thought that it
was not the Lord but the devil who had sent Joan
and that she was not an angel but a witch, and
they were very much afraid of her. At last, the
English made her prisoner. The French king,
whom she had saved, in spite of all she had done
for him, didn’t even try to save her. Now that
things were going his way, he didn’t like to have
a woman running things, and the soldiers didn’t
like to have a woman ordering them around, and
they were glad to be rid of her.</p>

<p>The English tried her for a witch, judged her
guilty of being a witch, and then they burned her
alive at the stake.</p>

<p>But Joan seemed to have brought the French
good luck, to have put new life into their armies,
for from that time on, France increased in
strength, and after more than a hundred years of
fighting at last drove the English out of the
country. In one hundred years of fighting hundreds
of thousands of people had been wounded
and crippled and blinded and killed, and after it
all England was no better off, just the same as
when she started&mdash;all the fighting all for nothing.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c58">58</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Print and Powder<br />
or<br />
Off with the Old<br />
On with the New</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Up to</span> this time there was not a printed book in
the whole world. There was not a newspaper.
There was not a magazine. All books had to be
written by hand. This, of course, was extremely
slow and expensive, so there were very few of
even these handwritten books in all the world.
Only kings and very wealthy people had any
books at all. Such a book as the Bible, for instance,
cost almost as much as a house, and so no
poor people could own such a thing. Even when
there was a Bible in a church, it was so valuable
that it had to be chained to keep it from being
stolen. Think of stealing a Bible!</p>

<p>But about 1440 a man thought of a new way to
make books. First he put together wooden letters
called type, and then smeared them with
ink. Then he pressed paper against this inky
type and made a copy. After the type was once<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334"></span>
set up, thousands of copies could be made quickly
and easily. This, as you of course know, was
printing. It all seems so simple, the wonder is
that no one had thought of printing thousands of
years before.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig73.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Gutenberg at his press.<br />
Comparing a printed sheet with a manuscript.</p>
</div>

<p>It is generally believed that a German named
Gutenberg made the first printed books about
1440, so he is called the inventor of printing.
And what do you suppose was the first book ever
printed? Why, the book that people thought
the most important book in the world&mdash;the Bible.
This Bible was
not printed in
English, however,
nor in German,
but in
Latin!</p>

<p>The first book
printed in English
was made in
England by an
English man
named Caxton,
and you would
never guess what the English book was. It was
a description of the game of chess, the game that
the Arabs had invented.</p>

<p>Before this time few people, even though they
were kings and princes, knew how to read, because
there were no books to teach them how to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335"></span>
read and few books for them to read if they had
learned, and so what was the use of learning.</p>

<p>You can see how difficult it must have been
for people throughout the Middle Ages, without
books or newspapers or anything printed, to learn
what was going on in the world, or to learn about
anything that one wanted to know.</p>

<p>But, now that printing had been invented, all
that was changed. Story-books and school-books
and other books could be made in large numbers
and very cheaply. People who never before were
able to have any books could now own them.
Every one could now read all the famous stories
of the world and learn about geography, about
history, about anything he wanted to know. So
the invention of printing was soon to change
everything.</p>

<p>The Hundred Years’ War had at last come to
an end soon after the invention of printing.</p>

<p>At the same time something else that was a
thousand years old came to an end.</p>

<p>The Mohammedans whom we haven’t heard
of for a long time, had tried to capture Constantinople
in the seventh century, but had been
stopped, as I told you, by tar and pitch that the
Christians poured down on them.</p>

<p>But in 1458 the Mohammedans once again attacked
Constantinople. This time, however, the
Mohammedans were Turks, and they didn’t try
to batter down the walls of the city with arrows.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336"></span>
They used gunpowder and cannon. Cannon had
been used at Crécy more than a hundred years
before, but they had done little damage. Since
that time, however, they had become greatly improved.
Against the power of this new invention
the walls of Constantinople could not stand, and
finally the city fell. So Constantinople became
Turkish, and the magnificent Church of Santa
Sophia, which Justinian had built a thousand
years before, was turned into a Mohammedan
mosque. This was the end of all that was left of
the old Roman Empire&mdash;the other half of which
had fallen in 476.</p>

<p>Ever after the downfall of Constantinople in
1453, wars were fought with gunpowder. No
longer were castles of any use. No longer were
knights in armor of any use. No longer were
bows and arrows of any use&mdash;against this new
kind of fighting. There was a new sound in the
world, the sound of cannon-firing: “Boom!
boom! boom!” Before this, battles had not been
very noisy except for shouts of the victors and
the moans of the dying. So 1453 is called the
end of the Middle Ages, and the beginning of the
New Ages that were to follow.</p>

<p>Gunpowder had put an end to the Middle
Ages. The invention of printing and that little
magic needle, the compass, did a great deal to
start the New Ages.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c59">59</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Sailor Who Found a New World</p>


<p><span class="smcap">What</span> book do you like best?</p>

<p>“Alice in Wonderland”?</p>

<p>“Gulliver’s Travels”?</p>

<p>One of the first books to be printed and one
that boys at that time liked best was</p>

<p>
“The Travels of Marco Polo”<br />
</p>

<p>One of the boys who loved to read these stories
of those far-away countries of the East with their
gold and precious jewels was an Italian named
Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus
was born in the city of Genoa, which is in the top
of the “boot.” Like a great many other boys
who were born in seaport towns, he had heard the
sailors on the wharves tell yarns of their travels,
and his greatest ambition in life was to go off to
sea and visit all the wonderful lands of which he
had read and been told. At last the chance came,
and, though only fourteen years old, he made his
first voyage. After that, Columbus made many
other voyages and grew to be a middle-aged
man, but he never got to these countries he had
read about in “The Travels of Marco Polo.”</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338"></span></p>

<p>Many sea-captains of that time were trying
to find a shorter way to India than the long and
tiresome one that Marco Polo had taken. They
felt sure there was a shorter way by sea and now
that they had the compass to guide them they
dared to go far off searching for such a waterway.</p>

<p>By this time many books had already been
printed. Some of these books on travel were
written by the old Greeks and Romans and declared
what was thought to be a crazy notion
that the world was not flat but round. Columbus
had read these books and he said to himself that
if the world is really round, one should be able
to reach India by sailing toward the west. It
should be much easier and shorter that way than
if one took a boat to the end of the Mediterranean
Sea and then went over land for thousands
of miles the way Marco Polo had gone.</p>

<p>The more Columbus thought of the idea, the
surer he was that this could be done and the more
eager he was to get a ship to try out his idea.
But every one laughed at him and his notion
as foolish. Of course, being only a sailor, he
had no money to buy or hire a ship in which to
make the trial and he could find no one to help
him.</p>

<p>So first Columbus went to the little country
called Portugal. Portugal was right on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339"></span>
ocean’s edge. It was to be expected then that the
people of Portugal would be famous sailors, and
they <i>were</i>&mdash;as famous as the Phenicians had been
of old. So Columbus thought they might be interested
and help. Besides, the king of Portugal
was extremely interested in discovering new
lands.</p>

<p>But the king of Portugal thought, as the others
did, that Columbus was foolish and would have
nothing to do with him. The king wanted to
make quite sure, however, that there was nothing
in Columbus’s idea. Furthermore, if there were
any new land, he wanted to be the first to discover
it himself. So he secretly sent some of his sea-captains
off to explore. After a while they one
and all returned and stated that they had been as
far as it was safe to go and that positively there
was nothing at all to the west but water, water,
water.</p>

<p>So Columbus in disgust then went to the next
country&mdash;Spain&mdash;which at that time was ruled
by King Ferdinand and his queen Isabella. King
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were just then too
busy to listen to Columbus. They were fighting
with the Mohammedans, who had been in their
country ever since 732, when, you remember, they
got as far north as France. But at last Ferdinand
and Isabella succeeded in driving the Mohammedans
out of their country, and then Queen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340"></span>
Isabella became very much interested in Columbus’s
ideas and plans and finally promised to help
him. She even said she would sell her jewels, if
necessary, to give him the money to buy ships.
But she didn’t have to do this. So Columbus
with her help was able to buy three little ships
named the <i>Niña</i>, <i>Pinta</i>, and <i>Santa María</i>. So
small were these three boats that nowadays we
would have been afraid to go even out of sight
of shore in them.</p>

<p>At last everything was ready, and Columbus
set sail from the Spanish seaport of Palos with
about a hundred sailors. Many of the sailors
were criminals, who had been given a choice between
prison and this dangerous voyage. They
chose to risk their lives rather than to stay in
prison. Directly toward the setting sun into the
broad Atlantic, Columbus steered. Past the
Canary Islands he sailed, on and on, day and
night, always in the same direction.</p>

<p>See if you can get this idea&mdash;the idea that
every one had at that time&mdash;that all there was of
the world was what we have so far been studying
about. Try to forget that you ever heard of
North and South America. They, of course,
knew of no such lands. Try to think of Columbus
on deck scanning the waves in the daytime or
peering off in the darkness at night, hoping
sooner or later to sight, not a new land&mdash;he
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342"></span>wasn’t looking for a new land&mdash;but for China or
India.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig74.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Columbus arguing with his crew.</p>
</div>

<p>Columbus had been out for over a month, and
his sailors began to get worried. It seemed impossible
that any sea could be so vast, so endless,
with nothing in sight before, behind, or on either
side. They began to think about returning.
They began to be afraid they would never reach
home. They begged Columbus to turn back.
They said it was crazy to go any farther; there
was nothing but water ahead of them, and they
could go on forever and ever, and there would
never be anything else.</p>

<p>Columbus argued with them, but it was no use.
Finally he promised to turn back if they did not
reach something very soon. As the days went
on still with nothing new, the sailors plotted to
throw Columbus overboard at night and so get
rid of him. They would then sail home and tell
those back in Spain that Columbus had fallen
overboard by accident.</p>

<p>At last, when all had given up hope except
Columbus, a sailor saw a branch with berries on
it floating in the water. Where could it have
come from? Then birds were seen flying&mdash;birds
that never get very far away from shore. Then
one dark night, more than two months after they
had set sail, they saw far off ahead a twinkling
light. Probably no little light ever gave so much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343"></span>
joy in the world. A light meant only one thing&mdash;human
beings&mdash;and land, land&mdash;land at last!
And then on the morning of October 12, 1492,
the three boats ran ashore. Columbus leaped
out, and falling on his knees, offered up a prayer
of thanks to God. He then raised the Spanish
flag, took possession of the land in the name of
Spain, and called it “San Salvador,” which means
in Spanish, “Holy Saviour.”</p>

<p>Now, Columbus thought this land was India
that he had at last reached, though of course we
know now that a great continent, North and
South America, blocked his way to India. In
fact, it was only a little island off the coast of
America where he had landed.</p>

<p>Strange men were the human beings he saw
there. Their bodies and faces were painted, and
they had feathers in their hair. As Columbus
thought they must be people of India, he called
them Indians, the name they still bear.</p>

<p>Columbus went on to other islands near-by; but
he did not find any gold nor precious stones such
as he had expected, or the wonders that Marco
Polo had described; and as he had been away so
long, he started back again to Spain the way he
had come. With him he took several Indians to
show the people at home, and also some tobacco,
which he found them smoking and which no one
had even seen or heard of before.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_344"></span></p>

<p>When he at last reached home safely again,
people were overjoyed at seeing him and hearing
of his discoveries. Everyone was wildly excited&mdash;but
only for a while. People soon began to
say it was nothing for Columbus to have sailed
westward until land was found, that anyone could
do that.</p>

<p>One day when Columbus was dining with the
king’s nobles, who were trying to belittle what
he had done, he took an egg and, passing it
around the table, asked each one if he could stand
it on end. No one could. When it came back
to Columbus, he set it down just hard enough to
crack the end slightly and flatten it. Of course,
<i>then</i> it stood up. “You see,” said Columbus,
“it’s very easy if you only know how. So it’s
easy enough to sail west until you find land after
I have done it once and shown you how.”</p>

<p>Columbus made three other voyages to America,
four in all, but he never knew he had discovered
a new world. Once he landed in South
America, but he never reached North America
itself.</p>

<p>As Columbus did not bring back any of the
precious jewels or wonderful things that those in
Spain expected him to, people lost interest in
him. Some were so spiteful and jealous of his
success that they even charged him with wrongdoing,
and King Ferdinand sent out a man to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345"></span>
take his place. Columbus was put in chains and
shipped home. Although he was promptly set
free, Columbus kept the chains as a reminder of
men’s ingratitude and asked to have them buried
with him. After this, Columbus made one other
voyage, but when at last he died in Spain he was
alone and almost forgotten even by his friends.
What an end for the man who had given a new
continent to the world and changed all history!</p>

<p>Of all the men of whom we have heard, whether
kings or queens, princes or emperors, none can
compare with Columbus. Alexander the Great,
Julius Cæsar, Charlemagne, were all killers.
They took away. But Columbus <i>gave</i>. He gave
us a new world. Without money or friends or
luck, he stuck to his ideas through long years of
discouragement. Although made fun of and
called a crank and even treated as a criminal he
never</p>

<p class="pad7">
gave up,<br />
<span class="pad6b">gave out, nor</span><br />
<span class="pad6d">gave in!</span>
</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_346"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c60">60</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Fortune-Hunters</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> New World had no name.</p>

<p>It was simply called the “New World,” as one
might speak of the “new baby.”</p>

<p>It had to have a name, but what should it be?</p>

<p>Of course if we could have chosen the name,
we should have called it “Columbia” after Columbus.
But another name was selected, and this
is how it happened.</p>

<p>An Italian named Americus made a voyage to
the southern part of the New World. Then he
wrote a book about his travels. People read his
book and began to speak of the new land that
Americus described as Americus’s country. And
so the New World came to be called America
after Americus, although in all fairness it should
have been named after Columbus; don’t you
think so? Children sometimes have names given
them which they would like to change when they
grow up. But then it is too late. So we often
speak and sing of our country as Columbia, although
that is not the name on the map. And
that is why we call a great many cities and towns
and districts and streets Columbus or Columbia.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347"></span></p>

<p>After Columbus had shown that there was no
danger of falling off the world and that there
really was land off to the west, almost every one
who had been hunting for India now rushed off
in the direction Columbus had taken. “Copy
cats!” A genius starts something; then thousands
follow&mdash;imitate. Every sea-captain who
could do so now hurried off to the west to look
for new countries, and so many discoveries were
made that this time is known as the Age of Discovery.
Most of these men were trying to get
to India. They were after gold and jewels and
spices, which they thought they would find in
India in great quantities.</p>

<p>Now we can understand why people might go
long distances in search of gold and precious
stones, but they also went after spices&mdash;such as
cloves and pepper&mdash;and you may wonder why
they were so eager to get spices? You yourself
may not like pepper very much, and you may dislike
cloves. But in those days they didn’t have
refrigerators filled with ice, and meats and other
foods were often spoiled. We would have
thought such food unfit to eat. But they covered
it with spices to kill the bad flavor, and then
food could be eaten that otherwise one could not
have swallowed. Spices didn’t grow in Europe&mdash;only
in the far east. So people paid big prices
to get them, and that is why men made long journeys
after them.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_348"></span></p>

<p>A Portuguese sailor named Vasco da Gama
was one of those who were trying to get to India
all the way by water. He did not, however,
sail <i>west</i> as Columbus had done, but <i>south</i> down
around Africa. Others had tried before to get
to India by going south and around Africa,
but none had gone more than part way. Many
frightful stories were told by those who had
tried but had at last turned back. These stories
were like the tales of “Sindbad the Sailor.”
They said that the sea became boiling hot; they
said that there was a magnetic mountain which
would pull out the iron bolts in the ship, and the
ship would then fall to pieces; they said that there
was a whirlpool into which a ship would be irresistibly
drawn&mdash;down, down, down to the bottom;
they said there were sea-serpents, monsters
so large that they could swallow a ship at one
gulp. The southern point of Africa was called
the Cape of Storms, and the very name seemed
to be bad luck, so that it was changed to Cape of
Good Hope.</p>

<p>In spite of all such scary stories, Vasco da
Gama kept on his way south. Finally, after
many hardships and many adventures, he passed
round the Cape of Good Hope. Then he sailed
on to India, got the spices that then were so
highly prized, and returned safely home. This
was in 1497, five years after Columbus’s first
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350"></span>voyage, and Vasco da Gama was the first one to
go to India by water. Spain had the honor of
discovering a new land. Portugal had the honor
of first reaching India by water.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<a href="images/fig75big.jpg">
<img src="images/fig75.jpg" alt="" />
</a>
<p class="caption">15ᵗͪ &nbsp;Century Map of Africa</p>
</div>

<p>England also was to have the honor of making
discoveries. In the same year that Vasco da
Gama reached India, a man named Cabot set sail
from England on a voyage of discovery. His
first trip was a failure, but he tried again and
finally came to Canada and sailed along the coast
of what is now the United States. These countries
he claimed for England, but he returned
home, and England did nothing more about his
discoveries until about a hundred years later.</p>

<p>Another Spaniard named Balboa explored
the central part of America. He was on the little
strip of land that joined North and South America
which we now call the Isthmus of Panama.
Suddenly he came to another great ocean. This
strange new ocean he named the South Sea, for
although the Isthmus of Panama connects North
and South America, it bends so that one looks
<i>south</i> over the ocean.</p>

<p>Then came the longest trip of all. A Portuguese
named Magellan wanted to find a way to
India <i>through</i> the New World, for he thought
there must be some opening through which he
might pass this new land that blocked the way.
He tried to get his own country to help him.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351"></span>
But again Portugal made the same mistake she
had made in the case of Columbus. She would
not listen to Magellan. So Magellan went to
Spain, and Spain gave him five ships.</p>

<p>With these five ships Magellan sailed off across
the sea. When he reached South America he
sailed south along the shore trying to find a passage
through the land. One place after another
seemed to be the passage for which he was looking,
but each one turned out to be nothing but
a river’s mouth. Then one of his ships was
wrecked, and only four were left.</p>

<p>With these four ships he still kept on down the
coast until he finally reached what is now Cape
Horn. Through the dangerous opening there,
since called after him the Straits of Magellan,
he worked his way. One ship deserted and went
back home the way it had come. Only three were
then left.</p>

<p>With these three ships he at last came into the
great ocean on the other side, the same ocean that
Balboa had called the South Sea. This Magellan
named the “Pacific,” which means “calm,” because
after all the storms they had had it seemed
so calm and quiet. But food and water became
scarce and finally gave out. Magellan’s men suffered
terribly from thirst and hunger and even
ate the rats that are always to be found on shipboard.
Many of his men were taken sick and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352"></span>
died. Still he kept on, though he had lost most of
the crew with which he had set out. At last he
reached what are now the Philippine Islands,
where the people were savages. Here he and his
men got into a battle with the natives, and Magellan
was killed. There were now not enough
men left to sail three ships, and so one of these
was burned, and only two were then left.</p>

<div class="figleft">
<img src="images/fig76.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Magellan’s Victoria.<br /> (From an old print.)</p>
</div>

<p>Two of the ships,
however, out of the five
with which Magellan
had started out, still
kept on. Then one of
these was lost, disappeared,
and was never
heard of again, and
only a single ship
named the <i>Victoria</i>, remained. It seemed as if
not one ship, not one man, would be left to tell
the tale.</p>

<p>Around Africa the <i>Victoria</i> struggled. Magellan’s
men, worn out with hunger and cold and
hardships, still battled against wind and storm.
At last a leaky and broken ship with only eighteen
men sailed into the harbor from which it had
set out more than three years before. And so the
<i>Victoria&mdash;Victory!</i>&mdash;Magellan’s ship, but without
the heroic Magellan&mdash;was the first ship to sail
completely round the world. This voyage settled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353"></span>
forever the argument that had been going
on for ages, whether the earth was round or flat,
for a ship had actually sailed around the world!
And yet in spite of this proof for many more
years thereafter there were people who still
would not believe the world was round, and even
to-day there are people who say the world is flat,
but now we call them <i>cranks</i>.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig77.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_354"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c61">61</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Land of Enchantment or the Search<br />
for Gold and Adventure</p>


