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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Honey-Bee - Its Natural History, Physiology and Management - -Author: Edward Bevan - -Release Date: January 5, 2022 [eBook #67107] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas produced from files generously provided by The - Internet Archive and placed in the Public Domain. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HONEY-BEE *** - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis is denoted by _Italics_ and +Small Caps+. - - - - - THE - - - HONEY-BEE. - - - THE HONEY-BEE. - - -[Illustration] - - "What well appointed commonwealths! where each - Adds to the stock of happiness for all; - Wisdom's own forums! where professors teach - Eloquent lessons in their vaulted hall! - Galleries of art! and schools of industry! - Stores of rich fragrance! Orchestras of song! - What marvellous seats of hidden alchymy! - How oft when wandering far and erring long, - Man might learn truth and virtue from the BEE!" - - +Bowring+. - - - - - THE - - HONEY-BEE; - - ITS - - NATURAL HISTORY, PHYSIOLOGY - AND MANAGEMENT, - - BY - - EDWARD BEVAN, M.D. - - "A bee amongst the flowers in spring, is one of the cheerfullest - objects that can be looked upon. Its life appears to be all - enjoyment: so busy and so pleased." - - +Paley+. - - -LONDON: -BALDWIN, CRADOCK AND JOY. - -1827. - - -PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, -SHOE-LANE, LONDON. - - -TO - -THE REV. RICHARD WALOND, - -RECTOR OF WESTON UNDER PENYARD AND -TREASURER OF THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH -OF HEREFORD. - -_+Dear Sir+,_ - -_To whom can I with so much propriety dedicate the following sheets -as to you, who, in the elegant retirement of private life, have -occupied so many of your leisure hours in studying the œconomy and -management of Bees, and to whom, by the aid and encouragement you -have afforded me, is mainly to be attributed the commencement, -progress, and completion of the work?_ - -_I know of no one; and have therefore to request that you will allow -me to offer you this public testimony of my gratitude and respect; -and believe me to be_ - - _Your faithful and obliged friend,_ - - _EDWARD BEVAN._ - - Woodland Cottage, - April 5th, 1827. - - - - - ADVERTISEMENT. - - --<>-- - - -+The+ work which is now submitted to the judgement of the public, -in addition to other faults with which it will no doubt be justly -chargeable, may be thought by many to be defective in arrangement; and -if the author had aimed to produce a purely scientific work, he would -consider such charge as being well founded: but in making a humble -attempt to afford a popular view of the present state of apiarian -knowledge, historical, physiological and practical, he conceived that -he should most effectually attain his object by mingling the different -departments together, particularly where the two former would serve to -illustrate or explain the rationale of the latter. Moreover, his first -intention was not to offer much more to the public than is contained -in Part I. of the work; but the materials grew upon his hands, and -consequently after that part was modelled, he was induced by the very -great interest which was excited in his mind by the prosecution of his -inquiries, to exceed the limits which bounded his original plan:--the -result will be found in Part II. The subject would have admitted of still -further extension; but to have increased the volume beyond its present -size would have been to defeat one of the objects of the author, which -was so to compress his matter as to place his book within the reach of -as many as possible of those to whom he flatters himself it may prove -practically useful. Should the public, however, require a second edition, -and sufficing reasons urge him to place this series of bee-knowledge -under distinct heads, he will endeavour to re-model it, as well as -otherwise to improve it, by such alterations as ingenuous criticism may -suggest. - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - --<>-- - - -+Although+ the great addition which has of late been made to our -knowledge of the honey-bee, may seem to render a reference to ancient -writers comparatively unimportant; yet a few prefatory observations, upon -the rise and progress of apiarian science, may not be out of season. - -The natural history and management of bees would probably occupy the -attention of man at an early period. Surrounded by a boundless variety -of living creatures, he would naturally be led to notice their habits -and œconomy; and no part of the animal world, or at any rate no part of -the world of insects, would be more likely to engage his consideration -than the honey-bee. Honey would, in all probability, constitute one of -his earliest luxuries; and as he advanced in civilization, he would, as -a matter of course, avail himself of the industry of its collectors, by -bringing them as much as possible within his reach; and by this means he -would take an important step towards an acquaintance with entomology. -But the progress made by our earliest progenitors, in this or any other -science, is involved in the obscurity and uncertainty necessarily -appertaining to the infancy of society. - -The first indications of attention to natural history are contained -in the Old Testament. The interest which it excited in the mind of -+Solomon+, evinces how highly it was esteemed in his time. The records of -its first progression are however entirely lost, and no regular history -of this science exists prior to the days of +Aristotle+, who under the -auspices and through the munificence of his pupil Alexander the Great, -was enabled to prosecute with the greatest advantage, for the time in -which he lived, his experiments and inquiries into every department -of natural history. Alexander felt so strong a desire to promote this -object, that he placed at the disposal of Aristotle a very large sum of -money, and in his Asiatic expedition employed above a thousand persons -in collecting and transmitting to him specimens from every part of the -animal kingdom. +Aristotle+ is therefore to be regarded as having laid -the first foundation of our knowledge of that kingdom. He must likewise -have derived great advantages from the discoveries and observations of -preceding writers, to whose works he would probably have easy access. No -individual naturalist could, without such assistance, have produced so -valuable and extensive a work on natural science as that which Aristotle -has bequeathed to posterity. And though the opinions of himself and his -contemporaries have been transmitted to us in an imperfect manner, and -abound in errors, still he and his editor +Theophrastus+ may be regarded -as the only philosophical naturalists of antiquity, whose labours and -discoveries present us with any portion of satisfactory knowledge. - -The observations of Aristotle on the subject of the honey-bee were -afterwards "embellished and invested with a species of divinity, by -the matchless pen of +Virgil+," in his fourth Georgic; and it excites -feelings of regret, that poetry which for its beauty and elegance is so -universally admired, should be the vehicle of opinions that are founded -in error. - -+Aristomachus+ of Soli in Cilicia had his contemplations for nearly sixty -years almost solely occupied by bees; and +Philiscus+ the Thracian spent -a great portion of his time in the woods, that he might investigate their -manners and habits without interruption; whence he acquired the name of -_Agrius_. However small their contribution of knowledge may appear to -this enlightened age, these ancient worthies must have aided the early -progress of their favourite science, and are at all events evidences of -the zeal with which it was prosecuted in their day. - -About the commencement of the Christian æra, +Columella+, who was a very -accurate observer and exhibited considerable genius as a naturalist, -made some curious and useful remarks upon bees in his Treatise _De Re -Rusticá_: but Columella, like Virgil, appears to have acquiesced in and -copied the errors of his predecessors. - -After him the elder +Pliny+ gave a sanction to the opinions which he -found prevalent, and added to them others of his own. But Pliny, though a -laborious compiler, occupied himself with too great a variety of pursuits -to attain excellence in any. As a naturalist, however, he is happy in -some of his descriptions. To him we are indebted for the transmission to -us of all that was actually known, or supposed to be known, of natural -history in his day. I say--supposed to be known, for many of the opinions -and conjectures which he has put forth, have been shown by modern -investigators to be ill-founded. - -The notions of the ancients respecting natural philosophy rested on no -rational foundation; ideas of charms and of planetary influence directed -their most important pursuits, and led to the formation of very absurd -theories. When the writer last named recommends that the dust in which -a mule has rolled should be sprinkled on persons who are violently in -love, as a sovereign remedy for amatory ardour, and gravely tells us -that snakes are sometimes produced from the human medulla,--with much -nonsensical stuff of the like kind; we may safely pronounce that he or -his contemporaries or both were very credulous, and that the science of -experimental philosophy was scarcely cultivated among them. - -After the compilation of Pliny's vast Compendium, nearly fourteen hundred -years rolled away without anything being done for entomology or for -natural history in general. +The Arabians+, who alone preserved a glimmer -of science during those dark ages that succeeded the fall of the Roman -empire, cultivated natural history only as a branch of medicine, and from -their writings little can be gleaned in furtherance of our present object. - -On the revival of learning in the fifteenth century, and after the -discovery of the art of printing, various editions were published of -the works on natural history, written by the Withers of that science. -+Sir Edward Wotton+, +Conrade Gesner+, and others, produced conjointly -a work on insects, the manuscripts of which came into the possession -of +Dr. Thomas Penry+, an eminent physician and botanist in the reign -of Queen Elizabeth. After devoting fifteen years to the improvement -of the work, the Doctor died, and the unfinished manuscripts were -purchased at a considerable price by +Mouffet+, a contemporary English -physician of singular learning, who with great labour and at great -expense arranged, enlarged, and completed the work. When nearly ready -for the press, he also died; and the papers, after lying buried in dust -and obscurity for several years, at last fell into the hands of +Sir -Theodore Mayerne+ (_Baron d'Aubone_), a court physician in the time of -Charles the First, who gave them to the world in 1634. The arrangement of -this work is defective; but for the period in which it was written, it -is a very complete and respectable Treatise on Entomology. It was highly -recommended by Haller; and as a storehouse of ancient entomological lore -it has not yet lost its utility. Its pages are embellished with nearly -500 wood-cuts. An English translation of it was published in 1658. - -According to Fabius Columma, +Prince Frederic Cesi+, president of the -Roman Academy of Sciences, wrote a treatise upon bees; but the work has -not been preserved, and we are unacquainted with its merits. - -These authors were succeeded by Goedart, Swammerdam, Maraldi, Ray, -Willughby and Lister, who by their indefatigable exertions, towards -the close of the 17th century threw very considerable light upon every -branch of natural knowledge. Goedart spent forty years of his life in -attending to the proceedings of insects, "daily conversing with insects," -as he expresses it, and published in 1662 a work on their natural -history; but the plates with which it is embellished form the best part -of it. +Swammerdam+ published his celebrated work, "A General History -of Insects," in 4to, in 1669: a more enlarged edition in two volumes -folio, containing the history of bees, was afterwards published in 1737, -under the auspices of Boerhaave, from the manuscript of Swammerdam. -Those readers who have patience to wade through these tedious volumes, -will find it rewarded by the attainment of much curious information. -+Maraldi+ published in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for -1712, his account of the manners, genius, and labours of the bee. He is -said to have been the inventor of glass hives, and to that invention -may be attributed the success of his inquiries. Swammerdam founded his -system upon what has been called the metamorphotic basis; and +Ray+, in -conjunction with his friend +Willughby+, whom he calls the profoundest -of naturalists and the most amiable and virtuous of men, erected his -superstructure on the same basis. In the _Historia Insectorum_ of Ray, -evidently the joint production of himself and +Willughby+, especial -attention is paid to the Hymenoptera: it contains various interesting -observations on their manners and characters; and the descriptions, -in which he was assisted by the use of very powerful microscopes, are -concise and well drawn. +Dr. Martin Lister+, in an appendix to Ray's -work, and in various other writings also, contributed materially to -elucidate the science of entomology. +Madame Merian+ likewise deserves -well, for her industrious pursuit of this subject, particularly for her -beautiful illustration of the metamorphoses of insects in Surinam. - -The French natural historian +Reaumur+ stands prominent among the -students of entomology, for the unsurpassed enthusiasm and accuracy with -which he has investigated some of its most intricate parts. To him the -genus Apis is under greater obligations perhaps than to any entomologist -either of ancient or modern times. See his immortal work, "Memoires pour -servir à l'Histoire des Insectes," in 6 vols. 4to. 1732-1744. - -About this period also flourished the great, the illustrious +Linnæus+, -whose labours diffused light over every department of natural science, -and have justly caused him to be regarded as one of its brightest -ornaments. He has generally been considered as the founder of the -artificial system of arrangement; but a very near approach to it was made -by that brilliant constellation of naturalists whom I have enumerated as -having flourished at the close of the 17th century, and who may probably -be regarded as having paved the way, and prepared materials, for the -formation of his more perfect system. - -Afterwards appeared the works of the celebrated +Bonnet+ of Geneva, the -admiring correspondent of Reaumur, and the patron and friend of Huber. -This great physiologist became addicted to the study of entomology -before he was seventeen years of age, from reading _Spectacle de -la Nature_; and his decisive experiments upon Aphides do him the -highest credit. His works are universally admired for their candour -and ingenuity, as well as for their manifest tendency to promote the -happiness of man, by exciting in him the love of knowledge and virtue. - -We now come to the physiological discoveries of +Schirach+, +Hunter+ and -+Huber+, men who have wonderfully advanced the science of entomology, -by a series of experiments most ably conducted, by the most patient -investigation, and the most accurate and enlightened observation, and -placed it upon the solid foundation of rational induction. - -Several other writers also, both in systematic works and in periodical -publications, have contributed to throw much light upon the œconomy and -habits of the bee. Of the latter description in our own country may be -enumerated +Arthur Dobbs+, Esq.; +Thomas Andrew Knight+, Esq.; Sir +C. S. -Mackenzie+, and the +Rev. W. Dunbar+. - -Hitherto I have referred to the writers on natural history in general, -or to the natural historians of bees in particular: many writers, -however, have paid great attention to the domestic management of these -insects. Their culture is indeed an object highly deserving the attention -of the agriculturist as well as of the natural philosopher. In the hands -of a judicious and moderately attentive apiarian, they may become a -profitable branch of rural œconomy: even the most humble cottager may -be made to participate in the benefit of an improved mode of managing -them: and as there is so much to admire in their general œconomy and -peculiar habits, the man of leisure may secure to himself a source of -pleasing and rational amusement in the possession of an Apiary; for the -pursuit of apiarian science, in common with the study of other branches -of natural history, leads to a salutary exercise of the mental faculties, -induces a habit of observation and reflection, and may sometimes prove a -valuable resource for keeping off that _tædium vitæ_, but too frequently -attendant upon a relinquishment of active life. No pleasure is more -easily attainable, nor less alloyed by any debasing mixture; it tends to -enlarge and harmonize the mind, and to elevate it to worthy conceptions -of Nature and its Author: - - "The men - Whom Nature's works can charm, with God himself - Hold converse; grow familiar, day by day. - With his conceptions; act upon his plan. - And form to his the relish of their souls." - - +Akenside.+ - -In the following Treatise it has been my endeavour to combine, as much -as possible, the profitable with the instructive and amusing; in seeking -which object, I have endeavoured to clear the ground before me, of the -wild-flowers of conjecture and hypothesis, with which the fecundity of -the human imagination has strewed it, and to substitute in their place -the less showy but more useful products of experiment and rational -deduction, the growth of which it should be the object of every labourer -in the field of science to promote. Always bearing in mind that false -theories often lead to erroneous practices, I have carefully abstained -from an indulgence in theory of a merely speculative kind, and confined -myself simply to offering such opinions to the attention of my readers, -as have been confirmed by repeated experiment and observation, and to the -recommendation of such practices as have been found useful by myself, or -by others on whose reports I can place the fullest reliance. - -Among the writers who have improved the domestic management of bees, may -be enumerated +Warder+, +White+, +Thorley+, +Wildman+, +Keys+, +Bonner+ -and +Huish+, all of whom have devoted many years of their lives to this -important object. Persevering, however, as have been the efforts of the -before-named writers to obtain an accurate knowledge of the physiology -of bees, and to discover the best plan for their management, there is -still much to be learned in both these departments, before the former -can be thoroughly understood, or the latter satisfactorily regulated. -I do not presume to imagine that I can throw much light upon either of -these topics; but, judging from the difficulties which I have myself -encountered in collecting the scattered materials of apiarian science, I -think that I shall confer a benefit upon future inquirers, if I enable -them to possess within a moderate compass such information as can be -relied on. Strongly impressed by the importance of the subject, I have -for several years devoted much of my time to its consideration; and -independently of the pleasure I have experienced in the prosecution of -it, as a most interesting branch of natural history, I have considered -that by contributing to extend and improve the culture of the bee, I -should assist in converting to useful purposes some portions of those -products of the earth which might otherwise be dissipated in the air, -washed away by the rain, or chemically changed by the action of various -surrounding substances, and in either case be rendered comparatively -useless. - -Many of the tracts on bees are professedly written for the perusal of the -cottager. To him I do not so particularly address myself, as to the more -intelligent members of the community; and so far as I am able to succeed -in making an impression upon them, I shall consider myself as virtually -benefiting the cottager. The latter is generally too much of a machine -to be the first to adopt any improvement, however important; he is more -likely therefore to obtain bee-knowledge from the example or _vivâ voce_ -instruction of his enlightened neighbours, than through the direct medium -of the press. - -How far I may have succeeded in the object I propose to myself, I must -leave to the decision of my readers. It seems to be generally admitted, -that a Treatise exhibiting a concise view of the present state of our -knowledge of the bee is much wanted; and this result of an attempt to -supply that desideratum I now offer to the public, with a hope that it -may not be unworthy of its notice. - - - - -CORRIGENDA. - - - Page. Line. - - 193, 17, for _lives_ read _hives_. - 228, 2, after "higher flavour" add "and in its never - candying, nor even losing its fluidity by - long keeping." - -[Transcriber Note: Above changes were made to text.] - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - --<>-- - - PART I. - - Chap. Page. - - I. The History and Physiology of the Bee 1 - - II. The Apiary 47 - - III. The Bee-house 52 - - IV. Pasturage 55 - - V. Honey-dew 71 - - VI. The Purchase of Bees 80 - - VII. Bee-boxes 83 - - VIII. Bee-hives 95 - - IX. Comparative Advantages of Wooden Boxes and Straw Hives 100 - - X. Leaf Hives 102 - - XI. Dividers 107 - - XII. Storifying 109 - - XIII. Swarming 115 - - XIV. Comparative Advantages of Storifying and Single-hiving 122 - - XV. Symptoms which precede Swarming 127 - - XVI. Hiving of Swarms 136 - - XVII. On removing Bees from common Straw Hives to Storifying - Hives or Boxes 148 - - XVIII. Super- and Nadir-hiving by means of Binders 151 - - XIX. Uniting Swarms or Stocks 154 - - XX. Proper Periods of Deprivation 162 - - XXI. Taking Money by means of Dividers 167 - - XXII. The Bee-dress 176 - - XXIII. Feeding 179 - - XXIV. Diseases of Bees 184 - - XXV. Enemies of Bees 199 - - XXVI. Exotic Bees 210 - - XXVII. Separation of Wax and Honey 216 - - XXVIII. Wax 220 - - XXIX. Honey 226 - - XXX. Mead 236 - - - PART II. - - XXXI. The Anatomy of Bees 249 - - XXXII. Senses of Bees 302 - - XXXIII. Instincts of Bees 318 - - XXXIV. On the Architecture of Bees 339 - - XXXV. An Inquiry into the Source and Nature of Bees-wax 356 - - XXXVI. Pollen 370 - - XXXVII. Propolis 375 - -XXXVIII. Importance of Bees to the Fructification of Flowers 380 - - - - - A GENERAL VIEW - - OF THE - - HISTORY AND PHYSIOLOGY - - OF - - THE BEE. - - - ------------ - - - PART I. - - - --<>-- - - - CHAPTER I. - - HISTORY AND PHYSIOLOGY. - - -+The Bee+ is considered by Naturalists as belonging; to what are called -perfect societies of insects, and, in entomological arrangements, -is placed in the order Hymenoptera, genus Apis. Of this genus there -are many species; Linnæus has enumerated 55; in the Dictionnaire des -Sciences Naturelles 70 species are characterized; and Mr. Kirby, in his -Monographia Apum Angliæ, has described above 220, natives of England. The -species to which I shall principally call the attention of my readers is -the _domestic_ +honey-bee+. - -Every association of bees comprises three descriptions of individuals; -and each description is distinguished by an appearance and cast of -character peculiar to itself. - - "First of the throng and foremost of the whole, - One 'stands confest the sovereign and the soul.'" - -This couplet may, to a limited extent, be applied to other kinds of bees; -but it is more peculiarly applicable to hive-bees, as amongst them there -has never been found, in any single family, more than one acknowledged -regnant chief, usually designated by the name of Queen; of whom, as -having the highest claim to our attention, I shall first proceed to speak. - -The +queen+, who is at once the mother and the mistress of the hive, -differs, as Mr. Hunter has observed, from the royal chiefs of other -insects, such as hornets, wasps and humble-bees; for the chiefs of -these latter societies seem to _work themselves into royalty_, whereas -the queen of the hive-bees _reigns from her very birth_. She is -distinguishable from the rest of the society by her majestic movements, -by the great length of her body, the proportional shortness of her wings, -and her bent sting. Her body tapers gradually to a point, her fangs are -shorter, her head is rounder, and her trunk not half so long as that of -the working bee. Her wings extend only half the length of her body, but -are strong and sinewy. Her colours also distinguish her as much as her -shape; they are much more distinct; the back is of a much brighter black; -the concentric rings on the under side of her body are darker, and the -lighter interstitial part of the same region appears of a brighter and -more lively hue. The legs also are of a deep golden yellow colour. - -Next in order come the +working bees+: these are, by some, called -_neuters_ or _mules_; by others, _female non-breeders_. From what will -be said hereafter, I think that my readers will consider the latter -as the more appropriate title, the workers being sterile females with -undeveloped ovaries. In a single hive the number of these varies from -12,000 to 20,000: they are the smallest members of the community, are -furnished with a long flexible proboscis, have a peculiar structure of -the legs and thighs, on the latter of which are small hollows or baskets, -adapted to the reception of the propolis and farina which they collect, -and they are armed with a straight sting. Upon them devolves the whole -labour of the colony; they rear the young, guard the entrances, elaborate -the wax, collect and store the provision, and build the cells in which it -is warehoused, as well as those that contain the brood. - -Thirdly, there are the +drones+ or +males+, to the number of perhaps -1500 or 2000. These make their appearance about the end of April, and -are never to be seen after the middle of August, excepting under very -peculiar circumstances which will be stated hereafter. They are one-third -larger than the workers, somewhat thicker and of a darker colour; they -have a shorter proboscis and are more blunt at the tail than either the -queen or the workers; the last ring of the body is fringed with hairs, -extending over the tail and visible to the naked eye. They make a greater -noise in flying and have no sting; are rather shorter than the queen but -much larger. Underneath the tail two small protuberances of a yellowish -colour may be seen, which are regarded as the distinctive marks of their -sex. In some swarms no drones are observable: probably these are first -swarms, which, being always led off by old queens, have no occasion for -drones, if there be any truth in the theory to be hereafter stated. - -[Illustration: - - _Queen._ - - _Drone._ _Worker._ ] - -Contrary to what occurs in the human species and in other parts of the -animal creation, among bees, the females alone exhibit activity, skill, -diligence and courage, whilst the males take no part whatever in the -labours of the community, but are idle, cowardly and inactive, and -possess not the usual offensive weapon of their species. The only way -in which the drones promote the welfare of the society is a sexual one; -and I shall endeavour to show, in the course of this chapter, that they -serve no other purpose than that of impregnating such of the young queens -as may lead forth swarms in the season, or be raised to the sovereignty -of the parent hive. As the drones are "never seen settling on any kind -of flowers, nor laying up honey in the cells, they most probably feed at -home, and fully answer the description given of them by the poet:" - - "Immunisque sedens aliena ad pabula fucus." - - +Virgil.+ - - "Their short proboscis sips - No luscious nectar from the wild thyme's lips, - From the lime's leaf no amber drops they steal, - Nor bear their grooveless thighs the foodful meal: - On others toils, in pamper'd leisure thrive - The lazy fathers of th' industrious hive." - "Yet oft, we're told, these seeming idlers share - The pleasing duties of parental care. - With fond attention guard each genial cell, - And watch the embryo bursting from its shell." - - +Evans.+[A] - -[Footnote A: The elegant writer from whose unfinished poem, "The Bees," I -have made the above quotations, was for many years an eminent physician -in Shrewsbury, but has now retired into Wales, where I hope he will find -sufficient leisure and encouragement to resume the truly classical theme -which he has so nearly completed. Of the three parts which have been -already published, I shall frequently avail myself in the course of this -treatise, as well as of the highly interesting notes which are appended -to them.] - -Mr. Morris of Isleworth, in the Transactions of the Society for the -encouragement of Arts, &c. for 1791, gives it as his opinion that the -drones "_sit upon the eggs_, as the mother lays them;" and says that he -has "often seen them sit in a formal manner on the combs, when the brood -is hatching, while the other bees were very busy at work." I suspect -that Mr. Morris mistook _sleeping_ for _brooding_, and that the drones -were only taking a nap. Fabricius says that insects never sit on their -eggs. Messrs. Kirby and Spence, however, have observed that the female -ear-wig does: they also make one other exception in favour of the field -bug (_Cimex griseus_), but add that these are the only ones. De Geer has -given a very interesting account of both these insects, particularly of -the strength of parental affection exhibited by the females. The female -of the former assiduously sits upon her eggs, as if to hatch them, -and after they are hatched, broods over the young as a hen over young -chickens. And when the eggs of the latter are hatched, she also, after -the manner of a hen, goes about with the brood, consisting of thirty or -forty in number and never leaves them: they cluster round her when she is -still, and follow her closely wherever she moves. - -Besides the three essential members of the bee community, which I have -just described, Huber has called the attention of the Apiarian to a -fourth kind, which appear to be only casual inmates of the hive, from -which however they are soon expelled by the workers. He has called them -_black bees_, and says he first noticed them in two of his hives, in -the year 1809, and on several other occasions from that time to the -year 1813. They present a perfect resemblance to the working bees, -excepting in their colour, which, in consequence of their being less -downy, appears darker. On dissection, their internal structure also -appears to be the same. Huber regards them as imperfect bees, but leaves -to future naturalists an inquiry into their nature and origin. Messrs. -Kirby and Spence have thrown out a conjecture that these black bees may -be _superannuated bees_, that being no longer capable of contributing -towards the labours of the community, are banished or destroyed by its -younger members. They found their conjecture upon the usual effect of -superannuation in rubbing off the hair of insects and thereby giving them -a darker hue. - -It is the office of the queen-bee to lay eggs, which she deposits in -cells constructed for their reception by the working bees. These cells -vary from one another in size, (and in the instance of the royal cells, -they also vary in form), according as they are intended to be the -depositories of eggs that are to become drones, or of those that are -to become workers. But for a more particular account of these cells, -_Vide_ Part II. "Architecture of Bees." The Rev. W. Dunbar, minister of -Applegarth, who has recently added some important particulars to our -general stock of knowledge respecting bees, states that when the queen is -about to lay, she puts her head into a cell, and remains in that position -for a second or two, probably to ascertain its fitness for the deposit -which she is about to make. She then withdraws her head, and curving her -body downwards, inserts her tail into the cell: in a few seconds she -turns half round upon herself and withdraws, leaving an egg behind her. -When she lays a considerable number, she does it equally on each side of -the comb, those on the one side being as exactly opposite to those on the -other, as the relative position of the cells will admit. The effect of -this is to produce a concentration and œconomy of heat for developing the -various changes of the brood. The following sketch is taken from a plate -given by Mr. Dunbar in the Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, to represent -the comb upon which his observations were made, and to show that part of -it which was occupied by brood, the surrounding part of the square being -full of sealed honey. - -[Illustration] - -The _eggs_ of bees are of a lengthened oval shape, with a slight -curvature, and of a blueish white colour: they are composed of a thin -membrane, filled with a whitish liquor, and being besmeared, at the -time of laying, with a glutinous substance, they adhere to the bases of -the cells, where they stand upright, and remain unchanged in figure or -situation for four days; they are then hatched, the bottom of each cell -presenting to view a small white worm or maggot, with several ventral -rings. On its growing, so as to touch the opposite angle of the cell, it -coils itself up in the shape of a semicircle, and floats in a whitish -transparent fluid, by which it is probably nourished and enlarged in its -dimensions, till the two extremities touch one another and form a ring. -In this state it obtains indifferently the name of _worm_, _larva_, -_maggot_ or _grub_, and is fed with farina or bee-bread, to receive the -welcome morsels of which, it eagerly opens its two lateral pincers. It -is the opinion of Reaumur and others that farina does not constitute the -sole food of the bee-larvæ, but that it consists of a mixture of farina -with a certain proportion of honey and water, partly digested in the -stomachs of the _nursing_[B] _bees_, the relative proportions of honey -and farina varying according to the age of the young. It is insipid -whilst they are very young, and becomes sweeter and more acescent the -nearer they approach maturity. - -[Footnote B: For an account of these see Part II. "Nature and Origin of -Bees-wax."] - -Schirach imagined that the semen of the male was the food of the larvæ: -Bonnet entertained the same opinion, founded upon his observation that -the drones, in going across the combs, pass by those cells that contain -no maggots, but stop at those which do, giving a knock with the tail at -them three times. Upon this Mr. Hunter observes that _three_ is a famous -number! and we know very well that the development is complete in hives -that do not contain a single drone. - -The larva having derived support in the manner above described, for four, -five or six days, according to the season[C], continues to increase -during that period, till it occupies the whole breadth and nearly the -length of the cell. The nursing-bees now seal up the cell, with a light -_brown_ cover, externally more or less _convex_, (the cap of a drone-cell -is more convex than that of a worker,) and thus differing from that of -a honey-cell, which is _paler_ and somewhat _concave_. It is no sooner -perfectly inclosed than it begins to labour, alternately extending and -shortening its body, whilst it lines the cell by spinning round itself, -after the manner of the silk-worm, a whitish silky film or _cocoon_, by -which it is encased, as it were, in a pod or pellicle. "The silken thread -employed in forming this covering, proceeds from the middle part of the -under lip, and is in fact composed of two threads gummed together as they -issue from the two adjoining orifices of the spinner[D]." When it has -undergone this change, it has usually borne the name of _nymph_ or _pupa_. - -[Footnote C: Schirach asserts, that in cool weather the development takes -place two days later than in warm.] - -[Footnote D: Kirby and Spence.] - -It may appear somewhat extraordinary that a creature which takes its -food so voraciously prior to its assuming the pupa state, should live -so long without food, after that assumption: but a little consideration -will perhaps abate our wonder; for when the insect has attained the state -of pupa, it has arrived at its full growth, and probably the nutriment, -taken so greedily, is to serve as a store for developing the perfect -insect. - -The bee, when in its pupa state, has been denominated, but improperly, -_chrysalis_ and _aurelia_; for these, as the words import, are of a -golden yellow colour and they are crustaceous; whilst the bee-nymphs -appear of a pale, dull colour, and readily yield to the touch. The golden -splendour, to which the above names owe their origin, is peculiar to a -certain species only of the papilio or butterfly tribe. The higher class -of entomologists, following the example of Linnæus, apply the term pupa -to this state of the embryo bee, a term which signifies that the insect -is enveloped in swaddling clothes like an infant, a very apt comparison. -Kirby and Spence have remarked that it exhibits no unapt representation -of an Egyptian mummy. Huber's translator says that naturalists of the -present day incline to use the name of larva, in all cases where the worm -is not seen under its final aspect. - -The _working bee-nymph_ spins its cocoon in thirty-six hours. After -passing a certain period in this state of preparation for a new -existence, it gradually undergoes so great a change, as not to wear a -vestige of its previous form, but becomes armed with a firmer mail, and -with scales of a dark brown hue, fringed with light hairs. On its belly -six rings become distinguishable, which by slipping one over another, -enable the bee to shorten its body whenever it has occasion to do so; its -breast becomes entirely covered with gray feather-like hairs, which as -the insect advances in age assume a reddish hue. - -When it has reached the twenty-first day of its existence, counting from -the moment the egg is laid, it quits the exuviæ of the pupa state, comes -forth a perfect winged insect, and is termed an _imago_. The cocoon or -pellicle is left behind and forms a closely attached and exact lining -to the cell in which it was spun: by this means the breeding-cells -become smaller, and their partitions stronger, the oftener they change -their tenants; and when they have become so much diminished in size, by -this succession of pellicles or linings, as not to admit of the perfect -development of full-sized bees, they are converted into receptacles for -honey. - -Such are the respective stages of the working bee; those of the royal -bee are as follow. She passes three days in the egg and is five a worm; -the workers then close her cell[E], and she immediately begins spinning -the cocoon, which occupies her twenty-four hours. On the tenth and -eleventh days, as if exhausted by her labour, she remains in complete -repose, and even sixteen hours of the twelfth. Then she passes four days -and one-third as a nymph. It is on the sixteenth day therefore that the -perfect state of queen is attained. - -[Footnote E: Instead of being nearly horizontal like the other -brood-cells, those of the queens are perpendicular and considerably -larger; in form they are oblong spheroids, tapering gradually downwards; -their mouths being always at the bottom. _Vide_ Part II. "Architecture of -Bees."] - -The male passes three days in the egg, six and a half as a worm, and -metamorphoses into a fly on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day, -after the egg is laid. The great epoch of laying the eggs of males may -be accelerated or retarded by the state of the atmosphere promoting -or impeding the collections of the bees. The _development_ of _each_ -species likewise proceeds more slowly when the colonies are weak or the -air cool, and when the weather is very cold it is entirely suspended. -Mr. Hunter has observed that the eggs, maggots and nymphs, all require -a heat above 70° of Fahrenheit for their evolution. The influence of -temperature in developing embryo insects is very strongly illustrated -in the case of the _Papilio Machaon_. According to Messrs. Kirby and -Spence, "if the caterpillar of the _Papilio Machaon_ becomes a pupa in -July, the butterfly will appear in thirteen days; if it do not become a -pupa till September, the butterfly will not make its appearance until the -following June." And this is the case, say they, with a vast number of -other insects. Reaumur proved the influence of temperature, by effecting -the regular changes in a hot-house, during the month of January. He also -proved it conversely, by having recourse to an ice-house in summer, which -enabled him to retard the development for a whole year. - -"The larvæ of bees, though without feet, are not always without motion. -They advance from their first station at the bottom of the cell, in -a spiral direction: this movement, for the first three days, is so -slow as to be scarcely perceptible; but after that it is more easily -discerned. The animal now makes two entire revolutions, in about an hour -and three quarters; and when the period of its metamorphosis arrives, -it is scarcely more than two lines from the mouth of the cell. Its -attitude, which is always the same, is a strong curve. This occasions -the inhabitant of a horizontal cell to be always perpendicular to the -horizon, and that of a vertical one to be parallel with it[F]." - -[Footnote F: Kirby and Spence.] - -The young bees break their envelope with their teeth, and, assisted -at first by the working-bees, proceed to cleanse themselves from the -moisture and exuviæ with which they were surrounded: this operation being -completed, they begin to exercise their intended functions, and in a few -minutes are gathering provision in the fields, loading "in life's first -hour the hollow'd thigh." M. Maraldi assures us that he has "seen bees -loaded with two large balls of wax, returning to the hive, the same -day they became bees." "We have seen her," says Wildman, "the same day -issue from the cell, and return from the fields loaded with wax, like the -rest." The error of Maraldi and Wildman in using the term wax instead of -pollen, does not at all affect the accuracy of their observations. As -soon as the young insect has been licked clean and regaled with a little -honey by its companions, the latter clean out the cell, preparatory to -its being re-occupied by a new tenant or with honey. - -With respect to the cocoons spun by the different larvæ, both workers -and drones spin _complete cocoons_, or inclose themselves on every -side: royal larvæ construct only _imperfect cocoons_, open behind, -and enveloping only the head, thorax, and first ring of the abdomen; -and Huber concludes, without any hesitation, that the final cause of -their forming only incomplete cocoons is that they may thus be exposed -to the mortal sting of the first hatched queen, whose instinct leads -her instantly to seek the destruction of those who would soon become -her rivals. If the royal larvæ spun complete cocoons, the stings of -the queens regnant might be so entangled in their silken meshes, as to -be with difficulty disengaged from them. "Such," says Huber, "is the -_instinctive enmity of young queens to each other_, that I have seen one -of them, immediately on its emergence from the cell, rush to those of -its sisters, and tear to pieces even the imperfect larvæ." - -A curious circumstance occurs with respect to the hatching of the -queen-bee. When the pupa or nymph is about to change into the perfect -insect, the bees render the cover of the cell thinner, by gnawing away -part of the wax; and with so much nicety do they perform this operation -that the cover at last becomes pellucid, owing to its extreme thinness, -thus facilitating the exit of the fly. After the transformation is -complete, the young queens would, in common course, immediately emerge -from their cells, as workers and drones do; but the former always keep -the royal infants prisoners for some days, supplying them in the mean -time with honey for food, a small hole being made in the door of each -cell, through which the confined bee extends its proboscis to receive it. -The _royal prisoners_ continually utter a kind of song, the modulations -of which are said to vary. _Vide_ Chapter XV. Huber heard a young -princess in her cell emit a very distinct sound or clacking, consisting -of several monotonous notes in rapid succession, and he supposes the -working bees to ascertain, by the loudness of these tones, the ripeness -of their queens. Huber has suggested that the cause of this temporary -imprisonment may possibly be to enable the young queens to fly away at -the instant they are liberated. - -The queen is a good deal harassed by the other bees, on her liberation. -This has been attributed to their wishing to impel her to go off with -a swarm as soon as possible, but this notion is probably erroneous; it -certainly is so if Huber be correct, in saying that the swarms are always -accompanied by the older queens. The queen has the power of instantly -putting a stop to their worrying, by uttering a peculiar noise, which -has been called the _voice of sovereignty_. Bonner however declares -that he never could observe in the queen anything like an exercise of -sovereignty. But Huber's statement was not founded upon a solitary -instance; he heard the sound on various occasions, and witnessed the -striking effect which it always produced. On one occasion, a queen having -escaped the vigilance of her guards and sprung from the cell, was, on -her approach to the royal embryos, pulled, bitten and chased by the -other bees. But standing with her thorax against a comb and crossing her -wings upon her back, keeping them in motion, but not unfolding them, she -emitted a particular sound, when the bees became, as it were, paralysed -and remained motionless. Taking advantage of this dread, she rushed to -the royal cells; but the sound having ceased as she prepared to ascend, -the guardians of the cells instantly took courage and fairly drove her -away. This voice of sovereignty, as it has been called, resembles that -which is made by young queens before they are liberated from their cells; -it is a very distinct kind of clicking, composed of many notes in the -same key, which follow each other rapidly. The sound accompanied by the -attitude just described, always produces a paralysing effect upon the -bees. - -Bees, when deprived of their queen, have the power of selecting one or -more grubs of workers, and converting them into queens. To effect this, -each of the promoted grubs has a royal cell or cradle formed for it, by -having three contiguous common cells thrown into one; two of the three -grubs that occupy those cells are sacrificed, and the remaining one is -liberally fed with royal jelly. This _royal jelly_ is a pungent food -prepared by the working bees, exclusively for the purpose of feeding -such of the larvæ as are destined to become candidates for the honours -of royalty, whether it be their lot to assume them or not. It is more -stimulating than the food of ordinary bees, has not the same mawkish -taste, and is evidently acescent. The royal larvæ are supplied with -it rather profusely, and there is always some of it left in the cell, -after their transformation. Schirach, who was secretary to the Apiarian -Society in Upper Lusatia and vicar of Little Bautzen, may be regarded -as the discoverer, or rather as the promulgator of this fact; and his -experiments, which were also frequently repeated by other members of the -Lusatian Society, have been amply confirmed by those of Huber and Bonner. -Mr. Keys was a violent sceptic upon this subject (See his communications -to the Bath Society); so likewise was Mr. Hunter (_Vide_ Philosophical -Transactions). But notwithstanding the criticisms and ridicule of the -former, and the sarcastic strictures of the latter, the sex of workers -is now established beyond all doubt. The fact is said to have been known -long before Schirach wrote: M. Vogel and Signor Monticelli, a Neapolitan -professor, have both asserted this; the former states it to have been -known upwards of fifty years, the latter a much longer period; he says -that the Greeks and Turks in the Ionian Islands are well acquainted -with it, and that in the little Sicilian island of Favignana, the art -of _producing queens_ has been known from very remote antiquity; he -even thinks that it was no secret to the Greeks and Romans, though, as -Messrs. Kirby and Spence observe, had the practice been common, it would -surely have been noticed by Aristotle or Pliny. The result of Schirach's -experiments was that all workers were originally females, but that their -organs of generation were obliterated, merely because the germs of -them were not developed; their being fed and treated in a particular -manner, in their infancy or worm state, being necessary, in his opinion, -to effect that development. Subsequent experiments conducted under the -auspices of Huber, have shown, however, that the organs are not entirely -obliterated. - -Huber has been regarded as a man of a very vivid imagination; and as -his eye-sight was defective, he was obliged to rely very much upon the -reports of Francis Burnens, his assistant; on both which accounts other -apiarian writers have thrown some distrust upon his statements. Huish may -be reckoned among the number; he has also made some observations upon -Schirach's theory, and treated it with much petulance and ridicule. In -answer to him and all other cavillers, I shall detail an experiment made -by Mr. Dunbar, in his mirror hive. In July, when the hive had become -filled with comb and bees, and well stored with honey; and when the queen -was very fertile, laying a hundred eggs a-day, Mr. D. opened the hive -and took her majesty away. The bees laboured for eighteen hours before -they appeared to miss her; but no sooner was the loss discovered than -all was agitation and tumult; and they rushed in crowds to the door, as -if swarming. On the following morning he observed that they had founded -five queen cells, in the usual way under such circumstances; and in -the course of the same afternoon, four more were founded, in a part of -the comb where there were only eggs a day or two old. On the fourteenth -day from the old queen's removal, a young queen emerged and proceeded -towards the other royal cells, evidently with a murderous intent. She was -immediately pulled away by the workers, with violence, and this conduct -on their part was repeated as often as the queen renewed her destructive -purpose. At every repulse she appeared sulky, and cried _peep peep_, -one of the unhatched queens responding, but in a somewhat hoarser tone. -(This circumstance affords an explanation of the two different sounds -which are heard, prior to the issuing of second swarms.) On the afternoon -of the same day, a second queen was hatched; she immediately buried -herself in a cluster of bees. Next morning Mr. D. observed a hot pursuit -of the younger queen by the elder, but being called away, on his return -half an hour afterwards, the former was dying on the floor, no doubt -the victim of the other. Huber has stated that these artificial queens -are mute; but the circumstance noticed by Mr. Dunbar of the two queens, -just referred to, having answered each other, disproves that statement. -Contrary also to the experience of Huber, Mr. D. found that the cells of -artificial queens were surrounded by a guard. I have just adverted to the -protection which they afforded to the royal cells, when assailed by the -first hatched queen. - -That _the working bees are females_ is clear from the circumstance of -their being known occasionally to lay eggs. This fact was first noticed -by Riem, and was afterwards confirmed by the experiments of Huber, whose -assistant, on one occasion seized a fertile worker in the very act of -laying. It is a remarkable fact that these _fertile workers_ never lay -any but _drones'_ eggs. This uninterrupted laying of drones' eggs was -noticed by the Lusatian observers, as well as by the naturalist of the -Palatinate. Bonnet, on referring to this fact, supposes there must have -been small queens mixed with the workers upon which the experiments were -made, whose office it was to lay male eggs in _all_ hives; for neither -he nor the before-named observers imagined that the workers were ever -fertile, though from the oft repeated experiments, just alluded to, they -must have regarded them as females. Probably the fertility of these -workers is occasioned by some royal jelly being casually dropped into -their cells, when grubs, as they uniformly issue from cells adjoining -those inhabited by grubs, that have been raised from the plebeian to the -royal rank; of course therefore they are never found in any hives but -those which have had the misfortune to lose their queen. Fertile workers -appear smaller in the belly and more slender in the body than sterile -workers, and this is the only external difference between them. - -If any further proof were required to establish the opinion that working -bees are females, the question has been set at rest for ever, by _the -dissections of Miss Jurine_, daughter of the distinguished naturalist -of Geneva: what had eluded the scalpel and the microscope of that -penetrating and indefatigable naturalist Swammerdam, was reserved for -the still finer hand and more dexterous dissection of a lady. Miss -Jurine, by adopting a particular method of preparing the object to be -examined, brought into view the rudiments of the ovaria of the common -working bee: her examinations were several times repeated, and always -with success: in form, situation and structure, they were found to be -perfectly analogous to those of the queen-bee, excepting that no ova -could be distinguished in them. M. Cuvier, however, thinks that he has -observed minute chaplets in common bees, resembling those in the oviducts -of queens; an additional confirmation, if any were wanted, of the opinion -that workers are females whose organization is not developed. Miss Jurine -undertook the delicate task to which I have just referred, at the request -of M. Huber, who speaks of her as a young lady who had devoted her time -and the liberal gifts of nature to similar studies, and says that she -already rivalled Lyonnet and Merian; but adds, "we had soon to deplore -her loss." The research was first made to ascertain whether black bees, -which, when they appear in a hive, are much persecuted, were exposed to -this persecution in consequence of their sex exciting the jealousy of the -queen. The success of the investigation induced this accomplished young -lady to extend her dissection to the common workers, which was crowned -with a result equally gratifying. Parallel instances have been observed -with regard to the humble-bee, the wasp and the ant, amongst which, those -that have usually been called neuters are found to be females, and when -fertile, they, like the fertile workers in a bee-hive, produce males -universally. - -Having now traced these insects through their regular stages of egg, -larva, nymph, until they become perfect bees, and having noticed the -facts which show the working bees to be females, I shall advert to -the more intricate and mysterious business of _Impregnation_. This is -a subject which was long involved in obscurity, and which indeed is -still clouded by some uncertainty. Schirach and Bonner stoutly denied -the necessity of sexual intercourse between the queen and the drones, -considering the former as a mother and yet a virgin, and Swammerdam was -of the same opinion; he ascribes impregnation to a vivifying seminal -aura, which is exhaled from the drones and penetrates the body of the -queen. This opinion arose from his observing a very strong odour to -be exhaled, at certain times, from the drones; "Hanc sententiam ratam -habuit, quia organa apum propagini servientia, sexus utriusque, ritè -dissecta, inter se ita disparia videbantur, ut congressus ne fieri quidem -ullo pacto posset." His opinion with respect to the vivifying influence -of the seminal aura also accounted satisfactorily, to his own mind, for -there being such a prodigious number of drones, as, in proportion to -their number, would of course be the intensity of their peculiar odour. -Reaumur very successfully combated this fanciful doctrine, and Huber -has confuted it by direct experiment. Reaumur inclined to the opinion -that there was a sexual intercourse, though his experiments left that -question undecided. Arthur Dobbs, Esq. has given it as his opinion that -the queen's eggs were impregnated by coition with the drones, and that a -renewal of the intercourse was unnecessary. He however thought that she -had intercourse with several, instead of with one only, in order that -there might be a sufficient deposition of sperm to impregnate all her -eggs. About the beginning of the last century, Maraldi broached another -hypothesis; he imagined that the eggs were fecundated by the drones, -after the queen had deposited them in the cells, similarly to what -takes place in the fecundation of fish-spawn. In 1777 that ingenious -naturalist Mr. Debraw, who was apothecary to Addenbroke's Hospital at -Cambridge, also adopted this opinion; and even so late as the year 1817 -Huish has supported the same doctrine, and I believe does so at the -present time. Debraw thought he had discovered the prolific fluid of the -drones, in the brood-cells, which fertilizing the eggs caused them to -produce larvæ. Huber repeated the experiments of Debraw, and at first -gave him credit for the reality of the discovery; but further and more -minute observation convinced him that it was illusory, and that what he, -as well as Debraw had taken for seminal fluid, was nothing more than -light reflected from the bottoms of the cells, when illuminated by the -sun's rays. Moreover, it did not escape the acute mind of Huber, that -eggs were laid and larvæ hatched, when there were no drones in existence, -viz. between the months of September and April. The two hypotheses -just mentioned, accounted satisfactorily, to their supporters, for the -prodigious disproportion in the number of the sexes. But Huber made -the experiment of confining the queen and rigidly excluding every male -from a hive; nay more, he carefully examined every comb, and satisfied -himself that there was neither male nymph nor worm present; and lest it -should be supposed that the fertilizing fluid might be imported from -other hives, he totally confined the bees, on two occasions, and still -the eggs were prolific; which proves clearly that their fertility must -have depended upon the previous impregnation of the queen. The analogy -of wasps is indeed admitted, by Huish, to discountenance the opinion -which he entertains in common with Maraldi and Debraw. The queen wasp -alone, survives the winter, and deposits her first eggs in the ensuing -spring in combs of her own construction. Here then impregnation must -have taken place in the preceding autumn, whilst the eggs were in the -ovaria. It was the opinion of Hattorf, Schirach, and probably also of -Bonner, that the queen-bee impregnated herself; but this opinion is too -extravagant to require serious refutation: it arose probably, from their -making experiments upon queens taken indiscriminately from the hives, -and which had previously been impregnated. This no doubt misled Debraw, -who, without knowing it, had chosen for experiment some queens that had -had commerce with the males. The experiments of Huber were made upon -virgin-queens, with whose history he was acquainted from the moment of -their leaving their cells. In the course of his experiments he found -that the queens were never impregnated, so long as they remained in the -interior of the hive; but that _impregnation always takes place in the -open air_, at a time when the heat has induced the drones to issue -from the hive; on which occasions, the queen soars high in the air, -love being the motive for the only distant journey she ever takes. "The -rencontre and copulation of the queen with the drone take place exterior -to the hive," says Lombard, "and whilst they are on the wing." They are -similarly constituted with the whole family of flies. A corresponding -circumstance may also be noted with respect to the queen-ant; and Bonnet, -in his _Contemplations de la Nature_, has observed that _she_ is always -impregnated whilst she is on the wing. The dragon-flies copulate as they -fly through the air, in which state they have the appearance of a double -animal. - - "When noon-tide Sirius glares on high, - Young Love ascends the glowing sky, - From vein to vein swift shoots prolific fire, - And thrills each insect fibre with desire. - Thence, Nature, to fulfil thy prime decree, - Wheels round, in wanton rings, the courtier bee; - Now shyly distant, now with bolden'd air. - He woos and wins the all-complying fair: - Through fields of ether, veil'd in vap'ry gloom, - They seek, with amorous haste, the nuptial room; - As erst th' immortal pair, on Ida's height, - Wreath'd round their noon of joy, ambrosial night." - - +Evans.+ - -The males and the fertile females, among ants, are winged insects; the -former, as in the case of drone bees, perish a short time after their -amours; and the females, having alighted upon a spot suitable for the -formation of a colony, cut off their own wings, as being no longer of -any use to them. (Linnæus had observed that the females lost their -wings a certain period after impregnation.) A domino Hunter didici, -se bombinatrices sub oculos in coitu junctos, ut apud muscas mos est, -vidisse. "Aculeus," inquit, "articulo temporis ejicitur, et inter gemina -insecta, dorso feminæ imponitur. Hoc situ aliquandiù manent." In the -hornet it is the same. - -If the queen-bee be confined, though amid a seraglio of males, she -continues barren. Prior to her flight, (which is preceded by the flight -of the drones,) she reconnoitres the exterior of the hive, apparently for -the purpose of recognition, and sometimes, after flying a few feet from -it, returns to it again: finally she rises aloft in the air, describing -in her flight horizontal circles of considerable diameter, till she -is out of sight. She returns from her aërial excursion in about half -an hour, with the most evident marks of fecundation. Excursions are -sometimes made for a shorter period, but then she exhibits no sign of -having been impregnated. It is curious that Bonner should have remarked -those aërial excursions, without suspecting their object. "I have often," -says he, "seen the young queens taking an airing upon the second or -third day of their age." Yet Huish says, "It is an acknowledged tact -that the queen-bee never leaves the hive, on any account whatsoever." -Perhaps Huish's observations were made upon first swarms; and these, -according to Huber, are uniformly conducted by old queens. Swammerdam -also made the same observation as to _first swarms being always led off -by old queens_. Old queens have not the same occasion to quit the hives -that young ones have,--viz. to have intercourse with the drones; for, -according to Huber, one impregnation is sufficient to fertilize all the -eggs that are laid for two years afterwards, at least. He _thinks_ it is -sufficient to fertilize all that she lays during her whole life. This may -appear, to some, an incredible period; and Huish inquires, admitting that -a single act of coition be sufficient to fecundate all the eggs existing -in the ovaria at the time, how those are fecundated which did not exist -there? But when we consider that in the common spider, according to -Audebert, the fertilizing effect continues for _many years_; and that -the fecundation of the eggs of the female aphides or green lice, by the -males of one generation, will continue for a year, passing, during that -period, through _nine_ or _ten successive generations_ of females, the -causes for doubt will, I think, be greatly diminished: at any rate we -are not at liberty to reject the evidence of facts, because we cannot -understand their _modus operandi_. With respect to the aphis, Bonnet -says the influence of the male continues through _five_ generations, -but Lyonnet carried his experiments to a more extended period; and -according to Messrs. Kirby and Spence, who give it "upon the authority -of Mr. Wolnough of Hollesley (late of Boyton) in Suffolk, an intelligent -agriculturist, and a most acute and accurate observer of nature, there -may be _twenty_ generations in a year." Reaumur has proved that in _five_ -generations one aphis may be the progenitor of 5,904,900,000 descendants. -It may be objected to me here, that the aphis is a viviparous insect, -and that the experiments which prove what I have referred to, do not -therefore bear upon the question. It has been ascertained, however, that -they are strictly oviparous at the close of the year (one species is at -all times so), at other times ovo-viviparous; and in either case the -penetrating influence of the male sperm is surely still more remarkable -where there has been no immediate commerce with the male, than in the -direct case of the oviparous bee! It has been observed, however, that -the further the female aphides are removed from the first mother, or -that which had known the male, the less prolific do they become. In -order to put my readers in possession of Dr. Fleming's opinion upon this -subject, I will quote what he has said in his Philosophy of Zoology. -"Impregnation, in insects, appears to take place while the eggs pass -a reservoir containing the sperm, situated near the termination of the -oviduct in the vulva. In dissecting the female parts, in the silk-moth, -says Mr. Hunter, I discovered a bag, lying on what may be called the -vagina or common oviduct, whose mouth or opening was external, but it -had a canal of communication betwixt it and the common oviduct. In -dissecting these parts, before copulation, I found this bag empty; and -when I dissected them afterwards, I found it full. (Phil. Trans. 