diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/67039-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67039-0.txt | 16586 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 16586 deletions
diff --git a/old/67039-0.txt b/old/67039-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6744ff1..0000000 --- a/old/67039-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16586 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Mind and Hand, by Charles H. Ham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Mind and Hand - Manual Training the Chief Factor in Education - -Author: Charles H. Ham
- -Release Date: December 29, 2021 [eBook #67039] - -Language: English
- -Produced by: Tim Lindell, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MIND AND HAND *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Texts printed in italics in the source document have been transcribed - _between underscores_, bold face text =between equal signs=. Small - capitals have been changed to ALL CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes (also on the use of footnotes and endnotes) - may be found at the end of this text. - - - - -[Illustration: Yours faithfully - -Charles Henry Ham] - - - - - MIND AND HAND - - _MANUAL TRAINING - THE CHIEF FACTOR IN EDUCATION_ - - BY CHARLES H. HAM - - BEING THE THIRD EDITION OF - “MANUAL TRAINING, THE SOLUTION - OF SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS” - - ILLUSTRATED - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK ⁛ CINCINNATI ⁛ CHICAGO - AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - - - - - Copyright, 1886, by HARPER & BROTHERS. - Copyright, 1900, by CHARLES H. HAM. - _All rights reserved._ - W. P. 5 - - - - -PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. - - -The work of which this is the third edition has been before the public -of this country, England, and all English-speaking countries since -1886--thirteen years. As it proposes a revolution in educational -methods, it was not to be presumed that it would escape criticism. But, -while the reviews of it have been numerous, they have, on the whole, -been very generous. My most radical postulates have, however, been -received by educators of the old régime with expressions of emphatic -dissent. In presenting the third edition of the work I have, therefore, -thought it wise to support the text with many high authorities in the -form of foot-notes. As was to be expected, my analysis of Greek history -and character provoked the severest criticism. It is regarded, indeed, -as conclusive evidence of gross ignorance of the entire subject. To meet -the charge of ignorance, I have made a large number of citations from -Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and others--authors -consulted, originally, in the preparation of this part of the work. I -may venture to observe, with due deference to those schoolmen who regard -the ancient Greeks as an ideal people, that I have searched -contemporaneous history in vain for evidence of the verity of this -claim; and I am hence constrained to adhere firmly to the extreme views -expressed in the text. And if these views are correct, it follows that -the passion for Greek models in education is not only a mental -dissipation, but a moral crime. - -The other new notes are commended to the careful consideration of the -reader, as the fruit of my added years of research and reflection. - -The Appendix contains a compilation, in tabular form, of all the facts -obtainable from original sources, through the aid of a skilled -statistician, showing the physical progress of Manual Training in this -country, and the chief countries of Europe, during the last fifteen -years. - -In this edition the disguise of the first edition is dropped. In that -edition a certain school was referred to as “the Chicago school,” -whereas it was, in fact, purely an ideal school, which had no existence -except in the mind of the author. But it embodied educational theories -and ideas of Comenius and other great men which the author desired to -see adopted. That desire not having been realized, I content myself here -by quoting the observation of Oscar Browning as to the proneness of the -school-master to neglect opportunities: “The more we reflect on the -method of Comenius, the more shall we see that it is replete with -suggestiveness, and we shall feel surprised that so much wisdom can have -lain in the path of school-masters for two hundred and fifty years, and -that they never stooped to avail themselves of its treasures.” - -It is proper to state that the terms “Kindergarten,” “Manual Training,” -and “The New Education,” are used throughout the work as equivalents. - -The change of title to “Mind and Hand: Manual Training the Chief Factor -in Education”--is made in response to the common and just criticism of -the original title as too narrow for the broad treatment of the subject -which characterized the text. - -The notes prepared especially for this edition will be found at the ends -of the chapters to which they respectively belong. - -Wherever in this work apparent discrimination in favor of the male sex -is indulged through the employment of the pronoun “he,” “his,” or “him,” -rather than the corresponding feminine parts of speech, it is merely -apparent, not real; for I urge the co-education of the sexes as I urge -the co-education of Mind and Hand, because the woman is the complement -of the man as the hand is the complement of the mind. For I believe, -with John Stuart Mill, that “The true virtue of human beings is fitness -to live together as equals; and to enable them to live together as -equals, they must be associated in education”; and with Mary -Wollstonecraft, that “Virtue will never prevail in society till the -morals of both sexes are founded on reason, and till the affections -common to both are allowed their due strength by the discharge of mutual -duties.” - - THE AUTHOR. - - NEW YORK CITY, _March, 1900_. - - - - -PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. - - -In 1879 I read a paper before the Chicago Philosophical Society on the -subject of “The Inventive Genius; or, an Epitome of Human Progress.” The -suggestion of the subject came from Mr. Charles J. Barnes, to whom I -desire in this public way to express my obligation for an introduction -to a profoundly interesting study, and one which has given a new -direction to all my thoughts. - -At the conclusion of my labors in the preparation of the paper, I -realized the force of Bacon’s remark, that “the real and legitimate goal -of the sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and -riches.” - -In tracing the course of invention and discovery, I found that I was -moving in the line of the progress of civilization. I found that the -great gulf between the savage and the civilized man is spanned by the -seven hand-tools--the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the square, -the chisel, and the file--and that the modern machine-shop is an -aggregation of these tools driven by steam. I hence came to regard tools -as the great civilizing agency of the world. With Carlyle I said, “Man -without tools is nothing; with tools he is all.” From this point it was -only a step to the proposition that, It is through the arts alone that -all branches of learning find expression, and touch human life. Then I -said, The true definition of education is the development of all the -powers of man to the culminating point of action; and this power in the -concrete, the power to do some useful thing for man--this must be the -last analysis of educational truth. - -These ideas are not new. They pervade Lord Bacon’s writings, are -admirably formulated in Rousseau’s “Emile,” and were restated by Mr. -Herbert Spencer twenty-five years ago. More than this, Comenius, -Pestalozzi, and Froebel attempted to carry them into practical operation -in the school-room, but with only a small measure of success. It remains -for the age of steel to show how powerless mere words are in the -presence of things, and so to emphasize the demand for a radical reform -in educational methods. - -In 1880 my attention was drawn to the Manual Training Department of the -Washington University of St. Louis, Mo. In that school I found the -realization of Bacon’s aphorism, “Education is the cultivation of a just -and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things.” I made an -exhaustive study of the methods of the St. Louis school, and reached the -conclusion that the philosopher’s stone in education had been -discovered. The columns of the _Chicago Tribune_ were opened to me, and -I wrote constantly on the subject for the ensuing three years. Meantime -the Chicago Manual-Training School (the first independent institution of -the kind in the world) was founded and opened, and the agitation spread -over the whole country, and indeed over the whole civilized world. - -This work was commenced two years ago. I found the labor much more -arduous than I anticipated, and its completion has hence been delayed -far beyond the time originally contemplated for placing it in the hands -of a publisher. It may be summarized briefly as consisting of four -divisions: 1. A detailed description of the various laboratory class -processes, from the first lesson to the last, in the course of three -years. 2. An exhaustive argument _a posteriori_ and _a fortiori_ in -support of the proposition that tool practice is highly promotive of -intellectual growth, and in a still greater degree of the upbuilding of -character. 3. A sketch of the historical period, showing that the decay -of civilization and the destruction of social organisms have resulted -directly from defects in methods of education. 4. A brief sketch of the -history of manual training as an educational force. - -To Dr. John D. Runkle, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the -founder of manual training as an educational institution in this -country, I cannot express too strongly my deep obligation for valuable -suggestions and constant encouragement. To him also am I indebted for -nearly all my illustrations, as also particularly for the excellent -portrait of M. Victor Della Vos, the founder of the new system of -education in Russia. I am also under obligations to Col. Augustus -Jacobson, a leading advocate of the new education, for constant counsel -and support, as also to Dr. Henry H. Belfield, Director of the Chicago -Manual Training School, and Mr. John S. Clark, of Boston. - -Of the authors consulted, I cannot forbear mention of Lord Bacon, -Rousseau, and Herbert Spencer, whose great works constitute the -foundation of the new system of education according to nature. Nor can I -omit to acknowledge, with all the emphasis of which words are -susceptible, my obligations to Mr. Samuel Smiles. His works, from the -lives of the engineers to the shortest of his biographies, constitute an -inexhaustible treasure-house of facts from which I have drawn without -stint. Mr. Smiles has traced the springs of English greatness to their -true source, the workshop. I have attempted to continue his office by -showing that the workshop is a great educational force, and hence that -its educational element ought to be incorporated in the system of public -instruction. - -The propositions of the following pages involve an educational -revolution destined to enlighten, and so ultimately to redeem manual -labor from the scorn of the ages of slavery, and, in the end, to render -the skilled laborer worthy of high social distinction, thus presenting -at once a solution not only of the industrial question but of the social -question. - - CHARLES H. HAM. - - - - -INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION - -BY COL. FRANCIS W. PARKER, Principal of the Chicago Normal School. - - -The last twenty-five years have brought much of intrinsic value into -American education. Rapid increase in population and ever-changing -conditions have made imperative demands for schools adequate to -self-government. - -The Kindergarten led the way to other substantial reforms in education, -and called attention to the actual needs of childhood. It proved -conclusively that hand-work is one of the dominant interests of the -child, and demonstrated the absolute dependence of brain-growth upon -Manual Training. - -Manual Training is thus a direct outcome and sequence of the -Kindergarten. It supplies a need for which there is no substitute. The -belief that that which is begun in the Kindergarten should be continued -and expanded in all upper grades, forces itself more and more upon -thoughtful minds. Modern psychology brings its potent evidence as to the -tremendous value of the work of the hand in the building of the brain. -The trend of educational thought will always be in the direction of hand -training as a fundamental element in education. - -Twenty-five years ago Manual Training was little known in this country -as a factor in education. Charles H. Ham, imbued with a fervid -patriotism, saw clearly that one of the intrinsic needs of education--an -absolute necessity in the evolution of a democracy--is the training of -the whole being, hand, brain, and soul, through educative work. He was, -indeed, a pioneer, beginning his work when there was very little -attention given to this important subject, and at a time, too, when it -was opposed by nearly all leading educators. - -Mr. Ham, together with Colonel Jacobson, brought a strong influence to -bear upon the Commercial Club of Chicago, to found a Manual-Training -school. This school is now a department of the Chicago University and -has been in successful operation for thirteen years. There are in -Chicago to-day the Armour Institute, the Lewis Institute, and the Jewish -Manual-Training School, all prominent and well established. There is -also a high school for Manual Training in connection with the public -schools, and, best of all, there are indications which show that -hand-work is making its way throughout the grades. - -Mr. Ham, without doubt, had a strong influence upon the late George M. -Pullman, which led him to provide, through his will, for a -Manual-Training school for the children of the city which he built. - -Manual-Training schools are now maintained in almost every city in the -Union. Much remains to be done before Manual Training takes its true -place in education. The majority of these schools now in existence are -for boys who have graduated from the grammar school, which leaves the -years between six and fourteen with little or no hand-work. Thus the -most important period for brain-growth through hand activity is -neglected. - -The future of Manual Training is to introduce hand-work as the principal -factor in the first four years’ work, to be continued in the four years -of the grammar grades, and correlated with all other subjects. Indeed, -the ideal is to introduce Manual Training in all courses of study, from -the Kindergarten to the University, inclusive. - -The patrons of Cook County Normal School owe to Mr. Ham the -establishment of Manual Training in connection with the primary grades -of the school, nearly fifteen years ago; for without the practical aid -he gave it, it could not have been accomplished at that time. The -children--indeed, all the people of this country--owe him an immense -debt of gratitude for his heroic championship of hand-work. - -Manual Training gives a true dignity to labor; it calls attention to the -place of hand-work in human progress, and as civilization goes on it -will have a higher and still higher place in the hearts of the people. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE IDEAL SCHOOL. - - Its Situation. -- Its Tall Chimney. -- The Whir of Machinery and Sound - of the Sledge-hammer. -- The School that is to dignify Labor. -- The - Realization of the Dream of Bacon, Rousseau, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and - Froebel. -- The School that fitly represents the Age of Steel. Page 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE MAJESTY OF TOOLS. - - Tools the highest Text-books. -- How to Use them the Test of - Scholarship. -- They are the Gauge of Civilization. -- Carlyle’s - Apostrophe to them. -- The Typical Hand-tools. -- The Automata of the - Machine-shop. -- Through Tools Science and Art are United. -- The - Power of Tools. -- Their Educational Value. -- Without Tools Man is - Nothing; with Tools he is All. -- It is through the Arts alone that - Education touches Human Life. 7 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE ENGINE ROOM. - - The Corliss Engine. -- A Thing of Grace and Power. -- The Growth of - Two Thousand Years. -- From Hero to Watt. -- Its Duty as a - School-master. -- The Interdependence of the Ages. -- The School in - Epitome. 14 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE DRAWING-ROOM. - - Twenty-four Boys bending over the Drawing-board. -- Analysis and - Synthesis in Drawing. -- Geometric Drawing. -- Pictorial Drawing. -- - The Principles of Design. -- The Æsthetic in Art. -- The Fundamentals. - -- Object and Constructive Drawing. -- Drawing for the Exercises in - the Laboratories. -- The Educational Value of Drawing. -- The Language - of Drawing. -- Every Student an expert Draughtsman at the end of the - Course. 16 - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE CARPENTER’S LABORATORY. - - The Natural History of the Pine-tree. -- How it is Converted into - Lumber, what it is Worth, and how it is Consumed. -- Where the - Students get Information. -- Working Drawings of the Lesson. -- Asking - Questions. -- The Instructor Executes the Lesson. -- Instruction in - the Use and Care of Tools. -- Twenty-four Boys Making Things. -- As - Busy as Bees. -- The Music of the Laboratory. -- The Self-reliance of - the Students. 21 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE WOOD-TURNING LABORATORY. - - A Radical Change. -- From the Square to the Circle; from Angles to - Spherical, Cylindrical, and Eccentric Forms. -- The Rhythm of - Mechanics. -- The Potter’s Wheel of the Ancients and the Turning- - lathe. -- The Speculation of Holtzapffels on its Origin. -- The Greeks - as Turners. -- The Turners of the Middle Ages. -- George III. at the - Lathe. -- Maudsley’s Slide-rest, and the Revolution it wrought. -- The - Natural History of Black-walnut. -- The Practical Value of - Imagination. -- Disraeli’s Tribute to it; Sir Robert Peel’s Want of - it. -- The Laboratory animated by Steam. -- The Boys at the Lathes. -- - Their Manly Bearing. -- The Lesson. 30 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE FOUNDING LABORATORY. - - The Iron Age. -- Iron the King of Metals. -- Locke’s Apothegm. -- The - Moulder’s Art is Fundamental. -- History of Founding. -- Remains of - Bronze Castings in Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. -- Layard’s - Discoveries. -- The Greek Sculptors. -- The Colossal Statue of Apollo - at Rhodes. -- The Great Bells of History. -- Moulding and Casting a - Pulley. -- Description of the Process, Step by Step. -- The Furnace - Fire. -- Pouring the Hot Metal into the Moulds. -- A Pen Picture of - the Laboratory. -- Thus were the Hundred Gates of Babylon cast. -- - Neglect of the Practical Arts by Herodotus. -- How Slavery has - degraded Labor. -- How Manual Training is to dignify it. 45 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE FORGING LABORATORY. - - Twenty-four manly-looking Boys with Sledge-hammer in Hand -- their - Muscle and Brawn. -- The Pride of Conscious Strength. -- The Story of - the Origin of an Empire. -- The Greater Empire of Mechanics. -- The - Smelter and the Smith the Bulwark of the British Government. -- Coal - -- its Modern Aspects; its Early History; Superstition regarding its - Use. -- Dud. Dudley utilizes “Pit-coal” for Smelting -- the Story of - his Struggles; his Imprisonment and Death. -- The English People - import their Pots and Kettles. -- “The Blast is on and the Forge Fire - sings.” -- The Lesson, first on the Black-board, then in Red-hot Iron - on the Anvil. -- Striking out the Anvil Chorus -- the Sparks fly - whizzing through the Air. -- The Mythological History of Iron. -- The - Smith in Feudal Times. -- His Versatility. -- History of Damascus - Steel. -- We should reverence the early Inventors. -- The Useful Arts - finer than the Fine Arts. -- The Ancient Smelter and Smith, and the - Students in the Manual-training School. 58 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY. - - The Foundery and Smithy are Ancient, the Machine-tool Shop is Modern. - -- The Giant, Steam, reduced to Servitude. -- The Iron Lines of - Progress. -- They converge in the Shop; its triumphs from the - Watchspring to the Locomotive. -- The Applications of Iron in Art is - the Subject of Subjects. -- The Story of Invention is the History of - Civilization. -- The Machine-maker and the Tool-maker are the best - Friends of Man. -- Watt’s Great Conception waited for Automatic Tools; - their Accuracy. -- The Hand-made and the Machine-made Watch. -- The - Elgin (Illinois) Watch Factory. -- The Interdependence of the Arts. -- - The making of a Suit of Clothes. -- The Anteroom of the Machine-tool - Laboratory. -- Chipping and Filing. -- The File-cutter. -- The Poverty - of Words as compared with Things. -- The Graduating Project. -- The - Vision of the Instructor. 78 - - - CHAPTER X. - - MANUAL AND MENTAL TRAINING COMBINED. - - The new Education is all-sided -- its Effect. -- A Harmonious - Development of the Whole Being. -- Examination for Admission to the - Chicago School. -- List of Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, and - Language. -- The Curriculum. -- The Alternation of Manual and Mental - Exercises. -- The Demand for Scientific Education -- its Effect. -- - Ambition to be useful. 105 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - THE INTELLECTUAL EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING. - - Intelligence is the Basis of Character. -- The more Practical the - Intelligence the Higher the Development of Character. -- The use of - Tools quickens the Intellect. -- Making Things rouses the Attention, - sharpens the Observation, and steadies the Judgment. -- History of - Inventions in England, 1740-1840. -- Poor, Ignorant Apprentices become - learned Men. -- Cort, Huntsman, Mushet, Neilson, Stephenson, and Watt. - -- The Union of Books and Tools. -- Results at Rotterdam, Holland; at - Moscow, Russia; at Komotau, Bohemia; and at St. Louis, Mo. -- The - Consideration of Overwhelming Import. 113 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN A NECESSITY. - - The Difference between Ancient and Modern Systems of Education. -- - Plato Blinded by Half-truths. -- No place in the present order of - things for Dogmatisms. -- Education begins at Birth. -- The Influence - of Women extends from the Cradle to the Grave. -- The Crime of Crimes. - -- Neglect to educate Woman. -- The Superiority of Women over Men as - Teachers. -- Froebel discovered it. -- Nature designed Woman to Teach; - hence the Importance of Fitting her for her Highest Destiny. 123 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE MORAL EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING. - - Mental Impulses are often Vicious; but the Exertion of Physical Power - in the Arts is always Beneficent -- hence Manual Training tends to - correct vicious mental Impulses. -- Every mental Impression produces a - moral Effect. -- All Training is Moral as well as Mental. -- - Selfishness is total Depravity; but Selfishness has been Deified under - the name of Prudence. -- Napoleon an Example of Selfishness. -- The - End of Selfishness is Disaster; but Prevailing Systems of Education - promote Selfishness. -- The Modern City an Illustration of - Selfishness. -- The Ancient City. -- Existing Systems of Education - Negatively Wrong. -- Manual Training supplies the lacking Element. -- - The Objective must take the Place of the Subjective in Education. -- - Words without Acts are as dead as Faith without Works. 130 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - THE MIND AND THE HAND. - - The Mind and the Hand are Allies; the Mind speculates, the Hand tests - its Speculations in Things. -- The Hand explodes the Errors of the - Mind -- it searches after Truth and finds it in Things. -- Mental - Errors are subtile; they elude us, but the False in Things stands - self-exposed. -- The Hand is the Mind’s Moral Rudder. -- The Organ of - Touch the most Wonderful of the Senses; all the Others are Passive; - it alone is Active. -- Sir Charles Bell’s Discovery of a “Muscular - Sense.” -- Dr. Henry Maudsley on the Muscular Sense. -- The Hand - influences the Brain. -- Connected Thought impossible without - Language, and Language dependent upon Objects; and all Artificial - Objects are the Work of the Hand. -- Progress is therefore the Imprint - of the Hand upon Matter in Art. -- The Hand is nearer the Brain than - are the Eye and the Ear. -- The Marvellous Works of the Hand. 144 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. - - The Legend of Adam and the Stick with which he subdued the Animals. -- - The Stick is the Symbol of Power, and only the Hand can wield it. -- - The Hand imprisons Steam and Electricity, and keeps them at hard - Labor. -- The Destitution of England Two Hundred and Fifty Years ago: - a Pen Picture. -- The Transformation wrought by the Hand: a Pen - Picture. -- It is due, not to Men who make Laws, but to Men who make - Things. -- The Scientist and the Inventor are the World’s Benefactors. - -- A Parallel between the Right Honorable William E. Gladstone and Sir - Henry Bessemer. -- Mr. Gladstone a Man of Ideas, Mr. Bessemer a Man of - Deeds. -- The Value of the latter’s Inventions. -- Mr. Gladstone - represents the Old Education, Mr. Bessemer the New. 157 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE INVENTORS, CIVIL ENGINEERS, AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND, AND ENGLISH - PROGRESS. - - A Trade is better than a Profession. -- The Railway, Telegraph, and - Steamship are more Potent than the Lawyer, Doctor, and Priest. -- - Book-makers writing the Lives of the Inventors of last Century. -- The - Workshop to be the Scene of the Greatest Triumphs of Man. -- The Civil - Engineers of England the Heroes of English Progress. -- The Life of - James Brindley, the Canal-maker; his Struggles and Poverty. -- The - Roll of Honor. -- Mr. Gladstone’s Significant Admission that English - Triumphs in Science and Art were won without Government Aid. -- - Disregarding the Common-sense of the Savage, Legislators have chosen - to learn of Plato, who declared that “The Useful Arts are Degrading.” - -- How Improvements in the Arts have been met by Ignorant Opposition. - -- The Power wielded by the Mechanic. 170 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - POWER OF STEAM AND CONTEMPT OF ARTISANS. - - A few Million People now wield twice as much Industrial Power as all - the People on the Globe exerted a Hundred Years ago. -- A Revolution - wrought, not by the Schools and Colleges, but by the Mechanic. -- The - Union between Science and Art prevented by the Speculative Philosophy - of the Middle Ages. -- Statesmen, Lawyers, Littérateurs, Poets, and - Artists more highly esteemed than Civil Engineers, Mechanics, and - Artisans. -- The Refugee Artisan a Power in England, the Refugee - Politician worthless. -- Prejudice against the Artisan Class shown by - Mr. Galton in his Work on “Hereditary Genius.” -- The Influence of - Slavery: it has lasted Thousands of Years, and still Survives. 184 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. - - The Past tyrannizes over the Present by Interposing the Stolid - Resistance of Habit. -- Habits of Thought like Habits of the Body - become Automatic. -- There is much Freedom of Speech but very little - Freedom of Thought: Habit, Tradition, and Reverence for Antiquity - forbid it. -- The Schools educate Automatically. -- A glaring Defect - of the Schools shown by Mr. John S. Clark, of Boston. -- The Automatic - Character of the Popular System of Education shown by the Quincy - (Mass.) Experiment. -- Several Intelligent Opinions to the same - Effect. -- The Public Schools as an Industrial Agency a Failure. -- A - Conclusive Evidence of the Automatic and Superficial Character of - prevailing Methods of Education in the Schools of a large City. -- The - Views of Colonel Francis W. Parker. -- Scientific Education is found - in the Kindergarten and the Manual-training School. -- “The - Cultivation of Familiarity betwixt the Mind and Things.” 191 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION -- _Continued._ - - The Failure of Education in America shown by Statistics of Railway and - Mercantile Disasters. -- Shrinkage of Railway Values and Failures of - Merchants. -- Only Three per Cent. of those entering Mercantile Life - achieve Success. -- Business Enterprises conducted by Guess: Cause, - Unscientific Education. -- Savage Training is better because - Objective. -- Mr. Foley, late of the Massachusetts Institute of - Technology, on the Scientific Character of Manual Education -- Prof. - Goss, of Purdue University, to the same Effect -- also Dr. Belfield, - of the Chicago Manual-training School. -- Students love the Laboratory - Exercises. -- Demoralizing Effect of Unscientific Training. -- The - Failure of Justice and Legislation as contrasted with the Success of - Civil Engineering and Architecture. 