<p><span class="smcap">All</span> sorts of marvelous tales were told about
the wealth and wonders of the New World.</p>

<p>It was said that somewhere in the New World
there was a <i>fountain of youth</i>, and that if you
bathed in it or drank of its water, you would
become young again.</p>

<p>It was said that somewhere in the New World
there was a city called El Dorado built of solid
gold.</p>

<p>So every one who liked adventure and could
get enough money together went off in search of
these things that might make him famous or
healthy, wealthy or wise, or forever young.</p>

<p>One of these men was Ponce de León. Ponce
de León was looking for the <i>fountain of youth</i>.
While searching for this life-giving water, he discovered
Florida. But instead of finding the
fountain of youth, he lost his life in fighting with
the Indians.</p>

<p>Another one of these men was de Soto. He
was searching for El Dorado, the city of gold.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355"></span>
While doing so he discovered the longest river
in the world&mdash;the Mississippi. But instead of
finding El Dorado, de Soto was taken sick with
fever and died. Now, the Spaniards, to make the
Indians fear them, had said that de Soto was a
god and could not die. So in order to cover up
the fact that de Soto had actually died his men
buried him at night in the river he had discovered.
They then told the Indians that he had
gone on a trip to heaven and would presently
return.</p>

<p>The central part of America was called Mexico.
Here lived at that time a tribe of Indians
known as Aztecs. These Aztecs were more civilized
than the other Indians that the explorers
had come across. They did not live in tents but
in houses. They built fine temples and palaces.
They made roads and aqueducts, something like
those of the Romans. They had enormous treasures
of silver and gold. And yet the Aztecs worshiped
idols and sacrificed human beings to them.
Their king was a famous chief named Montezuma.</p>

<p>A Spaniard named Cortés was sent to conquer
these Aztecs. He landed on the shore of Mexico
and burned his ships so that his sailors and soldiers
could not turn back. The Aztecs thought
these white-faced people were gods who had come
down from heaven and that their ships with their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356"></span>
white sails were white-winged birds that had
borne them. They had never seen horses, some
of which the Spaniards had brought over across
the water, and they were astonished at what
seemed to them terrible beasts that the white
men rode. When the Spaniards fired their cannons,
the Aztecs were terrified. They thought
it was thunder and lightning that the Spaniards
had let loose.</p>

<p>Cortés moved on toward the Aztec capital,
the City of Mexico, which was built on an island
in the middle of a lake. The natives he met on
the way fought desperately, but as they had only
such weapons as men used in the Stone and
Bronze Ages, they were no match against the
guns and cannons of the Spaniards.</p>

<p>Montezuma, their chief, wishing to make
friends with these white gods, sent Cortés rich
gifts, cart-loads of gold, and when Cortés reached
the capital city Montezuma treated him as a
guest instead of an enemy and entertained him
and could not do enough for him. Cortés told
Montezuma all about the Christian religion and
tried to make him a Christian also, but Montezuma
thought his own gods just as good as the
Christian God, and he would not change. Then
suddenly Cortés took Montezuma prisoner, and
terrible fighting began. At last Montezuma was
killed, and Cortés of course succeeded in conquering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357"></span>
Mexico, for though the Aztecs fought
desperately and bravely, shot and shell were too
much for them.</p>

<p>In Peru in South America was still another
tribe of civilized Indians even more wealthy than
the Aztecs. They were called Incas, and it was
said that their cities were paved with gold.</p>

<p>Another Spaniard named Pizarro went to
Peru to conquer it as Cortés had conquered Mexico.
Pizarro told the ruler, who was called the
Inca, that the pope had given the country to
Spain. The Inca had never heard of the pope
and must have wondered what the pope had to do
with Peru and how he could give it away. So
naturally the Inca would not give up his country
to Spain. Then Pizarro <i>took</i> it away. He had
but a few hundred men, but he had cannon, and
of course the Incas could not stand out against
cannon.</p>

<p>France and other countries of Europe also
sent out explorers to conquer parts of America,
and then missionaries to teach the Indians the
Christian religion, but these you will hear more
about when you study American History.</p>

<p>Many of the explorers were really pirates,
even worse pirates than the Norsemen who raided
England and France, because they murdered
people who were without equal weapons to fight
back. The excuse they often gave for doing so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358"></span>
was that they wanted to make the natives Christians.
No wonder that the natives did not think
much of the Christian religion if it taught murder
of people who could not defend themselves.
The Mohammedans made converts with the
sword, but the Christians made converts with
shot and shell.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig78.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c62">62</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Born Again</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Here</span> is a long word for you: it is Renaissance.</p>

<p>It means: born again.</p>

<p>Of course, nothing can be born again. But
people call this time we have now reached the
Renaissance, the born-again time. This is the
reason why they call it that.</p>

<p>You remember the Age of Pericles, don’t you?
when such beautiful sculptures and buildings
were made in Athens. Well, in the fifteen hundreds
not every one was rushing off to the New
World in search of adventure. While the discoveries
that I have told you about were taking
place, there were living and working in Italy
some of the greatest artists the world has ever
known.</p>

<p>Architects built beautiful buildings something
like the old Greek and Roman temples. Sculptors
made statues that were almost as beautiful
as those of Phidias. People began to take an
interest once more in the old Greek writers,
whose books were now printed for every one to
read. It seemed almost as if Athens in the Age<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360"></span>
of Pericles had been born again. So that is
why people speak of this time as the Renaissance.</p>

<p>One of the greatest of these artists of the Renaissance
was a man named Michelangelo.
But Michelangelo was not just a painter; he
was a sculptor, an architect, and a poet as well.
Michelangelo thought nothing of spending years
working on any statue or painting that he was
doing. But when he had finished he had done
something that people now go from all over the
world to see.</p>

<p>Nowadays, sculptors first model a statue in
clay and then copy it in stone or cast it in bronze,
but Michelangelo did not do this. He cut his
figures directly out of the stone, without making
a model first. It was as if he saw the figure imprisoned
in the stone and then cut away the part
that closed the figure in.</p>

<p>A large block of marble had been spoiled by
another sculptor. Michelangelo saw a figure of
David <i>in</i> it, and, setting to work, he cut this
young athlete <i>out</i>.</p>

<p>He made also a statue of Moses sitting down.
It is now in a church in Rome, and when you
walk up to it it is so lifelike that it seems as if
you were in the presence of the prophet Moses
himself. The guide tells you that when Michelangelo
had finished this statue of Moses he was
so thrilled by the figure he had created that, feeling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361"></span>
it must come to life, he struck it on the knee
with his hammer and commanded as he did so,
“Stand Up”! And then the guide shows you a
crack in the marble to prove that the story is
true!</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig79.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Michelangelo at work.</p>
</div>

<p>The pope wanted Michelangelo to paint the
ceiling of his own private chapel in Rome. This
was called the Sistine Chapel. At first Michelangelo
didn’t want to do the painting. He told
the pope he was a sculptor and not a painter.
But the pope insisted, and Michelangelo at last
gave in. Once having agreed to do the work,
however, Michelangelo gave himself heart and
soul to it.</p>

<p>For four years he lived in this room&mdash;the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362"></span>
Sistine Chapel&mdash;and hardly ever left it day
or night. Beneath the ceiling, he built himself
a platform, and, lying on this scaffold, he
would read poetry and the Bible and work
“as the spirit moved him.” Locking himself in,
he would let no one enter, not even the pope himself.
He wanted to be alone and to be left alone.</p>

<p>The pope, however, felt that he was a privileged
character, and one day, when he found
the door left open, he came into the chapel to see
how things were getting along. Michelangelo,
thereupon, accidentally dropped some of his
tools, and they just barely missed hitting the
pope on the head. The pope was very angry,
but he never returned uninvited again.</p>

<p>People now go from all over the world to see
this ceiling, which only can be viewed comfortably
by lying on the floor or by looking at it in
a mirror.</p>

<p>Michelangelo lived to be nearly ninety years
old, yet he had very little to do with people. He
could not stand being bored by them. So he lived
apart in the company of the gods and angels that
he painted.</p>

<p>Raphael was another famous Italian artist.
He lived at the same time as Michelangelo. Raphael,
however, was just the opposite of Michelangelo
in most ways. Michelangelo liked to be
by himself. Raphael loved company. He was
very popular and constantly surrounded by his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363"></span>
friends and admirers, for everybody loved him
on account of his genius and kindly nature.
Young men swarmed about him, drinking in his
words and humbly copying everything he did.
He had fifty or more pupils studying and painting
under him, and they went along with him
whenever he went out even for a walk. They
almost worshiped the ground he walked on.</p>

<p>Raphael painted many beautiful pictures of
the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus. These
were called Madonnas. Madonnas were almost
the only kind of pictures that artists
painted at that time. Raphael painted one
especially beautiful picture of Mary and the
Christ-child called the “Sistine Madonna.” This
is considered one of the twelve greatest pictures
in the world. It was painted for a little church,
but it is now in a great picture-gallery, where
it has a whole room to itself. No other pictures
are thought worthy to have a place close by.</p>

<p>Raphael died when he was still a young man,
but he worked so hard and so continuously that
he has left a large number of pictures. He
painted only the very important parts of his
pictures himself&mdash;perhaps only the faces. The
body and hands and clothing he usually left to
be painted by his pupils. They were glad to
be allowed to do even a finger of a painting on
which their master had worked.</p>

<p>Michelangelo’s paintings were strong and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364"></span>
forcible as a man is supposed to be. Raphael’s
paintings were sweet and lovely and graceful,
as a woman is supposed to be.</p>

<p>Leonardo da Vinci is another great artist who
lived at this time. He was left-handed, yet he
could do any number of things exceptionally
well. He would be called a jack of all trades,
but unlike most jacks of all trades, he was good
at all. He was an artist, an engineer, a poet,
and a scientist. It is said that he drew the first
map of the New World that had the name of
America on it. He made, however, very few
paintings, because he did so many things beside,
but these few pictures are extremely beautiful.
One of these is “The Last Supper.” It
is considered, as is the “Sistine Madonna,” one
of the twelve greatest paintings in the world.
Unfortunately, it was painted directly on a
plastered wall, and in the course of time much
of the plaster with the paint has peeled off, so
that there is little now left of the original
painting.</p>

<p>Leonardo usually painted his women smiling.
One of his most famous paintings is the picture
of a woman called “Mona Lisa.” She has a
smile that is called “quizzical.” You can hardly
tell whether she is smiling <i>at</i> you or <i>with</i> you.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_365"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c63">63</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Christians Quarrel</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> people say young boys and girls can’t
understand this chapter. They say it is too difficult.
But I want to see if it is.</p>

<p>Up to this time, as I have told you before,
there had been only one Christian religion&mdash;the
Catholic. There was no Episcopalian, nor Methodist,
nor Baptist, nor Presbyterian, nor any
other denomination. All were just Christians.</p>

<p>But in the sixteenth century some people began
to think that changes should be made in
the Catholic religion.</p>

<p>Others thought changes should not be made.</p>

<p>Some said it was all right as it was.</p>

<p>Others said it wasn’t all right as it was. So
a quarrel started.</p>

<p>This is the way the trouble began: The pope
was building a great church called St. Peter’s in
Rome. It took the place of the old church that
Constantine had built on the spot where St.
Peter was supposed to have been crucified head
down. The pope wanted it to be the largest
and finest church in the world, for Christ had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366"></span>
said, “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock
[Peter means rock in Latin] I will build my
church....” So the Church of St. Peter’s was
to be the Capitol of the Christian religion. Both
Michelangelo and Raphael had worked on the
plans for the new church. In order to get
marble and stone and other materials for this
Church of St. Peter, the pope did as others
before him had done; he tore down other buildings
in Rome and used their stone for the new
church.</p>

<p>But besides all this the pope needed an enormous
amount of money to build such a magnificent
church as he had planned. So he started
to collect from the people. Now, there was a
man in Germany named Martin Luther who
was a monk and a teacher of religion in a college.
Martin Luther thought that not only this
but also other things in the Catholic Church
were not right. So he made a list of ninety-five
things that he thought were not right and nailed
them up on the church door in the town where
he lived, and he preached against doing these
things. The pope sent Luther an order, but
Luther made a bonfire and burned it publicly.
Many took sides with Luther, and before long
there was a great body of people who had left
the Catholic Church and no longer obeyed the
pope.</p>

<p>The pope called on the king of Spain to help<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367"></span>
in this quarrel with Luther. The reason he
called on him was this: The king of Spain was
Charles V, the grandson of the Ferdinand and
Isabella who had helped Columbus. He was
not only a good Catholic but the most powerful
ruler in Europe. The Spanish explorers had
discovered different parts of America, and so
Charles was owner of a large part of the New
World. But he was emperor not only of these
Spanish settlements in America but of Austria
and of Germany as well. So it was quite natural
that the pope should go to Charles for help.</p>

<p>Charles commanded Luther to come to a city
named Worms to be tried. He promised
Luther that no harm would be done him, and so
Luther went. When Luther arrived at Worms,
Charles ordered him to take back all he had said.
Luther refused to do so. Some of Charles’s
nobles said Luther should be burned at the stake.
But Charles, as he had promised, let him go
and did not punish him for his belief. Luther’s
friends were afraid, though, that other Catholics
might do him harm. They knew Luther
would take no care of himself, and so they themselves
took him prisoner and kept him shut up
for over a year, so that no one could harm him.
While Luther was in prison he translated the
Bible into German; it was the first time that the
Bible had been written in that language.</p>

<p>The people who protested against what the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368"></span>
pope did were called Protest-ants, and those
Christians who are not Roman Catholics are
still called Protestants to-day. The time when
these changes were made in the Catholic form
of worship was called the Re-form-ation, as the
old religion was <i>re-formed</i>.</p>

<p>Now, you may be a Catholic and your best
friend may not be a Catholic, but that makes
no difference in your friendship. But at that
time those who were Catholics were deadly
enemies of those who were not. Each side was
sure it alone was right and the other side was
wrong. Each side fought for the things it
thought were right, fought the other side as
furiously and madly and bitterly as if the other
side were scoundrels and devils. Friends and
relatives murdered each other because they
thought differently about religion, and yet all
were supposed to be Christians.</p>

<p>Charles was greatly worried and troubled by
the religious quarrels and other difficulties in
his vast empire. He became sick and tired of
being emperor and of having to settle all the
many problems he had to solve. He wanted to
be free to do other things that he was more interested
in. Being king did not mean being
able to do whatever you wanted, as some people
think. So Charles did what few rulers have
ever done voluntarily: he resigned&mdash;“abdicated,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369"></span>
as it is called&mdash;and gave up his throne
to his son, who was named Philip II.</p>

<p>Then Charles, glad to be rid of all the cares
of state, went to live in a monastery. There he
spent his time doing what he liked&mdash;what do
you suppose?&mdash;making mechanical toys and
watches&mdash;until he died!</p>

<p>Now, the king of England at this time, when
Charles was king of Spain, was Henry VIII.
His last name was Tudor. So many kings had
first names which were alike that such names
were numbered to tell which Charles or Henry
was meant and how many of the same name
there had been before. Henry VIII was at
first also a strong Catholic, and the pope had
called him Defender of the Faith. But Henry
had a wife whom he wanted to get rid of because
she had no son. In order to get rid of
her so that he might marry again, he had to have
what was called a divorce, and the pope was
the only one who could give Henry a divorce.
Now, the pope at Rome was head of the Christian
Church of the whole world and said what
Christians could do or could not do, no matter
whether they were in Italy or Spain or England.
So Henry asked the pope to grant him
this divorce. The pope, however, told him he
would not give him a divorce.</p>

<p>Now, Henry thought it was neither right nor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370"></span>
proper that a man in another country, even if he
<i>were</i> pope, should say what could be done in
England. He himself was ruler, and he didn’t
intend to let any foreigner meddle in his affairs
or give him orders.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig80.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn.</p>
</div>

<p>So then Henry said that he himself would be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371"></span>
head of all the Christians in England; then he
could do as he wished without the pope’s permission.
So he made himself head, and then he
divorced his wife. All the churches in England
were now told by the king what they should do;
the pope no longer had anything to say in the
matter; the English churches obeyed the king,
not the pope. This made the second big break
in the Catholic Church.</p>

<p>After this Henry VIII had five other wives,
six in all; not of course all at one time, for
Christians could only have one wife at a time.
His first wife he divorced, the second he beheaded,
the third died. The same thing happened
to his last three wives: the first he
divorced, the second he beheaded, and the third
died&mdash;but Henry died before she did.</p>

<p>Is this too difficult for you to understand?</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_372"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c64">64</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">King Elizabeth</p>


<p><span class="smcap">King</span> Henry VIII had two daughters.</p>

<p>One was named Mary, and one was named
Elizabeth.</p>

<p>Their last name was of course Tudor, the
same as their father’s, although we do not
usually think of kings and queens as having
last names.</p>

<p>King Henry had a son, also, and he was first
to become king after his father died, for though
he was younger than his sisters, a boy was supposed
to be more fit to rule than a girl. But
he didn’t live long, and then Mary was the first
of the two sisters to become queen.</p>

<p>“Mary, Mary, quite contrary” did not approve
what her father had done when he turned
against the pope and the Catholic Church.
Mary herself was a strong Catholic and ready
to fight for the pope and the Catholic Church.
In fact, she wanted to have all who were not
Catholics, all those who were Protestants, put
to death. She thought that all those who did
not believe as she did were wicked and should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373"></span>
be killed. Like the queen in “Alice in Wonderland,”
she was always saying, “Off with his
head!” This seems to us very unchristian, but
in those days their ideas about such things were
peculiar. Mary had the heads of so many people
cut off that she was called Bloody Mary.</p>

<p>Mary married a man who was just as strong
a Catholic as she and even “bloodier.” He was
not an Englishman, but a Spaniard, Philip II of
Spain, son of Charles V, who had abdicated.</p>

<p>Philip II was much sterner than his father
had been. Philip tried to make those who were
Protestants, or who were supposed to be Protestants,
confess and give up Protestantism. If
they did not do so, they were tortured as the old
Christian martyrs had been tortured. This was
called the Inquisition. Those suspected of being
Protestants were tormented in all sorts of
horrible ways. Some were tied up in the air by
their hands, like a picture hung on the wall, until
they fainted from the pain or else confessed
what they were told to confess. Some were
stretched on a rack, their heads pulled one way
and their legs the opposite way, until their
bodies were nearly torn apart. Those who were
found guilty of being Protestants were killed
outright, burned to death, or put slowly to
death, so that they would suffer longer.</p>

<p>The people whom Philip chiefly persecuted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374"></span>
were the Dutch people in Holland. Holland
then belonged to his empire, and a great
many of the Dutch people had become Protestants.</p>

<p>Now, there was a Dutchman called William
the Silent, because he talked little but did a
great deal. William was furious at the way
his people were treated. So he fought against
Philip and at last succeeded in making his
country free and setting up the Dutch Republic.
But William the Silent was murdered by
order of Philip.</p>

<p>And that’s the kind of man Bloody Mary
had for a husband.</p>

<p>After Mary Tudor died, her sister, Elizabeth
Tudor, became queen, though she ruled like a
king. Elizabeth had red hair and was very vain
and loved to be flattered. She had many lovers
but she never married, and as a woman who
never marries is called a virgin she was known
as the Virgin Queen.</p>

<p>Elizabeth was a Protestant and was just as
bitter against the Catholics as her sister and
her sister’s husband had been against the Protestants.</p>

<p>A relative of Elizabeth was queen of Scotland.
Scotland was a country north of England,
but at that time it was not a part of
England, and its queen was named Mary Stuart.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375"></span>
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, was young, beautiful,
and fascinating; but she was a Catholic,
and so Elizabeth and she were enemies.</p>