1792. -p. 186.) By the most decisive experiments, such as covering the ova of -the unimpregnated moth, after exclusion, with the liquor taken from -this bag, in those which had had sexual intercourse, and rendering them -fertile, he demonstrated that this bag was a reservoir for the spermatic -fluid, to impregnate the eggs, as they were ready for exclusion, and that -coition and impregnation were not simultaneous." Linnæus thought that -there was a sexual intercourse between the queens and the drones, and he -even suspected that it proved fatal to the latter. His opinion, on both -these points, seems to be confirmed by the experiments of Huber; who -ascertained by repeated observations on newly impregnated queens, "Fuci -organum, post congressum, in corpore feminæ hæsisse, unde exitus fatalis -expectandus est; ita autem accidere re verâ non liquet." "Apum regina et -mater," says Mr. Kirby, "in sublime fertur maritum infelicem petens, -qui voluptatem brevem vitâ emat." Reaumur thought sexual union necessary -to impregnation, and tried many experiments to ascertain the fact; such -as confining a queen under a glass in company with drones: and these -experiments were repeated by Huber. Both these naturalists witnessed -the solicitations and advances of the queens towards the drones, -"nihilominùs, coeuntia tempore quovis conspicere non possent." Reaumur -_fancied_ he saw it; there is, however, very great reason to believe that -he was mistaken: the queens so exposed all proved barren. Swammerdam -asserted that clipping the wings of queens rendered them sterile, a fact -which militates very much against his own theory of impregnation being -produced by a seminal aura, but strongly confirms the theory of Huber; -as in all probability the mutilating experiments of Swammerdam were made -upon virgin queens, which thereby lost the power of quitting the hives. -Huber found that clipping the wings of _impregnated_ queens produced no -effect upon them; it neither diminished the respectful attentions of the -workers, nor interfered with their laying of eggs. Why impregnation can -only take place in the open air and when the insects are on the wing, at -present remains a mystery. - -The young virgin-queens, generally, set out in quest of the males, the -day after they are settled in their new abode, which is usually the -fifth day of their existence as queens, two or three days being passed -in captivity, one in the native hive after their liberation, and the -fifth in the new dwelling. The ancients seem to have been very solicitous -to establish for the bees a character of inviolable chastity: Pliny -observes, "Apium enim coitus visus nunquam." And Virgil endeavours to -support the same opinion: - - "But of all customs which the bees can boast, - 'Tis this that claims our admiration most; - That none will Hymen's softer joys approve, - Nor waste their spirits in luxurious love: - But all a long virginity maintain. - And bring forth young without a mother's pain." - -It was the opinion of most ancient philosophers that bees derived their -origin from the putrid carcases of animals. _Vide_ Chap. II. Some also -have supposed them to proceed from the parts of fructification in -flowers. Virgil, borrowing as usual from Aristotle, among the rest: - - "Well might the Bard, on fancy's frolic wing, - Bid, from fresh flowers, enascent myriads spring, - Raise genial ferment in the slaughter'd steer. - And people thence his insect-teeming year; - A fabled race, whom no soft passions move. - The smile of duty nor the glance of love." - - +Evans.+ - -"To vindicate, in some measure, the character of the insect queen, Mr. -Wildman boldly dared to stem the torrent, and revive the long forgotten -idea suggested by Mr. Butler in his _Feminine Monarchy_, that queens -produce queens only, and that the common bees are the mothers of common -bees." But all these fanciful notions must yield to the clear and -decisive experiments of Huber, who has satisfactorily shown that _the -queen is the general mother of all_; he has also resolved the causes -of former mistaken opinions. Many apiarians have found a difficulty -in admitting the theory of Huber, in consequence of the very great -disproportion in the number of the sexes, there being only one female -to several hundred males, and one impregnation being, in his opinion, -all that is required to fertilize myriads of eggs. The number of drones -may be considered as in accordance, in some degree, with the general -profusion of nature: we find her abounding with supernumeraries in a -great variety of instances, in the blossoms of trees and flowers, as well -as in the relative number of one sex to the other among animals. Huber -conceives that it was necessary there should be a great number of drones, -that the queen might be sure of finding one, in her excursion through the -expanse of the atmosphere, and run no risk of sterility. - -In page 26 I have stated the opinion of Mr. Dobbs, that a queen has -intercourse with several drones; and what I have also stated upon the -authority of Mr. Hunter, in page 34, with respect to the silk-moth -and other insects, gives countenance to that opinion: nor do I see its -inconsistency with the discovery made by Huber. Though there is reason -to believe that the act proves fatal to one devoted drone, yet those -that are so fortunate as to obtain the first favours of her majesty, -may escape uninjured. If the conjecture which I have thus hazarded be -correct, it will appear less surprising that so many drones should be -brought into existence. - -The queen begins to lay her eggs as soon as a few portions of comb are -completely formed. By the time that combs five or six inches square -are constructed, eggs, honey and bee-bread will be found in them. -Huber states that _the laying usually commences forty-six hours after -the intercourse with the male; and that during the eleven succeeding -months, the eggs of workers only are laid; after which a considerable -and uninterrupted laying of drones' eggs commences_. This period may be -retarded by the temperature of the atmosphere. Huber relates an instance -where, the weather having become suddenly cold, after an impregnation -which took place on the 31st of October, that queen did not lay till the -March following. The effects of retardation will be noticed presently. -_Twenty days after the queen has begun to lay the eggs of drones, "the -working bees,"_ says Huber, "_construct the_ +royal cells+, _in which -the queens, without discontinuing the laying of male eggs, deposit, -at the interval of one, two or three days, those eggs from which the -queens are successively to spring_." This laying of the eggs of drones, -which is called the great laying, usually happens in May. There seems -to be a secret relation between the production of these eggs, and the -construction of royal cells: the laying commonly lasts thirty days, and -regularly on the 20th or 21st day, as has been already observed, royal -cells are founded. _When the larvæ, hatched from the eggs laid by the -queen in the royal cells, are ready to be transformed to nymphs, this -queen leaves the hive, conducting a swarm along with her._ A swarm is -always led off by a single queen; and Huber remarks that it was necessary -for instinct to impel the old queen to lead forth the first swarm; for, -being the strongest, she would never fail to overthrow the younger -competitors for the throne, near which "the jealous Semiramis of the -hive will bear no rival." The queen, having finished her laying of male -eggs and of royal eggs, prior to her quitting the old hive, is ready -to commence, in the new one, with the laying of workers' eggs, workers -being first needed, in order to secure the continuance and prosperity -of the newly founded commonwealth. The bees that remain in the old hive -take particular care of the royal cells, and prevent the young queens, -successively hatched, from leaving them, except at an interval of several -days from each departure. But I have already adverted to their mode of -proceeding on these occasions. _Vide_ page 17. _The law of primogeniture_ -is always strictly observed towards these royal insects, the first-born -or princess-royal being always selected to go off with the second swarm, -or to reign over the parent stock, as the case may be; and so on with -respect to the third and fourth, or whatever number may issue. It is -remarkable that a queen seldom, if ever, leads forth a swarm, except -there be sunshine and calm air. Such a ferment occasionally rages in the -hives, as soon as the young queens are hatched, that Huber has often -observed the thermometer placed in the hive, rise suddenly from about 92° -to above 104° Fahrenheit. This suffocating heat he considers as one of -the means employed by nature for urging the bees to go off in swarms. _In -warm weather one strong hive has been known to send off four swarms in 18 -days._ _Vide_ Chap. XIII. - -According to Huber, _the queen ordinarily lays about 12,000 eggs in two -months_, one impregnation serving, as has been before stated, for the -whole complement of eggs, of every description, which she lays during -two years at least. It is not to be supposed that she lays at the rate -of 12,000 eggs every two months, but she does so at the principal -laying in April and May: there is also another great laying in August. -Early in November the laying usually ceases. Reaumur states the number -of eggs laid by a queen in two months at double the amount of Huber's -calculation; viz. 200 a day, on an average. This variation may have -arisen from variety of climate, season, or other circumstances. _A -moderate swarm has been calculated to consist of from 12,000 to 20,000_, -which is about a two months' laying. Schirach says that _a single queen -will lay from 70,000 to 100,000 eggs in a season_. This sounds like a -great number; but it is greatly exceeded by some other insects. The -female of the white ant extrudes not less than 60 eggs in a minute, which -gives 3600 in an hour, 86,400 in a day, 2,419,200 in a lunar month, and -the enormous number of 211,449,600 in a year. Though she does not lay all -the year probably, yet, setting the period as low as possible, her eggs -will exceed the number produced by any other known animal in creation. - -If the _impregnation_ of a queen be by any means _retarded_ beyond the -20th or 21st day of her life, a very extraordinary consequence ensues. -Instead of first laying the eggs of workers, and those of drones, at -the usual period afterwards, she begins from the 45th hour to lay the -latter, and lays no other kind during her whole life. It should seem -as if the rudiments of the workers' eggs withered in the oviducts, but -without obstructing the passage of the drones' eggs. The only known fact -analogous to this is the state of certain vegetable seeds, which lose -the faculty of germination from age, whatever care may have been taken -to preserve them. This retardation seems to have a singular effect upon -the whole animal œconomy of the queen. "The bodies of those queens," -says Huber, "whose impregnation has been retarded, are shorter than -common; the extremities remain slender, whilst the first two rings, next -the thorax, are uncommonly swollen." In consequence of the shortening -of their bodies, their eggs are frequently laid on the sides of the -cells, owing probably to their not being able to reach the bottom; the -difficulty is also increased by the two swollen rings. In these cases -of retarded impregnation and exclusive laying of drones' eggs, the -prosperity of the hive soon terminates; generally before the end of the -queen's laying. The workers receiving no addition to their number, but -on the contrary, finding themselves overwhelmed with drones, sacrifice -their queen and abandon the hive. These retarded queens seem to have -their instincts impaired; for they deposit their eggs indiscriminately -in the cells, whether originally intended for drones or for workers,--a -circumstance which materially affects the size of the drones that -are reared in them. There are not wanting instances of royal cells -being occupied by them, and of the workers being thereby so completely -deceived as to pay the tenants, in all respects, the honours of royalty. -This circumstance appears the more extraordinary, since it has been -ascertained that when eggs have been thus inappropriately deposited, by -fertile workers, they are uniformly destroyed a few days afterwards, -though for a short time they receive due attention. - -The workers have been supposed by some apiarians to transport the eggs -from place to place;--if ever such were the case, this would seem to -be an occasion calling for the practice: on the contrary, instead of -removing the eggs from the sides to the bottoms of the cells, for the -sake of better accommodation, this object is accomplished by their -lengthening the cells, and advancing them two lines beyond the surface -of the combs. This proceeding affords pretty good evidence that _the -transportation of eggs_ forms no part of the workers' occupation. It is -still further proved by their eating any workers' eggs, that a queen may, -at any time, be forced to deposit in drones' cells, or drop at random -in other parts of the hive; a circumstance which escaped the notice -of former naturalists, and misled them in their opinion respecting -transportation. A somewhat similar circumstance was noticed by Mr. Dunbar -in his mirror hive. (For an account of this hive see Chap. X.) Mr. Dunbar -observed that whenever the queen dropped her eggs carelessly, they were -eagerly devoured by the workers. Now if transportation formed a part of -their employment, they would in these cases, instead of eating the eggs, -have deposited them in their appropriate cells. It seems very evident -therefore that the proper disposition of the eggs is left entirely to the -instinct of the queens. The workers having been seen to run away with -the eggs, in order to devour them, in all probability gave birth to the -mistaken notion that they were removing them to their right cells. Among -humble-bees, there is a disposition, among the workers, to eat the eggs, -which extends even to those that are laid in proper cells, where the -queens often have to contend for their preservation. - -After the season of swarming, viz. towards the end of July, as is well -known, a general _massacre of the drones_ takes place. The business of -fecundation being now completed, they are regarded as useless consumers -of the fruits of others labour, "fruges consumere nati;" love is at -once converted into furious hate, and a general proscription takes -place. The unfortunate victims evidently perceive their danger; for -they are never, at this time, seen resting in one place, but darting -in or out of the hive, with the utmost precipitation, as if in fear -of being seized. Their destruction has been generally supposed to be -effected by the workers harassing them till they quit the hive: this -was the opinion of Mr. Hunter, who says the workers pinch them to and -fro, without stinging them, and he considers their death as a natural -rather than an untimely one. In this Bonnet seems to agree with Mr. -Hunter. But Huber has observed that _their destruction is effected by the -stings of the workers:_ he ascertained this by placing his hives upon -a glass table, as will be stated under the anatomy of the bee, article -"Sting." Reaumur seems to have been aware of this, for he has remarked -that "notwithstanding the superiority which the drones seem to have from -their bulk, they cannot hold out against the workers, who are armed with -a poniard which conveys poison into the wounds it makes." The moment this -formidable weapon has entered their bodies, they expand their wings and -expire. This sacrifice is not the consequence of a blind indiscriminating -instinct, for _if a hive be deprived of its queen, no massacre takes -place_, though the hottest persecution rage in all the surrounding -hives. This fact was observed by Bonner, who supposed the drones to be -preserved for the sake of the additional heat which they would generate -in the hive during winter; but according to Huber's theory, they are -preserved for the purpose of impregnating a new queen. The lives of the -drones are also spared in hives which possess fertile workers only, -but no proper queen, and likewise in hives governed by a queen whose -impregnation has been retarded; but under any other circumstances the -drones all disappear before winter. Not only all that have undergone -their full transformations, but every embryo, in whatever period of its -existence, shares the same fate. The workers drag them forth from the -cells, and after sucking the fluid from their bodies, cast them out of -the hive. In all these respects the hive-bees resemble wasps, but with -this difference; among the latter, not only are the males and the male -larvæ destroyed, but all the workers and their larvæ, (and the very combs -themselves,) are involved in one indiscriminate ruin, none remaining -alive during the winter but the queens, which lie dormant in various -holes and corners till the ensuing spring,--of course without food, for -they store none. The importance of destroying these mother wasps in the -spring will be noticed in another place. - -Morier in his second journey through Persia (page 100) has recorded a -fact, which, though it did not come under his own immediate observation, -was related to him by a person on whose authority he could place full -reliance, and which is directly the reverse of what I have stated -respecting bees. It is, that among the locusts, when the female has done -laying, she is surrounded and killed by the males. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE APIARY. - -The first object of consideration, in the establishment of an apiary, is -situation. - -The aspect has, in general, been regarded as of prime importance, but I -think there are other points of still greater importance. - -An apiary would not be well situated near a great river, nor in the -neighbourhood of the sea, as windy weather might whirl the bees into the -water and destroy them. - -It was the opinion of the ancients that bees, in windy weather, carried -weights, to prevent them from being whiffled about, in their progress -through the air: Virgil has observed that - - "They with light pebbles, like a balanc'd boat, - Pois'd, through the air on even pinions float." - - +Sotheby's Georgics.+ - -This assertion, which was probably borrowed by the poet from his -predecessor Aristotle, and which has since been repeated by Pliny, is -now ascertained to be erroneous. The error has been noticed by both -Swammerdam and Reaumur, and ascribed by them to preceding observers -having mistaken the mason bee for a hive-bee. The former builds its -nest against a wall, with a composition of gravel, sand and its own -saliva, and when freighted with the former article, may easily have led a -careless observer into the erroneous opinion above alluded to. - -From a similar inaccuracy of observation, it is probable that flies were -confounded with bees by ancient naturalists, and that from thence arose -the absurd notion, of the latter being generated in putrid carcases, as -we know the former to be; and this error was most likely confirmed by -their having found both honey and bees in the carcases of dead animals, -as recorded in the case of Samson. - -Though, for the reasons above stated, an apiary would not be well -situated near a large river, yet it should not be far from a rivulet -or spring: small ones, that glide gently over pebbles, are the most -desirable, as affording a variety of resting places for the bees to -alight upon. If neither spring nor streamlet be near, a broad dish of -water should be placed for the bees, the bottom being covered with small -stones or duckweed, to facilitate their drinking and prevent drowning. - -This, in a hot dry season, is of considerable importance, as it will -save that time, which must otherwise be spent, in fetching water from a -distance; for without water, as will be noticed hereafter, no wax can be -formed. - -It is of course of the greatest importance that the apiary be situated -near to good pasturage, such as clover, saintfoin, buckwheat, &c.--better -still if in a garden well stocked with suitable plants. - -It should be near the residence of the proprietor, as well for the -purpose of rendering the bees tractable and well acquainted with the -family, as for affording a good view of their general proceedings; if it -be so situated that its front may form a right angle with the window of -the family sitting-room, an easy opportunity will be afforded to watch -the bustle of swarming. - -An out-door apiary should admit of being approached at the back part, -to give an opportunity of making observations on the proceedings of the -bees, or to perform any requisite operation upon them. - -The hives should be placed upon separate stands, supported by single -posts or pedestals, be raised from sixteen inches to two feet above the -ground, and be three or four feet from each other; and they should stand -quite clear of any wall or fence. - -The resting-boards should project several inches in front of the hives, -that the bees may have plenty of room to alight, when they return home -loaded from the fields, and should be screwed down firmly to the tops of -the stands, that the hives may not be overturned by high winds or other -accidents. - -They should be free from the droppings of trees, from noisome smells and -disagreeable noises; and be guarded as much as possible from the extremes -of heat and cold. - -Most apiarians are agreed that the aspect of the apiary should, in this -country, be more or less southerly, and that it should be well secured -from the north and south-west, by trees, high hedges, or other fences; -this is the opinion of Wildman, Keys, and Huish; Bonner, however, prefers -an easterly aspect; Huish recommends two points to the east and one to -the south. Wildman preferred a south-west aspect, as not tempting the -labourers to emerge too early, and as affording a later light for their -return home in the evening. - - "Skreen'd from the east; where no delusive dawn - Chills, while it tempts them o'er the dew damp lawn, - But, as on loaded wing, the labourers roam, - Sol's last bright glories light them to their home." - - +Evans.+ - -Milton says: "It is not material in what aspect the stock stands, -provided the sun shines on the hive once in the course of the day, for -that well-peopled hives, kept dry, will thrive in most situations." And -provided due attention be paid to other circumstances calculated to -promote their prosperity, I coincide in opinion with Milton. - -Some recommend a valley or hollow glen, for the convenience of the bees -returning home with their loads. At any rate care should be taken that no -walls, trees, houses, nor anything else, impede the issuing forth of the -bees to their pasturage, nor obstruct their return in right lines to the -hives. They should be able to fly off from the resting-boards at an angle -of about forty degrees with the plane of the horizon. - -To those who, residing in towns, may consider it as indispensable to -the success of an apiary, that it should be in the _immediate_ vicinity -of good pasturage, and be thereby deterred from benefiting and amusing -themselves by keeping bees; it may be satisfactory to learn, that the -apiary of the celebrated Bonner was situated in a garret, in the centre -of Glasgow, where it flourished for several years, and furnished him with -the means of making many interesting and valuable observations, which he -gave to the world about thirty years ago. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE BEE-HOUSE. - - -No one that could afford to purchase bee-boxes, and to construct a -bee-house, or to convert to that use some building already constructed, -would hesitate, I should think, to give them the preference over common -straw-hives and an out-door apiary, whether he looked to ultimate profit -or to present convenience and security. - -Perhaps I cannot give a better notion of what I consider as the most -eligible plan of a bee-house, than by describing the construction of my -own. The whole building, besides answering the purpose of an apiary, may -be made subservient to other uses;--my own serves for storing potatoes. -The potatoe-cellar is sunk two thirds of its depth in the earth, and the -bee-house is raised upon it, having a couple of steps up to the door. The -dimensions of both are seven feet six inches by six feet clear within, -which affords room for five colonies. - -The piles or stories of bee-boxes are placed in the bee-house at somewhat -less than two feet apart, so as to make the external entrance to each -pile respectively, about a yard asunder.--See the plate which forms the -frontispiece of this work. - -On the inside of the bee-house, the boxes in the upper row stand about -table height, those in the lower row, about six inches above the floor. -On the outside, the entrances to the upper row are about five feet, -the entrances to the lower row about three feet from the ground. The -entrances through the wall may be cut in stone, bricks or wood, and -should be chamfered away on the outside, leaving the wall at those parts -as thin as practicable, and letting the opening correspond in size with -the outlets that are sunk in the floor boards to be hereafter described. -The potatoe-cellar is built with bricks, the bee-house of timber, lathed -and plastered within, and thatched on the outside. - -Where the bees enter the boxes, two wooden shelves or resting-boards are -fixed, two or three inches thick, to prevent warping; they extend the -whole length of the building, are about a foot wide, and rest on cross -pieces, nailed fast to the uprights with which the bee-house is built: -these cross pieces extend also about fifteen inches into the bee-house, -where they serve as supporters for the shelves on which the bee-boxes are -placed. The resting-boards on the outside are divided, by bricks on the -edge, into several compartments, as shown in the frontispiece; the bricks -extend the full width of the resting board, and all the compartments -are slated over. By this means the entrances are well sheltered, and -accommodation is afforded for the bees, when they are at any time driven -home, by stress of weather, in greater numbers than can readily pass -through the entrances into the boxes; for on the approach of a storm, the -bees will sometimes return home from the fields, in such numbers and with -such precipitation, as almost to block up the entrances into the hives. - -The building is not only thatched on the top, but down the sides and -ends, as low as the potatoe-cellar. On that side where the bees enter the -boxes, the thatch of course terminates at the top of the compartments, -over which it is spread out so as to conceal the slate coverings. The -floor of the bee-house is boarded and the potatoe-cellar is ceiled, the -space between the ceiling and the floor above being filled with dry -sawdust. The door may be situated where most convenient; but the window -or windows should be at one end or at both ends, that the light may fall -sideways on the bee-boxes, and should be made to open, as in case of any -of the bees accidentally getting into the bee-house, they may be let out -more conveniently. - -It is necessary to have an extra entrance, or rather an extra outlet, for -discharging the bees when the time of deprivation arrives, which will be -hereafter explained. My own outlet is placed in a line with and between -the lower tier of boxes. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -PASTURAGE. - - -It is of the first importance to the success of an apiary, that it should -be in a neighbourhood where the bees can be supplied with an abundance of -good pasturage, as upon that will depend the fecundity of the queen and -the harvest of wax and honey. - -If _Dutch clover_ (_Trifolium repens_) be neither grown abundantly by -the neighbouring farmers, nor the spontaneous growth of the surrounding -country, the apiarian should, if possible, crop some ground with it -himself, as it is one of the grand sources from which bees collect their -honey in the spring, and indeed during a considerable portion of the -principal gathering season. From the value of clover in this respect, -one species of it (_Trifolium pratense_) has acquired the name of -Honey-suckle clover. _Yellow trefoil_ also (_Medicago lupulina_), though -not so great a favourite with the bees as Dutch clover, is nevertheless -a valuable pasturage for them, in consequence of its blossoming earlier -than the clover. - -Though I have made Dutch clover take precedence of every other bee -pasturage,--a precedence which in this country at least it is fairly -entitled to,--yet it is by no means the first in the order of the -seasons. - - "First the gray willow's glossy pearls they steal. - Or rob the hazel of its golden meal, - While the gay crocus and the violet blue - Yield to the flexile trunk ambrosial dew." - - +Evans+ - -The earliest resources of the bee are _the willow, the hazel, the -osier, the poplar, the sycamore_ and _the plane_, all which are very -important adjuncts to the neighbourhood of an apiary. The catkins of -several of them afford an abundant supply of farina, and attract the -bees very strongly in early spring when the weather is fine. Mr. Kirby, -in his _Monographia Apum Angliæ_, considers the _female_ catkins of the -different species of Salix as affording honey, the _male_ ones, pollen. - -To these may be added _the snowdrop, the crocus, white alyssum, -laurustinus_, &c. - -_Orange_ and _lemon trees_ also, and other _green-house plants_, afford -excellent honey, and might be advantageously presented to the bees at -this season. - -_Gooseberry, currant_ and _raspberry trees_ likewise, with _sweet -marjoram, winter savory_ and _peppermint_, should not be far off them. -From the early blossoming of the two first, and from their yielding an -extraordinary quantity of honey, they form some of the first sources of -spring food for the bees, and in all probability furnish them with the -pale green pellets, then seen upon their thighs. - -_The peach, nectarine_, &c. are also valuable, on account of their -blossoming very early. - -_Apple_ and _pear trees_, which in Worcestershire and Herefordshire, -during several weeks of spring, seem to form - - "One boundless blush, one white empurpled shower - Of mingled blossoms," - -and give those counties the appearance of a perfect paradise, "may be -said to constitute a second course for the bees, after their earlier -spring feast on the bloom of the currants, gooseberries, and all the -varieties of wall fruit." - -_Alder buds_ and _flowers_ are also particularly grateful to bees; the -former are said to afford honey for six months together. The maple and -the lime also afford it for a considerable time. - -Dickson, in his "Agriculture," states that the blossoms of _the bean_, -which are highly fragrant, though affording but a scanty supply of honey, -are nevertheless frequented by crowds of bees. "Is this," says Dr. Evans, -"an instance of mistaken instinct?" - -The young spotted leaves of _the vetch_ (_Anthyllis vulneraria_) they -likewise ply continually for three months together, as well as its -flowers, even though very distant from their homes. The beans also which -prove most attractive to them are those with spotted leaves. - -From the partiality of these natural chemists for the spotted leaves of -the vetch and bean, I suspect that the spotting originates from disease, -which causes those leaves to throw out a honeyed secretion. In this -opinion I am strengthened by what Mr. Hubbard has stated, in a paper -presented to the Society of Arts for 1799, respecting papilionaceous -plants. "It is not," says he, "from the flower, but a small leaf, with a -black spot on it, which, in warm weather, keeps constantly oozing, that -the bees gather their honey." Mr. Hubbard also assures us in the same -paper that _the tare_ (_Ervum hirsutum_ et _tetraspermum_) is highly -useful to bees; and that several acres, sown near his apiary, otherwise -badly situated, rendered it very productive. - -_Turnips, mustard_, and all _the cabbage tribe_ are also important -auxiliaries; their culture is strongly recommended by Wildman, as -affording spring food to the bees. In the autumn a field of _buckwheat_ -becomes a very valuable resource for them, from its prolonged succession -of bloom. Buckwheat flowers in bunches, which contain ripe seeds in one -part, while blossoms are but just opening in another. Huber has given -his testimony in favour of this black grain, and Worlidge says that he -has known the bees of a very large apiary fill the combs with honey -in a fortnight, in consequence of being placed near a large field of -buckwheat. Bees indeed like to have every thing upon a large scale; whole -fields of clover, beans, the brassica tribe and buckwheat, as has been -just observed, attracting them much more strongly than scattered plants, -though affording finer honey, such as creeping lemon thyme, mignonette, -&c. - -Some flowers they pass by, though yielding a considerable quantity of -honey: those of the honey-suckle for instance, though much frequented by -the humble-bee, are never visited by the hive-bee, the superior length -of the proboscis of the former enabling it to collect what is quite out -of the reach of the latter. Every flower of the trumpet honey-suckle -(_Lonicera sempervirens_), if separated from the germen, after it is -open, will yield two or three drops of pure nectar. - -In the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1789, Mr. John. Lane -speaks of the fondness of bees for _leek blossoms_, and says that he -raised leeks extensively for their use. - -"Your bees will rejoice," says Mr. Isaac, "when they see the -neighbourhood variegated by the blossoms of _sunflowers, hollyhocks_ -and _Spanish broom_, and even the _dandelion_, which embellishes the -garden of the sluggard." Dr. Evans observed that bees not only collect -farina from the numerous assemblage of anthers in the flower of the -hollyhock, but a balsamic varnish also, (most likely propolis,) from -the young blossom buds, and says he has seen a bee rest upon the same -bud for ten minutes at least, moulding the balsam with its fore-feet and -transferring it to the hinder legs. An elegant modern writer, speaking -of the fondness of bees in general for the flowers of the hollyhock, -observes that "it has been held a gross libel upon animals to say, that a -man has made a beast of himself, when he has drunk to such excess as to -lose his reason; but we might without injustice say, that he has made a -humble-bee of himself, for those little debauchees are particularly prone -to intoxication. Round the nectaries of hollyhocks, you may generally -observe a set of determined topers quaffing as pertinaciously as if they -belonged to Wilkes's club; and round about the flower, (to follow up the -simile,) several of the bon-vivants will be found lying on the ground -inebriated and insensible." I have frequently seen the ground beneath -one of my pear-trees strewed over with hive-bees and wasps, in a similar -state, after they had banqueted upon the rich juices of the fallen fruit. -Mr. Kirby, in his _Monographia Apum Angliæ_, observes that the male -humble-bees, when the thistles are in bloom, are often seen asleep or -torpid upon its flowers, and sometimes acting as if intoxicated with the -sweets they have been imbibing. - -_The holly, the privet, phillyrea, elder_ and _common bramble_, -together with _sweet fennel, nasturtiums_ and _asparagus_, are also -much frequented by the bees. They are likewise very partial to the -yellow flowers of the _crowfoot_, as well as to the flowers of _the dead -nettle_, especially the white. - -The blossoms of _the cucumber, gourd_ and _vegetable marrow_ also, yield -a considerable quantity both of honey and farina, as do likewise those of -the _white lily_. - - "Apes æstate serenâ - Floribus insidunt variis, et Candida circum - Lilia funduntur." - - +Virgil.+ - -Dr. Evans speaks of the _Cacalia_ or _Alpine coltsfoot_ as affording -a great quantity of honey, the scent of which is often diffused to a -considerable distance; and Dr. Darwin, in a note to his "Botanic Garden," -mentions having counted on one of those plants, besides bees of various -kinds, upwards of two hundred painted butterflies, which gave it the -appearance of being loaded with additional flowers. - - "When o'er her nectar'd couch papilios crowd. - And bees in clusters hum their plaudits loud." - - +Evans.+ - -"What is it," says the anonymous writer whom I lately quoted, "that -brings the bees buzzing round us so busily? See, it is this tuft of -coltsfoot, which they approach with a harmonious chorus, somewhat like -the _Non nobis, Domine_, of our singers; and after partaking silently of -the luxurious banquet, again setup their tuneful Pæans." - -Ornamental flowers, such as roses, ranunculuses, anemones, pinks and -carnations, afford little or no pabulum for bees, and tulips are probably -pernicious to them, dead bees being frequently found in their flowers. - -It would be a great acquisition to the bees to have near them a large -plantation of _borage_, which affords peculiarly delicate honey, as -does also _viper's bugloss_. The former continues blooming for many -months, and, bearing a pendant flower, it is not liable to be washed by -rain; _mignonette_ too, if sown abundantly, is a plant of considerable -importance to the apiary, and for a somewhat similar reason,--its -continuing in bloom till the autumnal frosts set in, and its yielding -honey of peculiar whiteness and delicacy. Instances have been known, of -an abundant crop of these two flowers affording a large supply of honey -to the apiary, near which they were sown, when, at the same time, there -was a general failure of all the neighbouring stocks. - -_Lemon thyme_ should be planted in every bee-garden, wherever room can be -afforded for it: it blossoms late, (the beginning of August,) and affords -very fine flavoured honey. It might be advantageously used as an edging -for garden walks and flower-beds, instead of box; some use thrift and -daisies for the same purpose. Box has the character of giving honey a -bitter flavour, and Pliny has observed that the Romans, in laying tribute -upon Corsica, exacted from the inhabitants two hundred pounds of wax, but -wholly excepted honey, on account of its being flavoured by the box-tree. - -_The common teasel_ (_Dipsacus sylvestris_) should have a place near -every bee-house, as it not only supplies honey from its rich purple -heads, but yields a seasonable supply of water, in the cups formed by -the leaves at every joint of the stem, which contain from a spoonful -to half a pint of water. This convenience is still more efficiently -supplied by the large floating leaves of _the water lily_, which should -if practicable be introduced near every apiary. As should also the great -hairy _willow-herb_ (_Epilobium hirsutum_), a very ornamental though a -very common plant, growing by the sides of rivulets. - -_Furze, broom, heath_ and _saintfoin_, are good neighbours to an apiary. -The blossoms of furze so abound with honey as to be pervaded strongly -by the scent of it, and the broom has been extolled ever since the days -of Pliny. Mr. Bradley speaks in the highest terms of its blossoms, -as affording a great quantity of honey; but he greatly prefers the -Spanish broom, and says that an acre of it would maintain ten stocks. -The culture of saintfoin as a bee-pasture is also well worthy of the -apiarian's attention in some situations; for though it flourishes best in -a calcareous soil, it will thrive in soils which are too poor either for -grass or tillage. Furze and broom are particularly serviceable on account -of their blossoming early and long, and abounding in farina. - -On the other hand, the lateness of its bloom makes _ivy_ a very valuable -resource for the bees. On a fine day at the end of October, among the -ivy-mantled towers of an old castle, I have heard their humming noise, -so loud as scarcely to be exceeded by that which they make, among the -trees affected with honey-dew, in summer. I should however conceive that -the ivy blossom is principally serviceable as affording pollen, which -the bees probably warehouse, for feeding the young larvæ in the ensuing -spring. Mr. Hunter recommends St. John's wort (_Hypericum perforatum_), -which also comes in late, as a favourite plant for collecting pollen, -for winter's store. This stored pollen is used for feeding the earliest -hatched larvæ, though it is evident that the bees prefer fresh for the -purpose, from their collecting it as early in the spring as possible, and -from the quantity of stored pollen that is found in every old hive. - -_Commons surrounded by woods_ are well known to make an apiary -productive, the commons abounding with wild thyme and various other -flowers, which the scythe never touches; and the trees, in addition -to their farina, affording in some seasons a profusion of honey-dew. -The forwardness and activity of hives thus situated, may, in part, be -attributed to the sheltering protection of the woods. - -Keys says he never observed bees to be particularly fond of the wild -thyme. In this he is opposed to almost all the authors who have written -upon the subject. Theophrastus, Pliny, Varro, Columella, and various -other writers, speak in the highest terms of it. The Abbé Barthelemy -speaks thus of bees. "These insects are extremely partial to Mount -Hymettus, which they have filled with their colonies, and which is -covered almost every where with wild thyme and other odoriferous plants; -but it is chiefly from the excellent thyme the Mount produces, that they -extract those precious sweets, with which they compose a honey in high -estimation throughout Greece." - - "Here their delicious task the fervent Bees, - In swarming millions, tend: around, athwart, - Through the soft air the busy nations fly, - Cling to the bud, and, with inserted tube. - Suck its pure essence, its ethereal soul; - And oft with bolder wing, they soaring dare - The purple heath, or where the wild thyme grows, - And yellow load them with the luscious spoil." - - +Thomson+ - -That flowers impart a portion of their flavour to honey, seems to be -generally admitted, though probably not so much as some have imagined. It -is not to be supposed that the bee confines itself, in this country at -least, to a few particular flowers,--it ranges through a great variety; -excellent honey has been produced where the bees had little access to any -flowers but those of nettles and other weeds. - -Still however the balm of Pontus, the thyme of Hymettus, and the rosemary -of Narbonne, are generally supposed, from their aromatic flowers, to give -its peculiar excellence to the celebrated honey of those places. - -It should seem therefore that _rosemary_ might prove of importance in -the neighbourhood of an apiary, by improving the quality and increasing -the quantity of honey in certain seasons, viz. if the weather were very -hot and dry, when it blossomed; for it never affords much honey in this -country, excepting in such a season. It blossoms the earliest of aromatic -herbs, and should of course be planted in a southern aspect. - -Having said thus much upon the power which flowers possess of imparting -a peculiar flavour to the honey which is extracted from them, I will -now advert to what has been stated relative to their impregnating it -with deleterious qualities. During the celebrated retreat of the ten -thousand, as recorded by Xenophon in his _Memorabilia_, the soldiers -sucked some honey-combs in a place near Trebizonde, where was a great -number of bee-hives, and in consequence became intoxicated, and were -attacked with vomiting and purging. He states that they did not recover -their senses for twenty-four hours, nor their strength for three or four -days. Tournefort, when travelling in Asia, bearing in mind this account -of Xenophon, was very diligent in his endeavours to ascertain its truth, -and had good reason to be satisfied respecting it. He concluded that the -honey had been extracted from a shrub growing in the neighbourhood of -Trebizonde, which is well known to produce the before-mentioned effects, -and even to disturb the head by its odour. From his description and that -of others, the plant from which this honey was extracted, appears to be -the _Rhododendron ponticum_ or _Azalea pontica_ of Linnæus, both nearly -allied to each other, and growing abundantly in that part of the country. -The smell resembles honey-suckle, but is much stronger. Father Lamberti -confirms Xenophon's account, by stating similar effects to have been -produced by the honey of Colchis or Mingrelia, where this shrub is also -common. - -Dr. Darwin, in his "Temple of Nature," states that some plants afford -a honey which is intoxicating and poisonous to man, and that what is -afforded by others is so injurious to the bees themselves, that sometimes -they will not collect it. And Dr. Barton, in the American Philosophical -Transactions, has stated that, in the autumn and winter of 1790, the -honey collected near Philadelphia proved fatal to many, in consequence -of which, a minute inquiry was instituted under the direction of the -American Government, when it was ascertained satisfactorily, that the -fatal honey had been chiefly extracted from the flowers of the _Kalmia -latifolia_. Still more recently, two persons at New York are said to have -lost their lives by eating wild honey, which was supposed to have been -gathered from the flowers of the dwarf laurel, a thriving shrub in the -American woods. I shall resume this subject in Chap. 24, on Bee-maladies. - -It appears also that at the time of the inquiry set on foot by the -American Government, similar fatal consequences were produced among those -who had eaten the common American pheasant, which, on examination, was -found to arise from the pheasants having fed upon the leaves of the same -plant _Kalmia latifolia_. This led to a public proclamation prohibiting -the use of the pheasant for food during that season. - -As most of the plants here enumerated are now introduced into our -gardens, they might be supposed to injure the British honey. Most -probably, however, their proportion to the whole of the flowers in bloom -is too small to produce any such inconvenience; whereas on their native -continent they exclusively cover whole tracts of country. - -I cannot close this chapter on Bee-Pasturage, without adverting to what -Linnæus has said of the _Fritillaria imperialis_ or _crown imperial_, and -of the _Melianthus_ or _honey-flower_. Of the former, he observes that -"no plant, melianthus alone excepted, abounds so much with honey, yet the -bees do not collect it." Of the latter he remarks "that if it be shaken, -whilst in flower, it distils a shower of nectar." This observation -applies more particularly to the _Melianthus major_. And with respect to -the _Fritillaria_, Dr. Evans says, "that the bees do sometimes visit it; -and he thinks that they would do so oftener, but for the disagreeable -fox-like smell that emanates from it." - -The _liquidambar_ and _liriodendrum_, or _tulip-tree_, both which are -so ornamental, the former to our shrubberies and the latter to larger -plantations, have been much extolled, as affording food for bees. The -liquidambar bears bright saffron-coloured flowers, and highly perfumed -and glossy leaves, and its whole rind exudes a fragrant gum. The -liriodendrum is crowned with large bell-shaped blossoms, of every rainbow -hue, which give it a very splendid appearance. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HONEY-DEW. - - -The term +honey-dew+ is applied to those sweet clammy drops that -glitter on the foliage of many trees in hot weather. The name of this -substance would seem to import, that it is a deposition from the -atmosphere, and this has been the generally received opinion respecting -it, particularly among the ancients; it is an opinion still prevalent -among the husbandmen, who suppose it to fall from the heavens: +Virgil+ -speaks of "Aërii mellis cœlestia dona:" and +Pliny+ expresses his doubts, -"sive ille est cœli sudor, sive quædam siderum saliva, sive purgantis se -aëris succus." The Rev. +Gilbert White+, in his Naturalist's Calendar, -regards honey-dew as the effluvia of flowers, evaporated and drawn -up into the atmosphere by the heat of the weather, and falling down -again in the night with the dews that entangle them. But if this were -the case, the fall would be indiscriminate, and we should not have it -confined to particular trees and shrubs, nor would it be found upon -green-house and other covered plants. Some naturalists have regarded -honey-dew as an exudation or secretion from the surface of those leaves -upon which it is found, produced by some atmospheric stroke, which has -injured their health. +Dr. Darwin+ stands in this class. Others have -viewed it as a kind of vegetable perspiration, which the trees emit for -their relief in sultry weather; its appearance being never observed -in a cold ungenial summer. Dr. +Evans+ is of this opinion, and makes -the following comparative remark: "As the glutinous sweat of the negro -enables him to bear the fervours of his native clime, far better than -the lymph-perspiring European; so the saccharine dew of the orange, and -the fragrant gum of the Cretan cistus, may preserve them amidst the -heats even of the torrid zone." Mr. +Curtis+ has given it as his opinion -that the honey-dew is an excrementitious matter, voided by the aphis or -vine-fretter, an insect which he regards as the general cause of what -are called blights. He assures us that he never, in a single instance, -observed the honey-dew unattended with aphids. - -I believe it will be found that _there are at least two sorts of -honey-dew; the one a secretion from the surface of the leaf_, occasioned -by one of the causes just alluded to, _the other a deposition from -the body of the aphis_. Sir +J. E. Smith+ observes of the sensible -perspiration of plants, that "when watery, it can be considered only -as a condensation of their insensible evaporation, perhaps from some -sudden change in the atmosphere. Groves of poplar or willow exhibit this -phenomenon, even in England, in hot calm weather, when drops of clear -water trickle from their leaves, like a slight shower of rain. Sometimes -this secretion is of a saccharine nature, as +De la Hire+ observed in -orange trees." "It is somewhat glutinous in the tilia or lime-tree, -rather resinous in poplars, as well as in _Cistus creticus_." "Ovid has -made an elegant use of the resinous exudations of Lombardy poplars, which -he supposes to be the tears of Phaëton's sisters, who were transformed -into those trees. Such exudations must be considered as effusions of the -peculiar secretions; for it has been observed that manna may be scraped -from the leaves of _Fraxinus ornus_, as well as be procured from its stem -by incision. They are often perhaps a sign of unhealthiness in the plant; -at least such appears to be the nature of one kind of honey-dew, found in -particular upon the beech, which, in consequence of an unfavourable wind, -has its leaves often covered with a sweet exudation, similar in flavour -to the liquor obtained from its trunk. So likewise the hop, according to -+Linnæus+, is affected with the honey-dew, and its flowers are rendered -abortive, in consequence of the attacks of the caterpillar of the Ghost -moth (_Phalæna Humuli_) upon its roots. In such case the saccharine -exudation must decidedly be of a morbid nature." - -The other kind of honey-dew which is derived from the aphis, appears to -be the favourite food of ants, and is thus spoken of by Messrs. +Kirby+ -and +Spence+, in their late valuable Introduction to Entomology. "The -loves of the ants and the aphides have long been celebrated; and that -there is a connexion between them you may at any time in the proper -season, convince yourself; for you will always find the former very -busy on those trees and plants on which the latter abound; and if you -examine more closely, you will discover that the object of the ants, -in thus attending upon the aphides, is to obtain the saccharine fluid -secreted by them, which may well be denominated their milk. This fluid, -which is scarcely inferior to honey in sweetness, issues in limpid drops -from the abdomen of these insects, not only by the ordinary passage, -but also by two setiform tubes placed, one on each side, just above it. -Their sucker being inserted in the tender bark, is without intermission -employed in absorbing the sap, which, after it has passed through the -system, they keep continually discharging by these organs. When no ants -attend them, by a certain jerk of the body, which takes place at regular -intervals, they ejaculate it to a distance." The power of ejecting the -fluid from their bodies, seems to have been wisely instituted to preserve -cleanliness in each individual fly, and indeed for the preservation of -the whole family; for pressing as they do upon one another, they would -otherwise soon be glued together, and rendered incapable of stirring. -"When the ants are at hand, watching the moment at which the aphides -emit their fluid, they seize and suck it down immediately: this however -is the least of their talents; for the ants absolutely possess the art -of making the aphides yield it at their pleasure; or in other words of -milking them." The ant ascends the tree, says Linnæus, _that it may milk -its cows the aphides_, not kill them. Huber informs us that the liquor -is voluntarily given out by the aphis, when solicited by the ant, the -latter tapping the aphis gently, but repeatedly with its antennæ, and -using the same motions as when caressing its own young. He thinks, when -the ants are not at hand to receive it, that the aphis retains the liquor -for a longer time, and yields it freely and apparently without the least -detriment to itself, for even when it has acquired wings, it shows no -disposition to escape. A single aphis supplies many ants with a plentiful -meal. The ants occasionally form an establishment for their aphides, -constructing a building in a secure place, at a distance from their own -city, to which, after fortifying it, they transport those insects, and -confine them under a guard, like cows upon a dairy farm, to supply the -wants of the metropolis. The aphides are provided with a hollow pointed -proboscis, folded under the breast, when the insects are not feeding, -with which instrument they puncture the turgid vessels of the leaf, -leaf-stalk or bark, and suck with great avidity their contents, which are -expelled nearly unchanged, so that however fabulous it may appear, they -may literally be said to void a liquid sugar. On looking steadfastly at -a group of these insects (_Aphides Salicis_) while feeding on the bark -of the willow, their superior size enables us to perceive some of them -elevating their bodies and emitting a transparent substance in the form -of a small shower. - - "Nor scorn ye now, fond elves, the foliage sear, - When the light aphids, arm'd with puny spear. - Probe each emulgent vein till bright below - Like falling stars, clear drops of nectar glow." - - +Evans.+ - -The _willow_ accommodates the bees in a kind of threefold succession, -the farina of the flowers yielding spring food for their young,--the -bark giving out propolis for sealing the hives of fresh swarms,--and the -leaves shining with honey-dew in the midst of summer scarcity. But to -return to the aphides. "These insects may also be seen distinctly, with -a strong magnifier, on the leaves of the hazel, lime, &c. but invariably -on the inferior surface, piercing the vessels, and expelling the -honey-dew from their hinder parts with considerable force." "These might -easily have escaped the observation of the earlier philosophers, being -usually concealed within the curl of the leaves that are punctured." -The drops that are spurted out, unless intercepted by the surrounding -foliage, or some other interposing body, fall upon the ground, and the -spots may often be observed, for some time, beneath the trees affected -with honey-dew, till washed away by the rain. When the leaves of the -kidney-bean are affected by honey-dew, their surface assumes the -appearance of having been sprinkled with soot. - -Honey-dew usually appears upon the leaves, as a viscid, transparent -substance, sweet as honey, sometimes in the form of globules, at others -resembling a syrup, and is generally most abundant from the middle of -June to the middle of July. - -It is found chiefly upon the _oak_, the _elm_, the _maple_, the -_plane_, the _sycamore_, the _lime_, the _hazel_ and the _blackberry_; -occasionally also on the _cherry_, _currant_, and other fruit trees. -Sometimes only one species of trees is affected at a time. The oak -generally affords the largest quantity. At the season of its greatest -abundance, the happy humming noise of the bees may be heard at a -considerable distance from the trees, sometimes nearly equalling in -loudness the united hum of swarming. Of the _plane_ there are two sorts; -the _oriental_ and the _occidental_, both highly ornamental trees, and -much regarded in hot climates for the cooling shade they afford. - - "Jamque ministrantem Platanum potantibus umbram." - - +Virgil+ - -The ancients so much respected the former that they used to refresh its -roots with wine instead of water, believing, as Sir William Temple has -observed, that "this tree loved that liquor, as well as those who used to -drink under its shade." - - "Crevit et affuso latior umbra mero." - - +Virgil+ - -The _sycamore_ has been discarded from the situation it used formerly -to hold, near the mansions of the convivial, owing to the bees crowding -to banquet on its profusion of honey-dew, and occasioning an early fall -of its leaves. The _lime_ or _linden_ tree has been regarded as doubly -acceptable to the bees, on account of its fragrant blossoms and its -honey-dewed leaves appearing both together, amidst the oppressive heats -of the dog-days; but it seems doubtful whether the flowers have any -attraction but their fragrance, as they are said to have no honey-cup. - -It is of great importance to apiarians who reside in the vicinity of such -trees as are apt to be affected with honey-dew, to keep their bees on the -storifying plan, where additional room can at all times be provided for -them at pleasure, as during the time of a honey-dew, more honey will -be collected in one week than will be afforded by flowers in several. -So great is the ardour of the bees on these occasions, and so rapid are -their movements, that it is often dangerous to be placed betwixt the -hives and the dews. - -That species of honey-dew which is secreted from the surface of the -leaves, appears to have been first noticed by the +Abbé Boissier de -Sauvages+. He observed it upon the old leaves of the holm-oak and upon -those of the blackberry, but not upon the young leaves of either; and he -remarked at the same time, that neighbouring trees of a different sort -were exempt from it: among these latter he noticed the mulberry tree, -"which," says he, "is a very particular circumstance, for this juice" -(honey-dew) "is a deadly poison to silk-worms." - -Some years do not afford any honey-dew, it generally occurs pretty -extensively once in four or five years. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PURCHASE OF BEES. - - -Every one who meditates the establishment of an apiary, should be able -to distinguish a good from a bad hive of bees, that he may detect -imposition, if it should be attempted, when he is purchasing his first -swarms or stocks. Bees are commonly purchased in the spring or in the -autumn. The value of a hive of bees, purchased in the spring, if it be a -recent swarm, may be ascertained by its weight, which should not be less -than four or five pounds, on the day of swarming. But the weight _alone_, -of a _stock_ hive, is not a criterion of its worth; several other -circumstances are to be considered,--for the worst _stock_ hives often -weigh the heaviest. Still if a stock-hive be a swarm of the current year, -which is always desirable, weight may be regarded _in a great_ degree, -as a _criterion of value_, its quantity of heterogeneous matters being -probably inconsiderable. Such a hive, purchased in the autumn, should not -weigh less than from twenty-five to thirty pounds, and should contain -about half a bushel of bees. - -There are surer grounds, however, upon which its value may be determined. - -1st. The combs should be of a pale colour, as dark ones denote age; -though even in this there may be deception, for old combs may be -lengthened out and bordered with new wax. - -2ndly. The combs should be worked down to the floor of the hive. - -3rdly. The interstices of the combs should be crowded with bees. - -All these points may be safely ascertained, by gently turning up the -hive in an evening, when the bees are at rest. It may be well also to -notice the proceedings of the bees in the day-time. If when they quit the -hive, to range the fields, they depart in quick succession and without -lingering about; and if the entrance be well guarded by sentinels; these -are pretty sure indications of a prosperous hive. - -The hive, when purchased, should be raised gently from the stool, some -hours prior to its removal, and be supported by wedges, that the bees may -not cluster on the floor, as this would be productive of inconvenience -at the time of their removal. After being wedged up, the hive should -remain undisturbed till night, when, being placed upon a proper board, it -should be carried away carefully, and placed at once where it is intended -to remain, unless it be a recent swarm which is to be removed into a -box.--The mode of proceeding in this case will be noticed hereafter. - -The bees of a hive, recently removed, if purchased of a near neighbour, -or if the weather be cold, should be confined for a day or two, or else -many of them, after flying about in quest of provision, will be lost; in -the one case, by returning to their old habitation, and in the other, by -being chilled to death, in searching for their new one. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -BEE-BOXES. - - -There has been some difference of opinion as to _the most suitable -dimensions of bee-boxes_. I prefer those of Keys, which are twelve inches -square and nine inches deep, _in the clear_. The _best wood_ for them is -_red cedar_, the fragrance of which is regarded by some as agreeable to -the bees; but the chief grounds of preference are its effect in keeping -moths out of the boxes, and its being a bad conductor of heat, from its -lightness and sponginess. Whatever kind of wood be made use of, it should -be well seasoned; _yellow deal_ answers the purpose very well. The sides -of the boxes should be an inch thick, and the bars on the top three -quarters of an inch, about an inch and half wide, and six in number, -which will leave an interspace between each of about half an inch. At -the back of each box, a pane of glass should be fixed in a small rabbet, -which may be covered with a half inch door, hung with wire hinges and -fastened by a button. - -[Illustration] - -The size of the door may be suited to the wishes of the apiarian: as this -door will only give a view of the centre combs, in case of their being -constructed in a line with the bars, or of one or more of the external -combs, in case of their being attached at right angles with the bars or -diagonally, it will be desirable to have a pane of glass in each side -also, that the proprietor may be enabled to judge at any time of the -stock of honey contained in the box. These small glass windows will -seldom do more than afford the proprietor an opportunity of ascertaining -the strength of his stock of bees, and the quantity of honey they have -in store; if he wish to see more particularly the operations of the -labourers, or to witness the survey which the queen now and then takes of -them, he may have a large bell-glass, surmounted by a straw-hive, which -latter may be occasionally raised, for the purpose of inspection. - - "By this blest art our ravish'd eyes behold, - The singing Masons build their roofs of gold, - And mingling multitudes perplex the view, - Yet all in order apt their tasks pursue; - Still happier they, whose favour'd ken hath seen - Pace slow and silent round, the state's fair queen." - - +Evans.+ - -An opportunity of beholding the proceedings of the queen is so very -rarely afforded, that many apiarians have passed their lives without -enjoying it; and Reaumur himself, even with the assistance of a -glass-hive, acknowledges that he was many years before he had that -pleasure. Those who have been so fortunate, agree in representing her -majesty as being very slow and dignified in her movements, and as being -constantly surrounded by a guard of about a dozen bees, who seem to pay -her great homage, and always to have their faces turned towards her, like -courtiers, in the presence of royalty. - - "But mark, of royal port, and awful mien, - Where moves with measur'd pace the +Insect Queen+! - Twelve chosen guards, with slow and solemn gait. - Bend at her nod, and round her person wait." - - +Evans.