210 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION -- _Continued._ - - The Training of the Merchant, the Lawyer, the Judge, and the - Legislator contrasted with that of the Artisan. -- The Training of the - Merchant makes him Selfish, and Selfishness breeds Dishonesty. -- - Professional Men become Speculative Philosophers, and test their - Speculations by Consciousness. -- The Artisan forgets Self in the - Study of Things. -- The Search after Truth. -- The Story of Palissy. - -- The Hero is the Normal Man; those who Marvel at his Acts are - abnormally Developed. -- Savonarola and John Brown. -- The New England - System of Education contrasted with that of the South. -- American - Statesmanship -- its Failure in an Educational Point of View. -- Why - the State Provides for Education; to protect Property. -- The British - Government and the Land Question. -- The Thoroughness of the Training - given by Schools of Mechanic Art and Institutes of Technology as shown - in Things. -- Story of the Emperor of Germany and the Needle-maker. -- - The Iron Bridge lasts a Century, the Act of the Legislator wears out - in a Year. -- The Cause of the Failures of Justice and Legislation. -- - The best Act is the Act that Repeals a Law; but the Act of the - Inventor is never Repealed. -- Things the Source and Issue of Ideas; - hence the Necessity of Training in the Arts. 229 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM -- HISTORIC. - - _EGYPT AND GREECE._ - - Fundamental Propositions. -- Selfishness the Source of Social Evil; - Subjective Education the Source of Selfishness and the Cause of - Contempt of Labor; and Social Disintegration the Result of Contempt of - Labor and the Useful Arts. -- The First Class-distinction -- the - Strongest Man ruled; his First Rival, the Ingenious Man. -- - Superstition. -- The Castes of India and Egypt -- how came they about? - -- Egyptian Education based on Selfishness. -- Rise of Egypt -- her - Career; her Fall; Analysis thereof. -- She Typifies all the Early - Nations: Force and Rapacity above, Chains and Slavery below. -- Their - Education consisted of Selfish Maxims for the Government of the Many - by the Few, and Government meant the Appropriation of the Products of - Labor. -- Analysis of Greek Character -- its Savage Characteristics. - -- Greek Treachery and Cruelty. -- Greek Venality. -- Her Orators - accepted Bribes. -- Responsibility of Greek Education and Philosophy - for the Ruin of Greek Civilization. -- Rectitude wholly left out of - her Scheme of Education. -- Plato’s Contempt of Matter: it led to - Contempt of Man and all his Works. -- Greek Education consisted of - Rhetoric and Logic; all Useful Things were hence held in Contempt. 247 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM -- HISTORIC. - - _ROME._ - - Vigor of the Early Romans -- their Virtues and Vices; their Rigorous - Laws; their Defective Education; their Contempt of Labor. -- Slavery: - its Horrors and Brutalizing Influence. -- Education Confined to the - Arts of Politics and War; it transformed Courage into Cruelty, and - Fortitude into Stoicism. -- Robbery and Bribery. -- The Vices of - Greece and Carthage imported into Rome. -- Slaves construct all the - great Public Works; they Revolt, and the Legions Slaughter them. -- - The Gothic Invasion. -- Rome Falls. -- False Philosophy and - Superficial Education promoted Selfishness. -- Deification of - Abstractions, and Scorn of Men and Things. -- Universal Moral - Degradation. -- Neglect of Honest Men and Promotion of Demagogues. -- - The Decline of Morals and Growth of Literature. -- Darwin’s Law of - Reversion, through Selfishness to Savagery. -- Contest between the - Rich and the Poor. -- Logic, Rhetoric, and Ruin. 263 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM -- HISTORIC. - - _THE MIDDLE AGES._ - - The Trinity upon which Civilization Rests: Justice, the Arts, and - Labor; and these Depend upon Scientific Education. -- Reason of the - Failure of Theodoric and Charlemagne to Reconstruct the Pagan - Civilization. -- Contempt of Man. -- Serfdom. -- The Vices of the - Time: False Philosophy, an Odious Social Caste, and Ignorance. -- The - Splendid Career of the Moors in Spain, in Contrast. -- Effect upon - Spain of the Expulsion of the Moors. -- The Repressive Force of - Authority and the Atrocious Philosophy of Contempt of Man. -- The - Rule of Italy -- a Menace and a Sneer. -- The work of Regeneration. -- - The Crusades. -- The Destruction of Feudalism. -- The Invention of - Printing. -- The Discovery of America. -- Investigation. -- - Discoveries in Science and Art. 278 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM -- HISTORIC. - - _EUROPE._ - - The Standing Army a Legacy of Evil from the Middle Ages. -- It is the - Controlling Feature of the European Situation. -- Its Collateral - Evils: Wars and Debts. -- The Debts of Europe Represent a Series of - Colossal Crimes against the People; with the Armies and Navies they - Absorb the Bulk of the Annual Revenue. -- The People Fleeing from - them. -- They Threaten Bankruptcy; they Prevent Education. -- Germany, - the best-educated Nation in Europe, losing most by Emigration. -- Her - People will not Endure the Standing Army. -- The Folly of the European - International Policy of Hate. -- It is Possible for Europe to Restore - to Productive Employments 3,000,000 of men, to place at the Disposal - of her Educators $700,000,000, instead of $70,000,000 per annum, and - to pay her National Debts in Fifty-four Years, simply by the - Disbandment of her Armies and Navies. -- The Armament of Europe Stands - in the Way of Universal Education and of Universal Industrial - Prosperity. -- Standing Armies the Last Analysis of Selfishness; they - are Coeval with the Revival during the Middle Ages of the Greco-Roman - Subjective Methods of Education. -- They must go out when the New - Education comes in. 289 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM -- HISTORIC. - - _AMERICA._ - - An Old Civilization in a New Country. -- Old Methods in a New System - of Schools. -- Sordid Views of Education. -- The highest Aim - Money-getting. -- Herbert Spencer on the English Schools. -- Same - Defects in the American Schools. -- Maxims of Selfishness. -- The - Cultivation of Avarice. -- Political Incongruities. -- Negroes - escaping from Slavery called Fugitives from Justice. -- The Results of - Subjective Educational Processes. -- Climatic Influences alone saved - America from becoming a Slave Empire. -- Illiteracy. -- Abnormal - Growth of Cities. -- Failure of Justice. -- Defects of Education shown - in Reckless and Corrupt Legislation. -- Waste of an Empire of Public - Land. -- Henry D. Lloyd’s History of Congressional Land Grants. -- The - Growth and Power of Corporations. -- The Origin of large Fortunes, - Speculations. -- Old Social Forces producing old Social Evils. -- - Still America is the Hope of the World. -- The Right of Suffrage in - the United States justifies the Sentiment of Patriotism. -- Let - Suffrage be made Intelligent and Virtuous, and all Social Evils will - yield to it; and all the Wealth of the Country is subject to the Draft - of the Ballot for Education. -- The Hope of Social Reform depends upon - a complete Educational Revolution. 307 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION IN 1884. - - The Kindergarten and the Manual-training School one in Principle. -- - Russia solved the Problem of Tool Instruction by Laboratory Processes. - -- The Initiatory Step by M. Victor Della-Vos, Director of the - Imperial Technical School of Moscow in 1868. -- Statement of Director - Della-Vos as to the Origin, Progress, and Results of the New System of - Training. -- Its Introduction into all the Technical Schools of - Russia. -- Dr. John D. Runkle, President of the Massachusetts - Institute of Technology, recommends the Russian System in 1876, and it - is adopted. -- Statement of Dr. Runkle as to how he was led to the - adoption of the Russian System. -- Dr. Woodward, of Washington - University, St. Louis, Mo., establishes the second School in this - Country. -- His Historical Note in the Prospectus of 1882-83. -- First - Class graduated 1883. -- Manual Training in the Agricultural Colleges. - -- In Boston, in New Haven, in Baltimore, in San Francisco, and other - places. -- Manual Training at the Meeting of the National Educational - Association, 1884. -- Kindergarten and Manual-training Exhibits. -- - Prof. Felix Adler’s School in New York City -- the most Comprehensive - School in the World. -- The Chicago Manual-training School the first - Independent Institution of the Kind -- its Inception; its - Incorporation; its Opening. Its Director, Dr. Belfield. -- His - Inaugural Address. -- Manual Training in the Public Schools of - Philadelphia. -- Manual Training in twenty-four States. -- - Revolutionizing a Texas College. -- Local Option Law in Massachusetts. - -- Department of Domestic Economy in the Iowa Agricultural College. -- - Manual Training in Tennessee, in the University of Michigan, in the - National Educational Association, in Ohio. -- The Toledo School for - both Sexes. -- The Importance of the Education of Woman. -- The Slöjd - Schools of Europe. 328 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - PROGRESS OF THE NEW EDUCATION -- 1883-1899. - - Educational Revolution in 1883-4. -- Urgent Demand for Reform. -- - Existing Schools denounced as Superficial, their Methods as Automatic, - their System as a Mixture of Cram and Smatter. -- The Controversy - between the School-master of the Old Régime and the Reformer. -- The - Leaders of the Movement, Col. Parker, Dr. MacAlister, and others -- - followers of Rousseau, Bacon, and Spencer. -- “The End of Man is an - Action, not a Thought.” -- The Conservative Teachers fall into Line. - -- The New Education becomes an Aggressive Force pushing on to - Victory. -- The Physical Progress of Manual Training -- its Quality - not equal to its Extent. -- The New System of Training confided to - Teachers of the Old Régime. -- Ideal Teachers hard to find. -- - Teachers willing to Learn should be Encouraged. -- The effects of - Manual Training long antedate its Introduction to the Schools. -- - Bacon’s Definition of Education. -- Stephenson and the Value of - Hand-work. -- Manual Training is the union of Thought and Action. -- - It is the antithesis of the Greek methods, which exalted Abstractions - and debased Things. -- The Rule of Comenius and the Injunction of - Rousseau -- few Teachers comprehend them. -- The Employment of the - Hands in the Arts is more highly Educative than the acquisition of the - rules of Reading and Arithmetic. -- What the Locomotive has - accomplished for Man. -- Education must be equal, and Social and - Political Equality will follow. -- The foundation of the New Education - is the Baconian Philosophy as stated by Macaulay. -- Use and Service - are the Twin-ministers of Human Progress. -- Definitions of Genius. -- - Attention. -- Sir Henry Maine. -- Manual Training relates to all the - Arts of Life. -- Mind and Hand. -- Newton and the Apple. -- The Sense - of Touch resides in the Hand. -- Robert Seidel on Familiarity with - Objects. -- Material Progress the basis of Spiritual Growth. -- Plato - and the Divine Dialogues. -- Poverty, Society, and the Useful Arts. -- - Selfishness must give way to Altruism. -- The Struggle of Life. -- The - Progress of the Arts and the final Regeneration of the Race. -- The - Arts that make Life sweet and beautiful. -- The final Fundamental - Educational Ideal is Universality. -- Comenius’s definition of Schools - -- the Workshops of Humanity. -- That one Man should die ignorant, who - had capacity for Knowledge, is a Tragedy. -- Mental and Manual - Exercises to be rendered homogeneous in the School of the Future. -- - The hero of the Ideal School. 370 - - - APPENDIX 387 - - - INDEX 427 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR _Frontispiece_ - - THE LABORATORY OF CARPENTRY 23 - - COURSE IN THE LABORATORY OF CARPENTRY 27 - - THE WOOD-TURNING LABORATORY 31 - - COURSE IN THE WOOD-TURNING AND PATTERN LABORATORY 41 - - THE FOUNDING LABORATORY 49 - - COURSE IN THE FOUNDING LABORATORY 53 - - THE FORGING LABORATORY 59 - - COURSE IN THE FORGING LABORATORY 67 - - THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY 79 - - THE CHIPPING, FILING, AND FITTING LABORATORY 89 - - COURSE IN THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY 95 - - THE STUDENTS WITH THEIR BOOKS 107 - - M. VICTOR DELLA-VOS, THE FOUNDER OF MANUAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA 329 - - DR. JOHN D. RUNKLE, THE FOUNDER OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE UNITED - STATES 335 - - -POWER. - - “_His tongue was framed to music, - And his hand was armed with skill; - His face was the mould of beauty, - And his heart the throne of will._” - - --EMERSON. - - - - -MIND AND HAND: - -MANUAL TRAINING THE CHIEF FACTOR IN EDUCATION. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE IDEAL SCHOOL. - - Its Situation. -- Its Tall Chimney. -- The Whir of Machinery and Sound - of the Sledge-hammer. -- The School that is to dignify Labor. -- The - Realization of the Dream of Bacon, Rousseau, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and - Froebel. -- The School that fitly represents the Age of Steel. - - -The Ideal School is an institution which develops and trains to -usefulness the moral, physical, and intellectual powers of man. It is -what Comenius called Humanity’s workshop, and in America it is becoming -the natural center of the Public School system. The building, -well-designed for its occupancy, is large, airy, open to the light on -every side, amply provided with all appliances requisite for instruction -in the arts and sciences, and finished interiorly and exteriorly in the -highest style of useful and beautiful architectural effects. The -distinguishing characteristic of the Ideal School building is its -chimney, which rises far above the roof, from whose tall stack a column -of smoke issues, and the hum and whir of machinery is heard, and the -heavy thud of the sledge-hammer resounding on the anvil, smites the ear. - -It is, then, a factory rather than a school? - -No. It is a school; the school of the future; the school that is to -dignify labor; the school that is to generate power; the school where -every sound contributes to the harmony of development, where the brain -informs the muscle, where thought directs every blow, where the mind, -the eye, and the hand constitute an invincible triple alliance. This is -the school that Locke dreamed of, that Bacon wished for, that Rousseau -described, and that Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel struggled in vain -to establish. - -It is, then, science and the arts in apotheosis. For if it be, as -claimed, the Ideal school, it is destined to lift the veil from the face -of Nature, to reveal her most precious secrets, and to divert to man’s -use all her treasures. - -Yes; it is to other schools what the diamond is to other precious -stones--the last analysis of educational thought. It is the -philosopher’s stone in education; the incarnated dream of the alchemist, -which dissolved earth, air, and water into their original elements, and -recombined them to compass man’s immortality. Through it that which has -hitherto been impossible is to become a potential reality. - -In this building which resembles a factory or machine-shop an -educational revolution is to be wrought. Education is to be rescued from -the domination of mediæval ideas, relieved of the enervating influence -of Grecian æstheticism, and confided to the scientific direction of the -followers of Bacon, whose philosophy is common sense and its law, -progress. The philosophy of Plato left in its wake a long line of -abstract propositions, decayed civilizations, and ruined cities, while -the philosophy of Bacon, in the language of Macaulay, “has lengthened -life; mitigated pain; extinguished diseases; increased the fertility of -the soil; given new securities to the mariner; spanned great rivers and -estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers; guided the -thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth; lighted up the night with -the splendor of the day; extended the range of the human vision; -multiplied the power of the human muscles; accelerated motion; -annihilated distance; facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all -friendly offices, all dispatch of business; enabled man to descend to -the depths of the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate securely into -the noxious recesses of the earth, to traverse the land in cars which -whirl along without horses, and the ocean in ships which run ten knots -an hour against the wind.” - -It is this beneficent work of Bacon that the Ideal school is to -continue--the work of demonstrating to the world that the most useful -thing is the most beautiful thing--discarding Plato, the apostle of idle -speculation, and exalting Bacon, the minister of use. - -In laying the foundations of education in labor it is dignified and -education is ennobled. In such a union there is honor and strength, and -long life to our institutions. For the permanence of the civil compact -in this country, as in other countries, depends less upon a wide -diffusion of unassimilated and undigested intelligence than upon such a -thorough, practical education of the masses in the arts and sciences as -shall enable them to secure, and qualify them to store up, a fair share -of the aggregate produce of labor. - -If this school shall appear like a hive of industry, let the reader not -be deceived. Its main purpose, intellectual development, is never lost -sight of fora moment. It is founded on labor, which, being the most -sacred of human functions, is the most useful of educational methods. -It is a system of object-teaching--teaching through things instead of -through signs of things. It is the embodiment of Bacon’s -aphorism--“Education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate -familiarity betwixt the mind and things.” The students draw pictures of -things, and then fashion them into things at the forge, the bench, and -the turning-lathe; not mainly that they may enter machine-shops, and -with greater facility make similar things, but that they may become -stronger intellectually and morally; that they may attain a wider range -of mental vision, a more varied power of expression, and so be better -able to solve the problems of life when they shall enter upon the stage -of practical activity. - -It is a theory of this school that in the processes of education the -idea should never be isolated from the object it represents;[E1] (1) -because the idea, being the reflex perception or shadow of the object, -is less clearly defined than the object itself, and (2) because joining -the object and the idea intensifies the impression. Separated from its -object the idea is unreal, a phantasm. The object is the flesh, blood, -bones, and nerves of the idea. Without its body the idea is as impotent -as the jet of steam that rises from the surface of boiling water and -loses itself in the air. But unite it to its object and it becomes the -vital spark, the animating force, the Promethean fire. Thus steam -converts the Corliss engine--a huge mass of lifeless iron--into a thing -of grace, of beauty, and of resistless power. Suppose the teacher, for -example, desires to convey to the mind of a child having no knowledge of -form an impression of the shape of the earth; he says, “It is globular.” -The child’s face expresses nothing because there is in its mind no -conception of the object represented by the word globular. The teacher -says, “It is a sphere,” with no better success. He adds, “A sphere is a -body bounded by a surface, every point of which is equally distant from -a point within called the centre.” The child’s face is still -expressionless. The teacher takes a handful of moist clay and moulds it -into the form of a sphere, and exhibiting it, says, “The earth is like -this.” The child claps its hands, utters a cry of delight, and exclaims, -“It is round like a ball!” - -This is an illustration of the triumph of object-teaching, the method -alike of the kindergarten and the manual training school. As the child -is father of the man, so the kindergarten is father of the manual -training school. The kindergarten comes first in the order of -development, and leads logically to the manual training school. The same -principle underlies both. In both it is sought to generate power by -dealing with things in connection with ideas. Both have common methods -of instruction, and they should be adapted to the whole period of school -life, and applied to all schools. - -The Ideal school, most precisely representative of the present age--the -age of science--is dedicated to a homogeneous system of mental and -manual training, to the generation of power, to the development of true -manhood. And above all, this school is destined to unite in indissoluble -bonds science and art, and so to confer upon labor the highest and -justest dignity--that of doing and responsibility. The reason of the -degradation of labor was admirably stated by America’s most -distinguished educational reformer, the late Mr. Horace Mann, who said, -“The labor of the world has been performed by ignorant men, by classes -doomed to ignorance from sire to son; by the bondmen and bondwomen of -the Jews, by the helots of Sparta, by the captives who passed under the -Roman yoke, and by the villeins and serfs and slaves of more modern -times.” - -When it shall have been demonstrated that the highest degree of -education results from combining manual with intellectual training, the -laborer will feel the pride of a genuine triumph; for the consciousness -that every thought-impelled blow educates him, and so raises him in the -scale of manhood, will nerve his arm, and fire his brain with hope and -courage. - - [E1] “And the attempt to convey scientific conceptions without the - appeal to observation, which can alone give such conceptions firmness - and reality, appears to me to be in direct antagonism to the - fundamental principles of scientific education.”--“Physiography,” - [Preface], p. vii. By T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. New York: D. Appleton & - Co., 1878. - - This theory is the antithesis of that of Plato, namely; “that the - simplest and purest way of examining things, is to pursue every - particular by thought alone, without offering to support our - meditation by seeing or backing our reasonings by any other corporal - sense.”--Plato’s “Divine Dialogues,” p. 180. London: S. Cornish & Co., - 1839. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE MAJESTY OF TOOLS. - - Tools the Highest Text-books. -- How to Use them the Test of - Scholarship. -- They are the Gauge of Civilization. -- Carlyle’s - Apostrophe to them. -- The Typical Hand-tools. -- The Automata of the - Machine-shop. -- Through Tools Science and Art are United. -- The - Power of Tools. -- Their Educational Value. -- Without Tools Man is - Nothing; with Tools he is All. -- It is through the Arts alone that - Education touches Human Life. - - -Sacred to the majesty of tools might be appropriately inscribed over the -entrance to this Ideal school; for its highest text-books are tools, and -how to use them most intelligently is the test of scholarship. To -realize the potency of tools it is only necessary to contrast the two -states of man--the one without tools, the other with tools. See him in -the first state, naked, shivering with cold, now hiding away from the -beasts in caves, and now, famished and despairing, gaunt and -hollow-eyed, creeping stealthily like a panther upon his prey. Then see -him in the poetic, graphic apostrophe of Carlyle:--“Man is a tool-using -animal. He can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite -mountains melt into light dust before him; he kneads iron as if it were -soft paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying -steeds. Nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools he is -nothing, with tools he is all!” - -What a picture of the influence of tools upon civilization! It is -through the use of tools that man has reached the place of absolute -supremacy among animals. As he increases his stock of tools he recedes -from the state of savagery. The great gulf between the aboriginal savage -and the civilized man is spanned by the seven hand-tools--the axe, the -saw, the plane, the hammer, the square, the chisel, and the file. These -are the universal tools of the arts, and the modern machine-shop is an -aggregation of them rendered automatic and driven by steam. - -The ancients constructed automata which were exceedingly ingenious. In -the statues that could walk and talk, the Chinese puppets and the -marionettes of the Greeks there was a hint of the modern automatic -tools, which, driven by steam, fashion with equal accuracy the delicate -parts of the watch and the huge segments of the marine engine. The -ancients knew more of science than of art. They were familiar with the -power of steam, but knew not how to apply it to the wants of man. They -knew that steam would turn a spit, but they had not a sufficient -knowledge of art to convert the power they had discovered into a monster -of force, and train it to bear the burdens of commerce. They never -thought to apply the jet of steam used to turn a spit to great automatic -machines, and to fit into them saws and files, and needles and drills, -and gimlets and planes, and compel them to do the work of thousands of -men. But this is precisely what the modern mechanic has accomplished. In -making a slave of steam, science and art have combined to free mankind. - -We marvel at the dulness of the ancients as shown in their failure to -utilize in the useful arts the discoveries of science. That they should -have studied the stars over their heads to the neglect of the earth -under their feet is incomprehensible to the modern mind. But will not -future generations marvel at us? Is it not an astounding fact that, with -a knowledge of the tremendous influence of tools upon the destiny of the -human race so graphically depicted by Carlyle, the nations have been so -slow in incorporating tool-practice into educational methods? The -distinguishing features of modern civilization sprang as definitively -from cunningly devised and skilfully handled tools as any effect from -its cause. And yet the world’s statesmen have failed to discover the -value of tool-practice as an educational agency. The face of the globe -has been transformed by the union of art and science, but the world’s -statesmen have not discerned the importance of uniting them in the -curriculum of the schools. If the ancients could see us as we see them, -they would doubtless laugh at us as we laugh at them. - -We might take a lesson from the savage. He is taught to fight, to hunt, -and to fish, and in these arts the brain, the hand, and the eye are -trained simultaneously. He is first given object-lessons, as the pupil -of the kindergarten is taught. Then the tomahawk, the spear, and the bow -and arrow are placed in his hands, and he fights for his life, or fishes -or hunts for his dinner. The young Indian is taught all that it is -necessary for him to know, and he is educated, practically, in the -savage’s three workshops--the battle-field, the forest and plain, the -sea and lake. Thus the young savage enters upon the duties of his life -with an exact practical knowledge of them. He has not been taught a -theory of fighting, he has used the weapons of warfare; he has not -studied the arts of fishing and hunting, he has handled the spear and -the bow and arrow, and their use is as familiar to him as the -multiplication table is to the boy in the public school. - -We have more and better tools than the savage possesses. With the aid of -science and art we harness steam to our chariot and compel it to draw us -whither we will. We steal fire from the clouds and make it serve us as a -messenger. We imprison the air, and with it stop the flying railway -train; with the aid of science and art we reduce the most subtile forces -of nature to servitude. But we neither teach our youth how to master -their elements nor how to use them. - -Tools represent the steps of human progress--in architecture, from the -mud hut to the modern mansion; in agriculture, from the pointed stick -used to tear the turf to a thousand and one ingenious instruments of -husbandry; in ship-building, from the rudderless, sailless boat to the -ocean steamer; in fabrics, from the matted fleece of the shepherd to the -varied products of countless looms; in pottery, from the first rude -Egyptian cup to the exquisite vase of the Sevres factory. And so of -every art that contributes to the comfort and pleasure of man; the -development of each has been accomplished by tools in the hands of the -laborer. - -Since, then, man owes so much to labor, he has doubtless educated the -laborer and showered honors upon him (?). On the contrary, the labor of -the world has been performed by the most ignorant classes, by bondmen, -by helots and captives, by serfs and slaves. The laborer has been held -in such contempt, and been so debased by ignorance, that he has often -violently protested against improvements in the tools of the trades, and -with vandal hands destroyed the mill, the factory, and the forge erected -to ameliorate his condition. At the top of the social scale the sage has -studied the stars and invented systems of abstract philosophy; at the -bottom ignorance has deified itself and starved. This divorce of -science from art has resulted in such incongruities as the Pyramids of -Egypt and periodical famines; as the hanging gardens of Babylon and the -horrors of Jewish captivity; as the Greek Parthenon and dwellings -without chimneys; as the statues of Phidias and Praxiteles, and royal -banquets without knives, forks, or spoons; as the Roman Forum and the -Roman populace crying for bread and circuses; as Socrates, Plato, Seneca -and Aurelius, and Caligula, Claudius, Nero and Domitian. - -On the other hand the union of