<p>Elizabeth heard that Mary Stuart was trying
to become queen of England as well as Scotland,
so she had her, although a relative, put in prison.
In prison Mary Stuart stayed for nearly twenty
years and was then at last put to death by Elizabeth’s
orders. It is hard for us to understand
how any one could have his own relatives killed
in this cold-blooded way, especially any one who
pretended to be a Christian, but in those times
it was a very common custom, as we see when
we hear of so many murders committed by the
rulers of the people. Philip II, the great champion
of the Catholics, made up his mind to punish
Elizabeth, his sister-in-law, for killing such
a good Catholic as Mary Stuart.</p>

<p>So he got together a large navy of very fine
ships called the Spanish Armada. All Spain
was very proud of this fleet. It was boastfully
called the Invincible Armada; “invincible”
means “unconquerable.”</p>

<p>This Invincible Armada set forth in 1588 to
conquer the English navy. Lined up in the
shape of a half-moon, the ships sailed grandly
toward England.</p>

<p>The English fleet was composed only of little
boats. But instead of going out to meet the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376"></span>
Armada in regular sea-battle as the Spaniards
expected, the English ships sailed out and attacked
the Spanish ships from behind and fought
one ship at a time. The English were better
fighters, and their small boats were quicker and
more easily managed. They could strike a blow
and get away before a Spanish ship could turn
around into position to fire. So gradually they
sank or destroyed the big Spanish boats one by
one.</p>

<p>Then the English set some old boats afire
and started them drifting toward the Spanish
fleet. As all boats at that time were of course
made of wood, the Spaniards became frightened
at these burning piles drifting down upon them,
and part of the fleet sailed away. The rest tried
to get back to Spain by sailing the long way
round, north of Scotland. But a terrible storm
struck them, and almost all the boats were shipwrecked,
and thousands of dead bodies were
washed up on shore. So the great Spanish
Armada was destroyed, and with it ended the
power of Spain at sea. She was no longer the
great nation she had been.</p>

<p>At the beginning of Elizabeth’s reign, the
largest and most powerful country in the world
was Spain; at the end of her reign it was England
that was the most powerful. Ever
since then her fleet, which King Alfred started<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377"></span>
far back, has been the largest, and the saying is,
“Britannia rules the waves.”</p>

<p>People at that time thought it impossible for
a woman to rule as well as a man, but under
Elizabeth’s rule England in turn became the
leading country of Europe. Then people said
Elizabeth ruled <i>like</i> a man, that she had a man’s
brain, a man’s will. In fact they said she was
more man than woman&mdash;that she was a tomboy
grown up&mdash;that’s why I call her “King Elizabeth.”</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig81.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_378"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c65">65</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Age of Elizabeth</p>


<p><span class="smcap">This</span> story is about the Age of Elizabeth.</p>

<p>My father always told me that it was impolite
to talk about a lady’s age.</p>

<p>But I’m not going to tell you how old Elizabeth
was, though she did live and reign a great
many years.</p>

<p>I’m going to tell you some of the things that
happened during her long life, for the time
when she lived is what is called the Age of
Elizabeth.</p>

<p>There was a young man named Raleigh living
when Elizabeth became queen. One day
when it was raining and the streets were muddy,
Elizabeth was about to cross the street. Raleigh
saw her and, to keep her from soiling her shoes,
ran forward, took off his beautiful velvet cape,
and threw it in the puddle where she was about
to step, so that she might cross upon it as upon
a carpet. The queen was greatly pleased with
this thoughtful and gentlemanly act, and she
made him a knight, so that he was then called
Sir Walter Raleigh, and ever after that he was
one of her special friends.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379"></span></p>

<p>Sir Walter Raleigh was much interested in
the new country of America. Cabot had claimed
a great part of it for England almost a hundred
years before, but England had done nothing
about it. Raleigh thought something should be
done about it; he thought English people should
settle there, so that other countries like Spain,
which had made so many settlements in America,
would not get ahead of England. So
Raleigh got together several companies of
English people and sent them over to an island
called Roanoke, which was just off the coast of
the present State of North Carolina. At that
time, however, almost the whole coast of the
United States as far north as Canada was called
Virginia. It had been named Virginia in honor
of the Virgin Queen Elizabeth.</p>

<p>Some of these Roanoke colonists became discouraged
with the hardships they had to suffer
and so gave up and sailed back home again.
Those who remained all disappeared. Where?
No one knows. We think they must either
have been killed by the Indians or have died of
starvation. At any rate, not one was left to tell
the tale. Among these Roanoke colonists was
the first English child born in America&mdash;a girl,
who had been named Virginia Dare, for the
queen was very popular and a great many girls
were named Virginia after her.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380"></span></p>

<p>Some tobacco was brought back from Virginia,
and Sir Walter Raleigh learned to
smoke. This was such a strange and unknown
thing at that time that one day while he was
smoking a pipe a servant who saw smoke coming
out of his mouth thought he was on fire and,
running for a bucket of water, emptied it over
his head.</p>

<p>Virginia is still famous for its tobacco. At
first tobacco was supposed to be very healthful,
for the Indians seemed to have very good health
and they smoked a great deal. Afterward, however,
in the next reign, King James so hated tobacco
that he wrote a book against it and forbade
it to be used.</p>

<p>After Queen Elizabeth had died, Raleigh
was put in prison, for it was said he was plotting
against the new king James, who came
after Elizabeth. The prison where he was
placed was the Tower of London, the old castle
that William the Conqueror had built. Here
Raleigh was kept for thirteen long years, and
to pass the time away he wrote a “History of the
World.” But at last he was put to death as
many other great men were also.</p>

<p>During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, there
lived the great writer of plays, the greatest
writer the world has ever known. This man was
William Shakspere.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_381"></span></p>

<p>Shakspere’s father could not write his name.
Shakspere himself spent only six years at
school. As a boy he was rather wild, and he was
arrested for hunting deer in the forest of Sir
Thomas Lucy at Stratford.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig82.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Shakspere reading to Elizabeth.</p>
</div>

<p>When still a boy Shakspere married a girl
older than himself named Anne Hathaway.
After he had been married a few years he left
her and their three children, left the little town
of Stratford, and went up to the great city of
London to seek his fortune. There Shakspere<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382"></span>
got a job working around a theater, holding the
horses of those who came to see the plays. Then
he got a chance to act in the theater, and he became
an actor, but he did not become a very
good one.</p>

<p>In those days the theaters had no scenery. A
sign was put up to tell what the scene was supposed
to be. For instance, instead of forest
scenery, they would put up a sign saying, “This
is a forest,” or instead of a room scene a sign
saying “This is a room in an inn.” There were
no actresses. Men and boys took the parts of
both men and women.</p>

<p>Shakspere was asked to change some of the
plays that had already been written, so that they
could be better acted. He did this very well;
then he started in to write plays himself. Usually
he took old stories and made them into plays,
but he did it so wonderfully well that they are
better than any plays that have ever been written
before or since.</p>

<p>Though Shakspere left school when only
thirteen years old, he seems to have had a remarkable
knowledge of almost everything under
the sun. He shows in his plays that he knew
about history and law and medicine, and he
knew and used more words than almost any
writer who has ever lived. Indeed, some people
say that with the little education he had, he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383"></span>
could not possibly have written the plays himself,
and so they have tried to prove that some
one else must have written them. Some of the
greatest of Shakspere’s plays are “Hamlet,”
“The Merchant of Venice,” “Romeo and Juliet,”
and “Julius Cæsar.”</p>

<p>Shakspere made a good deal of money for
those times&mdash;almost a fortune. Then he left
London and went back to live in the little town
of Stratford where he was born. Here at last
he died and was buried in the village church.
People wanted to move his body to a greater and
handsomer place, to a famous church in London.
But some one, perhaps Shakspere himself, had
written a verse which was carved on his tombstone.
The last line of this verse said, “And
curst be he who moves my bones”; so they never
were moved, for no one dared to move them.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c66">66</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">
James the Servant<br />
or<br />
What’s In a Name?
</p>


<p><span class="smcap">What</span> does your name mean?</p>

<p>
If it is<br />
<span class="pad6b">Baker or</span><br />
<span class="pad6d">Miller or</span><br />
<span class="pad6f">Taylor or</span><br />
<span class="pad6g">Carpenter or</span><br />
<span class="pad6h">Fisher or</span><br />
<span class="pad6i">Cook,</span>
</p>

<p>it means that at some time one of your ancestors
was a</p>

<p>
<span class="pad6b">baker, or</span><br />
<span class="pad6d">miller, or</span><br />
<span class="pad6f">tailor, or</span><br />
<span class="pad6g">carpenter, or</span><br />
<span class="pad6h">fisher, or</span><br />
<span class="pad6i">cook.</span>
</p>

<p>If your name is Stuart or Steuart or Stewart
or Steward, it means that at some time one of
your ancestors was a steward for in olden days
people knew very little about spelling, and they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385"></span>
spelled the same name in different ways. A
steward was a chief servant.</p>

<p>There was a family named Stuart in Scotland,
and from chief servants or stewards they
had become rulers of the Scots. Mary Stuart,
whom Elizabeth had beheaded, was one of them.</p>

<p>As Queen Elizabeth never married, she had
no children to rule after her. She was the last
of the Tudor family. So the English had to
look around for a new king, and they looked to
Scotland.</p>

<p>Now, Scotland, as I have told you, was then
a separate country and not a part of England
as now. The son of Mary Stuart was then king
of Scotland. His name was James Stuart. As
he was related to the Tudors, the English invited
him to come and rule over them. He accepted
the invitation and was called James I. So we
speak of his reign and that of his children as the
reign of the Stuarts.</p>

<p>The Stuart family reigned for about a hundred
years, that is, from 1600 to 1700, all except
about eleven years when England had no
king at all.</p>

<p>Many times the English must have been very
sorry that they had ever invited James to be
their king, for he and the whole Stuart family
lorded it over the English people. They acted
as if they were “lords of creation,” and the English
people had to fight for their rights.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_386"></span></p>

<p>A body of men called Parliament were supposed
to make the laws for the English people.
But James said that Parliament could do nothing
that he didn’t like, and if they weren’t very
careful he wouldn’t let them do any governing
at all. James said that whatever the king did
was right, that the king could do no wrong, that
God gave kings the right to do as they pleased
with their subjects. This was called the Divine
Right of Kings. Naturally the English people
would not put up with this sort of thing. Ever
since the time of King John they had insisted on
their own rights. The Tudors had often done
things that the people didn’t like, but the
Tudors were English. The Stuarts, however,
were Scotch, and the people looked on them as
foreigners; what they permitted in one of their
own family they wouldn’t stand in these
strangers whom they had invited into their family.
So, of course, a quarrel was bound to start.
But the real fight came with the next king and
not with James.</p>

<p>James was very fond of beefsteak, and one
particular cut from the loin of beef he liked
especially well. It was so delicious he thought it
should be honored in some way, and so he made
it a knight as if it were a brave and gallant
gentleman and dubbed it “Sir Loin,” which we
still call it to-day&mdash;although people have forgotten<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387"></span>
all about how it got such a name, and
some even say this is only a story and that he
never did such a foolish thing, anyway.</p>

<p>During King James’s reign the Bible was
translated into English. This is probably the
same Bible you read and that is called the King
James Bible.</p>

<p>Nothing much happened in England during
James’s reign, but in some other countries a
great deal did happen, although the king had
little to do with it. English people made settlements
in India, that far away country of the
Brahmanists, which Columbus had tried to reach
by going west; and these settlements there grew
until India at last belonged to England. The
English made settlements also in America, and
these grew until at last part of America, too,
belonged to England.</p>

<p>One of these settlements in America was
made in the South, and one was made in the
North. Raleigh’s settlement at Roanoke had
disappeared, as I told you; but in 1607 a boatload
of English gentlemen sailed over to America
looking for adventure and hoping to make
their fortunes by finding gold. They landed in
Virginia and named the place where they settled
Jamestown after their king, James. But they
found no gold, and as they were not used to
work, they didn’t want to do any. But their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388"></span>
leader, Captain John Smith, took matters in
hand and said that those that didn’t work
shouldn’t eat. So then the colonists had to go
to work.</p>

<p>Back in England people had learned to
smoke, and so the colonists began to raise
tobacco for the English people. The tobacco
brought the colonists so much money that it
proved to be a gold-mine&mdash;of a different kind&mdash;after
all. But the colonial gentlemen wanted
some one to do the rough work for them. So a
few years later some negroes were brought over
from Africa and sold to the colonists as slaves
to do the rough work. This was the beginning
of slavery in America, which grew and grew
until in the South almost all the work was done
by colored slaves.</p>

<p>A little later another company of people left
England for America. These people were not
looking for fortunes, however, as the Jamestown
settlers had been. They were looking for a
place where they might worship God as they
pleased, for in England they were interfered
with, and they wanted to find a place where no
one would interfere with them. So this company
of people left England in 1620 in a ship
called the <i>Mayflower</i> sailed across the ocean
and landed in a place called Plymouth, in
Massachusetts, and there they settled. More<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389"></span>
than half of them died the first winter from
hardship and exposure in the bitter weather
that they have in the North, but, nevertheless,
none of those who were left would go back to
England. This settlement was the beginning of
that part of the United States called New England.
You will hear more about both settlements
later when you study American History.
But at present we must see what was going on
in England, for there were great “goings on”
there.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig83.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_390"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c67">67</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A King Who Lost His Head</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> you ever sung, “King William was
King James’ son”?</p>

<p>Well, that must have been some other King
James, for King Charles was this King James’
son, and he was Charles I.</p>

<p>Charles was “a chip of the old block.” Like
his father he believed in the Divine Right of
Kings, that he alone had the right to say what
should be done or what should not be done, and
he treated the English people as King John
had; that is, as if they were made simply to
serve his pleasure and to do as he said.</p>

<p>But this time the people didn’t carry him off,
as they had King John, to agree to a paper.
They started to fight. The king made ready to
fight for what he thought his rights. So he
got together an army of lords and nobles and
those who agreed with him. Those who took
his side even dressed differently from those who
were against him. They grew their hair in long
curls and wore a broad-brimmed hat with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391"></span>
large feather and lace collars and cuffs of lace
even on their breeches.</p>

<p>Parliament also got together an army of the
people who wanted their rights. They had their
hair cut short and wore a hat with a tall crown
and very simple clothes. A country gentleman
named Oliver Cromwell trained a regiment of
soldiers to be such good fighters that they were
called Ironsides.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig84.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">King Charles and Oliver Cromwell.</p>
</div>

<p>The king’s army was made up of men who
prepared for battle by drinking and feasting.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392"></span>
The parliamentary army prayed before going
into battle and sang hymns and psalms as they
marched.</p>

<p>At last after many battles the king’s army
was beaten and King Charles was taken prisoner.
A small part of Parliament then took
things in their own hands, and though they had
no right to do so they tried King Charles and
condemned him to death. They found him guilty
of being a traitor and a murderer and other terrible
things. Then he was taken out in front
of his palace in London in the year 1649 and his
head was cut off. People now feel that this was
a shameful thing for the parliamentary army to
do to the king, and even at that time only a
part of the English people were in favor of it.
He might have been sent away instead of being
killed, or he might have had his office of king
taken away from him.</p>

<p>Oliver Cromwell, the commander of the parliamentary
army then ruled over England for a
few years. He was a coarse-looking person
with very rough manners, but honest and religious,
and he ruled England as a stern and
strict father might rule his family. He would
stand no nonsense. Once when he was having
his picture painted&mdash;for there were no photographs
then&mdash;the artist left out a big wart he
had on his face. Cromwell angrily told him,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393"></span>
“Paint me as I am, wart and all.” Cromwell
was really a king although he called himself Protector,
but he did a great deal that was good for
England.</p>

<p>When Cromwell died his son became ruler
after him, just as if he were the son of a king,
but the son was unable to fill his father’s shoes.
He meant well, but he hadn’t the brains or the
ability that his father had, and so in a few
months he resigned. Oliver Cromwell had been
so strict that the English people had forgotten
about their troubles under the Stuarts. So in
1660 when the English found themselves without
a ruler they invited back the son of Charles I,
whom they had beheaded, and once more a
Stuart became king. This was Charles II.</p>

<p>Charles was called the Merry Monarch because
all he seemed to think about was eating
and drinking, amusing himself, and having a
good time. He made fun of things that were
holy and sacred. To revenge himself on those
who had put his father to death he had those of
them who were still living killed in the most
horrible way one could think of. Those that
were dead already, Oliver Cromwell among
them, were taken from their tombs; then their
dead bodies were hung and afterward beheaded.</p>

<p>In his reign that old and terrible disease, the
plague, broke loose again in London. Some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394"></span>
people thought that God had caused it, that He
was shocked by the behavior of the king and his
people especially toward holy things, that He
was punishing them. The next year, 1666, a
great fire started and burned up thousands of
houses, and hundreds of churches were destroyed.
But the Great Fire, as it was called,
cleaned up the disease and dirt and was therefore
really a blessing. London had been a city
of wooden houses. It was rebuilt of brick and
stone.</p>

<p>Only one more Stuart ruler shall I tell you
about&mdash;or rather a royal pair, William and
Mary&mdash;because in their reign the fight between
the people and their kings was once for all
finally settled. In 1688 Parliament drew up an
agreement called the Declaration of Right,
which William and Mary signed. This agreement
made Parliament ruler over the nation,
and ever since, Parliament and not the king has
been the real ruler of England. So I think we
have heard enough of the Stuarts for a while.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_395"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c68">68</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Red Cap and Red Heels</p>


<p><span class="smcap">The</span> last Louis I told you about was a saint&mdash;the
Louis who went on the last Crusade.</p>

<p>The two Louis I’m going to tell you about
now were not saints&mdash;not by any means.</p>

<p>They were Louis XIII and Louis XIV and
they ruled France while the Stuarts were reigning
in the seventeenth century in England.</p>

<p>Louis XIII was king in name only. Another
man told him what to do, and he did it. Strange
to say, this other man was a great ruler of the
church called a cardinal, who wore a red cap and
a red gown. The cardinal’s name was Richelieu.</p>

<p>Now, you are probably sick and tired of hearing
about wars, but during the reign of Louis
XIII another long war started, and I must tell
you something about it for it lasted thirty years.
It was therefore called the Thirty Years’ War.
It was different from most wars. It was not a
war of one country against another. It was a
war between the Protestants and Catholics.</p>

<p>Cardinal Richelieu was of course a Catholic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396"></span>
and the real ruler of France, which was a Catholic
country. Nevertheless, he took sides with
the Protestants, for they were fighting a Catholic
country called Austria, and he wanted to
beat Austria. Most of the countries in Europe
took part in this war, but Germany was the
battle-ground where most of the fighting was
done. Even Sweden, a northern country of
Europe which we have not heard of before, took
part. The king of Sweden at this time was
named Gustavus Adolphus, and he was called
the Snow King because he was king of such a
cold country, and also the Lion of the North,
for he was such a brave fighter. I am mentioning
him particularly because of all kings and
rulers in Europe at this time he was the finest
character. Indeed, most of the other rulers
thought only of themselves, and they would lie
and cheat and steal and even murder to get
what they wanted, but Gustavus Adolphus was
fighting for what he thought was right. Gustavus
Adolphus was a Protestant, and so he
came down into Germany and fought on the
side of the Protestants. He was a great general,
and his army won. But unfortunately he
himself was at last killed in battle. The Protestants
came out ahead in the Thirty Years’
War, and at last a famous treaty of peace was
made called the Treaty of Westphalia. By this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397"></span>
treaty it was agreed that each country should
have whatever religion its ruler had; it could be
Protestant or Catholic as the ruler wished.</p>

<p>During the Thirty Years’ War the plague,
that old deadly contagious disease we have
heard of before, broke out in Germany. A little
town named Oberammergau prayed that it
might be spared. The townspeople vowed that
if they were spared they would give a play of
Christ’s life once every ten years. They <i>were</i>
spared, and so every ten years, ever since then,
with only a few exceptions, they have been giving
what is called the Passion Play. As it is
the only place in the world where it is ever given,
tens of thousands of Christians from all over
the globe travel to this little out-of-the-way
village to see these peasants act the stories
of Christ’s life. The play is given on Sundays
during the summer of the tenth year and lasts
all day long. There are about seven hundred
people who take part, half of all the people in the
town. It is a great honor to be chosen to play
the part of a saint; it is the highest earthly honor
to be selected to play the part of Christ; and it
is a disgrace to be left out entirely.</p>