+ - -Mr. Dunbar's observations, upon the movements of the queen in his -mirror-hive, do not correspond altogether with what is here stated. He -says that he did not find her majesty attended in her progress by a -guard, but that wherever she moved the way was cleared; that the heads -of the workers whom she passed upon her route were always turned towards -her, that they fawned upon and caressed her, touching her softly with -their antennæ; but that as soon as she moved onwards, they resumed their -labours, whilst all that she passed in succession paid her the same -homage. This sort of _homage_ is only _paid to fertile queens;_ whilst -they continue virgins, they are not treated with much respect. - -The queen is very numerously surrounded, when depositing her first -eggs in the cells, her attendants then cling to one another and form a -living curtain before her, so completely impenetrable to our eyes, as to -preclude all observation of her proceedings; unless the apiarian use the -leaf-hive of Huber, or the mirror-hive of Dunbar, it is hardly possible -to snatch a sight of her, excepting when she lays her eggs near the -exterior parts of the combs. The manner in which bees attach themselves -to each other, when forming a curtain, or when suspending themselves -from a bough, or taking their repose, is, by each bee, with its two -fore-claws, taking hold of the two hinder legs of the one next above it, -thus forming as it were a perfect grape-like cluster or living garland. -Even when thus intertwined with each other, as Swammerdam has observed, -they can fly off' from the bunch, and perch on it again, or make their -way out from the very centre of the cluster, and rush into the air. This -mode of suspension, so voluntarily adopted, must be agreeable to them, -though the uppermost bees evidently bear the weight of all the rest. Mr. -Wildman supposes that they have a power of distending themselves with -air, like fishes, by which they acquire buoyancy. - -Each set of boxes must have one _close cover_, which should be an inch -thick and well clamped at each end to prevent warping, as a considerable -quantity of steam arises from the bees at certain seasons. The top, being -intended to take off and on, should be secured by means of four screws, -each placed about an inch and a half from the respective corners; and it -should also be fitted to, and screwed down upon, all the boxes before -any of them are used, that whenever it may be necessary to remove, or to -add a box, the change may be effected with the utmost promptitude. Long -taper screws, as nearly of the same size as possible, should be selected -for fastening on the tops, and be dipped in grease before put in, to -facilitate their removal. Each set of boxes must also have a _loose -floor_, an inch thick and extending about an inch and half beyond the -back and sides of the boxes. The outlet for the bees is usually cut in -the lower edge of the boxes, but I have found it much more convenient -to have it formed by sinking the floor half of its thickness at the -centre of its front edge. The width of the part sunk should be about -four inches, and should gradually diminish in depth till it reach the -centre of the board. The sloping direction thus given will, in case of -beating rain or condensed steam falling upon it, prevent any wet from -lodging within the hive. The floor must also be clamped at the ends, to -prevent warping, though the superincumbent weight renders it less liable -to be warped than the top. Either on the right or left hand side of the -entrance, as may be most convenient, a _groove_ must be cut half an inch -deep and half an inch wide; to this groove a _slide_ must be fitted (made -to run easily), for the purpose of closing the box, and preventing the -egress or ingress of the bees, as occasion may require. - -[Illustration] - -A _centre board_ between each tier of boxes will likewise be convenient; -it should be of the same size as the floor, and have an oblong hole about -six inches by four in the middle, to give liberty to the bees to pass -from box to box. Apiaries should always have a few supernumerary boards -of each sort, and also some supernumerary boxes. - -As the boxes and boards require to be made with great accuracy, that they -may be nicely adapted to each other, a good joiner should be employed to -construct them; for if there be any crevices the bees will, according to -their invariable custom, fill them with propolis, and thereby waste their -valuable time. The square boxes which I have described are the simplest -of any, in their form: some persons prefer the octagon or hexagon form; -in some situations, if windows be placed in the three posterior sides, -those forms may be more convenient for exhibiting the operations of the -bees, or the store of honey in the combs; but they are more expensive and -more cumbrous, if made as capacious as the square ones; and these latter -answer the intended purposes so well, as to satisfy completely those who -have used them. Although I have endeavoured to give a clear description -of the form and mode of constructing a bee-box and its appendages, -probably it may be more satisfactory to young beginners to obtain a sight -or a model of them, I refer them therefore to Mr. Hughes, joiner, Ross, -Herefordshire, or to Mr. John Milton, 10, Great Marybone Street. - -I cannot dismiss this part of my subject, without saying a few words -respecting _the hive of Huish_, which is contrived with the view of -allowing the removal of the exterior bars, that support the honey-combs, -without disturbing the brood-combs. The principle of this hive appears -to be very good, but I doubt whether it will come into general use; -for as bees are not very tractable creatures, they are not likely to -construct their combs in direct lines, so as to attach one singly -to each of Mr. Huish's bars: the tops of the boxes which I use are -constructed like Huish's, yet I never saw an instance in which the -combs did not either cross those bars at right angles, or connect -themselves in some way or other with two or three bars, so as to render -it impracticable to remove a comb or two from the outsides, in the manner -that Huish proposes. The sole advantage of Huish's hive consists in this -undisturbing mode of removal; and could it be effected, honey might be -extracted without withdrawing any of the stored pollen or propolis, or -molesting the brood in the centre combs; an inconvenience which, it must -be admitted, may be charged upon the storifying system, though I hope I -have, in my chapter or Deprivation, pointed out a method that will, in -a very great degree, if not entirely, remedy this inconvenience. Huish, -in his instructions for using his hives, admits the difficulty which I -have here stated, as to the attachment of a single comb to more than one -bar, and gives particular directions how to proceed on such occasions; -but even under tolerably favourable circumstances, the recommended -operation would require considerable nicety, and no small portion of -courage; in some cases the difficulty would be completely insurmountable. -A hive very similar to that of Huish is described in Wheeler's Travels. -He states it to be in use in the neighbourhood of Mount Hymettus. "The -hives," says he, "in which they keep their bees, are made of willow or -osiers fashioned like our common dust-baskets, wide at top and narrow at -bottom." "These tops are covered with broad flat sticks, along which the -bees fasten their combs, so that a comb may be taken out whole." We are -informed, by Reaumur and Du Hamel, that this Greek method of keeping bees -and taking honey was introduced into France in 1754. If it had succeeded, -either in France or in this country, I think we should have heard more of -it. - -The only way in which I conceive that Huish's idea can be followed up -effectually, is, by employing the experimental hive of Huber; but the -majority of persons who undertake the management of bees, will look to -them as a source of profit; and to these the expense of such a hive -would render it completely unavailable. Huber's first experiments were -made in single leaf-hives an inch and a half wide; his latter trials, on -several of these connected together, each an inch and a quarter wide, -which left the same room for the passage of the bees as the single hive. -See Chapter XI. Reaumur's hives consisted of wooden frames, with glass -windows, but of such a width, as to allow the bees to construct two -combs parallel to each other. This form is unfavourable, inasmuch as it -conceals from the observer whatever passes between them. - -Mr. Thorley, who practised the plan of super-hiving, surmounted his -_octagon boxes_ and flat-topped hives, with a _large bell-glass_, over -which he placed a common straw-hive, to take on and off. From an extract -which I have made from Dr. Evans's book in the chapter on Instincts, he -appears to have adopted this method. - -It was by the aid of similar glasses that Maraldi was enabled to give to -the world so accurate an account of the natural history and labours of -bees. - - "Long from the eye of man and face of day, - Involv'd in darkness all their customs lay, - Until a Sage, well vers'd in Nature's lore, - A genius form'd all science to explore, - Hives well contriv'd in crystal frames dispos'd, - And there the busy citizens inclos'd." - - +Murphy's Vaniere.+ - -Wildman also, in addition to his usual mode of keeping bees, upon the -storifying plan, occasionally employed flat-topped hives surmounted by a -large bell-glass; and at the close of his Treatise we are informed that -he had latterly adopted another method of super-hiving, which is still -practised by apiarians of the present day. Instead of employing one large -glass, he made use of _four_ or _five small ones_, each holding about a -pint; and those who are fond of using honey fresh from the hive, will -find this a convenient mode of keeping their bees, though probably not -so profitable a one as the general plan of storifying. A stock of these -hives and glasses, on the most approved construction, is kept constantly -ready for sale at Mr. John Milton's, 10, Great Marybone Street. The bees, -upon this plan, are hived in the usual way, the top board being kept -closed, till the glasses are placed over it, which may be done as soon -as convenient after the hive has been put in the situation in which it -is intended to remain. The glasses and top board should be covered with -a common straw-hive, to exclude the light, as bees are found to work -best in the dark. When the glasses are sufficiently filled with combs -and honey,--and this period will very much depend upon the season,--if -the bees still remain in them, placing an empty hive under the full one -win generally cause them to descend, and facilitate the removal of the -glasses, which may take place as often as the harvest of honey will -admit, consistently with the leaving of a full winter's supply for the -bees. See chapter on Nadir-hiving. The usual mode of taking the honey -in these glasses is, first to cut off the communication between them and -the hive on which they stand, by loosening the thumbscrew in the centre, -and turning the board so far round as to close the openings; then, by -means of a thin spatula, separating the glasses from their adhesion, and -either carrying them, inverted, a short distance from the hive, into a -shady place, or raising each glass by means of a wedge, and leaving it -thus for about an hour. In either case the bees will quit the glasses -and return to the family by the usual entrance. To effect the removal, I -think it preferable to use two flat pieces of tin, after the manner of -dividers, placing the tins successively under each glass, carrying it -away upon one, and leaving the other over the opening till the glass has -been emptied and replaced or another substituted in its room: and where -it is wished to take only one or two glasses, this mode must always be -adopted. The bees will rarely fill more than one set of glasses, during -the first year; though in future years, if the season be favourable, they -may be expected to fill two sets. The best time for removal is the middle -of a fine day, when the greatest number of bees are roaming the fields. -This method of management will not prevent the bees from swarming, unless -it be combined with storifying, which it very easily may. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -HIVES. - - -+Bee-hives+ have been formed with various materials, the selection of -which has depended partly upon the country or district in which they -have been used, and partly upon the fancy of the apiarian. _Osiers_, -_rushes_, _segs_ and _straw_ have all been in requisition for forming -hives, and Bonner, an eminent bee-master in Scotland, proposes to have -them made of _earthenware_. In North America, according to Brookes, they -are formed out of _the hollow trunks of the liquidambar tree_, cut to a -proper length and covered with a board to keep out the rain: for the same -purpose the people in Apulia use _the trunk of the giant fennel_, after -clearing away its fungous pith. In Egypt, says Hasselquist, bee-keepers -make their hives of _coal dust and clay_, which being well blended -together, is formed into hollow cylinders, of a span diameter, and from -six to twelve feet long; these being dried in the sun, become so hard -as to be handled at will. "I saw some thousands of these hives," says -our author, "at a village between Damietta and Mansora; they composed a -wall round a house, after having become unserviceable in the use they -were first made for."--Voyages and Travels in the Levant, &c. By Fred. -Hasselquist, B.D. - -Under the head of Storifying, I have given a history of the discovery -and progressive improvement of boxes and storifying hives, and shall -chiefly confine myself, in this chapter, to the form and dimensions of -hives. The common bell-shaped straw-hives used by the cottagers are too -well known to need remark. Premising, therefore, that the _Chelmsford_ -and _Hertford hives_ are considered as the handsomest shaped and best -formed, I shall limit my observations to the _straw_ hives which may be -employed for storifying, as some persons may prefer straw to wood. These -have been called _Moreton-hives_, on account of their form _only_, the -material of which they were made being reeds and not straw. The _best -straw_ for constructing hives is that of _unblighted rye, and unthrashed_ -is preferable to thrashed straw; for being smooth and entire, the bees -will be spared a good deal of trouble, as they invariably nibble away the -rough sharp spiculæ that they find on the inner surface of a new hive. -The ears of corn may be dissevered from the straw by a chaff-cutter, -and thrashed with other corn. The most approved size for a storifying -straw-hive is nine inches high by twelve inches wide, _in the clear_, -the diameter being the same from top to bottom. The importance of having -all bee-boxes made of the same dimensions has been already dwelt upon, -and it is of course of equal importance with respect to straw-hives. The -upper and lower edges should be made as smooth as possible; which effect -will be greatly promoted, by placing them, soon after making, between -two flat boards with a 56lb. weight upon the uppermost, and leaving them -in that position for a day or two. Within the upper row of straw, a -small hoop should be worked, for the purpose of nailing a board or some -wooden bars to it, and within the bottom row a piece of wood should also -be worked over the part where the bees are to pass in and out, to allow -of a more easy movement of the slide in the floor board. It would be an -improvement if the hoop were perforated through its whole course with -a wimble bit, that it might be stitched with willow or bramble splits, -to the upper round of straw, instead of being worked in with it; and -if a hoop were also stitched in a similar manner to the lower round of -straw, the lower edge of it could be planed, sufficiently smooth, to lie -on the middle or floor boards, as closely as a box, which would render -the use of mortar or other luting unnecessary. The stitch holes in the -hoop should be filled with putty, after the hive has been finished. If -bars be made use of, they should be of the same width, and placed at the -same distances from each other, as recommended for the boxes, and the -vacancies, that would otherwise be left between the ends of the bars, -should be made quite level, with bits of wood, cow-dung, or any other -convenient substance. If a single board be used, that, of course, must -be cut into bars of the proper widths. The direction of the bars should -always be from front to back. - -Middle boards and floors will be equally required for storifying hives -as for boxes; but the outside covers should be made of straw, like round -mats, and be wide enough to extend an inch beyond the edges of the -hives, if used in an out-door apiary. The whole story should be covered -with a good _hackel_ or _cap_, secured in its place by an iron hoop or -a properly weighted wooden one, to prevent it from being blown down. As -clean fresh rye straw is most suitable for constructing the hive itself, -so it will be the best for forming the hackel with: the latter should be -changed before it begins to decay, that it may not become offensive to -the bees from its odour, nor be selected by insects as a nidus for their -eggs. - -The apiarian, if he be desirous of having glass windows in his -straw-hives, may accomplish this object by cutting with a sharp knife -through two of the bands of straw, in two places, about three inches -asunder. The windows are generally cut opposite the entrance, and about -the centre, but may be made at any part of the hive. The ends of the cut -straw-bands may be secured by stitches of packthread, or, what is better, -with softened mole snap wire, and the panes of glass may be fastened with -putty. - -Out-door hives should have a protection not only of straw caps, but of -a _shed_ also, which if made open in _front only_, would afford much -shelter against driving rains and high winds; but the most complete shed -is made with folding or sliding doors _at the back_, and is closed at -the sides, and in front, with the exception of such openings as may be -necessary for the entrance of the bees and for their accommodation in bad -weather. This shed renders hackels unnecessary, and is adapted either to -storifying or single-hiving. In the annexed plate is a back view of it, -with hives arranged in different ways. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF WOODEN BOXES AND STRAW HIVES. - - -Most of the writers who have instituted a comparison between hives and -boxes, have decided in favour of the former. But it is to be recollected -that when forming this decision, these writers have always had in their -minds an out-door apiary, for which situation, on account of their -exposure to the variations of temperature and the alternations of drought -and moisture, straw-hives possess advantages over wooden boxes;--they are -not so soon affected by a hot and dry or by a moist atmosphere; they do -not part with so much heat in winter nor admit so much in summer, straw -being, in the language of the chemists, a bad conductor of heat. Being -much cheaper than any others, straw-hives are of course chosen by the -cottager. - -Upon the storifying system, and with the advantage of a bee-house, I -think wooden boxes have a great superiority over straw-hives; they are -more firm and steady, better suited for observing the operations of the -bees through the glass windows in the backs and sides, and less liable -to harbour moths, spiders, and other insects; they permit the combs, at -the period of deprivation, to be more easily separated from the sides and -tops, and if well made, have a much neater appearance than straw-hives. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -LEAF HIVES. - - -Narrow hives, with large glazed doors on each side, have been recommended -by apiarian writers, for exposing the operations of bees. That of -+Reaumur+ was too wide: it allowed the construction of two parallel -combs, by which of course, the apiarian was precluded from making -any useful observations, upon the proceedings of the bees, in their -interspace. +Bonnet+ recommended the use of a hive, the doors of which -should be only so far asunder as to allow the building of one comb -between them. This suggestion was successfully adopted by +Huber+; and -to prevent the bees from building short transverse combs, instead of a -single one, parallel to the sides of the hive, he laid the foundation -himself, by fastening a piece of empty comb to the ceiling of the box. - -+Huber's+ glass doors had only an interspace of an inch and half betwixt -them: in this hive the bees could not cluster upon the surfaces of -the comb, and yet had room to pass freely over it. Mr. +John Hunter+ -recommended the diameter of these narrow hives to be three inches, -and the superficies of the sides to be of sufficient size to afford -stowage for a summer's work. Mr. +Dunbar+, with his mirror-hive, -constructed somewhat like Huber's, has been able to make some interesting -observations on the œconomy of the bee. _Vide_ Edinburgh Philosophical -Journal, vol. iii. The distance of his glass doors from each other is one -inch and two thirds; the height and width of the hive, according to the -plan in the Journal, about a foot. Across the centre of the mirror-hive -Mr. Dunbar introduced a light frame, which though apparently dividing the -hive into four compartments, allowed the bees a free passage: they were -skreened from the light by a pair of folding shutters on each side. - -Mr. Dunbar hived a small swarm in one of these narrow boxes, in June -1819: the bees began to build immediately, and he witnessed the whole of -their proceedings, every bee being exposed to his view. The narrowness -of their limits constrained them, from the very commencement, to work -in divisions, so that four separate portions of comb were begun and -continued nearly at the same time. - -[Illustration] - -But this arrangement did not sufficiently employ these industrious -creatures; for contrary to their usual mode of building, which is from -above downwards, they laid two other foundations of comb, upon the upper -parts of the cross sticks. - -[Illustration] - -The bees now wrought upwards and downwards at the same time, till the -originally separate portions were united and become one comb. - -[Illustration] - -For want of proper precautions, the bees of this hive perished, during -the intense cold of January 1820. - -On the 25th of March following, Mr. Dunbar introduced another swarm into -the same unicomb hive; and so early as the 27th, he saw the queen laying -the eggs of workers. This second swarm found plenty of honey and farina -in the hive, left by its former tenants. Other particulars reported by -Mr. Dunbar are detailed in the Chapters to which they belong. - -These hives are of course only useful to the amateur apiarian, who is in -quest of information or amusement. - -Huber carried the principle of this hive still further: he joined several -thin boxes together with hinges: these boxes or wooden frames were -without glasses, and the hinges were so contrived as to admit of easy -removal. Every box or leaf (as Huber called each separate frame), except -the two exterior, was reduced in thickness to an inch and quarter, which, -as there was a free communication between all the leaves, afforded the -same liberty for the operations of the bees as the single box that was -an inch and half wide. This contrivance gave him the power of opening -the leaves separately, and inspecting the proceedings of the bees at all -times: they soon became accustomed to this treatment, and M. Huber was -thus able to examine any one of the divisions, without exciting the anger -of the bees. After they had properly secured the pieces of comb which he -had attached to the roofs of the boxes, they were subjected to a daily -inspection by this indefatigable naturalist. - -The preceding sketches may serve to show my readers the progressive -proceedings of the bees in the unicomb hive, and the following outline -may give them a notion of the compound hive. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -DIVIDERS. - - -The apiarian who adopts the storifying plan, should have _Keys's -dividers_, which consist of two copper or brass plates, about the -sixteenth of an inch thick, fifteen inches wide, and fifteen and a half -long; the odd half inch, being turned up, serves for the operator to -lay hold of, when the plates are withdrawn. Care should be taken that -the plates be perfect planes, well hardened by hammering, and of proper -thickness. If they exceed the prescribed thickness, the bees may escape -as soon as the plates are partially introduced or partially withdrawn; -and if they be thinner, there will be the same chance of escape from -their want of firmness and elasticity. - -These dividers greatly facilitate the various operations which the -apiarian has to perform, and at the same time secure him from the attacks -of the bees. - -He should be provided with one of the _long-bladed spatulas_ or knives, -used by apothecaries and painters, which he will find useful in -separating the honey-combs from the sides of the hives or boxes. In some -cases it will also be necessary to have _an iron instrument_, about ten -inches long and half an inch wide, the end of which should be _turned -up about two inches_ and be _double-edged_, that it may cut both ways. -This instrument, which should be fixed in a wooden handle, being passed -between the combs, will enable the operator to separate them from their -attachment to the bars. - -Those who make use of the Moreton-hives,--a description of which is given -in the chapter on Hives,--should be furnished with two strips of tin four -inches by fifteen; these will protect the straw bottoms of the upper -hives during the introduction of the dividers, and should be introduced -one on each side, the hives having been previously dissevered by means of -the spatula. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -STORIFYING. - -[Illustration] - - -+Storifying+ means the piling of hives or boxes upon each other, as -shown in the above plate, and preserving a free communication between -them; a method which enables the apiarian to take wax and honey without -destroying the lives of the bees. - -Attempts have been made to accomplish this object in different ways. -+Thorley+ placed empty hives or boxes over full ones, +Wildman+ and -+Keys+ placed full boxes over empty ones, +White+ and +Madame Vicat+ -placed them collaterally. - -Hives and boxes for storifying, as well as for observing the operations -of the bees, have been made of various forms and dimensions, and of -different materials: such as straw, osiers, glass, and wood. - -+Aristotle+, +Pliny+, and other ancient writers, speak of contrivances -for taking honey, and inspecting the operations of the bees. Modern -writers, particularly +Mouffet+, ridiculed the ineffectual schemes of -their brethren of antiquity, and indeed they were very soon abandoned. -The way in which _they_ endeavoured to accomplish their objects, was by -the introduction of transparent substances into the sides of the hives or -boxes, such as _isinglass_, _horn_ (_cornu laterna_), _pellucid stone_ -(_lapis specularis_), probably _talc_, which is still used in the Russian -navy for cabin windows, on account of its not being liable to break by -the percussion of the air during the firing of cannon, or in tempestuous -weather. - -Mr. +Hartlib's+ _Commonwealth of Bees_, published in 1655, contains the -first account, I have seen, of bee-boxes being employed in this country. -He speaks of "an experiment of glassen hives invented by Mr. +W. Mew+, -Minister of Easlington in Gloucestershire: his boxes were of an octagon -shape, and had a glass window in the back." Soon after, in the year 1675, -+Jno. Gedde+, Esq. published, "_A new discovery of an excellent method of -Bee-houses and Colonies_," which was intended to preserve the lives of -the bees: he obtained a patent for his boxes from King Charles. - -Gedde's boxes were considerably improved by +Joseph Warder+, a physician -at Croydon, who published an account of them in his work entitled "_The -true Amazons, or the Monarchy of Bees_." Dr. Warder enriched his account -with several curious circumstances respecting bees; some of which will -be detailed in a future chapter. The method of these gentlemen seems -not to have been generally known; for even Swammerdam, who published in -1680, makes no mention of it. Had Swammerdam known it, he would have -been informed of many circumstances, respecting which he was evidently -ignorant. This want of Dr. Warder's information is to be lamented, for -Swammerdam was an accurate observer, and a faithful reporter of what he -did observe. - -Gedde and Warder were succeeded by the Rev. +John Thorley+ of Oxford, -who published "_An Enquiry into the Nature, Order, and Government of -Bees_;" and by the Rev. +Stephen White+ of Halton in Suffolk, who wrote -on "_Collateral Bee-boxes, or an easy and advantageous method of managing -Bees_." Collateral boxes have been objected to, because bees, when -the boxes are on a level, have laid their eggs promiscuously in both; -moreover side boxes occupy a great deal more room than storifying boxes. - -Mr. +Thorley's son+ improved the method of his father. The indefatigable -Mr. +Wildman+ devoted much of his time to the same subject: to him we -are principally indebted for the present perfection of bee-boxes, and -particularly for obtaining fresh honey throughout the season, by means of -small glasses ranged upon a flat-topped hive. _Vide_ pages 93 and 99. - - "But faintly, Rome, thy waxen cities shone - Through the dim lantern or refractive stone, - And faintly Albion saw her film-wing'd train - Glance evanescent through the latticed pane. - Ere Wildman's art unveil'd the straw girt round, - Its broad expanse with crystal vases crown'd, - And each full vase, like Amalthæa's horn, - For Man successive graced the festal morn." - - +Evans.+ - -+Madame Vicat+, a very ingenious lady in Switzerland, published, in the -Memoirs of the Berne Society, some very judicious _Observations on bees -and hives_. She was the first who hinted, that upon the storifying plan, -the duplets and triplets should always be placed under the full hives; -as the bees, in constructing fresh works, evidently prefer descending to -ascending. - -Lastly, we have Mr. +Keys's+ very useful book, "_The ancient Bee-master's -Farewell_," which has long been a standard work to the practical -apiarian. - -Keys states, that upon the storifying plan, three pecks of bees will -collect more honey in a season, than four pecks divided into two -families, upon the common plan, and that the proportion of pure honey and -pure wax will likewise be greater. He observes, that a good storified -colony has, under favourable circumstances, received an accession of -thirty pounds of honey in seven days; whereas if a swarm had been sent -off, the increase, in the same period, would not, probably, have been -more than five pounds. - -This difference of increase is owing, I conceive, to the divided family -occupying a larger proportion of its workers as nurses, than the -storified family employs, there being in the former the brood of two -queens, in the latter the brood of only one, to be attended to. The one -establishment is in fact divided, so as to form two establishments, and -there must be of course, an observance of the accustomed peculiarities -of dignity and office, in each of the two, as there was in the one; -consequently, fewer collecting bees can be spared from the divided -family, than would have been at liberty in their undivided state; and -this reasoning will apply with increasing force as the number of duplets -and triplets is increased. - -In single-hiving, if rainy weather occur at the time the bees are -prepared to throw off a swarm, and the hive be filled with comb to -its utmost limit, all the bees must remain idle till the return of -fine weather; whereas if more room be given, as upon the storifying -plan, they will, by embracing every opportunity for collecting, and by -constructing fresh combs by means of the stores already collected, be -enabled to diminish that check to their activity, which wet weather -always occasions. Though rainy weather has this effect upon the bees, -yet are they much less susceptible to moisture than to cold: they may -frequently be seen in full activity upon a warm showery day, whereas on a -cold dry one, they cluster closely together within the hives. The colder -the weather the more closely they cluster. "When the lime-tree and black -grain blossom," says Huber, "they brave the rain, they depart before -sun-rise, and return later than ordinary." - -Independently of the benefit derived from storifying, as congregating -a numerous body of bees together, it will always be found advantageous -to have hives of whatever sort well filled, as the bees uniformly work -best when in a numerous body: this has induced Mr. Espinasse and others -strongly to recommend the union of stocks that do not well fill the -hives. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SWARMING. - - -However populous a stock of bees may be in the autumn, its numbers are -greatly reduced during winter, perhaps about six or seven eighths. This -loss is more than replaced in the spring, by the amazing fecundity of the -queen. Hence arises a disposition to throw off swarms, which, of course, -will issue more or less frequently, more or less early, and in greater or -less force, according to the temperature of the season, the fertility of -the queen, the populousness of the stock, and the attention that has been -paid to early feeding. - -It is a prevalent opinion, that a swarm consists entirely of young bees; -but this is an error: every swarm contains a mixture of young and old; -the latter are distinguishable by being of a redder hue, and having -ragged wings. - -_In favourable seasons, a good stock will throw off three swarms, even -a swarm of the current year will sometimes throw off another swarm_; in -this latter case, there is but a small collection of honey, compared with -the great number of bees which have been called into existence. I have -endeavoured to account for this in page 113. In the Monthly Magazine, -for Sept. 1825, an instance is recorded of five swarms being thrown off -and hived before the end of July from planting one single stock; the -season was favourable, and the situation, (High Armaside in Lorton), -particularly so. They were not all thrown off from the first or parent -stock, but from that and the earliest swarm. Bosc, the French consul -in Carolina, has stated that he had eleven swarms in one season from a -single stock; and that each of those swarms, during the same season, -threw off the same number of secondary ones!!!! The space which usually -intervenes between the first and second swarm is from seven to nine days; -between the second and third, the period is shorter; and if there should -be a fourth, it may depart the day after that which precedes it. - -This succession of swarms must be owing to the great number of young -queens that obtain their liberty. As they greatly weaken the parent -stock, and are naturally weak themselves, the only resource under such -circumstances is the union of two or more of the swarms into one family. - -_March is the month in which the grand laying of the queen usually -commences_; yet when January proves mild, the breeding will sometimes -begin at the latter end of _that_ month, and it is by no means an -uncommon thing for the commencement to happen in February. The queen-bee -may naturally be expected to breed earlier in the season than insects in -general, from the circumstance of the working-bees storing up food for -the young, which other insects, that breed later, do not; as also from -her living in the midst of a society which preserves a summer heat during -the coldest months of winter. A thermometer in a bee-hive has ranged as -high as 74° Fahrenheit at Christmas; and Bonner says that he has often -seen his hives with young brood in them in the midst of a severe frost. -In the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. -+Mr. Hubbard+ has stated that vigorous well-stored hives breed even in -the depth of winter. In this perhaps he was mistaken; the finding of eggs -and maggots in the cells does not satisfy my mind, as they might have -been laid late in the autumn, and have remained stationary till spring. -Riem states, that in a bad season the eggs will remain in the cells many -months without hatching. Mr. Hubbard was led to make the experiment of -suffocating a strong stock in February, to ascertain the state of the -brood-combs; in which he says that he found an abundance of brood, in -every state, from that of egg to the almost perfect fly; although the -preceding January had been very cold, accompanied by frost and snow,--a -circumstance which in some measure confirms my supposition, as to the -suspended development of the brood. Mr. Hubbard further adds, that on -examining two weak hives, in March and April, he found not a single egg. -From these very opposite states +Dr. Evans+ infers the great importance -of leaving stocks strong in October, and feeding them in an ungenial -autumn, conceiving that the bees apportion the numbers of their young to -the means they possess of supporting them. That - - "The prescient Female rears her tender brood - In strict proportion to the hoarded food." - -This, however, does not correspond with what will be stated below; from -which it will appear, that the queen sometimes lays eggs, in reliance -upon an approaching season, and does not let the number altogether depend -upon the stock of provision in the hive. The commencement of the queen's -breeding may generally be known, by the bees carrying in pellets of -farina on their thighs. For want of a sufficient supply of this, as must -happen in cold unkindly seasons, many of the nymphs are cast out, having -died probably from actual starvation. Hence the necessity, as before -stated, of having in the immediate neighbourhood of the hives such early -blossoming trees and flowers as afford plenty of farina; and also late -blossoming ones, that the bees may be enabled to lay in a store of it, -ready for spring. - -Swarming may take place at any time between the beginning of April and -the latter end of August. It seldom happens before ten in the morning, -nor later than three in the afternoon, and never but in fine weather. If -it be sultry, bees are apt to rise after a storm, being anxious to escape -from the heat of the hive, rendered more intolerable by the confinement -which the storm has occasioned. In the sixth volume of the Philosophical -Transactions, an instance is recorded by +Richard Reed+, Esq. of -Lugwardine, of a swarm issuing on the 9th of March; as he supposed, in -consequence of there being an insufficient supply of food for the whole -family, a part were sent forth to seek their fortunes, lest the whole -should perish. The day, he says, was fine, but does not mention the -temperature. Probably this was a stock which had bred in the month of -February, the swarm issuing from the usual cause, a disproportion between -the size of the family and the size of the habitation. - -If early swarming be desired, early breeding must be promoted, by feeding -with sugared or honeyed ale in February and March, and by keeping the -stock warm. And if the apiarian at any time wish to obtain a swarm, he -has only to withhold from his bees that accommodation which storifying -affords them. - -The most advantageous time for a swarm to be thrown off is from the -middle of May to the middle of June. This period comprehends the grand -harvest season of the honeyed race. After the scythe has cut down the -flowers which adorn our meadows and yield the bees such a plentiful -supply of honey and farina, there is a very manifest relaxation in their -activity; their excursions are not only much less extensive, but less -frequent, although the weather be in all respects propitious. Swarms -that issue much earlier than the time I have specified, are apt to be -small; and should bad weather succeed, feeding will be necessary, to -prevent famine. Those that issue later, afford no better promise, either -to themselves or to the parent hives; for though late swarms are usually -large ones, they will scarcely have time to rear their brood, and to lay -in a store of honey, &c. adequate to the support of the family during -the ensuing winter and spring. Late swarming is not only hazardous -to the bees thrown off, but is injurious to the parent stock, which -suffers in proportion to the loss of labourers, that should contribute -to the general store of food, and assist in rearing the brood, which is -generally abundant, though the season be far advanced. - -Hence it is the usual practice, early in the autumn, to suffocate both -the swarm and the stock, in order to secure whatever wax and honey -may have been collected up to that time. There is however another -alternative, as will be seen under the head of _Uniting Swarms or -Stocks_. - -If several days of rainy weather should succeed a swarm's going off, the -stores they carry with them from the parent hive may be exhausted and -endanger a famine; in such a case recourse must be had to feeding. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF STORIFYING AND SINGLE-HIVING. - - -From what has been said in the two last chapters, a comparative -estimate may be made of the advantages which storifying possesses over -single-hiving; and they appear to be the following. - -First, an œconomical division of labour, an advantage common to all -bodies of artificers, whose works are conducted upon a large scale, and -which causes a larger quantity of wax and honey to be collected in the -season, than if the bees were to swarm, and to carry on their operations -in separate families. - -Secondly, the facility with which the bees may be deprived of a -considerable portion of their honey, without destroying their lives, or -communicating to the honey any unpleasant flavour, from the sulphurous -gas. - -Thirdly, the power which is afforded to the bees, of employing themselves -usefully during wet weather, in the manner before stated. - -Fourthly, the saving of that time which is unnecessarily spent in the -construction of fresh combs, in the new habitation. - -Fifthly, the saving of room; for as every family has more warehouse-room -than its respective necessities require, the division into small families -must multiply the proportion of this superfluous room. - -Sixthly, the saving of the time usually lost in preparation for swarming, -when the bees hang inactively in clusters, on the outsides of the hives, -for many days, sometimes for weeks, particularly if the weather be -unfavourable. - -It seems right to remark in this place, that though this _clustering_ or -_hanging out_ of the bees is generally regarded as one of the strongest -symptoms of an approaching swarm, it is nevertheless a deceptive one. -It does certainly indicate that there are bees sufficient to throw off -a swarm, and is sometimes evidence of an anxiety to do so; but unless -there be a queen ready to go off with them, however distrest for room, -the clustering will sometimes continue for a considerable time; in hot -dry seasons it may last till the middle of August. This clustering, -as before observed, is very prejudicial, as it causes the bees to be -inactive in their principal harvest season, when every bee ought to be -fully employed, and may induce a habit of inactivity for the future. -Clustering likewise obstructs the operations of the bees that are active, -by interrupting the thoroughfare to the hive. These disadvantages are -admirably remedied by storifying, without which, independently of the -loss of time to the bees, a constant system of watchfulness must be kept -up by the proprietor, during the whole period of the bees clustering out, -otherwise a swarm may be lost. - -Storifying, though generally, is not invariably successful in causing the -clustered bees to reenter the boxes: where it fails to do so, if a young -queen were ready to assume the sovereignty of the colony, the clustered -bees would swarm and seek a new habitation with the old one. M. Reaumur -drowned several hives thus circumstanced, and examined all their inmates -most minutely, but could never find more than a single queen, and this -the old one; in none of these hives did he find royal larvæ. - -+Keys+ says that he has _failed to make the clustered bees rejoin the -family, if he has put the empty him or box over the colony;_ but that -by _placing the box under it, the bees soon re-entered and worked -vigorously_. I have myself, in several instances, noticed the reluctance -of bees to ascend; this reluctance will however generally give way in -a day or two, if no room be allowed them in any other direction. This -is proved by the successful use of small glasses upon flat-topped hives -or boxes, for obtaining fresh honey occasionally. +Thorley+ _constantly -practised super-hiving_, and was very successful with it. So likewise is -my friend +Mr. Walond+, who finds it afford him a supply of purer honey -than nadir-hiving; for as the queen is generally found more disposed to -descend than to ascend, by placing the box over the stock it will seldom -be stored with any other combs than those which contain honey. +Mr. -George Hubbard+, however, of Bury St. Edmunds, in a paper contained in -the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. ix. (for which they awarded -him ten guineas), says that he has known instances in which the _bees -have swarmed rather than submit to super-hiving_. - -_Bees have been known to construct combs under the floors of the hives, -when restricted for room within._ Here their natural activity surmounted -the impediments thrown in their way, by the want of inclosed space. The -storifying or colonizing plan has been much applauded for its saving the -lives of the bees: though this preservation be well worthy of attention, -yet it is an advantage very inferior to that which is derived from the -œconomical division of labour, the consequent increase of wax and honey, -and the facility afforded for extracting them. I trust that this remark -will not expose me to the imputation of inhumanity, for I am fully -sensible of the value of life to all creatures that exist, and have -often felt strongly the force of Thomson's pathetic description of the -sulphurous death of bees. - - "Ah! see where robb'd and murder'd in that pit - Lies the still heaving hive! at evening snatch'd. - Beneath the cloud of guilt-concealing night, - And fix'd o'er sulphur... - "Sudden the dark oppressive steam ascends. - And, us'd to milder scents, the tender race - By thousands tumble from their honey'd dome, - Convuls'd and agonizing in the dust." - -The bee is generally allowed to be a short-lived insect. (_Vide_ -Longevity of Bees.) Whatever advantage can be derived however, from -preserving the lives of the bees, at the period of taking their honey, -those, who keep them upon the storifying plan, will have the full benefit -of it, and be spared that torture of feeling, which the sensitive always -experience, when destroying life in any way. - -"True benevolence extends itself through the whole compass of existence, -and sympathizes with the distress of every creature capable of sensation. -Little minds may be apt to consider a compassion of this inferior kind, -as an instance of weakness, but I consider it as affording undoubted -evidence of a noble nature."--_Melmoth._ - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -SYMPTOMS WHICH PRECEDE SWARMING. - - - "See where with hurry'd step, th' impassion'd throng - Pace o'er the hive, and seem with plaintive song - T' invite their loitering queen; now range the floor, - And hang in cluster'd columns from the door; - Or now in restless rings around they fly, - Nor spoil they sip, nor load the hollow'd thigh: - E'en the dull drone his wonted ease gives o'er. - Flaps the unwieldy wing, and longs to soar." - - +Evans.+ - -Notwithstanding what I have said in the last chapter on the subject of -clustering, it is too important a circumstance to be omitted in the -following enumeration of the signs of swarming. - -1. Clustering or hanging out, if taken singly, may be regarded as a -fallacious symptom, but when conjoined with other indications, it may -be considered as a sign of swarming, particularly if accompanied by the -signs enumerated at the commencement of my motto. - -2. The drones being visible in greater numbers than usual, and in great -commotion, especially in the afternoon. - -3. The inactivity of the working bees, who neither gather honey nor -farina, though the morning be sunny and the weather altogether inviting. -Reaumur regarded this as the most indubitable sign of preparation for -swarming. - -4. A singular humming noise, for two or three nights previous, which -has been variously described and accounted for. It cannot always be -distinguished, unless the ear be placed near the mouth of the hive; the -sounds, which are sharp and clear, seem to proceed from a single bee. -Some suppose the noise to be made by the young queen, and to resemble -_chip chip peep peep_ or the _toot toot_ of a child's penny trumpet, -but not so loud; Mr. Hunter compares it to the lower a in the treble of -the piano-forte. It is readily distinguishable by those who have been -accustomed to hear it. +Dr. Evans+ inquires, is it the sound emitted by -perfect queens, on emerging from their cells, as described by M. Huber? -The noise is sometimes in a shrill, at other times in a deeper key; this -difference in the intensity of the tones may arise from the distance -whence the sound proceeds, or may be intended to intimate to the bees the -respective ripeness of their queens. +Butler+ and +Woolridge+ ascribe it -to a parley between the old and young queens, the latter at the bottom -of the hive requesting leave to emigrate, and the former answering in -her bass note from the top. +Wildman+ supposes it to arise from a contest -betwixt the queens, about sallying forth; and endeavours to account for -its less frequency before first swarms, from the young chiefs being then -in their embryo state. This however is mere hypothesis, and not at all -consonant with later discoveries, particularly those of Huber and Dunbar. -_Vide_ pages 18 and 22. - -5. Unusual silence in the hive, during which the separatists are supposed -to be taking in a cargo of honey before their flight, as a provision -against bad weather. Mr. Hunter opened the crops of some bees that -remained in the parent hive and the crops of some emigrating bees, when -he found the latter quite full, whilst the former contained but a small -quantity. - -_The above symptoms oftener precede second or third than first swarms, -which latter sometimes issue forth without any previous notice._ -+Keys+ speaks so emphatically upon this subject that I shall quote his -words. "Although there are no signs that precede first swarms, those, -before-mentioned, convey to the apiator one certain meaning, and when -heard he may be assured that the first or prime swarm has escaped, if -that will comfort him." - -The moment before their departure exhibits a very lively agitation, -which first affects the queen, and is then communicated to the workers, -exciting such a tumult among them, that they abandon their labours, and -rush in disorder to the outlets. - -If a swarm quit the first place on which it clusters, it hovers in the -air for some time, as if undetermined, and then flies off with great -velocity. - -We hear now and then of a swarm of bees being lost, of its having eluded -the vigilance of the proprietor; I think that its loss is generally -attributable to negligence. As a different opinion is prevalent, I shall -state a few of the facts upon which that difference is founded. - -+Homer+ and +Virgil+ speak of bees in their wild state as fixing their -habitations in the rocks and in hollow trees. - - "As from some rocky cleft the shepherd sees, - Clustering in heaps on heaps, the driving bees." - - +Pope's Homer.+ - - "And oft, ('tis said,) they delve beneath the earth, - And nurse in gloomy caves their hidden birth, - Amid the crumbling stone's dark concave dwell, - Or hang in hollow trees their airy cell." - - +Sotheby's Georgics.+ - -Many instances are also recorded of domesticated bees seeking an asylum -in some hollow part of an old building or tree. +Dr. Warder+, +Mr. -Butler+, +Mr. Knight+, +Dr. Evans+, +M. Duchet+, and other writers -think that the bees about to swarm regularly send out scouts, to -explore an eligible situation for their future residence; though Dr. -Evans admits that this disposition to resume wild habits, like many of -the instinctive faculties of the animal creation, has its intensity -weakened by domestication. Dr. Warder asserts that the bees always send -out providers, to select a suitable residence for them, several days -before swarming, and considers that their clustering upon a bough, -&c. soon after they issue forth, proceeds from their desire to be all -congregated together prior to the last flight: this is likewise the -opinion of Mr. Knight. If the place selected be a deserted hive, it is -first cleared by the bees of all heterogeneous matters, the old combs -alone being allowed to remain. An observance of this conduct probably -led +Columella+ to recommend the placing of empty hives, during the -swarming season, in appropriate situations near an apiary. +Keys+ gives -a similar recommendation. +Reaumur+ on the other hand ridicules the -idea of "spies and quartermasters," as ingenious fable. What I have -stated in Chapter XVII. p. 148. confirms Reaumur's opinion: he is also -supported in it by +Buffon+, +Bonnet+, and +Huber+: the former says, -that the swarming bees form a cloud round their queen, and set off -without seeming to know the place of their destination;--"the world -before them, where to choose their place of rest." I will however detail -a few cases that support the theory of "spies and quartermasters." In -the Philosophical Transactions for 1807, +Mr. Knight+, writing to Sir -Joseph Banks, relates several instances of the kind. On one occasion he -observed from twenty to thirty bees paying daily visits to some decayed -trees, about a mile distant from his garden; the bees appeared to be -busily employed in examining the hollow parts, and particularly the dead -knots around them, as if apprehensive of the knots admitting moisture. -In about fourteen days, these seeming surveyors were followed by a large -swarm from his apiary, which was watched the whole way, till it alighted -in one of these cavities. It was observed to journey nearly in a direct -line from the apiary to the tree. On several similar occasions the bees -selected that cavity which Mr. Knight thought best adapted to their use. -He has also noticed that, a stock being nearly ready to swarm, one of -these hollow trees was daily occupied by a small number of bees; but -the swarm from that stock, being lodged in another _hive_, the tree was -wholly deserted. This preference of a _hive_, when offered them, to a -place chosen by themselves, Mr. Knight ascribes to a habit acquired by -domestication, which generating a dependence upon man for providing them -a dwelling, descends hereditarily from the parents to their offspring. -Another instance is related by +Dr. Evans+: he suffered a hive, whose -tenants had died in the winter, to remain upon the stand till spring: he -then observed several bees paying it daily visits, and busily employed -within, but leaving it at the close of evening. These soon appeared, like -Dr. Warder's providers, to be the harbingers of a swarm; for, early in -June, an immense body of these insects were seen rapidly approaching, and -then surrounding the hive: they took possession as quickly as its narrow -entrance and crowded combs would permit. The same result was noticed -after the mild winter of 1806-7, which untenanted one of his hives by -famine: he was present when the swarm issued (from another hive in his -garden) to take possession of the empty one, which, on his endeavouring -to raise it, to give facility to their entrance, he found already -cemented to the floor. The Doctor also relates a case in which a swarm -of bees "made its way either over the tops of some very high houses, -or through several winding streets, to an old house in the centre of -Shrewsbury, and passing through an aperture in the wood-work to a room -on the first floor, were there hived by the family." +Mr. Butler+ in his -_Feminine Monarchie_ mentions the case of a poor woman whose hive being -depopulated by famine was allowed to remain out of doors till the ensuing -summer, when a swarm took possession of it, from which she afterwards -stored her garden. Other instances of a similar kind have been related; -but in most of them it is not easy to ascertain how far the proprietors -of the hives, from which the swarms went forth, had been improvident. The -cases related by Mr. Knight are the most remarkable; but with respect to -these, further information would be desirable. Was there any inducement -beyond a snug housing in the cavities of the trees, to tempt the bees to -wander so far from their native spot? such as favourite pasturage, or -neighbouring trees that were wont to supply honey-dew? or were there in -either of the hollow trees, thus occupied, any old combs which had been -left there by another family? Lastly, were the emigrating bees exposed -to any annoyance in their old habitation, either from neighbours of -their own species or the attacks of other animals? or were they deprived -of any sheltering protection to which they had been accustomed, by the -removal of buildings, the cutting down of trees or otherwise? +Bonner+, -who agrees in opinion with Mr. Knight, that bees often go in quest of a -suitable habitation, before they swarm, has observed that he knew for -certain that a swarm would not fly a mile to an empty hive, "whereas they -will fly," says he, "four miles to take possession of an old one with -combs in it." - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -HIVING OF SWARMS. - - -The hiving of bees is a proceeding so well known that it seems -unnecessary to offer any observations on the particular method of -effecting it. - -In every apiary there should be a stock of hives, boxes, &c. always -ready before-hand, either for storifying or for single-hiving; a neglect -of this precaution will often be productive of great inconvenience and -confusion. - -It is always desirable to _have swarms put into new hives_, as old -ones often contain the larvæ of moths and other embryo insects, which -may prove injurious to the bees. If straw be the material with which -they are made, every rough straw should be removed from the interior, -otherwise the bees will lose that time in rendering it smooth, which they -could employ to greater advantage in gathering honey and constructing -combs. For a similar reason, if boxes be preferred, these should be made -air-tight with putty or other cement, that the bees may not consume -their time in filling the crevices with propolis. If on any occasion the -apiarian be induced to have recourse to _an old hive_, for receiving a -swarm, it _should, before being used, be dipped into boiling water_, to -destroy the eggs of moths and other insects, after which it should be -made perfectly dry. - -In the common straw-hive, two new sticks placed across each other, at -the second round of straw from the bottom, will be useful to support the -weight of combs: the bees require no aid at the top, to which they will -themselves securely attach the combs, as may be seen in hollow trees -where bees have taken up their abode. - -_Dressing the insides of the hives_ is of doubtful advantage. Some people -rub the interior of the hive with balm, bean-tops, fennel, &c. or smear -it over with cream and honey. Wildman strongly reprobates this practice, -as it gives the bees the trouble of making the hive clean again. If any -thing be used, in compliance with custom, sugared or honeyed ale is the -most alluring. +Keys+ says that a hive, containing old combs and dressed -with sugared ale, will often decoy a swarm to settle in it. +Huish+ -recommends sprinkling the interior of the hives with human urine; which -he regards as a specific, on account of "its _abounding_ with _sugar_ -and _salt_, two substances of which bees are particularly fond:" if -such were the fact, it would I think, be more cleanly, and therefore a -preferable plan, to mingle those favourite articles with a little ale or -water for this purpose. Huish himself recommends smearing the interior -of the hive with honey, when a swarm of bees settle in a situation, -from which it cannot be dislodged and made to enter the hive, by shaking -or other forcible means. If urine be attractive to bees, its attraction -must proceed from other qualities than those which he has mentioned; it -does certainly contain a _very small portion_ of _salt_, but I know of no -analysis of healthy human urine, which admits sugar to be a constituent -part of it. - -A tinkling noise is generally, though I believe erroneously, considered -to be useful in inducing bees to settle. +Keys+ recommends the use of a -watchman's rattle, but not till the queen has come forth, for fear of -alarming her too soon, nor after the bees have begun to cluster. - -+Keys+ advises also the throwing of sand or water among the bees, to make -them cluster; likewise the making of some _very_ great noise, such as -firing a gun; some have supposed the bees to mistake a loud noise, for -thunder foreboding a storm; but this, instead of causing them to settle, -would rather cause their return to the parent stock. +Dr. Evans+ suggests -the probability of noises being first used, as signals to the neighbours -that a swarm was up, and being afterwards continued by habit only. The -throwing up of handfuls of dust or sand, is said to make bees descend, -when they soar very high; these missiles being mistaken for rain. - -_Bees, when swarming, are generally peaceable_, and if treated gently, -may be hived without danger or difficulty. _A remarkable instance of -their inoffensiveness at this time_ is related by +Mr. Thorley+. Wanting -to dislodge a swarm from the branches of a codlin-tree, he placed the -hive in the hands of his maid-servant, who being a novice, covered her -head and shoulders with a cloth, to guard her face; on shaking the tree, -most of the bees alighted upon the cloth, and quickly crept under it, -covering the girl's breast and neck up to her very chin. Mr. T. impressed -her with the importance of neither flinching from nor buffeting the bees, -and began immediately to search for the queen; which on finding, he -gently seized and removed, but without effecting a dislodgement of the -swarm: thus disappointed, he suspected that there was a second queen; -which actually proved to be the case: on securing, and placing her also -in the hive, with a portion of the bees, the rest followed in multitudes, -till in two or three minutes not one bee remained upon the girl, who was -thus released from her state of apprehension and alarm, without feeling -the point of a single sting. All persons similarly situated may not be -so fortunate, as, notwithstanding the greatest precaution, bees may be -provoked to draw their swords. +Dr. Evans+ relates a case of this kind; -a swarm having settled on the branch of a larch-tree, and its long tufts -of narrow leaves flapping the bees as the bough was shaken, the woman -who hived them, received above thirty stings. If the weather be windy, at -the time of swarming, they are often irritable, and apt to sting; though -clustered, they will frequently return home: this last occurrence is -generally caused by the absence of a queen; but it may also be produced -by a sudden shower, or by the transit of a dark cloud. - -A queen has sometimes a defect in her wings, or is disabled by some -accident; either of these misfortunes may cause the return of a swarm, or -produce symptoms of discontent after hiving. - -As many persons doubt _the queen's importance_ to the harmonious union -of a swarm, I shall give an instance or two, to show how essentially -necessary her presence is to produce this effect. +Dr. Warder+ being -desirous of ascertaining the extent of the bees' "loyalty to their -sovereign, ran the hazard of destroying a swarm, for this purpose." -Having shaken on the grass, all the bees from a hive which they had only -tenanted the day before, he searched for the queen, by stirring amongst -them with a stick. Having found and placed her, with a few attendants, in -a box, she was taken into his parlour; where the box being opened, she -and her attendants immediately flew to the window, when he clipped off -one of her wings, returned her to the box, and confined her there for -above an hour. In less than a quarter of an hour, the swarm ascertained -the loss of their queen, and instead of clustering together in one social -mass, they diffused themselves over a space of several feet, were much -agitated, and uttered a piteous sound. An hour afterwards they all took -flight, and settled upon the hedge where they had first alighted, after -leaving the parent stock; but instead of hanging together, like a bunch -of grapes, as when the queen was with them, and as swarms usually hang, -they extended themselves thirty feet along the hedge, in small bunches, -of forty, fifty, or more. The queen was now presented to them, when -they all quickly gathered round her, with a joyful hum, and formed one -harmonious cluster. At night the Doctor hived them again, and on the -following morning repeated his experiment, to see whether the bees would -rise; the queen being in a mutilated state, and unable to accompany -them, they surrounded her for several hours, apparently willing to die -with her rather than desert her in distress. The queen was a second time -removed, when they spread themselves out again, as though starching -for her: her repeated restoration to them, at different parts of their -circle, produced one uniform result, "and these poor loyal and loving -creatures, always marched and counter-marched every way as the queen was -laid." The Doctor persevered in these experiments, till after five days -and nights of fasting, they all died of famine, except the queen, who -lived a few hours longer and then died. _The attachment of the queen to -the working bees_, appeared to be equally as strong as their attachment -to her; though offered honey on several occasions, during the periods of -her separation from them, she constantly refused it, "disdaining a life -that was no life to her, without the company of those which she could not -have." - -My next instance is contained in the _Transactions of the Society of -Arts, &c._ for 1790, in a paper written by +Mr. Simon Manley+, of Topsham -in Devonshire, for which the Society awarded him five guineas. "I have -before now," says he, "taken the queen-bee, while in the act of swarming, -put her into a clean bottle, and kept her from the swarm a full hour. I -have then shown her to several gentlemen, the swarm continuing to hover, -without settling, the whole time. I brought her home, and laid her on the -floor of a kitchen window. Being moist with her own breath in the bottle, -when I took her out she licked herself clean, and being quite recovered, -was carried out and placed upon the hive she swarmed from. About a -handful of her subjects soon found her out, and seemed much rejoiced at -finding her. From thence she rose up, and pitched upon a currant bush, -and the remainder of the swarm came to her, and settled at once." - -+Swammerdam+ tried the experiment of fastening the queen by one of her -legs to the end of a pole, by which he induced the bees to follow him -wherever he chose. Reaumur relates a somewhat similar instance of a -bee-man mentioned by +Father Labbat+ in his Travels, who had the address -to conceal the source of his dexterity. +Wildman's+ expertness in this -way was celebrated far and near. _Vide_ chapter on Uniting Swarms. - -In confirmation of the evidence I have already given, of the queen's -importance to the well-being of the community, I will advert to some -experiments of +Huber+. He removed a queen from one of his hives; the -bees were not immediately aware of it, but continued their labours, -watched over the young, and performed the whole of their ordinary -occupations. In a few hours afterwards, agitation commenced, and all -appeared to be a scene of tumult; a singular humming noise was heard, -the bees deserted their young and rushed over the surface of the combs, -with delirious impetuosity. On replacing the queen, tranquillity was -instantly restored; and from what will be said presently, it appeared -that they knew her individual person. Huber varied this experiment with -other hives, in different ways; instead of restoring their own queen, -he tried to substitute _a stranger queen_; the manner of her reception -depended upon the period at which she was introduced. If twenty-four -hours had elapsed after the removal of the queen, the stranger was -well received, and at once admitted to the sovereignty of the hive. -If not more than eighteen hours had elapsed, she was at first treated -as a prisoner, but after a time permitted to reign. If the stranger -was introduced within twelve hours, she was immediately surrounded by -an impenetrable cluster of bees, and commonly died either from hunger -or privation of air. It appeared therefore, in the course of these -experiments, that from twenty-four to thirty hours were required, for a -colony to forget its sovereign, and that if, before the lapse of that -period, no substitute was presented, they set about constructing royal -cells, as stated in page 22; and moreover, that if, during the time they -were so occupied, a princess was brought to them, the fabrication of -royal cells was instantly abandoned, and the larvæ selected to occupy -them were destroyed. On the admission of a welcome stranger queen, more -regard is perhaps shown to her at first, than to a restored natural -queen,--at least there are more conspicuous demonstrations of it: -the nearest workers touch her with their antennæ, and, passing their -proboscis over every part of her body, give her honey. In the cases above -related, the bees all vibrated their wings at once, as if experiencing -some agreeable sensations, and ranged themselves in a circle round her. -Others, in succession, broke through this circle, and having repeated the -same process, of touching her with their antennæ, giving her honey, &c. -formed themselves in a circle behind the others, vibrating their wings -and keeping up a pleasurable hum. These demonstrations were continued for -a quarter of an hour, when the queen beginning to move towards one part -of the circle, an opening was made through which she passed, followed -and surrounded by her customary guard. Such is the substance of Huber's -account: it does not entirely correspond with what has been stated by -Dunbar. _Vide_ chapter on Bee-boxes. - -The loyal _attachment of bees to their queen_ extends even beyond this: -+Huber+ states that he has seen the workers, "after her death, treat her -body as they treated herself when alive, and long prefer this inanimate -body to the most fertile queens he had offered them." And +Dr. Evans+ -relates a case, in which a queen was observed to lie on some honey-comb -in a thinly peopled hive, apparently dying, and surrounded by six bees, -with their faces turned towards her, quivering their wings, and most -of them with their stings pointed, as if to keep off any assailant. On -presenting them honey, though it was eagerly devoured by the other bees, -the guards were so completely absorbed in the care of their queen, as -entirely to disregard it. The following day, though dead, she was still -guarded; and though the bees were still constantly supplied with honey, -their numbers were gradually diminished by death, till, at the end of -three or four days, not a bee remained alive. - -+Wildman+ says that if the queen of a swarm be lost, though it happen -several weeks after leaving the mother hive, the bees will return to it, -carrying their honey with them. This, if true, must occur where no grub -can be converted into a queen. Both +Reaumur+ and +Wildman+ tried the -experiment of introducing a royal larva into a queenless stock, when the -bees immediately set to work again, on the inspiration of hope alone. - -Should symptoms of discontent be observed after hiving, the queen will -probably be discovered on the ground, or somewhere apart; surrounded by a -small cluster of attendants, whom nothing but violence can separate from -her. If she be taken up either singly or with the cluster, and placed -near the entrance of the hive containing the swarm, all will be harmony. - -_Sometimes a swarm divides into two portions_, which settle apart from -each other and have each a distinct leader. The conduct of the apiarian -must be governed by the size of the two divisions, and the season at -which they emerge; unless both be large and the swarming early, they had -better be hived in separate boxes, and joined together, in the manner -recommended in Chap. XIX. - -+Columella+ was the first who proposed union by killing the supernumerary -queen. - -The branch on which the swarm settled is sometimes rubbed with wormwood, -or smoked with disagreeable fumes, to drive away all remaining loiterers. - -In every operation, it is desirable to avoid crushing a single bee, as, -in case of discovery, the rest are excited to anger. See chapter on the -_Senses of Bees_. - -Immediately on the bees taking to the hive, it should be placed upon a -table, on a proper floor board, and be covered with boughs or a cloth; -and the hive should be near the parent stock, to catch stragglers, -on their return home. At night it should be removed to its permanent -station. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -ON REMOVING BEES FROM COMMON STRAW-HIVES TO STORIFYING HIVES OR BOXES. - - -Many plans have been suggested for transferring bees from hives to boxes; -but excepting in the case of a recent swarm, I would not recommend any, -but an experienced apiarian, to attempt an immediate transfer. - -In the case of a recent swarm, the method of effecting the object is -simple and easy; for if, when the bees have retired for the night, the -hive be placed upon a middle board, with a divider underneath it, and -the whole be inverted upon a small tub or a peck measure, and an empty -box be raised upon the divider, this latter being withdrawn, and every -opening besides what is necessary for admitting air being well secured, -the bees will all probably have ascended into the box by morning, when -with the assistance of the dividers they may be placed in the bee-house -or any where else that the proprietor chooses, just as if they had been -originally hived in the box. If the ascent have not taken place in the -morning, it may be effected by drumming smartly with two sticks, upon -the sides of the hive: in this way, the ascent may be known by the loud -humming noise by which it will be accompanied. - -I have said that the above plan is only to be recommended in cases of -recent swarming: by this I mean, in swarms of the day on which it is -attempted, and before any works are constructed in the hives, to such -an extent as to make the bees tenacious of their new habitation; for -wherever they form a settlement, though even for the short time that they -occupy a bush or tree before hiving, there are always to be seen the -rudiments of one or more combs, showing, that they always intend, (so -far as one can give bees credit for intention,) to take up their abode, -permanently, upon the very spot on which they first cluster round their -Royal Leader. - -If however, from want of forethought or from any other causes, a swarm -have been allowed, for a longer period, to occupy a hive from which it is -desirable to dislodge it, in that case I would recommend the apiarian, -towards night, to place the hive upon a middle board with a divider -underneath it, to lute the junction with clay, so as to prevent the bees -from escaping, and to invert the whole upon a stool that has had an -opening made in it of sufficient size to allow the hive to sink about -half-way through it. Then, if he raise a couple of empty boxes upon the -divider, in the manner already directed for super-hiving, and having -adjusted the whole, withdraw the divider, the bees will soon desist from -carrying on their works in the hive, and commence new ones in the upper -box; the hive at the period of deprivation may be separated from the -boxes in the usual way. - -The middle board that is used on this occasion, provided the colony be -designed to stand out of doors, must have a resting board attached to the -edge of it, for the bees to alight upon. And as it is intended to serve -as a substitute for a floor board, it must be made to correspond with the -floor boards in its construction, so far as respects its giving liberty -for the bees to have ingress and egress, and its affording a power to -shut them in. - -If it should be thought more convenient, an entrance could readily be -formed, by cutting a piece out of the lower edge of the box, in which -also a groove might be cut for a slide to run in. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -SUPER- AND NADIR-HIVING BY MEANS OF DIVIDERS. - - -When one hive or box is to be raised upon another in a bee-house, the -operation may be performed at any time; the best time is about ten -or eleven o'clock in the morning, when a great portion of the bees -are ranging the fields. If the bees be kept in an out-door hive, the -operation will be best performed in an evening or early in a morning, -when, all the bees being at home, they may be shut in and thereby -prevented from annoying the operator. - -If _super-hiving_ be the object of the apiarian, he must first withdraw -the four screws out of the top board of his stock-hive or box, so as -to enable him to push one of his dividers from front to back, between -that board and the box which it covers; he may then safely take off the -top, and screw it upon an empty box. (He would of course be enabled to -accomplish the business with more promptitude, if he have a supernumerary -top already screwed down.) Having put the fresh box upon a middle board, -the whole is to be carefully placed upon the divider, that covers the -stock: when accurately adjusted to each other, if an assistant hold -firmly in their places the two boxes, or the inferior box and the middle -board, the divider may be withdrawn, and thus a communication between the -two boxes will immediately be effected, without the escape, and perhaps -without the destruction, of a single bee. - -When I have had no assistant near me, upon whose steadiness I could rely, -at the time of withdrawing the divider, I have fixed a piece of double -quarter with one of its ends against the inferior box, and the other -against the wall opposite to it, and have thus effectually prevented the -box from moving, whilst with one hand I held firmly the middle board, -and drew out the divider with the other. My readers are to suppose me -operating in a bee-house, for in an out-door apiary an assistant will -always be required, whenever any important operation is to be performed. - -_Nadir-hiving_ is accomplished by introducing both dividers between -the floor board and the box or hive which it supports, the first with -its turned edge downwards, and the other upon it with its turned edge -upwards. The box or boxes are then to be removed on one side or upon -a table, together with the upper plate or divider, which will form a -temporary floor to the box, while the lower plate covers the wooden floor -and those few bees that may be lodged upon it. - -In removing the box or boxes for nadir-hiving, some caution is -requisite, to prevent the escape of the bees. The safest plan is -gradually to draw forward the boxes with their temporary floor, till -they hang nearly half over the wooden floor, and then, by spreading out -the fingers and applying them under each side of the divider, the whole -may be lifted up and moved wherever it be most convenient till raised -upon the nadir. When the box has been drawn half off, a weight should be -placed upon the covering divider, to prevent it from tilting up. - -The removal being accomplished, an empty box should be quickly placed -upon the divider which covers the floor, and upon the box a middle -board; the adjustment being complete, the dividers are to be withdrawn -separately, and with the same precautions as in super-hiving. - -If the apiarian wish to practise _centre-hiving_ _i. e._ to introduce an -empty box between a superior and an inferior one, he can easily apply the -preceding directions to that particular case. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -UNITING SWARMS OR STOCKS. - - -The union of swarms with their stocks, and of swarms or stocks with -each other, in case of their being or becoming weak, has been attempted -in various ways, and with various success, depending perhaps, in -some degree, upon the skill and adroitness of the operator. Upon the -storifying plan this operation will rarely be necessary, excepting in the -case of weak stocks, as it is not a very common occurrence for storified -bees to swarm, and when they do so, they generally throw off strong -swarms. Still the object may occasionally be desirable, and it is worthy -of attention, for _the tenants of well filled hives are always the most -active_. - -The three usual methods by which union has been attempted, and indeed -their advocates say, accomplished, are _fuming them, immersing them -in water_, and _aspersing them with sugared or honeyed ale_. To these -I may add a fourth, namely _operating upon their fears_, by confining -them for a time, and then alarming them by drumming smartly upon the -outside of their domicile. It was operating on their fears that enabled -Wildman to perform such extraordinary feats with bees. When under a -strong impression of fear, says he, they are rendered subservient to our -wills, to such a degree as to remain long attached to any place they -afterwards settle upon, and will become so mild and tractable, as to -bear any handling which does not hurt them, without the least show of -resentment. "Long experience has taught me, that as soon as I turn up a -hive, and give some taps on the sides and bottom, the queen immediately -appears." "Being accustomed to see her, I readily perceive her at the -first glance; and long practice has enabled me to seize her instantly, -with a tenderness that does not in the least endanger her person." "Being -possessed of her, I can, without exciting any resentment, slip her into -my other hand, and returning the hive to its place, hold her, till the -bees missing her, are all on the wing, and in the utmost confusion." When -in this state, he could make them alight wherever he pleased; for on -whatever spot he placed the queen, the moment a few of them discovered -her, the information was rapidly communicated to the rest, who in a few -minutes were all collected round her. In this way he would sometimes -cause them to settle on his head, or to hang clustered from his chin, in -which state they somewhat resembled a beard. Again he would transfer them -to his hand, or to any other part of his body, or if more agreeable to -the spectators before whom he exhibited, he would cause them to settle -upon a table, window, &c. Prior to making his secret generally known, he -deceived his spectators by using words of command; but the only magic -that he employed was the summoning into activity for his purpose the -strong attachment of the bees to their queen. - - "Such was the spell, which round a Wildman's arm - Twin'd in dark wreaths the fascinated swarm; - Bright o'er his breast the glittering legions led, - Or with a living garland bound his head. - His dextrous hand, with firm yet hurtless hold. - Could seize the chief, known by her scales of gold. - Prune, 'mid the wondering train, her filmy wing. - Or, o'er her folds, the silken fetter fling." - - +Evans.+ - -Cautioning his readers as to the hazard of attempting, what he himself -accomplished only by long experience and great dexterity, Wildman -concludes his account with a parody of the reply of C. Furius Cresinus, a -liberated Roman slave, who, being accused of witchcraft in consequence of -his raising more abundant crops than his neighbours, and therefore cited -before a Roman tribunal, produced his strong implements of husbandry, -his well-fed oxen, and a hale young woman his daughter; and pointing -to them, said, "_These, Romans! are my instruments of witchcraft; but -I cannot show you my toil, my sweats, and anxious cares._" "So," says -Wildman, "may I say, _These, Britons! are my instruments of witchcraft; -but I cannot show you my hours of attention to this subject, my anxiety -and care for these useful insects; nor can I communicate to you my -experience, acquired during a course of years_." - -_The neatest and most scientific mode_ with which I am acquainted _of -uniting weak families together in harmony_ was invented by my friend -The +Rev. Richard Walond+, whom I had occasion to mention in a former -chapter, and whose experience in the management of bees, for nearly half -a century, entitle his opinions concerning them to great respect. His -theory and practice upon this subject are as follow. Bees, says he, emit -a peculiar odour, and it is by no means improbable that every family of -bees emits an odour peculiar to itself: if so, as their vision seems -to be imperfect, and their smell acute, it may be by this distinctive -and peculiar odour that they are enabled to discriminate betwixt the -individuals of their own family and those of a stranger hive. Upon -this supposition, if the odours of two separate stocks or swarms can -be so blended as to make them completely merge into each other, there -will then probably be no difficulty in effecting the union of any two -families that it may be desirable to unite. To accomplish this end -therefore, Mr. Walond had recourse to a very ingenious contrivance: he -procured a plate of tin, the size of a divider, and thickly perforated -with holes, about the size of those in a coarse nutmeg-grater. Having -confined in their respective hives or boxes, the two families to be -united, and placed them over each other, with only a divider between -them; he introduced his perforated tin plate upon the divider, which -was then withdrawn. Immediately the bees began to cluster with hostile -intentions, one family clinging to the upper, the other to the under -side of the perforated plate; when after remaining in this state for -about twenty-four hours, they had so far communicated to each other -their respective effluvia, and so completely commixed were the odours in -both hives, that on withdrawing the perforated plate, the bees mingled -together as one family, no disturbance being excited, but such as arose -from the presence of two queens, the custom being always, in such case, -to dethrone one of them. According to Huber this is effected by single -combat between the queens: which subject will be adverted to in a future -chapter. +Keys+ has observed that _these incorporations seldom turn to -account unless they be effected in summer_; and when it is considered -that the principal gathering months are May and June, (excepting in those -neighbourhoods that abound in lime, sycamore, and other trees that are -apt to be affected with honey-dew,) we cannot, of course, expect them to -be very successful. I have entered fully into this subject, when speaking -of early and late swarms, page 115. - -To obviate the consequences there apprehended, some apiarians have had -recourse to the practice of removing their bees to fresh pasture; to -districts where buckwheat is cultivated, or to the neighbourhood of -heaths, or to any other place where such late blossoming flowers abound -as afford honey. Mr. +Isaac+ assures us that he once had a poor swarm of -a month's standing, which only weighed five pounds four ounces, and that -on the 30th of July he had it removed to _Dartmoor Heath_, from whence it -was brought home, two months afterwards, increased in weight twenty-four -pounds and a half. He moreover states that the increase of others, that -were sent there, was nearly proportional, and is of opinion that the -whole addition was made during the month of August. - -In +Lower Egypt+, where the flower harvest is not so early as in the -upper districts of that country, this practice of _transportation_ is -carried on to a considerable extent. The hives after being collected -together from the different villages, and conveyed up the Nile marked and -numbered by the individuals to whom they belong, are heaped pyramidally -upon the boats prepared to receive them, which floating gradually down -the river and stopping at certain stages of their passage, remain there -a longer or shorter time, according to the produce which is afforded by -the surrounding country. "After traveling three months in this manner, -the bees, having culled the perfumes of the orange flowers of the Said, -the essence of roses[G] of the Faicum, the treasures of the Arabian -jessamine, and a variety of flowers, are brought back to the places from -which they had been carried. This industry procures, for the Egyptians, -delicious honey, and abundance of bees-wax. The proprietors, in return, -pay the boatmen a recompence proportioned to the number of hives which -have been thus carried about from one extremity of Egypt to the other." -+Latreille+ states that between Cairo and Damietta a convoy of 4000 hives -were seen upon the Nile by +Niebuhr+, on their transit from the upper to -the lower districts of that country. Floating bee-hives were formerly -common also in +France+. One barge was capable of containing from 60 to -100 hives, which, floating gently down their rivers, enabled the bees -to gather the honey which is afforded by the flowers on their banks. -+Reaumur+ likewise states it to have been the practice in some districts -to transport them with similar views, by land, in vehicles contrived -for the purpose. In +Savoy+, +Piedmont+, and other parts of +Italy+, the -practice is also common. It is indeed of very ancient origin. Columella -speaks of it as a very general custom among the Greeks, who used annually -to send their bee-hives from Achaia into Attica. - -[Footnote G: Whatever inducement the bees of Egypt may have to ply the -roses of that country, with us they pay very little attention to those -beautiful flowers.] - -These, however, are advantages which very few situations can afford; -probably but few of my readers may reside in the neighbourhood of heaths, -and still fewer may be disposed to incur the trouble and expense of -removal. If therefore incorporation be desirable in any particular case, -I can only recommend that attention be paid to feeding the bees with -sugared ale; by the assistance of which, indeed, I should not be afraid -of carrying, even a weak stock, very safely through the winter and early -spring. "Give your bees," says Mr. Isaac, "two harvests in one summer" -(alluding to the practice of transportation), "and you may make almost -any swarm rich enough to live through the following winter." This second -harvest may be very efficiently supplied by an attention to feeding, -during mild weather in winter, and particularly in the early spring,--for -the management of which, see, Chap. XXIII. on Feeding. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -PROPER PERIODS OF DEPRIVATION. - - -It should be an invariable rule with the apiarian, never to remove an -upper hive or box, till an under one be quite full; and even then, it -should be ascertained that the contents of the inferior one, (if taken at -Michaelmas,) be not less than 18 pounds. If it do not contain so much, a -sufficient quantity should be returned in the box that has been removed, -otherwise recourse must be had to feeding. +Mr. Isaac+ says that he has -carried a colony that had no honey at Michaelmas, safely through the -winter and spring, with only eight pounds of honey. Huber succeeded with -less; but it appears that his observations were made upon weak stocks -that were not altogether destitute. - -A variety of experiments were made by +Mr. John Hunter+ and +Mr. Keys+, -to ascertain _the quantity consumed during_ the respective months of -_winter and spring_, and they all led to one conclusion, namely, that it -_amounted upon an average to eight pounds_, taking the season through, -from the beginning of October to the end of May, when the spring proves -ungenial. _During the first six months the consumption was not more than -five pounds upon an average_, and the colder the weather the smaller was -the consumption. _Vide_ 2nd page of Chap. XXIV. - -_As a general rule,--no honey should be taken from a colony the first -year of its being planted_, though there may be an extraordinary season -now and then, which may justify a departure from this rule; but neither -in such an uncommon year, nor even in the second year, should the whole -of the combs in any box be taken, (unless it be clearly ascertained that -the centre combs contain no brood,) but only the external ones, which -should be examined carefully one by one, and the brood-combs, if any, -be returned in the box to the stock. The apiarian, as +Huber+ observes, -if he wish to obtain a considerable quantity of honey, should endeavour -to secure his object rather by the number of his colonies, than by -plundering a few of a great proportion of their treasures. _A moderate -participation is the most infallible means of preserving the stock._ - - Should "Summer signs auspicious ride. - And tubes unfailing pour the balmy tide, - A full rich harvest, Bee-herds, may ye claim - From the blithe tenants of your crystal'd frame. - But long ere Virgo weaves the robe of sleet, - Or binds the hoar-frost sandals round her feet. - Close seal'd and sacred, leave your toil-worn hosts. - The last kind dole their waning season boasts, - Lest coop'd within their walls, the truants prey - On hoards reserv'd to cheer stern Winter's day." - - +Evans.+ - -+Mr. Hubbard+ says that he has found _colonized bees frequently fail, in -consequence of their having been robbed of too much honey;_ it prevents -early breeding. +Wildman+ _particularly recommends cautious deprivation -after July_, to avoid the attention which might be required in feeding, -if the autumn should be unfavourable. - -So much for the first and second years.--On the third, if the summer -of that year as well as the summer preceding have been favourable for -honey-gathering, the superior box will probably contain no brood, and may -then be taken all at once. - -The proceedings of the fourth and fifth years may fall under the practice -of the second, but will probably allow of an earlier deprivation; some -side combs may perhaps be taken away in July, and in October either the -nadir or the centre box be removed entirely, and those above (if more -than one) be brought down, and remain so till April; when the nadir may -be introduced again. - -_No hive or box should have its breeding combs left more than five -years;_ and in general, after the first year, the lower boxes will be -found to be principally occupied for this purpose. - -By this practice for four years out of every five, whatever combs are -removed will be new ones, which, on account of the purity both of the wax -and the honey, are greatly preferable to old ones. - -+Virgil+, probably copying his predecessor +Aristotle+, describes _two -harvests of honey every year_, namely, in the spring and in the autumn. - - "The golden harvest twice each year o'erflows, - Thou, twice each year, the plenteous cells unclose, - Soon as fair Pleïas, bright'ning into day. - Scorns with indignant foot the wat'ry way, - Or, when descending down th' aërial steep, - She pours her pale ray on the wintry deep." - - +Sotheby's Georgics.+ - -"+Varro+ mentions _three harvests_; namely, at the rising of the Pleiads, -about the twenty-second of April; the latter end of summer, and when the -same stars set about the end of October: +Columella+ recommends them to -take place about the twenty-fifth of April and the twenty-ninth of June; -+Pliny+ in May and July; and +Palladius+ in June only."--+Evans.+ - -Should such an accident occur as the destruction of a queen, by the -introduction of a divider (and she might be so unfortunately situated as -to fall a sacrifice to it), the stock will appear very much distressed -and very restless all day, particularly if there be no Royal Embryo or -no very young larva; for in either of these cases they will soon become -reconciled. But if neither of them be present, and the bees be left to -themselves, they will lose their wonted activity, gradually dwindle in -number and pine away: or they will transfer their allegiance to another -sovereign; and in that case, convey all the treasured sweets of their -own hive, to that of the family they join. _The only remedy for such a -misfortune_ is to unite the bees to another stock, in the manner already -directed, or to procure a supernumerary queen from another family. The -latter, however, is an operation which few will have courage to attempt. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -TAKING HONEY BY MEANS OF DIVIDERS. - - -After having noted the utility of Dividers, in adding fresh _empty_ -boxes, the reader will readily perceive their importance in the removal -of _full_ ones, when the period arrives for depriving a colony of a -portion of its honey. In this case, the two dividers must be introduced -between the middle board of the box to be removed and the box below it, -precisely as in nadir hiving. In the act of deprivation a little more -force will be required to push in, as well as to withdraw the divider, -as it will generally have to pass through a portion of honey-comb. The -above directions apply to the removal of an upper box, which will in -general be the first for which they will be required. When any other is -to be taken away, the plan of proceeding must be varied, but it would be -tedious to give directions for every case; an intelligent operator by -an attention to the instructions already given, and his own reflection, -will be able to adapt his mode of proceeding to the particular exigency. -Only one divider should be introduced till the situation of the queen be -ascertained: if she be in the box intended for removal, the divider must -be withdrawn, and the experiment tried again in a week or two. If in an -hour after the introduction of the divider, the bees in the box intended -to be taken should exhibit symptoms of inquietude, it may be assumed that -the queen is not within that box, the disturbance being caused by the -anxiety of the bees to have access to her; whereas if she be in the box, -the bees in company with her will be tranquil, and the excluded portion -of the family will be in a state of commotion. Having, we will suppose, -ascertained that the queen is in the desired place, the second divider -should be introduced as before directed, when the box, with one of the -dividers underneath it, must be removed. The apiarian, when performing -this operation for the first time, may find it convenient to raise a -stage of empty bee-boxes or other convenient articles, on one side or -at the back of the box to be removed, and upon a level with the bottom -of its middle board; he can then, after having introduced the dividers, -very easily slide the full box, with its middle board and divider, over -his temporary stage. (This mode of proceeding may likewise be found -applicable on other occasions.) The operation having proceeded thus far, -the box is ready for being applied over the hole of delivery, where a -floor board should be placed with its sliding shutter open, and with an -uncovered empty box upon it. (If the full box were itself placed upon -the floor board, stranger bees might smell the honey and become very -troublesome intruders:--this is the reason why an empty box is interposed -betwixt the full one and the floor board.) The full box and middle board, -with the divider underneath them, being raised upon the empty box and the -divider withdrawn, a portion of the bees will immediately sally forth, -to join the family from which they have been separated. I say a portion, -for notwithstanding their attachment to their queen, they will not all -quit, without reluctance, so great a treasure as a box full of honey; if -any of the combs contain brood also, this reluctance will be increased. -When therefore the bees issue slowly, the sliding shutter should be -closed, and re-opened in a quarter of an hour. This short imprisonment -will produce some impatience and restlessness, and consequent eagerness -to be set at liberty; and on re-opening the shutter there will be a fresh -sally: this method must be pursued, at similar successive intervals, -till all or nearly all the bees have quitted the box; should a few still -remain, the box, towards evening, may be taken out of doors and the -stragglers brushed out upon a board or cloth, with a wing, and placed -upon a support near the entrance to the stock; those that are not injured -by the wing will soon find their way in: thus will the whole operation -be completed. But if the upper story be taken, it will be obvious that -either an empty box or a top board must be placed over the stock. - -If this method of deprivation should fail of success, some other course -must be pursued. +Mr. Isaac's+ _plan_ promises well. After removing the -box from the stock, he used to confine his bees in it, till their anger -and agitation had rendered their prison so hot and uncomfortable, and -probably so unwholesome, by the deterioration of the air, that they -were glad of an opportunity to quit it, which he soon afforded them. -Unscrewing the top of his box, and introducing a divider underneath it, -he placed an empty box _over_ the full one, and opened a communication -between the two, by withdrawing the divider. At the same time he gave an -additional impulse to the ascent of the bees by drumming smartly upon the -sides of the full box. When the bees were entirely or nearly gone, he -took out either the whole of the combs or such as contained honey without -brood, proceeding according to the directions given in page 163. There is -another resource, in _the method_ uniformly _practised by_ +Mr. Keys+, -viz. that of fuming, which is effected by placing an empty box over the -full one, in the manner described above, and expelling the bees with the -smoke of burning puff balls, probably that of woollen rags would answer -as well, though Mr. Keys relies upon the stupifying quality of the puff -balls, which however, he says, is in a great measure lost if the balls be -kept more than a year. The operation may be afterwards finished in the -usual way. - -Where straw-hives are used, or where boxes are surmounted by them, _a -very simple method_ of taking the honey, without destroying the bees, -was _adopted by_ +J. F. M. Dovaston, Esq.+ a Salopian gentleman. I -will suppose that he took off the hive with a middle board and divider -underneath it; he then inverted it upon a kettle of hot water, fitted -to receive the hive without any part sinking into the water; the whole -being surmounted by an empty box, and the divider withdrawn: in ten -minutes the heat so annoyed the bees, that they were heard marching, -_magno cum fremitu_, into the empty hive. In a few minutes, when all was -quiet, the divider being introduced again, the hive was replaced by the -box containing the bees. Mr. D. found that on this plan not a single bee -remained among the combs. I see no good reason why a similar practice -should not be adopted with boxes or Moreton-hives; in this case the water -in the kettle should be heated gradually by a chaffing-dish, and the box -or hive should have a perforated divider under it, like that for uniting -stocks: the empty box had better communicate with the open air, lest the -heat of the steam should be intolerable to the bees. Having the top -unscrewed would probably answer the purpose, as it could then be easily -pushed on one side. +Dr. Evans+, when he could not readily dislodge the -bees from the box, had recourse to +Dr. Warder's+ plan of placing it over -an inverted empty box, that contained a lighted sulphur match, the fumes -of which stupified the bees'; and on the upper hive being rapped, they -fell down in a state of insensibility, but soon revived and joined the -family, by the usual entrance. The fumes of sulphur answered as well as -those of the narcotic fungus recommended by Thorley and Keys, which it is -sometimes difficult to procure and troublesome to prepare. Immersing the -bees in cold water would answer, with a glass or earthenware hive. +Dr. -Evans+ was led to adopt it in consequence of reading Wildman's account -of Madame Vicat's method of clearing her bees from vermin, by plunging -them in water. The chapter on Bee-maladies contains some remarks on this -subject. - -At the commencement of my apiarian inquiries, I felt that there was a -want of more minute information than is given by Keys; and others with -whom I have conversed upon the subject, have had the same feeling: this -has induced me to enter into a descriptive detail of the whole business -of super-hiving, nadir-hiving, and deprivation. Those who are in -possession of "_The ancient Bee-master's Farewell_," will perceive that -I have made some alterations in the boxes of Keys and some additions to -them: the principal of these are the sinking of the entrances in the -floor boards, instead of having them cut in the lower edges of the boxes; -having fixed bars upon the tops of the boxes, instead of Keys's loose -ones, and the use of middle boards. The first was my own suggestion, -the two last were improvements made by Mr. Walond. Entrances made in -the floor boards enable the apiarian to place his boxes upon the boards -in whatever direction he chooses, and render sliding shutters in the -upper boxes unnecessary. The loose bars were inconvenient, from the bees -attaching their combs to the sides of the boxes, which they almost always -do, as well as from their attaching every comb to two or three bars. The -middle boards facilitate the introduction of the dividers, secure the -apiator against the effects of any little irregularity in the adaptation -of the boxes to each other, at the time of adding or taking away, and -form a good foundation for a superstructure of cell-work; for sometimes -the bees depart from their usual practice of suspending their combs from -the roofs of the boxes, and build from below upwards. - -It is the usual custom in this country, to sacrifice the lives of the -bees, in order to get possession of their stores. This is generally -done in September, by setting the hive, late in an evening, over lighted -brimstone matches, placed in a hole dug in the earth; the soil being -quickly drawn round the hive, as well to prevent the escape of any of the -bees, as to confine the sulphurous gas. In about a quarter of an hour, if -the hive receive a few smart strokes on its sides, the bees will be found -to have dropped insensible into the hole, where they are immediately -buried; otherwise they would revive, such of them at least as were not -singed or otherwise injured by the fire. The heaviest and lightest hives -are usually selected for the purpose, the former as yielding most profit, -the latter as being unlikely to survive the winter. - -If, after a hive of bees has been suffocated, the apiarian wish to -_search for the queen_, the best mode of doing so is to lay the whole of -the bees on white paper, or in water on a white shallow dish, and examine -them singly; her colour upon the back is not so remarkably different from -that of the workers as to be very striking; but on looking at the under -part of her, she will be immediately recognised. - -I adverted to this latter mode of robbing bees of their treasure in Chap. -XIV. and there quoted the lamentation of Thomson at their fate. For this -humane appeal, he has been thus apostrophized by Dr. Evans. - - "And thou, sweet Thomson, tremblingly alive - To pity's call, hast mourn'd the slaughter'd hive, - Cursing, with honest zeal, the coward hand, - Which hid, in night's dark veil, the murd'rous brand, - In steam sulphureous wrapt the peaceful dome, - And bore the yellow spoil triumphant home." - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE BEE-DRESS. - - -The Storifying system, when conducted with proper precaution, in a -bee-house, renders a bee-dress quite superfluous to the apiarian, as all -his operations may be safely performed at all times and in all weathers, -without one. - -They may be as securely performed, by the storifier in a simple shed, if -the time of operating be either early or late in the day, when the bees -are all at home and can be confined by shutting the slide of the floor -board. - -Still, as timidity may foster a feeling of insecurity, and as the armour -of a bee-dress may give confidence to an operator, I shall describe the -dress that appears to me most suitable. - -In the first place the apiator should be armed with _a pair of thick -cloth gloves_, made to tie over the sleeves of his coat. Secondly, his -legs should be fortified by a _double pair of thick woollen or worsted -stockings_, or some kind of _stout leggings_ as they are called. And -thirdly, he should be provided with _a short dress of Scotch gauze or -catgut_. This dress should be so formed as to tie round the crown of -a hat having a shallow brim (about 2½ inches deep), should have short -sleeves to tie round the arms, and descend low enough to tie round the -body. _A woollen apron_ should also be worn, as high as the bottom of the -catgut dress, otherwise, in the language of Mr. Keys, the prying little -insects may find an opening of sufficient size to enable them to tickle -the belly. "Women," says Mr. K. "should not meddle with bees, without -a bee-dress, nor then without the addition of a man's coat, and I had -almost said of breeches also." - -This dress is the most complete mode of securing an operator from bees -or wasps; but if he be adventurous enough to brave their attacks, I -recommend him first to drink or rinse his mouth with a little malt -liquor; to wash his face and hands with the same, and to approach them -with a bunch of sweet herbs in his hand, gently fanning his face with -them, whilst he is in the vicinity of their domicile, and breathing as -much as possible through his nose. (_Vide_ Part II. Bee's Sting.) In -case of an actual or threatened attack, (the latter of which may be -known by the peculiar noise which precedes it,) a defence by striking -at them would be highly imprudent. An attempt may be first made to put -them gently away; should that not succeed, the only resource is to retire -quietly, and to conceal the face in shrubs or boughs, if any be near, or -if not with the hands spread over it. The bees will then generally desist -from further attack, and go home. - -The smart quick strokes of the wings, when bees are angry and prepared to -sting, give a sound very different from their usual buz. "Instead," says -Mr. Hunter, "of that soft contented noise made by the bee when coming -home loaded on a fine evening,--when a bee meditates an attack with its -sting, it makes a very different one." There is a piercing shrillness in -the sound, as the author and some of his friends have often experienced. - -Messrs. Kirby and Spence, after quoting a passage from Mr. White's -Natural History, relative to the feigned attacks of some wild bees near -Lewes in Sussex, which "with a sharp and hostile sound dash and strike -round the heads and faces of intruders," make the following observations. -"The hive-bee will sometimes have recourse to the same expedient, when -her hive is approached too near, and thus give you notice what you may -expect, if you do not take her warning and retire.--Humble-bees when -disturbed, whether out of the nest or in it, assume some very grotesque -and at the same time threatening attitudes. If you put your finger to -them, they will either successively or simultaneously lift up the three -legs of one side; turn themselves upon their back, bend up their anus and -show their sting accompanied by a drop of poison. Sometimes they will -even spirt out that liquor." - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -FEEDING. - - -A stock of bees will, generally, consume a pound of honey per month, -betwixt the 1st of October and the 1st of March: from this time to the -end of May, they will consume two pounds per month; _if the spring be -unfavourable for gathering early, and less than ten pounds of honey per -stock have been left for their winter's support, and that winter have -proved mild, the bees should be fed early in the season, and sometimes -through a considerable part of the month of May_. - -I believe the best spring food for bees is the following +compound+: A -pound of coarse brown sugar and half a pint of ale or sweet wort, boiled -to the consistence of a syrup, to which may be added a small portion of -salt. According to Huber _the coarsest sugar enables the bees to form -the whitest wax_. The above mixture is regarded, by some, as a useful -food for bees even when there is no deficiency of honey; _it is supposed -to encourage early breeding, and to preserve the health of the bees_; I -administer it invariably from the end of February or the beginning of -March till the bees seem to disregard it, which always happens as soon -as the flowers afford them a supply of honey. - -There are two opinions upon _the best mode of administering the syrup_: -one party gives the preference to _daily feeding, in small quantities;_ -the other, to _introducing a considerable quantity at once_, and -repeating it as occasion may require. The majority of apiarians favour -the latter practice; among the number are +Reaumur+, +Thorley+, +Isaac+, -+Morris+, &c. the latter gentleman obtained an award often guineas from -the Society of Arts, for his method of feeding. The advocates of the -first method are +Keys+, +Espinasse+, and some others. Copious feeding -in effected by filling the cells on one side of a spare drone comb, laid -flat upon the floor of the hive; or by pouring the syrup into a dish, or -an excavated floor board of twice the usual thickness, covering the food -with short straws or pieces of reed, about half an inch long, to prevent -the bees from soiling themselves. The stock being placed in an evening -over the whole,--in the course of the night, or the following morning, -the bees will carry up the syrup, and store it in unoccupied cells. -Where it has been ascertained that the bees have not stored a sufficient -quantity of honey to carry them through the winter and ensuing spring, -and it is determined to furnish them with a supply in the autumn, I think -this method of copious feeding is the best. But when they are fed in -the spring, I think it preferable to give them about a table-spoonful -a day. This has generally been accomplished, by introducing into the -mouth of the hive a long boat, formed by scooping out the pith from an -elder stem, and filling it with the composition. Upon this plan, no -more is introduced than the case requires, and frequent opportunities -are afforded of learning the condition of the bees, from the manner in -which they receive the boon. If a little irascibility be exhibited, it -is a symptom of health; and though indifference to the proffered bounty -may not actually betoken mischief, yet it deserves attention, and should -induce vigilance in the apiarian. Feeding upon the large scale in spring, -tempts the bees to fill those cells which may be wanted for the queen -to deposit her eggs in, and thus proves a drawback upon the strength -and prosperity of the hive. It may also cause the bees to partake too -freely of the syrup, and suffer from their intemperance. Whichever mode -be adopted, the external entrances must be closed, during the time of -feeding; and I know of no better contrivance for this purpose than -Mr. Huish's tin guards. Without this precaution, unfed stranger bees, -attracted by the smell of the syrup, will banquet upon it; and these -marauders, having once tasted the repast, will not only return to it -again and again themselves, but bring in their train a multitude of -others, to the great injury of the well-fed apiary. The way in which I -feed my own bees is exceedingly simple, and attended with no risk to the -apiarian. At the close of the gathering season, I turn my boxes and their -floors a quarter round, and adapt to them a long narrow box with a glass -top and two openings, one at the end, serving as a street door, the other -in the side serving as a hall door leading into the box, as shown in the -following sketch. - -[Illustration] - -In an evening, when the bees are all at home, I push in the slide of the -floor board, raise the glazed box, and place the syrup under it: then I -close the external entrance, and withdraw the slide to admit the bees to -the food: by morning I generally find that my donation has been removed. -I place the syrup in a small shallow saucer, covered over with Scotch -gauze, through which the bees suck it without smearing their wings. If -the gauze hang over the sides of the saucer, it will act as a syphon, -and the syrup be wasted: to obviate this inconvenience, a small hoop -of whale-bone, cane, or other pliable material should be just dropped -within the edges of the saucer, and upon this hoop the gauze should be -stretched, turned over and secured with a needle and thread. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -DISEASES OF BEES. - - -I suspect that much which has been written upon this subject is fanciful, -and that most of the ailments of bees originate from want of cleanliness -or want of food; for if bees be not kept clean, and be not supplied -with food in backward springs, particularly in those which succeed mild -winters, a mortality among them is usually experienced; and it is in -spring that their alleged maladies prevail. - - "For late the lynx-ey'd scout, in nice survey, - Had mark'd the ravage of ungenial May, - Where the lorn bee-herd wail'd his empty shed, - Its stores exhausted, and its tenants dead." - - "So mourn'd Arcadia's swain[H] his honey'd host, - By keen disease or keener famine lost. - Till his fond mother, on her glassy throne, - Heard through deep Peneus'[I] wave the filial moan." - - +Evans.+ - -[Footnote H: Aristæus, the son of Apollo and the nymph Cyrene, to whom -mankind were said to be indebted for the art of curdling milk, _managing -bees_, _making hives_, and cultivating olives; on which account he was -worshipped as a God by the Greeks. He was the father of the unfortunate -Actæon.] - -[Footnote I: A river of Thessaly.] - -During a mild winter the stock of honey is often exhausted, such a season -encouraging the bees to be active, without affording any resources -beyond their own domicile; yet it is not uncommon to hear the keepers -of bees speak of a mild winter as favourable for the bees. It is most -unfavourable to them; and if feeding be not duly attended to, frequently -fatal. Hence _a northern aspect_ has been _recommended_ for hives _during -winter_; and if guarded by proper coverings, and contrivances against -snow and other bad weather, such an aspect is highly proper. The +Rev. -Stephen White+ observes, that if hives be placed on the northern side of -a building, the bees will seldom be induced to come out, and will eat -much less than if exposed to the winter's sun. +Mr. Gedde+ _recommends_ -keeping them during winter, _not only_ in _a cold, but_ in _a dark -situation_, in order to lessen the consumption of honey. He even suggests -the use of an ice-house, having found that bees survive the cold in -Siberia, and render Russia somewhat remarkable for its productiveness of -honey. "A very observing gentleman," says +Dr. Darwin+, "at my request, -put two hives for many weeks into a dry cellar, and observed, during -all that time, that they did not consume any of their provision, for -their weight did not decrease, as it had done when they were kept in -the open air." The same observation is made in the Annual Register for -1768, p. 113. The sudden transitions from heat to cold, and from cold to -heat, experienced in this country, are detrimental to bees; but these -vicissitudes would not alarm me, if the bees were well sheltered, and had -a convenient supply of water, salt and sugar, in the early part of the -spring. - -Keys thought they were not fond of salt: from my own experience as well -as from that of my apiarian friends, I am satisfied that he was mistaken, -and my opinion is confirmed by the following observation in Crevecœur's -Travels. "One day, having remarked that my bees frequently settled on -spots, where brine had been spilt, I placed some grains of salt before -their hives. What was my astonishment, when I saw them repeatedly -tasting it with eagerness, and carrying it away with them! Before this -experiment, I could not have believed that the manufacturers of honey -could taste with pleasure, a substance so different from the nectar of -flowers." - -_In the winter of 1782-3, a general mortality_ took place _among the -bees_ in this country, which was attributed to various causes: want of -honey was not one of them; for in some hives considerable store was -found, after the bees were gone. Some were of opinion that it arose from -the preceding being a bad breeding year, and thought the bees died of -old age. Others attributed it to the moistness of the spring of 1783, -which rendered the providing of pollen difficult, for without pollen no -brood can be raised. The difficulty of collecting pollen was ascribed to -the continual closing of the flowers over the anthers, the want of sun -to burst the anthers, and the washing away of the pollen by the frequent -showers after they did burst. The fatal influence ascribed to the wetness -of the spring of 1782 seems to be improbable; though the wet might have -affected the quantity of bees bred, it was not likely to put a stop to -their breeding altogether, and the young bees ought at any rate to have -escaped the desolating evil, if it were old age alone; yet wherever the -mortality once made its appearance, every bee became its victim. - -_A similar incident occurred among the wasps in the year_ 1824. The -queen wasps were unusually numerous in the spring of that year, and -yet scarcely a wasp could be seen of any sort in the ensuing summer -and autumn, though there was a great deal of fine weather and plenty -of sunshine, the fruits having ripened remarkably well. In both cases, -it seems probable that the mortality arose from some unfavourable -circumstance at the breeding season, with which we are unacquainted. I -am not aware that it has been attributed to any specific distemper of -an epidemical nature. +Mr. Knight+ _noticed a similar occurrence, as to -wasps, in the year_ 1806 (Philosophical Transactions 1807, p. 243); and -_in_ 1815, +Messrs. Kirby+ _and_ +Spence+ _made the same observation_. -Mr. Knight supposed the scarcity to arise from a want of males to -impregnate the queens. - -I shall now proceed to notice the maladies of bees; and state their -causes, symptoms and remedies, as I have collected them from ancient and -modern authors. - - -+Dysentery.+ - -This malady was attributed by +Columella+ to the bees extracting and -feeding upon honey collected from the blossoms of elms and spurge; he -regarded it as an annual distemper. By others it has been ascribed to -their feeding too freely upon the vernal honey, from whatever source -derived; or from their being obliged to eat wax, through want of other -food, in the early part of the spring. +Madame Vicat+ supposed it to -arise from the feeding upon honey that had been candied, in consequence -of the hive being exposed to a severe winter. +Reaumur+ instituted some -experiments to ascertain the cause of dysentery, but they were not -satisfactory. - -The presence of this disorder is indicated by the appearance of the -excrement, which, instead of a reddish yellow, exhibits a muddy black -colour, and has an intolerably offensive smell. Also by its being voided -upon the floors, and at the entrance of the hives, which bees, in a -healthy State, are particularly careful to preserve clean. +Huish+ -compares the morbid excrement to linseed. - - -+Vertigo.+ - -_Vertige_, as +Du Carne de Blangy+ calls it, is supposed to arise from -the bees extracting the honey of deleterious plants. I have treated fully -upon this subject under the head of Pasturage. In addition to what has -been there stated I will give an extract from +Dr. Barton's+ _Paper_, -who after observing that there is more poetry than philosophy in the -following lines of Pope-- - - "In the nice bee what sense so subtly true - From poisonous herbs extracts the healing dew?" - -says: "It is however much to be questioned whether this noxious honey -proves so to the bees themselves." Sir J. E. Smith asserts that "the -nectar of plants is not poisonous to bees." _Syllabus to Botan. Lect._ -And Dr. Barton, though disposed to adopt the contrary opinion, gives -instances to the same effect. Thus a party of young men, induced by -the prospect of gain, having removed their hives from _Pennsylvania_ -to _the Jerseys_, whose vast savannahs were finely painted with the -flowers of the _Kalmia angustifolia_, could not use or dispose of their -honey, on account of its intoxicating quality; yet, "the bees increased -prodigiously," an increase only to be explained by their being well and -_harmlessly_ fed. - -This disorder is marked, we are told, by a dizzy manner of flying, and by -irregular motions, such as starting, falling down, &c. when the bees are -pursuing their usual occupations. To these symptoms succeed lassitude and -death. No remedy has hitherto been discovered for this malady. - -+Huber+ _says that vertigo attacks ants_, and causes them to lose the -power of moving in a straight line, and occasions the performance of -rapid gyrations always in the same direction: he observed one insect make -about 1000 turns in an hour, describing a circle of about an inch in -diameter; this continued for seven days: he does not say whether he ever -knew any instance of a recovery. - -In Dr. Barton's ingenious paper, to which I have already referred in -the chapter on Pasturage, the plants enumerated as yielding poisonous -honey are _Kalmia angustifolia, latifolia_, and _hirsuta_; _Rhododendron -maximum_, _Azalea nudiflora_, and _Andromeda mariana_. The honey of these -is stated to have proved injurious both to dogs and the human species. -_The symptoms_ it usually produces _are dimness of sight or vertigo, -delirium, ebriety, pain in the stomach and bowels, convulsions, profuse -perspiration, foaming at the mouth, vomiting and purging_; in some -instances, _temporary palsy of the limbs_, but very _seldom death_. The -best mode of treatment is not yet ascertained; though the similarity -of the symptoms, the Doctor says, would induce us to pursue the same -plan as in counteracting other narcotic poisons. In those cases, _early -vomiting_, whether spontaneous or induced by art, removes the disease -at once; and _cold bathing_, so useful in other spasmodic or convulsive -affections, is employed with considerable advantage by both Natives -and Europeans. This should seem to be one of those cases in which the -_stomach-pump_ would be peculiarly beneficial, from the promptness and -certainty of its action. - -To the credit of the genus of plants last named, it should be mentioned -that one species (_Andromeda nitida_ or _lucida_ of +Bartram+) affords -abundance of excellent honey; hence the name of _honey-flower_ is given -to it, by the country people in _Georgia_ and _Carolina_, not however -merely from the circumstance just mentioned, but from the regular -position of the flowers on the peduncle, which open like the cells of a -honey-comb, and from the odour of these flowers, which greatly resembles -that of honey."--_Barton_. - -"As most of the plants enumerated in the above list are now introduced -into our gardens, and the _Datura_ (_common Thorn Apple_) has long -become perfectly naturalized, they might be supposed to injure the -British honey. Most probably, however, their proportion to the whole of -the flowers in bloom, is too small to produce any such inconvenience; -whereas on their native continent they exclusively cover whole tracts of -country, as instanced above in the Jerseys." _Evans_, B. ii. p. 95. - - -+Tumefaction of the Antennæ.+ - -The antennæ, in this disorder, become swelled at their extremities, -which resemble the bud of a flower ready to open, and they assume a -yellow colour, of which the forepart of the head shortly partakes; the -bees becoming gradually languid and dying, if they have not timely -assistance.--This malady occurs about the month of May. - - -+Pestilence+, or +Faux Couvain+ (_as Schirach calls it_). - -Pestilence has been reckoned among bee-maladies, and attributed to the -residence of dead larvæ in the cells, from a careless deposition of ova -by the queen, (the head of the grub not being placed in a proper position -for exclusion, when that period has arrived,) it has also been ascribed -to cold, and to bad nursing, that is, feeding with unwholesome food. - - -+Treatment.+ - -The remedies which have been found most successful in all these maladies, -excepting vertigo, are _cordials_, namely _wine_ and _sugar_. This -circumstance, taken in conjunction with their occurring at the spring of -the year, tends to confirm my opinion that the ailments of bees arise -from hunger and filth. - -_Cleanliness_ and _timely supplies of sugared ale_, particularly _during -the months of February and March_, are the preventive remedies which have -hitherto preserved my bees in a state of healthful activity. In ungenial -springs, feeding should be continued even _through a considerable part -of May_, if the preceding autumn have been unfavourable, or if a cold -May have succeeded to warm weather in early spring,--the earliest vernal -flowers affording but a scanty supply of honey. The apiarian is sometimes -astonished that he should lose his bees at this advanced season of the -year, when but a short time before he had seen them in full health and -activity. Had he afforded that food which his bees could not obtain from -a comparatively immature and honeyless vegetation, their hives would -still have gladdened him with the spectacle of a thriving population. - - "If e'er dank autumn, with untimely storm, - The honey'd harvest of the year deform, - Or the chill blast, from Eurus' mildew wing, - Blight the fair promise of returning spring, - Full many a hive but late alert and gay, - Droops in the lap of all-inspiring May." - - +Evans.