science with art tunnels the mountain, -bridges the river, dams the torrent, and converts the wilderness into a -fruitful field. - -Science discovers and art appropriates and utilizes; and as science is -helpless without the aid of art, so art is dead without the help of -tools. Tools then constitute the great civilizing agency of the world; -for civilization is the art of rendering life agreeable. The savage may -own a continent, but if he possesses only the savage’s tools--the spear -and the bow and arrow--he will be ill-fed, ill-housed, ill-clothed, and -poorly protected both against cold and heat. He might be familiar with -all the known sciences, but if he were ignorant of the arts his state, -instead of being improved, would be rendered more deplorable; for with -the thoughts, emotions, sensibilities, and aspirations of a sage he -would still be powerless to steal from heaven a single spark of fire -with which to warm his miserable hut. - -In the light of this analysis Carlyle’s rhapsody on tools becomes a -prosaic fact, and his conclusion--that man without tools is nothing, -with tools all--points the way to the discovery of the philosopher’s -stone in education. For if man without tools is nothing, to be unable to -use tools is to be destitute of power; and if with tools he is all, to -be able to use tools is to be all-powerful. And this power in the -concrete, the power to do some useful thing for man--this is the last -analysis of educational truth. - -There is no better definition of education than that of Pestalozzi--“the -generation of power.” But what kind of power? Not merely power to think -abstractly, to speculate, to moralize, to philosophize, but power to act -intelligently. And the power to act intelligently involves the exertion, -in greater or less degree, of all the powers, both mental and physical. -Education, then, is the development of all the powers of man to the -culminating point of action. What kind of action? Action in art. What is -art? “The power of doing something not taught by nature or instinct; -power or skill in the use of knowledge; the practical application of the -rules or principles of science.” Again we have the last analysis of -education--“skill in the use of knowledge; the application of the rules -or principles of science.” And this is tool practice. - -It is unnecessary, in an educational view, to divide the arts by the -employment of the terms “useful” and “fine;” for the fine arts can only -exist legitimately where the useful arts have paved the way. In a -harmonious development the artist will enter on the heels of the -artisan. Art is cosmopolitan. It is not less worthily represented by the -carpenter with his square, saw, and plane, and the smith with his -sledge, than by the sculptor with his mallet and chisel, and the painter -with his easel and brush; both classes contribute to the comfort and -pleasure of man; for comfort is enhanced by pleasure, and pleasure is -intensified by comfort. It follows that the ultimate object of education -is the attainment of skill in the arts. To this end the speculations -and investigations of philosophy and the experiments of chemistry lead. -At the door of the study of the philosopher and of the laboratory of the -chemist stands the artisan, listening for the newest hint that -philosophy can impart, waiting for the result of the latest chemical -analysis. In his hands these suggestions take form; through his skilful -manipulation the faint indications of science become real things, suited -to the exigencies of human life. - -It is the most astounding fact of history that education has been -confined to abstractions. The schools have taught history, mathematics, -language and literature, and the sciences, to the utter exclusion of the -arts, notwithstanding the obvious fact that it is through the arts alone -that other branches of learning touch human life. As Bacon has so aptly -expressed it, “The real and legitimate goal of the sciences is the -endowment of human life with new inventions and riches.” In a word, -public education stops at the exact point where it should begin to apply -the theories it has imparted. At this point the school of mental and -manual training combined--the Ideal School--begins; not only books but -tools are put into the hands of the pupil, with this injunction of -Comenius; “Let those things that have to be done be learned by doing -them.” - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE ENGINE-ROOM. - - The Corliss Engine. -- A Thing of Grace and Power. -- The Growth of - Two Thousand Years. -- From Hero to Watt. -- Its Duty as a - School-master. -- The Interdependence of the Ages. -- The School in - Epitome. - - -Let us enter the Ideal School building and take a bird’s-eye view of the -visible processes of the new education. - -The first object that attracts attention is the engine. It is a -“Corliss,” fifty-two horse-power, and makes that peculiar kind of noise -which conveys to the mind of the observer an impression of restrained -power. When the student, upon entering the school, is shown this -beautiful machine he is told that it, like all other inventions, is a -growth--the growth of at least two thousand years; that the power of -steam was known to the ancients--the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; that -Hero, a philosopher of Alexandria, invented a crude steam-engine before -the beginning of the Christian era, and that the engine before us, which -throbs and trembles under the pressure of its battery of steel boilers -in doing duty as a school-master, is the latest development of Hero’s -conception. The educational idea underlying this fact is the -interdependence of the ages; each generation is a link between the past -and the future. “To show,” as Philarète Chasles says, “that man can only -act efficiently by association with others, it has been ordained that -each inventor shall only interpret the first word of the problem he sets -himself to solve, and that every great idea shall be the _résumé_ of -the past at the same time that it is the germ of the future.” - -The first word of the solution of the steam-power problem came from Hero -down the ages, through Decans, Papin, Savory, Newcomen, Breighton, and -Smeaton, to Watt. To Watt is awarded the honor of the invention of the -modern steam-engine; but the first conception of his engine was derived -from an atmospheric machine through the accident of it having been -placed in his hands for repairs. Smeaton was the inventor of that -atmospheric engine, and his mind was one of the links in the chain of -intelligences extending back to Egypt, through whose united agency the -steam-engine became a real thing of power in the cunning hands of James -Watt, of whom the late Dr. Draper said, “He conferred on his native -country more solid benefits than all the treaties she ever made and all -the battles she ever won.” This law governing great achievements is full -of encouragement to the student of mechanics, for while the thought of -compassing any great discovery or invention may well appall even the -boldest, the most humble may hope through studious industry to -contribute something to the sum of human knowledge. - -The engine-room of our school is neater than that of the ordinary -machine-shop, but the furnace roars like any other, its open mouth shows -a bank of glowing coals, and the “stoker,” with grimy hands, wipes the -sweat from his sooty brow. The whole school is here seen in epitome: the -“stoker” typifies the student toiling at the forge, and in the polished -engine, exhibiting both grace and power in its automatic action, we see -the student’s graduating project, a machine, the joint creation of -brain, eye, and hand. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE DRAWING-ROOM. - - Twenty-four Boys bending over the Drawing-board. -- Analysis and - Synthesis in Drawing. -- Geometric Drawing. -- Pictorial Drawing. -- - The Principles of Design. -- The Æsthetic in Art. -- The Fundamentals. - -- Object and Constructive Drawing. -- Drawing for the Exercises in - the Laboratories. -- The Educational Value of Drawing. -- The Language - of Drawing. -- Every Student an expert Draughtsman at the end of the - Course. - - -Passing from the engine-room we enter the room assigned to drawing,--the -first step in art education--where twenty-four boys are bending over -the drawing-board, pencil in hand. Every school-day for three years -these boys will spend an hour in this room. Each division of -drawing--free-hand and mechanical--is thoroughly taught. Every graduate -of the institution will be an expert draughtsman. The room is very -still, only the scratching sound of twenty-four pencils is heard. The -instructor moves about among the students, with here and there a hint, a -suggestion, a correction, or a word of commendation--“good.” - -Drawing is the representation on paper of the facts, and the appearance -to the eye of forms. The exercise proceeds by both analysis and -synthesis. A cube is divided into all the geometric figures of which it -is susceptible, and these figures are imitated with the pencil on paper. -Then the figures are reunited, and the cube is similarly imitated. As -the child in the kindergarten is taught several fundamental geometric -facts through the use of variously subdivided cubes, so the student of -drawing is taught by a similar process how to represent these -fundamental facts on paper. For example (1), the student is taught to -draw the following (sketches 1, 2, and 3) geometric forms of the square, -oblong, and circle; (2) he is taught (sketches 4, 5, 6, and 7) to -represent the facts of the oblong block and cylinder; (3) these facts -are expressed as follows (sketches 8 and 9) in working drawings. -Sketches 8 and 9 are such drawings as would be placed in the hands of a -mechanic as plans for the manufacture of the solids they represent; and -the most elaborate working drawings for building and mechanical purposes -are merely the complete development of this division of the art. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Another division of drawing consists in the representation of solids or -objects as they appear to the eye or pictorially. The oblong block and -cylinder, for example, appear to the eye very differently from their -facts represented in the working drawings (sketches 8 and 9), as -thus--(sketches 10 and 11). - -[Illustration] - -The development of this division of drawing leads to general pictorial -representation. - -Finally the mastery of the art of drawing involves a study of the -principles of design as applied to industrial articles with the purpose -of enhancing their value, as designs for wall-paper, carpets, -embroideries, tapestry, textiles generally, and decorative work in wood. -This is the æsthetic element in the art which appeals to and develops -the student’s taste. It is an important feature of drawing, not less on -this account than from the fact that the designer’s profession is a very -lucrative one, but it is less important than object and constructive -drawing, because less fundamental. Besides, object and constructive work -in drawing come first in the order of development, and it is an -inexorable rule of the new education to follow implicitly the hints of -nature. - -The basis of the art of drawing is geometry, and its _a_, _b_, _c_ -consists in a knowledge of certain geometrical lines, curves, and -angles. This knowledge is gained from examples on the black-board which -are reproduced on paper. But to relieve the student of this school from -the tedium of reproducing, hundreds of times in succession, the same -lines, angles, and curves, object-drawing is introduced very early in -the course; and to render the exercise more attractive, as well as to -impress it more firmly upon the mind, the objects drawn during the day -are made features of the construction lesson in the carpenter’s -laboratory, the wood or iron turning laboratory, or the laboratory of -founding on the following day. At first the objects selected for this -exercise are of a very simple character, as a piece of plain moulding--a -piece of elaborate moulding; parts of a drawing-board--an entire -drawing-board; parts of a table or desk--an entire table or desk; parts -of a draughtsman’s stool--an entire stool; parts of a chair--an entire -chair. - -As the student advances in the general course he advances in object and -constructive drawing, from simple to complex forms. He draws, for -example, various parts of the steam-heating apparatus, and from these -draughts makes working drawings of patterns for moulding. These he works -out in the Carpenter’s Laboratory, and thence takes them to the -moulding-room, where they are used in the lesson given in moulding for -casting. This method of instruction leads to a critical analysis of the -entire interior of the school building. Each article is resolved into -the original elements of its construction, and each element or part is -first represented on paper, then expanded into working drawings, and -then wrought out in wood and iron. Finally the student reaches the -engine, every part of which is made the subject of exhaustive study; the -facts of every part are represented on paper, working drawings of every -part are made, and every part is reproduced in steel and iron in -miniature, and, as a triumph of drawing, a representation on paper of -the completed engine is produced. - -The value of drawing as an educational agency is simply incalculable. It -is the first step in manual training. It brings the eye and the mind -into relations of the closest intimacy, and makes the hand the organ of -both. It trains and develops the sense of form and proportion, renders -the eye accurate in observation, and the hand cunning in execution. - -The students are intent upon their work. The eye is busy acting as -interpreter between the mind and the hand. Having conveyed the -impression of an object to the mind, under its direction it now -photographs the object on paper, and the hand obeying the will traces it -out in lines. Thus the power is gained of multiplying forms of things -with the pencil as words are multiplied by types. - -Drawing is a language--the language in which art records the discoveries -of science. It is not German, it is not French, it is not English--it is -universal--common to all draughtsmen. The face of the student exhibits -vivid flashes of intelligence as the picture reveals itself under his -hand. Each line is a word, an angle completes the sentence; with a curve -and a little delicate shading we have a paragraph. The picture begins to -glow with thought. The student’s face flushes, his heart beats quick and -his hand trembles. But he restrains himself, and adds more lines, more -angles and curves, more shading, and the picture is complete. It stands -out in bold relief, and looks like a real thing. If the student knows -the story of the brazen statue of Albertus Magnus he half expects his -picture of a locomotive to move. He listens for the sound of the hissing -steam, and a smile lights up his face as the illusion vanishes. -Presently he will take his drawing to the shop, and at the bench, the -lathe, the anvil, and the forge, reproduce it in iron and steel, and -actually vitalize it with steam. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE CARPENTER’S LABORATORY. - - The Natural History of the Pine-tree. -- How it is Converted into - Lumber, what it is Worth, and how it is Consumed. -- Where the - Students get Information. -- Working Drawings of the Lesson. -- Asking - Questions. -- The Instructor Executes the Lesson. -- Instruction in - the Use and Care of Tools. -- Twenty-four Boys Making Things. -- As - Busy as Bees. -- The Music of the Laboratory. -- The Self-reliance of - the Students. - - -Passing from the Drawing-Room down a flight of stairs we enter the -Carpenter’s Laboratory. Here we find twenty-four boys seated before a -black-board. At their left stands the instructor with a piece of white -pine in his hand. The piece of pine is the subject of his lecture. He -frequently breaks the thread of his remarks to ask questions, and he is -as frequently interrupted by questions from members of the class. The -scene closely resembles an animated discussion, of which a desire to -learn by asking questions is the chief characteristic. The discussion is -about pine-trees and pine lumber. A pale-faced, city-bred boy rises to -describe the pine-tree. He describes a fir-tree, such as may be seen in -well-kept urban grounds and parks, and describes it in well-chosen, -almost poetic phrase. The instructor shakes his head, but with a genial -smile, and recognizes a boy whose face is tanned brown, and who rises at -the nod and stands rather awkwardly as he speaks. He has seen the pine -in its native wilds, and he describes quite graphically its long, bare -trunk and slender limbs. But he says nothing of its narrow, linear -leaves, of a dark green color, nor of its woody cones, nor of the -Æolian-harp-like sound of the wind in its branches. Why, the instructor -wants to know, and he propounds a series of questions, the answers to -which afford a brief sketch of the boy’s history. His father is a dealer -in pine logs, and once this boy went with him into the pineries of -Northern Michigan in mid-winter, when the landscape was white with snow, -and there saw the huge trees sway back and forth under the woodman’s -axe, saw them topple over, and heard the loud crash of their fall, saw -them trimmed and sawed into mill-logs. He took no note of the woody -cones, nor of the narrow leaves of the pine, nor did the sound of the -wind in its branches make any impression upon his mind. He saw the pine -as his father saw it, with the eyes of a lumberman. He learned just one -thing, and learned it so well that he is able to tell the story of the -pine-tree from the moment of its fall from the stump in the great forest -to its arrival at the mill, and thence, cut into boards, planks, and -timber, to the raft or schooner bound for Chicago. - -Then the different varieties of the pine-tree are enumerated, and the -uses to which their woods are severally adapted mentioned. The countries -which chiefly produce the pine-tree are named, and the climatic -conditions most favorable to its growth briefly referred to. This -discussion leads to the subject of commerce in pine lumber--quantity -consumed, demand and supply, etc; and this in turn brings a boy to his -feet with the statement that at the present rate of consumption the -supply of pine in North America will be exhausted in fifty years. In -answer to a question the boy says he read the statement in a newspaper. -This leads to further inquiry as to the sources of information sought by -the members of the class, whereupon it appears that fifteen boys have -consulted the title “pine” in some encyclopedia with a view to the -present lesson, and that eighteen boys have read the market report under -the title “lumber” in a daily journal, in order to learn the value of -white-pine boards. The value being stated by half a dozen boys, each -member of the class computes the cost of the piece of pine in the hands -of the teacher. - -[Illustration: THE LABORATORY OF CARPENTRY.] - -Ten minutes having been consumed in the inquiry into the nature and -value of the wood in which the lesson of the day is to be wrought, the -instructor makes working drawings of the lesson on the black-board. It -may consist of a plain joint, a mitre joint, a dove-tail joint, a tenon -and mortise, or a frame involving all these, and more manipulations. In -the few minutes devoted to this exercise any question that occurs to the -mind of the student may be asked, and no impatience is manifested or -felt if the questions are numerous and reiterated. But as a -matter-of-fact very few questions are asked during the black-board -exercise, because each student, having gone over every step of it in his -drawing-class the day previous, is perfectly familiar with the subject. - -The instructor now quits the black-board for the bench, where, in the -presence of the whole class, he executes the difficult parts of the -lesson, still propounding and answering questions. If a new tool is -brought into requisition, instruction is given in its care and use. Now -the boys repair to their benches, throw off their coats, and seize their -tools. In a moment the silence and repose of the recitation-room are -exchanged for the noise and activity of the laboratory. A quarter of an -hour ago we left twenty-four boys, with bowed heads, making drawings of -things; for a quarter of an hour we have listened to a peculiar kind of -recitation involving much practical knowledge on the subject of the -pine-tree and its product, lumber; now we stand in the presence of -twenty-four boys, in twenty-four different attitudes of labor, making -things. They are literally as busy as bees, using the square, the saw, -the plane, and the chisel; they are, as the journeyman carpenter would -say, “getting out stuff for a job.” The coarse, buzzing sound of the -cross-cut saw resounds loudly through the room; above this bass note the -sharp tenor tone of the rip-saw is heard, and the rasping sound of half -a dozen planes throwing off a series of curling pine ribbons comes in as -a rude refrain. The faces of the boys are ruddy with the glow of -exercise; the pale-faced boy who mistook a fir-tree for a pine will have -his revenge on the angular boy from the Michigan pinery, for he is doing -a finer piece of work than the other. - -[Illustration: COURSE IN THE LABORATORY OF CARPENTRY.] - -In the midst of the harmonious confusion caused by the use of saws, -planes, mallets, and chisels, the instructor raps on his desk, and -silence is restored; three or four boys stand in a group about the -instructor’s desk, the others pause and wipe the perspiration from their -brows. It is a picture full of interest--twenty-four boys, with flushed, -eager faces, lifting their eyes simultaneously to the face of the -instructor, waiting for the hint which is to come, and which is sure in -these now active minds to result in a prompt solution of the main -problem of the day’s lesson. A similar question from several boys shows -the instructor that the lesson has not been made clear; hence the -general explanation which follows the call to order. So the work goes -on, with now and then an interruption. There is a student trying to fit -a tenon into its mortise; he is nervous and impatient; the instructor -observes him, foresees a catastrophe, and moves towards his bench. But -it is too late! The tenon being forced the mortise splits, and the -discomforted student makes a wry face. The instructor approaches with a -word of good cheer, but with the warning aphorism that “haste makes -waste.” The student’s face flushes, and he chronicles his failure as -Huntsman, the inventor of cast-steel, did his, by burying the wreck -under a pile of shavings, and commencing, as the lawyers say, _de novo_. -Thus the lesson proceeds “by the usual laboratory methods employed in -teaching the sciences;” the class learns the thing to be done by -doing it. The students are at their best, because the lesson to be -learned compels a close union between the three great powers of -man--observation, reflection, and action. No student seeks aid from -another, because such a course would be impossible without the knowledge -of the whole class. A feeling of self-reliance is thus developed, the -disposition to shirk repressed, and a sense of sturdy independence -encouraged and promoted. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE WOOD-TURNING LABORATORY. - - A Radical Change. -- From the Square to the Circle; from Angles to - Spherical, Cylindrical, and Eccentric Forms. -- The Rhythm of - Mechanics. -- The Potter’s Wheel of the Ancients and the - Turning-lathe. -- The Speculation of Holtzapffels on its Origin. -- - The Greeks as Turners. -- The Turners of the Middle Ages. -- George - III. at the Lathe. -- Maudslay’s Slide-rest, and the Revolution it - wrought. -- The Natural History of Black-walnut. -- The Practical - Value of Imagination. -- Disraeli’s Tribute to it; Sir Robert Peel’s - Want of it. -- The Laboratory animated by Steam. -- The Boys at the - Lathes. -- Their Manly Bearing. -- The Lesson. - - -When the twenty-four boys of the Carpenter’s Laboratory have become -expert in the use of the tools employed in carpentry they will be -introduced to the Wood-turning Laboratory. The change is radical--from -the square to the circle, from the prose to the poetry of mechanical -manipulation. Carpentry is distinguished for its corners and angles, -turnery for its spherical, cylindrical, and eccentric forms. In these -forms Nature abounds and delights, and it is in these forms that the -rhythm of mechanics exists. It is by the Turners that the arts are -supplied with a thousand and one things of use and beauty. The machines, -great and small, from the locomotive to the stocking-knitter--without -which the work of the modern world could not be done--these wonderful -contrivances, seemingly more cunning than the hand of man, owe their -very existence to the turning-lathe. - -[Illustration: THE WOOD-TURNING LABORATORY.] - -The skilled instructor in this department of the school loves to dwell -upon the history of turning. Its origin is enveloped in the obscurity of -early Egyptian traditions. It is the subject of one of the oldest myths, -which runs thus: “Num, the directing spirit of the universe, and oldest -of created beings, first exercised the potter’s art, moulding the human -race on his wheel. Having made the heavens and the earth, and the air, -and the sun and moon, he modelled man out of the dark Nilotic clay, and -into his nostrils breathed the breath of life.” - -The Potter’s Wheel of the ancients contained the germ of the -turning-lathe found in every modern machine-shop, whether for the -manipulation of wood or iron. Holtzapffels has an ingenious speculation -as to the origin of the invention of the lathe. In his elaborate work on -“Turning and Mechanical Manipulation” he says, - -“It would appear probable that the origin of the lathe may be found in -the revolution given to tools for piercing objects for ornament or use. -At first it may be supposed that a spine or thorn from a tree, a -splinter of bone or a tooth, was alone used and pressed into the work as -we should use a brad-awl. The process would naturally be slow and -unsuitable to hard materials, and this probably suggested to the -primitive mechanic the idea of attaching a splinter of bone or flint to -the end of a short piece of stick, rubbing which between the palms of -his hands would give a rotary motion to the tool.” - -Of the steps of progress in invention, from the rude turning-tools of -the ancients down to the beginning of the present century, when -Maudslay’s improvement made the lathe the king of the machine-shop, -little is known. By the Greeks the invention of turning was ascribed to -Dædalus. Phidias, who produced the two great masterpieces of Greek art, -Athene and Jupiter Olympius, was familiar with the then existing system -of wood-turning. In cutting figures on signets and gems in such stones -as agate, carnelian, chalcedony, and amethyst, the Greek artificers used -the wheel and the style. In the abundant ornamentation of Roman -dwellings--their elaborately carved chairs, tables, bedsteads, sofas, -and stools--there is ample evidence of a knowledge of the art of turning -in wood. Improvements were made in turning-tools, and fine ornamental -work was done by the artisans of the Middle Ages, to which the -cathedrals and palaces of the time bear witness. Later, during the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, turning became a fashionable -amusement among the French nobility and gentry. Louis XVI. was an expert -locksmith, and spent much of his royal time in that pursuit. The fashion -extended to England. George III. is said to have been an expert -wood-turner, to have been “learned in wheels and treadles, chucks and -chisels;” and as a matter of course a pursuit indulged by kings was -followed by many nobles. There is, however, no evidence that those -distinguished amateurs made any improvements in the tools they used; -inventions and discoveries in this as in all departments of art came -from the other end of the social scale. When the Spaniards sacked -Antwerp in 1585 the Flemish silk-weavers fled to England and set up -their looms there; and a century later, upon the revocation of the Edict -of Nantes, the silk industry of England received a new accession of -refugee artisans consisting of persecuted Protestants. Doubtless with -the Flemish weavers there crossed the British Channel representatives of -all the useful arts, including that of turning; for in another hundred -years England took the front rank among nations in nearly all industrial -pursuits. - -Among the great inventions and discoveries which distinguished the last -quarter of the eighteenth century, Maudslay’s slide-rest attachment to -the lathe was one of the greatest, if not the greatest. Without it -Watt’s invention would have been of little more real service to mankind -than the French automata of the first quarter of the same century--the -mechanical peacock of Degennes, Vaucauson’s duck, or Maillardet’s -conjurer. Mr. Samuel Smiles, in his admirable book on “Iron-workers and -Tool-makers,” declares that this passion for automata, which gave rise -to many highly ingenious devices, “had the effect of introducing among -the higher order of artists habits of nice and accurate workmanship in -executing delicate pieces of machinery.” And he adds, “The same -combination of mechanical powers which made the steel spider crawl, the -duck quack, or waved the tiny rod of the magician, contributed in future -years to purposes of higher import--the wheels and pinions, which in -these automata almost eluded the human senses by their minuteness, -reappearing in modern times in the stupendous mechanism of our -self-acting lathes, spinning-mules, and steam-engines.” - -That there was a logical connection between the two eras of mechanical -contrivance--that of the ingenious automata and that of the useful -modern machines--is extremely probable. That the refugee artisans from -Antwerp and from France had a stimulating effect upon English invention -and discovery there can be little doubt; and that the French automata, -which were much written about, and exhibited as a triumph of mechanical -genius, became known to and exercised an influence upon the minds of -intelligent mechanics is equally probable. We are therefore surprised to -find Mr. Smiles arriving at a conclusion in such direct conflict with -his general views of the gradual growth of inventions, namely, “that -Maudslay’s invention was entirely independent of all that had gone -before, and that he contrived it for the special purpose of overcoming -the difficulties which he himself experienced in turning out duplicate -parts in large numbers.” - -But however this may be, Mr. Maudslay’s invention revolutionized the -workshop. Before its introduction the tool of the artisan was guided -solely by muscular strength and the dexterity of the hand; the smallest -variation in the pressure applied rendered the work imperfect. The -slide-rest acting automatically changed all that. With it thousands of -duplicates of the most ponderous, as well as the most minute pieces of -machinery, are executed with the utmost precision. Without it the -steam-engine, whether locomotive or stationary, would have been hardly -more than a dream of genius; for the monster that is to be fed with -steam can be properly constructed only by automatic steam-driven tools; -or, as another has expressed it, “Steam-engines were never properly made -until they made themselves.” - -Ten minutes are thus agreeably and profitably occupied by the instructor -in a review of the history of a single invention, and its relations to -the whole field of mechanical work. - -Another branch of the lesson consists of an inquiry into the natural -history, qualities, value, and common uses of the wood which is to be -the material of the day’s manipulation--black-walnut. Holding a piece of -the purplish brown wood high in his hand the instructor discharges, as -it were, a volley of questions at the class, “What is it called?” “Where -is it found?” “How large does the tree grow?” “For what is the wood -chiefly used?” Up go a dozen hands. The owner of one of the hands is -recognized, and he rises to tell all about it, but is only allowed to -say “black-walnut.” The next speaker is permitted to say that “the -black-walnut is found all over North America;” the next that it is more -abundant west of the Alleghanies, and most abundant in the valley of the -Mississippi; the next that in a forest it has a limbless trunk from -thirty to fifty feet high, but in the “open” branches near the ground; -the next that it is extensively used in house-finishing, in furniture, -for all kinds of cabinet-work, and especially for gunstocks. - -Further inquiry elicits the information that the black-walnut is a -quick-growing, large tree; that its wood is hard, fine-grained, durable, -and susceptible of a high polish, and that through use and exposure it -turns dark, and with great age becomes almost black. One student -describes the leaves, another the fruit or nuts, and states that they -are used in dyeing; a third states that the black-walnut is a great -favorite for planting in the treeless tracts of the West, on account of -its rapid growth and the value of its timber. When the subject appears -to be nearly exhausted, a boy at the farther end of one of the forms -rises timidly and tells the story of the late Mr. W. C. Bryant’s great -black-walnut-tree at Roslyn, Long Island. He concludes, excitedly, “It -is one hundred and seventy years old and twenty-five feet in -circumference.”