<p>The next French king to rule after Louis
XIII and Richelieu was Louis XIV.</p>

<p>The people in England had at last succeeded
in getting the power to rule themselves through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398"></span>
their Parliament. But in France Louis would
let no one rule but himself. He said, “I am the
state,” and he would let no one have a say in
the government. This was the same as the
Stuarts’ Divine Right of Kings, which the
English people had put an end to. Louis ruled
for more than seventy years. This is the longest
time that any one in history has ever ruled.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig85.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Louis XIV.</p>
</div>

<p>Louis XIV was called the Grand Monarch,
and everything he did was to show off. He was
always parading and strutting about as if he
were the leading character in a play and not
just an ordinary human being. He wore corsets
and a huge powdered wig and shoes with
very high red heels, to make himself appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399"></span>
taller. That, I suppose, is why some ladies to-day
wear high heels called French heels. He
carried a long cane, stuck out his elbows, turned
out his toes, and strutted up and down, for he
thought these things made him seem grand, important,
imposing.</p>

<p>All this may sound as if Louis were a silly person
with no sense, but you must not get that idea.
In spite of his absurd manners he made France
the chief power in Europe. He was almost constantly
fighting other countries, trying to increase
the size of France and to add to his kingdom,
but I have already told you so much about
so many fights, that I’m not going to tell you
any more about his just now, for you would
probably not read it if I did. So France had
her turn as leader of all the other countries as
Spain and England had had.</p>

<p>Louis built a magnificent palace at Versailles
in which were marble halls, beautiful paintings,
and many huge mirrors in which he could see
himself as he strutted along. The palace was
surrounded by a park with wonderful fountains.
The water for the fountains had to be brought
a long distance, and it cost thousands of dollars
to have the fountains play just for a few minutes.
Even to-day sight-seers visit Versailles
to see the magnificent palace rooms and to
watch the fountains play.</p>

<p>But Louis surrounded himself not only with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400"></span>
beautiful things. He also surrounded himself
with all the most interesting men and women of
his time. All those who could do anything exceptionally
well, all those who could paint well
or write well or talk well or play well or look
well, he brought together to live with him or near
by him. This was called his <i>court</i>. Those in his
Court were “in society.” They were the chosen
few who looked down on all the others who were
not in society.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig86.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Louis XIV getting ready for bed.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401"></span></p>

<p>This was all very fine for the people who
were lucky enough to be “in society”&mdash;in
Louis’s court. But the poor people of France,
those not in his court, were the ones who had to
pay Louis’s expenses and those of his court.
They were the ones who had to pay for his parties
and balls and feasts and for all sorts of presents
which he gave his friends. So we shall see presently
what happened. The poor people would
not stand that sort of thing forever. “The worm
will turn,” we say.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig87.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_402"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c69">69</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Self-Made Man</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Who</span> was the Father of His Country?</p>

<p>I know what you will say:</p>

<p>“George Washington.”</p>

<p>But there was another man called “The
Father of His Country” before Washington was
born, and he was not an American.</p>

<p>In the east of Europe there is a great country
as large as our own, and its name is Russia.
Very little had been heard of Russia before the
Year 1700, for although it was the largest country
in Europe, its people were only about half
civilized. The Russians were a branch of the
great Aryan family called Slavs, but although
they were white people, they were living so close
to the yellow people in China that they had become
much like them in many of their ways.
Then, too, the terrible Genghis Khan and his
yellow Mongols had conquered Russia in the
thirteenth century and ruled over the land. So
although the Russians were Christians, they were
in every other way more like the people of the
East than like Europeans. The men had long<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403"></span>
beards and wore long coats. The women wore
veils like those the Turkish women wore. The
people counted with balls strung on wires as the
Chinese did.</p>

<p>Well, just before 1700 there was born a Russian
prince named Peter. When a small boy,
Peter was very much afraid of the water. But
he felt so ashamed that he, a prince, should fear
anything that he forced himself to get used to
the water. He would go to it and play in it
and sail boats on it, although all the time he was
almost scared to death. And so at last he not
only got over this great fear but he came to
like the water and boats more than any other
playthings.</p>

<p>When Peter grew up the thing he wanted
more than anything else in the world was to
make his country important in Europe, for before
this time it had not been. It was big but
not great. And his people had to be civilized.
But before he could teach his own people, who
were most of them very poor and ignorant, he
had to learn himself. As there was no one in
Russia who could teach him what he wanted to
know, he disguised himself as a common laborer
and went to the little country of Holland. Here
he got a job in a shipbuilding yard and
worked for several months, cooking his own food
and mending his own clothes. While he was doing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404"></span>
this, however, he learned all about building
ships and studied many other things besides, such
as blacksmithing, cobbling shoes, and even pulling
teeth.</p>

<p>Then he went to England, and everywhere
he went he learned all he could. At last he returned
to his own country with the knowledge
he had gained and set to work to make Russia
over. First of all, Peter wanted Russia to have
a fleet of ships as other nations had. But in
order to have a fleet he had to have water for
his ships, and Russia had almost no land bordering
on the water. So Peter planned to take
a sea-shore away from the neighboring country
of Sweden.</p>

<p>Now the king of Sweden at this time was
Charles. He was the twelfth king named
Charles that Sweden had had. Charles XII was
hardly more than a boy, and Peter thought it
would be an easy matter to beat this boy and
help himself to whatever land he wanted on the
water. But Charles was not an ordinary boy.
He was an extra-ordinary boy, extra-ordinarily
bright and gifted, and he had been unusually
well educated besides. He knew several languages;
he had learned to ride a horse when he
was four years old and how to hunt and to fight.
Besides all this, he feared neither hardship nor
danger. Indeed, he was such a daredevil that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405"></span>
people called him the Madman of the North. So
at first Peter’s army was beaten by Charles.</p>

<p>But Peter took his beating calmly, simply remarking
that Charles would soon teach the Russian
army how to win. Indeed, so successful
was Charles at first in fighting Peter and all
others who threatened him that the countries of
Europe began to think of him as Alexander the
Great come to life again, and they feared he
might conquer them all. But at last the Russians
did win against Charles, and Peter got his
sea-shore. Then Peter built the fleet for which
he had been working and planning for so many
years.</p>

<p>The capital of Russia was Moscow. It was
a beautiful city but near the center of that country
and far from the water. This didn’t suit
Peter at all. Peter wanted a fine city for his
capital, but he wanted it right on the water’s
edge, so that he could have his beloved ships
close to him. So he picked out a spot not only
on the water but mostly water, for it was chiefly
a marsh. Then he put a third of a million people
to work filling in the marsh, and on this he built
a beautiful city. This city he called St. Petersburg
in honor of his patron saint, the apostle
Peter, after whom he himself had been named.
The name of St. Petersburg was later changed
to Petrograd and recently to Leningrad. Then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406"></span>
Peter improved the laws, started schools, and
built factories and hospitals and taught his
people arithmetic, so that they could count without
having to use balls strung on strings. He
made his people dress like other Europeans. He
made the men cut off their long beards, which he
thought looked countrified. The men thought
it indecent to have no beards so some saved them
to be placed in their coffins in order that at the
day of resurrection they could appear before
God unashamed. He introduced all sorts of
things that he found in Europe but which were
unknown in his own country, and he really made
Russia over into a great European nation, so
that is why he is called Peter the Great, the
Father of his Country.</p>

<p>Peter fell in love with a poor peasant girl,
an orphan named Catherine, and married her.
She had no education, but she was very sweet
and lovely and bright and quick-witted, so the
marriage turned out happily. The Russians
were shocked at the idea of having a queen who
was not a princess and was so low-born. But
Peter had her crowned, and after he died she
ruled over Russia.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_407"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c70">70</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Prince Who Ran Away</p>


<p><span class="smcap">If</span> you put a P in front of Russia it makes&mdash;Prussia.
This is the name of a little country in
Europe, which is now a part of Germany.
Russia was big, and Peter made it great.
Prussia was small, but another king made it also
great. This king was named Frederick. He,
too, lived in the eighteenth century, but a little
later than Peter, and he, too, was called “the
Great”&mdash;Frederick the Great.</p>

<p>Frederick’s father, who was the second king of
Prussia, had a hobby for collecting giants&mdash;as
you might collect postage-stamps. Wherever
he heard of a very tall man, no matter in what
country and no matter what it cost to get him,
he bought or hired him. This collection of giants
he made into a remarkable company of soldiers
which was his special pride.</p>

<p>He was a very cranky, cross, and bad-tempered
old king. He treated his children terribly,
especially his son Frederick, whom he
called Fritz. Fritz had curls and liked music
and poetry and fancy clothes. And his father<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408"></span>
thought he was growing up to be a girl-boy.
This disgusted his father, for he wanted a son
who would be a soldier and fighter. His father
when angry used to throw dishes at him, lock
him up for days at a time, and feed him on bread
and water and whip him with a cane. Finally
Fritz could stand it no longer, and he ran away.
He was caught and brought back. His father
was so angry with his son for disobeying and acting
as he had done that he was actually going to
have him killed&mdash;yes, put to death&mdash;but at the
last minute was persuaded not to do it.</p>

<p>But here is a funny thing: When Fritz grew
up to be Frederick, he turned out just what his
father wanted him to be&mdash;a great soldier and
fighter. He still loved poetry and even tried to
write poems himself, and he was very fond of
music and he played the flute very well, indeed.
But Frederick wanted above everything else to
make his country important in Europe; for before
his time it was of little account, and no one
paid much attention to it.</p>

<p>Now, the neighboring country to Prussia was
Austria. Austria was ruled over by a woman.
This woman was named Maria Theresa. Maria
Theresa had become ruler of Austria at the same
time that Frederick had become king of Prussia.
Some people thought a woman was not a fit person
to rule over a country. Frederick’s father<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409"></span>
had promised to let Maria Theresa alone&mdash;he
had promised not to fight a woman&mdash;but when
Frederick became king he wanted to add a part
of Austria to his own country, and so he simply
helped himself to the piece of Maria Theresa’s
country that he wanted. He didn’t care if she
was a woman or whether it was fair or not. Of
course this started a war. Before long almost
every country in Europe was fighting either
with Frederick or against him. But Frederick
not only succeeded in getting what he was after;
he succeeded in holding on to it.</p>

<p>Maria Theresa, however, would not give up.
She wanted to get back what had been wrongfully
taken away from her. So she began
quietly and secretly to get ready for another
war against Frederick. Quietly and secretly
she got other countries to promise to help her.
But Frederick heard of what she was doing, and
suddenly he attacked her again, and for seven
long years this next war went on. So this was
called the Seven Years’ War. Frederick kept
on fighting until he had beaten Austria for good
and until he had gained his purpose, which was
to make his little country of Prussia the most
powerful country in Europe. He still held on
to the part of Austria that he had at first taken
away. Maria Theresa was a great queen, and
she would have won against Frederick had he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410"></span>
been an ordinary king. But she had too strong
a ruler against her. Frederick was one of the
world’s smartest generals and too much for her.</p>

<p>The Seven Years’ War, strange to say, was
fought out not only in Europe but in far-off
America, also. England had taken Frederick’s
side. France and other countries had taken
sides against him. So the English settlers in
America, who were on Frederick’s side, fought
the French settlers, who were against him.
When, therefore, Frederick won in Europe, the
English in America also won against the French
in America. I am telling you all this because
that is why we in America speak English instead
of French to-day. If Frederick had lost,
France would have won, and we here in America
would probably now speak French instead of
English.</p>

<p>Frederick, like some other kings we have
heard of before, thought nothing of lying or
cheating or stealing if he had to in order to get
the better of other countries. Fair means or
foul means made no difference to him. But his
own people he treated as if they were his children
and did everything he could for them. Like
a lioness with her cubs, he fought for his family,
even with the world against him.</p>

<p>There was a mill close by Frederick’s palace
that belonged to a poor miller. As it was not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411"></span>
a pretty thing to be so near, the king wanted to
buy it in order to tear it down and get rid of it.
But the miller would not sell. Although Frederick
the Great offered the miller a large sum
of money, he refused. A great many kings
would simply have taken the mill and perhaps
put the miller in jail or put him to death, but
Frederick did neither, for he thought his lowliest
subject had his rights and that if he didn’t
want to sell he shouldn’t be made to. So he
left the miller undisturbed, and the mill stands
to-day as it did then, close to the palace.</p>

<p>Though Frederick was a German, strange to
say, he hated the German language. He
thought it the language of the uneducated. He
himself spoke French and wrote in French and
only spoke German when he had to talk to his
servants or those who did not understand
French.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig88.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_412"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c71">71</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">America Gets Rid of Her King</p>



<p><span class="smcap">Did</span> you know that we once had a king?</p>

<p>His name was George.</p>

<p>No, George Washington wasn’t a king.</p>

<p>This was another George.</p>

<p>You remember the Stuarts in England&mdash;James,
Charles, and the rest of the family who
ruled England for a hundred years from 1600
to 1700. Well about 1700 England ran out of
Stuarts&mdash;there were no more Stuart children.</p>

<p>As England had to have another king, they
asked a distant relative of the royal family over
from one of the German states to rule England.
Yes, from Germany to rule England. His
name was George, and the English called him
George I. George couldn’t even speak English.
He was German and loved his own country
much better than England, but he had
agreed to come and rule over England, and he
did so. You can imagine what sort of a king he
was. His son, George II ruled after him, although
he, too, was more German than English.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413"></span>
But when the grandson, George III, came to
the throne he was a born and bred Englishman.
It was in this grandson’s reign, in the reign of
George III, that our own country, the United
States, was born.</p>

<p>When a wheel turns over we call it a <i>revolution</i>,
which is a big name for a little thing.</p>

<p>When a <i>country</i> turns over we also call it a
revolution, which is a big name for a big thing.</p>

<p>Our country had started with the two little
settlements, or colonies, as they were called, of
Jamestown and Plymouth. But it had grown
and grown until there were now a number of
settlements along the coast of the Atlantic
Ocean. Most of the people who had settled here
were English, and the king of England ruled
over them. The king asked all these people to
send him money, which was called taxes. Now,
the money collected from taxes was not, of
course, for the king to put in his pocketbook to
use as he liked. It was supposed to be spent on
the people who were taxed, to be used for roads,
schools, police, and such things that are for the
good of all.</p>

<p>So these people along the coast who were paying
money or taxes to the king far off across the
water thought they ought to have a vote to say
how this money should be spent and on what it
should be spent. But they did not have a vote,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414"></span>
and so they thought they ought not to have to
pay taxes to the king away off in England.</p>

<p>One of the leading citizens of America at this
time was a man named Benjamin Franklin. He
was the son of a candlemaker, but from a poor
boy who had once walked the streets of Philadelphia
with a loaf of bread under each arm he
had risen to a very honored position in the country.
He had learned to be a printer and
had started one of the first and best newspapers
in the United States. He was a great thinker
and had invented a stove and a lamp and had
succeeded in getting electricity from the lightning
in the clouds by flying a kite with a wire
during a storm. He was one of the Wise Men
of the West.</p>

<p>Franklin was sent over to England to try to
get the king to change his mind about taxing
the colonies or to bring about some sort of agreement
with him. But King George was hardheaded,
and Franklin was unable to stop the
king from doing what he had made up his mind
to do.</p>

<p>So the people in America, finding that talking
did no good, started in to fight. They raised
an army. Then they tried to find a good man to
command the army. Such a leader must be
honest and brave; he must have a good mind;
he must love his country; and he must be a good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415"></span>
fighter. So they looked around for a man who
had all these qualities, and they found one. The
man they picked was honest and brave, for when
he was a boy, he had cut down a favorite tree
of his father’s just to try a new hatchet he had
been given. In those days to cut down a cherry-tree
was a crime for which by law a man could
be put to death. When this boy was asked by
his angry father if he had done it he said, “I cannot
tell a lie; I did.” Of course, now you know
who it was&mdash;George Washington.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig89.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">George Washington surveying Lord Fairfax’s farm.</p>
</div>

<p>George learned to be a surveyor&mdash;that is, a
man who measures land&mdash;and when only sixteen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416"></span>
years old he was employed to survey the
large farm of Lord Fairfax in Virginia; that
showed he had a good mind. He then had been
a soldier and had fought the Indians bravely
and well; that showed that he loved his country
and was a good fighter. So George Washington
was chosen to lead the American army
against the English.</p>

<p>The Americans did not at first think of starting
a new country. They simply wanted the
same rights that Englishmen in England had.
But they soon found out that there was only one
way to get those rights, and that was to start a
new country independent of England. So a
man named Thomas Jefferson wrote a paper
which was called a Declaration of Independence&mdash;can
you say it?&mdash;because it declared
that the colonies were going to be independent
of England. There were fifty-six Americans
chosen by the people to sign it. Each one of the
signers would have been put to death as a traitor
to England if the United States had not won,
and each signer knew it, yet he signed it nevertheless.
But just signing this paper didn’t
make England give up the colonies. Oh, no!
King George’s armies tried to stop the colonies
from getting away from the rule of England.</p>

<p>Washington had a very small army with
which to fight the English army, and very little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417"></span>
money with which to pay the soldiers or to supply
them with food or clothes or powder and
shot. One winter the soldiers nearly froze and
starved to death, for they had little clothing and
hardly any food but carrots, and it seemed as if
the war could not go on unless they got help.
Yet Washington kept up their spirits.</p>

<p>Benjamin Franklin was sent across the ocean,
not to England this time of course, but to France
to see if he couldn’t get some help from that
country. France hated England because she had
lost part of America, Canada, in the Seven
Years’ War, but at first France would not help.
She took little interest in the fight for Washington’s
army had lost a number of battles
against the English, and people don’t like to
back a loser. But the year after the Declaration
of Independence the American army beat
the English badly at a place called Saratoga in
New York State. Then the king of France became
more interested, and then he sent help to
the colonies to carry on the war. A young
French nobleman named Lafayette hurried
over from France and fought under General
Washington and did so well that he has made
a great name for himself.</p>

<p>England, seeing that things were going
against her, now wanted to make peace with the
Americans and give them the same rights that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418"></span>
English citizens had, but it was then too late. At
the beginning of the war the Americans would
have agreed to this and been glad to agree, but
now they would agree to nothing less than entire
independence of England; and so the War went
on, for England would not let the colonies go.</p>

<p>The English had been beaten by the Yankees,
as they called them in the North, at a place called
Saratoga. So then they sent their general, Lord
Cornwallis, to the south of our country to see if
he could beat the people there. General Greene
was put in command of the Southern American
soldiers. Lord Cornwallis tried to fight Greene,
but Greene led Cornwallis a merry chase round
the country until he was all tired out and finally
went into a little place called Yorktown in
Virginia. Here Cornwallis and his army were
caught fast so that they could not get out. On
one side was the American army, and on the
water side were the French war-ships that had
been sent over to help. So Cornwallis had to
surrender.</p>

<p>King George then said, “Let us have peace”;
and in 1783 the war was ended by a treaty of
peace, eight years after it had started, and the
colonies were independent of England. This was
called the Revolutionary War, and after it was
over our country was called the United States.</p>

<p>There were just thirteen of these original<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419"></span>
colonies that joined as partners in this Union.
That is why there are just thirteen stripes in
our flag. Some people think thirteen is an unlucky
number; but our flag with its thirteen
stripes still waves over the land, and it has
brought us good luck; don’t you think so?</p>

<p>Washington was made the first President, and
so he is called the Father of His Country; the
First in War, the First in Peace, and the First
in the Hearts of his Countrymen.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig90.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_420"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c72">72</h2>
</div>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig91.jpg" alt="" />
</div>