+ - -The reader must now perceive the importance of feeding, and that the -transition from health to languor and death is less frequently to be -ascribed to disease, than to the want of the necessary means to continue -the vital energy. The suddenness of the unhappy change may reasonably -lead the uninformed or improvident to suppose that an incurable malady -has visited their hives:--so long as the store of honey lasted, there -were health and prosperity; but that gone, famine commenced its ravages, -and an extinction of the bees of course followed. A little foresight -and a little trouble would have kept off the calamity. I am perhaps -tediously particular in this notice. I wish to impress my noviciate -bee-friends with the necessity of thus providing for their hives, that -the most frequent agent of mischief,--hunger,--may be kept out of -them. Still further let me also recommend to them, on the approach of -winter to have the floors of their hives or boxes well cleaned from -insects and their eggs, and from all heterogeneous matter. This is a -business which the bees themselves, when the weather admits of it, are -particularly attentive to; indeed they refrain, as much as possible, -from dropping their excrement upon the floors, taking advantage of every -fine day in winter to sally forth and get rid of it. This was proved by -the experiments of Mr. Hunter: indeed they sometimes fall a sacrifice -to their personal neatness in this respect, their bodies becoming so -swelled, from the accumulation of fæces, as completely to disable them -from flying, when the weather is sufficiently favourable to admit of -their going out; in consequence of which, they fall to the ground and -perish. - -+Schirach+ and others recommend, in cases of _Faux Couvain_, to cut -out the infected combs, and to clean and fumigate the hive by burning -aromatics under it. - -In +Butler's+ _Feminine Monarchie_, we are gravely told of a certain -bee-mistress, who, finding her hives fruitless, and their tenants pining -away with sickness, by the advice of another female, went to receive the -eucharist, and having kept it in her mouth, placed it, on her return -home, in one of the diseased hives. The plague ceased; honey accumulated; -and, on examining the inside, she found a waxen chapel and altar, of -wondrous architecture, and even bells of the same materials.--Gent. Mag. -1809. p. 316. - -To prove that there is much of fancy in the traditional accounts -respecting bee-maladies, I will mention _the various hypotheses -concerning dysentery_. +Columella+ speaks of its arising from the bees -feeding upon honey collected from elm and spurge blossoms; my own -neighbourhood abounds with both; but I never met with nor scarcely heard -of dysentery among the bees here. +Evelyn+ in his _Sylva_ expresses -doubts upon the subject; and +Dr. Evans+ says he made particular -inquiries of some friends in Worcestershire, which (like this -county--Herefordshire) abounds with elms, without obtaining satisfactory -information. - -Dysentery has also been said to be produced by a surfeit of vernal honey, -simply as such, from whatever flowers derived: were this true it would -occur in all neighbourhoods. With respect to its proceeding from their -eating wax, I am decidedly of opinion that wax never constitutes any part -of their food, under any circumstances; not a tittle of evidence can -be adduced in support of such an assertion. Wax is an excrementitious -matter, secreted among the abdominal folds of the bees for the sole -purpose of constructing the honey and brood-combs: the scraps of wax that -are observed in winter and spring upon the hive floors, and which, to the -minds of common observers, convey the idea that they are crumbs caused by -the bees consuming the wax for food, are produced by their nibbling the -lids of the cells to uncover the honey. If +Madame Vicat's+ _theory_ were -correct, what would become of all the bees in Siberia and other northern -regions? Huish says he never found honey in this country to candy in the -combs, but adds that Bonner assured him that _he_ had experienced it. -_Vide_ chapter on Honey. - -+Kirby+ and +Spence+ have given it as their opinion, that dysentery -arises from the bees having an insufficiency of pollen or bee-bread to -eat with their honey. We have no evidence that pollen constitutes any -part of the food of _adult_ bees; and if it did, they have generally -opportunities of storing it very abundantly, in the autumn, as well -as in the spring: and such is the provident industry of bees, that a -considerable surplus is always found in every stock-hive. - -+Wildman+ and +Huish+ recommend salt for preserving the health of bees; -and their frequenting stable drains and other receptacles of urine gives -countenance to this recommendation, as it seems probable that the saline -matter contained in those fluids attracts the bees, their desire for it -overcoming that repugnance to offensive odours which would otherwise -occasion them to avoid such places. Even fresh urine has been recommended -by +Ranconi+, an _Italian_ author, in case the bees should be attacked -by dysentery;--in all probability a weak solution of salt would be more -acceptable and equally efficacious. I always introduce a small portion of -it into the syrup with which I feed my bees. +Keys+ says that they are -not fond of salt. _Vide_ Page 186. - -I will close this chapter on the Diseases of Bees with an extract from -Nicholson's Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 234: Scientific Intelligence. - -"A large swarm of bees having settled on a branch of _the poison ash_, -(_Rhus Vernix_,) in the county of West Chester in America, was taken -into a hive of fir at three o'clock in the afternoon, and removed to the -place where it was to remain, at nine. About five the next morning the -bees were found dead, swelled to double their natural size, and black, -except a few, which appeared torpid and feeble, and soon died on exposure -to the air." This was attributed to their being poisoned by the effluvia -of the _Rhus Vernix_. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -ENEMIES OF BEES. - - -Among the enemies of bees are enumerated various kinds of birds, poultry, -mice, wax-moths, slugs, hornets, wasps, woodlice, ants, and spiders. - -The most destructive enemies of the bee, in this country, are _wasps_, -whose superior strength, boldness and number, enable them to commit great -ravages in a hive. One wasp is supposed to be a match for three bees, -and, to filch a belly-full of honey, will oppose a host of bees in a very -daring manner. - -The _wax-moth_ (_Tinea mellonella_) is also a dangerous enemy. +Mr. -Espinasse+ says that this is the smallest of the genus, and it is of a -whitish brown colour. The butterfly usually appears about weak hives in -April, and may be seen till the end of October. This insect is remarkably -active in its movements; and if the approach to the hives be observed of -a moonlight evening, the moths will be found flying, or running round -the hives, watching an opportunity to enter; whilst the bees that have -to guard the entrances against their intrusion, will be seen acting as -vigilant sentinels, performing continual rounds near this important -post, extending their antennæ to the utmost, and moving them to the -right and to the left alternately. Woe to the unfortunate moth that -comes within their reach! "It is curious," says +Huber+, "to observe how -artfully the moth knows to profit, to the disadvantage of the bees, which -require much light for seeing objects; and the precautions taken by the -latter in reconnoitring, and expelling so dangerous an enemy." Adroitly -gliding between the guards, the moths will often contrive to insinuate -themselves, unperceived, into the hives, and riot upon the honey. When -they have obtained possession, they deposit their eggs upon the sides -of the combs; the caterpillar is formed and inclosed in a case of white -silk; at first, it is like a mere thread, but gradually increases to the -size of a quill, and during its growth feeds upon the wax around it. It -seems very extraordinary, and would be almost incredible if the fact were -not well attested, that such tiny creatures should live in the midst, and -at the expense of myriads of such formidable insects as bees, protected -as they are by coats of mail, armed with weapons of offence, and ever -watchful of their treasure. Such, however, is the havoc sometimes made by -these apparently insignificant, but active enemies, as now and then to -compel a colony of bees to emigrate, and seek another habitation. - -In this country, where the apiary is generally situated near the -dwelling, _birds_ do not commit any great ravages. +Mr. Espinasse+ thinks -that in general they come only for _dead bees_ and _larvæ_, which may -have been thrown out of the hives. But in America, according to +Mr. -Hector St. John+, _the king bird_, the protector of corn-fields from -the depredation of crows, is a great destroyer of bees. After shooting -these birds, Mr. St. John has found bees in their craws, from one of -which he took as many as a hundred-and-seventy-one: on laying them all -on a blanket in the sun, fifty-four of them returned to life, licked -themselves clean, and joyfully went back to their hives. Many wonderful -tales of this kind have been told,--such as the recovery of flies that -had been inclosed for a considerable time in bottles of liquor (madeira). -An instance of this is related by Wildman, who says his informant was -a very ingenious and accurate gentleman:--that the madeira had been -brought, in bottle, from Virginia to London, and that the flies when -exposed to a warm sun for an hour or two, were so completely reanimated, -as to take wing; thus putting to the test, as Wildman's friend observed, -the truth of the opinion, that a fly cannot be drowned.--A very -marvellous tale was related last year in the newspapers, of the recovery -of some apparently dead bees after the substance containing them had -been submitted to a considerable heat or to a chemical process. Mr. St. -John's statement is within the bounds of credibility: it seems to have -been a case of suspended animation of short continuance, not produced by -exposure to gas or to any liquid likely to prove deleterious to them; -and it is well known that bees often recover even after suffocation with -sulphurous gas. Bees may be immersed in water for a long time, without -loss of life. Reaumur saw them recover after nine hours immersion. Dr. -Evans accidentally left some eighteen hours in water; when laded out -with a spoon and placed in the sunshine the majority of them recovered. -Other animals, of analogous species, exhibit still more wonderful -resurrections. De Geer has observed one species of mite to live for some -time in spirit of wine; and Mr. Kirby states that being desirous of -preserving a very pretty lady-bird, and not knowing how to accomplish it, -he immersed it in geneva. "After leaving it," says he, "in this situation -a day and a night, and seeing it without motion, I concluded it was dead, -and laid it in the sun to dry. It no sooner, however, felt the warmth -than it began to move, and afterwards flew away." This circumstance laid -the foundation of Mr. K.'s study of entomology. - -Of this adherence to life, advantage has been taken at the time of -deprivation,--recourse having been had to immersion for removing a -portion of the combs, the bees were afterwards spread on a cloth in the -sun, and became reanimated. Dr. Derham says that he has known bees revive -after remaining twenty-four hours under an exhausted air-pump. After long -submersion the proboscis of the bee is generally unfolded, and stretched -to its full length. The first symptom of returning animation, is a motion -at its extremity, succeeded by a similar motion at the extremities of -the legs. Having so far progressed towards recovery, the tongue is soon -folded up again, and the bee prepared to resume its customary occupations. - -_Moths_ and _spiders_ should be watched and destroyed in an evening, as -at that time the former are hovering about, and the latter laying their -snares; at that time too there would be less danger of annoying the bees, -or of being annoyed by them. Wherever moths have gained possession of a -hive, it is always necessary to destroy the bees, or to drive them into -another hive. - -Attention to the following particulars may guard the bees from many of -their enemies. A frequent cleaning of the hive floors; the use of new or -well cleaned hives; the timely renewal of the coverings, and keeping the -ground bare around the apiary, particularly in front of it. This last -precaution may also prevent the entanglement of the bees in rubbish or -long straggling vegetables, should they on their return home fall down -through fatigue or the weight of their loads. - -From _rats_ and _mice_ the surest safeguard is an appropriate position -of the hives; traps may also be laid, and in winter the entrances into -the hives contracted. It will be prudent likewise to case the legs -of the bee-benches with tin. Bees in a healthy vigorous state will -attack and kill an intruding mouse; but in winter it might commit great -depredations, and cause the emigration of the bees on the return of warm -weather. (Mr. Espinasse says that he has known a mouse take up his winter -quarters in a hive, without destroying the bees.) - -For protection against _ants_, which sometimes enter the hives and eat -the honey, +Mr. Cobbett+, in his _Cottage Economy_, recommends that -the pedestals or legs of the benches supporting the hives should be -surrounded by a green stick, twisted into a circular form and covered -with _tar_; and if the ant nest can be traced, that _boiling water_ -should be poured into the centre of it, at night, when all the family are -at home. The tarring of the stick should be repeated every two or three -days: the legs of the stool, or the posts on which the shed stands, may -also be tarred. Some bees may be lost by sticking in the tar, but this -disadvantage will be more than counter-balanced by the destruction of -the ants. _Slaked lime_ may be beneficially spread about a foot wide -round the apiary. The usual custom has been to renew this sprinkling of -lime every two or three days: but the _experiments of_ +Mr. Coleridge+ -(Southey's Brazil, i. 645) show that this step is unnecessary: by -exposure to the air, lime is converted into chalk; and according to Mr. -C, (who states that the formic acid transpires from the bodies of ants so -as to leave its traces upon the substances which they traverse,) if ants -attempt to pass over chalk, the effervescence produced between the chalk -and the acid will be so considerable as to burn their legs. It has been -said that a bee cannot kill an ant, when bitten; but that the bee instead -of making resistance, flies away and carries the ant with it. - -+M. Reaumur+ was of opinion that ants were not to be reckoned among the -enemies of bees; and he relates an instance of their living as very close -neighbours, yet in perfect harmony. The ants established themselves -between the glass panes of his bee-box and the wooden shutters which -covered them; and as a similar circumstance occurred to +Bonnet+, and in -other of Reaumur's hives also, it seems probable that the ants took up -their quarters in this situation for the sake of the equable warmth that -the bees would impart to their eggs. "Ants were without the hive," says -Reaumur, "and bees within; a single glass only separating two nations, so -different in manners, in customs, and genius. The bees were abundantly -provided with a dainty of which ants are exceedingly fond, I mean honey. -The ants had just reason to be apprehensive that the bees would be -uneasy, and jealous to preserve so precious a treasure. Nevertheless -the utmost harmony and concord prevailed between the two nations. Not a -single ant was tempted to enter the hive, how strongly soever she might -be invited by the fragrance of the honey; nor did any bee disturb the -ants, though superior to them in power; the several individuals, on each -side, went in and out peaceably; they would meet in the way without -teazing or molesting one another: respect on one side, and complacency on -the other, were the foundation of this peace."--Nat. History of Bees, p. -352. - -The destruction of _queen wasps_ and _queen hornets_ in the spring, and -of wasps' and hornets' nests in the summer, will prove the best security -against those formidable enemies. None but queen wasps and queen hornets -appear in the spring. Everyone which is then annihilated would probably -have been the founder of a kindred colony, and every colony of wasps -at a moderate computation may be calculated to produce at least 30,000 -in a season. These destroyers may often be watched to their homes and -exterminated in the night, by brimstone, gunpowder, or boiling water. - -The wooden guards invented by Espinasse, or the tin guards of Huish, will -be very useful in case of a formidable attack, and had better be made use -of if an assault be apprehended from these predatory insects. - -Powder and shot are the only protectors from the visits of _birds_. - -The exclusion of _poultry_ must be left to the ingenuity of the apiarian. - -In an ungenial autumn, it is not uncommon for _bees that are ill-managed -and not properly fed, to plunder the hoards of their own species_, and -bees that have thus acquired predatory habits, become great annoyers of -industrious and well-fed colonies; they are known by the name of corsair -bees. On these occasions spies are said to be sent our to ascertain the -respective strengths of neighbouring colonies, and to select the weakest -for attack. _They make similar attacks upon the nests of humble-bees, -as well as upon the bees themselves_; in the former case they will -carry off almost the whole of the stores that have been collected, -unrepulsed by its proprietors; and in the latter case, says +Huber+, -"the humble-bee, accustomed to such exactions, yields up its honey, and -resumes its flight." In both cases it renews its labour in the fields, -and repairs with its surplus treasure to its usual asylum, and that even -after repeated robberies. +Mr. Hubbard+ says that he has known repeated -instances of weak stocks being expelled from their hives by strong ones. -_The best remedies_ for this evil are _the contraction of the entrances_, -as for guarding against wasps, _or a change in the situation of the -hives._ - -+Dr. Darwin+ in his _Phytologia_ has related an instance of a besieged -hive being removed to a distant and more easterly part of the same -garden: the assailants in this case did not follow, and the bees resumed -their usual occupations. Removal to a still greater distance would seem -to promise more certain relief. In order to raise their courage above -its natural height when thus attacked, +Schirach+ _recommends mixing a -little wine or brandy with honey, and presenting it to the bees that are -besieged_. - -+Huber+ has called the attention of Naturalists to what he designated _as -a new enemy of bees_, the _Sphinx Atropos_ or _Death's-head Hawk-moth_, -to which his attention seems to have been first directed in 1804. This -gigantic moth, which derives its name from having upon its back a mark -somewhat resembling a death's head, has, from this cause together with -its size, (which at first caused it to be mistaken for a bat,) produced -great alarm amongst the people of some countries, being regarded by -them as the harbinger of some calamity. +Kuhn+ speaks of its having -been noticed in the apiaries of some monks at the close of the last -century, as well as in the bee-houses of other persons: and +Campbell+, -in his _Travels_, mentions it as plundering the wild bees in _Africa_ -of their honey. This moth makes its appearance towards the close of -summer: it has the faculty of emitting a shrill mournful cry, which, -when threatened by the vengeance of the bees, has the power of disarming -their fury. It operates upon them like the voice of their queen, and -thus enables the moth to commit the greatest ravages in the hives, with -perfect impunity. Huber ascertained that it could not produce the same -effect upon humble-bees; for whenever _their_ nests are entered by one -of these insects, it is immediately attacked and driven out. One that -Huber introduced into a nest of humble-bees was actually stung to death -by them, but not till many wounds had been inflicted upon its most -sensible part, the belly. On dissecting one of these moths, he found a -table-spoonful of pure honey in its abdomen. The proceedings of bees, -when attacked by the _Sphinx Atropos_, as detailed in the Chapter on -Instincts, will suggest to the apiarian the best plan to be adopted, -whenever this formidable insect shall invade their territories. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -EXOTIC BEES. - - -Bees are, in all probability, the most universal of all animals; and -notwithstanding their impatience of cold, they seem adapted to live in -all climates. They are accordingly to be met with in every quarter of the -globe, and in every quarter they seem to flourish, if duly attended to. - -_In all tropical climates there are little black bees without stings._ -Those of Guadaloupe are only half the size of those in Europe, and are -rounder in their form. They build in hollow trees, or in the cavities -of rocks by the sea-side, where they lay up their honey in cells about -the size and shape of a pigeon's egg; these cells are of a black or deep -violet colour, and joined together, so as to leave no space between them; -they hang in clusters almost like a bunch of grapes; each cell somewhat -resembles a small bottle or bladder; when filled with honey the cell is -closed up. - -The honey collected by these bees is said not to be so unpalatable nor -so surfeiting as that of Europe. By unpalatable I conceive the writers -merely to mean, that it has less of that peculiar flavour which European -honey possesses. A writer in the 15th volume of the Philosophical -Transactions, states that their honey is always in a fluid state, and as -clear as rock water, forming an agreeable beverage, which taken on an -empty stomach in the quantity of about half a pint, acts medicinally in -about two hours, but not so when taken with the meals. - -There is a species of bees in Guiana which gather very delicious honey, -and have no stings. These also construct their combs in a different -manner from the hive-bee of our hemisphere. According to Huber's -translator, _there are bees in India that construct under the boughs of -a tree a single comb of very large dimensions_. The most interesting -account of exotic bees that I have met with, is in Mr. Basil Hall's -highly instructive and entertaining Journal written on the coasts of -Chili, Peru and Mexico, in 1820, -1, and -2, of which I shall here give a -transcript. - -"From the Plaza, we went to a house where a bee-hive of the Country -was opened in our presence. The bees, the honey-comb, and the hive, -differ essentially from those in England. The hive is generally made out -of a log of wood from two to three feet long and eight or ten inches -in diameter, hollowed out, and closed at the ends by circular doors, -cemented closely to the wood, but capable of being removed at pleasure. - -"Some persons use cylindrical hives, made of earthenware, instead of -the clumsy apparatus of wood; these are relieved by raised figures and -circular rings, so as to form rather handsome ornaments in the verandah -of a house, where they are suspended by cords from the roof, in the same -manner that the wooden ones in the village are hung to the eaves of the -cottage. On one side of the hive, half-way between the ends, there is a -small hole made, just large enough for a loaded bee to enter, and shaded -by a projection to prevent the rain from trickling in. In this hole, -generally representing the mouth of a man, or some monster, the head of -which is moulded in the clay of the hive, a bee is constantly stationed, -whose office is no sinecure[J], for the hole is so small, he has to draw -back every time a bee wishes to enter or to leave the hive. A gentleman -told me that the experiment had been made, by marking the sentinel; when -it was observed that the same bee continued at his post a whole day. - -[Footnote J: If the Mexican bees enter the hives with as much rapidity -and in as great numbers as Reaumur states they do in this part of the -world, it would indeed be no sinecure. He observes that the population -of a hive amounts to 18,000, and that a hundred enter in a minute; if as -many go out in the same time, I think the sentinel must rather stand on -one side of the entrance than within it.] - -"When it is ascertained by the weight that the hive is full, the end -pieces are removed, and the honey withdrawn. The hive we saw opened was -only partly filled, which enabled us to see the œconomy of the interior -to more advantage. The honey is not contained in the elegant hexagonal -cells of our hives, but in wax bags, not quite so large as an egg. These -bags or bladders are hung round the sides of the hive, and appear about -half full, the quantity being probably just as great as the strength of -the wax will bear without tearing. Those near the bottom being better -supported, are more filled than the upper ones. In the centre of the -lower part of the hive, we observed an irregular-shaped mass of comb -furnished with cells, like those of our bees, all containing young ones, -in such an advanced state that when we broke the comb and let them out, -they flew merrily away. During this examination of the hive, the comb and -the honey were taken out, and the bees disturbed in every way; but they -never stung us, though our faces and hands were covered with them. It is -said, however, that there is a bee in the country which does sting; but -the kind we saw seem to have neither the power nor the inclination, for -they certainly did not hurt us; and our friends said they were always -'muy manso,' very tame, and never stung any one. The honey gave out a -rich aromatic perfume, and tasted differently from ours, but possessed an -agreeable flavour." - -From the periodicals of the last year, I have observed that there has -been an importation of the stingless bees into this country. I doubt the -success of their establishment here, as the fruits of their labours may -very soon become the prey of wasps and corsair bees, and even of the -hive-bees which, in a dearth of honey or when from a paucity of numbers -a hive is weakly defended, will commit depredations upon one another. -The stingless bees having no weapon of defence which enables them to -cope with armed assailants must soon be exterminated. In their native -clime, where there is an abundance of sweets, no temptations to predatory -attack may occur; but in our hemisphere, as Buffon has observed, there -are hundreds of lazy creatures, fond of honey and disliking labour, that -would, but for the weapons of defence possessed by our bees, invade their -hives and carry off the treasures. - -Honey-bees do not appear to have been among the native productions of -North America, though they have now become general throughout that -continent. When established there, they extended themselves somewhat -in advance of the white population; in consequence of which they were -called by the native Indians, the white man's flies, and were regarded as -indicating the approach of European settlements.--Jefferson's Virginia. - -An elegant modern writer has observed upon this subject, that "a few -years ago the hum of a bee had never been heard on the western side of -Alleghany Mountains: but that a violent hurricane having carried several -swarms over that lofty ridge, they found there a new unexhausted country, -singularly favourable to their propagation, where they have multiplied, -till the whole of those boundless savannahs and plains have been -colonized by these indefatigable emigrants." - -From what I have said above, it would seem that the bees of all tropical -climates store their honey in cells or bags of large dimensions; but -from Mr. Basil Hall's account it appears that the bees of South America -build small cells also, resembling those of our hive-bees; and in all -probability this is the case with those of other hot climates, and that -these small cells are merely used as receptacles for the young brood. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -SEPARATION OF WAX AND HONEY. - - -After deprivation, the box or hive containing the combs should be kept in -a warm room, till it is convenient to drain it of its contents, as the -more fluid the honey, the sooner and the more completely will it run off; -this is of course a reason for not deferring the draining longer than can -be avoided. - -The combs should be separated from the boxes or hives with the broad -spatula and the double-edged instrument recommended in chapter XI. and -placed afterwards on a clean dish. The waxen covers, on both sides of -the scaled combs, should be sliced off, when by placing them on a hair -sieve the honey will run through tolerably fine, and may be caught in an -earthen pan. For prime purposes the purest combs should be selected, and -their honey passed through a separate sieve. Mr. Isaac recommends letting -this fine honey drop through the sieve into a silk sarse, such as is used -by the apothecary for sifting fine powders, and from the sarse into an -earthen pan; this would enable the apiarian to obtain his honey in a more -depurated state. The sarse must be first wetted, or the honey will not -run through it. If the weather be cool, this business should be done in -a room where there is a fire. - -The ordinary combs may be chopped up, or broken down with the hands, and -together with the refuse combs after draining, may be thrown into as much -clear water as will cause the wax to swim: the whole may remain in this -state for some days to dissolve all the honey for making common mead; -or the combs may be spread out upon broad dishes, and set before the -bees in an evening, as also the utensils which have been employed during -the process, first strewing them over with short straws, to prevent the -bees from smearing their wings. The former is the best mode of disposing -of the refuse combs and utensils, as the latter is apt to produce -quarrelling and robberies. - -The combs having been cleared as completely as possible, the finest -should be boiled in water enough to float them, till they are thoroughly -melted: the melted mass should be poured into a canvass bag, made in the -form of a jelly bag, with a draw tape or string at the top, and then be -suspended over a tub or pan of cold water. The strings of the bag being -tightly drawn, the expression may be effected in various ways. Some press -the bag between two strong round sticks, tied or strapped together at -their ends, so as to resemble a pair of nut-crackers, with which two -persons may by repeatedly stripping down the sides of the bag, express -the whole of the wax. Others express it by making an inclined plane of a -board about four feet long, placing one end of it in the tub or pan of -water, and the other against the breast of the assistant, who puts the -bag on the board and passes a round stick firmly down it, as long as the -wax will run. A screw press, made hot, would of course answer the purpose -better than either of the above modes. - -The crumbled combs might be put over the fire, in a steam kettle, with -water under it, and the wax which runs through might be afterwards -melted again and passed through the bag. The new combs will melt almost -entirely; but the old ones, owing to their cells having received so many -linings, will preserve their form, the wax running from them but in small -quantities. - -The vessel used for melting the wax should be capable of containing a -good deal more than is put into it, as the contents may boil up suddenly, -and occasion loss and inconvenience as well as danger. The wax having -been separated from the water in which it was melted, should be remelted -with just water enough to prevent burning; and having been well skimmed, -may be poured into proper moulds for forming cakes, the vessels being -first rinsed with cold water to prevent the wax from adhering to them. -The melted wax should be placed near the fire and covered over, to cool -gradually, or the cakes will be liable to crack. If it be desirable to -have the wax in a very pure state, it may be boiled over and over again -with fresh water. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -WAX. - - -+Wax+ is a solid compact unctuous substance, generally of a yellow -colour. It is secreted by animals and vegetables, but the vegetable -secretion of it is often combined with resin. - -+Bees-wax+ may be said to be a concrete animal oil, holding the same -relation to the fixed oils that resin does to the essential oils. It is -secreted by certain small sacklets on the body of the bee, as occasion -requires, for constructing the combs in which the family provision and -the young brood are deposited; the wax of commerce is procured by melting -down these combs, in the manner already described. - -_Prime wax_ is of a bright yellow colour and an agreeable odour, -somewhat like that of honey. The best is procured from combs which -have been either wholly unoccupied, or occupied by nothing but honey. -When first secreted, it is white, semitransparent, and very fragile: -it afterwards becomes stronger, and assumes more or less of a yellow -hue. This deepening of colour is owing, partly, to its being covered -with a yellowish varnish by the bees, (for an account of which see -"Architecture" and "Propolis,") and is partly the effect of age. - -Independently of its colour, the goodness of wax may also be estimated -by the passing of the thumb nail forcibly over its surface: if good, -the nail will pass with a kind of jerk; but if no obstruction be felt, -the wax may be looked upon as adulterated with suet, or some similar -substance. - -The average _quantity yielded by a common hive_, is about half a pound of -wax to fifteen pounds of honey; the quantity of both may be considerably -increased by storifying. - -+White wax+ is nothing more than the yellow wax that has been exposed -in thin flakes or shreds to the action of the sun and air. There is an -apparatus for melting and reducing the wax into shreds or ribbands, -but the process of conversion, under any circumstances, is tedious -and dependent on the weather. "The following," says Mr. Parkes in his -Chemical Essays, "is the usual process, as it is conducted in England. -Common bees-wax is melted upon hot water; and when in a fluid state, -it is laded out of the copper, together with a part of the water, into -a wooden vessel; and in this it is allowed to remain a few hours, for -the impurities to subside from it. The purified wax is then put, while -still hot, into a cullender full of holes, through which it runs, and -falls upon a revolving metallic roller, which dips into cold water -contained in a vessel placed underneath. As the melted wax runs through -the cullender upon the revolving roller, the motion of the cylinder forms -it into thin shavings, which cool as they come in contact with the water, -and fall in an accumulated heap into the water below. These shavings of -wax, being now in a suitable form for absorbing oxygen, are taken out of -the tub, and exposed in a field to the action of the atmosphere, till -they become sufficiently white." - -Bees-wax forms _a considerable article of commerce_, and large quantities -of it are annually imported into this country from the Baltic, the -Levant, the Barbary Coast, and North America. In some parts of Europe -and America wax is very extensively employed in the religious ceremonies -of the inhabitants. Humboldt informs us that upwards of 80,000 pounds -worth is annually imported from Cuba to New Spain, and that the total -export from that island in 1803 was worth upwards of 130,000_l._ By far -the greater part of this wax is the produce of the hive-bee, though no -inconsiderable quantity is procured also from various species of wild -bees, as well as from certain trees which I shall notice presently. - -Upon this subject a modern writer, after lamenting the increasing neglect -of bee-culture in this country, has not hesitated to use the following -contemptuous, though somewhat extravagant, language. "There is hardly -bees-wax enough produced in England to answer the demand for lip-salve -alone; but importation from America supplies all our wants, for the -quantity obtained in that country is annually increasing." "Little thinks -the ball-room beauty, when the tapers are almost burnt out, that the wax -by whose light her charms have been exalted was once hidden in the bells -and cups of innumerable flowers, shedding perfume over the silent valleys -of the Susquehanna, or nodding at their own reflected colours in the -waters of the Potomac and Delaware." - -The uses of wax in making candles, ointments, &c. are well known. - -According to Buffon, the bees-wax of tropical climates is too soft for -any but medicinal purposes. - -There is a species of _wax_, which is generally regarded as _of vegetable -origin_, and which is afforded by various trees, plants and fruits. The -light down which silvers over the surface of prunes and other stone -fruits, has been shown by M. Proust to be wax, the leaves and stem of -the _Ceroxylon_ also, afford it in considerable quantity, if bruised and -boiled in water; but the trees which afford it in greatest abundance, -are the _Myrica cerifera angustifolia_ or wax-tree of Louisiana, and the -_Myrica cerifera latifolia_ of Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Virginia. -The latter is now naturalized in France: it flourishes also in the dry -lands of Prussia, and, from the productiveness of its berries, it seems -surprising that its culture is not more general. - -The mode in which this _myrtle wax_ is obtained is as follows. Towards -the end of autumn the natives gather the ripe berries, boil them in -water, skim off the wax which rises, strain it off from its impurities, -and set it to drain, after which, they remelt and form it into masses. -Four pounds of berries yield about one pound of wax. - -From the wax thus procured, they make soap and candles. The soap -manufactured from it is said to be excellent, and to wash linen perfectly -white; the candles afford a good light, without smoke or guttering; their -perfume is highly agreeable, not only during the time that they are -burning, but for a considerable time afterwards. - -Mr. Sparrman suspects that myrtle wax is deposited upon the berries by -insects, and Du Valde has given an account of a white wax made by small -insects, round the branches of a tree in China, in great quantity, which -is there collected for medical and economical purposes. (Description of -China, vol. i. page 230.) Myrtle wax therefore may not be a vegetable -product. - -According to the experiments of M. Cadet and Dr. Bostock, this _myrtle -wax differs in some respects from, bees-wax_. It differs from it in -colour, different specimens of it assuming different shades of yellowish -green: its smell is also different; myrtle wax, when fresh, emitting -a fragrant balsamic odour. It has in part the tenacity without the -unctuosity of bees-wax, and somewhat of the brittleness of resin. Its -specific gravity is greater, insomuch that it sinks in water, whereas -bees-wax floats upon it; and it is not so easily bleached to form white -wax. - -_Analysis of Wax._ - - Carbon 81,79 - Oxygen 5,54 - Hydrogen 12,67 - -"The formation of resin and wax has been explained thus:--That when a -volatile or a fixed oil is expelled out of plants, and has its surface -exposed to the air, the first becomes a resin by losing hydrogen, the -second a wax by absorbing oxygen."--Parkes's Chemical Catechism, p. 244, -11th edit. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -HONEY. - - -+Honey+ is a well known, sweet, tenacious, substance, which in fine -weather is continually secreting in the nectaries of flowers, chiefly -from certain vesicles or glands situated near the basis of every petal, -from whence it is collected by bees and other insects. The domestic -honey-bees consume a portion of this honey for food, at or near the -time of gathering; but the principal part is regurgitated and poured -into the cells of the hive, for the use of the community in winter:--so -very abundant are these collections, in favourable seasons, as to -afford to the apiarian an extensive share of them, without distressing -the provident hoarders. Mr. Wildman states that in the year 1789, he -purchased a glass filled with exceedingly fine honey-combs, weighing -63lbs., which had been collected within a month, and that the hive -which it had surmounted still contained a full supply for the winter's -consumption of the bees. This however was an unusual quantity; a hive or -box, of the dimensions recommended in this work, may be considered as -well stocked when it yields from 30 to 40lbs. of honey. - -The honey intended for early use, and for the nursing-bees and drones, -is deposited in cells which are allowed to remain open, and is probably -of an inferior sort; whilst the finest honey, which is laid up in store -for winter, is placed in the most inaccessible parts of the hive, and -closed in the cells with waxen lids. - - "There cluster'd now clear wells of nectar glow, - Like amber drops that sparkle in the Po, - And now (so quick the change) ere one short moon - Shrinks with waned crescent mid the blaze of noon. - All veil'd from view, these amber drops are lost. - And each clear well with waxen crown embost." - - +Evans.+ - -In the Philosophical Transactions for 1792, Mr. Hunter has stated, that -whatever time the contents of the honey-bags may be retained, they still -remain pure and unaltered by the digestive process. Mr. Polhill, a -gentleman to whom the public are indebted for several articles in Rees's -Cyclopædia appertaining to bees, is also of this opinion. Messrs. Kirby -and Spence do not admit this statement: as the nectar of flowers is not -of so thick a consistence as honey, they think _it must undergo some -change in the stomach of the bee_. This opinion is strengthened by what -has been stated by Reaumur: he observed that if there was a deficiency of -flowers, at the season of honey-gathering, and the bees were furnished -with sugar, they filled their cells with honey, differing in no other -respect from honey collected in the usual way, but in its possessing a -somewhat higher flavour and in its never candying, nor even losing its -fluidity by long keeping. The same may be observed when they imbibe the -juices of sweet fruits, for bees do not confine themselves solely to -flowers and honey-dewed leaves; they will sometimes very greedily absorb -the juice of raspberries for instance, and thus spoil them for the table; -they also visit in crowds the vats of the cider and wine maker. - -Reaumur has likewise remarked, that _in each honey-cell there is a -cream-like layer or covering, of a thicker consistence than the honey -itself_, which apparently serves to retain the more liquid collections -that may from time to time be introduced under it. Messrs. Kirby and -Spence say, that if honey were the unaltered nectar of flowers, it would -be difficult to conceive how this cream could be collected in proper -proportions. This observation is made, in consequence of their presuming -that some of this cream-like covering is conveyed into the cells with -each deposition of fresh honey; and it has been supposed that this -cream was the last portion disgorged. According to an article in Rees's -Cyclopædia, probably written by Mr. Polhill, this cream-like matter -is formed at the very first, and every addition of honey is deposited -beneath it. The bee, entering into the cell as deeply as possible, puts -forward its anterior pair of legs, and with them pierces a hole through -the crust or cream: while this hole is kept open by the feet, the -bee disgorges the honey in large drops from its mouth; these, falling -into the hole, mix with the mass below: the bee, before it flies off, -new-models the crust, and closes up the hole. This mode of proceeding is -regularly adopted by every bee that contributes to the general store. - -The power of _regurgitation_ in the bee is very remarkable: its -alimentary organs, like those of the pigeon, besides being subservient to -the purpose of nutriment, afford it a temporary storeroom or reservoir. -Ruminating animals may be considered as regurgitating animals, though in -them the operation is performed for different purposes. In some it is -exercised for the purpose of digesting the food, in others for feeding -the young; but in bees its use is to enable them to disburden themselves -of the honey which they gather for the winter's store of the community. - -_The finest flavoured_ and most delicate _honey_ is that which _is -collected from aromatic plants_, and has been stored in clean new cells: -it has been usually called _virgin-honey_, as though it were elaborated -by a fresh swarm of bees; but this is not essential to the perfection -of honey, for, provided the cells in which it is deposited have never -contained either brood or farina, it is not material whether it have been -collected by swarms or by old stocks; the season and the flowers having -been the same, the quality of the honey will in both cases be alike. -F. Lamberti asserts, that the best honey in the world is produced in -Pontus, and that its superiority is attributable to the great quantity -of balm growing there. In this quarter of the world, the _Narbonne -honey_ is regarded as the finest, owing to the rosemary which abounds in -the neighbourhood of Narbonne. "The honey, for which _Narbonne_ is so -deservedly celebrated, is every year diminishing. Bees have ceased to -be an object of attention to the peasantry; they now devote their time -to the vineyards, and neglect the bees. The flowers of the wild plants, -in the neighbourhood of Narbonne, are highly aromatic, and give the -flavour which is peculiar to its honey: this peculiarity is attributed -exclusively to the wild rosemary, _Rosmarinus officinalis_." (Duppa's -Miscellaneous Observations and Opinions on the Continent. 1825.) Attempts -are said to have been made to imitate Narbonne honey, by adding to other -honey an infusion of rosemary flowers. - -Of the power which some flowers possess of imparting deleterious -qualities to their honey, I have already spoken in the chapter on -Pasturage. I will here add, however, what has been said of the appearance -of this _pernicious_ kind of _honey_. It is usually distinguished from -what is innocent, by its crimson or reddish brown colour, its bitter -flavour, and thicker consistence; but in Florida and Carolina it is so -similar, in all respects, to innocent honey, that the hunters depend upon -experience only, and, knowing that bad honey soon shows its effects, -they at first eat very sparingly. The converse of this would appear in -the "blood-red honey" found by Mr. Bruce at Dixan in Abyssinia, to which -he ascribes no evil properties. (Travels to the Nile, vol. v.) Linnæus -informs us, that in Sweden, the honey of autumn is principally gathered -from the flowers of the _Erica_ or Heath, and that it has a reddish -cast. The honey of our native heaths is also of the same colour. Dr. -Barton has observed that during his residence at Edinburgh, the Highland -honey was often of a dirty brownish colour, which was supposed to be -given to it by the "blooming hather," as Burns calls it: the people of -Edinburgh, however, though great consumers of it, never complain of any -ill effects from it. It produced upon the Doctor a soporific effect. The -most innocent honey will often disagree with those who take it in large -quantities, or who have irritable bowels; usually, in such cases, it -produces purging, and sometimes griping pain. The mischievous qualities -of honey have been said to be destroyed by boiling and straining, or even -by long keeping only; yet when made into metheglin, it has been found as -deleterious as ever. - -_The quality of honey varies with the time of gathering_, and that even -though the whole season may have been favourable. The collection at the -commencement of summer is regarded as the prime honey of the year, the -flowers being then most abundant, and in the full glow of health; and -that which is collected in spring is superior to the gleanings of autumn. - -+Huber+ states that _the secretion of honey and the formation of wax -are singularly promoted by electricity_: hence the works may always be -observed to advance rapidly when there is a southerly wind, a moist -warm air, and an impending storm; whereas the secretion is impeded, and -sometimes suspended, by long protracted droughts, cold rains, and a -northerly wind. - -_Prime honey_ is of a whitish colour, an agreeable smell, a pleasant -taste, and a thick consistence. When taken from the combs it is in a -fluid state, but gradually thickens by age, and in cold weather, if -genuine, it becomes firm and solid. In England, it has seldom, if ever, -been known to assume this solid state while in the hives; and even out of -them, if it remain in the combs, it will preserve its clearness, purity -and fine flavour, for at least a year. The honey of tropical climates is -always in a fluid state. _Vide_ chapter on Exotic Bees. - -_Much of the fine flavour of honey will depend upon the manner of its -separation from the comb._ That will be the most delicate which flows -spontaneously from the purest and whitest combs; the next in excellence -will be that which is expressed without heat; and the coarsest, that -which is obtained by the aid of heat and pressure. - -Care should be taken in the selection of _the vessels used for storing -honey;_ the most appropriate are _jars of stone ware_, called Bristol -ware. The principal _constituents of sugar and honey_ are the same; viz. -hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Besides these their common elements, honey -contains mucilage and extractive matter, and also an excess of oxygen: -in plain English, honey possesses a greater proportion of acid than is -contained in sugar, and in a state more capable of acting upon those -bodies with which it comes in contact. From this the reader will perceive -my reason for recommending stone jars for its preservation: the acid of -the honey acting upon the lead with which every other kind of earthenware -is glazed, causes the honey to receive an impregnation from it, which -may prove injurious to those whose constitutions are delicate: the stone -ware, being glazed with common salt, cannot communicate any injurious -property to the honey which is stored in it. _Honey should be kept in a -cool and dry situation_, as warmth promotes fermentation and generates -a sensible acidity. The circumstance of honey, when separated from the -combs and put into jars, being disposed to ferment in a temperature much -below the usual heat of a hive, is calculated to excite our admiration of -the instinctive intelligence of the bee, which leads it to distribute its -treasure in small cells and to seal them closely over, whereby the honey -can be preserved from fermentation for a long period, even in a high -temperature. +Proust+ _says that granulated honey is capable of being -separated into two parts_, one of which is liquid, the other dry and -not deliquescent, crystallizable in its manner and less saccharine than -sugar. _The Jews of Moldavia and the Ukraine prepare from honey a sort -of sugar_ which is solid and as white as snow, which they send to the -distilleries at Dantzic. They expose the honey to frost for three weeks, -in some place where neither sun nor snow can reach it, and in a vessel -which is a bad conductor of caloric, by which process the honey, without -being congealed, becomes clear and hard like sugar. - -Prior to the discovery of sugar, honey must have been an article of great -utility; and notwithstanding that discovery, if we may judge from the -quantity imported into this country, and the price at which it sells -when of fine quality, it may still be regarded as a commodity of great -importance, and worthy of more attention from our rural population than -it in general obtains. _In the Ukraine, some of the peasants have four or -five hundred hives each, and find their bees more profitable than their -corn._ This is a number however which I should think would overstock most -districts, and which could only be supported naturally by having recourse -to transportation. This seems to be evinced by the inhabitants of Egypt, -France, Savoy, Piedmont and other places availing themselves of that -practice, as already stated. - -The most productive parts of this kingdom, in all probability, are the -borders of Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, and part of Hampshire, which -abounding in heaths, commons and woods, afford so much pabulum for bees, -as to enable some of the farmers to have from 100 to 150 stocks of them, -the largest number that I have ever heard of in this kingdom. - -On the subject of _overstocking_, Mr. Espinasse says that few parts of -England which he has visited afford flowers in sufficient profusion -and of sufficient variety to support numerous colonies. "In the -village," says he, "where my house is situated, many persons, induced -by my example, procured bees; they were too numerous for what was to -feed them; more than one half of them died in the ensuing winter, and -nearly one-third of my own were with difficulty saved by feeding." The -proprietor of bees may know whether or not his situation is overstocked, -if he will attend to the produce of his apiary for several years -together. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -MEAD. - - -Prior to the introduction of agriculture into Britain, mead was the -principal cordial beverage of its inhabitants. In other northern nations -also it was formerly in high estimation. This must have proceeded, either -from their unpampered simplicity of taste, or from their having a better -method of making their mead than has been handed down to posterity; for -certainly in the present day it is a liquor seldom heard of, and still -seldomer made; and when made, holding a very humble rank among our -imperfect vinous productions. It however continued in favour long after -the introduction of malt liquor, and the northern inhabitants of Europe -drank it generally until very modern times. To show how highly it was -formerly esteemed in this country, I will give an extract from an ancient -law of the principality of Wales, where "the praises of it, accompanied -by the lyre, resounded through the spacious halls of her princes." "There -are three things in Court which must be communicated to the king, before -they are made known to any other person. - - "1st, Every sentence of the judge; - 2nd, Every new song; and - 3rd, Every cask of Mead." - -Mead-making appears to have been regarded by our forefathers as a high -and important avocation; at the courts of the Princes of Wales, the -mead-maker was the eleventh person in dignity, and took place of the -physician. We read in the English History, that Ethelstan a subordinate -king of Kent, in the tenth century, on paying a visit to his relation -Ethelfleda felt very much delighted that there was no deficiency of -mead. According to the custom at royal feasts, it was served up in cut -horns and other vessels of various sizes. About the same period, it was -customary to allow the monks a sextareum (about a pint) of mead between -six of them at dinner, and half the quantity at supper. - -It was probably the liquor called by Ossian, the joy and strength of -shells, with which his heroes were so much delighted; the Caledonian -drinking-vessels having consisted of large shells, which are still used -by their posterity in some parts of the Highlands. Mention is sometimes -made also of the Feast of Shells. - -Mead was the ideal nectar of the Scandinavian nations, which they -expected to quaff in heaven out of the skulls of their enemies; and, as -may reasonably be supposed, the liquor which they exalted thus highly in -their _imaginary celestial banquets_, was not forgotten at those which -they _really_ indulged in _upon earth_. Hence may be inferred the great -attention which must have been paid to the culture of the bee in those -days, or there could not have been an adequate supply of honey for the -production of mead, to satisfy the demand of such thirsty tribes. - -The mythology of Scandinavia (the religion of our Gothic ancestors) was -imparted by Sigge or Odin, a chieftain who migrated from Scythia with the -whole of his tribe, and subdued either by arms or arts the northern parts -of Europe. From him descended Alaric and Attila. In the singular paradise -which Odin sketched for his followers, the principal pleasure was to be -derived from war and carnage; after the daily enjoyment of which, they -were to sit down to a feast of boar's flesh and mead. The mead was to -be handed to them in the skulls of their enemies, by virgins somewhat -resembling the houri of the Mahometan paradise, and plentiful draughts -were to be taken, until intoxication should crown their felicity. Hence -the poet +Penrose+ thus commences his "Carousal of Odin." - - "Fill the honey'd bev'rage high, - Fill the skulls, 'tis Odin's cry! - Heard ye not the powerful call, - Thundering through the vaulted hall? - Fill the meath and spread the board, - Vassals of the grisly lord!-- - The feast begins, the skull goes round - Laughter shouts--the shouts resound!" - -Hence likewise, in an ode by +Mr. Stirling+, we find the following -illustration of the northern Elysium. - - "Their banquet is the mighty chine - Exhaustless, the stupendous boar; - Virgins of immortal line - Present the goblet foaming o'er: - Of heroes' skulls the goblet made, - With figur'd deaths and snakes of gold inlaid." - -Boar's flesh was considered by these tribes as the highest delicacy; the -celestial boar was supposed to be daily renewed, and to afford an ample -repast for the most numerous party: a quantity of mead also, sufficient -for the intoxication of this paradisiacal community, was imagined to be -daily supplied by a goat called Heidruna, - - "Whose spacious horn would fill the bowl - That rais'd to rapture Odin's soul; - And ever drinking, ever dry-- - Still the copious stream supply." - - +Cottle+ - -I could not refrain from adducing these short historical and poetical -evidences of the high estimation in which mead was held by our northern -ancestors. I trust that I shall also stand excused for still further -lengthening my preamble by entering upon _the general principles of -wine-making_. - -_The grand desiderata in wine are strength, flavour, and -pleasantness:_--to accomplish the first, sugar must be converted by -fermentation into alcohol; the second depends upon the article to be -vinified, and upon the management of the process of vinification; flavour -may likewise be produced artificially by different adjuncts: pleasantness -will principally result from the same causes, but more especially from -the liquor holding in solution a certain quantity of unconverted sugar. - -_The elements necessary to a due fermentation_ and to bring the process -to a satisfactory issue, _are sugar, extractive matter, acid of tartar_, -and _water_. These exist in the highest perfection and in the best -relative proportions in _the grape_: hence the superiority of foreign -wines. Whoever therefore expects to imitate, with much effect, those -generous liquors, must supply in the process those ingredients in which -the article sought to be converted into wine is deficient. - -If the native juices of fruits be deficient in sugar, it will be -impossible to convert them into a strong wine without a proper supply of -that ingredient; and without a sufficiency of extractive matter, which -is the natural ferment, a due fermentation could not be established; the -wine would be sweet, but not potent; _sweet wines being the produce of -an incomplete fermentation_. If the extractive matter were in excess, the -liquor would have a tendency to the acetous fermentation, which might -also be induced by a superabundant proportion of water. - -_The result of a complete fermentation is a dry wine;_ to produce which, -the elements must all be nicely balanced, and the process conducted under -favourable circumstances, with respect to temperature, tunning, stopping -down, &c. - -Two opposite practices prevail, in the manufacture of the same sort -of wine; _some wine-makers boiling the juices before fermentation, -others conducting the whole process without boiling:_ the propriety or -impropriety of these practices depends upon the quality of the juices to -be vinified. Extractive matter is partially coagulable by heat; boiling -therefore, by causing this matter to separate and to be deposited, tends -to the production of a sweet wine. The extractive matter may also be -precipitated by sulphuric acid gas, (burning in the cask a brimstone -match as hereafter directed,) or by sulphuric acid itself, with which the -soluble leaven forms an insoluble compound. Hence where the extractive -matter is in excess, and where there is danger of fermentation going on -too rapidly, boiling or sulphuring will be useful both to the wine and -cider-maker, in checking or preventing fermentation. The superfluous -extract thrown up in the course of fermentation as yeast, or deposited -as lees, will, if remixed with the liquor, have the effect of continuing -the fermentation: hence the utility of racking and fining, where it is -in excess; and of re-union, where it is deficient. _Artificial leaven -or yeast_, which contains the extractive principle in great abundance, -affords a supply to those juices which are deficient in it, and without -which they will not ferment. _Natural leaven_ (i. e. _extractive matter_) -is soluble in cold water, artificial leaven is not: during fermentation, -therefore, the latter is always thrown off; so also is the greater part -of the former, if the process be well conducted. - -Most of the fruits of this country abound in _malic acid_; those that -possess only a moderate quantity of it, however, afford excellent wine -with the addition of sugar only; still better wine may be obtained by the -further addition of the acid of tartar. Where the malic acid prevails so -abundantly as to make its neutralization desirable. +Dr. McCulloch+, -(to whom I am indebted for much of the information contained in this -chapter,) recommends the coating of the insides of the fermenting vats -with a white wash of hot _caustic lime_. I have neutralized the malic -acid, by putting into the cask, after the sensible fermentation has been -completed, about a pound of _egg shells_ to every sixty gallons of wine. - -The acid of tartar increases the fermenting power of fluids: half-ripe -fruits possess it in greatest abundance; hence the vivacity of champagne -and green gooseberry wine. It is most conveniently used in the state -of supertartrate of potash or common cream of tartar: the common rough -tartar is in some respects preferable, as its admixture of yeast assists -in perfecting the fermentation. - -All vegetables contain more or less of extractive matter; those that -possess little may be assisted in their fermentation, by that process -being conducted in wooden vessels, wood supplying the extractive -principle to the liquor; the same juices therefore which would ferment -very well in wood, would scarcely ferment at all in glass or earthenware. - -The extractive matter and the sugar are seldom completely destroyed in -any wines; the existence of the former is evinced, by the skinny matter -frequently deposited upon the insides of the wine-bottles; the latter -may be detected, by a nice palate, in the very driest of our wines; its -predominance indicates an inferior wine. - -From the preceding observations, my readers have probably anticipated my -opinion of _honey, in wine-making_. I regard it merely as _a substitute -for sugar_; and to those who approve of its flavour I recommend the -following _directions_, which I have successfully followed for several -years, having my home-made wines enriched with a considerable portion of -foreign flavour.