[1] The timid boy dwells upon his story of the “big” -tree with evident fondness, and his eyes dilate with satisfaction as he -resumes his seat. The circumstance of the great age no less than the -enormous size of the tree has captivated his imagination. The -discriminating instructor will not fail to note such incidents of the -lesson. It is through them that the special aptitudes of students are -disclosed. The instructor will always bear prominently in mind that the -purpose of the school is not to make mechanics but men. Nor will he -forget, as Buckle remarked, that Shakespeare preceded Newton. Buckle -pays a glowing tribute to the usefulness of the imagination. He says, -“Shakespeare and the poets sowed the seed which Newton and the -philosophers reaped.... They drew attention to nature, and thus became -the real founders of all natural science. They did even more than this. -They first impregnated the mind of England with bold and lofty -conceptions. They taught the men of their generation to crave after the -unseen.” - - [1] “At Ellerslie, the birthplace of Wallace, exists an oak which is - celebrated as having been a remarkable object in his time, and which - can scarcely, therefore, be less than seven hundred years old. Near - Staines there is a yew-tree older than Magna Charta (1215), and the - yews at Fountains Abbey, in Yorkshire, are probably more than twelve - hundred years old. Eight olive-trees still exist in the Garden of - Olives at Jerusalem which are known to be at least eight hundred years - old.”--“Vegetable Physiology.” By William B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., - F.G.S. London: Bell and Daldy. 1865. p. 78. - -Disraeli, in his matchless biography of Lord George Bentinck, in summing -up the character of a great English statesman is equally emphatic in -praise of the imagination as a practical quality. He says, - -“Thus gifted and thus accomplished, Sir Robert Peel had a great -deficiency--he was without imagination. Wanting imagination, he wanted -prescience. No one was more sagacious when dealing with the -circumstances before him; no one penetrated the present with more -acuteness and accuracy. His judgment was faultless, provided he had not -to deal with the future. Thus it happened through his long career, that -while he always was looked upon as the most prudent and safest of -leaders, he ever, after a protracted display of admirable tactics, -concluded his campaigns by surrendering at discretion. He was so adroit -that he could prolong resistance even beyond its term, but so little -foreseeing that often in the very triumph of his manœuvres he found -himself in an untenable position.” - -The timid boy has imagination; if he has application and the logical -faculty he may become an inventor, or he may become an artist--an -engraver or a designer of works of art--or he may become a man of -letters. To the man of vivid imagination and industry all avenues are -open; Disraeli’s wonderful career offers a striking illustration of the -truth of this proposition. The true purpose of education is the -harmonious development of the whole being, and the purpose of this -turning laboratory is to educate these twenty-four boys, not to make -turners of them. - -The laboratory is a labyrinth of belts, large and small, of wheels, big -and little, of pulleys and lathes. A student, at a word from the -instructor, moves a lever a few inches, and the breath of life is -breathed into the complicated mass of machinery. The throbbing heart of -the engine far away sends the currents of its power along shafting and -pulleys. The dull, monotonous whir of steam-driven machinery salutes the -ear, and the twenty-four students take their places at the lathes. They -are from fourteen to seventeen years of age, and range in height from -undersize to “full-grown.” They look like little men. Their faces are -grave, showing a sense of responsibility. They are to handle edge-tools -on wood rapidly revolved by the power of steam. There is peril in an -uncautious step, and death lurks in the shafting. Of these dangers they -have been repeatedly warned; and there is in their bearing that -manifestation of wary coolness which we call “nerve,” and which in an -emergency develops into a lofty heroism capable of sublime -self-sacrifice. - -This is the very essence of education, its informing spirit. The student -no longer thinks merely of becoming an expert turner; he thinks of -becoming a man! All the powers of his mind are roused to vigorous -action; imagination illumes the path, and reason, following with firm -but cautious step, drives straight to the mark. Rapid development -results from the combination of practice with theory--rapid because -orderly, or natural. The knowledge acquired is at once assimilated, and -becomes a mental resource, subject to draft like a bank account. But -unlike a bank account it increases in the ratio of the frequency with -which drafts are made upon it, and the result is the student leaves -school at seventeen years of age with the reasoning experience of an -ordinarily educated man of forty. - -The lesson has been announced by the instructor, its chief points stated -and analyzed, its place in the scale (so to speak) of the art of turnery -defined, its educational value to the mind, the hand, and the eye shown, -and the points of difficulty involved so emphasized as to lead to -painstaking care in the execution of crucial parts. The new tool -required by the lesson is handled in presence of the waiting class by -the instructor; the time of its invention stated; the name of its -inventor given; the method of its manufacture described; and how to -sharpen, take care of, and use it explained with such minuteness of -detail as to insure the making of a permanent impression upon the minds -of students. - -[Illustration: COURSE IN THE WOOD-TURNING AND PATTERN LABORATORY.] - -The wood-turner’s case contains more than a hundred tools, perhaps a -hundred and fifty, but not more than a score of them are fundamental; -the others are subsidiary, and require very little if any explanation. - -The lesson may be one in simple turning, as a table-leg, the round of a -chair, or parts of a section of a miniature garden-fence; or it may be a -set of pulleys, or patterns for various forms of pipe. The pieces of -wood to be wrought or manipulated lie at the feet of the student, and -the working drawing (drawn by the student himself) lies on the bench -before him. The piece of wood to be turned first is adjusted, the -student touches a lever over his head which sets the lathe in motion, -takes the required tool in hand, and the work begins. Guided by the -automatic slide-rest, the sharp point of the tool chips away the -revolving wood until it assumes the form of the drawing lying under the -eye of the operator. Thus the lesson proceeds to the end of the -prescribed period--two hours. The master watches every step of its -progress. If a student is puzzled he receives prompt assistance, so that -no time may be lost. Indeed the relations between instructor and -students are such, or ought to be such, that the question is asked -before the puzzled mind falls into a rut of profitless speculation -through revolving in a circle. But if the true sequential method of -study is followed the student rarely fails, from the vantage ground of a -step securely taken, to comprehend the nature of the next step in the -regular order of succession. This is the Russian system, and it is the -method of the wood-turnery as well as of every department of the Manual -Training School. Hence a certain tool having been mastered, the next -tool in the regular order of succession is more easily understood, -because (1) each tool contains a hint of the nature of its successor, -and (2) each addition to the student’s stock of knowledge confers an -increased capability of comprehension. - -When the lesson is concluded the whir of the machinery ceases, and a -great silence falls upon the class as the students assemble about the -instructor, each presenting his piece of work. This is the moment of -friendly criticism. The instructor handles each specimen, comments upon -the character of the workmanship, points out its defects, and calls for -criticisms from the class. These are freely given. There is an animated -discussion, involving explanations on the part of the instructor of the -various causes of defects, and suggestions as to suitable methods of -amendment. Then the pieces of work are marked according to the various -degrees of excellence they exhibit, and the class is dismissed. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE FOUNDING LABORATORY. - - The Iron Age. -- Iron the King of Metals. -- Locke’s Apothegm. -- The - Moulder’s Art is Fundamental. -- History of Founding. -- Remains of - Bronze Castings in Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. -- Layard’s - Discoveries. -- The Greek Sculptors. -- The Colossal Statue of Apollo - at Rhodes. -- The Great Bells of History. -- Moulding and Casting a - Pulley. -- Description of the Process, Step by Step. -- The Furnace - Fire. -- Pouring the Hot Metal into the Moulds. -- A Pen Picture of - the Laboratory. -- Thus were the Hundred Gates of Babylon cast. -- - Neglect of the Useful Arts by Herodotus. -- How Slavery has degraded - Labor. -- How Manual Training is to dignify it. - - -As we enter the Founding Laboratory we recall Locke’s apothegm: “He who -first made known the use of that contemptible mineral [iron] may be -truly styled the father of arts and the author of plenty.” We reflect, -too, that the mineral that has given its name to an age of the -world--our age--is worthy of careful study. - -The Founding Laboratory, like all the laboratories of the school, is -designed for twenty-four students. There are twenty-four -moulding-benches, combined with troughs for sand, and a cupola furnace -where from five hundred to one thousand pounds of iron may be melted. - -The students we lately parted from in the Wood-turning Laboratory are -here. Their training has been confined to manipulations in wood; they -are now to be made acquainted with iron--iron in considerable masses. -They should know something, in outline, of the history of the king of -metals in the Founding Laboratory. The instructor speaks familiarly to -them, somewhat as follows: - -The art of the founder is fundamental in its nature. The arts of -founding and forging are, indeed, the essential preliminary steps which -lead to the finer manipulations entering into all metal constructions. -Whether forging preceded founding or founding forging is immaterial; -both arts are as old as recorded history--much older indeed. Moulding, -which is the first step in the founder’s art, should be among the oldest -of human discoveries, since man had only to take in his hand a lump of -moist clay to receive ocular evidence of his power to give it any -desired form. - -Moulding for casting is closely allied to the potter’s art. The potter -selects a clay suitable for the vessel he desires to mould, and the -founder prepares a composition of sand and loam of the proper -consistency to serve as a matrix for the vessel he desires to cast. - -The art of founding was doubtless first applied to bronze. The ruins of -Egypt and Greece abound in the remains of bronze castings, an analysis -of which reveals about the same relative proportions of tin and copper -in use now for the best qualities of statuary bronze. The bronze -castings of the Assyrians show a high degree of art. Many specimens of -this fine work of the Assyrian founder have been rescued from the ruins -of long-buried Nineveh--buried so long that Xenophon and his ten -thousand Greeks marched over its site more than two thousand years ago -without making any sign of a knowledge of its existence, and Alexander -fought a great battle in its neighborhood in apparent ignorance of the -fact that he trod on classic ground. But there, delving beneath the -rubbish and decayed vegetation of four thousand years or more, Layard -found great treasures of art in the palaces of Sennacherib and other -Assyrian monarchs--vases, jars, bronzes, glass-bottles, carved ivory -and mother-of-pearl ornaments, engraved gems, bells, dishes, and -ear-rings of exquisite workmanship, besides arms and a variety of tools -of the practical arts. - -In Greece, in the time of Praxiteles, bronze was moulded into forms of -rare beauty and grandeur. The colossal statue of Apollo at Rhodes -affords an example of the magnitude of the Greek castings. It was cast -in several parts, and was over one hundred feet high. About fifty years -after its erection it was destroyed by an earthquake. Its fragments lay -on the ground where it fell, nearly a thousand years; but when the -Saracens gathered them together and sold them, there was a sufficient -quantity to load a caravan consisting of nine hundred camels. One of the -finest existing specimens of ancient bronze casting is that of a statue -of Mercury discovered at Herculaneum, and now to be seen in the museum -at Naples. - -During the era of church bells the founder exercised his art in casting -bells of huge dimensions. Early in the fifteenth century a bell weighing -about fifty tons was cast at Pekin, China. This bell still exists, is -fourteen and a half feet in height and thirteen feet in diameter. But -the greatest bell-founding feat was, however, that of 1733, in casting -the bell of Moscow. This bell is nineteen feet three inches in height -and sixty feet nine inches in circumference, and weighs 443,772 pounds. -The value of the metal entering into its construction is estimated at -$300,000. It long lay in a pit in the midst of the Kremlin, but Czar -Nicholas caused it to be raised, mounted upon a granite pedestal, and -converted into a chapel. The methods of casting employed by the founder -of this king of bells are not known. The bell has outlived the Works -where it was cast. The melting and handling of two hundred and twenty -tons of bronze metal certainly required appointments, mechanical and -otherwise, of the most stupendous character; and the existence of such -Works presupposes an intimate acquaintance with the most minute details -of the founder’s art, since the natural order of development is from the -less to the greater. That is to say, the founder who could manipulate -scores of tons of metal in a single great casting could doubtless -manipulate a few pounds of metal; or, the founder who could cast a bell -weighing two hundred and twenty tons, could cast pots and kettles and -hundreds of other little useful things. What we hope to do in this -school Founding Laboratory is to gain a correct conception of great -things by making ourselves thoroughly familiar with many forms of little -things in moulding and casting. - -The lesson of the day is the moulding and casting of a plain pulley. In -the Pattern Laboratory each student has already executed a pattern of -the pulley to be cast, and the pattern lies before him on his -moulding-bench. Now the instructor, at the most conspicuous bench in the -room, proceeds to execute the first part of the lesson, which consists -of moulding. Taking from the trough a handful of sand, he explains that -it is only by the use of sand possessing certain properties, as a degree -of moisture, but not enough to vaporize when the metal is poured in, and -a small admixture of clay, but not enough to make of the compound a -loam, that the mould can be saved from ruin through vaporization, and, -at the same time, given the essential quality of adhesiveness and -plasticity. In the course of this explanation he remarks that the sand -used in some parts of the mould is mixed with pulverized bituminous -coal, coke, or plumbago, in order to give a smoother surface. Now he -takes the “flask”--a wooden apparatus containing the sand in which the -mould is made--and explains its construction and use. From this -point--the sifting of facing sand on the turn-over board, to the final -one of replacing the cope and securing it with keys or clamps--every -step of the process is carefully gone through with and explained. - -[Illustration: THE FOUNDING LABORATORY.] - -Meantime, before the moulding lesson has proceeded far, a fire is -kindled in the furnace and it is “charged;” that is to say, filled with -alternate layers of coal and pig-iron, with occasional fluxes of -limestone. During the process of charging the furnace the instructor -explains the principle of its construction, and shows how it operates. -At every subsequent rest in moulding the students surround the furnace -to witness the progress of the fire, the position of the layers of coal, -and the state of combustion. They pass the furnace in procession, and -each peeps in through the isinglass windows upon the glowing fire, asks -a question, or a dozen questions, perhaps, and gives place to the next -student in line. In the intervals of these visits to the furnace the -work of making twenty-four moulds goes on under the eye of the -instructor, the students explaining each step in advance. He is -omnipresent, answering a question here, preventing a fatal mistake -there, cheering, inspiring, and guiding the whole class, but never -insisting upon a slavish adherence to strict identity in processes. And -it is to be noted that there is in moulding more latitude for -independence than in almost any other mechanical manipulation. Certain -essentials there are, of course, but these being secured, the student -may exercise his ingenuity in the execution of many minor details. That -there is considerable individuality in the class may be seen by -observation of the different methods employed by the several young -moulders to compass various details of the same general process. - -The moulds are nearly completed. The instructor assists a student who is -found to be a little behind in his work, and interposes a warning -against haste at the critical moment. Within a period of ten minutes the -twenty-four patterns are “tapped,” loosened, and lifted from their beds, -imperfections are carefully repaired with the trowel, or some other -tool, channels to the pouring holes are cut in the surfaces, the pieces -remaining in the copes are removed, the particles of loose sand are -blown from the surfaces of the moulds, and the twenty-four copes are -replaced, and secured in their correct positions with keys or clamps. - -A final visit is now made to the furnace. The fusion is found to be -complete; the “pigs” are converted into a molten pool. It only remains -to pour the hot metal into the moulds. The instructor seizes an iron -ladle lined with clay, holds it under the spout of the furnace reservoir -until it is nearly filled with the glowing fluid, lifts and carries it -carefully across the room, and pours the contents into a mould. Then the -students, in squads, after having been cautioned as to the deadly nature -of the molten mass they are to handle, follow the example of their -instructor. At this moment the laboratory appeals powerfully to the -imagination. The picture it presents is weird in the extreme. From the -open furnace door a stream of crimson light floods the room. The -students wear paper caps and are bare-armed; their faces glow in the -reflected glare of the furnace-fire; they march up to the furnace one by -one, each receiving a ladleful of steaming hot metal, and countermarch -to their benches, where they pour the contents of their ladles into the -moulds. - -[Illustration: COURSE IN THE FOUNDING LABORATORY.] - -Still holding his empty ladle in his hand, the instructor watches the -progress of the lesson with keen interest until the last stream of metal -has found its way into the throat of the last mould. He recalls the -story of Vulcan, the God of Fire, and of all the arts and industries -dependent upon it, and wonders why he was not depicted pouring tons of -molten metal, in the foundery, rather than sledge in hand at the forge. -Then he regards the class with a benignant expression of pride, begs for -silence, and says, “Thus were the hundred brazen gates of ancient -Babylon cast long before the beginning of the Christian era.” Herodotus -did not think to tell us much of the state of the useful arts in the -early time of which he wrote, but the brazen gates attracted his -attention, and he described them: “At the end of each street a little -gate is found in the wall along the river-side, in number equal to the -streets, and they are all made of brass, and lead down to the edge of -the river.” Could Herodotus have foreseen what a deep interest his -readers of this remote time would take in the history of the useful -arts, he would have written less about the walls, palaces, and temples -of Babylon, and more about the artificers. He would have begged -admission to the forges and founderies of the city; he would have -visited the Assyrian founder at his work, questioned him about his -processes, and set down his answers with painstaking care. Then he would -have sought an introduction to the smithy, and from the grimy forger -learned what he could tell of his art and of kindred arts. So the father -of history might have made an enduring record of the real things which -throughout all time have contributed to the advancement of the human -race, rather than of events growing out of the ambitions and passions of -men--the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires, the varying fortune of -battle, the treacheries, crimes, and brutalities of rulers, and the -cringing submission of millions of subjects. But, alas, the founders and -smiths, and all the other cunning artificers of the vast empire of -Syria, were slaves! and through their ancestry for unnumbered -generations the stigma of slavery had attached to labor. Ay, on the bare -backs of the founders of Babylon’s brazen gates the popular scorn of -labor had doubtless left its livid brand. - -With these pariahs of Assyrian society, these outcasts of the social -circle, the great Greek historian could not even speak. Descended from a -long line of noble Halicarnassian families, Herodotus felt all the -prejudices of the hereditary aristocracy of his country. Hence he -dilates upon the wonders of Babylon, but is silent as to its architects -and artisans. He describes with great minuteness of detail the tower of -Jupiter Belus, but gives no hint of the name of its designer and -builder. He declares that Babylon was adorned in a manner surpassing any -city of the time, but in regard to the artificers through whose -ingenuity and skill such pleasing effects were produced he gives no -sign. - -The silence of Herodotus on the subject of the useful arts in Babylon -does not indicate a want of appreciation of their value, but merely -shows contempt of the Assyrian artisan, and this not because he was an -artisan, but because he was a slave. The story of Solon and Crœsus, -which antedates Herodotus, whether true or a myth, shows that iron and -artisanship were appreciated by both Greeks and barbarians. When Crœsus -had exhibited to the Greek sage his vast hoard of treasures, Solon -said, “If another comes that hath better iron than you he will be master -of all this gold.” Here is a recognition of the immense value of the -arts of smelting and forging, coupled with a contemptuous silence -regarding as well the smelter and the smith as the rank and file of the -armies who should wield the swords and spears drawn by science from the -recesses of the earth, and by art wrought and tempered at the forge. -Through all the early ages the brand and scorn of slavery adhered to -labor, while the arts, the products of labor, were often deified. Thus -the Scythian, who from a grinning skull drank the warm blood of his -captive, regarded with superstitious awe as a god the iron sword with -which he cut off his captive’s head. - -It was only with the revival of learning, after the intellectual and -moral gloom of the Dark Ages, that labor began slowly to lift its bowed -head and assert itself. But it does not yet stand erect. It still stoops -as if in the presence of a master. Every now and then it winces and -cringes as if the sound of the descending lash smote its ear. It remains -for you, students in this school of the arts--all the arts that make -mankind good and great--it remains for you to brush away from the -tear-stained face of labor all the shadows accumulated there through all -the dead ages of oppression and slavery. It remains for you to make -labor bold by making it intelligent. It remains for you to dignify and -ennoble labor by bestowing upon it the ripest scientific and artistic -culture, and devoting to its service the best energies of body and -mind. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE FORGING LABORATORY. - - Twenty-four manly-looking Boys with Sledge-hammer in Hand -- their - Muscle and Brawn. -- The Pride of Conscious Strength. -- The Story of - the Origin of an Empire. -- The Greater Empire of Mechanics. -- The - Smelter and the Smith the Bulwark of the British Government. -- Coal - -- its Modern Aspects; its Early History; Superstition regarding its - Use. -- Dud. Dudley utilizes “Pit-coal” for Smelting -- the Story of - his Struggles; his Imprisonment and Death. -- The English People - import their Pots and Kettles. -- “The Blast is on and the Forge Fire - sings.” -- The Lesson, first on the Black-board, then in Red-hot Iron - on the Anvil. -- Striking out the Anvil Chorus -- the Sparks fly - whizzing through the Air. -- The Mythological History of Iron. -- The - Smith in Feudal Times. -- His Versatility. -- History of Damascus - Steel. -- We should reverence the early Inventors. -- The Useful Arts - finer than the Fine Arts. -- The Ancient Smelter and Smith, and the - Students in the Manual Training School. - - -This is the Forging Laboratory. It is only a few steps from the -laboratory for founding, where we lately saw twenty-four students taking -off their leather aprons after a two hours’ lesson in moulding and -casting. Here we find, also, twenty-four students, but not the -twenty-four we saw in the laboratory for founding. This class is more -advanced. The boys are a trifle taller; they show more muscle, more -strength, and bear themselves with a still more confident air. - -In the Forging Laboratory there are twenty-four forges with all -essential accessories, as anvils, tubs, and sets of ordinary -hand-tools. - -[Illustration: THE FORGING LABORATORY.] - -The students, with coats off and sleeves rolled above their elbows, in -pairs, as smith and helper, stand, sledge and tongs in hand, at twelve -of the forges. They are manly-looking boys. Their feet are firmly -planted, their bodies erect, their heads thrown a little back. Their -arms show brawn; the muscles stand out in relief from the solid flesh. -Their faces express the pride of conscious strength, and their eyes show -animation. - -As we regard the class with a sympathetic thrill of satisfaction, the -story of the origin of the Turkish Empire is recalled: “A race of -slaves, living in the mountain regions of Asia, are employed by a -powerful Khan to forge weapons for his use in war. A bold chief -persuades them to use the weapons forged for a master to secure their -own deliverance. For centuries after they had thus conquered their -freedom, the Turkish people celebrated their liberation by an annual -ceremony in which a piece of iron was heated in the fire, and a smith’s -hammer successively handled by the prince and his nobles.” - -The greatest empire in the world to-day is the empire of the art of -mechanism, and its most potent instrument is iron. Once the perpetuity -of governments depended upon the mere possession of the dingy ore. When -Elizabeth came to the throne, in the middle of the sixteenth century, -England was almost defenceless, owing to the short supply of iron. -Spain, much better equipped, hence relied confidently upon her ability -to subdue the English. But the Virgin Queen, comprehending the nature of -the crisis, imported iron from Sweden and encouraged the Sussex forges, -and the Spanish Armada was defeated. Thus the smelter and the smith -became the bulwark of the British government. - -But at an earlier period the fraternity of smiths gave direction to the -course of empire. The secret of the easy conquest of Britain by the -Normans was their superior armor. They were clad in steel, and their -horses were shod with iron. The chief farrier of William became an earl; -and he was proud of his origin, for his coat of arms bore six -horseshoes. - -Iron and civilization are terms of equivalent import. Iron is king, and -the smelter and smith are his chief ministers. It is not known when, by -whom, or how the art of smelting iron was discovered. As well ask by -whom and how fire was discovered? These are secrets of the early morning -of human life--of that time when man made no record of his struggles. - -In lieu of history the instructor resorts to tradition, repeating the -following legend: “While men were patiently rubbing sticks to point them -into arrows, a spark leapt forth and ignited the wood-dust which had -been scraped from the sticks, and so fire was found.” - -Now the “helper” looks to his “blast” with keen interest; for the -management of the forge-fire is one of the niceties of the smith’s art. -He stirs the fire a little impatiently. The instructor heeds the act, -but not the movement of impatience. On the contrary he seizes the -occasion to introduce the subject of coal. Question follows question in -rapid succession, and the answers are prompt and satisfactory, touching -all modern aspects of the subject, namely, the magnitude of the annual -“output,” the localities of heaviest production, the cost of mining; the -uses, respectively, to which different qualities are applied, demand and -supply, and market value or price. Here the instructor remarks that the -mining, transportation, and sale of coal are conducted in this country -by a number of large corporations, with an aggregate capitalization and -bonded indebtedness of six or seven hundred million dollars, and that -through combinations between these corporations the price is often -arbitrarily advanced. “But,” he concludes, “the discussion of that -branch of the subject belongs more properly to the class in political -economy.” - -The history of coal in its relation to iron smelting and manufacture -forms a curious chapter in the vicissitudes of the useful arts. One -hundred and fifty years ago not only all the smith’s fires but the -smelter’s fires were kept up with charcoal. The forests of England were -literally swept away, like chaff before the wind, to feed the yawning -mouths of the iron mills. To make a ton of iron required the consumption -of hundreds of cords of wood. To save the timber restrictive legislation -was adopted, and the mills were gradually closed for want of fuel, -until, in 1788, there was not one left in Sussex, and only a small -number in the kingdom. Meantime the English iron supply came from -Sweden, Spain, and Germany. England seemed to be following in the -footsteps of the Roman Empire. The Romans accomplished in iron smelting -and forging just what might be expected of a warlike people. They -required iron for arms and armor, and in smelting skimmed the surface. -This is proved by the cinder heaps, rich in ore, which they left in -Britain. Archæologists trace the decline of Rome in her monuments, which -show a steady deterioration in the soldier’s equipment. Alison -attributes this decline to the exhaustion of her gold and silver mines. -A far more plausible conjecture is found in the waste of timber in fuel -for smelting purposes, and the resulting failure of the iron supply. - -The fall of the Roman Empire may be accounted for by her neglect of the -useful arts. The nation that converts all her iron into swords and -spears shall surely perish. Had the city of Seven Hills possessed seven -men of mechanical genius like Watt, Stephenson, Maudslay, Clement, -Whitney, Neilson, and Nasmyth, her fall might have been averted, or if -not averted, it need not have involved the practical extinction of -civilization, thus imposing upon mankind the shame of the Dark Ages. - -At the beginning of the seventeenth century there was much ignorant -prejudice against the use of mineral coal. It was believed to be -injurious to health. All sorts of diseases were attributed to its -supposed malignant influence, and at one time to burn it in dwellings -was made a penal offence. But this prejudice did not extend to its use -in smelting iron, and whatever there was of inventive genius was devoted -to a solution of the problem of its adaptation to such purposes. Mr. -Samuel Smiles has collected the names of the most prominent of these -Dutch and German mechanics, namely, Sturtevant, Rovenzon, Jordens, -Francke, and Sir Philibert Vernatt, and given each a niche in the temple -of fame. Some of them had a true conception of the required processes, -but they all failed to render the application practically available. - -It remained for Dud. Dudley to succeed in making a thoroughly practical -application of mineral coal to iron-smelting purposes, and then -curiously enough to fail of success in introducing it into general use. -Dudley was born in 1599, in an iron-manufacturing district. His father -owned iron-works near the town of Dudley, which was a collection of -forges and workshops where “nails, horseshoes, keys, locks, and common -agricultural tools” were made. Brought up in the neighborhood of -“twenty thousand smiths and workers in iron,” young Dudley “attained -considerable knowledge of the various processes of manufacture.” At -twenty years of age he was taken from college and placed in charge of a -furnace and two forges in Worcestershire, where there was a scarcity of -wood but an abundance of mineral coal. He began immediately to -experiment, with a view to the substitution of the latter for the -former, and in a year succeeded in demonstrating “the practicability of -smelting iron with fuel made from pit-coal, which so many before him had -tried in vain.” But the charcoal iron-masters combined to resist the new -method because it cheapened the product. They instigated mobs to destroy -Dudley’s furnaces one after another, as soon as they were completed, -harassed him with lawsuits, and finally beggared and drove him to -prison. Then they tried to wring his secret from him. To this attempt -Cromwell, who was interested in furnaces in the Forest of Dean, is said -to have been a party. But all these efforts failed, and Dudley died in -1684 carrying his secret with him to the grave, and there the secret -slumbered nearly one hundred years. - -The story of Dud. Dudley, as told by Mr. Smiles in his “Iron-workers and -Tool-makers,” is one of surpassing interest. It is worthy the careful -perusal not only of every school-boy but of the philosophic student in -search of the lessons of history, for it affords fresh evidence of the -truth of the proposition that the progress of civilization depends upon -progress in invention and discovery. - -Under the influence of ignorance, prejudice, and superstition the iron -industry of England continued to decline until the beginning of the -eighteenth century, when the British people imported their pots and -kettles. Fifty years later, at the Coalbrookdale iron-works in -Shropshire, when the furnaces had consumed all the wood in the -neighborhood and a fuel famine was imminent, smelting with mineral coal -was successfully resumed, and in 1766 two workmen of the “works”--the -brothers Cranege--invented the reverberatory furnace, which added -immensely to the application of coal to smelting purposes. - -But while we are discussing the history of coal we are consuming coal to -little purpose, for the blast is on and the furnace fires glow like -miniature volcanic craters. Let us to work. Before the black-board, -chalk in hand, the instructor stands and gives out the lesson. He -presents it in the form of drawings, complete and in detail. It may -involve only the single process of “drawing,” or it may involve several -processes, as “drawing,” “bending,” and “welding.” The first sketch, for -example, represents a flat bar of iron, the counterpart of the bars -resting against the several forges. The second sketch shows the bar -wrought into the form of a cylinder. The third sketch shows it “drawn” -or lengthened, and hence reduced in size. The fourth sketch presents two -rods the united lengths of which equal the length of the original rod. -The fifth sketch represents the two rods “bent” into the form of -chain-links, and a sub-sketch shows the proper shape of the ends of the -links for “welding.” The sixth sketch shows the two links joined and -welded. - -The black-board illustrations may be omitted if the school is provided -with a complete set of samples. The school of mechanic arts of the -Massachusetts Institute of Technology has a hundred samples representing -the successive steps in blacksmithing manipulation, including welding, -and the welding samples consist of two parts, the first representing the -details of the piece prepared for welding, and the second the welded -piece. These samples are part of a collection of three hundred and -twenty pieces of exquisite workmanship, covering every department of a -complete manual training course, presented to the Institute in 1877 by -the Emperor of Russia. - -[Illustration: COURSE IN THE FORGING LABORATORY.] - -The black-board illustrations or the samples having been exhibited and -explained as clearly as is possible in words, the instructor takes his -place at one of the forges, and, surrounded by the class, goes through -with the successive steps of any manipulation contained in the lesson -which has not been actually wrought out in some previous lesson. - -If the manipulation is a simple one the silence is only broken by the -sound of the blast and the stroke of the hammer--the students understand -every turn of the iron and every blow struck by the instructor--but if -the manipulation is complicated, involving a fresh principle, the -instructor is saluted by a volley of questions, and he often pauses to -answer them. It is the time for questions; the more questions now, the -fewer questions when all the blasts shall be on, and all the sledges -flying through the air and making music on the anvils. A question now -may lead to the enlightenment of twenty-four students; a question later -is sure to cost the time of twenty-four students, and the answer to it -may enlighten only one student. - -At last the instructor drops the sledge, straightens up to his full -height, and wipes the sweat from his brow. If the students respect the -instructor they will respect labor, and they will respect the instructor -if he is worthy of respect. - -Now the school-room is a smithy and yet it is not. It is neither very -hot nor very smoky, for there is an exhaust fan in operation which -vitalizes the circulation. But the atmosphere resounds with the -clangorous strokes of a dozen sledges, mingled with the sullen roar of -as many forge-fires; and there are traces of soot on the walls, and pale -smoke-wreaths creep along the ceilings, and hide in corners, and circle -about columns in fantastic shapes. It is a smithy, but a smithy adapted, -by its extraordinary neatness, to the manufacture of watch-springs, -palate-arbors, and Damascus blades. - -The faces of the students are aglow with the flush of health-giving -exercise; their brows are “wet with honest sweat,” their heart-beats are -full and strong, and the crimson life-currents surge hotly through every -vein to their very finger-tips. They strike out the anvil chorus in all -the keys and in every measure of the scale, and the burning sparks fly -whizzing through the air. - -At a sign from the instructor there is a pause. The students stand at -ease and the work is inspected. This is the time for more questions if -any student is in doubt; and the rest of five minutes affords -opportunity for a brief lecture on the subject of the early history of -the fraternity of smiths. - -Mythology gives the highest place in its pantheon to Vulcan, the God of -Fire. For notwithstanding he is represented as bearded, covered with -dust and soot, blowing the fires of his forges and surrounded by his -chief ministers, the cyclops, he is given Venus to wife and made the -father of Cupid. Among the Scythians the iron sword was a god. When -Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians they made captives of all the -smiths and other craftsmen of the city--a more grievous act than the -thousand million dollar tribute levied upon France by Germany at the -close of the war of 1870. For to be deprived of the use of iron is to be -relegated to a state of barbarism. - -The vulgar accounted for the keenness of the first sword-blades on the -score of magic, and the praises of the smiths who forged were sung with -the chiefs of chivalry who wielded them. So highly was this mysterious -power regarded by Tancred, the crusader, that in return for the present -of King Arthur’s sword, Excalibar, by Richard I., he paid for it with -“four great ships and fifteen galleys.” - -The smith was a mighty man in England in the early time. “In the royal -court of Wales he sat in the great hall with the king and queen, and was -entitled to a draught of every kind of liquor served.” His person was -sacred; his calling placed him above the law. He was necessary to the -feudal state; he forged swords “on the temper of which life, honor, and -victory in battle depended.” The smith, after the Norman invasion, -gained in importance in England. He was the chief man of the village, -its oracle, and the most cunning workman of the time. His name descended -to more families than that of any other profession--for the origin of -the name Smith is the hot, dusty, smoky smithy, and however it may be -disguised in the spelling, it is entitled to the proud distinction which -its representatives sometimes seek to conceal. - -Mr. Smiles draws the following graphic picture of the versatility of the -smith of the Middle Ages: - -“The smith’s tools were of many sorts, but the chief were his hammer, -pincers, chisel, tongs, and anvil. It is astonishing what a variety of -articles he turned out of his smithy by the help of these rude -implements. In the tooling, chasing, and consummate knowledge of the -capabilities of iron he greatly surpassed the modern workman. The -numerous exquisite specimens of his handicraft which exist in our old -gate-ways, church doors, altar railings, and ornamented dogs and -andirons, still serve as types for continual reproduction. He was, -indeed, the most ‘cunning workman’ of his time. But besides all this he -was an engineer. If a road had to be made, or a stream embanked, or a -trench dug, he was invariably called upon to provide the tools, and -often to direct the work. He was also the military engineer of his day, -and as late as the reign of Edward III. we find the king repeatedly -sending for smiths from the Forest of Dean to act as engineers for the -royal army at the siege of Berwick.” - -But the most signal triumph of the art, both of the smelter and the -smith, is found in the famous swords of Damascus, whose edge and temper -were so keen and perfect that they would sever a gauze veil floating in -the air, or crash through bones and helmets without sustaining injury. -These Damascus blades, long renowned in the East, but first encountered -by Europeans during the crusades, in the hands of the followers of -Mahomet, were made of Indian steel or “wootz.” This steel, produced in -the form of little cakes weighing about two pounds each, in the -neighborhood of the city of Golconda, in Hindostan, was transported on -the backs of camels two thousand miles to the city of Damascus, and -there converted into swords, sabres, and scimitars. - -This smith’s work has never been excelled, if equalled. Millions of -dollars have been expended in efforts to produce the equal of Indian -steel. Among the investigators of the subject the most noted was a -Russian general, Anossoff, who died in 1851. His experiments were of a -very elaborate and exhaustive character. They occupied a lifetime, and -resulted in the establishment of works in the Ural Mountains, on the -Siberian border, for the production of Damascus steel by a process of -his own invention. After General Anossoff’s death the quality of the -steel produced at his works deteriorated. - -We should treat with reverence these obscure hints of the triumphs of -the ancients in certain departments of art as suggestive of like great -achievements in other directions, for without a knowledge of types they -could neither teach the many what the few knew, nor preserve what they -had acquired for the instruction of future ages. All art is the product -of a sequential series of ideas, each idea containing the germ of the -next; hence the preservation of each idea is essential to progress. The -art of printing alone enables man to preserve such a record. It follows -presumptively that the art of printing constitutes the predominant -feature of difference between the civilization of the moderns and that -of the ancients. And it is important to observe that the art of printing -is far more necessary to progress in the useful arts than in the -so-called fine arts. The ancient temples with their sculptured -splendors--the Parthenon, the Jupiter Olympius, and scores of -others--remained long to testify to the genius of Phidias, Praxiteles, -and their gifted colleagues of the chisel. These souvenirs of Greek -genius still serve as models for the architect and the sculptor. It -needs no chronicle to prove that they mark the culmination of the fine -arts. If the moderns have failed to excel, or even equal them, it is not -because their conception, design, or construction involved occult -processes. It is rather because there is a limit to the development of -the so-called fine arts, and that limit in architecture and sculpture -was reached in Greece more than two thousand years ago. - -But with the Damascus blade, which typifies the useful arts, it is -entirely different. It, too, is in itself a triumph of genius not less -pronounced than the Athena of Phidias. But above and beyond this the -arts of smelting and forging are so subtile as almost to elude the grasp -of analysis. Not only the method of the fabrication of the Damascus -blade but the processes involved in the production of the steel entering -into its composition--all these are shrouded in impenetrable mystery. It -follows that the useful arts are finer than the so-called fine arts. -Their processes are more intricate, and hence more difficult of -comprehension. To a solution of the questions presented in the course of -their study an extended acquaintance with the sciences is essential. The -highest departments of the fine arts, so-called, require only a study of -the features, figure, and character of man, and of certain visible forms -of nature, while the useful arts make incessant demands upon the -resources of natural philosophy. The chemist toils in his laboratory, -and the botanist and the geologist explore forest, field, and mine in -search of new truths, with the single purpose of enlarging the sphere of -the useful arts, and so of ministering more effectively to the ever -increasing needs of man. Hence there can be no limit to the development -of the useful arts except the limit to be found in the exhaustion of the -forces of nature. - -We should, then, venerate the artisan rather than the artist. Let us -invoke the shade of the dusky Indian smelter. See him in the dark -recesses of the forest, bending in rapt attention over his furnace, or -holding aloft a little lump of his matchless steel. Alas, he is dumb! -His secret perished with him. But the Indian smelter and the Damascus -smith are kin to all the inventors and discoverers of all the ages. -Across continents and seas, over trackless wastes of history--epochs -during which ignorance and superstition prevailed and the intellect of -man slumbered--the ancient smelter and the ancient smith extend their -shadowy hands to the students in this school of the nineteenth -century--extend them in token of the fellowship of a common struggle and -a common hope of triumph--the struggle after truth[E2], and the hope of -the triumph of industry. - -The instructor raps on the black-board, and the school-room is at once -transformed into a smithy. Again the forge-fires roar, and again the -anvils resound under the stroke of the hammer. For half an hour the -lesson goes on, and then comes the wind-up, and the several tests of -excellence are applied to the completed task of each student. Form, -dimensions, finish--these are the tests. The instructor marks the -several pieces of work, makes a record of the result, reads the record, -and is on the point of dismissing the class when an idea occurs to his -mind and he enjoins silence. Taking in his hand a heavy sledge, and -resting it on the anvil before him, he says, “This is a baby-hammer, and -all the forging we do here is baby-forging. I hope soon to have an -opportunity to take you to the great works of Mr. Crane, in this city, -and there show you a steam-hammer which weighs a ton striking fifty to -one hundred blows a minute--blows, too, that shame the fabled power of -Vulcan, the God of Fire. At Pittsburg, Pa., there is an anvil of 150 -tons weight which serves for forging with a 15-ton hammer. But the -monster steam-hammer is to be found in Krupp’s cast-steel works at -Essen, Germany. The hammer-head is 12 feet long, 5¹⁄₂ feet wide, 4 feet -thick, weighs 50 tons, and has a stroke of 9 feet. The depth of the -foundation is 100 feet, consisting of three parts, masonry, timber, and -iron, bolted together. Four cranes, each capable of bearing 200 tons, -serve the hammer with material.” - -The steam-hammer was invented in 1837 by James Nasmyth, of England, in -response to a demand for a hammer that would forge a steamship -paddle-shaft of unprecedented size. The nature of the emergency being -presented to his mind, Mr. Nasmyth conceived the idea of the -steam-hammer instantaneously, as it were, and at once proceeded to -sketch the child of his brain on paper. He was too poor to defray the -cost of patenting his invention; nor was he able to procure the -necessary funds for that purpose until he had seen in France a hammer -made from his own original sketch in operation. - -The steam-hammer came rapidly into use, superseding all others of the -ponderous sort, increasing the quantity of products and reducing the -cost of manufacture by fifty per cent. It was through the steam-hammer -only that the fabrication of the immense wrought-iron ordnance and the -huge plates for covering ships-of-war of modern times became possible. -In the hands of the giant, steam, Mr. Nasmyth’s hammer, even if it weigh -fifty tons, is susceptible of more accurate strokes than the tack-hammer -in the hands of the upholsterer, or the sledge in the hands of the most -skilled blacksmith. It crushes tons of iron into a shapeless mass at one -blow, and at the next drives a tack, or cracks an egg-shell in an -egg-cup without injuring the cup. - -Mr. Nasmyth, in 1845, applied the steam-hammer principle to the -pile-driver. With this wonderful machine the “driving-block,” weighing -several tons, descends eighty times a minute on the head of the pile, -sending it home with almost incredible rapidity. The saving of time as -compared with the old method is in the ratio of 1 to 1800; that is, a -pile can be driven in four minutes that before required twelve hours. - -The course in the Forging Laboratory extends from the making and care of -forge-fires to case-hardening iron and hardening and tempering steel; -and competent and experienced instructors declare that the student in -the educational smithy gains as much skill in a day as the smith’s -apprentice gains in a year in the ordinary shop. - - [E2] “The inquiry of truth, which is the love-making or wooing of it; - the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it; and the belief of - truth, which is the enjoying of it--is the sovereign good of human - nature.”--Essays of Francis Bacon--“Truth,” p. 2. London: Henry G. - Bohn, 1852. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY. - - The Foundery and Smithy are Ancient, the Machine-tool Shop is Modern. - -- The Giant, Steam, reduced to Servitude. -- The Iron Lines of - Progress. -- They converge in the Shop; its triumphs from the - Watchspring to the Locomotive. -- The Applications of Iron in Art is - the Subject of Subjects. -- The Story of Invention is the History of - Civilization. -- The Machine-maker and the Tool-maker are the best - Friends of Man. -- Watt’s Great Conception waited for Automatic Tools; - their Accuracy. -- The Hand-made and the Machine-made Watch. -- The - Elgin (Illinois) Watch Factory. -- The Interdependence of the Arts. -- - The Making of a Suit of Clothes. -- The Anteroom of the Machine-tool - Laboratory. -- Chipping and Filing. -- The File-cutter. -- The Poverty - of Words as compared with Things. -- The Graduating Project. -- The - Vision of the Instructor. - -[Illustration: THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY.] - -The transition from the laboratories for founding and forging to the -Machine-tool Laboratory symbolizes a mighty revolution in the practical -arts--a revolution so stupendous as to defy description, and so -far-reaching as to appall the spirit of prophecy. The foundery and the -smithy date back to the dawn of history; the machine-tool shop is a -creation of yesterday. About the early manipulations of iron mythology -wove a web of fancy: Vulcan forged Jove’s thunderbolts, the iron sword -of the savage was a god, and even far down the course of time, late in -the Middle Ages, Tancred, the crusader, paid an almost fabulous sum for -King Arthur’s famous sword Excalibar--but the modern machine-tool shop -is a huge iron automaton, without sentiment, and possessing no poetry -except the rhythmic harmony of motion. In this shop steam is reduced to -servitude, and compelled with giant hands to bore, mortise, plane, -polish, fashion, and fit great masses of iron, and, anon, with delicate -fingers to spin gossamer threads of burnished steel. With the hot steam -coursing through its steel-ribbed veins the brain of this automaton -thinks the thoughts foreordained by its inventor; its hands do his -bidding, its arms fetch and carry for him, its feet come and go at his -beck and nod. This automaton feeds on iron, steel, copper, and brass, -and produces the watch-spring and the locomotive, the revolver and the -Krupp gun, the surgeon’s lancet and the shaft of a steamship, the steel -pen and the steam-hammer, the vault-lock and the pile-driver, the -sewing-machine and the Corliss engine. The lever which wakens this -automaton to life, which endows its brain with genius and its fingers -with cunning, is the rod of empire. All the lines of modern development -converge in the machine-tool shop, and they are all lines of iron, -whether consisting of a fine wire strung on poles in mid-air or of huge -bars resting on the solid earth. Iron is the king of metals but the -slave of man. Its magnetic quality guides the mariner on the sea, and -its tough fibre and density sustain the weight of the locomotive on the -land. It constitutes the foundation of every useful art, from the plough -of the husbandman to the Jacquard loom of the weaver. But it is only in -the machine-tool shop that the great steam-driven machines of commerce -and manufacture can be produced. The ancients possessed iron, which they -cast in the foundery and forged in the smithy; they knew the power of -steam, and the magicians of the time amused the populace with -exhibitions of it, but they had no machine-tool shops in which steam -could be harnessed for the journey across continents and seas. The -thousand and one modern applications of iron to the needs of man have -originated in the machine-tool shop. It is through these applications of -iron, not through iron itself, that human pursuits have been so widely -diversified, and human powers so richly developed and enlarged. - -The contrasts presented by the development of the useful arts during the -last hundred years are startling: The toilsome journey of a day reduced -to an hour with the maximum of comfort; the few yards of fabric -painfully woven by hand expanded into webs of cotton, linen, woollen, -and silk cloths, rolling from thousands of steam-driven looms; the -stocking once requiring hours to make, now dropping second by second -from the iron fingers of the knitting-machine; the nails, screws, pins, -and needles, forged one by one in the old village smithy, now flying -from the hands of automatic machines by the thousand million; the -numberless stitches of the sewing-machine as compared with the few of -the olden time, which made the fingers and the hearts of women ache; the -vast crop of cereals planted, cultivated, and gathered into barns with -iron hands in contrast with the toilsome processes of even fifty years -ago. These are only a few of the many illustrations that might be given -of progress in the useful arts, and they all emanate from the -machine-tool shop. - -At the threshold of the most important inquiry that ever occupied the -mind of man stand the twenty-four students we have followed, with more -or less regularity, through the various laboratories which constitute -the preliminary steps in the manual training course. It is the most -important inquiry that ever engaged the attention of man, because it -touches modern civilization at more points than any other. It consists -of an investigation into the subject of the diversity of the -applications of iron in art, a study both of the minute and the -ponderous in iron tools and machines, and it is by these tools and -machines that the bulk of the great enterprises of the men of modern -times are carried forward. These students are familiar with the details -of the laboratories for founding and forging, but the manipulations of -those branches of iron manufacture are coarse and heavy as compared with -those of the Machine-tool Laboratory. In a word, the difference between -the iron manipulations of the Machine-tool Laboratory and those of the -founding and forging laboratories is the exact measure of the difference -between the modern and the ancient systems of civilization. - -The ancient civilizations culminated in that of Rome. The Romans -possessed iron, but confined their manipulations of it to the foundery -and the smithy. Under the Roman empire the enterprises of -man--commercial, manufacturing, and industrial generally--reached the -limit marked by the applications of iron to the useful arts. It is not -important in this connection to inquire why inventions and discoveries -ceased. It is enough that they ceased. There was a pause; man, risen to -a giddy height, looked backward instead of forward and upward; the -struggle to advance came to an end, ambition died out of life, and a -saturnalia of bloody crime and savage brutality ensued. Exhaustion -followed, then stagnation, moral and intellectual, and then the decay of -all the arts. The world stood still, and in that state of quiescence -remained until printing was invented and America discovered. Still it -waited two hundred and fifty years before receiving the first hint of -steam-driven machines and the machines and the machine tool-shop, and -during all that time progress was painfully slow. Something was required -to give to human ambition a grand impulse, and to open to human energy -and industry a broad field. That something did not come until the middle -of the eighteenth century, and it should never be forgotten -that it came then through the humble men of the workshop. To their -inventive genius mankind owes more than to all the philosophers, -_litterateurs_, professors, and statesmen of all time. These men of the -workshop--Huntsman, Cort, Roebuck, Watt, Fulton, Mushet, Hargreaves, -Neilson, Whitney, Bramah, Maudslay, Clement, Murray, Roberts, the -Stephensons, father and son, and Nasmyth--invented machines which seem -to rival human intelligence, and in fact far excel human precision in -the execution of their work. In endowing iron with the cunning of genius -and the terrific power of the fabled cyclops, the modern mechanic has -revolutionized the field of human effort, transferring it from the -foundery and the smithy to the machine-tool shop. It is here, and here -alone, that steam-driven machines can be made. They may be conceived in -the mind of a Watt or a Stephenson, but they can be made only by the -automatic tools of a Maudslay, a Clement, a Bramah, or a Nasmyth. Man -was helpless without steam-driven machines, and he could not have -steam-driven machines until machine-made tools had been devised with -which to make them. The experience of Watt strikingly illustrates this -point. When he had completed his invention of the steam-engine, he found -it nearly impossible to realize his idea in a working machine, owing to -the incompetency of the workmen of that time. In reply to the inquiry of -Dr. Roebuck, “What is the principal hinderance in erecting engines?” he -responds, “It is always the smith-work.” His first cylinder, made of -hammered iron soldered together by a whitesmith, was a complete failure. -But even such workmen were so scarce that upon the death of this -“white-iron man” Watt was reduced almost to a state of despair. “His -next cylinder was cast and bored at Carron, but it was so untrue that it -proved next to useless. The piston could not be kept steam-tight, -notwithstanding the various expedients which were adopted of stuffing it -with paper, cork, putty, pasteboard, and old hats.” Smeaton, the best -workman of the time, “expressed the opinion, when he saw the engine at -work, that notwithstanding the excellence of the invention it could -never be brought into general use because of the difficulty of getting -its various parts manufactured with sufficient precision.” Watt -constantly complained of “villanous bad workmanship.” “Machine-made -tools were unknown, hence there were no good tools. Attempting to run an -engine of the old regime, the foreman of the shop gave it up in despair, -exclaiming, “I think we had better leave the cogs to settle their -differences with one another; they will grind themselves right in time.” -Contrast with this clumsy machine of the hand-tool era the Corliss -engine of the present day, whose every movement possesses the noiseless -grace of a woman and the conscious power of a giant; and this giant -springs full-armed from the machine-tool shop as Minerva sprang from the -brain of Jupiter. Mr. Smiles says, “When the powerful oscillating -engines of the _Warrior_ were put on board that ship, the parts, -consisting of some five thousand separate pieces, were brought from the -different workshops of the Messrs. Penn & Sons, where they had been made -by workmen who knew not the places they were to occupy, and fitted -together with such precision that so soon as the steam was raised and -let into the cylinders the immense machine began as if to breathe and -move like a living creature, stretching its huge arms like a new-born -giant; and then, after practising its strength a little, and proving its -soundness in body and limb, it started off with the power of above a -thousand horses, to try its strength in breasting the billows of the -North Sea.” - -The great and small tools, the automata of the machine-shop, are no less -triumphs of mechanical genius than the “powerful oscillating engines of -the _Warrior_.” The prime difficulty of the hand-worker was to make two -things exactly alike, then followed the impossibility of making _many_ -things--the narrow limit of human capacity to produce. At that point the -inventor appeared with a machine which would make a thousand things in -the time the hand-worker required to make one, and each one of them the -exact counterpart of every other. - -A hundred years ago John Arnold, the inventor of the chronometer, -accomplished a marvel of patience and ingenuity in the form of a watch -the size of twopence and the weight of sixpence. The workmanship was so -delicate that he was compelled not only to fashion every part with his -own hand, but to design and make the tools employed in its construction. -The watch was presented to George III., of England, who showed his -appreciation of Arnold’s mechanical skill in a present of five hundred -guineas. The Emperor of Russia offered Arnold $5000 for a duplicate of -the wonderful little time-piece, which offer was, however, declined. It -was so difficult for the expert watch-maker of a century ago to make two -things exactly alike, that Arnold could not afford to undertake to make -another miniature watch even for the exorbitant price of $5000. But for -ten dollars the Elgin (Illinois) National Watch Company will supply the -Emperor of Russia with a machine-made watch more nearly perfect than -Arnold’s masterpiece, and on the same day turn out one thousand others -exactly like it. Imagine yourself now in the watch factory of the Elgin -Company; observe that artisan holding in his hand a coil of fine steel -wire weighing a pound. He approaches a machine, places one end of the -wire in its iron fingers, presses a lever, and in a few minutes the coil -is converted into two hundred thousand minute screws, each and every one -as perfect as the best that Arnold made for his George III. gem. - -It is with the greatest effort of painstaking care that the expert -sewing-woman draws two stitches closely resembling each other, yet while -she is making the toilsome exertion of her utmost skill the -sewing-machine sets hundreds of stitches so exactly alike that a -microscopic examination would fail to detect the least dissimilarity. - -The sewing-machine affords an admirable illustration of the -interdependence of the practical arts. The sewing-woman was able to keep -pace with the slow and toilsome processes of the distaff and loom, but -upon the application of steam-power to spinning and weaving the demand -for sewing was augmented a thousand-fold. If the sewing-machine has not -emancipated woman from the drudgery so pathetically depicted by Tom -Hood, it has multiplied the production of garments almost beyond the -power of figures to express. Note this instance illustrative of the -triumph of automatic machinery in its application to manufactures. “The -Emperor of Austria was lately presented with a suit of clothes -possessing this remarkable history: The wool from which the garments -were made was clipped from the sheep only eleven hours before the suit -was completed. At 6.08 in the morning the sheep were sheared; at 6.11 -the wool was washed; at 6.37 dyed; at 6.50 picked; at 7.34 the final -carding process was finished; at eight o’clock it was spun; at 8.15 -spooled; at 8.37 the warp was in the loom; at 8.43 the shuttles were -ready; at 11.10 seven and three-fourth ells of cloth were completed; at -12.03 the cloth was fulled; at 12.14 washed; at 12.17 sprinkled; at -12.31 dried; at 12.45 sheared; at 1.07 napped; at 1.10 brushed; and at -1.15 prepared and ready for the shears and needle. At five o’clock the -suit, consisting of a hunting-jacket, waistcoat, and trousers, was -finished.” - -There is a sort of anteroom to the Machine-tool Laboratory with which -the students are thoroughly familiar. It is called the Chipping, Filing, -and Fitting Laboratory, has twenty-four vises, a great assortment of -cold-chisels and files, and is devoted to vise work. The course in the -Chipping Filing and Fitting Laboratory consists of a score or more -lessons involving various file and chisel manipulations, as, “filing to -line,” “dovetailing,” “parallel fitting tongues and grooves,” “ring-work -and free-hand filing,” “chipping bevels,” “ward-filing and key-fitting,” -“screw-filing,” “scraping,” etc., each lesson being so devised as to -insure the introduction of variously shaped tools, and their application -to the forms of work for which they are designed. - -This anteroom to the Machine-tool Laboratory is like most anterooms -plain in its appointments, and it is also like the conventional -anteroom, a place where the student does not desire to remain long. The -witchery of the great laboratory beyond has already cast its spell over -the boy at the vise. But there is excellent hand and eye training work -in the Chipping, Filing, and Fitting Laboratory. - -[Illustration: THE CHIPPING, FILING, AND FITTING LABORATORY.] - -The file is a humble tool, but it is older than history, dating back to -the Greek Mythological period. “From the smallest mouse-tail file used -in the delicate operations of the watch and philosophical instrument -maker, to the square file for the smith’s heaviest work, there is a -multifarious diversity in shape, size, and gauge of cutting.” Some of -the files made by the Swiss for the watch-maker “are of so fine a cut -that the unaided eye cannot discern the ridges.” - -In no department of the useful arts did the hand-worker attain to -greater dexterity than in file-cutting. With a sharp-edged chisel the -file-cutter made from one hundred and fifty to two hundred “burs” a -minute, and they were so fine as to be traced by the sense of touch -alone, but as straight as though ruled by a machine. The hand-working -file-cutter held his ground until 1859, when a Frenchman, M. Bernot, -invented a file-cutting machine which superseded the old method of -manufacture, except in cases requiring delicacy of manipulation, -reducing the cost of files to one-eighth of their former price. - -The lessons in the Machine-tool Laboratory will not be described in -detail as in the other laboratories. The processes are so delicate and -so intricate, and the resulting products in machines so closely approach -the marvellous, as to beggar description. The poverty of words as -compared with things asserts itself with unexampled force in the -presence of a great variety of tools, each of which seems to be endowed -with the power of reflection, and each of which, instead of whispering a -word in your ear, drops into your hand a thing of use to man. - -The laboratory is silent, the tools are dumb, but how eloquently they -proclaim the era of comfort and luxury! They have no tongue, but through -their lips you shall speak across continents and under seas. They have -no legs, but through their aid you shall, in a race round the world, -outstrip Mercury. The machines they make shall bear all your burdens; -with their brawny arms they lift a thousand tons, and with their fingers -of fairy-like delicacy pick up a pin; with the augur of Hercules they -bore a channel through the mountain of granite, and with a Liliputian -gimlet tunnel one of the hairs of your head. - -These ingenious tools are worthy of careful inspection both on account -of the marvels they perform and the delicacy of their construction and -adjustments. One of them, a screw-engine lathe, for example, is taken to -pieces, and each piece described in order that the students may be made -familiar with the construction of the tool, and so rendered capable of -taking good care of it. During this inspection the instructor outlines -the history of the tool. The main feature is the slide-rest, invented by -Maudslay while in the employ of Bramah, the lock-maker. It is not too -much to say that two things exactly alike, or near enough alike, -practically, to serve the same purpose very well, were never produced on -the old-fashioned turning lathe. This the instructor endeavors to make -clear to the class. He also explains precisely how Maudslay’s -improvement remedied the defects of the old-fashioned lathe. Still there -remained something to be done to make it perfect, and putting the pieces -together the instructor shows where Maudslay’s work ended and that of -Clement began. Clement made two improvements in the slide-rest, one -involving the principle of self-correction, for which he received the -gold Isis medal of the Society of Arts in 1827, and the other -consisting of the “self-adjusting double-driving centre check,” for -which he was awarded the silver medal of the same society in 1828. Thus -improved or perfected, the slide-lathe became the acknowledged king of -machine-tools, the self-adjusting two-armed driver taking the strain -from the centre and dividing it between the two arms, and so correcting -all tendency to eccentricity in the work. - -The Machine-tool Laboratory contains a great variety of tools, of which -the chief are lathes, drills, and planers; but there are many auxiliary -tools, and in the advanced stages of the course a single lesson often -affords opportunity for the introduction of several of them. And, as in -the other school laboratories, each tool, upon its first presentation to -the class, forms the subject of a brief lecture--a practical lecture -too, for the instructor uses the tool while he sketches its history and -perhaps that of its inventor, shows what place it holds in the order of -machine-tool development, and how admirably it is adapted to its -particular work, and makes suggestions as to its care. Sometimes a -lesson involves the use of a drawing made by the students a year before, -and the piece of iron in which it is wrought is the product of a -previous lesson in forging; and it may also have been manipulated with -the file or the cold-chisel, or both, in the Chipping, Filing, and -Fitting Laboratory. - -From the first lesson in the room devoted to drawing, to the last lesson -in the Machine-tool Laboratory, the course of training is orderly, -consecutive. Each step contains a hint of the nature of the next step, -and each succeeding step consists of a further application of the -principles and processes of the last preceding step. In a word, the -students follow their drawings through all the laboratories till the -designs “are brought out in a finished state either in cast or wrought -iron.” - -The lathe is the fundamental machine-tool, but a completely equipped -machine-tool laboratory includes a great variety of supplementary or -auxiliary tools, a thorough knowledge of which is essential to a good -mechanical education. It does not follow, because these tools are in a -large degree automatic, that skill may be dispensed with in their use. -Many of them are very complicated in design and construction, and they -can no more be made to do efficient service under an unskilled hand than -a locomotive can be made to accomplish a series of successful “runs” by -an unskilled “driver.” Hence every tool in the laboratory is made the -subject of an exhaustive study. The principle of mechanics involved in -its construction is expounded, a practical illustration of its method of -operation is given, its peculiar liability to injury is explained, and -rules for its care are carefully formulated, and frequently repeated. - -There is a prevalent theory that the wide application of so-called -automatic tools to mechanical work largely decreases the legitimate -demand for skilled mechanics, but it is fallacious. In the first place a -thousand things are now made where one thing was made fifty years ago. -In the second place the extensive use of steam and electricity greatly -enlarges the sphere wherein accurate work becomes absolutely essential -to human safety, and hence extends the field of operations of the -inventive faculty. In the third place the cost of machine-tool made -products having been greatly reduced, competition is proportionately -intensified, thus narrowing the margin of profit, and so rendering any -injury to machinery through want of skill in the operator relatively -more disastrous. As a matter of fact a fine machine-tool is more liable -than a watch to get out of order through careless handling, and it no -more than a watch, can be properly repaired by a bungler. It follows -that skill in the use of machine-tools is as essential to a successful -mechanical career now, as skill in the use of hand-tools was formerly. - -[Illustration: COURSE IN THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY.] - -But another conclusion follows more irresistibly, namely--that the -mechanical engineer who devotes his attention to the construction and -management of massive machinery, such as pumps, hydraulic and lever -presses, looms, and steam-engines, whether locomotive, marine, or other, -must, in order to be master of his profession, be thoroughly familiar -with every step of their construction; and such familiarity can only be -acquired by a course of practical study in the machine-tool shop. It is -the province of the mechanical engineer to utilize certain forces of -nature in the service of man, and it is only through the machine-tool -shop that such utilization can be effected. It hence follows that a -practical acquaintance with the manipulations of the machine-tool shop -is an essential prerequisite to a successful career in the field of -higher mechanics. The man who aspires to construct any great mechanical -engineering work, like the Brooklyn Bridge, for example, must know the -exact mechanical power of every piece of machinery he employs, as also -the exact mechanical value of every piece of iron that enters into the -structure; and these things he cannot know unless he is familiar with -the entire series of iron manipulations, from those of the foundery to -those of the machine-tool shop. - -The aspect of the Machine-tool Laboratory when in repose, so to speak, -is dull and uninteresting, not to say repellant. There are twenty-four -engine-lathes, as many adjustable vises, a milling machine, and a -variety of auxiliary tools. The lathes are supported by dingy-looking -cast-iron frames, and under each lathe there is a chest of drawers -containing a set of tools. Overhead there is a wilderness of pulleys and -shafting, which seems to the untrained eye to have very little relation -to the machines below. The working parts of the lathes show burnished -steel surfaces, which reflect coldly the glare of yellow sunlight -flooding the room. If it were moonlight instead of sunlight one might -summon the ghosts of those daring men who hundreds and thousands of -years ago dreamed audaciously of the future of applied mechanics. Roger -Bacon must have had a vision of the machine-tool shop when he said, “I -will now mention some of the wonderful works of art and nature in which -there is nothing of magic, and which magic could not perform. -Instruments may be made by which the largest ships, with only one man -guiding them, will be carried with greater velocity than if they were -full of sailors; chariots may be constructed that will move with -incredible rapidity without the help of animals; a small instrument may -be made to raise or depress the greatest weights; an instrument may be -fabricated by which one man may draw a thousand men to him by force and -against their will; as also machines which will enable men to walk at -the bottom of seas or rivers without danger.” - -When steam is “turned on” the aspect of the Machine-tool Laboratory is -completely changed. Steam is, indeed, the arch-revolutionist; it -breathes the breath of life into inanimate things--makes them think, -speak, and act. The low hum of unused machinery first salutes the ear; -then the students take their places. They are three years older than -when we encountered them in the engine-room. They are from seventeen to -twenty years of age. They are no longer boys; they are young -men--robust, hearty-looking young men. Their bearing is very -resolute--remarkably resolute; their attitude is erect. They are -full-chested, muscular-armed, frank-faced young men. In the three years’ -course now drawing to a close they have learned how to do many things, -and hence they show a good degree of confidence. But the dominant -expression on all the interesting young faces is, after all, one of -modesty; so true is it that every acquisition of knowledge, and -especially useful knowledge, not only stimulates desire to learn more, -but enlightens perception as to the magnitude of the field of further -inquiry. As the addition of a useful thing to the world’s stock of -things creates a demand for a score more of useful things, so the -addition of a fact to the student’s stock of facts not only creates a -desire for more facts, but strengthens the mind for further -investigation. - -It may be that there are vain statesmen, philosophers, priests, and -kings, but we should as little expect to find a vain mechanic as a vain -scientist. - -These twenty-four students may go out into the world to-morrow to make -their way. Some of them will enter upon the stage of active life, others -will continue their studies in higher schools of literature, science, -and art; but whether they go or stay, if they have made the most of -their opportunities in the Manual Training School they will have learned -the lesson of modesty, and learned to respect labor, not only as a means -of earning one’s daily bread, but as the most powerful and the most -healthful mental and moral stimulant. - -Steam is on, and the students standing at the lathes are impatient to -begin. It is not a lesson in the ordinary sense. Each student works -independently of special direction, for each is engaged in making a -machine--the graduating project. The instructor is at hand, not to -dictate but to advise, if requested. From his fund of experience as the -elder scholar he will answer questions propounded by his younger -fellow-students. In front of the students, parts of the working drawings -may be seen. It is plain that there is to be variety in the exhibit of -“projects.” There are several steam-engines, differing in model; there -is a steam-pump, a punching machine, a lathe, an electric machine, and a -steam-hammer. - -At a sign work commences--a dozen varieties of work, emitting a dozen -tones of buzzing and whizzing. The instructor’s face lights up with a -pleased expression as he notes the progress of the work. There is no -sign of hesitation in the class; no questions are asked; the students -seem to be driving straight to the mark. The instructor’s heart swells -with pride; he can trust “his boys!” He has been regarding them with an -expression of affection, but now his eyes wander--they have a far-away -look. He no longer sees the students, he is looking beyond them. He -drops into a reclining attitude, sighs, falls into a reverie, and -dreams. In his dream he sees naked savages, emerging from caves, armed -with clubs, pursuing animals. These are succeeded by men bearing rude -stone implements--axes and hammers--and these in turn by men armed with -bows and arrows, but half-clothed with skins of beasts, and crouching -and shivering beneath the shelter of the branches of a tree pulled -downward and secured by clods of earth. This picture disappears, and is -replaced by a pastoral scene--a vast plain covered with flocks and -herds. In the foreground stands the shepherd, and in the distance his -tent, consisting of skins of beasts stretched on poles, and in the tent -door a woman sits pounding a fleece into felt. The shepherd, his flocks -and herds, his tent, and the woman in the tent door, vanish like the -mists of morning, and where the shepherd was, the husbandman is seen -harvesting the golden grain; and in the shadow of the cottage which has -replaced the tent a woman is grinding corn. The scene again changes--the -plain has become the site of a great city. The city is protected by -thick, high walls, surmounted with frowning battlements. Sentinels pace -back and forth along the parapet. Huge helmets protect their heads, and -their bodies are clothed in armor. Quivers full of bronze-tipped arrows -depend from their shoulders; in their hands they carry long bows, and -the clank, clank of their broad, two-edged, bronze swords breaks the -dull, monotonous routine of their march. A brazen gate swings back -noiselessly on brazen hinges, and, bowing to the sentinel, the dreamer -as noiselessly glides into the city. Suddenly he feels the hot breath of -the foundery furnace-fire, and is blinded by a glare of red light. -Shading his eyes he sees dusky forms hurrying to and fro with ladles -full of molten metal. Turning away he hears the heavy stroke of the -sledge, and looking, beholds a dusty, smoky smithy. The stalwart smith -drops the sledge at his side, rests one foot on the anvil-block, and -wipes the sweat from his brow; the helper thrusts the cooling metal into -the coals, bends to the bellows, and the forge-fire sings. At the sound -of a bell the dreamer starts, the old Assyrian city falls into ruins, -the ruins crumble into dust, and on this dust another city rises, -flourishes, falls, and piles the dust of its ruins. Over a waste of -years--twenty centuries--the dreamer’s thought flashes, and he stands in -the presence of the Alexandrian mechanic-philosopher. He sees Hero in -the public street, gazing abstractedly at his condensed-air fountain, -and follows him into his shop or laboratory, and observes him curiously -as he toys with the model of a queer little steam-engine. “This is the -Iron Age, but in its infancy,” he exclaims under his breath, as his eyes -wander from a fine Damascus blade hanging against the wall to some poor -hand-tools lying on the working-bench. “I will speak to this old man,” -he continues, “and ask him to step into my Machine-tool Laboratory, and -see my boys make steam-engines; it will be a revelation to him. Come, -old friend--there--look!” And the dreamer looks. Does he see double? The -laboratory is unchanged; steam is still on; the whir of machinery and -the buzzing sound of steam-driven tools salute the ear, and the students -are all busy at their benches finishing parts of “projects” and -adjusting them in their places, But there are twenty-four other -men--shades of men--in the laboratory. Most of them are old; some are in -working clothes, others in full dress, wearing ribbons and orders of -merit. Over each student one of these shades bends with an air of -absorbing attention. The dreamer recognizes Papin, Fulton, Watt, and -Stephenson shadowing the students engaged in the construction of -engines. They beckon Hero, and he joins the group, threading his way -timidly between the lines of lathes, and looking askance at the rapidly -revolving wheels and flying belts. Over the shoulders of other students -are seen the faces of Maudslay, Bramah, Clement, Roberts, Whitney, -Nasmyth, Huntsman, Cort, Murray, Dudley, Yarranton, Roebuck, and -Whitworth, besides several unfamiliar faces. Suddenly they all gather -about a nearly completed project--a stationary engine. They witness the -forcing home of the last screw; they see the miniature machine made fast -to the bench. Steam is let into the cylinders. The student’s flushed -face is in sharp contrast with the colorless faces of the group of old -men by whom he is surrounded. The piston-rod moves languidly--the -machine trembles as if awaking from slumber, the shaft oscillates -slowly, then faster, then regularly, like a strong pulse-beat. The -project is a success--the first one completed! The student’s face turns -pale--as pale as the white faces of the old men at his side. They open -their lips as if to cheer him, but no sound escapes them. He breathes -quick--almost gasps; his heart beats loudly; he tries to shout but -cannot utter a word. At last he claps his hands! The instructor starts -from his chair, rubs his eyes, and stares round the laboratory. All the -students are there, gathered in a group about the finished “project,” -but the ghostly shades of the old inventors have vanished like the -unsubstantial fabric of a vision. - -The “projects” are not all finished on the same day. Some of them are -far more complicated than others, and some students are more skilled -than others. All are very busy. It is not improper to ask questions -relating to work on the graduating projects; the instructor is at hand -to answer such questions. But it is a point of honor not to ask a -question if the difficulty can possibly be otherwise overcome. Hence -very few questions are asked. - -The last week of the term is a very trying one to all concerned. The -students are reticent and unusually silent; all are anxious, some are -timid--the nervous tension is extreme. The instructor becomes taciturn -under a painful sense of compulsory isolation from his class, towards -all the members of which he has, for three years, sustained fraternal -rather than dictatorial relations. But as the projects are, one by one, -completed, the atmosphere clears. When the student realizes that his -project is certain to be a success, his face brightens and he is pleased -to discuss its “points” with the instructor. The instructor is delighted -to resume his former relations with the class, the feeling of constraint -is dispelled, and the graduation-day exercises are contemplated with -confidence. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -MANUAL AND MENTAL TRAINING COMBINED. - - The new Education is all-sided -- its Effect. -- A Harmonious - Development of the Whole Being. -- Examination for Admission to the - Chicago School. -- List of Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, and - Language. -- The Curriculum. -- The Alternation of Manual and Mental - Exercises. -- The Demand for Scientific Education -- its Effect. -- - Ambition to be useful. - - -We have now passed in review all the school laboratories, from the -engine-room, or laboratory where power is generated, to the Machine-tool -Laboratory where power is utilized, or harnessed, and compelled to do -the work of man. We have observed the student, in his first effort over -the drawing-board, struggling laboriously to make a straight line, and -in the Laboratory of Carpentry, trying with varying success to make a -tenon fit the mortise, and we have stood by his side in the Machine-tool -Laboratory in the moment of his triumph exhibiting his graduating -“project”--a miniature engine throbbing under the pressure of steam, and -doing its work with admirable precision. But we have seen only the -manual side of the curriculum. The mental side is still to be shown. The -claim made in behalf of the new education is that it is better balanced -than the old, that it is all-sided, that it produces a harmonious -development of the whole being, that it makes of the student a man fully -furnished for the battle of life, mentally, morally, and physically. -Accordingly the curriculum of the Manual Training School combines with -the laboratory exercises a variety of mental exercises of quite a -comprehensive character; and first, certain mental requirements are -necessary to admission, as witness the following from the first -catalogue of the Chicago Manual Training School: - -“Candidates for admission to the Junior year must be at least fourteen -years of age, and must present sufficient evidence of good moral -character. They must pass a satisfactory examination in reading, -spelling, writing, geography, English composition, and the fundamental -operations of arithmetic as applied to integers, common and decimal -fractions, and denominate numbers. Ability to use the English language -correctly is especially desired.” - -The following questions were used at the first examination for admission -to the Chicago school. - - -ARITHMETIC. - -Transcribe work sufficient to show processes. No credit given for -results alone. - - 1. Change to decimals and find the sum of ⁴⁄₅, ⁵⁄₈, ¹¹⁄₁₆, ⁹⁄₂₀, - ⁴¹⁄₅₀. - - 2. Divide the product of 28⁵⁄₇ and 13⁴⁄₉ by the difference of 8⁵⁄₁₂ - and 4⁴⁄₅. - - 3. Divide .00875 by 12¹⁄₂. - - 4. Reduce .395 of a mile to integers. - - 5. If a locomotive move ⁵⁄₈ of a mile in ¹¹⁄₁₂ of an hour, what is its - speed per hour? - - 6. A man invested ¹⁄₅ of his money in land, .125 of it in stocks, - $12,000 in a vessel, and had $55,500 remaining. How much did he invest - in land? - - 7. Bought a square mile of land at $75 an acre. I reserved 160 acres - of it for streets and alleys, and divided the remainder into lots each - 66 feet front by 200 feet deep, all of which I sold for $15 per front - foot. The expense of surveying, etc., was $2000. What did I gain? - - 8. How many balls, each ¹⁄₄ of an inch in diameter, are equal in - weight to a ball of the same material 1 foot in diameter? - - 9. Find cost of material for making box, inside measurement 4 by 2 by - 3 feet, of inch lumber, worth $30 per M., ¹⁄₂₅ of the lumber purchased - being wasted. Include in the cost 7 dozen screws at $1.80 per gross. - -[Illustration: THE STUDENTS WITH THEIR BOOKS.] - - 10. What is the height of a rectangular cistern capable of containing - 600 gallons, the bottom of which is 7 by 11 feet, inside measurement? - - -GEOGRAPHY. - - 1. Name the five most populous cities of the United States in order of - population. On what water is St. Petersburg? Dublin? Rome? Calcutta? - Cairo? - - 2. Locate the principal coal fields and iron regions of the United - States. What minerals occur in Illinois? - - 3. Draw map of Illinois, showing by what States and by what waters - bounded. Locate the capital and the largest city of Illinois. - - 4. Name the outlet of Lake Erie; of Lake Champlain; of Great Salt - Lake; of the Black Sea; of Lake Victoria Nyanza. - - 5. Compare the latitude and climate of Spain and Illinois. - - 6. How does the island of Great Britain compare in area with the - United States, or with any one of the United States which you may - mention? - - 7. How do the Alps compare in height with the Rocky Mountains? Name - the highest peak in Europe; in North America; in South America; in the - world. - - 8. How does climate vary with altitude above the sea level? Illustrate - by an example. - - 9. What is the cause of day and night? Of changes of seasons? What is - latitude? Longitude? - - 10. When it is 11 A.M. by “Central Time” in Chicago, what is the hour - by “Eastern Time” in New York City? What is the hour in London? Is - “Central Time” in Chicago the true time? Why? - - Or, in place of the last question: What are the termini of the - Illinois and Michigan Canal? What waters are connected by the Suez - Canal? Of what water route does the Suez Canal take the place? - - -LANGUAGE. - - 1. Correct in every particular, and give reason for each correction: - - _a._ The man which was sick has went to his work. - - _b._ Every person should attend to their own affairs. - - _c._ Such expressions sound harshly. - - _d_. Between you and I, this is a real easy examination. - - _e_. The cause of the tides were not wholly unknown to the ancients. - - 2. “Pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of Grand Pré.” - - How is the idea of the rising of the sun modified? - - 3. - - “Flashed all their sabres bare, - Flashed as they turned in air, - Sab’ring the gunners there, - Charging an army, while - All the world wondered.” - - Change to good prose. - - 4. State the meaning of each prefix and suffix in the following words: - Emigrate; Immigrate; Illegally; Admissible; Thoughtlessness; Affixing. - - 5. - - _a_. Why is the final e of “service” retained in “serviceable?” - - _b_. Write the present participle of “befit;” of “benefit.” What - difference in spelling? Why? - - _c_. Define Ancient; Venerable; Obsolete. - -6. Write an essay on Chicago, mentioning the rapid growth of the city; -its land and water communications; its commerce and manufactures; its -public buildings; its institutions of learning and charity, and any -other items which may occur to you. - -Having passed the ordeal of the foregoing battery of questions the -student of the Ideal School finds his mental exercises alternated with -manual exercises throughout the entire course in something like the -following order, namely: - - =Junior Year.=--(1.) _Mathematics_--Arithmetic; Algebra. (2.) - _Science._--Physiology; Physical Geography. (3.) _Language._--English - Language and Literature; or Latin Reader. (4.) _Drawing._--Freehand - Model and Object; Projection; Machine; Perspective. (5.) - _Shopwork._--Carpentry, Joinery, Wood-Turning, Pattern-Making, Proper - Care and Use of Tools. - - =Middle Year.=--(1.) _Mathematics._--Geometry. (2.) - _Science._--Physics. (3.) _Language._--General History and Literature; - or Cæsar. (4.) _Drawing._--Orthographic Projection and Shadows; Line - and Brush Shading; Isometric Projection and Shadows; Details of - Machinery; Machine from Measurement. (5.) _Shopwork._--Molding, - Casting; Forging, Welding, Tempering; Soldering, Brazing. - - =Senior Year.=--(1.) _Mathematics._--Plane Trigonometry; Mechanics; - Book-keeping. (2.) _Science._--Chemistry; or Descriptive Geometry and - Higher Algebra. (3.) _Language, etc._--English Literature, Civil - Government, Political Economy; or Cicero, or French. (4.) - _Drawing._--Machine from Measurement; Building from Measurement; - Architectural Perspective. (5.) _Machine Shopwork._--Such as Chipping, - Filing, Fitting, Turning, Drilling, Planing, etc. Study of Machinery, - including the Management and Care of Steam Engines and Boilers. - -Latin and French may be taken instead of English Language, Literature, -and History. Instruction will be given each year in the properties of -the materials--wood, iron, brass, etc.--used in that year. - -Throughout the course, one hour per day, or more, will be given to -drawing, and not less than two hours per day to laboratory work. The -remainder of the school day will be devoted to study and recitation. -Before graduating, each pupil will be required to construct a machine -from drawings and patterns made by himself. A diploma will be given on -graduation. - -The new education is a blending of manual and mental training. It -recognizes the fact that science discovers and art utilizes, and that -these two forces move the modern world. - -At present the Manual Training School is a missionary enterprise. Its -purpose is to create in the public mind an imperative demand for the -incorporation of its scientific methods into the public-school course of -instruction. - -A vast majority of our people are employed in the useful arts, and -distinction in every department of labor now depends upon scientific -education. Without technical education or manual training the laborer of -the future cannot hope to rise above the grade of a piece of automatic -machinery. He falls into the routine of the shop like a cog or lever -moved by steam. To avert this dire misfortune our common schools must be -made institutions for manual as well as intellectual training. They must -inculcate the dignity of labor not by precept merely, but by example. -It is not enough that schools of technology, polytechnic institutes, and -manual training schools are being established here and there by private -subscription. The supply of these classes of education is only a drop in -the bucket to the public demand. Technical and manual training must be -made part of the general public educational system. In our city -high-schools we now fit boys for college. In those schools we must -hereafter fit them for the colleges of art. When this shall have become -the fashion in education there will be thousands of high-school -graduates with a grand passion for mechanical pursuits--boys with more -curiosity on the subject of the expansive force of steam than on the -subject of “Greek roots;” with more ambition to invent something useful -to man than to learn how to draw a bill in chancery; with a stronger -desire to discover a new secret in electricity than to carry off a prize -for the best Latin oration. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE INTELLECTUAL EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING. - - Intelligence is the Basis of Character. -- The more Practical the - Intelligence the Higher the Development of Character. -- The use of - Tools quickens the Intellect. -- Making Things rouses the Attention, - sharpens the Observation, and steadies the Judgment. -- History of - Inventions in England, 1740-1840. -- Poor, Ignorant Apprentices become - learned Men. -- Cort, Huntsman, Mushet, Neilson, Stephenson, and Watt. - -- The Union of Books and Tools. -- Results at Rotterdam, Holland; at - Moscow, Russia; at Komotau, Bohemia; and at St. Louis, Mo. -- The - Consideration of Overwhelming Import. - - -The quality of all civilizations depends upon intelligence and -character, or morality, in the order stated; for morality springs from -intelligence, not intelligence from morality. This is an axiomatic -deduction of historic analysis.[2] Nor would it be difficult to prove -that practical intelligence is more conducive to a high development of -morals than mere theoretical intelligence. For is it not true that the -nations most skilled in the useful arts are most highly cultured in -morals? And if it be true, it constitutes a potential argument in -support of joining to intellectual instruction in the schools a course -of training in the elements of the useful arts. And of the fact which -forms the basis of this argument there is a logical explanation. - - [2] “But if we contrast this stationary aspect of moral truths with - the progressive aspect of intellectual truths, the difference is, - indeed, startling.... These are to every educated man recognized and - notorious facts, and the inference to be drawn from them is - immediately obvious. Since civilization is the product of moral and - intellectual agencies, and since that product is constantly changing, - it evidently cannot be regulated by the stationary agent; because when - surrounding circumstances are unchanged, a stationary agent can only - produce a stationary effect. The only other agent is the intellectual - one, and that this is the real mover may be proved in two distinct - ways: first, because being, as we have already seen, either moral or - intellectual, and being, as we have also seen, not moral, it must be - intellectual; and secondly, because the intellectual principle has an - activity and a capacity for adaptation which, as I undertake to show, - is quite sufficient to account for the extraordinary progress that, - during several centuries, Europe has continued to make.”--Buckle’s - “History of Civilization,” Vol. I., p. 130. D. Appleton & Co., 1864. - -Nothing stimulates and quickens the intellect more than the use of -mechanical tools. The boy who begins to construct things is compelled at -once to begin to think, deliberate, reason, and conclude. As he proceeds -he is brought in contact with powerful natural forces. If he would -control, direct, and apply these forces he must first master the laws by -which they are governed; he must investigate the causes of the phenomena -of matter, and it will be strange if from this he is not also led to a -study of the phenomena of mind. At the very threshold of practical -mechanics a thirst for wisdom is engendered, and the student is -irresistibly impelled to investigate the mysteries of philosophy. Thus -the training of the eye and the hand reacts upon the brain, stimulating -it to excursions into the realm of scientific discovery in search of -facts to be applied in practical forms at the bench and the anvil. - -The history of invention and discovery in England affords a striking -confirmation of the truth of the proposition that mechanical -investigation, with tools in hand, stimulates the intellectual faculties -to the highest point of activity and excellence. The germs of nearly -all the great inventions in mechanics, the benefit of which the world is -now enjoying in such ample measure, are directly traceable to the -workshops of Great Britain during the period 1740-1840. - -England had then no popular system of education, and the apprentices in -her shops were poor, obscure, and, at the start, illiterate. But to -those poor apprentices the honor of the great inventions and discoveries -of that age is almost wholly due. And it is a notable fact that in the -struggle to invent tools and machines, to master the art of mechanism, -to steal from Nature her secret forces, and harness and use them for the -benefit of man, the toiling workers not infrequently became highly -educated, intellectual giants, familiar not alone with special studies, -but masters of many branches of learning. - -In 1770 the Russian Government, aware of the inferiority of English -iron, and deeming Russian iron essential to England, directed the price -of iron for export to be raised three hundred per cent. This arbitrary -act stimulated invention. Henry Cort, the son of a brick-maker, entered -upon a series of experiments, with a view to the improvement of English -iron. They occupied several years, and were of a very expensive -character--so expensive as eventually to bankrupt the man who made them. -They were, however, so successful as to constitute a splendid epoch in -the history of metallurgy. In 1786 Lord Sheffield declared that Cort’s -improvements in iron, and the steam-engine of Watt, were of more value -to Great Britain than the thirteen colonies of America; and in 1862 it -was estimated that those improvements had added three thousand million -dollars to the wealth of England alone, to say nothing of the rest of -the world of iron manufacture throughout which they had been applied. -But the only estate secured by this great man as a reward of his genius -and a life of toil, as his biographer pathetically remarks, was “the -little domain of six feet by two in which he lies buried in Hampstead -churchyard.” - -In 1715 Sheffield contained two thousand inhabitants, of whom one-third -were beggars. Its manufactures consisted of jews-harps, tobacco-boxes, -and knives. Sheffield is now the chief seat of the steel manufacture of -the world. The initial step in this great transformation scene was taken -by Benjamin Huntsman. He was born in 1704, and bred to a mechanical -calling. The early years of his life were spent in the occupation of -clock making and repairing. He was shrewd, observant, and practical, and -he gradually extended the scope of his profession to repairing, and -finally to making hand-tools. In this branch of his trade he detected -defects in the German steel in common use. He removed from Doncaster to -Sheffield, and there in the privacy of his cottage studied metallurgy, -and for years labored in secret over the furnace and the crucible. His -numerous failures were subsequently found chronicled in masses of metal, -in various stages of imperfection, buried in the earth. But when he -emerged from his long seclusion he offered to his fellow-mechanics a -piece of cast-steel so hard that they declined to work it. He sent the -product of his works to France, and the French knives and razors made -from it and imported into England drove the Sheffield cutlery from the -market. Then the Sheffield cutlers sought to have the export of steel -prohibited. Failing in that they stole Huntsman’s secret. This was -possible, since the process had not been patented. The story of the -theft is told in a little work entitled “The Useful Metals and their -Alloys.” It is in substance that one Walker, an iron-founder, “disguised -himself as a tramp, and feigning great distress and abject poverty, -appeared shivering at the door of Huntsman’s foundery late one night -when the workmen were about to begin their labors at steel-casting, and -asked for permission to warm himself by the furnace-fire.” He was -permitted to enter, and when he left he carried away the secret of the -inventor of cast-steel. - -Huntsman was a member of the Society of Friends, and it was doubtless on -that account that he declined a membership of the Royal Society tendered -to him in honor of his great discovery or invention of cast-steel. - -David Mushet’s discovery of the extraordinary value of black-band -iron-stone in 1801 made Scotland a first-class iron-producing country; -and Neilson’s invention of the hot-blast in 1828 revolutionized the -processes of iron manufacture by vastly cheapening them. Both these men -sprang from the labor class, and both were self-educated. Through almost -superhuman efforts they rose from poverty and obscurity to fame. -Mushet’s “Papers on Iron and Steel,” in the language of Smiles, “are -among the most valuable original contributions to the literature of iron -manufacture that have yet been given to the world;” and Neilson was made -a member of the Royal Society in recognition of his distinguished -ability and the great services he rendered in the cause of the useful -arts. - -George Stephenson rose from the coal-mine to the summit of renown as a -theoretical and practical mechanic. While employed in various collieries -as “fireman” and “plugman,” he acquired a thorough knowledge of the -engines then in use, taking them apart, repairing, and putting them -together again. At eighteen years of age he could not read. In the -course of two years attendance at night-schools he learned to read, -write, and cipher.[3] Continuing to work in collieries, he employed his -leisure hours in studying mechanics and engineering, and in mending -clocks and shoes. When thirty-one years of age he was appointed -“enginewright” at Killingworth Colliery, at a salary of £100 a year. -From this point of time dates his career as an inventor. His first -locomotive was completed in 1814, and the “Rocket” made its trial trip -in 1829. During the intervening fifteen years Stephenson was largely -engaged in the engineering department of railway enterprises as well as -in the prosecution of experiments for the perfecting of locomotive -engines. The most eminent engineers of the time doubted the -practicability of the locomotive, and continued to recommend stationary -engines, while Stephenson was leading up to the “Rocket.” The success of -the “Rocket” made its inventor the most famous mechanic in the world. -For the next fifteen years he was the leading spirit in all the great -railway enterprises of England, besides being called repeatedly to -Belgium and Spain as consulting engineer. He was offered a fellowship of -the Royal Society, also one in the Civil Engineers’ Society, also -knighthood by Sir Robert Peel. All these empty honors he declined. “I -have to state,” he said, in reply to a request for his “ornamental -initials,” “that I have no flourishes to my name, either before or -after, and I think it will be as well if you merely say George -Stephenson.” He may justly be styled the founder of the existing railway -system of the world, which undoubtedly exerts more influence upon -civilization than any other one cause or set of allied causes; and to -have risen from the humblest station in a colliery to the dignity of -founding such a system is sufficient evidence of a gigantic intellectual -growth. - - [3] “In conclusion, we are of opinion that special instruction which - can be applied to the material would be at once more fruitful in good - results and more attractive if the pupil could go from the class-room - to the workshop (laboratory) to practically demonstrate the theories - to which he has just been listening. In support of this opinion we - might add the observations made in our own evening-schools, where the - most noteworthy and rapid progress is made in those cases where the - pupil has occasion to put into actual practice on the material itself - the instruction which he has received in the drawing-class.”--“Report - of Committee of Council of Arts and Manufactures of the Province of - Quebec, created to Inquire into the Question of Practical Schools.” - -James Watt was an extremely fragile child, and hence unable to join in -the rude sports of robust children. Thus confined within-doors he early -amused himself by drawing “with a pencil upon paper, or with chalk upon -the floor.” He was also supplied with a few tools from his father’s -carpenter’s shop, “which he soon learned to handle with considerable -expertness.” Mr. Smiles, in his biography of Watt, says, “The mechanical -dexterity he acquired was the foundation upon which he built the -speculations to which he owes his glory, nor without this manual -training is there the least likelihood that he would have become the -improver and almost the creator of the steam-engine.”[4] In the -parrot-power of learning or memorizing Watt was a dull boy, and he left -the grammar-school of his native town at an early age, never to return -to the “halls of learning.” But while engaged in humble mechanical -employments he perfected his education, studying after work-hours. He -nearly starved his body, but constantly added to his intellectual -stores. He mastered the principles of engineering, civil and military, -studied natural history, criticism, art, and acquired several modern -languages. In a word, without the aid of the schools, but under the -stimulating influence of mechanical investigation and work, Watt became -an accomplished and scientific man. When nearly eighty years of age he -and Sir Walter Scott met. Referring to the occasion, and speaking of -Watt, Sir Walter is reported to have said, “The alert, kind, benevolent -old man had his attention alive to every one’s question, his information -at every one’s command. His talents and fancy overflowed on every -subject. One gentleman was a deep philologist--he talked with him on the -origin of the alphabet as if he had been coeval with Cadmus; another a -celebrated critic--you would have said the old man had studied political -economy and belles-lettres all his life; of science it is unnecessary to -speak--it was his distinguished walk.” - - [4] “I believe that well-advised practice in any of the constructive - arts involving not more than one-third of the student’s time will - yield as much mental improvement as will result if the whole time be - devoted to study from text-books.”--Prof. Wm. F. M. Goss, six years - Director of the Department of Practical Mechanics of Purdue - University. - - “And reflect that he will learn more by one hour of manual labor than - he will retain from a whole day’s verbal instructions.”--“The Emilius - and Sophia” of J. J. Rousseau, Vol. II., p. 64. London: 1767. - - “The things themselves are the best explanations. I can never enough - repeat it, that we make words of too much consequence; with our - prating modes of education we make nothing but praters.”