<p><span class="smcap">Measles</span> and Mumps are very catching.</p>

<p>So are Revolutions.</p>

<p>Just a little later than the Revolution of the
thirteen colonies, the people in France had a
Revolution, too. They saw how successful the
Americans had been in their fight against the
king of England, and so they rebelled against
their own king and queen in France. This was
called the French Revolution.</p>

<p>The reason the French people rebelled against
their king was because they had very little, and
the king and his royal family and nobles seemed
to have everything. Both the Americans and the
French rebelled against paying taxes. With
the Americans, however, it was a matter of principle
more than anything else. Their taxes were
not very large, but they thought them unjust.
The French taxes, however, not only were unjust
but they took almost everything away from the
people.</p>

<p>I have already told you how bad things were
under Louis XIV, and they got worse until the
people could stand it no longer.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_421"></span></p>

<p>At this time the king of France was Louis
XVI, and his queen was named Marie Antoinette.
Although the people were so poor they
had hardly anything to eat except a very coarse
and bad-tasting kind of bread called black bread;
they were compelled to pay the king and the
nobles money so that they could live in fine
style and have “parties”; and they had to do all
sorts of work for them for nothing or next to
nothing. If any one complained he was put in a
great prison in Paris called the Bastille and left
there to die. In spite of the fact that all the
people were so terribly poor, the king and the
queen and their friends lived in luxury and extravagance
with everything in the world they
wanted, all paid for by the poor people.</p>

<p>Neither the king nor his wife was really
wicked. They were simply young and thoughtless.
They meant well, but like a great many
well-meaning people they lacked common sense
and did not know how others lived. They didn’t
seem to understand that people <i>could</i> be poor,
for they had so much themselves. Marie Antoinette
was told that her subjects had no bread
to eat. “Then why don’t they eat cake?” she is
said to have asked.</p>

<p>To right the wrongs of the people, a body of
many of the best men from all France gathered
together and, calling themselves the National<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422"></span>
Assembly, tried to work out some plan to do
away with all the injustice the people had been
suffering. They wanted to make every one free
and equal and give everybody a “say” in the government.</p>

<p>But the poor had become so furiously mad at
the way they had been treated by the rich that
they would stand things no longer and a wild
and angry mob of them attacked the old prison
of the Bastille. They battered down the walls
and freed the prisoners and killed the guards of
the Bastille simply because they were servants
of the king. Then they cut off the heads of the
guards and stuck them on poles and, carrying
them aloft, paraded through the streets of Paris.
There were only about half a dozen prisoners in
the old jail, so that freeing them didn’t matter
much, but this attack was to show that the people
would no longer allow the king to imprison them.</p>

<p>The Bastille was stormed on July 14, 1789.
This is the beginning of what is called the French
Revolution, and this day is celebrated in France
in almost the same way that our Fourth of July
is, for it is the French Declaration of Independence
against kings.</p>

<p>Lafayette, who was now back in France, the
same Lafayette who had helped the Americans
fight their king, sent the key of the Bastille over
to George Washington as a souvenir that his own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423"></span>
country had now overthrown its king and declared
its independence.</p>

<p>The king and queen were living in the beautiful
palace at Versailles, the palace that Louis
XIV had built. All the king’s nobles, when
they heard what was taking place in Paris, became
frightened and, deserting their king and
queen, took to their heels and left the country.
They knew pretty well what was going to happen,
and they didn’t wait to see.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the National Assembly drew up
what was called a Declaration of the Rights of
Man, which was something like our Declaration
of Independence. It said that all men were born
free and equal, that the people should make the
laws and the laws should be the same for all.</p>

<p>Soon after the Declaration of Rights had been
made, the mad mob from Paris, ragged and wild-looking,
carrying sticks and stones, and crying,
“Bread, bread!” marched out the ten miles to
Versailles, where Louis and Marie Antoinette
were still living. Up the beautiful grand staircase
of the palace they rushed. The few guards
remaining round the king were unable to hold
them back. They captured the king and queen
and took them prisoners to Paris. There they
kept Louis and Marie Antoinette prisoners for
several years. Once the king and queen tried
to escape in disguise but were caught before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424"></span>
they could get out of the country and brought
back.</p>

<p>Then it was that the National Assembly drew
up a Constitution&mdash;a set of rules by which the
country should be justly governed. This the
king agreed to and signed.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig92.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">French revolution crowd and guillotine.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_425"></span></p>

<p>But that still wasn’t enough. The people
wanted no king at all to rule over them. So
about a year later they started a real republic
like our own, and the king was sentenced to
death. A Frenchman had invented a kind of
machine with a big knife for chopping off heads.
This was called the guillotine, and it was used
instead of an ax, for it was quicker and surer.
So the king was taken to the guillotine, and his
head was cut off.</p>

<p>But the people did not settle down quiet and
contented when they had got rid of their king.
They were afraid that those who were in favor of
kings might start another kingdom. The people
chose red, white, and blue as their colors and the
“Marseillaise” as their national song; and everywhere
they marched they carried the tricolor, as
they called the three-colored flag, and as they
marched they sang the “Marseillaise.”</p>

<p>Then began what is called the Reign of Terror,
and this is a tale of blood. A man named Robespierre
and two of his friends were leaders in this
Reign of Terror. Any one whom the people
suspected of being in favor of kings they caught
and beheaded. The queen was one of the first to
have her head cut off. If any one even whispered,
“there’s a man, or there’s a woman, or there’s a
child who is in favor of kings,” that man, woman,
or child would be rushed to the guillotine. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426"></span>
any one simply hated another and wished to get
rid of him, all he had to do was to point him
out as in favor of kings, and off he would be
taken to the guillotine. No one was sure of his
life for a day. He never knew what moment
some personal enemy might accuse him. Hundreds,
then thousands, of suspected people were
beheaded, and a special sewer had to be built to
carry off the blood. But the guillotine, fast as
it was, was too slow for the Terrorists. It could
cut off but one head at a time, and so prisoners
were lined up and shot down with cannons.</p>

<p>People seemed to have gone wild, crazy, mad!
They insulted Christ and the Christian religion.
They put a pretty woman called the Goddess of
Reason on the altar of the beautiful Church of
Notre Dame and worshiped her instead of the
Lord. They pulled down statues and pictures
of Christ and the Virgin Mary. In their places
they put statues and pictures of their own leaders.
The guillotine was put up in place of the
cross. They did away with Sundays. They
made a week ten days long, and every tenth day
they made a holiday instead of Sunday. They
stopped counting time from Christ’s birth, because
they didn’t want anything that had to do
with Christ, and they began to call the year when
the republic was started in 1792 the year 1.</p>

<p>But Robespierre wished to rule alone, and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427"></span>
plotted against his two friends. One of these he
had beheaded, and the other was killed in his
bath-tub by a girl named Charlotte Corday, who
was in a rage at what he had done. So Robespierre
was left alone. At last the people, in fear
of this man who was such a monstrous and inhuman
tyrant, rose up against him. When he
found that he too, was to be put to death, he tried
to commit suicide, but, before he could do so he
was caught and taken to the guillotine, where he
went to the same death to which he had sent
countless others, and the Reign of Terror was
ended. It was a pity that he hadn’t a thousand
lives with which to pay for the thousands of lives
he had taken away.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig93.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_428"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c73">73</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">A Little Giant</p>


<p><span class="smcap">At</span> last the Revolution was stopped.</p>

<p>It was stopped by a young soldier only about
twenty years old and sixty inches tall.</p>

<p>The Government was holding a meeting in
the palace while a mad mob in the streets outside
were trying to attack the palace. A young soldier
had been given a few men and told to keep
the mob away. The young soldier pointed cannons
down each street that led to the palace, and
no one dared to show himself. This young soldier
was named Napoleon Bonaparte. He made
such a fine record that people wanted to know
who he was and where he came from.</p>

<p>Napoleon had been born on a little island
called Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea. He
was born just in time to be a Frenchman,
for the island of Corsica had belonged to
Italy and had only just been given to France
a few weeks before he was born. As soon
as he was old enough, he was sent off to a military
school in France. There his French schoolmates
looked upon him as a foreigner and didn’t have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429"></span>
much to do with him. But Napoleon made high
marks in arithmetic, and he loved hard problems.
Once he shut himself up in his room to
work over a hard problem, and there he stayed
for three days and nights until he had found the
answer.</p>

<p>Napoleon showed by the way he put an end to
the French Revolution that he was going to be
a fine soldier, and so when he was only twenty-six
years old he was made a general.</p>

<p>Now, at this time all the other countries of
Europe had kings. France had caught the fever
of revolution from the Americans all the way
across the ocean and had got rid of her kings.
The kings of these other countries were afraid
their people might catch the fever of revolution,
too. So all of these other countries became enemies
of France because France had put an end
to her kings.</p>

<p>Napoleon was sent off to fight Italy. He had
to cross the Alps, which Hannibal in the Punic
Wars had crossed long before. But Hannibal
had no heavy cannons when he crossed; it seemed
impossible for Napoleon’s army to cross with
cannons. Napoleon asked his engineers, the men
who were supposed to know about such things, if
it could be done. They said they thought it was
impossible.</p>

<p>“Impossible,” Napoleon angrily replied, “is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430"></span>
a word found only in the dictionary of fools.”
Then he shouted:</p>

<p>“There shall be no Alps!” and went ahead and
crossed them. His army won in Italy, and when
he returned to France he was greeted by the
people as a conquering hero. But the men who
were then governing France were afraid of him.
They feared he might try to make himself king
because he was so popular with the people. Napoleon,
however, asked to be sent to conquer
Egypt because he had an idea he could get the
better of the English there. He thought he
might then cut England off from India, the new
country that they had won in the reign of
James I. England had lost America, but she
didn’t want to lose India.</p>

<p>The French Government was very glad to get
rid of Napoleon, and so they sent him off to
Egypt as he asked. He quickly conquered
Egypt as Julius Cæsar had done, but there was
no Cleopatra to upset his plans. While he was
conquering Egypt, his fleet, which was waiting
for him at the mouth of the Nile, was caught and
destroyed by the English fleet under a great
admiral, if not the greatest that ever lived. His
name was Lord Nelson.</p>

<p>Napoleon had no way to take his army back to
France. So he left his army in Egypt under
command of another. He himself, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431"></span>
managed to find a ship to take him back home.
When he reached France he found that the men
who were supposed to be governing were quarreling
among themselves, and, seeing his chance,
he had himself made one of three men chosen to
rule France. He was called first consul; and
there were supposed to be two assistant consuls,
but the assistants were little more than clerks
to do Napoleon’s bidding. It was only a very
short time before he was next made first consul
for life. Then, not long after that, he became
emperor of France and also king of Italy.</p>

<p>The other countries of Europe began to fear
that Napoleon would conquer them, too, and
make them also a part of France. So all the
other countries joined together to beat him. Napoleon
planned to conquer England first, and
he got ready a fleet to cross over to England.
But his fleet was caught off Spain near a point
called Trafalgar by the same English admiral,
Lord Nelson, who had beaten him in Egypt.
Before this battle, Nelson said to his sailors,
“England expects that every man will do his
duty,” and they did it. Napoleon’s fleet was
utterly destroyed, though Nelson himself was
killed.</p>

<p>Napoleon then gave up the idea of conquering
England, and he turned his attention in the opposite
direction. He had beaten Spain and Prussia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432"></span>
and Austria. Almost all Europe either
belonged to him or had to do what he said. Then
he attacked Russia. It was a great mistake he
made, for Russia was far off, and it was wintertime
and very cold. Still, he managed to reach
Moscow way off in the center of Russia with his
army. But the Russians burned the city and
destroyed all the food, so that Napoleon had
nothing with which to feed his army. It was
terribly cold; there were deep snows; and, in
retreating, his army suffered enormous losses.
Napoleon himself soon made a bee-line to Paris
leaving his army to get back the best way they
could. Men and horses died of cold and hunger
by the thousands. Napoleon reached Paris, but
his fortune had turned. All of Europe was getting
ready to put an end to the tyrant, and it
was not long after this that he was hemmed in
and beaten by his enemies.</p>

<p>When Napoleon saw that he was beaten, he
signed a paper saying that he would give up and
leave France. And so he did, sailing away to a
little island called Elba, just off the coast of
Italy, not far from the island where he was born.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig94.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Napoleon at St. Helena.</p>
</div>

<p>But Napoleon on the island of Elba got an
idea that all was not lost and that he might return
to France and get back his power again. So all
of a sudden, to the surprise of France and the
rest of the world, he landed on the coast of
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433"></span>France. The French Government at Paris sent
an army of his old soldiers against him with
orders to meet him and bring him to Paris in an
iron cage. But when his old soldiers met their
old general they went over to his side, and so
with them he marched on to Paris. The English
and German armies were north of France and
preparing to fight. Napoleon quickly got together
an army and went forth to meet them.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434"></span>
At a little town called Waterloo, Napoleon
fought his last battle, for there he was utterly
beaten by an English general named Wellington.
This was the Year 1815. We still speak
and probably always will speak of any great defeat
as “Waterloo.”</p>

<p>There is a peculiar sentence which reads backward
the same as forward. It is what Napoleon
might have said after all was over. It is:</p>


<p class="c">ABLE WAS I ERE I SAW ELBA</p>


<p>After Napoleon was beaten at Waterloo, the
English took him away and put him on a little
island far off in the ocean where he could not
possibly escape. It was a lonely spot named
St. Helena after the mother of Constantine.
Here he lived for six years before he died.</p>

<p>Napoleon was probably the greatest general
that ever lived, but that does not mean that he
was the greatest man. Some say he was the
worst, for just to make himself great, he killed
hundreds of thousands of people and brought
destruction and ruin to the whole of Europe
wherever he fought his battles.</p>

<p>This brings us up into the nineteenth century,
for Napoleon died in 1821. How long ago is
that?</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_435"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c74">74</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">From Pan and His Pipes to the<br />
Phonograph</p>


<p class="pc">
Frogs croak;<br />
Cats me-ow;<br />
Dogs bark;<br />
Sheep bleat;<br />
Cows moo;<br />
Lions roar;<br />
Hyenas laugh;</p>

<p class="pca">
But only birds and people <i>sing</i>.<br />
All other animals simply make noises.<br />
But people can do what birds cannot.<br />
They can also make music out of <i>things</i>.
</p>

<p>Have you ever made a cigar-box fiddle or a
pin piano or musical glasses?</p>

<p>In the long-ago story-book times Apollo took
a pair of cow-horns and fastened between them
seven strings made from the cow’s skin. This
was called a lyre. These strings he picked with
his fingers or with a quill, making a little tinkling
sound that could hardly have been very beautiful.
Yet Apollo’s son Orpheus is said to have
learned from his father to play so beautifully on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436"></span>
the lyre that the birds and wild beasts and even
trees and rocks gathered round to hear him.</p>

<p>Pan, the god of the woods, who had goat’s
horns and ears and legs and feet, tied together
several whistles of different lengths and played
on these as you might on a mouth-organ. This
instrument was called Pan’s pipes.</p>

<p>The lyre and Pan’s pipes were the two earliest
musical instruments. The first was a stringed
instrument; the second a wind instrument. The
long strings and long pipes made low notes; the
short strings and short pipes made high tones.</p>

<p>From Apollo’s lyre we get the piano with its
many, many strings. Did you ever look at the
inside of a piano and see the many strings of
different lengths? They are, however, not picked
as the strings of a lyre or harp are picked, but
hammered by little felt-covered blocks as you
touch the keys.</p>

<p>From Pan’s pipes we get the great church
organ with its pipes like giant whistles. You
don’t, of course, blow the pipes with your mouth
as you do a whistle. The pipes are so big you
must blow them with a machine like a tire-pump,
and you do this as you touch the keys.</p>

<p>We know what the instruments in olden times
were like, but we don’t know what the music that
people made was really like; there were no phonographs
to bottle up the sounds and, when uncorked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437"></span>
a thousand years later, to pour forth the
old notes once again. The music went off into
thin air and was lost.</p>

<p>It was not until about the Year 1000 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> that
music could even be written down. Before then
all music was played “by ear,” for there was no
written music. A Benedictine monk named Guy,
or, in Italian, Guido, thought of a way to write
down musical notes, and he named the notes do,
re, mi, fa, and so on. These were the first letters
of the words of a hymn to St. John which the
monks sang like the scale.</p>

<p>Another Italian is sometimes called the “father
of modern music.” His name is Palestrina, and
he died about 1600. He set the church service
to music, and the pope ordered all churches to
follow it, but the people didn’t like his music
very much; that is, it was not what we call “popular.”</p>

<p>It was not until a hundred years later&mdash;that
is, about 1700&mdash;that the first great musician lived
who wrote music that was really popular, that
the people loved, and that we still love to-day.</p>

<p>He was a German named Handel. His father
was a barber, a dentist, and doctor, and he wanted
his boy to become a great lawyer. But the only
thing the boy liked was music.</p>

<p>In those days there were no pianos. There was
a little instrument with strings which was played<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438"></span>
by touching keys. This was called a clavichord.
Sometimes it had legs like a table. Sometimes
it had no legs and was just laid on a table.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig95.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Handel is found in the attic.</p>
</div>

<p>Handel, though only six years old, got hold of
one of these instruments, and, without any one
finding out about it, he had it put up in his room
in the attic of his house. After every one had
gone to bed at night he would practise on this
clavichord until late, when he was supposed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439"></span>
be in bed. One night his family heard sounds
up under the roof. Wondering what it could
be, they took a lantern, and, quietly climbing the
attic stairs, they suddenly opened the door, and
there sat little Handel in his night-clothes on a
chair with his feet reaching only half-way to the
floor, playing on the clavichord.</p>

<p>After that Handel’s father saw it was no use
trying to make his son a lawyer. So he got
teachers for him, and before long the boy amazed
the world with his playing. He went to England,
lived there, became an Englishman, and
when he died the English people buried him in
Westminster Abbey, a church in which famous
Englishmen were buried.</p>

<p>Handel “set the Bible to music.” These songs
with the Bible words to be sung by a chorus of
voices were called <i>oratorios</i>, and one of these
oratorios named “The Messiah” is sung almost
everywhere at Christmas-time.</p>

<p>Living at the same time with Handel was another
German musician named Bach. Bach
played divinely on the organ as Handel did on
the clavichord and wrote some of the finest music
for the organ that ever has been written. Strange
that both Handel and Bach went blind in their
old age, but to them it was sound, not sight, that
counted most. Here is another good subject for
an argument: would you rather be deaf or blind?</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_440"></span></p>

<p>Almost all musical geniuses have been musical
wonders when they were still babies. They have
been great musicians even before learning to read
and write.</p>

<p>One such genius was born just before Handel
died. He was an Austrian named Mozart.</p>

<p>Mozart when only four years old played the
piano wonderfully. He also wrote music&mdash;composing,
it is called&mdash;for others to play.</p>

<p>Mozart’s father and sister played very well,
so the three went on a concert tour. Mozart,
the boy wonder, played before the empress, and
everywhere he went he was treated like a prince,
petted and praised and given parties and presents.</p>

<p>Then he grew up and married, and ever after
he had the hardest kind of a time trying to make
a living. He composed all sorts of things, plays
with music called operas, and symphonies, which
are written for whole orchestras to play; but he
made so little money that when he died he had to
be buried where they put people who were too
poor to have a grave for themselves alone. People
afterward thought it a shame that such a
great composer should have no monument over
his grave, but then it was too late to find where
he was buried. A monument was put up, but to
this day no one knows where Mozart’s body lies.</p>

<p>A German named Beethoven had read the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441"></span>
stories of the boy wonder, Mozart, and he thought
he, too, would like to have a boy wonder to play
before kings and queens. So when his son Louis
was only five years old he kept the boy practising
long hours at the piano until he became so tired
that the tears ran down his cheeks. But Louis
Beethoven, or Ludwig, as he was called in German,
finally came to be one of the greatest musicians
that have ever lived. He could sit at the
piano and make up the most beautiful music as
he went along&mdash;improvise, as it is called&mdash;but he
was never satisfied with it when written down.
Time and time again he would scratch out and
rewrite his music until it had been rewritten often
a dozen times.</p>