--Dissolve an ounce of cream of tartar in five gallons -of boiling water; pour the solution off clear upon twenty pounds of -fine honey, boil them together and remove the scum as it rises. Towards -the end of the boiling, add an ounce of fine hops; about ten minutes -afterwards, put the liquor into a tub to cool; when reduced to the -temperature of about 60° Fahrenheit, add a slice of bread toasted and -smeared over with a very little yeast; the smaller the quantity the -better, for _yeast invariably spoils the flavour of wines_, and where -there is a sufficiency of extractive matter in the ingredients employed, -it should never be introduced. The liquor should now stand, and be -stirred occasionally, till it carries a head, when it should be tunned -and the cask filled up from time to time from the reserve, till the -fermentation has nearly subsided. It should now be bunged down, leaving -open a small peg-hole; in a few days this may also be closed, and in -about twelve months the wine will be fit to bottle. - -Many makers of both wine and cider have been unconsciously benefited -from the acquisition of tartar by their liquor; it being a frequent -practice to tun into an empty foreign wine cask, whose incrusted sides -have supplied their wine or their cider with a portion of that necessary -ingredient for perfect vinification. - -It is a practice with some to add _spices_ to their Mead during the -fermentation, such as ginger, cloves, mace, rosemary, lemon-peel, &c. -This is bad œconomy; a much smaller quantity will communicate the -required flavour if the addition be made after the fermentation has -ceased. - -A _common beverage_ is sometimes made, by simply boiling the refuse -honey-combs in water after extracting from them as much of the honey as -will run; this liquor will not require tartar or yeast: it should be -tunned as soon as cool, bunged down in three or four days, and drank in a -few weeks. In some parts of Wales the refuse combs are brewed with malt, -spices, &c. and the produce is called _Braggot_, a name derived from the -old British words _brag_ and _gots_, the former signifying _malt_, the -latter _honey-comb_. - -A knowledge of the principles of fermentation will enable the wine-maker -to regulate its process. Thus if a dry wine be desired, and fermentation -be suspended, it may be renewed by a restoration of the separated leaven -or the addition of fresh; or by agitation and a remixture of the lees. -It is upon the latter principle, called "_feeding on the lees_," that -some foreign wines are improved by long voyages; but this treatment, so -_serviceable to Madeira and other Spanish wines_, and also to some of -the French wines, _would destroy Burgundy_. If there be an excess of -fermentation the scientific operator will regulate, check or suspend it, -by skimming, racking, fining. If skimming and racking do not succeed, -recourse must be had to _fining_, which may be effected _by isinglass_, -in the proportion of about an ounce to 100 gallons. The isinglass must -be beaten, for a few days, with a whisk in a small quantity of the wine, -till completely attenuated. This solution must then be well stirred -into the cask of wine, which in about a week will become fine and fit -for being racked off. This fining is accomplished by the union of the -isinglass with what is called the tannin of the wine. Fining may also be -effected by _stumming_, i. e. _by burning in a close vessel containing -a small part of the wine a brimstone rag_, at the rate of a dram of -sulphur to thirty gallons; and when consumed, rolling the cask about for -a quarter of an hour, that the wine may absorb as much as possible of the -sulphuric acid gas. This being done, the cask is to be filled up with the -remainder of the wine, and bunged down. In this process the sulphuric -acid or its oxygen unites with the extractive matter or soluble leaven, -which being thereby rendered insoluble is precipitated to the bottom, as -I before observed. If wines be perfectly fermented, they do not require -the addition of any brandy, as a sufficiency of spirit is generated -during the process. - -_The best temperature for carrying on fermentation_ is about 54° -Fahrenheit. Its perfection depends in some degree upon the volume of -the liquor; the larger the quantity, the longer the fermentation will -continue, and the stronger and pleasanter will be the wine. There are -however exceptions to this rule. The peculiar excellence of champagne -would be destroyed, if its fermentation were conducted upon a large -scale: it may be made successfully in a gallon measure. This wine is so -managed by the makers as to ferment after bottling. - -_Dry wines and fine wines_ are much more durable than any others; -and those that would perish in cask, _may be preserved many years by -bottling_. - -These hints will, I hope, enable the makers of home-made wines to conduct -the process scientifically, and to secure generally a successful issue. -Cookery books and good housewives abound in receipts for wine-making, -which are very often fanciful and absurd, recommending the introduction -of articles which, in their very natures, counteract the production of -good wine. Hence we are sometimes presented with such miserable mawkish -stuff, as disgraces the name of wine, being only rendered tolerable by -the brandy which has been added to it, and which in some degree covers -the crudeness and insipidity of the compound, and moderates its hostility -to the peace of our stomachs. - - - - -THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BEE. - - - - -PART II. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -ANATOMY. - - -Having given in detail the instructions necessary for the domestic -management of the Bee, and treated of such parts of its physiology as -that detail naturally suggested; I shall now proceed to give an account -of the most important parts of its anatomical structure, and so much more -of its physiology as may arise from a consideration of that structure, or -be otherwise likely to interest my readers. - -Some persons may possibly consider a description of the anatomy of -so small a creature as unimportant and uninteresting; but without -understanding the anatomy of the bee, its physiology would be vague, -uncertain, and conjectural; and it is physiological knowledge that -has hitherto led, and must still lead, to a scientific and profitable -management of this insect. The enlightened +Boyle+, when contemplating -the various wonders of Nature, has declared his astonishment to have been -more excited by the mite than by the elephant; and that his admiration -dwelt, not so much on the _clocks_ as on the _watches of creation_. It -is not my intention, however, to enter deeply into the anatomy of the -bee, but merely to give a general account of those parts which are most -prominent and important; anything beyond this would, to the general -reader, be tedious and uninteresting. Those who desire minute information -may obtain it in various works, but in none more satisfactorily than in -that of +Messrs. Kirby+ and +Spence+. - - The natural } { The Head. - divisions of } are { The Trunk. - the Bee } { The Abdomen. - -These are connected together by ligaments. - -The +Head+, in common with that of other creatures, is the inlet for -nutrition and the principal seat of the organs of sensation.--Of -nutrition and sensation I shall speak in their appropriate places. - -The +Trunk+ is the intermediate section of the body between the head and -the abdomen: it approaches in figure to a sphere, and is the seat of the -organs of motion; it contains the muscles of the wings and legs which -proceed from it, and is the main prop, or as it were the key-stone, of -the other two sections. The upper side is called _thorax_ or the _chest_, -the under side _pectus_ or the _breast_. - -The +Abdomen+ is the third section of the body, posterior to the -trunk; it is divided into six rings or segments, which, by sliding one -over another, serve to shorten or lengthen the body. It is the seat -of the organs of generation, and principally of those connected with -respiration; and contains also the anus and the sting. The upper part is -called _tergum_ or the _back_, the under side _venter_ or the _belly_. - - -+The Head.+ - -The most remarkable part of the head is the +Proboscis+, of which so good -an account has been given by +Dr. Evans+ that I shall describe it nearly -in his words. - -It is not so much the mere simplicity of nature, which excites our -wonder and admiration, as that apparently complex structure, which -operates with all the ease of the simplest machinery. Of this we have -not a more striking instance than in the proboscis of the labouring bee: -though the component parts of the proboscis are scarcely discernible by -the naked eye, yet are they far more complicated than the elephant's -stupendous trunk. It consists of no less than five distinct branches; -namely, a central trunk, or tongue, and four horny scales, tapering to -a point, convex outwards and concave towards the trunk; the two outer -ones so sheath the inner as to appear but one single tube: by a joint -in the middle they bend, or extend all at once, carrying with them the -unarticulated tongue, which is cylindrical, and about the size of a man's -hair, and appears through a magnifier to be composed of successive rings. -It has probably as many short muscles as the tongue of a fish, which -are capable of moving it in all directions; and towards its termination -is furnished with hairs or villi, some of which at the point are very -long, and seem to act like capillary tubes. +Mr. Wildman+ assures us, -that he has seen the trunk growing bigger and less by turns, swelling -the instant the bee sucked; and this alternate lessening and enlargement -propagated from the extremity to the root. What a delicate apparatus of -invisible muscles must perform this office! The tongue is capable of -being contracted and folded up at pleasure; for if it were constantly -extended, it would be exposed to injury: when at rest, therefore, it is -doubled up by means of its joint, and lies in a very small compass; the -first portion being brought within the lip, and the second part folded -under the head and neck, protection is given to it by a double sheath, -consisting of four strong scales, the two inner scales sheathing the -tongue, and the two outer and larger ones encompassing the whole. When at -work, the trunk is lengthened beyond its sheaths, probes the very bottom -of the flowers, through all impediments of foliage or fructification, and -drains them of those treasured sweets which, without such an apparatus, -would be completely inaccessible. - -The proboscis of the bee is not used like that of other flies, not being -tubular like theirs, but serves as a brush or besom to sweep, or as a -tongue to lap[K]; having collected the nectar of flowers in small drops, -it deposits its collection upon the tongue, which is protruded for the -purpose of receiving it, and having received it, withdrawn again. - -[Footnote K: The bee and all other insects that lap their food are called -lambent insects.] - -The +Lips+. The bee has two lips, an upper one called _labrum_, and an -under one called _labium_; (the _Mentum_ of Latreille.) - -The +Tongue+ of the bee, which is very long, is at its upper part -cartilaginous; below the middle, membranous and capable of considerable -inflation, thus forming a bag to receive the honey from the proboscis, -preparatory to its conveyance into the pharynx. It terminates in a -knob, but has no passage through it, to exercise the power of suction, -as has been supposed. When in a state of inaction, it is folded up -longitudinally, and lies between the lips. The tongue of the working bee -is probably the largest of any known animal, for its size; it is much -longer than that of either the male or queen, and thus fitted for taking -up honey at a considerable depth. The bee has the power of unfolding it -with great rapidity, and darting it betwixt the petals and stamina of -those flowers that afford honey, it moves it about in every direction, -sweeping the convex as well as the concave surface of the petals. - -The +Pharynx+ lies at the root of the tongue; it is an opening by which -the honey passes from the tongue to the gullet or honey-bag, and closes -by a valve. - -The +Œsophagus+ or +Gullet+ receives the food from the pharynx, and -conveys it, in part at least, to the stomach, there to be digested, -animalized, and forwarded to the small intestines, from whence it is -distributed, through appropriate vessels or tubes, to all parts of the -body for its nutriment. The gullet is long and slender, commences at the -termination of the pharynx, and traversing the neck and breast, dilates -into a fine bag, transparent as crystal, and when filled with honey -about the size of a small pea. In bees caught on going out early in the -morning, Mr. Hunter found this reservoir perfectly empty; but in those -returning from the fields, it was quite full of honey, _some_ of which -had passed into the stomach. - -The +Mandibles+ or upper jaws move horizontally, and are armed with teeth. - -The +Maxillæ+ or under jaws are situated below the mandibles, have a -similar motion, and form, according to Linnæus, the sheath of the tongue. -De Geer regarded them as part of the apparatus of the under lip, on each -side of which they are placed. - -The mandibles are powerful organs, hard and horny, and constitute the -tools with which the bee performs its various labours; the maxillæ on the -contrary are soft and leathery: the latter probably serve to hold such -materials as the former have occasion to operate upon. - -The +Antennæ+. Of all the organs of insects, none appear to be of more -importance than their antennæ: in all the tribe they are planted either -between or below the eyes; and no insect has more than two: in their -general structure, they consist of a number of tubular joints, each -having a separate motion, which gives them every variety of flexure. -The antennæ of the male have one more joint than those of the female, -the former having thirteen, the latter only twelve. They seem to enable -the insects, by certain signs and gestures, to communicate to each -other their mutual wants or discoveries. But I shall enter more fully -into this subject when I come to speak of the various uses to which the -antennæ are applied. - -The +Palpi+ or +Feelers+ are also important organs; their ends are -furnished with nervous papillæ, indicating some peculiar sense, of which -they are the instrument: they are four in number, two emerging from the -maxillæ called maxillary feelers, and one from each side of the labium, -called labial feelers. The maxillary are short and without a joint, -the labial long and with four joints, including the two flat joints or -elevators. - -The +Eyes+, two in number, are placed in the sides of the head; they are -compounds of an infinite number of hexagonal lenses, as clear as crystal, -and are guarded by a horny tunicle or covering. This subject is however -treated of in Chap. XXXII. - - -+The Trunk.+ - -The trunk affords attachment to the organs of motion. - -First, To the +Wings+, which transport the insect through the air; these -consist of two _superior_ and two _inferior_: they are membranous and -transparent, and while in a state of repose are incumbent on each other, -covering the abdomen. - -Bees and various other hymenopterous insects, and also those of the -dipterous family, possess the power of flying in a more perfect degree -than any class of animals besides, surpassing in this respect even -the bird tribe. In the anterior margin of the under wings small hooks -(_hamuli_) are placed, which are capable of laying hold of the posterior -margin of the upper wings, by means of which they are kept steady when -flying. These hooks are discoverable under a good magnifier. - -Secondly, To the +Legs+, by which the insect moves itself from place to -place upon the earth. Of these there are _six in number_, each composed -of several joints, and articulated like our arms, thus affording the -power of various movements: in the legs are three distinct divisions; -namely, the thigh, the shank, and the foot. In the _four_ hinder legs one -joint forms a kind of _brush_, externally smooth and bare, but covered on -the inside with stiff bristling hairs. By these the insect is enabled to -brush off farina both from the tips of the stamina of flowers and from -the hairs of its own body. With the jaws and two fore-feet, the meal is -rolled into small compact masses, which are conveyed, by the middle pair -of legs, to the _spoon-shaped cavities_ in the centre joint of the two -hindmost feet; these are surrounded by strong close set hairs, to secure -more firmly the precious burdens. (No such groove is to be found in the -legs of either the queen-bee or drone.) _Each foot_ terminates in _two -hooks_, with their points opposite to each other, by means of which the -bees suspend themselves from the roofs or sides of the hives or boxes, -and hang from each other, in the form of festoons, ropes, or cones. From -the middle of each pair of hooks proceeds a little thin _appendix_, which -is usually folded up; when unfolded it enables the insects to fasten -themselves to polished surfaces, such as glass, &c.: they probably also -use it for taking up small bodies, the pollen for instance, which they -thereby transmit to the hollows of their hinder legs. - -The trunk also gives origin to a number of muscles, serving various -purposes, which it would lead me too much into detail to enter upon here. - - -+The Abdomen.+ - -The _abdomen_, besides various other parts, contains the _honey-bag_, -the _venom-bag_, and the _anus_, which latter in the female comprehends -the _ovipositor_ and _sting_: in the male it contains the _organs of -reproduction_ but no sting, and of course no ovipositor. For a particular -account of these, _vide_ Organs of Reproduction further on. - - -+Organs of Sensation.+ - -We have an abundance of presumptive evidence that bees are endowed -with _sensation_ and _perception_, and that the excitement of these -faculties is communicated, through the medium of _nerves_, to a common -_sensorium_, though the latter was denied to insects by Linnæus and -other eminent naturalists. Common sensation, however, does not reside -in the brain alone of insects, as in that of warm-blooded animals, but -in the spinal marrow also; hence it is that bees and many other insects -exhibit signs of sensation after their heads have been severed from their -bodies. Some insects exhibit these for a long time afterwards, the wasp -for instance; +Lyonnet+ informs us that he has seen motion in the body -of a wasp, three days after its division from the head; and I have known -several instances of its inflicting wounds with its sting, at least -four-and-twenty hours after the separation. The severed body will not -only move but walk, and sometimes even fly, at first almost as actively -without the head as with it. The penetrating genius of +Lord Bacon+ -afforded him such illumination upon this subject, as to enable him to -approach very near to what is at this day regarded as a correct statement -of the cause of this _protracted vitality_ in mutilated insects. "They -stirre," says he, "a good while after their heads are off, or that they -be cut in pieces; which is caused also for that their vital spirits are -more diffused throughout all their parts, and lesse confined to organs -than in perfect creatures." - -That insects have a real sensorium or brain, would seem to be proved -by their having _memory_, and a _capacity to receive instruction_, and -_acquire new habits_. Such functions in higher animals are regarded -as functions of a cerebral system. That they are endowed with memory -cannot well be doubted. +Huber+ relates a remarkable instance of it in -bees, which illustrates what will hereafter be said on their having a -method of communicating information to each other. "Honey," says he, -"had been placed in a window in autumn, where the bees resorted to it in -multitudes. It was removed, and the shutters closed during winter; but -when opened again, on the return of spring, the bees came back, though no -honey was there. Undoubtedly they remembered it, therefore an interval of -several weeks did not obliterate the impression they had received." "But -the most striking fact evincing the memory of bees has been communicated -to me," says +Mr. Kirby+, "by my intelligent friend +Mr. W. Stickney+, -of _Ridgemont, Holderness_. About twenty years ago, a swarm from one of -this gentleman's hives took possession of an opening beneath the tiles -of his house, whence, after remaining a few hours, they were dislodged -and hived. For many subsequent years, when the hives descended from this -stock were about to swarm, a considerable party of scouts were observed, -for a few days before, to be reconnoitring about the old hole under the -tiles; and _Mr. Stickney_ is persuaded, that if suffered, they would -have established themselves there. He is certain that for eight years -successively the descendants of the very stock that first took possession -of the hole, frequented it as above stated, and _not_ those of any other -swarms; having constantly noticed them, and ascertained that they were -bees from the original hive by powdering them, while about the tiles, -with yellow ochre, and watching their return. And even at the present -time, there are still seen every swarming season about the tiles, bees, -which _Mr. Stickney_ has no doubt are descendants from the original -stock." - -Some anecdotes of the spider prove that insects are capable of -instruction. +M. Pelisson+, when he was confined in the Bastille, tamed -a spider, and taught it to come for food at the sound of an instrument. -_A manufacturer_ also, in an apartment _at Paris_, fed 800 spiders, which -became so tame, that whenever he entered it, which he usually did with -a dish of flies, they immediately came down to receive their food. That -insects are susceptible of a change of habits, or rather that they may -acquire civilized habits, if I may say so, is shown by the domestication -of bees, and occasionally by that of ants and wasps. +Huber's+ -experiments, with leaf-hives, show the existence of this faculty in an -eminent degree, for he assures us that it renders the bees quite tame -and tractable. - -Most physiologists, resting upon the evidence of analogy, agree -in attributing _five senses_ to insects: (+Dr. Virey+, as will be -seen further on, ascribes to them _seven senses:_) though there is -a difference of opinion as to the organs by which those senses are -conveyed. The _antennæ_ for instance, have been regarded by some as the -organs of smell, by others as the organs of touch, and by a third class -as the organs of hearing. With the substitution of taste forbearing, the -same opinions have been maintained respecting the _palpi;_ nor can the -question even now be considered as settled. The prevailing opinion seems -to be, that the antennæ are explorers or tactors, but that they are also -applied to other uses; the effects produced by their excision indicate -that they are organs of the highest importance. _Vide_ Senses of Bees. - -+Messrs. Kirby+ and +Spence+ notice the analogy borne by antennæ to the -ears of vertebrate animals, such as their corresponding in number and -standing out from the head. No ether organ has been found which can be -supposed to represent the ear[L]. And what I have said in another place, -of their constituting a sixth sense, has received some countenance from -the observations of those naturalists. "I conceive," says Mr. K., "that -the antennæ, by a peculiar structure, may collect notices from the -atmosphere, receive pulses or vibrations, and communicate them to the -sensorium, which, [communications] though not precisely to be called -hearing, may answer the same purpose." Lehmann calls the function of the -antennæ aëroscepsy. A very remarkable instance of the effect produced -upon them by sound, is adduced by the authors just quoted, which one of -them has thus related. "A little moth was reposing upon my window; I made -a quiet, not loud, but distinct noise: the nearest antenna immediately -moved towards me. I repeated the noise at least a dozen times, and it was -followed every time by the same motion of that organ; till at length the -insect, being alarmed, became agitated and violent in its motions. In -this instance, it could not be _touch_; since the antenna was not applied -to a surface, but directed towards the quarter from which the sound came, -as if to listen." - -[Footnote L: +Marcel de Serres+ thinks he has discovered an organ of -hearing in most insects, but does not state its situation.] - -That the antennæ should have been regarded as organs of smell is not -surprising when the proceedings of the bees on visiting flowers are -considered; their first act is to introduce one of the antennæ, but no -further than the tip: this conduct would naturally enough convey the -idea of looking or smelling for nectar; yet it does not at all militate -against the opinion that the antennæ are transmitters of sound; the -sense which they supply may, in these little creatures, be so very fine, -as to enable them to hear the bursting of an anther, or the exudation -of nectar. The continual motion of the antennæ of insects from side to -side, when they walk, conveys the idea that it is by their means that -they inform themselves of what is going on in their immediate vicinity. -The importance of the antennæ may be inferred from their very complicated -structure. +Mr. Kirby+ has observed, that in one species of _Apis_ which -he examined, under a powerful magnifier, the ten last joints of the -antennæ appeared to be composed of innumerable hexagons, and from this -similarity in their structure to the eyes (_Vide_ Senses of Bees) he -thought that they might serve a somewhat analogous purpose. - -What I have said with respect to the Senses of Bees, in another place, -will I think make it evident that these insects possess an organ of -smell, but with respect to its situation naturalists differ. +Baster+, -+Lehmann+, and +Cuvier+, consider the spiracles as the organs of smell, -as well as of respiration: this opinion is founded upon the notion -that, without the inspiration of air, there can be no smell; and that -as insects are smaller than the food they live upon, it would be of no -consequence to them where this sense was situated. +Kirby+ and +Spence+, -on the contrary, suppose that it resides in some organ near the mouth: -in other parts of the animal creation certainly, that is its situation; -and as there seems to be a necessary connection between smell and taste, -analogy should lead us to argue in favour of that opinion; but though -smell be usually accompanied by respiratory organs, they may not be -essentially necessary to it; a bee may receive impressions from external -objects, in a manner which we cannot comprehend. In confirmation of this -opinion of +Kirby+ and +Spence+, we have the experiments of +Huber+. -It seems that no odour is so unpleasant to insects as that of oil of -turpentine. +M. Huber+ having presented this oil, on the point of a -camel's hair pencil, successively to every part of the abdomen, trunk and -head, it excited no uneasiness in the bee: he then tried the eyes and -antennæ, but with the same result; yet as soon as he pointed it a little -above the insertion of the proboscis, near the cavity of the mouth, the -bee receded, became agitated, clapped its wings, and would have taken -flight, had not the pencil been withdrawn. This experiment was repeated -with the turpentine and other articles of penetrating odour, and with -the same effect; but when the mouths of several bees were stopped with -paste, no such consequences ensued, on the contrary they traversed the -impregnated pencils without being at all annoyed by them; even honey did -not attract them. All these circumstances tend to prove that the site of -smelling is in or near the mouth.--This subject will be resumed in Chap. -XXXII. - - -+Organs of Respiration.+ - -The respiration of bees is performed through several little orifices, -called _stigmata_, _spiracles_, or _breathing pores_, situated in the -sides of their bodies, behind their wings. +Reaumur+ was of opinion that -inspiration was performed through the spiracles, and expiration through -the mouth; but +Bonnet+ proved satisfactorily that neither inspiration -nor expiration takes place through the mouth. The spiracles are connected -with a system of air-vessels called _tracheæ_, ramifying through every -part of the frame, and serving the purpose of lungs. From the absence -of lungs, +Aristotle+ and the ancients in general thought that insects -did not breathe. +Pliny+ may perhaps be excepted, for he has observed -that dipping bees in honey or oil deprives them of life;--this immersion -stops up the mouths of the spiracles. Modern physiologists have however -incontestibly proved that they do breathe. "Life and flame," says -+Cuvier+, "have this in common, that neither the one nor the other can -subsist without air; all living beings, from man to the most minute -vegetable, perish when they are utterly deprived of that fluid." +Huber+ -detected the existence of the stigmata or breathing pores, by immersing -different portions of a bee in water, and finally by total immersion, -upon which he observed that bubbles of air attached themselves for -some time to the orifices of the stigmata, which alternately appeared -and receded, till their increased bulk enabled them to overcome the -resistance of inspiration and rise to the surface. These respiratory -organs escaped the observation of +Swammerdam+. - -Air is equally necessary to insects in the egg state: +Spallanzani+ found -that their eggs could not be hatched in small close vessels, though all -other circumstances were favourable to a development. The eggs of the -hive-bee, whilst in the ovaries, have a net-work of air-vessels spread -over their surfaces;--these were discovered by Swammerdam: from analogy, -we may reasonably conclude, that such a provision obtains generally. - -The closeness of a hive, and its having no direct current of air through -it, may favour a belief that bees can exist in any atmosphere, however -vitiated, and may seem also to confirm the opinion of the ancients, that -they have no particular system of respiratory organs. But +M. Huber+ and -+Son+ have proved that they breathe like other animals, that they are -speedily deprived of life, if the process of respiration be arrested; -so delicate indeed is their organization, that they detect the smallest -deterioration in the atmosphere of their hives, and immediately adopt -measures to restore to this element the degree of purity essential to -respiration: from some eudiometrical experiments, it has been ascertained -that the air of a well stocked hive is as pure as that by which it is -surrounded. Still neither wax nor pollen favours the generation of -oxygen gas, nor have bees the faculty of generating it; for when very -closely shut up, they perish in a few hours. The writers just referred -to, discovered that the bees, by uniting the two wings of each side, by -means of the small marginal hooks with which they are provided, so as to -make them present the largest possible surface to the air, were capable -of striking it with considerable force, and that this force was increased -by the wings forming a slight concavity. The wings arranged in this -manner, are put into a violent vibratory motion by the bees appointed to -the office of ventilators, and produce what we call a draught of air. -_Ventilation_ is thus systematically accomplished. A certain portion of -ventilating bees is stationed in files at the entrance of the hive, with -their heads turned inwards; another and a larger party, in files also, -stands a considerable way in the interior, with their heads towards the -entrance: thus both these parties cooperate, in producing a current -of air in the same direction, and are so arranged as not to interrupt -the passage of their fellow-citizens, moving in and out. As this hard -duty has no intermission during the day, nor in hot weather during the -night, and must necessarily occasion fatigue, one set of ventilators is -considerately relieved in about twenty-five minutes, by another set of -fresh bees. Under particular circumstances the number of ventilating bees -is considerably increased. "When the air," says +Huber+, "was not renewed -in the manner desirable, we have seen all vibrating their wings at once, -though this never occurs in the natural state, when the vibrations of -a few are sufficient for ventilation." Although this fanning motion -of the wings is so rapid as to render them almost indistinguishable, -yet they may be observed to describe an arc of 90°. The sagacious bees -remind me of a method which is sometimes adopted of renewing the air of -a room, called pumping; some person moves the door backward and forward -so rapidly as to cause a thorough agitation of the confined air, and the -introduction of a fresh unvitiated atmosphere. "When they are engaged in -ventilation, the bees by means of their feet and claws, fix themselves -as firmly as possible, to the place they stand upon. The first pair -of legs is stretched out before; the second extended to the right and -left: whilst the third, placed very near each other, are perpendicular -to the abdomen, so as to give that part considerable elevation." That -ventilation is carried on for the purpose of renewing the air of the -hives, and not for lowering its temperature, is evident from its being -continued to a certain extent, even during the depth of winter. - -The vibratory motion of the bee's wings has been regarded by some as the -principal cause of the _humming_ noise heard in every prosperous hive -during the busy season. This humming has likewise been attributed to the -rushing of the air through their spiracles: so thought +M. Chabrier+, -and, I believe, +Mr. J. Hunter+. Mr. H. assures us that bees can produce -a sound independently of their wings; for if these be smeared over with -honey so as to stick together, the bee still makes a noise, which is -shrill and peevish. He found the same effect from holding the bee by the -legs, with a pair of pincers, while the wings were perfectly still, and -also by immersing the insect in water, though not till it was very much -teased. - -The whole body of a drone is in a state of vibration when it hums. -Though deprived of its wings, it is capable of producing a sound exactly -similar, and probably the same with its former hum: even when the legs -are cut off, the trunk retains its tremulous motion, and utters an -audible noise. If immersed in water, many air-bubbles are disengaged -from it: but though the mutilated insect be taken out alive, it is no -longer sonorous. "This experiment, however incomplete," says a writer -in the _Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles_, "tends at least to prove, -that the humming of bees is not occasioned by a strong vibration of the -internal part of the upper wings, but rather by a tremulous affection of -the entire body; and perhaps even by the escape of a greater quantity of -air through the stigmata or spiracles. This last would amount to a sort -of voice." The humming noise with which a flower is always approached by -the bee, ceases as soon as she has alighted upon it, though during the -time that she is extracting its sweets she is in a constant vibratory -motion. - - -+Circulation.+ - -The term circulation is not strictly applicable to the imperfect -sanguineous system of insects, as the fluid which supplies their bodies -with nutriment is not distributed to its several parts through the -medium of a heart and vascular system. Lyonnet and Cuvier are both of -opinion that insects have no heart, whereas all creatures that possess -a circulation, properly so called, have a heart, lungs or gills, and a -liver; but insects have only air-vessels and hepatic ducts. The chyle -which is produced in their intestines, transpiring through the pores of -the intestinal canal, passes into the general cavity of the body, where -it is probably animalized, and made to answer the same purposes that -blood does to creatures of a higher class, though when animalized it -still retains its white colour. Although its distribution is obscure, -from its analogy to blood, we may conclude that it is a fluid which -visits and nourishes every part of the insect's body; that from it -secretions are made, and that, as in other creatures, it is fitted for -these purposes by receiving oxygen from the air-vessels. +Cuvier+ has -observed that the blood of insects, "for want of a circulating system, -not being able to seek the air, the air goes to seek the blood;" the -air-vessels, as I have stated under the head of Respiration, are -distributed to every part of the body. - - -+Nutrition.+ - -From what I have said under the head of Circulation, it will appear -evident that the bodies of bees and other insects are supplied with -nutriment in a very simple manner. +Cuvier+ is of opinion that it is -obtained by direct absorption or transudation, by imbibition as he calls -it, through the pores of the intestinal canal, along which the blood or -animalized chyle passes: and +Lyonnet+ thinks that this imbibition is -analogous to that which takes place from the earth by the roots of plants. - - -+Secretion.+ - -Every thing connected with the subject of secretion seems to be obscure: -it is evident, however, that secretions do take place; for silk, wax, and -poison are all the results of that process. The first of these substances -is only secreted by the bee when in its larva state. I must refer those -who wish for information respecting silk, to those naturalists who -have written on the silk-worm. The secretion of wax I shall treat of -hereafter in a distinct chapter; and it will be better perhaps to speak -of Poison, after describing the sting and its appurtenances. There is one -secretion however, on which I will say a few words in this place,--viz. -Perspiration. - - -+Perspiration.+ - -The _temperature of insects_ not gregarious, is generally that of the -medium they inhabit; but bees possess the power not only of preserving a -high temperature during the coldest mouths of winter, but of raising that -temperature under particular circumstances. +Dr. Darwin+ has observed -that they generate heat by a general motion of their legs, as they hang -clustered together in the hives: +Huber+ thinks that it may be increased -by the agitation of their wings;--whatever disturbs them so as to cause -a tumult invariably produces a considerable accession of heat. +Inch+, a -_German_, plunged a thermometer into a bee-hive in the winter, and saw -the mercury stand 27 degrees higher than it did in the open air. +Mr. -Hunter+ found the _heat of a hive_ vary from 73° to 84° of Fahrenheit; -and +Huber+, who says that in a prosperous hive the thermometer in winter -commonly stands at from 86° to 88°, and in summer between 95° and 97°, -states that he has observed it, on some occasions, to rise suddenly from -about 92° to above 104°. The former naturalist, about ten o'clock in the -morning, in the middle of July, when the quicksilver in the thermometer -in the open air ranged at 54°, found that on plunging it into a bee-hive, -it rose in less than five minutes to 82°. At five the next morning it -stood at 79°,--at nine it had risen to 83°,--at one to 84°; and at nine -in the evening it had fallen to 78°. On the 30th of December, when the -temperature of the air was 35°, that in the hive was 73°. Bees also -possess the power of counteracting or throwing off superabundant heat, -by perspiration. +Huber+ observed, that when crowded together in hot -weather, they become much heated, and perspire so copiously that those -near the bottom seem perfectly drenched, and are for a time incapable of -flying from the moisture on their wings. - - -+Motion.+ - -The _motions of insects_ are performed through the medium of an -appropriate apparatus of muscles, which move the head, trunk, abdomen, -viscera, and limbs, as in other parts of the animal creation. The -muscles of insects generally possess very great power, as may be seen -by the motion of the mandibles, and the propulsion of the bee's sting. -It is very strikingly evinced also in the flea. +Latreille+ gives an -account of one that dragged a silver cannon twenty-four times its own -weight, firing it off afterwards, without exhibiting any symptom of fear. -An English workman also is said to have made an ivory coach, with six -horses, a coachman on the seat with a dog between his legs, a postillion, -four persons in the coach, and four lacqueys behind,--the whole of which -was dragged by a single flea. A further evidence of the muscular power -of the flea is the extent of its leaps, which equal a space of 200 times -the length of its own body. This calculation, or a very similar one, was -made by +Socrates+, who was much ridiculed for it by +Aristophanes+. -The poet, however, did not confine his ridicule to this minuteness of -calculation, but attacked likewise the character and precepts of that -great philosopher; for the whole of which satire he has justly incurred -the censure of posterity. - - -+Organs of Reproduction.+ - -These organs, in the drone, correspond in function and denomination with -those of the higher classes of animals: their chief peculiarity consists -in their size, in proportion to that of the insect, and in their being -more under the belly than in other insects of this tribe;--they are -larger than those of the humble-bee, and the two last scales of the back -and belly are larger than those of the queen or workers. - -The female organs consist principally of the ovaries, the oviducts, -the sperm-reservoir, and the ovipositor. In the ovaries the eggs are -generated, and remain till rendered fit by impregnation, and the other -circumstances necessary for their maturation, to pass through the -oviducts. According to Mr. Hunter, what are called ovaries are really -ducts; the eggs therefore are not formed as in other animals, in a -cluster on the back, but in those ducts, of which there are six on each -side. When full of eggs, they form a kind of quadrangle; these six -ducts uniting on each side into one duct, this latter enters a duct -common to both sides, which may be called the _vagina_ or _ovipositor_. -The common _oviduct_ is the canal through which the eggs pass from the -ovaries as they are called, to the ovipositor. The _sperm-reservoir_ is -the organ which, according to Herold, receives the _impregnating sperm_ -of the drone, the _modus operandi_ of which we are unacquainted with. -In the hive-bee and in some other insects, the influence of this sperm -continues so long a time, and through so many generations, as almost to -exceed belief. (_Vide_ page 31). This led +Dr. Haighton+ to entertain -the opinion that actual contact betwixt the male sperm and the egg -was not necessary, but that impregnation was effected by some unknown -sympathetic influence. +Messrs. Kirby+ and +Spence+ have recourse to -the old doctrine of an _aura seminalis_ being all that is required to -vivify the egg, and which they think may be retained for a long period. -Upon this subject I have entered at some length in page 25 _et seq._ The -_ovipositor_ places the eggs in their appropriate situations, and is an -instrument of most curious structure. It consists of a long tube, or -rather several tubes, retractile within each other, like the pieces of a -telescope, and serves not only to convey the extruded eggs to the place -of their destination, but acts also as a sheath for _the sting_, having -a sharp point which makes the first impression when the creature intends -to use its sting,--indeed it appears to be itself the sting. It has a -slit near its extremity, through which the sting and poison are allowed -to pass at the time of stinging. Some insects have occasion to bore a -hole in wood, or other hard substances, to obtain a proper nidus for -their eggs; the ovipositor is their operating instrument, and will either -saw or bore a passage to the desired place. Thus it appears that this -curiously complex apparatus, which in the bee is used both as a weapon -of defence and offence, is a hollow horny tube or scabbard, inclosing two -bearded darts, which can be thrust a short way beyond the sheath, though -the whole appears to the naked eye like the solid point of the minutest -needle. - -This apparatus is moved by muscles which, though invisible to the eye, -are yet strong enough to force the sting to the depth of one twelfth of -an inch through the thick cuticle of a man's hand. It is articulated by -thirteen scales to the lower end of the insect's body; and at its root -are situated two glands or ducts, from which the poison is secreted: -these glands uniting in one duct, eject the venomous liquid along the -groove formed by the junction of the two piercers. There are four beards -on the outside of each piercer: when the insect is prepared to sting, one -of these piercers, having its point a little longer or more in advance -than the other, first darts into the flesh, and being fixed by its -foremost beard, the other strikes in also, and they alternately penetrate -deeper and deeper, till they acquire a firm hold of the flesh with their -hooks, and then follows the sheath entering and conveying the poison into -the wound. The action of the sting, says +Paley+, affords an example -of the union of _chemistry_ and _mechanism:_ of chemistry, in respect -to the _venom_ which can produce such powerful effects: of mechanism, -as the sting is a compound instrument. The machinery would have been -comparatively useless had it not been for the chemical process, by which -in the insect's body _honey_ is converted into _poison_; and on the other -hand, the poison would have been ineffectual, without an instrument to -wound, and a syringe to inject it. - -In consequence of the barbed form of its sting the bee can seldom -disengage itself without leaving behind it the whole apparatus, and even -part of its bowels; so that her life is usually sacrificed to her passion. - - "Illis ira modum supra est, læsæque venenum - Morsibus inspirant, et spicula cæca relinquunt, - Affixæ venis, animasque in vulnera ponunt." - - +Virgil+ - -_The sting of the queen-bee_ is longer and stouter than that of the -working-bee, and bends a little under her belly. She is not eager to -employ it; and from what has been said above, of the fatality which -usually attends its use, conjecture has been busy as to the cause of her -extreme caution in this respect. +Dr. Evans+ observes, that it cannot -arise from any selfish consideration, founded on an instinctive knowledge -of the danger she thereby incurs; since the common bees, who run the same -risk when they sting, are ready to attack upon the slightest provocation. -"Is it owing," says he, "to a consciousness of the importance of her -life to the community? or may we rather ascribe it to the dignified and -generous forbearance so frequently exemplified in the lion or English -mastiff?" - -The reluctance of queens to eject their stings, led Pliny and others -to imagine that they did not possess any. Their extreme caution in -this respect, and the fatal consequences usually attending a departure -from it, gave birth to the following jeux d'esprit. In consequence of -Pope Urban the Eighth being suspected of a stronger attachment to the -French than to the Spaniards, a Frenchman who had observed _three bees_ -quartered upon his arms, wrote this Latin verse. - - "Gallis mella dabunt, Hispanis spicula figent." - -To this a Spaniard is said to have subjoined, - - "Spicula si figant, emorientur apes." - -To close the series, and to show his universal paternal regard towards -his flock, Pope Urban is made to add the following distich: - - "Cunctis mella dabunt, et nullis spicula figent, - Spicula rex[M] etenim figere nescit apum." - -[Footnote M: The ancients supposed the sovereign of the bees to be a -male.] - -This _caution of the queens_ is never more conspicuously evinced than _in -their combats with each other_, for they instantly separate if there -be any danger of _mutual_ destruction from the darting forth of their -stings. +Huber+ gives a striking instance of this. Two queens in one of -his hives having left their cells at nearly the same instant, rushed -together with great apparent fury. The antennæ of each were seized by the -teeth of the other, and the head, breast, and belly of both were mutually -opposed. Finding themselves however thus dangerously situated, and their -curved extremities on the point of meeting, each disengaged itself and -flew away; when the other bees, who had before receded, to make a clear -arena for the combatants, drove them together again. This was done -repeatedly, till at last the stronger queen, seizing the other's wing, -and curling her extremities under her belly, inflicted a mortal sting. - -I think this observation of Huber puts a negative upon Dr. Evans's last -question, and to assent to his first would I apprehend raise her majesty -too high in the scale of existence. I believe we must here, as in many -other similar cases, acknowledge our ignorance, and refer the proceeding -to instinct. - -We have seen that where there is more than one native queen in a hive, -there is always a combat between them, terminating in the death of all -but one. It was the opinion of +Schirach+ and +Riem+, that if a stranger -queen were introduced where there was a native one, the former would be -assailed by the workers, and by them stung to death. The experiments -of +Huber+ and +Dunbar+ discountenance this opinion: indeed Huber says -that in the whole course of his experience he never knew more than one -instance of a queen's being stung by a worker, and that was wholly -unintentional. - -But though the experiments to which I have just alluded, produced -different results from what we were led to expect by Schirach and Riem, -yet those of +Huber+ did not correspond with those of +Dunbar+. The -former introduced two stranger queens into hives containing native -queens; of the latter, one was fertile the other a virgin,--the former -were both fertile. Each of these introductions led to a single combat -between the queens, and each terminated in the death of the stranger. -The latter gentleman also on two occasions introduced stranger queens to -the queens regnant, in his mirror-hive; but in neither case were they -stung to death, either by the queen or workers, but merely surrounded -and confined by the latter, and by that confinement either suffocated or -starved to death. +Schirach+ and +Riem+ had probably witnessed similar -conduct on the part of the workers, and were no doubt led thereby to -conjecture that they dispatched the queens with their stings. - -From what has been said of the fatal consequence to the bee itself when -it makes use of its sting for the annoyance of man and other animals, it -might be supposed that the darting of this weapon by one bee into the -body of another, might cause the death of both; but this is not usually -the case, otherwise there would be a great mortality amongst them, -when the persecution of the drones takes place. +Huber+ contrived, by -placing several of his hives upon a glass table, to witness this scene -of massacre; on which occasion the bees thrust their stings so deeply -into the bodies of the drones, (generally between the segments of the -abdomen,) as to be obliged to turn upon themselves, as upon a pivot, -before they could extricate them; but by so doing they succeeded, as do -the queens also in their combats with each other. Instances are related, -of combats between workers proving mutually destructive, from the -victors being unable to extricate their stings from the wounds they have -inflicted. +Mr. Hunter+ saw an instance of this: the bee was stung in the -mouth; and he saw it running about afterwards, with the sting and its -appurtenances adherent in the wound. - -Indeed by allowing the bee to draw out her Sting gradually, when we -ourselves are stung,--which if we had sufficient firmness and presence of -mind to remain still, she would instinctively do, by bringing the beards -close down to the sides of the darts,--the life of this valuable insect -might be preserved, and the pain in the wounded part be much lessened: -but the alarm of both parties seldom admits of such forbearance. The wasp -is not so liable to leave its sting behind as the bee, the beards of the -former being rather shorter, and the insect stronger and more active. - -The sooner the sting is extracted the less venom is ejected, and -consequently less inflammation induced. To alleviate the irritation, -numberless _remedies_ have been proposed, of the most opposite kind and -uncertain effect; as oil, vinegar, bruised parsley, burnet, mallow, or -the leaves of any succulent vegetable (renewed as soon as warm, and -probably therefore operating by cold alone), honey, indigo dissolved in -water, &c. &c. The _most effectual_ remedy appears to be the _Aq. Ammon._ -or _Spirit of Hartshorn_: nor is this surprising, when we consider that -_the venom of the bee, or wasp, is evidently acid_. _If a humble-bee -be irritated to sting paper tinged with litmus, or any other of the -vegetable blues, the colour is changed by the acid of the venom to a -bright red;_ this acid appears not to differ from the acid (_bombic_) -of silk-worms, or (_formic_) of ants. The acrimony of the latter many -have experienced when inadvertently sitting down on an ant-hill. On -this principle, a solution of any alkali, or even lime-water, might -answer the same purpose; and soap would have the double advantage of -neutralizing the acid and allaying the inflammation, by the oil which -would be disengaged. Plunging the part stung into cold or warm water -would afford the same relief as in burns, &c. and also dilute the acid -acrimony. Quietness is the surest protection against being stung. It has -lately been affirmed, that a person is perfectly secure amidst myriads -of bees, if he carefully keep his mouth shut, and breathe gently through -the nostrils only, the human breath being, as it would appear, highly -offensive to their delicate organs. (_Vide_ Senses of Bees.) It is added -that with this precaution, hives may be turned up, and even part of the -combs cut out, while the bees are at work, with perfect impunity. - -Those who wish to view the sting of a wasp or bee through a microscope, -may cut off the end of its tail, when by touching it with a needle or pin -it will thrust out the darts and their sheath, which may be then snipt -off with a pair of scissors and reserved for observation. If the insect -be caught in a leather glove and provoked to eject its sting, the same -end will be answered; as the sting being detained by its barbs, will be -left in the leather, from whence, when the creature is dead (which in -the case of a wasp will not be for many hours), the whole apparatus may, -with care, be extracted. - -"Upon examining the edge of a very keen razor by the microscope, it -appeared as broad as the back of a pretty thick knife, rough, uneven, and -full of notches and furrows, and so far from any thing like sharpness, -that an instrument as blunt as this seemed to be, would not serve even to -cleave wood[N]." "An exceedingly small needle being also examined, the -point thereof appeared above a quarter of an inch in breadth; not round, -nor flat, but irregular and unequal; and the surface, though extremely -smooth and bright to the naked eye, seemed full of ruggedness, holes, and -scratches. In short it resembled an iron bar out of a smith's forge[O]." -But the sting of a bee, viewed through the same instrument, showed -every where a polish most amazingly beautiful,--without the least flaw, -blemish, or inequality; and ended in a point too fine to be discovered: -yet this is only the case or sheath of instruments much more exquisite, -contained therein, as before described. - -[Footnote N: Hook's Microcosm.] - -[Footnote O: Philosophical Transactions.] - - -+The Poison of Bees.+ - -The _poison of bees_, as also that of wasps, is a transparent fluid: -applied to the tongue it imparts a sweet taste, which is succeeded -by a hot acrid one. It gives a slight red tinge, as has been already -hinted, to litmus paper, and hence the +Abbé Fontana+ has concluded -that an acid enters into its composition, but in very small proportion. -The venom is so extremely active, that he conjectures a grain in weight -would kill a pigeon in a few seconds. It is this fluid which causes the -inflammation consequent upon being stung. A puncture from a needle that -was charged with it, would produce precisely the same effects. These -effects are very different in different persons; for whilst a single -sting will produce alarming symptoms in one individual, another may -receive numerous punctures without sustaining pain or inflammation in any -considerable degree; sometimes without suffering either. The activity of -the venom varies according to the season of the year: a sting received -in winter produces much less inconvenience than one inflicted in summer; -the pain and inflammation are neither so intense nor of such long -continuance. This may arise from there being a more copious secretion of -venom in summer than in winter; for during the former season, if a bee -inflict several wounds with its sting, the pain and inflammation become -progressively less at each consecutive puncture: after three or four -punctures, it is rendered incapable of producing more inconvenience than -the point of a sharp needle. - -If a bee be provoked to dart its sting against glass, so as to eject -its venom upon it, and the glass thus charged be placed upon a double -microscope, oblong pointed crystals will become visible; these may be -seen at first floating in the venom, and gradually shooting into crystals -as the fluid part evaporates. - - -+The Anger of Bees.+ - -I have already treated of the disposition of bees to use their stings, -when irritated, either by direct interference with them, or by the -approach of persons to whom they have an antipathy. +Virgil+ has, in -strong terms, noticed their irascibility:--when once provoked, says he, -they set no bounds to their anger, but - - "Deem life itself to vengeance well resign'd, - Die on the wound, and leave their stings behind." - -_Fatal consequences_ occurring from their wounds are not often heard of, -though such I believe have occasionally happened. +Messrs. Kirby+ and -+Spence+ relate an instance of a violent fever being produced, by the -injury they inflicted, and in which the person's recovery was for some -time doubtful. +Mungo Park+ also mentions, in his Travels, an instance -of severe annoyance from them, and states that he lost several asses -in Africa owing to their being attacked by bees. +Mr. Talbot+, in his -Five Years Residence in the Canadas, states, that during the summer of -1820, the _Rev. Ralph Leeming_ having sent a fine horse to grass at a -neighbouring farmer's, who kept about twenty stocks of bees, the animal -got upon the lawn where the hives were placed, and by accident overturned -one of them, the bees of which attacked him with great virulence. The -horse, rearing and kicking from agony, overthrew another hive. Having -thus doubled the number of his assailants, his sufferings brought him to -the ground, and in less than five minutes from the commencement of the -attack the poor animal was literally stung to death. - -The anger of bees is not confined to man, and other large animals; it is -sometimes vented upon their own kind, not only in single combat, but in -conflicts of organized masses. Cases of the former kind every observer -must have noticed; and of the latter, several instances have been related -by +Reaumur+, +Thorley+, +Knight+, and others. The engagement, witnessed -by +Thorley+, lasted more than two days, and originated in a swarm's -attempting to take possession of an already occupied hive. Remarkable -battles of this kind have also been related by other writers. Whenever -the angry excitation is diffused through a whole community, a great -accession of heat is produced in the hive. - -Notwithstanding bees are thus occasionally animated by a most vindictive -spirit, against what they regard as a public enemy, they are not found -to display any peculiar hostility in the revenge of a private injury, -committed upon them at a distance from their homes. This is a fact which -has been noticed both by +Mr. Hunter+ and +Mr. Knight+. The former -observes also, that bees never sting but in the neighbourhood of their -property, unless hurt; that they never contend with each other for honey, -unless it be placed within the boundary of their own right,--but that -what they have collected they defend. The indisposition of bees to attack -or be angry at a distance has been confirmed by +Mr. Knight+, who says, -that, though the most irritable of animals near home, he has seen them -suffer themselves to be patiently robbed of their loads by other bees, -and that he has witnessed this in the same bee three times in succession. -He says likewise, that if the wasps in a nest have their communication -cut off from those that are abroad, the latter, on their return, will not -make any attack; but that if one escape from the interior, it evinces a -very different temper, and is ready to sacrifice its life to avenge the -injury. This +Mr. Knight+ discovered when a boy, and he has no doubt -but that if a similar proceeding were adopted towards bees, they would -observe the same conduct. - - -+The Language of Bees.+ - -All creatures that live in society seem to possess the power of -communicating intelligence to one another. "Brutes," says +Mr. Knight+, -"have language to express sentiments of love, of fear, and of anger; -yet they seem unable to transmit any impression they have received from -external objects. But the language of bees is more extensive: if not a -language of ideas, it is something very similar." This faculty has been -very remarkably illustrated by +Huber+ in his Treatise on Ants; and the -bee exhibits many strong evidences of it. +Huber+ clearly shows that the -communications of Ants are made through the medium of their antennæ; he -has also proved very satisfactorily, that these organs serve the same -purpose in bees. - -Being desirous of ascertaining whether when a queen was removed from -a hive, (a circumstance which is communicated to the whole family -within an hour,) they discovered their loss by means of smell, touch, -or any unknown sense; he accordingly divided a hive into two portions, -by means of a grating which admitted a free circulation of air, but -denied a passage to the bees, or even to their antennæ: the consequence -was, that the bees contained in the half that had no queen, after -they had recovered from the agitation[P] always produced under such -circumstances, set about building royal cells, just as they would have -done if the queen had been entirely removed from the hive. He repeated -this experiment, with a grating which allowed the transmission of the -antennæ only. Here the effect was quite different: for the bees being -able to assure themselves, by the frequent crossing of their antennæ with -those of the queen, that she was still amongst them, every thing remained -in order; the brood were attended to, no interruption took place in any -of their labours, nor were any royal cells commenced. From all these -experiments (and they were repeatedly tried), it seems evident that the -antennæ of bees, as well as of ants, possess the faculty of receiving and -conveying information. Bees receive some kinds of intelligence through -the medium of certain sounds, as has been stated in another place. - -[Footnote P: This agitation usually continues two or three hours, -sometimes (though but seldom) four or five,--never longer.] - -_The antennæ_, in addition to the uses already ascribed to them, may -serve to _inform the bees of the state of the atmosphere, and enable -them to discern the approach of a change in the weather_. The suddenness -and rapidity of their flight towards the apiary, often afford a hint to -the observer of their proceedings, that a storm is at hand, of which he -received no intimation from any other quarter. - - "Inque vicem speculantur aquas et nubila cœli." - - +Virgil+ - -"That the bees," says +Dr. Evans+, "can foresee bad weather, is a fact -beyond denial; though we know not through the medium of what sense that -faculty is exerted. We are often surprised to find, even with a promising -appearance of the sky, their labours suddenly cease, and that not a bee -stirs out; or, on the contrary, that those which a e abroad, hurry home -in such crowds that the door is too small for their admission. But on -strictly examining the heavens, we may discern some small and distant -clouds, which, insensibly collecting, soon after descend in rain." The -Doctor likewise says, that an observant friend of his, foretells with -confidence that rain will fall in the course of a few hours, when he -finds on a clear summer's morning that his garden is wholly deserted by -his neighbour's bees. In this he enjoys an advantage over their real -owner, the flowers near the apiary being crowded as usual by these wary -foragers. "If," says +Mr. Kirby+, "they wander far from home, and do -not return till late in the evening, it is a prognostic to be depended -upon, that the following day will be fine: but if they remain near their -habitations, and be seen frequently going and returning,--although no -indication of wet should be discoverable, clouds will soon arise and rain -come on. Ants also are observed to be excellently gifted in this respect: -though they daily bring out their larvæ to the sun, they are never -overtaken by sudden showers." - -I have before stated that in the course of an hour the important -intelligence of the loss or safety of a queen is known to a whole colony. -It seems highly improbable that in this time, 20,000 bees should have -assured themselves of the presence and safety of their queen, by applying -their antennæ to hers; such an attempt would create a state of complete -confusion. Huber proved by a very decisive experiment, similar to those -already related, that the queen is not distinguishable by her subjects, -in consequence of any emanation from her person. There must then be some -mode, to which I have given the name of language, by which those who have -exchanged contact with their antennæ can communicate the tranquillizing -intelligence to their companions. It seems impossible to explain, in any -other way, the concurrence of so many wills to one end; or that sudden -interruption and restitution of harmony which are often exhibited in -every community of bees. It is the opinion of +Mr. Knight+ that bees -are not only capable of communicating intelligence to the members of -their own family, but that a friendly intercourse sometimes takes place -between neighbouring colonies: the cases which he has related in support -of this opinion, however, can hardly be said to bear him out in it; for -in each of them, after the intercourse had continued for a few days, it -terminated in violent hostility. Such instances, though not of frequent -occurrence, have been occasionally noticed by others. - - -+Sleep of Bees.