<p>But Beethoven’s hearing began to grow dull.
He was worried that he might lose it entirely&mdash;a
terrible thing to happen to any one, but to one
whose hearing was his fortune nothing could be
worse. And at last he did become deaf. This
loss of his hearing made Beethoven hopelessly
sad and bad-tempered, cross with everything and
everybody. Nevertheless, he didn’t give up;
he kept on composing just the same, even after
he could no longer hear what he had written.</p>

<p>Another great and unusual German musician
named Wagner lived until 1883. Though he
practised all his life, he never could play very
well. But he composed the most wonderful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442"></span>
operas that have ever been written, and he wrote
not only the music but the words, too. He took
old myths and fairy-tales and made them into
plays to be sung to music. At first some people
made fun of his music, for it seemed to them so
noisy and “slam-bangy” and without tune. But
people now make fun of those “some people” who
don’t like it!</p>

<p>I have told you in other places of painters and
poets, of architects and wise men, of kings and
heroes, of wars and troubles. I have put this
story of music of all ages in one chapter which
I have tucked in here between the acts, to give
you a rest for a moment from wars and rumors of
wars.</p>

<p>When I was a boy I never heard any great
musicians play. Now you and I can turn on the
phonograph any time and hear the music of
Palestrina or Mozart, of Beethoven or Wagner,
of dozens of other masters, played or sung to us
whenever we wish; the greatest musicians become
our slaves. No caliph in the “Arabian Nights”
could command such service to his pleasure!</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_443"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c75">75</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Daily Papers of 1854-1865</p>


<p><span class="smcap">If</span> you could go up into your grandfather’s
attic or the attic of somebody else’s grandfather,
or would dig down into some old trunk, you
might find some of the newspapers that were
printed during the years from 1854 to 1865.
Then you might actually read in these daily
papers the happenings that I am now going to
tell you about. Many people still alive have
taken part in some of these events themselves or
know those who have. Under the heading, “Foreign
News,” you would probably find some of the
following things told about:</p>

<p><span class="smcap large">English News.</span> At this time the queen of
England was named Victoria. She was much
beloved by her people because she had such a
kindly nature and Christian spirit. She was
more like a mother to her people than like a
queen. She ruled for more than half a century,
and the time when she ruled is called the Victorian
Age.</p>

<p>The English news of 1854 would tell about a
war that the English were then fighting with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444"></span>
Russia. Russia was a long way off, and so the
English had to send their soldiers in boats
through the Mediterranean Sea to the end, then
past Constantinople in to the Black Sea. There
in a little spot of land that jutted out from Russia
into the Black Sea most of the fighting was
done. This little spot of land was called the
Crimea, and the war therefore was called the
Crimean War. In this war in that far-off land
thousands of English soldiers died from wounds
and disease.</p>

<p>Now, there was living in England at the time
of this war a lady named Florence Nightingale.
She was very tender-hearted and always looking
out for and taking care of those that were
sick. Even as a little girl she had played that
her dolls were sick with headache or a broken leg,
and she would bandage the aching head or broken
leg and pretend to take care of her sick patient.
When her dog was ill she nursed him as carefully
as if he were a human being.</p>

<p>Florence Nightingale heard that English soldiers
were dying by the thousands in that distant
land far away from home and that there were no
nurses to take care of the wounded. So she got
together a number of ladies, and they went out
to the Crimea. Before she arrived almost half
the soldiers who were wounded died&mdash;fifty soldiers
out of a hundred; after she and her nurses
came, only two in a hundred died. She went<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445"></span>
about through the camps and over the battlefields
at night carrying a lamp looking for the
wounded. The soldiers called her the Lady of
the Lamp, and they all loved her.</p>

<p>When at last the war was over and she returned
to England, the Government voted to give her
a large sum of money for what she had done.
She, however, refused the money for herself but
took it to found a home for training nurses.
Nowadays trained nurses are thought almost as
necessary as doctors, and any one who is sick can
call in a trained nurse to take care of him, but
at that time there were no trained nurses and no
one had ever heard of such a thing. Florence
Nightingale was the first to start trained nursing,
and so she is looked upon almost as a saint
by trained nurses.</p>

<p>In one battle in the Crimea a company of
soldiers mounted on horseback were given by
mistake an order to attack the enemy. Though
they knew it meant certain death, they never hesitated
but charged, and two-thirds of them were
killed or wounded in less than half an hour.
Lord Tennyson, the English poet, has told this
story in verse which you may know. It is called
“The Charge of the Light Brigade.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap large">Japanese News.</span> Japan is a group of islands
near China. Although I have not told you about
it before, it was an old country, settled in its ways
even before Rome was founded. In Europe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446"></span>
there have been constant changes of kings and
rulers and people and countries. But in Japan
they have had the same line of kings since before
Christ.</p>

<p>Japan wanted no white people in her country,
and, with a very few exceptions, she had always
kept them out. But in 1854, the same year that
England began the Crimean War, an American
naval officer named Commodore Perry went to
Japan and made an agreement, or treaty, as it is
called, by which Japan allowed white people to
come in and do business with her people. The
Japanese seemed hungry for knowledge, to learn
how to do things in the white man’s way. When
Perry first went to Japan the Japanese lived the
same way they had a thousand years before.
They knew nothing of the white man’s inventions
or ways of living. But in fifty years’ time they
have jumped a thousand years in civilization!</p>

<p>These are some of the things you might read
about in those old newspapers. Such news would
probably have taken up little space; perhaps they
would have been found down at the bottom of
a column if the newspaper were American. But
if the paper was printed between 1861 and 1864,
the greater part of it would be about a war that
was going on in our own country at that time.
This was a war between our own people, a family
quarrel, which we call the Civil War.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_447"></span></p>

<p>Two parts of our country, the North and the
South, did not agree on several matters, chief of
which was the question whether the South could
own slaves. So they went to war with each other.
Each side fought for what it believed was right,
and thousands upon thousands gave their lives
for what they believed. The war lasted for four
years, from 1861 to 1865, before it was decided
that no one could ever again own slaves in the
United States.</p>

<p>Some of you who read these pages had grandfathers
or great-grandfathers who fought in this
war. Some of these fought for the South; some
fought for the North. Some of them may have
died for the South; some of them may have died
for the North.</p>

<p>The President of the United States at this
time was a man named Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln
was a very poor boy who had been born in
a log cabin. He had taught himself to read by
the light of a blazing knot of wood at night after
his day’s work was done. As he was very poor,
he had only a few books, and these he read over
and over again. One of these books was the same
“Æsop’s Fables” that you read. When Lincoln
was a young man, he became a storekeeper. One
day he found that he had given a poor woman a
smaller package of tea than she had paid for,
and so he closed the store and walked many miles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448"></span>
to her house in order to return the change. People
began to call him Honest Abe after that, for
he was always very honest and kind-hearted.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig96.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Lincoln visiting camp and shaking hands with the soldiers.</p>
</div>

<p>He studied hard and became a lawyer and at
last was elected President of the United States.
One day while he was in a theater watching a play
he was shot and killed by one of the actors who
thought Lincoln had not done right in freeing
the slaves.</p>

<p>Lincoln was one of our greatest Presidents.
Washington started our country; Lincoln prevented
its splitting into two parts, and kept it
together as one big united land to grow into the
great country it now is.</p>
<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_449"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c76">76</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Three New Postage-Stamps</p>


<p><span class="smcap">We</span> are getting pretty close to the present
time, to “Now.”</p>

<p>Let us look backward a minute to see what had
been going on in Europe since the time of Napoleon.</p>

<p>After Napoleon had been sent to Elba, the
French had to have another ruler. They wanted
their old kings back again. The family name of
their old kings was Bourbon. So the French
thought they ought to have a Bourbon ruler over
them. Accordingly they tried out three Bourbons
one after the other, all relatives of their last
king, whom they had beheaded.</p>

<p>But all of them proved no good, the French
people had given the Bourbon family a good tryout,
and so at last they stopped worrying with
kings and started another republic.</p>

<p>Now, a republic has a president instead of a
king, so that the people had to choose a president;
and whom do you suppose they picked out?
Why, the nephew of Napoleon. The nephew of
Napoleon was named Louis Napoleon. He had
planned and plotted again and again to make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450"></span>
himself king of France, but again and again he
had failed. And now he was elected president!
But Louis Napoleon didn’t want to be <i>only</i>
president. He wanted to be like his uncle the
great Napoleon. He dreamed of being emperor
and conquering Europe, and so it was not long
after this before he had himself made emperor,
and he called himself Napoleon III.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Napoleon I had a young son who might have been Napoleon II
if he had lived. The story is, that when Napoleon III was made
emperor his name was printed simply with three exclamation
marks after it&mdash;“Napoleon!!!” and this was by mistake read
Napoleon III.</p>

</div>

<p>Napoleon III was jealous of the neighboring
country of Prussia. She was getting to be too
strong, he thought. Prussia had a king at this
time named William who was very able himself,
and he had an able assistant or prime minister
named Bismarck, who was looking for an excuse
to fight France. So presently a war was started
between the two countries in 1870. Napoleon
soon found he had made a bad mistake in picking
the war with Prussia. Prussia was not <i>getting</i>
too strong; she was already too strong.</p>

<p>Napoleon III was completely beaten by Prussia,
and he with a large army had to surrender.
Then in disgrace he went to live in England.</p>

<p>The Prussians marched into Paris and made
the French agree to pay them a billion dollars.
When some of the French towns said they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451"></span>
couldn’t pay, Bismarck lined up the leading
citizens of the place and told them they would be
shot if they didn’t raise the money that was demanded.
So France paid, and to the wonder
and amazement of everybody she paid this immense
sum in two years’ time. But the French
and the French children have never forgotten the
way they were made to pay and the way they
were treated by the Prussians, and so ever since
then there has been deadly enmity between these
two countries. This war was called the Franco-Prussian
War, as it was between France and
Prussia.</p>

<p>There were a number of little countries near
Prussia. They were called German states. But
though their people were related, the countries
or states were separate. As a result of this war,
Prussia was able to join all these German states
together and to make for the first time one big,
strong, powerful nation called Germany, feared
by other countries on account of her great army
of fighting men. William was made emperor
of all Germany and called kaiser. He was
crowned in the French palace at Versailles that
Louis XIV had built.</p>

<p>The French thought the Germans had been
able to win this war because they had public
schools in which all their children were trained,
and because of the way their soldiers were drilled.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452"></span>
So France set to work and started public schools
everywhere in France and imitated the German
way of drilling their army so that they would be
ready for them in the next war.</p>

<p>Ever since then France has been a republic
with a president and an Assembly chosen by the
people.</p>

<p>At that time Italy was not a single country as
now but like Germany a collection of small states.
Some of these were independent, some were
owned by France, some were owned by Austria.
The king of one of these Italian states was Victor
Emmanuel. He wanted all the Italian states to
unite and become one single country like our
United States. He was helped by his prime minister,
a very able man named Cavour, and by a
rough but romantic popular hero named Garibaldi,
who was called the hero of the Red Shirt.</p>

<p>Garibaldi, who had been a candle-maker in
New York City, was always poor and seemed
not to care for money. He was so popular that
whenever he called for soldiers to fight with him
for his beloved Italy, they at once flocked around
him ready to fight to the death.</p>

<p>And so at last these three, Victor Emmanuel,
Cavour, and Garibaldi, succeeded in making their
country one big nation. The Italians erected
monuments to them and named streets after
them. To Victor Emmanuel they built a magnificent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453"></span>
building on a hill in Rome overlooking
the city, a building that was intended to be more
beautiful than anything built in Athens during
the time of Pericles or in Italy during the
Renaissance.</p>

<p>If you collect postage-stamps it would be interesting
for you to get, if you can, stamps of
these countries at that time, the New French Republic,
United Germany, and United Italy.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig97.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_454"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c77">77</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">The Age of Miracles</p>


<p><span class="smcap">You</span> may think the Age of Miracles was when
Christ lived.</p>

<p>But if a man who lived at that time should
come back to earth now he would think <i>this</i> the
Age of Miracles.</p>

<p>If he heard you talk over a wire to a person a
thousand miles away, he would think you a magician.</p>

<p>If you showed him people moving and acting
on a movie screen, he would think you a witch.</p>

<p>If he heard you start a band playing by turning
on a phonograph, he would think you a devil.</p>

<p>If he saw you fly through the air in an airplane,
he would think you a god.</p>

<p>We are so used to the telephone, telegraph, and
phonograph; to steamboats, steam railroads, and
trolley-cars; to electric lights, motor-cars, moving
pictures, radio, and airplanes, that it is hard
to imagine a world in which there were none of
these things&mdash;absolutely none of these things.
Yet in the Year 1800 not a single one of these inventions
was known.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_455"></span></p>

<p>Neither George Washington nor Napoleon
ever saw a steam-engine, a steam-car, nor a
steamboat. They had never used a telephone nor
a telegraph nor a bicycle. My own grandfather
never saw a trolley-car nor an electric light.
Even my father never saw a phonograph, a moving
picture, an automobile, nor a flying-machine.</p>

<p>More wonders have been made in the last hundred
years than in all the previous centuries of
the world put together.</p>

<p>A Scotchman named James Watt was one of
the first of these magicians whom we call inventors.
Watt had watched a boiling kettle on the
stove and noticed that the steam lifted the lid.
This gave him an idea that steam might lift other
things as well as the lid of a tea-kettle. So he
made a machine in which steam lifted a lid called
a piston in such a way as to turn a wheel. This
was the first steam-engine.</p>

<p>Watt’s steam-engine moved wheels and other
things, but it didn’t move itself. An Englishman
named Stephenson put Watt’s engine on
wheels and made the engine move its own wheels.
This was the first locomotive. Soon funny-looking
carriages drawn by funny-looking engines
were made to run on tracks in America. At first
these trains ran only a few miles out from such
cities as Baltimore and Philadelphia.</p>

<p>Then a young fellow named Robert Fulton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456"></span>
thought he could make a boat go by putting
Watt’s engine on board and making it turn paddle-wheels.
People laughed at him and called
the boat he was building “Fulton’s Folly,” which
means “foolishness.” But the boat worked, and
Fulton had the laugh on those who had laughed
at him. He called his boat the <i>Clermont</i>, and it
made regular trips up and down the river.</p>

<p>No one had ever before been able to talk to another
far off until the telegraph was invented.
The telegraph makes a clicking sound. Electricity
flows through a wire from one place to another
place which may be a long distance off. If
you press a button at one end of the wire you stop
the electricity flowing through the wire, and the
instrument at the other end makes a click. A
short click is called a dot, and a long click is called
a dash. These dots and dashes stand for letters
of the alphabet, so you can spell out a message
by dots and dashes.</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="table">

<tr><td class="tdl">A is</td>
    <td class="tdlb">· —</td>
    <td class="tdl">dot-dash</td></tr>


<tr><td class="tdl">B is</td>
    <td class="tdlb">&nbsp;— ···</td>
    <td class="tdl">dash-dot-dot-dot</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl">E is</td>
    <td class="tdlb">·</td>
    <td class="tdl">dot</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl">H is</td>
    <td class="tdlb">····</td>
    <td class="tdl">dot-dot-dot-dot</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdl">T is</td>
    <td class="tdlb">&nbsp;—</td>
    <td class="tdl">dash</td></tr>

</table>

<p>An American painter named Morse invented this
wonderful little instrument. He built the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457"></span>
telegraph line in America between Baltimore and
Washington, and this was the first message he
clicked across it: “What hath God wrought!”</p>

<p>A school-teacher named Bell was trying to
find some way of making deaf children hear, and
in doing so he invented the telephone. The telephone
carries words as the telegraph carries
clicks. You do not have to know a special alphabet
or spell out words by dots and dashes as you
do on the telegraph. With the telephone any
one can talk from one side of America to the
other.</p>

<p>Many inventions now in every-day use have
been partly invented by several people, so that
it is hard to say just which one thought of the
invention first. Several people thought of a way
to run a machine by feeding it electricity. This
was the electric motor. Then others thought of a
way to run a machine by exploding gas. This
was the motor used in automobiles.</p>

<p>Electric lights, such as we use indoors, were
invented by Thomas Alva Edison. Edison is
called a wizard, because in the Middle Ages
wizards were supposed to be able to do and to
make all sorts of wonderful and impossible
things, to turn lead into gold, to make people invisible,
and that sort of thing. But Edison has
done things that no wizard of a fairy-tale had
ever even thought of. Edison was a poor boy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458"></span>
who sold newspapers and magazines on a train.
He was interested in all sorts of experiments and
fitted up a place in the baggage-car where he
could make experiments. But he made so much
of a mess in the car that at last the baggage-man
kicked Edison’s whole outfit off the train. Edison
invented many things connected with the
phonograph and the movies, and he has probably
made more useful and important inventions than
any other man who has ever lived, so that he is
much greater than those mere kings who have
done nothing but quarrel and destroy&mdash;without
whom the world would have been much better off
if they had never lived!</p>

<p>Thousands of people who have lived in the past
ages have tried to fly and failed. Millions of
people have said it was impossible to fly and
foolish to try. Some have even said it was wicked
to try, that God meant that only birds and angels
should fly. At last, after long years of work
and thousands of trials, two American brothers
named Wright did the impossible. They invented
the airplane and flew.</p>

<p>An Italian named Marconi invented the radio,
and others every day are still making wonderful
inventions, but you will have to read about these
yourself, for we are near the end of our history.</p>

<p>Here is a good subject for an argument or debate:
Are we any happier <i>with</i> all these inventions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459"></span>
than people were a thousand years ago
<i>without</i> them?</p>

<p>Life is faster and more exciting; but it is more
difficult and more dangerous. Instead of enjoying
a book curled up in the corner of a sofa by a
crackling fire, we leave a steam radiator and go
out to the movies. Instead of singing or playing
the violin, we turn on the graphophone or the
player-piano and miss the chief joy in music, the
joy of making it ourselves. Instead of the jogging
drive in an old buggy behind a horse that
goes along through the country-side almost by
himself, we speed on in dangerous autos, to which
we must pay constant, undivided attention or be
wrecked.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig98.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_460"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c78">78</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">GERMANY FIGHTS THE WORLD</p>


<p>The last chapter was one of the few without
a fight in it. But now, to make up for that, I
must tell you about the greatest and the worst
fight in history.</p>

<p>There is a little country in Europe called
Serbia. It is next door to Austria. A young
man who lived in Serbia shot an Austrian prince.
Little Serbia apologized to Austria for what
one of her people had done. But Austria insisted
that the Serbian nation was to blame for
what had been done; she refused to accept the
apology and started in to punish Serbia.</p>

<p>I once saw a little dog snap at a big boy. The
owner of the little dog apologized to the big boy
for what his dog had done. But the big boy did
not accept the apology, and he started in to
thrash the little boy for what his dog had done.
Presently a crowd gathered round, the friends
of each boy took sides, and there was a general
free-for-all “scrap.”</p>

<p>So it was in this case. One of Austria’s big
friends, Germany, took sides against Serbia, and
Russia took the side of Serbia. Ever since the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461"></span>
time of the Franco-Prussian War and Bismarck
and William, Germany had been in training for
a fight, and so had her neighbors. Nearly all the
countries of Europe had for years been getting
together into two groups, made up of the friends
and the enemies of Germany; and the two were
ready to jump at each other as soon as Austria,
or Germany, or anybody else, struck at any one.</p>