+ - -It is reasonable to suppose that every part of animated nature needs -occasional intervals of repose. That this is the case with the bee seems -evident, from the almost motionless quietude of the workers, which often -occurs for fifteen or twenty minutes together, each bee inserting its -head and thorax into a cell, where it might be mistaken for dead, were -it not for the dilatation of the segments of its abdomen. The queen -sometimes does the same in a drone's cell, where she continues without -motion a very long time, when "the workers form a circle round her, -and gently brush the uncovered parts of her abdomen. The drones while -reposing do not enter the cells, but cluster in the combs, and sometimes -remain without stirring a limb for eighteen or twenty hours." +Huber+ -says that he has seen the workers, even in the middle of the day, when -apparently wearied with exertion, insert half their bodies into the empty -cells, and remain there, as if taking a nap, for half an hour or longer; -at night they regularly muster, in a sleep-like silence. - - "The sun declining, through the murky air. - Home to their hives the vagrant bands repair, - There in soft slumber close their willing eyes, - And hush'd in silence, the whole nation lies." - - +Murphy's Vaniere.+ - - -+Longevity of Bees.+ - -The several members of a hive have very different periods of existence. -The general law among insects is, that both male and female shall perish -soon after sexual union; in a few days or weeks at furthest, according to -the time, probably, that the female occupies in maturing and depositing -her eggs. By retarding sexual union, the lives of some insects may be -very much prolonged,--even ephemeræ have been kept alive by this means -for seven or eight days. Annual plants, if prevented from seeding, may -be rendered biennial. The bee and some other insects are exempted from -this forfeiture of life after sexual union, with the exception already -alluded to in page 33. The ancients were very deficient in knowledge -upon this subject. +Virgil+ fixes the term of a bee's existence at seven -years[Q], having probably copied from +Aristotle+; though Aristotle -says that bees who live to an extreme old age may reach to nine or ten -years. +Columella+[R] and +Pliny+[S] have been supposed to regard their -existence as extending to ten years; though the language of the former -applies to the existence of the community, and not to individual bees: -and provided the hive be never changed, nor the combs renewed, it is not -likely that any one family should have its existence prolonged beyond -that period; as the accumulation of silken pellicles with which the -breeding-cells are successively lined, would render them unfit for use -in a very few years. In addition to the diminution of the cells by this -succession of silken linings, they are also diminished further by the -excrement of the larvæ, which is never cleaned out, but confined behind -each lining: both together, therefore, soon render the cells unfit for -use as brood-cells. +Mr. Hunter+ found three of these layers deposited -in a single season, and counted upwards of twenty in the cells of an old -comb; which, upon an average of three a year, would correspond with the -period fixed by the ancients; though this observation by no means proves -that the hive upon which it was made, or any other, might not have had -a much more protracted existence. +Mr. Espinasse+ tells us that he once -took a hive which had stood fourteen years, having found that it had -become weak: it had nevertheless sent off a swarm the year previous. -There is an instance or two on record, of one family having continued in -the same hive for thirty years. One of these is mentioned by +Reaumur+, -another by +Mouffet+. +Thorley+ speaks of a colony having occupied the -same domicile for 110 _years_. The spot chosen was under the leads of -the study of +Ludovicus Vives+ in Oxford: the original swarm settled -there in 1520 and kept possession till 1630. Query,--may not the bees -when the combs become very old and the cells much diminished in size, -remove them and construct fresh ones? To those who may wish for their own -satisfaction to examine the linings of a brood cell, I would observe, -that +Mr. Hunter's+ mode of proceeding was, to soak the cell in water, -till the linings were swelled, when he had no difficulty in separating -and counting them: he found them separate most readily at the bottom, on -account of the inclosed excrement. - -[Footnote Q: - - "Ergo ipsas quamvis angusti terminus ævi - Excipiat, neque enim plus septima ducitur æstas." -] - -[Footnote R: - - "Durantque, si diligenter excultæ sint, in annos decem." - - +Columella+] - -[Footnote S: - - "Alveos nunquam - Ultra decem annos durasse proditur." - - +Pliny+] - -To common observers it might appear, that the lives of the bees were -coeval with the foundation of the colony, presuming upon all the young -bees leaving the parent stock in swarms. But I have already stated that -all swarms consist of a mixture of young and old bees; the difference -between them is very distinguishable, those of the present year being -brown, plump, and clothed with light hairs, whilst the old ones have red -hairs, notched and ragged wings, and are paler and more shrunk in their -bodies. - -The cases which I have related, and others of a similar kind, have led to -the erroneous opinion that bees are a long-lived race. But this, as +Dr. -Evans+ has observed, is just as wise as if a stranger, contemplating a -populous city, and personally unacquainted with its inhabitants, should -on paying it a second visit, many years afterwards, and finding it -equally populous, imagine that it was peopled by the same individuals, -not one of whom might be then alive. "Such strangers are we to the honied -hive, where, however quickly its generations may have passed away, the -same face is presented to the beholder." - - "The race and realm from age to age remain, - And time but lengthens with new links the chain." - - +Sotheby's Georgics.+ - -The usual term of the male's existence is two or three months only;--I -say the usual term, for his life is always cut off by violence, when no -peculiar circumstances arise to render his existence any longer useful. -Such circumstances having arisen, as has been before observed, (page 44,) -he may be kept alive a much longer period, for a year at least, but how -much longer has not as yet been ascertained. - -With respect to the queen, by comparing what has been said above, as to -insects not dying till their eggs are all matured, with what has been -stated in page 31 of a single sexual union serving to impregnate all the -eggs laid for the two succeeding years, it would appear that the period -of her existence could not, in general, be less than two years; and -+Huber+ has proved very satisfactorily, that this is the fact: indeed he -states that he has known a queen live for five years. +Feburier+ suspects -that, like the males, the queens are destroyed by the labourers, when -they have fulfilled their destination. The only ground of this opinion, -however, appears to be his having witnessed an attack made upon a queen -by six labourers, from whom he with difficulty rescued her. +Messrs. -Kirby+ and +Spence+, in like manner, seem to think it not improbable that -when the workers become too old to be useful to the community, they are -either killed or expelled the society. _Vide_ page 7. Reaumur also throws -out a hint to the same purpose. - -The length of a working bee's life has not yet been ascertained; but the -general opinion is that it is short-lived. +Butler+ says that "the bee -is but little more than a year's bird;" and some think the period of its -existence shorter still. "The bees of the present year," says +Butler+, -"will retain their vigour and youthful appearance till (Gemini), about -the 21st of May in the following year, when they begin to decline, and -from (Cancer to Leo) June 21st to August 21st, the ground in front of -the apiary may be seen strewed with them, some dead, some dying, and a -few alive but incapable of rising again, and by (Libra) 32d September, -scarcely an old bee will be left." - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -SENSES OF BEES. - - -In considering the phænomena of insect sensation, little advantage can -be derived from analogy; the physiology of the senses of bees, and other -insects, is therefore but imperfectly understood. Still they must have -credit for the _possession_ of senses, however differently modified -from those of man. Some of their senses may open avenues to knowledge, -with which he must ever remain unacquainted. Arts which he is obliged -to attain by long labour and great diligence, they seem to derive from -nature, through the medium no doubt of organs so exquisitely fine, as to -elude not only his search, but even his conception. - -Of all the senses of bees, none appears to be so acute, as that -of +Smell+. It is this which, in all probability, enables them to -distinguish, not only individuals of their own species, but one human -being from another; and also to discover honey-dews and honey-bearing -flowers, at a very considerable distance; (honey of all odorous -substances, being the most attractive to them:) it may tend likewise -to cause that neatness which they observe in themselves and in their -habitations. An experiment, made by +Huber+, demonstrates that they -possess the faculty of smell. He placed vessels of honey in boxes -perforated with very small holes, to allow the odorous effluvia to -escape, but not of sufficient size to permit a sight of the honey, when -the bees came directly to the boxes. He also tried this experiment with -the addition of small card valves, which the bees, after examining the -boxes all round, contrived to raise up, that they might get at the -honey. +Mr. Hunter+ states, that he has seen great commotion produced in -a recent swarm in wet weather, when he supposes the bees to have been -hungry, by placing honey on the floor of the hive. It was a glass-hive, -which afforded him a good opportunity of observing their proceedings, -and he says that all of them appeared to be upon the scent: even those -that were weak and hardly able to crawl, threw out the proboscis as far -as possible, to get at the honey, which he thinks must have arisen from -their smelling and not from their seeing it. - -This presumed nicety of their smell should induce a carefulness that -no offensive odours be near an apiary. The notorious frequenting, by -bees, of the depositories of urine and the dung of animals, might seem -to render such carefulness futile: but upon this subject I have written -in a former chapter, and have since had the pleasure of seeing my -opinion confirmed by that of +Messrs. Kirby+ and +Spence+.--Bees appear -to have an antipathy to particular individuals. Their aversion, in -all probability, arises from the persons disliked having some peculiar -odour about them, which though not unpleasant to man, may be so to bees. -Whatever the odour, it seems to be transmitted by the breath: +Huber+ -was of this opinion. Speaking of the impunity with which his assistant -_Francis Burnens_ performed his various operations upon bees, he observes -that "the gentleness of his motions, and the habit of repressing his -respiration, could alone preserve him from the wrath of such formidable -insects." - -The different reception which persons experience on approaching the -domicile of bees is attributed by some apiarians to the different -degrees of confidence manifested in the approach: they are of opinion, -that if visitors could avoid the exhibition of all apprehension, they -would not be attacked. My own experience has long convinced me of the -erroneousness of this opinion: and a circumstance which occurred to -+Monsieur de Hofer+, _Conseilleur d'etat du_ +Grand Duc de Baden+, -strengthens my dissent from it. He had for years been a proprietor and an -admirer of bees, and almost rivalled Wildman in the power he possessed -of approaching them with impunity: he would at any time search for the -queen, and taking hold of her gently, place her upon his hand. But having -been unfortunately attacked with a violent fever, and long confined -by it; on his recovery he attempted to resume his favourite amusement -among the bees, returning to them with all that confidence and pleasure -which he had felt on former occasions; when to his great surprise and -disappointment he discovered that he was no longer in possession of their -favour; and that instead of being received by them as an old friend, he -was treated as a trespasser: nor was he ever able, after this period, to -perform any operation upon them, or to approach within their precincts, -without exciting their anger. Here then it is pretty evident that some -change had taken place in the Counsellor's secretions, in consequence of -the fever, which though not noticeable by his friends, was offensive to -the olfactory nerves of the bees. I had this anecdote from Monsieur de -Hofer's son, with whom I passed a very agreeable evening in London at the -house of my friend Joseph Hodgetts, Esq. - -The extreme sensitiveness of smell in bees is evinced by their -promptitude in resenting an injury inflicted on any of their community. -In hiving, or performing any other operation upon them, great caution -should therefore be observed, lest any of them be trodden upon or crushed -to death. It may be thought that this promptitude to resent the injury I -have here mentioned, may not proceed from the acuteness of their smell, -but from an effect produced upon some other organ of sense. I infer that -it proceeds from the former, on account of their being so quickly roused -to anger from a state of tranquillity, by having a fresh envenomed sting -and its appendages presented before the entrance of their dwelling. This -experiment, of presenting fresh poison to the bees, was tried by +Huber+ -in such a variety of ways, as to prove beyond all doubt that it was the -penetrating odour of the poison only, and not the manner of presenting -it, that affected them; for when the poison had coagulated, the same mode -of presentation produced no sensible effect, it might be offered them -with perfect impunity. - -Butterflies and Moths are supposed to be directed by this sense to the -discovery of their mates. If the female of the eggar moth (_Phalæna -quercus_) be inclosed in a box, and placed in the neighbourhood of the -males, they are attracted to the spot in such numbers as to show clearly -that they are sensible of her presence. We have analogous instances of -the existence of this faculty in other insects. The flesh-fly (_Musca -vomitoria_) occasionally deposits its eggs on plants of the Stapelia -genus, no doubt from their odour resembling that of putrefying flesh. -This may be regarded by some as an evidence of mistaken instinct; but -from what I have said in the chapter on Instinct, I think that my -readers will consider this to be erroneous, and that it should rather -be regarded as affording presumptive evidence of mistaken judgement. -Instinct would direct the creature to deposit its eggs where the larvæ -when hatched would be furnished with the means of subsistence, instead -of thus exposing them to perish. At all events it affords tolerably good -evidence of the existence of an organ of smell in the insect. - -The sense of +Touch+ in bees, that is their _active_ or _exploring -touch_, seems to be very acute. To the nicety of this sense has been -attributed their power of commencing and carrying on their works amid -the darkness of the hives. The recognition of their queen evinces the -existence of some such sense; for the experiments related at page 292, -indicate that her presence is not ascertained either by the organs of -sight, hearing, or smell. - -The +Antennæ+ have generally been considered as their organs of touch; -and indeed, in popular language, they are usually called Feelers or -horns; they have likewise assigned to them the office of wiping and -cleaning the eyes. The antennæ, however, are not regarded as feelers by -our leading entomologists: at present their uses are not clearly defined. -Some have regarded them as organs of smell; others as organs of hearing; -a third party have conceived that they perform some function of which -man has no definite idea,--supplying the insect with a sixth sense, an -intermediate faculty, according to +Messrs. Kirby+ and +Spence+, between -hearing and touch, rendering it sensible of the slightest movement of -the circumambient air. +Dr. Evans+ designates the antennæ as their -sight-supplying sense; - - "The same keen horns, within the dark abode. - Trace, for the sightless throng, a ready road, - While all the mazy threads of touch convey, - Shot inward to the mind, a semblant day." - - +Evans.+ - -The antennæ, of which there are only a single pair, proceed from the -anterior part of the head before the eyes. - -The +Palpi+ are generally considered as the true feelers; which, as -well from their texture as from the manner in which insects apply them -to their food before they begin to eat it, seems probable: Cuvier and -Lehmann were of this opinion. The palpi are attached to the under jaws -and lips, and are four in number. In some respects they bear analogy to -the antennæ; but the latter, being more articulated, have an extended -power of motion. Some insects with small antennæ are observed to have -very large palpi, which gives reason to suppose, that although their -offices may be different, they are intended to assist each other. - -The antennæ appear to be the more important organs of the two; as the -palpi, when removed, have not been found to occasion much apparent -inconvenience; whilst from the experiments of +Huber+ and others, it -appears that the excision of the antenna deprives the insect of the -perfect exercise of its functions. It seems immediately to lose its -instincts. The amputation of one antenna produces no effect; but if -both be cut off near the root, the bee no longer possesses the power of -guiding itself; it cannot direct its tongue to receive food from its -companions, nor take any share in the operations of the family; but -exhibits perfect indifference, and keeps near the entrance, apparently -for the sake of light; when that is withdrawn, it soon leaves the hive to -return no more. "Their departure," says +Huber+, "must be ascribed to the -loss of that sense, which is employed to guide them in the dark." - -That bees possess a fine sense of +Taste+, may be readily conceived from -the delicious food which they collect, and from their having a preference -for those flowers that afford the best honey, whenever such flowers grow -abundantly in the neighbourhood of the hives. Hence the superiority of -the honey of Narbonne, Hymettus, and Pontus. +Huber+ regards Taste as the -least perfect of the senses of bees, but the reasons he gives for this -opinion are unsatisfactory. Indeed the tongue of the bee is an organ so -considerably developed, as to afford very strong evidence of its power of -discrimination in the selection of food. +Cuvier+ considers it to be one -of the primary functions of its organization. - -There is tolerably good presumptive evidence that bees have a quick sense -of +Hearing+, from their being so sensibly affected by different sounds. -The voice of the queen, for instance, has according to +Bonner+ and -+Huber+ an almost magical effect upon them; and the practice of making -some sort of noise at the time of hiving is founded upon this opinion. -+Huber+ is of opinion that if bees do possess the sense of hearing it is -differently modified from the same sense among beings of a higher order. -The consequences which ensue upon the production of certain sounds either -by themselves or others, show that the vibrations of the air make an -impression upon some sense: +Huber+, for reasons which he does not well -define, designates it as a sense analogous to hearing, a something acting -in concert with and in aid of the antennæ. - -+Linnæus+ and +Bonnet+ thought that insects do not possess the sense of -hearing; but I think they were mistaken. I have just stated the effect -produced by the voice of a queen-bee, under particular circumstances; and -there are other evidences, equally strong, to show that insects possess -this faculty. One grasshopper will chirp in response to another, and the -female be attracted by the voice of the male. +Brunelli+ shut up a male -in a box, and allowed the female her liberty: as soon as the male chirped -she flew to him immediately. For further evidence of the existence of -this faculty in insects, see page 262. (Organs of Sensation.) - -The +Eye-Sight+ of bees, notwithstanding the wonderful mechanism of their -eyes, seems less perfect than their other senses: on some occasions it -scarcely serves them to distinguish the entrance of their hives, when -they come home loaded with provision. +Wildman+ says that he has observed -them go up and down, seeking the door of the hive, and be obliged after -alighting to rise again in order to find it: he conceived that they see -better when flying than when on foot. I believe, however, that this -opinion of +Wildman+ will not, upon examination, be found quite correct. -The mere act of flying does not enable them to see objects better; but -when on the wing, they are at a greater distance from those objects, the -eyes of these insects being so constructed as to enable them to see best -at a moderate distance. As +Dr. Evans+ has justly remarked, therefore, -"the poet's disdainful allusion to a - - Fly whose feeble ray scarce spreads - An inch around---- - -should here be exactly reversed." +Dr. Derham+ in his Physico-theology -has observed, when speaking of the eye of the bee and other insects, -that "the cornea and optic nerves, being always at one and the same -distance, are fitted only to see distantial objects, but not such as -are very nigh." This visual orb, this seemingly simple speck, though -really complicated piece of mechanism, says +Derham+, "will be found upon -examination to form a curious lattice-work of several thousand hexagonal -lenses, each having a separate optic nerve ministering to it, and -therefore to be considered as a distinct eye[T]. +M. Leewenhoeck+, having -properly prepared and placed an eye of this kind betwixt his microscope -and a church steeple (299 feet high and 750 distant), saw plainly the -steeple inverted, through every different lens, though each lens was -not larger than a needle's point. Yet, doubtless the insect perceives -but a single object, and that in an upright position. The hemispheric -arrangement of these lenses enables the bee to see accurately in every -direction, and without any interval of time or trouble." - -[Footnote T: The multitude of hexagonal lenses which compose the eye of -a bee, make it appear, when viewed through a microscope, exactly like -honey-comb.] - - "Not huge Behemoth, not the Whale's vast form. - That spouts a torrent, and that breathes a storm. - Transcends in organs apt this puny fly, - Her fine-strung feelers, and her glanceful eye, - Set with ten thousand lenses." - - +Evans.+ - -The eyes of all insects are immoveable, and have neither iris nor pupil -nor eyelids to cover them: but this apparent defect is amply made up -to them in a variety of ways: in the case before us, by the complex -structure of the organs. +Reaumur+ performed an experiment similar to -that which I have just related of +Leewenhoeck+, and with a like result, -+Hooke+ computed the lenses in the eye of a horse-fly to amount to nearly -7000. +Leewenhoeck+ found more than 12,000 in that of a dragon-fly; and -17,325 have been counted in the eye of a butterfly. The lenses are most -numerous in the beetle, and so small as not to be easily discoverable -under a pocket microscope, except the eye be turned white by long keeping. - -The peculiar construction of the bee's eye, for seeing objects best -at a moderate distance, will account for the circumstance noticed by -+Wildman+, and also for the following observation of +Dr. Evans+. "We -frequently observe bees flying straight homewards through the trackless -air, as if in full view of the hive, then running their heads against it, -and seeming to _feel_ their way to the door with their antennæ, as if -totally blind." +Sir C. S. Mackenzie+ remarked the imperfect vision of -bees, and how very much puzzled they are to find the entrances to their -hives, if the relative position of the entrances be altered, or the hives -be removed two or three yards from the place where they have usually -stood. In cases of removal, the bees do not during the first day fly to a -distance, nor till they have visited and recognized neighbouring objects. -+Mr. Rogers+, in his "Pleasures of Memory," has noticed this defective -vision in the bee. Having spoken of her excursive flights to a distance, -and referred to her bending her course homewards again, he observes, - - "That eye so finely wrought. - Beyond the search of sense, the soar of thought. - Now vainly asks the scenes she left behind; - Its orb so full, its vision so confined!" - -And he concludes that it is by the aid of memory that she retraces her -passage back to the hive, by recognizing the scents of the various -flowers which she has passed or visited on her outward journey,-- - - "The varied scents that charm'd her as she flew." - -But this idea, as Messrs. Kirby and Spence have observed, is more -poetical than accurate, the bees being always accustomed to fly to their -hives in right lines. - -In consequence of this peculiarity of insect vision, many of those bees -that return homewards after dusk in the evening, are obliged to lie -abroad all night. The same peculiarity, added to the acuteness of their -smell, has given birth to various contrivances for inducing bees of -different hives to mingle peaceably together, as mentioned at page 154. - -From the experiments of Swammerdam, Reaumur, Hooke and others, it seems -that bees and other insects, particularly those of the hymenopterous -order, possess organs of vision, besides those which are properly called -their eyes. These organs, known by the name of +Stemmata+, are three -smooth, glossy, hemispherical dots, placed in a triangular position upon -the vertex or top of the head. The two reticular eyes of one of these -insects having been covered with fluid pitch, (the stemmata being left -open,) when placed under a glass, the insect ran up and down, but without -striking against the sides of the glass. In a similar experiment upon a -dragon-fly (_Libellula_), the insect flew away, but in its flight struck -against walls and other objects. The stemmata in another insect being -covered, and the reticular eyes left open, seemed to cause no impediment -to its usual proceedings, it appeared to see as well as before. But when -both the stemmata and the eyes were covered, the insect seemed to be -totally deprived of sight, it walked slowly under the glass, and when -allowed its liberty, would not venture to fly. These experiments being -tried upon bees by Reaumur, they remained immoveable, appearing uncertain -where to direct their flight: when their eyes only were covered, they -flew perpendicularly upwards till they were out of sight, seeming to -follow that direction which the aid of the stemmata afforded them. These -stemmata may, from their situation, assist the insect in performing its -various operations in the interior of the hive; may, as Reaumur has -observed, answer to them the purpose of microscopes. - -I cannot conclude this chapter on the Senses of Bees without noticing -the theory of that eminent physiologist +Dr. Virey+. He has given it as -his opinion, that there are seven senses, which he thus divides. Four -physical, namely, Touch, Taste, Smell, and Love; three intellectual, -namely. Hearing, Sight, and Thought. (_N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._) Whether -Love and Thought should be added to my enumeration of the senses of bees -I shall not now inquire: if they may be, this work will supply abundant -evidence of both, if we comprehend the whole community of bees; for -though physical love appears not to constitute any part of the pleasure -of the working bee, (except from some accidental cause which has been -already explained,) there is presumptive proof of its possessing thought -or intellect: and although it may not be easy to adduce testimony in -favour of the queen's or the drone's possessing thought, they both -satisfactorily evince a susceptibility of physical love. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -INSTINCTS OF BEES. - - -All creatures, of whatever size, that live together in large communities, -have long been observed to display more knowledge and ingenuity than -those that do not congregate: this superiority is also supposed to -distinguish those which possess the most exquisite sense of touch, and -whose occupations require a continued exertion of their powers. The -insect tribe strongly confirm the truth of these remarks. - -Solitary insects may exhibit a single trait of superiority, either in the -catching of their prey, as the spider does; or in the securing of a well -protected habitation, as is instanced by the carpenter bee, the mason -bee, and some other lone and non-associating insects: but the history of -those which unite in societies unfolds more of insect energy and talent. -In large communities a combination of exertions is requisite, to procure -supplies for the general weal; an intercourse of mutual intelligence is -kept up; labour is regularly divided; the sphere of action is extended; -and in cases of emergency, there is an unusual manifestation of insect -power and intelligence. Instances of all these faculties are eminently -conspicuous in the honey-bee;--some of them I have before noticed, and -shall now advert to a few more. - -The mental powers of bees, if I may be allowed to use the term, have -been included, by some writers under the general name of Instinct[U]; -others, considering the whole of their proceedings to be fraught with -intelligence, have regarded them as evidences of a reasoning power. _All_ -the phænomena of insect life cannot I presume be explained without giving -them credit for both. - -[Footnote U: Huber has observed that the instinct of the humble-bee is -still more _refined_ than that of the honey-bee. As an instance of this, -he states that the former when unable to penetrate a flower through its -natural cavity, makes an aperture at the base of the corolla, or even -of the calyx, and insinuates its proboscis into the reservoir of honey, -through the opening it has made.] - - "Deem not, vain mortal, that reserv'd for thee - Hangs all the ripening fruit on reason's tree; - Even these, the tiniest tenants of thy care, - Claim of that reason, their apportion'd share: - Witness yon slaughter'd snail, within their door, - Tomb'd like the first bold Greek on Ilion's shore." - - +Evans.+ - -A snail having crept into one of _M. Reaumur's_ hives early in the -morning, after crawling about for some time, adhered by means of its -own slime to one of the glass panes, where, but for the bees, it would -probably have remained, till either a moist air or its own spume had -loosened the adhesion. The bees having discovered the snail, immediately -surrounded it, and formed a border of propolis round the verge of its -shell, which was, at last, so securely fixed to the glass, as to become -immoveable, either by the moisture of the air from without, or by the -snail's secretion from within. - - "Nor aught avails that in his torpid veins, - Year after year, life's loitering spark remains[V]: - For ever clos'd the impenetrable door, - He sinks on death's cold arm to rise no more." - - +Evans.+ - -[Footnote V: In the Annual Register for 1775 some very extraordinary -instances are related of the protraction of life in snails. After they -had lain in a cabinet above fifteen years, immersing them in water caused -them to revive and crawl out of their shells.] - -_Maraldi_ has related a somewhat similar instance. A houseless snail or -slug, as it is called, had entered one of his hives: the bees, as soon as -they observed it, pierced it with their stings, till it expired beneath -their repeated strokes; after which, being unable to dislodge it, they -covered it all over with propolis. - - "For, soon in fearless ire, their wonder lost. - Spring fiercely from the comb th' indignant host. - Lay the pierc'd monster breathless on the ground, - And clap, in joy, their victor pinions round. - While all in vain concurrent numbers strive, - To heave the slime-girt giant from the hive,-- - Sure not alone by force instinctive sway'd, - But blest with reason's soul-directing aid, - Alike in man or bee, they haste to pour, - Thick hardening as it falls, the flaky shower; - Embalm'd in shroud of glue the mummy lies, - No worms invade, no foul miasmas rise." - - +Evans.+ - -In these two cases, who can withhold his admiration of the ingenuity and -judgement of the bees? _In the first case_, a troublesome creature gained -admission into the hive, which, from its unwieldiness, they could not -remove, and which, from the impenetrability of its shell, they could not -destroy: here then their only resource was to deprive it of loco-motion, -and to obviate putrefaction; both which objects they accomplished most -skilfully and securely,--and, as is usual with these sagacious creatures, -at the least possible expense of labour and materials. They applied -their cement, where alone it was required, namely, round the verge of -the shell. _In the latter case_, to obviate the evil of putrescence, -by the total exclusion of air, they were obliged to be more lavish in -the use of their embalming material, and to form with it so complete -an incrustation or case over the "slime-girt giant," as to guard them -from the consequences which the atmosphere invariably produces upon -all animal substances, that are exposed to its action after life has -become extinct. May it not be asked, What means more effectual could -human wisdom have devised, under similar circumstances? Indeed, many of -the proceedings of bees and other associated insects seem traceable to -a reasoning power; for they exhibit an adaptation of means to ends, and -vary them to suit particular emergencies,--the judicious performance of -actions with a view to some proposed end, is the criterion by which we -judge of rationality. - -On the other hand, the difficulty of ascribing some of their actions to -any other principle than that which is known by the name of _Instinct_, -has led to a classification of the whole of their proceedings under -_that_ head. - -+Instinct+ is a faculty the exercise of which implies an exquisitely fine -mechanism of some of the senses. It appears to operate independently of -all anticipation of consequences; the avenues to knowledge are, to be -sure, less circuitous in these and other animals than in man, neither -experience nor inductive reasoning seem to be at all essential to the -perfection of their operations; they may be said to have, what many an -indolent human being has wished to find,--a royal road to knowledge. - - "If in the Insect, Reason's twilight ray - Sheds on the darkling mind a doubtful day. - Plain is the steady light her _Instincts_ yield. - To point the road o'er life's unvaried field; - If few those Instincts, to the destin'd goal, - With surer course, their straiten'd currents roll." - - +Evans.+ - -One writer, and that a very ingenious one, has endeavoured to resolve -_all_ instincts into reason, and has boldly hazarded the following -conjecture. "If we were better acquainted with the histories of those -insects that are formed into societies,--as the bees, wasps and ants,--we -should find that their arts and improvements are not so similar and -uniform as they now appear to us, but that they arose in the same manner -(from experience and tradition) as the arts of our own species; though -their reasoning is from few ideas, is busied about fewer objects, and is -exerted with less energy[W]." - -[Footnote W: Darwin.] - -Since the Doctor wrote this passage, much light has been thrown upon -those very subjects on which he laments our defective knowledge: but -whilst it strengthens what I have said as to the possession of reason by -insects, it confirms my observations respecting their instinctive powers. - -There are facts recorded, in +Huber's+ _researches respecting ants_, -which exhibit in some at least of those insects, (_the Amazons_,) a -power of acquiring habits and characters which cannot well be regarded -as merely instinctive. The Amazons take advantage of an improvement in -their condition, and avail themselves of that strength, which sometimes -accrues to them, in consequence of a large accession to their numbers. -To relieve themselves from labour, they enslave, by a _coup de main_, a -feeble colony of ants of another species, and transporting it to their -own domicile, impose upon the captives the task of collecting provision, -rearing the young, repairing the formicary, &c. &c. The Amazons become -a complete aristocracy, and like ladies and gentlemen, have servants to -wait upon them. - -I shall not attempt to determine the point where intellect begins -to dawn, nor to assign the boundary where instinct assumes the -characteristics of reason. For it is no where more difficult to -discriminate between the regular operation of implanted motives, and the -result of acquired knowledge and habits, than in studying the phænomena -presented by the bee. For the present therefore I must be allowed to -regard the provinces of reason and instinct as undefinable; indeed it -seems highly probable that our limited faculties may never enable us to -acquire a knowledge of them. Still the facts which I have related, and -those which I shall proceed to detail, afford such apparently strong -evidences of a reasoning faculty, that without introducing that faculty -as their source, I shall be at a loss to explain the phænomena. +Dr. -Darwin+ in his _Zoonomia_, relates an anecdote of apparent ratiocination -in a _wasp_, which had caught a fly nearly as large as itself. Kneeling -down, the Doctor saw the wasp dissever the head and tail from the trunk -of the fly, and attempt to soar with the latter: but finding when about -two feet from the ground that the wings of the fly carried too much -sail, and caused its prize and itself to be whirled about, by a little -breeze that had arisen, it dropped upon the ground with its prey, and -deliberately sawed off with its mandibles, first one wing and then the -other: having thus removed these impediments to its progress, the wasp -flew away with its booty, and experienced no further molestation from the -wind. - -Some of the proceedings of bees in glass hives cannot be referred to -their instinctive faculties,--glass being a substance which would -never be presented to them in their natural state. "Having frequently -observed," says +Dr. Evans+, "on the inside of my glass hives, prior -to the formation of cells, a number of gluey spots ranged at regular -distances, I supposed them at first to be intended as a kind of -land-marks, pointing out the divisions of the future streets, &c. -On re-examination, however, I found them evidently used as so many -footstools on the slippery glass, each bee resting on one of these with -its middle pair of legs, while the fore-claws were hooked with the hind -ones of the next above; thus forming a _living_ ladder, by which the -workers were enabled to reach the top, and pursue their favourite plan of -commencing their combs there." - -A very striking illustration of the reasoning power of bees occurred -to my friend +Mr. Walond+. Inspecting his bee-boxes at the end of -October 1817, he perceived that a centre comb, burthened with honey, had -separated from its attachments, and was leaning against another comb, so -as to prevent the passage of the bees between them. This accident excited -great activity in the colony, but its nature could not be ascertained -at the time. At the end of a week, the weather being cold and the bees -clustered together, Mr. W. observed, through the window of the box, that -they had constructed two horizontal pillars betwixt the combs alluded -to, and had removed so much of the honey and wax from the top of each, -as to allow the passage of a bee: in about ten days more there was an -uninterrupted thoroughfare; the detached comb at its upper part had been -secured by a strong barrier and fastened to the window with the spare -wax. This being accomplished, the bees removed the horizontal pillars -first constructed, as being of no further use. "During this laborious -process," says Mr. W. "the glass window in the box was as warm as I had -felt it during any part of the summer, and the bees were as active within -the box." - -+M. P. Huber+ of Lausanne, in his _Observations on Humble-bees_, -published in the sixth volume of the Linnæan Transactions, has given a -curious detail of some experiments in which the bees conducted themselves -somewhat similarly to those of Mr. Walond. Having inclosed twelve -humble-bees in a bell-glass, upon a table, he gave them a part of their -cones or chrysalids, containing about ten silken cocoons, and freeing -the latter as much as possible from wax, he fed the bees for some days -with pollen only. The cells containing the cones being very unequal, the -mass was so unsteady as extremely to disquiet the bees. Their affection -for their young led them to mount upon the cocoons, to impart warmth to -the inclosed larvæ: they could not do this without causing the comb to -totter or lean on one side, and having no wax for fastening the work to -the table, they had recourse to the following ingenious expedient. Two -or three bees got upon the comb, and descending to the lower edge of it, -with their heads downwards, hung from it by the hooks of their hind feet, -and clung to the table by those of the second pair, which are very long; -thus did they keep this piece of cell-work steady by their own muscular -strength. When fatigued by this constrained and irksome position, they -were relieved by their comrades; even the queen assisted. Having kept the -bees in this state till nearly the end of the third day, and shown them -to several persons, Huber introduced some honey, to enable them to form -wax: they soon constructed pillars, extending from the most projecting -parts of the cell-work to the table, and kept the cell-work in a firm -position. The wax, however, getting gradually dry, the pillars gave -way; when the poor insects adopted their former straining expedient for -steadying the comb, and continued, perseveringly, to sustain it in this -manner, till Huber took pity on them and glued the cake of comb firmly -to the table. Could the most intelligent architect have more judiciously -propped a tottering edifice, till adequate supports could be applied? - -The resources of bees, when attacked by the _Sphinx Atropos_ or -_Death's-head Hawk-moth_ are much in point. In this case, according -to +Huber+, they construct small archways and various other ingenious -barricadoes, with a mixture of wax and propolis, so as just to allow the -egress and ingress of one or two workers, and effectually to exclude -their marauding enemy. The bees do not, as if guided by mere instinct, -commence their fortifications on the first attack of the Sphinx, nor -until they have been robbed of nearly their whole stock of honey. This -therefore seems to be a case in which reason is taught by experience, -and which admits in all its particulars of a direct comparison with -human reason and human contrivance. Moreover, on the cessation of -danger, and when honey-flowers were abundant, the colony prosperous -and swarms prepared to issue, these sagacious engineers demolished the -fortifications, in order to give room for the exit and entrance of the -bees. A colony that had been thus attacked in 1804, and was tardy in -its defensive preparations, having derived instruction from the past, -constructed fresh ramparts speedily, on the reappearance of the Sphinx in -1807, and thus guarded itself from impending danger. - -From what has been said in page 296, it seems probable that the lives -of the working bees do not extend beyond a year, at the utmost: if -therefore my inference be legitimate, the information of the colony of -1807 must have been traditional, or else derived from a queen which had -reigned over them from 1804. On the subject of traditional information, -see Memory of Bees. It is further remarkable, as a confirmation of this -process of ratiocination and reflection, that if the apiarian apply -proper guards before the entrances to the hives, when the Sphinx makes -its appearance, the bees, finding that they are anticipated, devise no -measures of security. - -I shall adduce another instance in support of my position that insects -are endowed with reason, and that they mutually communicate and receive -information. "_A German artist_ of strict veracity, states, that in his -journey through Italy, he was an eye-witness to the following occurrence. -He observed a species of _Scarabæus_ busily engaged, in making for the -reception of its egg a pellet of dung, which when finished, the insect -rolled to the summit of a hillock, and repeatedly suffered it to tumble -down the slope, apparently for the purpose of consolidating the pellet by -the adhesion of earth to it in its rotating motion. During this process, -the pellet unluckily fell into a hole, out of which the beetle was unable -to extricate it. After several ineffectual attempts, the insect went to -an adjoining heap of dung, and soon returned with three companions. All -four applied their united strength to the pellet, and at length succeeded -in pushing it out, when the three assistant beetles left the spot, and -returned to their own quarters[X]." - -[Footnote X: Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 522.] - -+Mr. Hunter+ speaks rather sarcastically, upon the subject of reason -being one of the attributes of insects. "Reason," says he, "has been -ascribed to bees; they have been supposed to be legislators, and even -mathematicians; and though there is some show of reason for these -suppositions, there is much more of imagination." To show how far the -excursive fancy of apiarians had sometimes carried them, Mr. H. selected -a very unfortunate instance, namely, the assertion, as he calls it, that -workers' eggs may be converted into queens,--a fact which has since -been established by a series of the most satisfactory experiments. +Dr. -Virey+, in his _Nouvelle Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle_, denies -that insects possess any portion of intellect, and attributes all their -operations to mere instinct, which he considers as the result of pure -mechanism, depending upon the construction of their nervous systems, in -the same manner as the tune played upon a barrel organ, is dependent on -the notes which the cylinder successively presents to its keys. +Des -Cartes+, and others before him, held a similar opinion, considering -insects as being simply susceptible of external impressions, and through -the medium of that susceptibility stimulated to act. If this doctrine be -correct, instinct is possessed alike by animals and vegetables; in short -by every thing that has life, the difference being not in quality, but in -quantity. - -+Buffon+ attempted to explain the phænomena of insect life by the simple -laws of mechanism, conceding to the insects at the same time a power -of distinguishing and choosing between pleasure and pain. Some have -even ventured to assert that the invariable exactness of the cell-work -of bees is a proof of their stupidity, and "that the wonders of the -honey'd reign," no more bespeak the agency of mind or intellect, than the -configuration of salts into their respective crystals. - - "Shall then proud sophists arrogant and vain. - Spurn all the wonders of the honey'd reign. - And bid alike one mindless influence own - The social bee, and crystallizing stone? - Each link they trace in animation's round, - Dashes their poison'd chalice to the ground." - - +Evans.+ - -If this theory respecting insects were just, it should elucidate all the -phenomena which it undertakes to explain, otherwise it is injurious to -science. Examination will prove it to be a mere hypothetical opinion, -ingenious, and at first sight plausible, but completely unsatisfactory. -This theory is the natural consequence of denying to insects any portion -of intellect, and its erroneousness is shown by their capability of -instruction. Instinct itself cannot be a purely mechanical process, or it -would be incapable of modification, and would, under like circumstances, -always act in the same manner. +Sir Joseph Banks's+ _spider_ that, on -being crippled, changed from a sedentary web-weaver to a hunter, is -an instance of modified instinct[Y]. The well known fact that birds -build their nests differently, where climate and other circumstances -require a variation, is another instance. A _dog_ may be restrained from -obeying its instincts, by the intimidating recollection of a beating -which it had formerly received; a bee, if alarmed, will quit the nectary -of a flower:--here the intellect of the creatures _counteracts their -instincts_. There are other instances in which the intellect appears -to _direct the instincts_. When the bee makes excursive flights in -quest of pasture, its senses serve to guide it, and enable it, by the -aid of memory, to retrace its passage home again. At the conclusion of -its outward and homeward journeys, its instincts immediately begin to -operate; in the one case, teaching it to imbibe nectar, collect pollen, -&c.; in the other, to store and apply those materials to their respective -uses. - -[Footnote Y: The account of this spider was sent to _Dr. Leach_ by _Sir -Joseph Banks_. An interesting history of it is given in the Linnæan -Transactions, vol. ii. page 393. It had lost five of its legs, which were -afterwards reproduced, but the new legs were shorter than those for which -they were substituted.] - -+M. Reimar+ has denied that the lower animals possess _memory_, properly -so called; and has given it as his opinion, that they are only influenced -by past events, in consequence of having present objects before -them,--never by reflection or knowledge of the past, as being past. -But that, with them, a former impression may be renewed, without being -recollected; that it is thus rendered present to the imagination, but has -no place in the memory. For arguments and instances in support of their -being endowed with memory, see page 260. (Organs of Sensation.) - -The possession of the organs of sense implies the possession of some -portion of intellect, for without intellect those organs would seem -incapable of being employed to the greatest advantage. "There is this -difference," says +Mr. Spence+, "between intellect in man, and the rest -of the animal creation. Their intellect teaches them to follow the lead -of their senses, and to make such use of the external world as their -appetites or instincts incline them to,--and _this is their wisdom:_ -while the intellect of man, being associated with an immortal principle, -and connected with a world above that which his senses reveal to him, -can, by aid derived from heaven, control those senses, and render them -obedient to the governing power of his nature; and _this is his wisdom_." -A distinction has been made, and very properly, between wisdom and -knowledge. The former alone can be possessed by the lower animals, man -can possess both. The distinction between them has been very accurately -marked by +Cowper+, though in making it he has confined himself to man -only. - - "Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, - Have oft times no connection. Knowledge dwells - In heads replete with thoughts of other men, - Wisdom in minds attentive to their own." - -It will, I think, be evident to my readers, from the general tenour of -this chapter, that though I make a distinction between the instinct -and the reason of bees, I do not confound their reason with the reason -of man. But to obviate all possibility of misconception, I will at once -define my meaning, when I use the terms insect reason and instinct. - -By _reason_, I mean the power of making deductions from previous -experience or observation, and, thereby of adapting means to ends. -_Instinct_ I regard as a disposition and power to perform certain -actions in the same uniform manner, without reference either to -observation or experience. Those who have attended to this subject, -will be aware that _insect reason_ as above defined, is more restricted -in its functions than _the reason of man_; to which is superadded the -power of distinguishing between the true and the false, and, according -to some metaphysicians, between right and wrong. Reason, in man, has -a regular growth, and a slow progression; all the arts he practises -evince skill and dexterity, proportioned to the pains which have been -taken in acquiring them. In the lower links of creation, but little of -this gradual improvement is observable; their powers carry them almost -directly to their object. They are perfect, as +Bacon+ says, in all their -members and organs from the very beginning. - - "Far different Man, to higher fates assign'd. - Unfolds with tardier step his Proteus mind, - With numerous Instincts fraught, that lose their force - Like shallow streams, divided in their course; - Long weak, and helpless, on the fostering breast, - In fond dependence leans the infant guest. - Till Reason ripens what young impulse taught. - And builds, on sense, the lofty pile of thought; - From earth, sea, air, the quick perceptions rise, - And swell the mental fabric to the skies." - - +Evans.+ - -"Every manufacturing art," says +Dr. Reid+, "was invented by some one -man, successively improved and perfected by others; and when thus -perfected, known only by those to whom it has been taught: while in the -arts of animals no individual can claim the invention. Every animal of -the species has equal skill from the beginning, without teaching, without -experience, or habit." - -"Both Instinct and Reason," says +Dr. Evans+, "appear to lose their -intensity, in proportion as their rays diverge from their proper focus; -and as they are less frequently aroused to action. A domesticated fowl -is furnished with the same apparatus as her wild sisters on the waste, -for rendering her feathers impenetrable to water: yet, living principally -under cover, she secretes much less of the oily fluid, destined for that -purpose, and makes, when accidentally wet, a most ridiculous appearance. -The force of instinctive propensities, when directed to one object, and -uninfluenced by reason, is strongly exemplified in _the idiot bee-eater -of Selborne_, mentioned by +Mr. White+, in his _History of Selborne_. -The collected powers of reason, when concentred in a single focus, is no -less finely instanced in the immortal +Newton+." - -To those readers who have not seen Mr. White's account of the bee-eater, -the following abstract of it may prove acceptable. - -The boy was a resident in Selborne, about the year 1750. He took great -notice of bees from his childhood, and at length used to eat them. In -summer, his few faculties were devoted to the pursuit of them, through -fields and gardens. During winter, his father's chimney corner was his -favourite haunt, where he dozed away his time, in an almost torpid state. -Practice made him so expert, that he could seize honey-bees, humble-bees -or wasps, with his naked hands, disarm them of their stings, and suck -their honey-bags, with perfect impunity. Sometimes he would store the -bees in bottles, and even in his shirt bosom. He was the terror of the -surrounding bee-keepers, whose gardens he would enter by stealth, and -rapping on the outsides of their hives, catch the bees as they came -out to see what was the matter. If in this way he could not obtain a -sufficient number to supply his wants, so passionately fond was he of -honey, that he would sometimes overturn the hives to get at it. He was -accustomed to hover about the tubs of the mead-makers, to beg a draught -of bee-wine, as he called it. As he ran about the fields he made a -humming noise with his lips, resembling that of bees. The lad was lean -in his person, and of a cadaverous unhealthy aspect: he died before he -reached the age of maturity. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV. - -ON THE ARCHITECTURE OF BEES. - - - "Quel abime aux yeux du sage qu'une ruche d'abeilles? Quel sagesse - profonde se cache dans cet abime! Quel philosophe osera le - fonder!"--+Bonnet.+ - -The combs of a bee-hive comprise a congeries of hexagonal cells, formed -by the bees, as receptacles for honey or for embryo bees. A honey-comb is -allowed to be one of the most striking achievements of insect industry, -and an admirable specimen of insect architecture. It has attracted the -admiration of the contemplative philosopher in all ages, and awakened -speculation not only in the naturalist, but also in the mathematician: -so regular, so perfect, is the structure of the cells, that it satisfies -every condition of a refined problem in geometry. Still a review of their -proceedings will lead to the conclusion, as +Huber+ has observed, that -"the geometrical relations, which apparently embellish the productions -of bees, are rather the necessary result of their mode of proceeding, -than the principle by which their labour is guided." "We must therefore -conclude, that the bees, although they act geometrically, understand -neither the rules nor the principles of the arts which they practise so -skilfully, and that the geometry is not in the bee, but in the great -Geometrician who made the bee, and made all things in number, weight and -measure[Z]." - -[Footnote Z: Reid.] - -Before the time of +Huber+, no naturalist had seen the commencement -of the comb, nor traced the several steps of its progress. After many -attempts, he at length succeeded in attaining the desired object, by -preventing the bees from forming their usual impenetrable curtain, by -suspending themselves from the top of the hive; in short, he obliged them -to build upwards, and was thereby enabled, by means of a glass window, to -watch every variation and progressive step in the construction of comb. - -_Each comb in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells backed against -each other: these cells_, looking at them as a whole, may be said to -_have one common base_, though no one cell is opposed directly to -another. This base or partition between the double row of cells is -so disposed as to form a pyramidal cavity at the bottom of each, as -will be explained presently. _The mouths of the cells_, thus ranged on -each side of a comb, _open into two parallel streets_ (there being a -continued series of combs in every well filled hive). These streets are -sufficiently contracted to avoid waste of room and to preserve a proper -warmth, yet _wide enough to allow the passage of two bees abreast_. -Apertures through different parts of the combs are reserved to form near -roads, for crossing from street to street, whereby much time is saved to -the bees. - - "These in firm phalanx ply their twinkling feet, - Stretch out the ductile mass, and form the street, - with many a cross-way path and postern gate. - That shorten to their range the spreading state." - - +Evans.+ - -_The bees_, as has been already observed, _build their cells of an -hexangular form, having six equal sides_, with the exception of the first -or uppermost row, the shape of which is an irregular pentagon, the roof -of the hive forming one of the members of the pentagon, thus: - -[Illustration] - -"There are only three possible figures of the cells," says +Dr. Reid+, -"which can make them all equal and similar, without any useless -interstices. These are the equilateral triangle, the square and the -regular hexagon. It is well known to mathematicians that there is not a -fourth way possible, in which a plane maybe cut into little spaces that -shall be equal, similar, and regular, without leaving any interstices." -Of these three geometrical figures, the hexagon most completely unites -the prime requisites for insect architecture. The truth of this -proposition was perceived by +Pappus+, an eminent Greek philosopher and -mathematician, who lived at Alexandria in the reign of Theodosius the -Great, and its adoption by bees in the construction of honey-comb was -noticed by that ancient geometrician. These requisites are; - -First, Œconomy of materials. There are no useless partitions in a -honey-comb, each of the six lateral pannels of one cell forms also one -of the pannels of an adjoining cell; and of the three rhombs which form -the pyramidal base of a cell, each contributes one-third towards the -formation of the bases of three opposing cells, the bottom or centre of -every cell resting against the point of union of three pannels that are -at the back of it. - -Secondly, Œconomy of room; no interstices being left between adjoining -cells. - -Thirdly, The greatest possible capacity or internal space, consistent -with the two former desiderata. - -Fourthly, Œconomy of materials and œconomy of room produce œconomy of -labour. And in addition to these advantages, the cells are constructed -in the strongest manner possible, considering the quantity of materials -employed. Both the sides and bases are so exquisitely thin, that three -or four placed on each other are not thicker than a leaf of common -writing-paper; each cell, separately weak, is strengthened by its -coincidence with other cells, and _the entrance is fortified with an -additional ledge or border of wax_, to prevent its bursting from the -struggles of the bee-nymph, or from the ingress and egress of the -labourers. This entrance border is _at least three times as thick as -the sides of the cell_, and thicker at the angles than elsewhere, which -prevents the mouth of the cell from being regularly hexagonal, though the -interior is perfectly so. - - "On books deep poring, ye pale sons of toil. - Who waste in studious trance the midnight oil, - Say, can ye emulate with all your rules. - Drawn or from Grecian or from Gothic schools. - This artless frame? Instinct her simple guide, - A heaven-taught Insect baffles all your pride. - Not all yon marshal'd orbs, that ride so high. - Proclaim more loud a present Deity, - Than the nice symmetry of these small cells, - Where on each angle genuine science dwells. - And joys to mark, through wide creation's reign, - How close the lessening links of her continued chain." - - +Evans.+ - -I have just adverted to the ingenuity of the bees in thickening, and -thereby strengthening the mouths of the cells. _Additional strength is -also derived from the bees covering the whole surface of the combs, -but more particularly the edges of the cells, with a peculiar kind of -varnish_, which they collect for the purpose. At first the combs are -delicately white, semitransparent, and exceedingly fragile, smooth but -unpolished: in a short time their surfaces become stronger, and assume -more or less of a yellow tint. The deepening of the colour of honey-combs -has been supposed, by some, to be the effect of age; and in part it may -be: but it is principally owing to the coat of varnish with which the -bees cover them. This varnish strongly resembles propolis, appearing to -differ from it only in containing the colouring material which imparts -to wax its yellow hue. The source of this colouring matter has not -been discovered: it is insoluble in alcohol; but the manufacture of -white wax shows that it is destructible by light.--But to return to the -construction of the cell-work. - -_The pyramidal basis of a cell is formed by the junction of three -rhomboidal or lozenge-shaped portions of wax;_ thus, - -[Illustration] - -the apex of the pyramid being situated where the three obtuse angles of -the lozenges meet. To the exterior edges and angles are attached the -six pannels or sides of each cell. The apex of each pyramidal bottom, -on one side of a comb, forms the angles of the bases of three cells on -the opposite side, the three lozenges respectively concurring in the -formation of the bases of the same cells. This will I hope explain what -is meant by "each cell separately weak, being strengthened by coincidence -with others." The bottom of each cell rests upon three partitions of -opposite cells, from which it receives a great accession of strength. - -As it is desirable that the reader should thoroughly comprehend this -subject, I will restate it in other words.