<p>But Germany didn’t strike at Serbia; Austria
didn’t really need her help against Serbia. Germany
was sure that France, who was her enemy
and Russia’s friend, would take sides against
her; and so she rushed at France to destroy her
before Russia could hit hard from the other side.
Now, to get at France Germany had to get
through the little country of Belgium. She and
France had agreed that neither would march
armies through Belgium, but when the war
began her armies marched in anyway and pushed
aside the Belgians, who tried to stop them. And
so her armies rushed on toward the capital of
France, Paris. She got as far as a little stream
called the Marne, only twenty miles from Paris.
But here the French under General Foch stopped
her army. This battle of the Marne is probably
the most famous of all the battles you have heard
about in history, for though the war was not
ended for four years after this battle, if the Germans
had won at the Marne, the war would have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_462"></span>
been over, with Germany victor, and the rest of
the world would have had to do what Germany
said.</p>

<p>Germany was the first to use poison gas, trying
to smother her enemy; she fought with
submarines from under the sea; she attacked
passenger ships that could not fight back. The
English navy was the strongest, and it was only
with submarines that Germany could fight at
sea. This war was the first one in history in
which battles were fought not only on land but
up in the air and down under the water.</p>

<p>England took sides with France and Russia&mdash;and
these were called Allies&mdash;to fight against
Germany and Austria, and at first the war was
between these countries only. Before the war
ended, however, almost all the countries of the
world had taken sides against Germany, for they
knew that if she won she would be able to tell
the rest of the world what to do. Then all of a
sudden Russia had a revolution. The Russian
people killed their ruler, the czar, and his family,
and refused to fight any longer. Things began
to look pretty bad for the Allies.</p>

<p>The United States did not start into the war
until 1917, almost three years after it had begun;
then she did so because German submarines were
sinking American passenger ships and killing
Americans.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_463"></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig99.jpg" alt="" />
<p class="caption">Surrender of Germans.</p>
</div>

<p>America was so far off&mdash;three thousand miles
away&mdash;and across an ocean that it seemed impossible
that she could do much in the war. But
in a very short time she had sent two million
soldiers across in ships. Under General Pershing
they fought great battles. At last Germany was
utterly beaten, and on Armistice day, November<span class="pagenum" id="Page_464"></span>
11, 1918, Germany signed a paper agreeing to
do everything the Allies asked; and so the greatest
war in history ended. The kaiser went to live
in Holland, and Germany became a republic.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig100.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_465"></span></p>

<h2 class="nobreak" id="c79">79</h2>
</div>

<p class="c xlarge">Yesterday, To-day, and To-morrow</p>


<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is a candy shop near where I live. On
its sign it says, “Made Fresh Every Hour.”
History is being made every day. It is being
made fresh almost every hour. The newsboy
even now is calling outside of my window, “Extra!
Extra!” Is it a new war? Is it a new discovery?
If you had clipped head-lines from the
papers since the World War, here are some of
the things you might have pasted in your scrapbook.</p>

<div class="blockquotb">

<p>
TREATY OF PEACE<br />
SIGNED AT VERSAILLES
</p>

<p>
Nations Agree on Terms of Peace</p>
<p>
The Mohammedan Turks in the East Are<br />
Again Threatening the Christian<br />
Nations of the West</p>

<p>
THE IRISH FREE<br />
STATE ESTABLISHED</p>
<p>
After Centuries of Struggle to Become<br />
Independent of England, Ireland at<br />
Last, with England’s Permission, Has<br />
Set Up a Government of Her Own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_466"></span>
</p>
<p>
COLUMBUS OF THE AIR</p>
<p>
Read, an American, Crosses Atlantic<br />
Ocean for First Time in an Airplane;<br />
Lands at the Azores and Then in<br />
Portugal; Several Others Soon Follow,<br />
and the Ocean Is Crossed a Number of<br />
Times
</p>
<p>
WOMEN CAN VOTE AT LAST</p>
<p>
All Through the Ages Women Have Had<br />
Little or No “Say” in the Government;<br />
Now, for the First Time, They Can<br />
Vote in Our Country and in Most<br />
Other Civilized Countries
</p>
<p>
STRONG DRINK PROHIBITED</p>
<p>
The Use of Wine and Strong Drink,<br />
Which Has Caused So Much Crime,<br />
Disease, Death and Unhappiness, Has<br />
Been Forbidden in the United States<br />
and Limited in Many Other Countries;<br />
in the Generations to Come, Men Will<br />
Probably Marvel That There Was Once<br />
a Time When People Drank Poison for<br />
Pleasure
</p></div>

<p>From now on you will have to read your history
in the daily papers.</p>

<p>Up to this time, history has been marked by
the story of one war after another, some big,
some small, some short, some long. Almost always
a fight has been going on somewhere. It
has been War, War, War; Fight, Fight, Fight.
Children scratch, kick, and bite. But the older<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467"></span>
we get, the less do we use our fists and feet to
settle quarrels. So fighting seems to be a sign
of childhood&mdash;that we are “kids”&mdash;and our fights,
that we call wars, a sign of how young the world
really is and we really are; a sign that the world
is still but a minute or two old.</p>

<p>Now, we admire and praise as heroes Horatius,
Leonidas, Joan of Arc, and General Foch
and those others who have defended their countries
against the attacks of the enemy, as we
would admire a man who shoots a burglar or a
murderer that attacks his family in the night.
But those, whether kings, generals, or princes,
who do the attacking and take life with no other
excuse than to add to their power or wealth or
glory, are no better than burglars who go forth
with a gun and a blackjack to waylay, rob, and
murder for the same purpose. War kills, war
destroys, war costs millions of lives and billions
of dollars&mdash;money that could be used to make
us happy, instead of causing bitterness, suffering,
misery, and unhappiness; blind men and
cripples, widows and orphans. No one is better
off, not even the winner. It is a terrible game,
in which even the winner loses. And yet in the
long run who knows? It may be the only way
the world can grow!</p>

<p>But this is certain: if wars do not end, they
will be fought with something more deadly, more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468"></span>
terrible than shot and shell. Sooner or later,
some man of science will invent a disease more
catching than the terrible plague, more deadly
than the Black Death with which to attack the
enemy. But if such a disease is let loose, once
started it will spread from one being to the next
till every one has caught it and died and no one
will escape. Or he will invent a poison to poison
the air we breathe that will spread like the wind
or like wildfire in dry grass, and there will be
no stopping it. The air that wraps the globe will
be a sea of poison gas. Every thing that breathes
will take only one breath, and every man, woman,
and child, every beast of the field, every bird and
flying thing will drop dead. Or he will invent
something a million times more powerful than
gunpowder or dynamite&mdash;something so explosive
that when discovered by some Mr. Swartz it will
blow him, his house, his town, his country, and
the whole world to kingdom come&mdash;and that will
be the end of this little spark off the sun.</p>

<p>Perhaps you have looked through a microscope
at what seem to be wars between germs. As
germs might look up at the eye of the microscope
through which we watch their life-and-death
struggles, and wonder what is up above on the
other side looking down at them, so we may
look up at the blue eye of heaven above us and
wonder what all-seeing, all-knowing, all-powerful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_469"></span>
being up there is watching our own life-and-death
struggles here below.</p>

<p>Our little world, which seems so immense to
us, is really only a tiny speck, only one of countless
other specks floating in space; it is like one
of the tiny motes which you may see any time in
a sunbeam that shines in at the window. Who
has an eye so keen that he can count the moving
motes in such a beam of light? Who would miss
one such grain of dust if it should disappear? So
this grain of dust we call the World and all
of us who live upon it could vanish without ever
being noticed!</p>

<p>This story ends here, but only for the present,
for history is a continued story and will never
end.</p>

<p>If you were living in the Year 10,000 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, as
some boy will be, your history would only be just
begun when you had reached where we are now.
Even the World War would then seem as long
ago as the fights of the Stone Age men seem to
us. You might think of us and all the inventions
we consider so wonderful as we think of the discovery
of copper and bronze.</p>

<p>Will the history that is written in the Year 10,000
have any wars to tell about? If the wars
on Earth cease, will there be wars with other
worlds?</p>

<p>And if there are no more wars, what will history<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470"></span>
tell about? Will it be new inventions?
What kinds? Will it be new discoveries? We
know every corner of the world now. Will it be
the inside of this world or other new worlds or a
spiritual world?</p>

<p>Perhaps then people will no longer use trains,
steamboats, automobiles, or even flying-machines,
but go from place to place as on some magic carpet,
simply by wishing. Perhaps then they will
no longer use letters, telephones, or telegraphs,
or even radio, but read each other’s thoughts at
any distance.</p>

<p>And so on&mdash;World without end&mdash;<span class="smcap">Amen!</span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/fig101.jpg" alt="" />
</div>

<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />

<div class="chapter">
<p class="ph2">PRONOUNCING INDEX</p>
</div>


<p>This list of the most important names in the book tells you on
what page you may find each name and how to sound those you
may not know.</p>

<table summary="sounds">

<tr><td class="tdc">Sound</td>
    <td class="tdc">a</td>
    <td class="tdcp">as</td>
    <td class="tdc">in</td>
    <td class="tdl">hat.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">aw</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">saw.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">ah</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">ah!</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">ee</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">see.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">e or eh</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">get.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">er</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">her.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">i or ih</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">hit</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">igh</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">right.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">o</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">hot.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">oh</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">oh!</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">ow</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">how.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">u or uh</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">up.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">ew</td>
    <td class="tdcp">“</td>
    <td class="tdc">“</td>
    <td class="tdl">few.</td></tr>


</table>


<ul class="index">
<li class="ifrst">Aaron (air´ un), <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>

<li class="indx">Abednego (a bed´ nee go), <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>

<li class="indx">Abraham (ay´ bra ham), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Acropolis (a krop´ o lis), <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>

<li class="indx">Adolphus, Gustavus (a dolf´ us), <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>

<li class="indx">Æneas (ee nee´ as), <a href="#Page_190">190</a> etc., <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Æneid (ee nee´ id), <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Æsop’s Fables (ee´ sop), <a href="#Page_447">447</a></li>

<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>

<li class="indx">Age of Discovery, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>

<li class="indx">Age of Miracles, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>

<li class="indx">Aix-la-chapelle (ayks - la - sha pell´), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>

<li class="indx">Alaric (al´ a rik), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>

<li class="indx">Alcuin (al´ kwin), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>

<li class="indx">Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> to 168</li>

<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>

<li class="indx">Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> to 270</li>

<li class="indx">Allah (al´ ah), <a href="#Page_244">244</a> to 247</li>

<li class="indx">Alps, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>

<li class="indx">America, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>

<li class="indx">Americus, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>

<li class="indx">Angle-land, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>

<li class="indx">Angles, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> to 230</li>

<li class="indx">Anglo-Saxons, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>

<li class="indx">Anno Domini, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>

<li class="indx">Antony (an´ to nih), <a href="#Page_190">190</a> to 192</li>

<li class="indx">Aphrodite (af ro digh´ tih), <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>

<li class="indx">Apollo (a pol´ lo), <a href="#Page_58">58</a> to 63</li>

<li class="indx">Arabesques (air a besks´), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>

<li class="indx">Arabia, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a> to 256</li>

<li class="indx">Arabian Nights, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>

<li class="indx">Arabs, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> to 256</li>

<li class="indx">Ares (ay´ reez), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>

<li class="indx">Arch of Constantine, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Arch of Titus, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Aristides (air is tigh´ deez), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>

<li class="indx">Aristotle (air is tott´ ell), <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>

<li class="indx">Artemis (ar´ tee mis), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>

<li class="indx">Arthur, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>

<li class="indx">Aryans (ar´ yans), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>

<li class="indx">Asia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>

<li class="indx">Assurbanipal (ass er ban´ ih pal), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>

<li class="indx">Assyria (as seer´ ih ah), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> to 98</li>

<li class="indx">Astarte (ass tar´ tih), <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>

<li class="indx">Athene (a thee´ nih), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> to 154</li>

<li class="indx">Athene Parthenos (par´ the nos), <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>

<li class="indx">Athenians, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> to 145, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>

<li class="indx">Athens, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Attila (at´ tih lah), <a href="#Page_225">225</a> to 227</li>

<li class="indx">Augustan Age, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Augustus, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> to 197</li>

<li class="indx">Austria, Austrian, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>

<li class="indx">Azores, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li>

<li class="indx">Aztecs (az´ tecks), <a href="#Page_355">355</a> to 357</li>


<li class="ifrst">Baal (bay´ al), <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>

<li class="indx">Babylon (bab´ in lun), <a href="#Page_98">98</a> to 103, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> to 108</li>

<li class="indx">Babylonia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> to 48</li>

<li class="indx">Babylonians, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> to 49, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bach (bahk), <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bacon, Roger, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bagdad, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>

<li class="indx">Balboa (bal boh´ ah), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>

<li class="indx">Baltimore, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bastille (bas teel´), <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></li>

<li class="indx">Beethoven, Louis (bay´ to ven), <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>

<li class="indx">Belgium, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bell, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>

<li class="indx">Belshazzar (bel shaz´ zar), <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>

<li class="indx">Benedict and Benedictines (ben´ eh dickt), <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bible, King James, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bishop of Rome, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bismarck, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>

<li class="indx">Black Death, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>

<li class="indx">Black Sea, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li>

<li class="indx">Blondel (blon dell´), <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>

<li class="indx">Boleyn, Anne (bool´ in), <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bourbon (boor´ bun), <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>

<li class="indx">Brahma, Brahmanism, Brahmanists (brah´ mah), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>

<li class="indx">Britain, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>

<li class="indx">British Museum, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> to 22</li>

<li class="indx">Brutus, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>

<li class="indx">Bucephalus (bew sef´ a lus), <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>

<li class="indx">Buddha, Buddhism, Buddhists (bood´ dah), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>

<li class="indx">Byron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>

<li class="indx">Byzantium (bi zan´ shi um), <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Cabot (kab´ ut), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cadmus (kad´ mus), <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cæsar, Augustus (see´ zer), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> to 192</li>

<li class="indx">Cairo (kigh´ ro), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Canaan (kay´ nan), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>

<li class="indx">Canada, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>

<li class="indx">Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>

<li class="indx">Canterbury Cathedral, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cape Horn, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cape of Storms, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>

<li class="indx">Carthage and Carthaginians (kar´ thij), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> to 176</li>

<li class="indx">Caspian Sea, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cathay (ka thay´), <a href="#Page_316">316</a> to 322, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cathedral of Notre Dame (nohtr´ dam), <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cathedral of Rheims (rhance), <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cathedral of St. Peter, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>

<li class="indx">Catherine, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>

<li class="indx">Catholic, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> to 371</li>

<li class="indx">Cave Man, Men, People, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cavour (ka voor´), <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>

<li class="indx">Caxton, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ceres (see´ reez), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Chaldea, Chaldeans (kal dee´ ah), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>

<li class="indx">Châlons (sha lahng´), <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>

<li class="indx">Charge of the Light Brigade, The, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>

<li class="indx">Charlemagne (sharl maign´), <a href="#Page_257">257</a> to 263</li>

<li class="indx">Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>

<li class="indx">Charles I, <a href="#Page_390">390</a> to 393</li>

<li class="indx">Charles II, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>

<li class="indx">Charles V. of Spain, <a href="#Page_367">367</a> to 369</li>

<li class="indx">Charles XII, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>

<li class="indx">Charles the Hammer, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cheops (k ee´ ops), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>

<li class="indx">China, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Christ, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> to 202</li>

<li class="indx">Church of St. Peter, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cincinnatus (sin sin nah´ tus), <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>

<li class="indx">Circus Maximus, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>

<li class="indx">Civil War, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>

<li class="indx">Clavichord (klav´ ih kord), <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cleopatra (klee o pah´ tra), <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>

<li class="indx">Clermont (kler mont´), <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>

<li class="indx">Clisthenes (klis´ the neez), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>

<li class="indx">Clotilda (klo till´ dah), <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>

<li class="indx">Clovis (klo´ vis), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cologne Cathedral, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>

<li class="indx">Colosseum (kol o see´ um), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>

<li class="indx">Columbia, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>

<li class="indx">Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> to 345</li>

<li class="indx">Commodus (kom´ mo dus), <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>

<li class="indx">Confucius (kon few´ shus), <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>

<li class="indx">Constantine, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> to 218</li>

<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>

<li class="indx">Corday, Charlotte (kor day´), <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cordova (kor´ do vah), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>

<li class="indx">Corinthian, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cornelia, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cornwallis, Lord, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>

<li class="indx">Corsica, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cortés (kor´ te), <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>

<li class="indx">Crécy (kres´ sih), <a href="#Page_327">327</a> to 329, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>

<li class="indx">Crimea, Crimean War (krigh mee´ ah), <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>

<li class="indx">Crœsus (kree´ sus), <a href="#Page_104">104</a> to 106</li>

<li class="indx">Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#Page_391">391</a> to 393</li>

<li class="indx">Crusades (kroo say´ dz), <a href="#Page_297">297</a> to 299, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cuneiform (kee nee´ ih form), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cupid, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>

<li class="indx">Cyrus (sigh´ rus), <a href="#Page_104">104</a> to 109, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>

<li class="indx">Czar (zahr), <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">da Gama, Vasco (day gah´ mah), <a href="#Page_348">348</a> to 350</li>

<li class="indx">Damascus (da mas´ kus), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>

<li class="indx">Danes, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>

<li class="indx">Dardanelles (dar da nellz´), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>

<li class="indx">Dare, Virginia, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>

<li class="indx">Darius (dah righ´ us), <a href="#Page_124">124</a> to 127, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>

<li class="indx">Dark Ages, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>

<li class="indx">David, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>

<li class="indx">da Vinci, Leonardo (dah vin´ chih), <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>

<li class="indx">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li>

<li class="indx">Declaration of Right, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li>

<li class="indx">Defender of the Faith, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>

<li class="indx">Delphi (dell´ figh), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>

<li class="indx">Delphic Oracle, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>

<li class="indx">Demeter (dee mee´ ter), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Demosthenes (dee mos´ the neez), <a href="#Page_157">157</a> to 159</li>

<li class="indx">De Soto, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>

<li class="indx">Diana (digh an´ ah), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>

<li class="indx">Divine Right of Kings, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>

<li class="indx">Domesday Book, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>

<li class="indx">Doric (dor´ ik), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>

<li class="indx">Draco (dray´ co), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>

<li class="indx">Dutch, Dutchman, Dutch Republic, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Edison, Thomas Alva, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>

<li class="indx">Edward III, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>

<li class="indx">Egypt and Egyptians, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> to 41, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>

<li class="indx">Elba, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>

<li class="indx">El Dorado (el do rah´ do), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>

<li class="indx">Elizabeth Tudor, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a> to 381</li>

<li class="indx">England, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> to 268, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Epicureans (ep ih kew ree´ ans), <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>

<li class="indx">Epicurus (ep ih kew´ rus), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>

<li class="indx">Episcopalians, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>

<li class="indx">Eternal City, The, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>

<li class="indx">Etruscans (ee trus´ kans), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>

<li class="indx">Euphrates River (ew fray´ tees), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>

<li class="indx">Excalibur (eks kal´ ih ber), <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>

<li class="indx">Exodus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Fairfax, Lord, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>

<li class="indx">Fates, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Father of his Country&mdash;Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
<li class="isub1">Washington, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ferdinand, King, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>

<li class="indx">Feudal System (few´ dal), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>

<li class="indx">Florida, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>

<li class="indx">Foch, General (fush), <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>

<li class="indx">Forum of Rome, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">France, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Franco-Prussian War (frang´ ko-prush´ an), <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>

<li class="indx">Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>

<li class="indx">Franks, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>

<li class="indx">Frederick Barbarossa (bar bah ross´ ah), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>

<li class="indx">Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> to 410</li>

<li class="indx">French Assembly, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>

<li class="indx">French Revolution, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>

<li class="indx">Freya (fray´ ah), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>

<li class="indx">Fulton, Robert, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Gabriel (gay´ brih ell), <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gargoyles (gar´ goilz), <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>

<li class="indx">Garibaldi (gar ih ball´ dih), <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gaul (gawl), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gautama (gaw´ tah mah), <a href="#Page_111">111</a> to 113</li>

<li class="indx">Genghis Khan (jen´ gis kahn), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>

<li class="indx">Genoa (jen´ oh ah), <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>

<li class="indx">George II, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>

<li class="indx">George III, <a href="#Page_413">413</a> to 418</li>

<li class="indx">German, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gipsies, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gladiators (gla dih ay´ tors), <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>

<li class="indx">Godfrey, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>

<li class="indx">Goddess of Reason, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li>

<li class="indx">Golden Age, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>

<li class="indx">Goliath (go ligh´ eth), <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gordian Knot (gor´ dih an), <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>

<li class="indx">Goshen (go´ shen), <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>

<li class="indx">Goths (gahths), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gracchi (grack´ igh), <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>

<li class="indx">Graces, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Grand Monarch (Louis XIV), <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>

<li class="indx">Great Fire, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>

<li class="indx">Great War, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>

<li class="indx">Greece, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Greene, General, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>

<li class="indx">Greenland, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>

<li class="indx">Guido (gwee´ doh), <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>

<li class="indx">Gutenberg (goo´ ten berg), <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>

<li class="indx">Guy, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Hamites (ham´ ights), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hamlet, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hammurabi (hah mew rah´ bee), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>

<li class="indx">Handel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a> to 440</li>

<li class="indx">Hannibal, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></li>

<li class="indx">Harold, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>

<li class="indx">Haroun-al-Rashid (hah roon´ al rah´ shid), <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hastings, Battle of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hathaway, Anne, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hanging Gardens, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hegira (he jigh´ rah), <a href="#Page_244">244</a> to 249</li>

<li class="indx">Hellas (hell´ as), <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hellen, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>

<li class="indx">Helen, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> to 67, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>

<li class="indx">Helena, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hellenes, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hellespont (hell´ ess pont), <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>

<li class="indx">Henry VIII, <a href="#Page_369">369</a> to 372</li>

<li class="indx">Hephæstus (he fess´ tus), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hera (hee´ rah), <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hercules (her´ kew leez), <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hermes (her´ meez), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>

<li class="indx">Herodotus (he rod´ o tus), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hieroglyphics (high´ er o gliff icks), <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hiram, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>

<li class="indx">Holland, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>

<li class="indx">Holy City, Holy Land, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>

<li class="indx">Homer, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>

<li class="indx">Horace, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Horatius (ho ray´ shus), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>

<li class="indx">Horus (hoh´ rus), <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>

<li class="indx">Hundred Years’ War, <a href="#Page_327">327</a> to 329, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>

<li class="indx">Huns, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> to 227</li>


<li class="ifrst">Iceland, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>

<li class="indx">Iliad (ill´ ih ad), <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>

<li class="indx">Incas (in´ kas), <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>

<li class="indx">India, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>

<li class="indx">Indians, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>

<li class="indx">Indo-Europeans, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>

<li class="indx">Inquisition, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>

<li class="indx">Invincible Armada (ar mah´ dah), <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ionic (igh on´ ick), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ireland, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>

<li class="indx">Irish Free State, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>

<li class="indx">Iron Age, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> to 22, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ironsides, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>

<li class="indx">Isabelle, Queen, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>

<li class="indx">Isis (igh´ sis), <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>

<li class="indx">Islam (iss´ lam), <a href="#Page_245">245</a> to 250</li>

<li class="indx">Israel (iz´ rah ell), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>

<li class="indx">Israelites (iz´ rah ell ights), <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>

<li class="indx">Italy, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Jacob, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>

<li class="indx">James I, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a> to 387, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>

<li class="indx">Jamestown, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>

<li class="indx">Japan, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>

<li class="indx">Jefferson Thomas, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>

<li class="indx">Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Jesus, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>

<li class="indx">Joan of Arc (jone of ark), <a href="#Page_330">330</a> to 332, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>

<li class="indx">John, King, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> to 314, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>

<li class="indx">Joseph, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>

<li class="indx">Juno, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>

<li class="indx">Jupiter, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Justinian (jus tin´ i an), <a href="#Page_231">231</a> to 233, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Kaiser (kigh’ zer), <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>

<li class="indx">Knights of the Round Table, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>

<li class="indx">Koran (koh´ ran), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>

<li class="indx">Kublai Khan (koo´ bli kahn), <a href="#Page_318">318</a> to 320</li>


<li class="ifrst">Laconia (lah koh´ ni a), <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>

<li class="indx">Laconic (lah kon´ ik), <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lady of the Lamp, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lafayette (la fay et´), <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>

<li class="indx">Laocoon (lay ock´ oh on), <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>

<li class="indx">Last Supper, The, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lavinia, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lebanon, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>

<li class="indx">Leif Ericson (leef ehr´ ick son), <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>

<li class="indx">Leningrad (len´ in grad), <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>

<li class="indx">Leo I (lee´ oh), <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>

<li class="indx">Leonidas, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> to 140</li>

<li class="indx">Lictor (lick´ tor), <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lincoln, President Abraham, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lion of the North, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>

<li class="indx">Louis I (loo´ ih), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></li>

<li class="indx">Louis XIII, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>

<li class="indx">Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Louis XVI, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lucy, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>

<li class="indx">Luther, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>

<li class="indx">Lycurgus (ligh ker´ gus), <a href="#Page_79">79</a> to 82</li>

<li class="indx">Lydia (lid´ i ah), <a href="#Page_104">104</a> to 106</li>


<li class="ifrst">Macedonia (mass ee doh´ ni ah) 156, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Madman of the North, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>

<li class="indx">Magi (may´ jigh), <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>

<li class="indx">Magellan (ma jell´ an), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>

<li class="indx">Magna Carta (mag´ nah kar´ tah), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>

<li class="indx">Marathon, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> to 130</li>

<li class="indx">Marco Polo (mar´ koh po´ loh), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>

<li class="indx">Marconi (mar koh´ nih), <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>

<li class="indx">Marcus Aurelius (mar´ kus ah ree´ li us), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>

<li class="indx">Maria Theresa (ma righ a te ree´ sah), <a href="#Page_408">408</a> to 409</li>

<li class="indx">Marie Antoinette (mah ree´ an toah net´), <a href="#Page_321">321</a> to 423</li>

<li class="indx">Marne, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mars, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>

<li class="indx">Marseillaise (mar say ly ayz´), <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>

<li class="indx">Masks, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>

<li class="indx">Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mayflower, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mazda, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mecca (mek´ ah), <a href="#Page_243">243</a> to 246, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>

<li class="indx">Medes (meeds), <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>

<li class="indx">Media (mee´ di ah), <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>

<li class="indx">Medina (meh dee´ nah), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>

<li class="indx">Meditations, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mediterranean Sea, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>

<li class="indx">Menelaus (men ee lay´ us), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>

<li class="indx">Menes (men eez), <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>

<li class="indx">Merchant of Venice, The, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mercury, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Merry Monarch (Charles II), <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mesopotamia (mes o po tay´ mi ah), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>

<li class="indx">Messiah, The (oratorio), <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>

<li class="indx">Methodists, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mexico, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> to 357</li>

<li class="indx">Michelangelo (migh kell an jee loh), <a href="#Page_360">360</a> to 366</li>

<li class="indx">Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>

<li class="indx">Miltiades (mill tigh´ a deez), <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>

<li class="indx">Minerva, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mississippi, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mohammed (mo ham´ ed), <a href="#Page_242">242</a> to 245, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mohammedans, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Moloch (moh´ lock), <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mona Lisa (moh’ nah lee’ zah), <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mongols (mon´ golz), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>

<li class="indx">Montezuma (mon tee zoo´ mah), <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>

<li class="indx">Morse, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>

<li class="indx">Moscow (mos´ koh), <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>

<li class="indx">Moses, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>

<li class="indx">Moslems, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> to 257</li>

<li class="indx">Mount Ararat (ar´ a rat), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mount of Olives, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mount Olympus (o lim´ pus), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mount Parnassus (par nas´ us), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mount Sinai (sigh´ nigh), <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>

<li class="indx">Mozart (mo´ tzart), <a href="#Page_440">440</a> to 442</li>

<li class="indx">Muezzin (moo ez´ in), <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>

<li class="indx">Muses (mewz´ ez), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Napoleon Bonaparte (na poh´ le on bon´ na part), <a href="#Page_428">428</a> to 434</li>

<li class="indx">Napoleon, Louis, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>

<li class="indx">Napoleon III, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>

<li class="indx">National Assembly, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nebuchadnezzar (neb oo kad nez´ ar), <a href="#Page_99">99</a> to 103, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nelson, Lord, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>

<li class="indx">Neptune, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nero, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> to 205, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>

<li class="indx">New Forest, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nightingale, Florence, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nicæa (nigh see´ ah), <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nicene Creed (nigh´ seen), <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nile, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>

<li class="indx">Niña (nee´ nah), <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>

<li class="indx">Nineveh (nin´ eh veh), <a href="#Page_94">94</a> to 100, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>

<li class="indx">Noah’s Ark, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>

<li class="indx">Normandy, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>

<li class="indx">Normans, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>

<li class="indx">Norsemen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>

<li class="indx">North America, <a href="#Page_340">340</a> to 344, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>

<li class="indx">Notre Dame (nohtr dam), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Oberammergau (oh ber am´ er gow), <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>

<li class="indx">Octavius (ock tay´ vi us), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>

<li class="indx">Odysseus (o dis´e us), <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>

<li class="indx">Odyssey (od´ ih sih), <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>

<li class="indx">Olympia (o lim´ pi ah), <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>

<li class="indx">Olympiad (o lim´ pi ad), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>

<li class="indx">Olympic games, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> to 88</li>

<li class="indx">Orpheus (or´ fe us), <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>

<li class="indx">Omar (oh´ mar), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>

<li class="indx">Osiris (o sigh´ ris), <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ostracism (os´ tra sism), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>

<li class="indx">Oxford, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Palestine (pal´ es tighm), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Palestrina (pah les tree´ nah), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>

<li class="indx">Palos, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pan, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pantheon (pan’ the on), <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pariah (pay’ rih a), <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>

<li class="indx">Paris (the city), <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>

<li class="indx">Paris (the man), <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>

<li class="indx">Parliament, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Parthenon (pahr the non), <a href="#Page_145">145</a> to 148, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pass of Thermopylæ (ther mop’ ih lee), <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>

<li class="indx">Passion Play, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>

<li class="indx">Peking, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>

<li class="indx">Peloponnesian War (pellv oh poh nee´ shan), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>

<li class="indx">Peloponnesus (pell oh poh neev sus), <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pericles, Age of (per´ i klees), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>

<li class="indx">Perry, Commodore, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pershing, General, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>

<li class="indx">Persia, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Persian Bible, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>

<li class="indx">Persian Gulf, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>

<li class="indx">Peru, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>

<li class="indx">Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_402">402</a> to 406</li>

<li class="indx">Peter the Hermit, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>

<li class="indx">Petrograd, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pharaoh (fay´ roh), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pharos (fay´ ros), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pheidippides (figh dip´ ih dees), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>

<li class="indx">Phenicia (fee nish´ ih a), <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>

<li class="indx">Phenicians (fee nish´ ans), <a href="#Page_74">74</a> to 78, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>

<li class="indx">Phidias (fid´ ih as), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>

<li class="indx">Philip, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> to 159</li>

<li class="indx">Philip II, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a> to 375</li>

<li class="indx">Philip of France, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> to 299</li>

<li class="indx">Philippics (fih lip´ icks), <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>

<li class="indx">Philippine Islands, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pilate, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pillars of Hercules, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pinta (pin´ ta), <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pisistratus (pi sis´ tra tus), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pizarro (pi zair´ oh), <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>

<li class="indx">Plato, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pluto, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Polo, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> to 320</li>

<li class="indx">Pompeii (pom pay´ yee), <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>

<li class="indx">Pompey (pom´ pih), <a href="#Page_186">186</a> to 188</li>

<li class="indx">Ponce de León (pon thee dee lee´ on), <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>

<li class="indx">Portugal, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li>

<li class="indx">Portuguese (por´ chew geese´), <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>

<li class="indx">Poseidon (poh sigh´ don), <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>

<li class="indx">Priam (prigh´ am), <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>

<li class="indx">Primitive Men, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>

<li class="indx">Primitive People, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>

<li class="indx">Protector, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>

<li class="indx">Protestants, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> to 397</li>

<li class="indx">Protestantism, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>

<li class="indx">Prussia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> to 409, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>

<li class="indx">Prussians, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ptolemy I (tol’ ih mih), <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>

<li class="indx">Punic War (pew´ nick), <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>

<li class="indx">Rameses (ram´ ih sees), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>

<li class="indx">Raphael (raff´ ay ell), <a href="#Page_362">362</a> to 366</li>

<li class="indx">Red Sea, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>

<li class="indx">Red Shirt, Hero of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>

<li class="indx">Reformation (reff or may´ shun), <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>

<li class="indx">Reign of Terror, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>

<li class="indx">Remus (ree´ mus), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Renaissance (ren ay sahns´), <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>

<li class="indx">Revolution, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>

<li class="indx">Richard of England (Richard the Lion-hearted), <a href="#Page_297">297</a> to 301, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>

<li class="indx">Richelieu (rish´ ih lew), <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>

<li class="indx">Roanoke (roh´ a nohke), <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>

<li class="indx">Robespierre (rob´ bes pyer), <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>

<li class="indx">Robin Hood, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>

<li class="indx">Rollo, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>

<li class="indx">Roma, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>

<li class="indx">Roman Aqueduct (ack´ we duct), <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>

<li class="indx">Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>

<li class="indx">Roman Senate, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>

<li class="indx">Rome, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Romeo and Juliet, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>

<li class="indx">Romulus (rom´ yew lus), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Romulus Augustulus (a gus´ tew lus), <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>

<li class="indx">Rosetta Stone (roh zet´ a), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>

<li class="indx">Roxana (rocks an´ a), <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>

<li class="indx">Rubicon (rew´ bih kon), <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>

<li class="indx">Runnymede (run´ ih meed), <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>

<li class="indx">Russia, <a href="#Page_402">402</a> to 406</li>


<li class="ifrst">Sabines (say´ bighns), <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sahara (sa hah´ rah), <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>

<li class="indx">St. Helena (hell´ ee nah), <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>

<li class="indx">St. John, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>

<li class="indx">St. Louis, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>

<li class="indx">St. Paul, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> to 203</li>

<li class="indx">St. Peter, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>

<li class="indx">St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>

<li class="indx">St. Simeon Stylites (sim´ ee on stigh ligh´ tees), <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saladin, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>

<li class="indx">Salamis, Bay of (sal´ ah mis), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>

<li class="indx">Samuel, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>

<li class="indx">San Salvador, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>

<li class="indx">Santa Maria, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>

<li class="indx">Santa Sophia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saracens (sair´ ah sens), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saracenic Empire (sair ah sen´ ick), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saratoga, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sargon I (sahr´ gon), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saturn, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saul, King, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saul (Paul), apostle, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>

<li class="indx">Saxons, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>

<li class="indx">Schwarz, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>

<li class="indx">Scipio (sip´ ih oh), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>

<li class="indx">Scotland, <a href="#Page_374">374</a> to 376, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>

<li class="indx">Scots, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>

<li class="indx">Semites (sem´ ights), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>

<li class="indx">Seneca (sen´ e kah), <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sennacherib (se nack´ e rib), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>

<li class="indx">Serbia, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>

<li class="indx">Seven-League Boots, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>

<li class="indx">Seven Wonders of the World, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>

<li class="indx">Seven Years’ War, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>

<li class="indx">Shakspere, William, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a> to 383</li>

<li class="indx">Sheba, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sicily, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sidon (sigh´ don), <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sistine Chapel (sis´ teen), <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sistine Madonna, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>

<li class="indx">Slavs, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>

<li class="indx">Smith, Captain John, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>

<li class="indx">Snow King, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>

<li class="indx">Socrates (sock´ ray tees), <a href="#Page_153">153</a> to 155, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>

<li class="indx">Solomon, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> to 73, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>

<li class="indx">Solon (soh´ lon), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>

<li class="indx">South Sea, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>

<li class="indx">Spain, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Spanish Armada, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sparta, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> to 129, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>

<li class="indx">Sphinx, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>

<li class="indx">Stephen, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>

<li class="indx">Stephenson, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>

<li class="indx">Stoic (stoh´ ick), <a href="#Page_210">210</a> to 213, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>

<li class="indx">Stone Age, The, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>

<li class="indx">Strait of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>

<li class="indx">Straits of Magellan, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>

<li class="indx">Stratford, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>

<li class="indx">Stuarts, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Sweden, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Tarquin (tahr´ kwin), <a href="#Page_119">119</a> to 121, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tartars (tah´ tahr), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ten Commandments, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tennyson, Lord, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>

<li class="indx">Terrorists, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li>

<li class="indx">Teutons, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> to 236</li>

<li class="indx">Thames River (temz), <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>

<li class="indx">Themistocles (thee mis´ to klees), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> to 142</li>

<li class="indx">Thermopylae (ther mop´ ih lee), <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>

<li class="indx">Thirty Years’ War, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>

<li class="indx">Thor, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tiber River, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tigris River (tigh gris), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>

<li class="indx">Titus (tigh´ tus), <a href="#Page_206">206</a> to 208</li>

<li class="indx">Tiu (tih´ ew), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>

<li class="indx">Toledo, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tours (toor), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tower of Babel (bay´ bel), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tower of London, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>

<li class="indx">Trafalgar (trah fal´ gar), <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>

<li class="indx">Travels of Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>

<li class="indx">Treaty of Westphalia (west fay´ lia), <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>

<li class="indx">Trojan War, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>

<li class="indx">Trojans, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>

<li class="indx">Troy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> to 67, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tudors, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>

<li class="indx">Turkish, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>

<li class="indx">Turks, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tu-tank-amen (too tank a´ men), <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>

<li class="indx">Twenty-third Psalm, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>

<li class="indx">Tyre (tihr), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Ultima Thule (ul´ tih mah thew lee), <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>

<li class="indx">Ulysses (yew liss´ ees), <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>

<li class="indx">United States, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, etc.</li>

<li class="indx">Ur (er), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>

<li class="indx">Urban (er´ ban), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Valhalla (val hal´ lah), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vandals (van´ dalz), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>

<li class="indx">Venetians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>

<li class="indx">Venice, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>

<li class="indx">Venus, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vergil, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>

<li class="indx">Versailles (ver´ sah´ ye), <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vesta, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vesuvius (vee soo’ vihus), <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>

<li class="indx">Victor Emmanuel, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>

<li class="indx">Victoria, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>

<li class="indx">Victorian Age, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vikings, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vineland, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>

<li class="indx">Virgin Queen, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>

<li class="indx">Virginia, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>

<li class="indx">Vulcan, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Wagner (vahg’ ner), <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>

<li class="indx">Walter the Penniless, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>

<li class="indx">Washington, George, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a> to 419, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></li>

<li class="indx">Waterloo (waw ter lew´), <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>

<li class="indx">Watt, James, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>

<li class="indx">Wellington, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>

<li class="indx">Western Empire, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>

<li class="indx">Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>

<li class="indx">William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>

<li class="indx">William and Mary, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>

<li class="indx">William of Prussia, King, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>

<li class="indx">William the Silent, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>

<li class="indx">Wise Men of the East, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>

<li class="indx">Wise Men of Greece, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>

<li class="indx">Woden (woh´ den), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>

<li class="indx">World War, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></li>

<li class="indx">Worms (vohrms), <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>

<li class="indx">Wright, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Xantippe (zan tip´ e), <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>

<li class="indx">Xerxes (zerks´ eez), <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_140">140</a> to 143.</li>


<li class="ifrst">Yorktown, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>


<li class="ifrst">Zama (zay´ mah), <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>

<li class="indx">Zeno (zee´ noh), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>

<li class="indx">Zeus (zews), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>

<li class="indx">Zoroaster (zoh roh as´ ter), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
</ul>


<div class="transnote">

<p class="c">Transcriber’s Notes:</p>

<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.</p>

<p>Perceived typographical errors have been changed.</p>

</div>

<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 67149 ***</div>
</body>
</html>
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-07-17 03:19:50 +0000