--The partition which separates -the two opposing rows of cells, and which occupies, of course, the middle -distance between their two surfaces, is not a plane but a collection of -rhombs, there being three at the bottom of each cell: the three together -form in shape a flattened pyramid, the basis of which is turned towards -the mouth of the cell; each cell is in form therefore an hexagonal prism, -terminated by a flattened trihedral pyramid, the three sides of which -pyramid are rhombs, that meet at the apex by their obtuse angles. The -plates underneath, represent the opposite surfaces of the pyramidal bases -of adjoining cells, and will, I trust, enable the reader to understand -the foregoing description. - -[Illustration] - -The union of the lozenges in one point, in addition to the support which -it is the means of affording to the three partitions between opposing -cells, is also admirably adapted to receive the little egg and to -concentrate the heat necessary for its incubation. - -Each obtuse angle of the lozenges or rhombs forms an angle of about -110°, and each acute one, an angle of about 70°. +M. Maraldi+ found by -mensuration that the angles of these rhombs which compose the base of -a cell, amounted to 109° 28′ and 70° 32′; and the famous mathematician -+Kœnig+, pupil of the celebrated Bernouilli, having been employed for -that purpose by +M. Reaumur+, has clearly shown, by the method of -infinitesimals, that the quantity of these angles, using the least -possible wax, in a cell of the same capacity, should contain 109° 26′ -and 70° 34′. This was confirmed by the celebrated +Mr. McLaurin+, who -very justly observes, that the bees do truly construct their cells of the -best figure, and with the utmost mathematical exactness. - -The construction of several combs is generally going on at the same -time. No sooner is the foundation of one laid, with a few rows of cells -attached to it, than a second and a third are founded on each side, -parallel to the first, and so on, (if the season give encouragement to -the operations of the bees,) till the hive is filled with their works; -the first constructed comb or combs being always in the most advanced -state, and therefore the first to be completed. - -_The design of every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments are -laid, by one single bee._ This founder-bee forms a block, out of a rough -mass of wax, drawn partly from its own resources, but principally from -those of other bees, which furnish materials, in quick succession, from -the receptacles under their bellies, taking out the plates of wax with -their hind feet, and carrying them to their mouths with their fore-feet, -where the wax is moistened and masticated, till it becomes soft and -ductile. - - Thus, "filter'd through yon flutterer's folded mail, - Clings the cool'd wax, and hardens to a scale. - Swift, at the well-known call, the ready train - (For not a buz boon Nature breathes in vain,) - Spring to each falling flake, and bear along - Their glossy burdens to the builder throng." - - +Evans.+ - -The architect-in-chief, who lays, as it were, the first stone of this and -each successive edifice, determines the relative position of the combs, -and their distances from each other: these foundations serve as guides -for the ulterior labours of the wax-working bees, and of those which -sculpture the cells, giving them the advantage of the margin and angles -already formed. - -The expedients resorted to by that ingenious naturalist, +Huber+, -unfolded the whole process. He saw each bee extract with its hind feet -one of the plates of wax from under the scales where they were lodged, -and carrying it to the mouth, in a vertical position, turn it round; so -that every part of its border was made to pass, in succession, under -the cutting edge of the jaws: it was thus soon divided into very small -fragments; and a frothy liquor was poured upon it from the tongue, so as -to form a perfectly plastic mass. This liquor gave the wax a whiteness -and opacity which it did not possess originally, and at the same time -rendered it tenacious and ductile. The issuing of this masticated mass -from the mouth was, no doubt, what misled Reaumur, and caused him to -regard wax as nothing more than digested pollen. - -The mass of wax, prepared by the assistants, is applied by the -architect-bee to the roof or bottom of the hive, as the case may be; -and thus a block is raised of a semi-lenticular shape, thick at top -and tapering towards the edges. When of sufficient size, a cell is -sculptured on one side of it, by the wax-working bees, who relieve one -another in succession, sometimes to the number of twenty, before the -cell is completely fashioned. At the back and on each side of this first -cell, two others are sketched out and excavated. By this proceeding the -foundations of two cells are laid, the line betwixt them corresponding -with the centre of the opposite cell. As the comb extends, the first -excavations are rendered deeper and broader; and when a pyramidal base -is finished, the bees build up walls from its edges, so as to complete, -what may be called, the prismatic part of the cell. Every succeeding row -of cells is formed by precisely similar steps, until there is sufficient -scope for the simultaneous employment of many workers. - - "These, with sharp sickle, or with sharper tooth, - Pare each excrescence, and each angle smooth, - Till now, in finish'd pride, two radiant rows, - Of snow-white cells, one mutual base disclose. - Six shining pannels gird each polish'd round. - The door's fine rim, with waxen fillet bound, - While walls so thin, with sister walls combin'd. - Weak in themselves, a sure dependence find." - - +Evans.+ - -The pyramidal bases and lateral plates are successively formed, with -surprising rapidity: the latter are lengthened as the comb proceeds, for -the original semi-lenticular form is preserved till towards the last, -when if the hive or box be filled, the sides of all the cells receive -such additions as give them equal depth. - -_The cells intended for the drones_ are considerably larger, and more -substantial, than those for the working bees, and, being later formed, -usually appear near the bottom of the combs. Last of all are built the -_royal cells_, the cradles of the infant queens: of these there are -usually three or four, and sometimes ten or twelve, in a hive, attached -commonly to the central part, but not unfrequently to the edge or side of -the comb. +Mr. Hunter+ says that he has seen as many as thirteen royal -cells in a hive, and that they have very little wax in their composition, -not one-third, the rest he conceives to be farina. Such is the genuine -loyalty of bees, that the wax which they employ with so much geometric -œconomy, in the construction of hexagonal cells, is profusely expended on -the mansions of the royal bee-nymph, one of these exceeding in weight a -hundred of the former. They are not interwoven with them, but suspended -perpendicularly, their sides being nearly parallel to the mouths of the -common cells, several of which are sacrificed to support them. - - "No more with wary thriftiness imprest, - They grace with lavish pomp their royal guest, - Nor heed the wasted wax, nor rifted cell. - To bid, with fretted round, th' imperial palace swell." - - +Evans.+ - -The form of these royal cells is an oblong spheroid, tapering gradually -downwards, and having the exterior full of holes, somewhat resembling the -_rustic_ work of stone buildings. The mouth of the cell, which is always -at its bottom, remains open till the maggot is ready for transformation, -and is then closed as the others are. - -Immediately on the emergence of a ripened queen, the lodge which she -inhabited is destroyed, and its place is supplied by a range of common -cells. The site of this range may always be traced, by that part of the -comb being thicker than the rest, and forming a kind of knot; sometimes -the upper portion of the cell itself remains, like an inverted acorn-cup, -suspended by its short peduncle. - - "Yet no fond dupes to slavish zeal resign'd, - They link with industry the loyal mind. - Flown is each vagrant chief? They raze the dome, - That bent oppressive o'er the fetter'd comb, - And on its knotted base fresh gamers raise. - Where toil secure her well-earn'd treasure lays." - - +Evans.+ - -In this mutilated state only, and not in the breeding season, could Mr. -Hunter have seen this cradle of royalty; for he describes it as the half -of an oval, too wide and shallow to receive its supposed tenant. The -following sketch affords; a representation of the hexagonal cells of a -comb, and also the attachment of the royal cradles. - -[Illustration] - -I have spoken of the perfect regularity in the cell-work of a -honey-comb;--particular circumstances, however, induce a departure from -this exactness: for instance, where bees have commenced a comb with -small cell-work, and afterwards wish to attach to it a set of large -cells, as in the case of drone-cells being required to be appended to -workers-cells. These deviations from the usual regularity renew our -admiration of bee-ingenuity, though Reaumur and Bonnet have regarded them -as examples of imperfection. They effect their object by interposing -three or four series of, what may be called, _cells of transition_, the -bottoms or bases of which are composed of two rhombs and two hexagons, -instead of three rhombs; the rhombs and hexagons gradually varying in -form and relative proportion, till the requisite size, namely that of -the cells which they are approaching, has been attained. The following -outlines will serve to convey to the reader the regular steps in this -progressive increase. - -[Illustration] - -The same gradation is observed when returning to smaller cells. Every -apparent irregularity is therefore determined by a sufficient motive, and -forms no impeachment of the sagacity of the bee. - -The common breeding-cells of drones or workers are, occasionally, (after -being cleaned,) made the depositories of honey; but the cells are never -made so clean, as to preserve the honey undeteriorated. The finest honey -is stored in new cells, constructed for the purpose of receiving it, -their configuration resembling precisely the common breeding-cells: these -_honey-cells vary in size_, being made more or less capacious, _according -to the productiveness of the sources from which the bees are collecting_, -and _according to the season of the year_: the cells formed in July and -August vary in their dimensions from those that are formed earlier; being -intended for honey only, they are larger and deeper, the texture of -their walls is thinner, and they have more dip or inclination: this dip -diminishes the risk of the honey's running out, which from the heat of -the weather, and the consequent thinness of the honey, at this season of -the year, it might otherwise be liable to do. _When the cells_, intended -for holding the winter's provision, are filled, _they are always closed -with waxen lids_, and never re-opened till the whole of the honey in the -unfilled cells has been expended. The waxen lids are thus formed;--The -bees first construct a ring of wax within the verge of the cell, to which -other rings are successively added, till the aperture of the cell is -finally closed with a lid composed of concentric circles. - -The brood-cells, when their tenants have attained a certain age, are also -covered with waxen lids, like the honey-cells; the lids differ a little, -the latter being somewhat concave, the former convex. _The depth of the -brood-cells_ of drones and working bees is about half an inch; _their -diameter_ is more exact, that of the drone-cells being 3⅓ lines[AA], -that of the workers 2⅗ lines. These, says Reaumur, are the invariable -dimensions of all the cells, that ever were, or ever will be made. - -[Footnote AA: A line is the twelfth part of an inch.] - -From this uniform, unvarying diameter of the brood-cells, when completed, -their use has been suggested, as an universal standard of measure, which -would be understood, in all countries, to the end of time. - - "While heav'n-born Instinct bounds their measur'd view, - From age to age, from Zembla to Peru, - Their snow-white cells, the order'd artists frame, - In size, in form, in symmetry the same." - - +Evans.+ - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV. - -AN INQUIRY INTO THE SOURCE AND NATURE OF BEES-WAX. - - -It has long been very generally and implicitly believed, that the yellow -matter (in other words, the pollen or farina of flowers,) which bees -visibly collect upon their thighs, is the prime constituent of wax, the -material of the honey-comb. Even +Bonnet+ and +Reaumur+ were of this -opinion. +Burler+, +Purchas+, +Rusden+ and +Thorley+ have argued against -its identity with wax; and I trust that the observations and experiments -which I am about to detail, will convince the dispassionate inquirer of -the fallacy of this old opinion. - -In the first place, It is to be observed, that where no more comb can be -built, as in old hives, the bees carry in the greatest quantity of this -yellow matter. - -Secondly, That it differs materially from wax, the latter when examined -between the fingers being adhesive, the former crumbly; the latter also -liquefying on the application of heat, whilst the former burns to ashes. - -Thirdly, That the wax of new combs, from whatever source collected, -is uniformly white; whereas the farina, as gathered by the bees, is -always black, yellow, or red, agreeing in colour with the anther-dust -of the flowers in blossom at the time of its collection. Moreover, the -farina, after it has been stored in the cells, retains its original -colour, whilst wax invariably changes, first to a yellow, and lastly to -a blackish tint. Layers of different-coloured farina are generally found -in the cells, if slit down; and every hive, at the season of deprivation, -possesses a store of it. - -Fourthly, That fresh colonies carry in very little, if any, of this -matter, for some days after swarming, though combs are formed within that -period. I noticed this fact in my first colony: the swarm issued from the -parent hive on the 18th of May;--five days of rainy weather succeeded: -during this period the bees were prevented from flying abroad; I fed -them nightly with sugared ale, and before the return of fine weather a -considerable quantity of comb was formed. Now excepting such materials -as the bees might have brought with them from the parent hive, in this -case, the sugared ale alone must have been the source of the wax. +Huish+ -has remarked that unless bees have access to water, and also to sugar -or honey, no comb can be formed. Again, it may be observed, that upon -the storifying plan, when fresh works are commenced in the duplets or -triplets, if the farina were the basis of the combs, an increased -quantity should be carried in. On the contrary, though I have watched -the bees very minutely on these occasions, I scarcely ever witnessed -the introduction of farina; and in such rare instances as I did observe -it, it might fairly be regarded as food for the young larvæ of the bees -contained in the full box or boxes. - - "No pearly loads they bear; but o'er the field - Round flower and fruit the lithe proboscis wield. - From meal-tipp'd anthers steal the lacquer'd crown, - And brush from rind or leaf the silvery down. - Nay oft, when threaten'd storms or drizzling rain. - Close in their walls, th' impatient hosts detain, - E'en from the yellow hoard's nectareous rill, - Their tubes secerning can a stream distil, - Clear and untinctur'd as the fountain wave, - That glides, slow trickling, thro' the crevic'd cave. - But, as that welling wave, around the stone, - In rings concentric, wreathes its sparry zone. - So filter'd thro' yon flutterer's folded mail. - Clings the cool'd +wax+, and hardens to a scale." - - +Evans.+ - -The observations of +Mr. John Hunter+ tended to confirm this view of -the matter; still more so, those of +M. Huber+ and +Son+. In order -to determine the point with greater precision, Huber instituted many -experiments. He lodged a recent swarm in a straw-hive, leaving at its -disposal only a sufficiency of honey and water for its consumption, and -preventing it from going beyond the precincts of a room, so closed as to -admit only a renewal of the air. At the end of five days as many cakes -of beautifully white, though very fragile wax, were suspended from the -roof; the honey had totally disappeared. Still however, as there was a -possibility that the thighs and stomachs of the bees might have conveyed -pollen from the parent hive, he withdrew these five combs, and replaced -the bees in the hive with a fresh supply of honey and water; they renewed -their toil with unabated industry, and soon fabricated new combs: these -last were taken from them; when the patient and indefatigable insects -commenced a third structure of comb. Five times in succession were their -works thus completed and removed, although during the whole of this -period they were fed merely with honey and water, and could not possibly -have had access to farina. - -These experiments, so uniform in their results, give indubitable validity -to the fact,--that honey, through the organic intervention of bees, may -be converted into wax. A contrary experiment was made, by abundantly -supplying a hive with fruit and pollen only: but during eight days -confinement the bees produced no wax whatever, nor exhibited any plates -under their abdominal rings; no combs were formed, nor was an atom of -farina touched,--a clear proof that farina supplies neither wax nor -sustenance to adult bees. The improbability of this indeed is evinced by -its abundance in hives whose tenants have died of famine. And as to its -being the constituent of wax, +Reaumur+ calculated that a well stocked -hive might collect at least 100 pounds of pollen in a season, whereas the -weight of wax fabricated in the same time would not exceed two pounds. - -Experiments have proved the excellence of sugar as a substitute for -honey, and in some instances its superiority for the formation of wax. -It might otherwise have been supposed that bees might form comb from -some particles of wax accidentally present in the honey, and that these -afforded the pabulum for this secretion. To prove therefore that the -saccharine principle alone enabled the bees to produce wax, being still -confined, they were supplied with a syrup made with Canary-sugar and -water, and at the same time comparative experiments were made in another -hive, where the bees were fed on honey and water. The syrup-fed bees -produced wax sooner and more abundantly than the honey-fed bees. Another -fact was also incontrovertibly elicited; namely, that in the old hives -the honey is warehoused, and that in the new ones it is consumed and -transmuted into wax. - -The experiments of +Huber+ have been confirmed by those of +M. Blondelu+, -of Noyau, who addressed a memoir upon this subject to the Society of -Agriculture at Paris, in May 1812. +Huish+ has critically examined these -experiments of Huber, but without being convinced by them: for having -observed pollen on the thighs of bees when swarming, and upon dissection, -in their stomachs also, he considers that pollen, elaborated in the -second stomach of the bee, "contains in itself the principle of wax." -Were this the case, what a store of pollen must the bees have reserved, -in Huber's experiments, wherein they formed five successive sets of comb, -without access to fresh pollen! The pollen or bee-bread, which Huish -discovered on the thighs and in the stomachs of some of his bees, was -most likely intended for larva-food; they were probably bees that had -been abroad, and joined the swarm on their passage home, before they -had deposited their freight in the parent hive. With this pollen (or -ambrosia, as it has been called), after conversion into a sort of whitish -jelly by the action of the bee's stomach, where it is probably mixed with -honey, and then regurgitated, the young brood, immediately upon their -exclusion and until their change into nymphs, are fed by the nursing-bees -several times a day. The opinion that pollen is the prime constituent of -wax was held by +Buffon+, and remains uncontradicted in an edition of -his Works so late as 1821. +Arthur Dobbs+, Esq., in the Philosophical -Transactions for 1752, instead of considering wax as digested pollen -discharged from the stomach of the bee, regards it as being emitted _per -annum_; and as he speaks of its discharge in husks or shells, doubtless -he saw it in that form, which it is now known to assume when moulded upon -the body of the bee. Indeed he says that he has had swarming bees alight -upon his hand, and drop warm wax upon it. Its being secreted only by the -under side of the belly might easily deceive, and lead him to regard it -as alvine excrement. - -I will here subjoin some more proofs of the non-identity of wax and -pollen. So long ago as 1768, the +Lusatian Society+ (called _Société des -Abeilles_, founded at little Bautzen, a village in Upper Lusatia, under -the auspices of the Elector of Saxony,) knew that wax was not discharged -from the mouths of bees, but was secreted in thin scales among their -abdominal rings or segments. About 1774, +Mr. Thorley+ caught a bee just -entering its hive, and found, among the plaits of its belly, no less -than six pieces or scales of solid wax, perfectly white and transparent, -and he oftentimes saw wax in the same situation. +M. Duchet+, in his -_Culture des Abeilles_, quoted by +Wildman+ in 1778, declares that wax -is formed of honey; and relates in proof of it, that he has seen a -broken comb of an overset hive, which was repaired during bad weather, -when the bees could not acquire any other material. This statement of -Duchet corresponds with my own observation, as stated in page 357, but -is not so conclusive. In Duchet's instance there might have been other -materials in the hive besides honey; whereas in my case the bees had -access to no materials whatever, excepting the sugared ale and the honey -which they had conveyed from the parent hive, the swarm having been just -hived. +Wildman+, in his Treatise on the Management of Bees, states his -having seen pieces of wax, like fish scales, on the hive floor of a -fresh swarmed colony, part of which he thinks must at least have been -formed upon the body of the bee; some flakes might have fallen from the -combs then constructing, but there were many pieces among them which -were concave on one side and convex on the other, as if moulded on the -insect's belly. Flakes were likewise seen, hanging loose, between the -abdominal scales of the bees. In 1792, +Mr. John Hunter+, apparently -unacquainted with antecedent conjectures, detected the genuine reservoir -of wax under the bee's belly. He considered wax as an external secretion -of oil, formed and moulded between the abdominal scales of the insect. -+Dr. Evans+ confirms the testimony of Wildman and Hunter, having been an -eye-witness to the formation of wax into flakes. "One or more bees," -he remarks, "may be often seen before the door of the hive, supporting -themselves by their two fore-feet, fluttering their wings, and agitating -the hind parts of their bodies. They are then evidently moulding the -wax between their abdominal scales, the motion of the wings serving to -preserve their balance, and as a signal for their companions within to -come and carry off the falling flakes." In the Philosophical Transactions -for 1807, +Mr. Knight+ states that there is no such secretory process; -that the wax is laid on the scales of the abdomen for the convenience of -carriage, and to receive warmth preparatory to cell-building. - -To complete the evidence however, to me so irresistible, in favour of -the wax-secreting faculty of the bee's body, I observe finally, that -in 1793, M. Huber's observations led him to the same conclusion as Mr. -Hunter's, relative to the nature of the laminæ under the abdominal -scales: but Huber slumbered not there, he prosecuted the inquiry more -successfully than any preceding naturalist, and at length demonstrated -the secreting organs which had eluded the scrutiny of Swammerdam, Hunter, -and other acute anatomists. He found that these laminæ were contained in -distinct receptacles, on each side of the middle process of the scales; -he examined with great care the form and structure of these secreting -cavities, which are peculiar to working bees. Each working bee has -eight of these organs, sacklets or small compartments. Their general -shape is an irregular pentagon, and the plates of wax, being moulded in -them, exhibit accordingly the same form. A perforation of their lining -membrane on the side next to the abdomen, started a jet of transparent -fluid, which congealed on cooling; in this state it resembled wax, and -became again fluid on the application of heat. Comparative experiments -were made with the substance contained in the pouches and with the wax -of fresh combs: a great similarity between these two substances was -discerned; the latter appeared somewhat more compound, having probably -received some additional ingredient, while employed as the material for -building. The secreting function of the membrane on the inner surface -of these cavities, was further evinced, by a more minute examination of -its structure, which exhibited a number of folds, forming an hexagonal -net-work, analogous to the inner coat of the second stomach of ruminating -quadrupeds. Huber does not appear to have known the observations either -of Duchet or of Wildman on this subject, although they were made long -prior to Mr. Hunter's; for he quotes only from the latter. - -When combs are wanted, bees fill their crops with honey, and retaining -it in them, hang together in a cluster from the top of the hive, and -remain inactive about twenty-four hours. During this time the wax is -secreted, and may be seen in laminæ, under the abdominal scales, whence -it is removed by the hind legs of the bee, and transferred to the fore -legs; from them it is taken by the jaws, and after being masticated as -described in Chap, XXXIV, page 347, the fabrication of comb commences. - -"To see the wax-pockets in the hive-bee, you must press the abdomen, -so as to cause its distention; you will then find, on each of the four -intermediate ventral segments, separated by the carina or elevated -central part, two trapeziform whitish pockets, of a soft membranaceous -texture: on these the laminæ of wax are formed, in different states, more -or less perceptible[AB]." - -[Footnote AB: Kirby and Spence.] - -+Messrs. Huber+ and +Son+ ascertained that the office of collecting -honey, for the elaboration of wax, is filled by a particular description -of bees or labourers, to which they have given the name of _wax-workers_. -These bees are susceptible of an increase in size, as is evident from -the state of their stomachs, when quite full of honey. Dissection has -shown that their stomachs are more capacious than those of the bees that -are differently occupied. Bees not possessed of this expanding stomach, -gather no more honey than is necessary to supply the immediate wants of -themselves and their companions, with whom they readily share it: these -are called _nursing-bees_, their principal duty being to attend the -eggs and larvæ. The task of storing the hive with provisions devolves -upon the wax-workers, who, when not occupied in the construction of -comb, disgorge their honey into those cells which are intended for its -reception. By marking the bees, it was found that they never encroached -upon each other's employment: this strict adjustment of duty is the -more remarkable, since the power of producing wax is common both to the -nursing- and wax-working bees, a small quantity of wax being really found -in the receptacles of the nursing-bees. - -In the foregoing experiments for ascertaining the sources of wax, the -bees had borne their confinement without evincing the least impatience; -but on another occasion, when shut up with a brood of eggs and larvæ, -and without pollen, though honey was copiously supplied, they manifested -uneasiness and rage at their imprisonment. Fearing the consequence of -this state of tumult being prolonged, Huber allowed them to escape in the -evening, when too late to collect provisions; the bees soon returned -home. At the end of five days, during which this experiment was tried, -the hive was examined:--the larvæ had perished, and the jelly that -surrounded them on their introduction into the hive had disappeared. -The same bees were then supplied with a fresh brood, together with some -comb containing pollen: very different indeed was their behaviour with -this outfit; they eagerly seized the pollen and conveyed it to the -young; order and prosperity were re-established in the colony; the larvæ -underwent the usual transformations; royal cells were completed and -closed with wax, and the bees showed no desire to quit their habitation. -These experiments afford indisputable evidence of the origin of wax and -the destination of pollen. - -Though the wax of honey and brood-comb be an original secretion from the -body of the bee, wax is also considered by some as a vegetable substance -existing abundantly in nature. According to +Proust+, it forms the -silvery down on the leaves, flowers and fruit of many plants, and resides -likewise in the feculæ of others. +Dr. Darwin+, in his _Phytologia_, -supposes that wax is secreted to glaze over the fecundating dust of the -anthers, and prevent its premature explosion from excessive moisture: to -an unseasonable dispersion of anther-dust he ascribes the failure of -orchard and corn crops in summers of extreme humidity. The wax-tree of -Louisiana[AC] (_Myrica cerifera_) contains immense quantities of wax. -In this respect there appears an identity betwixt animal and vegetable -secretion, which may be viewed as indicative of simplicity in the -structure of the bee: a still simpler organization exists in the aphis, -which extracts the saccharine juices from the leaves and bark of trees, -and expels them again nearly unchanged[AD]. - -[Footnote AC: _Vide_ Part I. Chap. 28.] - -[Footnote AD: _Vide_ Part I. Chap. 5.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI. - -POLLEN. - - -+_Pollen_+ and _Farina_, in the language of Botanists, are terms applied -to the powdery particles discharged by the anthers of flowers in warm dry -weather, and which hang about the stamina. The colour, as well as the -structure of pollen, varies in different plants. Its use, in fecundating -the germens of flowers, is well known: the services of bees, towards -that end, will be noticed in a separate chapter. The sixth volume of the -Linnæan Transactions contains an interesting paper upon this substance, -from the pen of +Mr. Luke Howard+. - -_Pollen has a capsular structure_, varying its shape in different -flowers, insomuch as to be a popular object for the microscope. Each -grain consists commonly of a membranous bag, which, when it has come -to maturity, bursts on the application of moisture: this bursting is -naturally effected by the honey-like exudation of the stigma; but if -extraneous moisture accomplish it prematurely, the pollen is rendered -useless for the purpose of fructification. Whenever moistened, the bag -explodes with great force, and discharges a subtle vapour or essence, -which, when released by the peculiar moisture of the stigma, performs -effectually its final purpose. - -This substance was once erroneously supposed to be the prime constituent -of wax; but the experiments of +Hunter+ and +Huber+ have proved that wax -is a secretion from the bodies of wax-working bees[AE], and that the -principal purpose of pollen is to nourish the embryo-bees; (it has been -called the ambrosia of the hive). Huber was the first who suggested this -idea, and it well accords with what we observe among other parts of the -animal kingdom;--birds, for instance, feed their young with different -food from what they take themselves. Mr. Hunter examined the stomachs of -the maggot-bees, and found farina in all, but not a particle of honey -in any of them. Huber considers the pollen as undergoing a peculiar -elaboration in the stomachs of the nursing-bees, to be fitted for the -nutriment of the larvæ. - -[Footnote AE: _Vide_ Chap. XXXV.] - -"In spring," says +Dr. Evans+, "which may be called the bee's first -_carrying_ season, scarcely one of the labourers is seen returning to the -hive, without a little ball or pellet of farina, on each of its hinder -legs. These balls are invariably of the same colour as the anther-dust -of the flowers then in bloom, the different tints of yellow, as pale, -greenish or deep orange, being most prevalent." The bees may frequently -be observed to roll their bodies on the flower, and then, brushing off -the pollen which adheres to them, with their feet, form it into two -masses, which they dispose of in the usual way. In very dry weather, -when probably the particles of pollen cannot be made to cohere, I have -often seen them return home so completely enveloped by it, as to give -them the appearance of a different species of bee. The anther-dust, thus -collected, is conveyed to the interior of the hive, and there brushed off -by the collector or her companions. +Reaumur+ and others have observed, -that _bees prefer the morning for collecting this substance_, most -probably that the dew may assist them in the moulding of their little -balls. "I have seen them abroad," says Reaumur, "gathering farina before -it was light;" they continue thus occupied till about ten o'clock. - - "Brush'd from each anther's crown, the mealy gold. - With morning dew, the light fang'd artists mould. - Fill with the foodful load their hollow'd thigh, - And to their nurslings bear the rich supply." - - +Evans.+ - -This is their practice during the warmer months; but in April and May, -and at the settlement of a recent swarm, they carry pollen throughout -the day; but even in these instances, the collection is made in places -most likely to furnish the requisite moisture for moulding the pellets, -namely, in shady and sometimes in very distant places. - -When a bee has completed her loading, she returns to the hive, _part_ of -her cargo _is instantly devoured_ by the nursing-bees, to be regurgitated -for the use of the larvæ, and _another part is stored_ in cells for -future exigencies, _in the following manner_. The bee, while seeking a -fit cell for her freight, makes a noise with her wings, as if to summon -her fellow-citizens round her; she then fixes her two middle and her two -hind legs upon the edge of the cell which she has selected, and curving -her body, seizes the farina with her fore legs, and makes it drop into -the cell: thus freed from her burthen, she hurries off to collect again. -Another bee immediately packs the pollen, and kneads and works it down -into the bottom of the cell, probably mixing a little honey with it, -judging from the moist state in which she leaves it; an air-tight coating -of varnish finishes this storing of pollen. - -From the uniform colour of each collection, it is reasonable to suppose -that _the bee never visits more than one species of flower on the same -journey;_ this was the opinion of +Aristotle+, and the generality -of modern observers have confirmed it. +Reaumur+, however, supposed -that the bee ranged from flowers of one species to those of another -indiscriminately. +Mr. Arthur Dobbs+, in the Philosophical Transactions -for 1752, states that he has repeatedly followed bees when collecting -pollen; and that whatever flowers they first alighted upon decided -their choice for that excursion, all other species being passed over -unregarded: +Butler+ had previously asserted the same thing. Here we see -the operation of a discriminating instinct, which in the first place -leads the insect to make an aggregation of homogeneous particles, which -of course form the closest cohesion; and in the next place prevents the -multiplication of hybrid plants. This remark was made by +Sprengel+, who -has confirmed the observations of Dobbs, Butler, and others. The bees, -which Reaumur observed to visit flowers of different species, might have -been in quest of honey as well as of pollen. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII. - -PROPOLIS. - - -Besides the honey and pollen which are gathered by bees, they collect -a resinous substance, that is very tenacious, semitransparent, and -which gives out a balsamic odour, somewhat resembling that of storax. -In the mass, it is of a reddish brown colour; when broken, its colour -approaches that of wax. Dissolved in spirit of wine or oil of turpentine, -it imparts, as varnish, a golden colour to silver, tin, and other white -polished metals. Being supposed to possess medicinal virtue, it was -formerly kept in the shop of the apothecary. According to Vauquelin, -propolis consists of one part of wax and four of pure resin; in which -respect, and in its yielding the same acid, (the _benzoic_,) it resembles -balsam Peru. It also contains some aromatic principles. - -With propolis, bees attach the combs to the roof and sides of their -dwelling, stop crevices, fasten the hives or boxes to the floors and -roofs, strengthen the weak places of their domicile, and varnish the -cell-work of their combs. The chapter on Instincts details the modes in -which bees employ it for their protection against intruders into their -hives. From its being used for the firm attachment of combs to the roofs -of hives, it must be the first matter collected by a recent swarm. The -term Propolis is derived from the Greek, and signifies 'before the -city,' bees having been observed to make use of it, in strengthening the -outworks of their city. - -Reaumur was unable to discover its vegetable source. It is generally -supposed to be gathered from the resinous exudations of the poplar, -alder, birch, and willow; according to Riem, from pines and other trees -of the fir tribe; though some authors have alleged that bees can produce -it where no such trees are near them, and that turpentine and other -resins have been disregarded when laid before them. A recent experiment -of Huber has solved this question: he planted in spring some branches of -the wild poplar, before the leaves were developed, and placed them in -pots near his apiary: the bees alighting on them separated the folds of -the largest buds with their forceps, extracted the varnish in threads, -and loaded with it, first one thigh and then the other; for they convey -it like pollen, transferring it by the first pair of legs to the second, -by which it is lodged in the hollow of the third. Huber examined the -chemical properties of this varnish, and identified it with the propolis -which fastens the combs to the hives. - -With respect to the absence of fir-trees, &c. in the neighbourhood of -the hives, it is to be recollected, in the first place, that _bees will -fly about three miles_ (some say five,) for what they may want: +Huber+ -_thinks that the radius of the circle they traverse does not exceed half -a league_, yet says that the question is undecided. In the second place, -that a balsamic and tenacious secretion is found upon the buds of several -plants and trees, which are often crowded with these insects; such for -instance as the tacamahac, horse-chesnut, and hollyhock. Dr. Evans says -that he has been an eye-witness of their collecting the balsamic varnish -which coats the young blossom buds of the hollyhock, and has seen them -rest at least ten minutes on the same bud, moulding the balsam with their -fore-feet and transferring it to the hinder legs, as above stated. When -finally moulded, the pellets of propolis are of a lenticular form. - - "With merry hum the Willow's copse they scale, - The fir's dark pyramid, or Poplar pale, - Scoop from the Alder's leaf its oozy flood, - Or strip the Chesnut's resin-coated bud, - Skim the light tear that tips Narcissus' ray. - Or round the Hollyhock's hoar fragrance play. - Soon temper'd to their will through eve's low beam, - And link'd in airy bands the viscous stream. - They waft their nut-brown loads exulting home, - That form a fret-work for the future comb, - Caulk every chink where rushing winds may roar, - And seal their circling ramparts to the floor." - - +Evans.+ - -As to the bees refusing resinous substances, when presented to them, -as substitutes for propolis, +Mr. Knight+ has assured us, in the -Philosophical Transactions, that this is not the fact; as he had seen -them carry off a composition of wax and turpentine, which had been laid -over the decorticated parts of his trees. - -The bees blend this substance with wax in different proportions, as -occasion may require. Among the ancients, it bore different names, -according to the quantity of wax it contained. Virgil made this -distinction, though +Mr. Martin+ conceives that his _narcissi lachrymæ_, -_cera_ [cum quâ]--"spiramenta tenuia linunt,"--and _gluten_, all mean -the same thing: this is probably a mistake. It seems much more likely -that +Virgil+ should mean _metys_, _pissoceron_ and _propolis_, the -three names by which +Pliny+ says that the varieties of propolis were -distinguished in his time. - -I have before alluded to the fortification of the weak places of hives -with propolis. M. Reaumur, whose hives consisted of wooden frames and -panes of glass, wishing to put this talent of the bees to the test, -carelessly fastened the glass of a hive with paper and paste, before -putting in a swarm; the bees soon discovered the weakness of his -paste-work, and indignantly gnawing to pieces this feeble fence, secured -the glass with their own cement. - -I have already observed, that _the sage bee_ chooses the morning for -collecting pollen, on account of the dew's enabling her to compress -it better; but, as moisture would render propolis less coherent, she -_gathers this substance when the day is somewhat advanced_, and when -the warmth of the sun has imparted to it softness and pliancy. These -qualities are however soon lost, after it has been detached from the -secreting surfaces, and exposed to the oxygenizing power of the air. So -rapid is this hardening process, that the bees which store it, oftentimes -find some difficulty in tearing it with their jaws from the thighs of its -collectors. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII. - -IMPORTANCE OF BEES TO THE FRUCTIFICATION OF FLOWERS. - - -Honey is regarded by modern naturalists as of no other use to plants but -to allure insects, which, by visiting the nectaries of their flowers -to procure it, become instrumental to their fertilization, either by -scattering the dust of the stamens upon the stigmata of the same flower, -or by carrying it from those which produce only male blossoms to those -that bear female ones, and thereby rendering the latter fertile. - -No class of insects renders so much service in this way as _bees_; they -_have_ however _been accused of injuring vegetables_, in three ways: 1st, -by purloining for their combs the wax which defends the prolific dust of -the anthers from rain; 2ndly, by carrying off the dust itself, as food -for their young larvæ; and 3dly, by devouring the honey of the nectaries, -intended to nourish the vegetable organs of fructification[AF]. - -[Footnote AF: Darwin's _Phytologia_.] - -In defence of his insect protegées, +Dr. Evans+ has observed: - -"First, That the proportion of wax collected from the anthers is -probably very trifling, it being so readily and abundantly obtainable -from honey. - -"Secondly, That for any depredations committed on the farina, they -amply compensate, by their inadvertent yet providential conveyance of -it, on their limbs and corslets, to the female organs of monoecious or -dioecious plants; whose impregnation must otherwise have depended on the -uncertain winds. This is exemplified in the practice of our gardeners, -who in early spring, before they dare expose their hotbeds to the open -air, and consequently to the access of insects, insure the fertility of -the cucumbers and melons, by shaking a male blossom over each female -flower. For the same purpose, and with the same success, a gentleman in -Shropshire substitutes a male blossom, in place of the female one, at the -top of his embryo cucumber, which instantly adheres, and falls off in due -time. To the same kind intrusion of insects we owe the numberless new -sorts of esculents and endless varieties of flowers in the parterre: - - 'Where Beauty plays - Her idle freaks; from family diffus'd - To family, as flies the father dust - The varied colours run.' - - +Thomson+ - -"Thirdly, That in a great many instances, the honey-cups are completely -beyond the reach of the fructifying organs, and cannot possibly be -subservient to their use. Hence +Sir J. E. Smith+ _believes the honey -to be intended, by its scent, to allure these venial panders to the -flowers_, and thereby shows how highly he estimates their value to -vegetation. See his Introduction to Botany. In the same work, the author -observes that +Sprengel+ has ingeniously demonstrated, in some hundreds -of instances, how the corolla serves as an attraction to insects, -indicating by various marks, sometimes perhaps by its scent, where they -may find honey, and accommodating them with a convenient resting-place or -shelter while they extract it. This elegant and ingenious theory receives -confirmation from almost every flower we examine. Proud man is disposed -to think that - - 'Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,' - -because he has not deigned to explore it; but we find that even the -beauties of the most sequestered wilderness are not made in vain. They -have myriads of admirers, attracted by their charms, and rewarded by -their treasures, which would be as useless as the gold of a miser, to the -plant itself, were they not the means of bringing insects about it." - -Thus the bee, by settling upon and collecting honey from a thousand -different flowers, is thereby assisting the great purpose of vegetable -reproduction, at the same time that the loads she carries home enable -her to construct receptacles for the reproduction of her own race. - -"For the due fertilization of the common _Barberry_, it is necessary that -its irritable stamens should be brought into contact with the pistil, by -the application of some stimulus to the base of the filament; but this -would never take place were not insects attracted, by the melliferous -glands of the flower, to insinuate themselves amongst the filaments, -and thus, while seeking their own food, unknowingly to fulfil the -intentions of Nature in another department." _In some cases the agency -of the hive-bee is inadequate to produce the required end; in these the -humble-bee is the operator:_ these alone, as Sprengel has observed, are -strong enough for instance, to force their way beneath the style-flag of -the _Iris Xiphium_, which in consequence is often barren. _Other insects -besides bees are instrumental in producing the same ends;_ indeed they -are necessary instruments: and hence according to the same naturalist, -in some places, where the particular insect required is not to be met -with, no fruit is formed upon the plant which is usually visited by it, -where it is indigenous; for he supposes that _some plants have particular -insects appropriated to them_. The American _Aristolochia Sipho_, though -it flowers plentifully, never forms fruit in our gardens, probably for -the reason just assigned. The _Date Palm_ affords a striking instance -of the necessity of extraneous intervention to perfect fructification; -male and female flowers are borne on separate trees, and unless the two -sorts be in the neighbourhood of each other, the fruit has no kernel and -is not proper for food. There was a tree of this kind, bearing female -flowers, at Berlin, for the fructification of which, a branch, with -male flowers upon it, was once sent by post from Leipsic, (20 German -miles,) and being suspended over some of the pistils, the tree afterwards -yielded fruit and seed in abundance. +Professor Willdenow+ has stated a -very curious circumstance, concerning the _Aristolochia Clematitis_. He -observes that the stamens and pistils of the flower are inclosed in its -globular base, the anthers being under the stigma, which thereby requires -the intervention of an insect, to convey the pollen to it. The _Tipula -pennicornis_ accomplishes this object; it enters the flower by its -tubular part, which is thickly lined with inflected hairs, so as readily -to admit the fly, but totally to prevent its release, till by the fading -of the corolla the hairs have fallen flat against its sides. Hence the -insect in struggling to effect its escape, brushes off the pollen and -applies it to the stigma, thereby accomplishing the fertilization of the -flower. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Page. - Anatomy of the bee 249 - The head 251 - The proboscis _ib._ - lips 253 - tongue _ib._ - pharynx 254 - œsophagus or gullet _ib._ - mandibles 255 - maxillæ _ib._ - antenna 255, 292, 307 - palpi 256, 308 - eyes 256 - The trunk 250, 256 - The wings 256 - legs 257 - The abdomen 251, 258 - The honey-bag 258 - venom-bag _ib._ - anus _ib._ - ovipositor _ib._ - sting _ib._ - organs of reproduction _ib._ - Anger of bees 288 - not apt to be excited at a distance from home 290 - fatal consequences of 288 - Animation of bees suspended 202 - Antennæ 255, 292, 307 - effects of their excision 309 - organs for communicating information 292 - for receiving meteorological intelligence _ib._ - Antipathies of bees 303 - Ants, anecdotes respecting 183, 205 - (Amazon) anecdote of 323 - enslaved 324 - their milch cattle 74 - white, wonderful fertility of 40 - Aphides 72 - principal source of honey-dew _ib._ - their willing subserviency to bees and ants 75 - wonderful fertility of 32 - Apiary 48 - best aspect for _ib._ - Bonner's 51 - circumstances to be avoided in 48 - to be desired in _ib._ - Apparatus for deprivation 107 - Architecture of bees 339 - commencement and progress of a comb first observed by Huber 340 - construction of a cell 340 - of cells of transition 353 - of drone-cells 350 - of royal-cells 351 - geometrical accuracy of cell-work 342 - demonstrated by Maraldi, Kœnig, and McLaurin 346 - honey-comb, description of 352 - varnish for strengthening cell-work 344 - Armour of defence against bees, &c. 175 - Aurelia. _Vide_ Pupa. - - Bee, honey, comprises three descriptions of individuals 1 - Bee, anatomy of. _Vide_ Anatomy. - Bee-boxes 83 - compared with hives 100 - dimensions of 83 - Dunbar's 102 - observations therein 103 - history of 109 - Huber's 102 - Hunter's _ib._ - materials for, best 83 - Gedde's 111 - Hartlib's 110 - Mew's _ib._ - Reaumur's 102 - Thorley's 111 - Warder's _ib._ - White's _ib._ - centre-boards 88 - floor boards 87 - reference to venders of 89 - Bee bread 9, 371 - dress 175 - eater of Selborne 337 - flowers. _Vide_ Pasturage. - house 52 - shed 99 - Bees, adherence of to life 202 - anger of 288 - protection against 177 - animation of, suspended 201 - antipathies of 303 - attachment to queen 140 - ballasting themselves (erroneous) 48 - black 7 - brooding (erroneous) 6 - build combs sometimes under resting boards 125 - their contests with each other 289 - by single combat _ib._ - by general engagement _ib._ - corsair 207 - death, sudden, from effluvia of Rhus Vernix 197 - diseases of. _Vide_ Diseases of Bees. - drone. _Vide_ Drones. - duration, extraordinary, of a colony 298 - education of 260 - embryo 10 - development of, affected by temperature 14 - enemies of. _Vide_ Enemies of Bees. - evolution of _ab ovo_ 10 - excursions of 377 - exotic. _Vide_ Exotic Bees. - excrement of 188, 194 - fructifiers of flowers. _Vide_ Fructification of Flowers. - generation, absurd theory of 35, 48 - harvest season of 119 - impatient of cold 114 - indisposition to ascend with their works 112 - instincts of. _Vide_ Instincts of Bees. - intellect of 319 - intoxicated sometimes 60 - language of. _Vide_ Language of Bees. - longevity of 296 - mode of approaching 177 - mortality of, extraordinary in 1762 186 - numbers in a hive 3 - number of stocks in some situations 234, 235 - nymph 12 - origin, ancient notion of 48 - overstocking of 235 - perspiration of 273 - poison of 286 - in the pupa state 12 - purchase of 80 - queen. _Vide_ Queen. - regurgitating power of 229 - removal from hives to boxes 148 - respiration of 266 - scouts. _Vide_ Providers. - secretions of 273 - senses of. _Vide_ Senses. - sexes of 20 - sleep of 295 - stinging of 284 - stingless 210 - stock, criterions of a good one 81 - suffocation of 174 - sulphuring of _ib._ - swarming of. _Vide_ Swarming of Bees. - swarming, not apt to sting 138 - striking instance of it 139 - of the contrary _ib._ - transportation of. _Vide_ Transportation. - wax 220 - average quantity in a hive 221 - criterions of good 220 - difference from myrtle wax 224 - annual consumption of 222 - secretion of, promoted by electricity 232 - separation of from honey 216 - source and nature of. _Vide_ Source and Nature - of Bees-wax, - white 221 - working 3 - collectors from birth 15 - compared with drones 5 - destroy the drones 44 - fertile sometimes 23 - office of 3 - sex of 3, 24 - Cuvier's remarks on 24 - Jurine's dissections of _ib._ - usual number in a hive 3 - Braggot, or common mead 245 - Breeding, commencement of 37 - signs of 118 - early, to promote 119 - Hubbard's opinion of 117 - - Cells, construction of. _Vide_ Architecture. - Chrysalis. _Vide_ Pupa. - Circulation 271 - Clustering 123 - Cocoons 11, 12 - Cold, effect of on bees 117 - in diminishing the consumption of honey 185 - Combs, construction of 340 - constructed sometimes under resting-boards 125 - Comparative advantages of storifying and single-hiving 122 - of wooden boxes and straw-hives 100 - - Deprivation 162 - to be exercised cautiously 163 - possible accident at the time of 165 - modes of performing 167 - Isaac's 170 - Keys's 170 - Dovaston's 171 - Evans's 172 - proper periods for 162 - Diseases of bees 184 - Dysentery 188 - Vertigo 189 - Tumefaction of Antennæ 192 - Pestilence or _Faux Couvain_ _ib._ - probable causes of _ib._ - remedies _ib._ - preventive 195 - review of different theories of _ib._ - Dividers and other implements 107 - their use in deprivation 167 - Drones, their use 5, 30 - evolution of _ab ovo_ 14 - massacre of 43 - how effected 44 - not found in all swarms 4 - number usual in a hive 3 - occasional preservation of 44 - sitting upon the eggs 6 - opinion of Mr. Morris _ib._ - of Fabricius _ib._ - of Kirby and Spence _ib._ - Dunbar's observations in his mirror-hive 8, 21 - - Eggs--drone, royal, worker 8 - first laying of 37 - great laying of 116 - misplaced, devoured by workers 42 - number of, laid in a given period 39, 40 - period at which each sort is laid 37 - transportation, opinion of 42 - worker, may be rendered royal 19 - Electricity, effect on secretion of wax and honey 232 - Enemies of bees 199 - protection against 203 - Excrement of bees 188, 194 - Exotic bees 210 - their honey-cells _ib._ - of Guadaloupe _ib._ - Guiana 211 - India _ib._ - South America _ib._ - Basil Hall's Account _ib._ - Eye of the bee, peculiar construction of. _Vide_ Senses. 312 - - Farina 370 - collecting of 371 - time of 372 - confined to one species of flower on each journey 373 - Reaumur's opinion _ib._ - Dobbs, Butler and Sprengel's 373, 374 - conveyance of 372 - food of larvæ, and not the constituent of wax 371 - fructifying power of 370 - preparation of for use 371 - source of 370 - storing of 373 - structure of 370 - Fading 179 - importance of 193 - syrup for _ib._ - modes of _ib._ - times of 152 - Fermentation, conduct of 240 - Fertility of insects 32, 40 - Flies in Madeira wine 201 - Fly, flesh, erroneous judgement respecting 306 - Food of larvæ 10 - Fructification of flowers 380 - instrumentality of bees to that end _ib._ - bees attracted to flowers by their nectar _ib._ - accused by Dr. Darwin of injuring flowers _ib._ - defended by Dr. Evans _ib._ - Opinion of Sir J. E. Smith 382 - of Sprengel 383 - not the only insects that promote - fructification _ib._ - in the Barberry for instance, the Iris Xiphium, the - Aristolochia Sipho of America, the A. Clematitis, and the - Date Palm _ib._ - - Hawk-moth, Death's Head 208 - ravages committed by it in the apiary _ib._ - resources of the bees _ib._ - Hearing, sense of. _Vide_ Sensation, organs of; and Senses. - Hives 95 - Chelmsford and Hertford 96 - compared with boxes 100 - construction of, best 97 - dimensions of 96 - distances at which they should stand from each other 49 - Dunbar's 102 - his observations therein 103 - heat occasional in 39 - usual in _ib._ - materials proper for 95 - leaf 102 - Moreton 96 - Huber's 91 - Huish's 90 - preparation of 137 - Reaumur's 93 - situation proper for 49 - straw 96 - Thorley's 92 - Wildman's 93 - with glasses _ib._ - Hiving of swarms 136 - Super- and Nadir- 124, 151 - Honey 226 - analysis of 233 - animalization of 227 - candying of 196 - contrivances of bees to keep it in open cells 228 - Corsican, not mulcted by the Romans 63 - criterions of good 232 - deleterious 65, 190, 230 - flavour affected by pasturage 65, 229 - by season 232 - by mode of separation _ib._ - harvests of 165 - preservation of 233 - qualities of 231 - quantity required for winter consumption 162 - average afforded by a colony 226 - sometimes taken _ib._ - secretion of, promoted by electricity 232 - separation of, from wax 216 - taken by means of dividers 167 - Honeycomb 339 - Honey-dew 71 - ancient opinions of 71 - modern ditto 72 - Gilbert White's 71 - Dr. Evans's 72 - Dr. Darwin's _ib._ - Mr. Curtis's _ib._ - Sir J. E. Smith's 73 - Boissier de Sauvages's 79 - trees addicted to it 77 - yields a great harvest to the storifyer 78 - Humble-bees 207, 209, 319, 327 - Humming, causes of 270 - - Idiot bee-eater 337 - Imago 13 - Implements, bee 107 - Impregnation. _Vide_ Queen. - Instinct 318 - definition of 335 - most remarkable in creatures that congregate 318 - of humble-bees _ib._ - all the phænomena of insect life not referable to it 322 - Darwin's opinion 323 - Hunter's 330 - Virey's 331 - Des Cartes' _ib._ - Buffon's _ib._ - circumstance noticed by Dr. Evans 325 - by Mr. Walond 236 - Huber's humble-bees 327 - Amazon ants 323 - bee fortifications 328 - anecdote of a beetle 330 - Instinct may be directed by intellect 333 - modified and counteracted by intellect _ib._ - instanced in birds' nests _ib._ - in Sir J. Banks's spider 332 - in dogs 333 - Maraldi's Slug 320 - Reaumur's Snail 319 - Reimar's opinion of memory 333 - weakened by domestication 336 - strengthened by concentration _ib._ - Intellect of bees 319 - capable of modifying and counteracting instinct 333 - capable of directing instinct _ib._ - - Jelly, royal 20 - Jurine, Miss, dissections of 24 - - Knowledge distinguished from Wisdom 334 - - Language of bees 291 - Mr. Knight's opinion _ib._ - M. Huber's _ib._ - his experiments _ib._ - Larvæ 10 - food of _ib._ - progressive growth of 12 - motions of 15 - voraciousness of 12 - inclosure or sealing up of 11 - commencement of spinning cocoon _ib._ - worker may become royal 19 - Leaf-hives 102 - Dunbar's 103 - Huber's 105 - Hunter's 102 - Reaumur's _ib._ - Leaven, artificial 242 - natural 240, 242 - Locusts, female, destroyed by males 46 - Longevity of bees 296 - extraordinary duration of a colony 298 - - Mead, antiquity of 236 - Braggot, or common 245 - directions for making 244 - esteemed by our ancestors 237 - ideal nectar of the Scandinavians _ib._ - Memory of bees 260, 314 - Reimar's opinion 333 - Metys 378 - Mortality among bees and wasps 186 - Moth-wax 199 - eggar, anecdote of 306 - hawk. _Vide_ Hawk-moth. - Motions of insects 274 - instances of extraordinary power of 275 - - Nadir-hiving 124, 151 - Nutrition 272 - Nymph 12 - resemblance to a mummy 13 - - Palpi 256 - Pasturage 55 - effect on the flavour of honey 66, 230 - ancient opinion of 65 - Barthelemy's _ib._ - Duppa's 230 - noxious 67, 230 - Xenophon's opinion of 67 - Tournefort's _ib._ - Darwin's opinion of 68 - Barton's 68, 231 - Pellets, moulding of 372 - Perspiration 273 - Pissoceros 378 - Poison of Bees 286 - its nature _ib._ - crystallizes in drying _ib._ - Pollen. _Vide_ Farina. - Propolis 375 - analysis of _ib._ - mode of conveying 376 - source of _ib._ - Huber's experiments _ib._ - Evans's observations 377 - Knight's 378 - form of its pellets 377 - variously compounded with wax 378 - time of gathering 379 - uses of 375 - substitutes sometimes used for 378 - Reaumur's experiment _ib._ - Providers, or Scouts 131 - Warder's opinion of 132 - Butler's _ib._ - Knight's _ib._ - Evans's _ib._ - Duchet's _ib._ - Reaumur's _ib._ - Buffon's _ib._ - Bonnet's _ib._ - Huber's _ib._ - Bonner's 135 - Pupa 12 - resemblance of to a mummy 13 - - Queen-bees, artificial 20 - discovery attributed to Schirach _ib._ - said to have been long known 20 - opinions of Vogel and Monticelli _ib._ - experiment of Dunbar 22 - not mute as Huber supposed 23 - attachment of workers to 141 - enmity towards, and combats with each other 281 - evolution of _ab ovo_ 14 - homage paid to 144 - impregnation of 25 - opinions concerning _ib._ - Bonner's 28 - Bonnet's 29 - Butler's 36 - Debraw's 27 - Dobbs's 26 - Fleming's 32 - Hattorf's 28 - Huber's 27, _et seq._ - Huish's 27 - Hunter's 30, 33 - Linnæus's 33 - Lombard's 29 - Maraldi's 26 - Reaumur's 26 - Schirach's 28 - Swammerdam's 25 - Wildman's 36 - objections to Huber's theory _ib._ - impregnation retarded 37, 41 - intercourse with drones 30, _et seq._ - probable duration of fertilizing influence 31 - laying, commencement of 37 - affected by temperature _ib._ - loss of, its consequences 144 - mode of depositing eggs 8 - mode of searching for when a stock has been suffocated 174 - mutilated, lose their instincts 309 - prescience (supposed) of 118 - prisoners when very young 17 - reason of this _ib._ - virgin, when first seek the drones 34 - voice of, authoritative 128 - when imprisoned 19 - - Reason, human, definition of 335 - insect, definition of _ib._ - presumptive evidence of 322 - difference between human and insect 335 - observations of Reid 356 - of Evans _ib._ - Regurgitating power of bees 229 - Reimar's opinion of memory 333 - Reproduction, organs of 275 - ovaries 276 - oviducts _ib._ - ovipositor 277 - sperm-reservoir _ib._ - Respiration, organs of 266 - evidences of their existence 267 - stigmata, spiracles or breathing pores 266 - tracheæ _ib._ - Riem's discovery 3 - - Salt, of use to bees 186 - Schirach's discovery 20 - Scouts. _Vide_ Providers. - Secretions of bees 273 - Sensation of bees 258 - medium of its communication 259 - its seat _ib._ - bees have a common sensorium _ib._ - evidences of it _ib._ - protracted vitality _ib._ - memory 260 - instances of _ib._ - Reimar's opinion of 333 - susceptible of instruction 261 - instances of _ib._ - organs of 258 - antennæ 262 - opinions of their offices _ib._ - facts in support of them 263 - palpi _ib._ - uses ascribed to _ib._ - Senses of bees 302 - smell _ib._ - instances of its acuteness 303, _et seq._ - touch 307 - analogy from ants 291 - taste 309 - hearing 310 - evidences of _ib._ - sight 311 - not very perfect _ib._ - Dr. Virey's theory 316 - Sensorium 259 - Separation of wax and honey 216 - Shed for bees 99 - Sleep of bees 295 - Source of bees-wax 356 - Source and nature of bees-wax; pollen formerly - supposed to be the prime constituent of it 356 - striking difference between them _ib._ - wax proved to be a secretion from the body of the bee 362 - experiments and observations of Huber, Thorley, - Duchet, Wildman, Hunter and Evans 362, _et seq._ - regular division of labour 367 - hence wax-working and nursing-bees _ib._ - experiment to show the designation of pollen _ib._ - other sources of wax 368 - Sphinx Atropos. _Vide_ Hawk-moth. - Spider, anecdotes of 261 - fertilization of 31 - Sir Joseph Banks's 332 - Stemmata 315 - experiments of Swammerdam, Reaumur, &c. 315 - Sting of working-bee 277 - fatal consequences attending its use 278, 283 - not apt to be used when the bee is distant from home 289 - of queen-bee 279 - her cautious use of it 286 - compared with sharp instruments _ib._ - Stinging, remedies for 284 - precautions against, when attacked 285 - Storifying 109 - will not always prevent swarming 124 - compared with single-hiving 122 - Suffocating or sulphuring of bees 174 - Sugar an excellent substitute for honey 360 - Super-hiving 124, 151 - Swarming 115 - causes of _ib._ - usual periods of 119 - best periods of _ib._ - instance of very early _ib._ - disadvantages of early and late 120 - heat produced by 39, 273 - bees not apt to sting at this time 138 - striking instance of this 139 - instance to the contrary _ib._ - importance of queen at the time 140 - experiments in proof of it 141, _et seq._ - Swarms, number thrown off in a season 115 - intervals betwixt successive 116 - hiving of 136 - union of 154 - causes of 115 - period usual of 118 - best 119 - early _ib._ - late _ib._ - led off by senior queen 31 - symptoms preceding 127 - Syrup for feeding bees 179 - - Temperature of a well-stocked hive of bees 274 - occasional ditto _ib._ - Touch 307 - Transportation of bees 159 - Isaac's success from _ib._ - practised in Egypt, France, Italy and Greece 159-161 - - Union of swarms or stocks 154 - Mr. Walond's method of 157 - methods practised by others 154 - - Ventilation 268 - how accomplished _ib._ - Vitality protracted 259 - - Wax. _Vide_ Bees-wax. - myrtle 223 - its difference from bees-wax 224 - pockets 365 - working-bees 366 - Wasps, formidable enemies of bees 199 - importance of destroying queens in spring 45, 206 - fact respecting them noticed by Mr. Knight 290 - extraordinary dearth of in 1806, 1815 and 1824 186 - Wildman's feats 155 - Wine-making, general principles of 240 - elements necessary to its formation 240 - sweet _ib._ - dry 241 - fining 246 - stumming _ib._ - Wisdom as distinguished from Knowledge 334 - Working-bees. _Vide_ Bees. - - - THE END. - - - - -------------------------- - Printed by Richard Taylor, Shoe-Lane, London. - - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typographical errors were corrected. 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