--Ibid., p. - 46. - -These examples of remarkable intellectual development in connection -with tool-practice are not phenomenal. From the annals of invention and -discovery numerous instances might be cited in support of the -proposition of this chapter, that tool-practice stimulates intellectual -growth. - -In the Artisan’s School at Rotterdam, Holland, an experience of seven -years has demonstrated that “boys who are occupied one-half the day with -books in the school, and the remaining half with tools in the -laboratories, make about as rapid intellectual progress as those of -equal ability who spend the whole day in study and recitation.” The -testimony of Dr. Woodward, director of the St. Louis (Mo.) Manual -Training School, is to the same effect. And in one of his reports he -says, “Success in drawing or shop-work has often had the effect of -arousing the ambition in mathematics and history, and _vice versa_.... -The habit of working from drawings and to nice measurements has given -the students a confidence in themselves altogether new. This is shown in -the readiness with which they undertake the execution of small -commissions in behalf of the school.... In fact, the increased -usefulness of our students is making itself felt, and in several -instances the result has been the offer of business positions too -tempting to be rejected.” - -Of the results achieved by the Imperial Technical School, Moscow, -Russia, M. Victor Della-Vos, director, speaks with the utmost -confidence. He says, “And now (1878) we present our system of -instruction, not as a project, but as an accomplished fact, confirmed by -the long experience of ten years of success in its results.” The methods -of instruction of the school at Moscow were introduced into all the -technical schools of Russia in 1870. - -A similar degree of success has attended the Royal Mechanic Art School -at Komotau, Bohemia. The management says, “The school has shown the most -brilliant proofs of usefulness, and the ends gained have been -acknowledged at home and abroad. One proof is that in spite of the hard -times all the pupils from Komotau have found occupation in different -manufacturing establishments; and another that England, a country -unsurpassed in the manufactures of iron and steel, has already sent some -students to the school.” - -If the pupil in the Manual Training School makes as rapid progress -intellectually as the pupil in the public or private school of -corresponding grade, it follows that whatever skill in the use of tools -is acquired, and whatever knowledge of practical mechanics is -gained--these stand for the net gain of the pupil of the new system of -education. But much more follows by implication. For if the few pupils -of the world’s few manual training schools are making equal intellectual -progress with the many pupils of the many schools of the old _régime_, -and making such progress in a little more than half the study-hours, the -consideration of overwhelming import is the loss sustained by the -millions of pupils being trained under the old system. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN A NECESSITY. - - The Difference between Ancient and Modern Systems of Education. -- - Plato Blinded by Half-truths. -- No place in the present order of - things for Dogmatisms. -- Education commences at Birth. -- The - Influence of Woman extends from the Cradle to the Grave. -- The Crime - of Crimes. -- Neglect to educate Woman. -- The Superiority of Women - over Men as Teachers. -- Froebel discovered it. -- Nature designed - Woman to Teach; hence the Importance of Fitting her for her Highest - Destiny. - - -This, from the lips of Plato, was the theory of the ancients: “The earth -is the common mother of the human race, but it has pleased the gods to -mix gold in the composition of some, silver in that of others, iron and -copper in that of others.”[5] On this divinely established principle of -caste all the ancient educational systems were founded. They were -limited to the development of the few in whose composition gold was -supposed to be mixed. - - [5] “The Republic of Plato,” p. 114. London: Macmillan & Co., 1881. - -The idea of a universal education is modern, and all other differences -between the ancients and moderns combined are as nothing to this one -fundamental difference between the two civilizations. Plato’s ideal -republic was based upon the assumption that the “guardians” might be -made just and wise by educating them; but that the other classes might -also be made just and wise by education, and the State be so rendered -absolutely secure, did not occur to the great philosopher. - -Plato was blinded by half-truths, as Rousseau was two thousand years -later, when he said, “The poor stand in no need of education; that of -their station is confined, and they cannot obtain any other.”[6] That -men are created unequal intellectually is only a half-truth in an -educational view; the whole truth is that every child is susceptible of -the developing influence of education, and hence the obligation of the -State to educate relates to all children. Plato’s simile of the gold, -the silver, and the iron shows how autocratically even the greatest mind -is controlled by its environment, and limited by the facts which -constitute the basis of its generalizations. Were Plato teaching here, -now, he would transpose the order of statement in his simile, since -iron, not gold, is the king of metals. Each generation increases the -world’s stock of facts; hence there is no place in the modern order of -things for the dogmatist--the dogmatisms of yesterday become apt themes -for the satires of to-day, subjecting their authors to ridicule. This -fact should impress upon professional teachers, and upon all persons -engaged in seeking to promote the cause of education, the importance of -a reverently studious habit of mind touching the progress of events. The -tyranny of tradition is an ever-present, potent influence, and only the -growing mind can resist it. - - [6] “Emilius and Sophia,” Vol. I, p. 40. London: 1767. - -But there are certain principles upon which not only ancient and modern -educators agree, but about which there is no dispute between existing -rival schools, as, for example, this proposition of Plato-- - -“The beginning is the most important part, especially in dealing with -anything young and tender, for that is the time when any impression -which one may desire to communicate is most readily stamped and -taken.”[7] - - [7] “The Republic of Plato,” p. 65. London: Macmillan & Co., 1881. - -And this proposition of Rousseau-- - -“The education of a man commences at his birth; before he can speak, -before he can understand, he is already instructed.... Trace the -progress of the most ignorant of mortals from his birth to the present -hour and you will be astonished at the knowledge he has acquired.”[8] - - [8] “Emilius and Sophia,” Vol. I., p. 54. London: 1767. - -And this further proposition, also of Rousseau-- - -“The common profession of all men is humanity; and whoever is well -educated to discharge the duties of a man cannot be badly prepared to -fill up any of those offices that have a relation to him.”[9] - - [9] Ibid., Vol. I., p 13. - -The truth of these propositions being admitted, some conception may be -formed of the tremendous influence exerted by woman upon the destinies -of the human race. It extends literally from the cradle to the grave. -All other influences combined are less potent, less comprehensive than -this single, persistent force that creates the very atmosphere in which -the infant mind develops, holding the ground alone and undisturbed until -the child’s plastic character has been formed, receiving ineradicable -impressions. What a crime, then, was the neglect of the people of past -ages to educate woman! It is in vain that the education of man is -attempted if that of woman is neglected. It was Rousseau who in despair -exclaimed: - -“How can a child be properly educated by one who has not been properly -educated himself?” - -Since, therefore, the education of the man begins while he lies helpless -in his mother’s arms, and since the first steps in this direction are -the most important, and since some sort of education proceeds with -almost inconceivable rapidity through all the early years of life, it -follows that the kindergarten fills a place in the educational field -entirely unoccupied until the time of Froebel. He first applied the -ideas of Rousseau to school life. But when the kindergarten receives the -child, three or four of the most precious educational years have already -passed away, and at the still tender age of seven the child is -surrendered to a very different system of training. The kindergarten is -therefore only a brief episode in the educational period of the child’s -life. But if it be the true education, it is susceptible of universal -application. Throughout all nature the order of development is constant -and harmonious, and the child-nature cannot in reason constitute an -exception to this rule. Froebel said, “The end and aim of all our work -should be the harmonious growth of the whole being.” If his principle is -the true one, his method is susceptible of such modification and -expansion as to render it applicable to the whole educational period. -All mothers should therefore be trained in the principles and methods of -the new education--the kindergarten system should prevail in all -schools, and the kindergarten curriculum should be extended and adapted -to all ages and grades of pupils. - -Several great minds, separated by considerable intervals of time, have -united in condemning the old systems of education--Bacon, Comenius, -Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. Bacon, himself a university man, -said, “They learn nothing at the universities but to believe;” and he -proposed that a college be appropriated to the discovery of new truth, -“to mix like a living spring with the stagnant waters.” Three of these -great men--Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel--were professional -teachers. Theoretically they were in accord with and followers of Bacon, -and in practice they were substantially agreed. Comenius said, “Let -things that have to be done be learned by doing them.” Pestalozzi said, -“Education is the generation of power,” and Froebel said, “The end and -aim of all our work should be the harmonious growth of the whole being.” - -These are very high authorities, and they are buttressed by seemingly -impregnable educational propositions. The record of Froebel’s life is -worthy of great weight in support of his theory. His devotion to the -cause of education was absolute. He never knew a selfish aim. He -struggled for the race, not for self. He was the victim of many -misfortunes, but none disturbed the serenity of this great soul devoted -to the greatest of great causes--the cause of education. And education -to his apprehension was the thorough training of every faculty of the -mind and every power of the body for the duties of actual practical -life. His love embraced the world in its entirety and in all its parts. -Dying, he said, “I love flowers, men, children, God! I love everything!” -It was his profoundly philosophic conception of the innate lovableness -of every natural object that made him shudder at the cruel distortion -wrought in the natures of little children by false methods of education. -Hence his intense devotion to the subject of infant training, and hence -the excellence of the system which bears his name. - -Froebel’s most subtile discovery was the fact of the superiority of -women over men, as teachers. Only an honest, brave soul could have made -this discovery, for tradition stood like a lion in the way, and -prejudice discouraged investigation. But Froebel sought truth for -truth’s sake, fearlessly defying tradition and ignoring prejudice; and -years of experiment convinced him that the greatest measure of success -in infant training was surely attainable through women. That this -discovery, so simple, yet so big with grand possibilities, was not made -earlier is due to the fact that there is so little really independent -thought, so little investigation free from the trammels of prejudice. -Now that a great mind has pointed the way it is obvious that Nature, -having designed that the years of early childhood should be spent with -the mother, must have also designed that women should be the chief -educators of children. And it follows, of course, that the education of -women is more important than that of men, since it is from them that -children receive their first impressions, and since first impressions -are indelibly stamped upon the infant mind, giving it form, color, and -substance. - -In confiding to women this great trust, Froebel imposed upon them an -incalculable weight of responsibility. It comprehends the destiny of the -human race, involving the problem of its progress or retrogression. - -A common first conception of the kindergarten is--a convenient asylum -for the children of mothers who desire to be relieved of their care. A -more thoughtful study reveals its poetry and sentiment, the innocent joy -of the assembly of pupils, the harmony of song, and the grace of motion -in the games and dances. A final, large view discloses the true -educational principle. The kindergarten is more clearly comprehended -after studying the manual training school--moving from the effect to -the cause; for as the child is father of the man, so the kindergarten is -father of the manual training school. The kindergarten comes first in -the order of development, and leads logically to the manual training -school. The same principle underlies both. In both it is sought to -generate power by dealing with actualities. The corner-stone of both is -object-teaching--teaching through things instead of through signs of -things. This principle, common to both, is the concrete as opposed to -the abstract. The theory of both is that, in teaching, ideas should -never be isolated from the objects they represent.[E3] The kindergarten -and the manual training school, being one in principle, should have -common methods of instruction, varied sufficiently to adapt them to the -whole range of school life. - - [E3] “This method of object teaching is perhaps the greatest service - which the naturalistic school has rendered to the cause of education. - Hinted at by Rabelais and Locke, still more largely developed by - Rousseau, it has received, in the last century, a more accurate and - scientific form, and is probably destined to become the source of a - new curriculum in which literature will only hold a secondary - place.”--“Educational Theories,” p. 109. By Oscar Browning, M.A. New - York: Harper & Brothers, 1885. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE MORAL EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING. - - Mental Impulses are often Vicious; but the Exertion of Physical Power - in the Arts is always Beneficent -- hence Manual Training tends to - correct vicious mental Impulses. -- Every mental Impression produces a - moral Effect. -- All Training is Moral as well as Mental. -- - Selfishness is total Depravity; but Selfishness has been Deified under - the name of Prudence. -- Napoleon an Example of Selfishness. -- The - End of Selfishness is Disaster; but Prevailing Systems of Education - promote Selfishness. -- The Modern City an Illustration of - Selfishness. -- The Ancient City. -- Existing Systems of Education - Negatively Wrong. -- Manual Training supplies the lacking Element. -- - The Objective must take the Place of the Subjective in Education. -- - Words without Acts are as dead as Faith without Works. - - -Education, or training, has two immediate and continuous effects--the -development of innate mental qualities or aptitudes and the formation of -character. In an orderly logical system of training the development -would be harmonious, and the resulting formation of character -symmetrical. These are, however, ideal conditions requiring a perfect -system of training, and students free from the perversions and -deformities growing out of the law of heredity. But under any system of -training there is progress--development and character formation. The -aphorism, “An idle brain is the devil’s workshop,” expresses only a -half-truth. What it means is this: if the mind is not well employed it -will be ill employed; or if it is not occupied with good thoughts it -will be occupied with evil thoughts. The mind of man is never at rest, -in equilibrium, even in a state of barbarism. Indeed this is obvious, -since all civilizations are growths from states of savagery. But the -barbaric line once passed, development is greatly accelerated, assuming -with the evolution of the ages the form of a geometrical progression. -The distinguishing characteristic of modern civilization is action. In -so far as this action, which may be called the impulsive force of the -spirit of the age, is natural and orderly, it constitutes an aid to the -processes of education; if otherwise, it is obstructive, hindering them. - -The law of mental development is not the exact correlative of the law of -physical development. The direct aim of physical training is muscular -power; of mental training the aim is mental power and rectitude. -Physical power is not intrinsically vicious; it becomes vicious only -when exerted under a vicious intellectual impulse. But this is not -necessarily true of mental power; for mental power may be gained quite -apart from the element of rectitude, in which event it is vicious, and -may be exerted in scorn of the accepted standards of right, truth, and -justice. As a matter of fact it is often so exerted, and the fact that -it is so exerted accounts for the crimes of individuals, the faults of -society, and the errors of governments. The constitution of mental power -is, then, complex, while that of physical power is simple. If mental -power consists of sense perception, or understanding, and moral -perception, or rectitude, in due proportion, the issue is a noble -character; but if rectitude is wanting, the issue is an evil character. -If, on the other hand, there is no interference with the orderly -development of physical power, the issue of its exertion is always -skill--skill applied in innumerable forms to the uses of man. Only -through a mental impulse rendered vicious by the absence of the element -of rectitude can physical power be diverted from its naturally -beneficent mission. - -It follows that most of the evils of civilization flow from an -ill-balanced mental constitution--a mental constitution wanting the -essential element of rectitude. Since, then, mental development, under -certain widely prevailing conditions, is so prolific of evil, and -physical development or skill so universally prolific of good, it is -obvious that the beneficent influence of the latter should, if -practicable, be brought to bear upon the former in educational systems. -In a word, may not the two systems of training be so connected in the -schools as to cause the manual to react upon the mental, with the effect -of greatly stimulating the ethical side of the mind? - -It is not essential to our purpose to inquire whether a perfect system -of education, and hence an ideal state of society, is possible. It will -be sufficient if we are able to show wherein prevailing systems of -education can be improved. - -In a former chapter we sought to show that the use of mechanical tools -stimulates the intellect; in the present chapter it is our purpose to -endeavor to show that manual training tends to the promotion of -rectitude, to the up building of character. - -For purposes of culture the mind consists of divisions, as the body -consists of members. It is susceptible of development in the line of the -application of mental training, as any member of the body is susceptible -of development through physical training or use. For example, the memory -may be invigorated by the constant application of certain kinds of -mental training, as the arm is strengthened by the constant use of the -sledge-hammer. But if the mental training which stimulates the memory -is applied to the neglect of other lines of training, the memory will be -strengthened at the expense of some other faculty of the mind, as the -excessive use of the sledge-hammer strengthens the arm at the cost of -other members of the body. In the one case the mind, and in the other -the body will be deformed. In the case of the sledge-hammer training the -muscles of the arm will stand out like whip-cords, while those of the -legs will shrivel and become attenuated. In the case of the training of -the memory that faculty will show an abnormal development, while some -other faculty, as the power of ratiocination, probably, will become -weak. - -It is not necessary in this connection to inquire into the origin of -moral sentiments, or to consider the rival theories on the subject. -However men may differ as between the two schools of moral -philosophers--the sentimentalists and the utilitarians--they will agree -that the moral side of the mind, so to speak, consists of divisions like -the mental side; that these divisions are the source, respectively, of -good and evil tendencies, and that these tendencies are susceptible of -cultivation; that the evil may be restrained and the good developed, and -_vice versa_. Nor will it be disputed that there is such a blending of -the moral with the mental nature in the mind of man as to render any -consideration of the subject irrational and incomplete which does not -comprehend both, and treat them, practically, as one and the same. Man -is so constituted, and his relations to society are such, that every -mental impression he receives produces a moral effect, the character of -which is, of course, largely dependent upon the accepted standards of -right, truth, and justice. Hence all scholastic training is both mental -and moral. It is moral as well as mental, whether the instructor will -it so or not; and that it is moral is well, since it is obviously true, -as Galton pertinently remarks, that “Great men have usually high moral -natures, and are affectionate and reverential, inasmuch as mere brain -without heart is insufficient to achieve eminence.” - -Selfishness is the arch enemy of virtue; from it all forms of immorality -spring, and its last analysis is total depravity. But literature, which -is the fruitage of education, is full of maxims in honor of selfishness. -Said the Dauphin to the French king, “Self-love, my liege, is not so -vile a sin as self-neglecting.” Said Herbert, “Help thyself and God will -help thee.” “A penny saved is as good as a penny earned,” said Franklin; -and the grasping “Yankee” stretches the maxim a point in saying to his -son, “Make money honestly if you can, but make money.” - -The following, also, are current maxims: “Every man is the architect of -his own fortune;” “Every tub must stand upon its own bottom;” “In the -race of life the devil takes the hindmost;” “Look to the main chance;” -and, “Keep what you have got, and catch what you can.” To the same -purpose is the famous old aphorism of which Napoleon the First was so -fond, “God always favors the heaviest battalions.” Emerson declared that -Napoleon represented “the spirit of modern commerce, of money, and -material power,” and he certainly was the very incarnation of -selfishness.[10] He had a hand of iron, and he laid it heavily on all -who opposed him. If it became necessary to imprison his enemies he -imprisoned them; if it became necessary to kill them he cut off their -heads. When charged with the commission of great crimes, he retorted, -“Men of my stamp do not commit crimes!” “I have always marched with the -opinion of great masses and events,” he exclaimed, with the insolence of -a butcher exhibiting his bloody hands. Old-fashioned codes of morals -were for those who opposed his plans, not for him. But the end of -selfishness is disaster. It is as dangerous to assume to rise above -moral laws as to sink below them; in the one case they crush, and in the -other they undermine. “The half” is, after all, “more than the whole,” -for “the half” may be retained, but “the whole” is sure to slip from the -fingers of grasping avarice. Napoleon, who defied all mankind, expiated -his crimes on a rock in mid-ocean. There, whining, protesting, and -prating of injustice, he died miserably, a colossal example of the folly -of selfishness. - - [10] “‘God has granted,’ says the Koran, ‘to every people a prophet in - its own tongue.’ Paris, and London, and New York, the spirit of - commerce, of money, and material power, were also to have their - prophet; and Bonaparte was qualified and sent. Every one of the - million readers of anecdotes, or memoirs, or lives of Napoleon - delights in the page, because he studies in it his own - history.”--“Representative Men,” p. 221. Boston: Phillips, Sampson & - Co., 1858. - - It would be impossible more severely to arraign existing educational - methods; for men are what education makes them. - -Selfishness seeks to wring from society a support without giving to it -an equivalent return. What industry creates and saves to society, -selfishness seeks to misappropriate to its own use; hence selfishness is -in conflict with the true spirit of civilization, which is the compact -of all to protect each in his rights. Selfishness caused the destruction -of all the governments of ancient times, and it has been the cause of -all the revolutions of modern times. There can be no stability in -government until altruism takes the place of selfishness in the world’s -code of ethics. The sole condition of the stability of the State is a -disposition on the part of its people to conform to justice and correct -moral principles in all social relations. - -Any system of education that does not tend to produce a state of morals -conformable to this high standard is not merely defective; it is -radically wrong, and therefore positively vicious. The true purpose of -education is the harmonious development of all the powers of the -man--mental, moral, and physical. But harmony in a selfish character is -impossible, for selfishness is blind of one eye, so to speak; it -considers only one side of a cause--the side that relates to its -interest, regardless of all other interests. Let not prudence be -confounded with selfishness. Prudence and selfishness are as wide apart -as the poles. Extreme prudence is perfectly consistent with entire -rectitude, while extreme selfishness is the synonym of depravity; hence -the first step in education is to eliminate selfishness from the mind, -and the next step is to put rectitude in its place. - -Prevailing systems of education no doubt promote the spirit of -selfishness:[11] witness the character of the struggle for -self-aggrandizement. It is more intense and more widely extended than at -any period of the world’s history. That it is more intense is shown by -the more and more rapid concentration of populations in cities, where -the struggle assumes its most intense form, and exhibits itself in its -most threatening aspect. - - [11] “In small, undeveloped societies, where for ages complete peace - has continued, there exists nothing like what we call Government; no - coercive agency, but mere honorary headship, if any headship at all. - In these exceptional communities, unaggressive, and from special - causes unaggressed upon, there is so little deviation from the virtues - of truthfulness, honesty, justice, and generosity, that nothing beyond - an occasional expression of public opinion by informally assembled - elders is needful.”--“Political Institutions,” ¶¶ 437, 573; “The Sins - of Legislators,” in “The Man _versus_ the State,” p. 44. By Herbert - Spencer. New York: D. Appleton & Co. - -Cities have always been plague-spots on the body politic, and they are -not less so now than in ancient times. It is in cities that all dangers -to the State originate; and the sole, fundamental reason why cities are -a standing menace to the integrity of the social compact is the fact -that they are dominated by selfishness. It is in cities that the -unnatural, unwholesome desire to live without labor, to live by -speculative enterprises, becomes a consuming passion, inoculating with a -deeper and darker degree of selfishness an ever-widening circle of -people; and selfishness at last inevitably leads to anarchy. It leads to -anarchy and chaos because both classes of society become depraved--the -rich and powerful through indolence and sensual indulgence, and the poor -and wretched through ignorance and privation and their attendant mean -vices. - -The modern city is the despair of the political economist. It grows -relatively faster in population than the rural district, and it would be -the extreme of optimism to declare that it grows better.[E4] It does not -matter that the city is the centre of learning, the nursery of all the -active intelligences which are achieving fresh triumphs daily in every -department of science, literature, and art. It is also the centre of -vice, and the nursery of every variety of crime. - -The difficulty--nay, the despair--of the situation is not relieved or -mitigated by the undisputed fact that the ancient city was much worse -morally and politically than the modern city, and hence that as between -Rome and Chicago there is an immense moral and political advantage in -favor of the latter. If Chicago is retrograding morally and politically, -what is to prevent it from sinking to the moral and political status of -Rome under the infamous emperors of the period of its decadence? If the -modern American city is rapidly degenerating, both as a moral force and -a political institution, what is to arrest its downward progress? What -influence is to intervene to reverse the order and nature of its -development? - -Rome, in the very agonies of political dissolution, possessed all the -then known arts, a splendid literature, and a school of philosophy whose -ethical code was more lofty, if less human, than that of the new system -which was struggling to replace the old. That the inconceivably -atrocious gladiatorial games should have developed into such huge -proportions in conjunction with the sublime moral teachings of Seneca, -Plutarch, Marcus Aurelius, and a score of others, is the despair of -students of Roman history. While they taught, emperors and people alike -feasted their eyes on bloody orgies of men and beasts, on scenes of the -most horrible barbarity. Caligula took special delight in watching the -countenances of the dying, “for he had learned to take an artistic -pleasure in observing the variations of their agony.” Criminals dressed -in the skins of wild beasts were thrown to bulls which were maddened -with red-hot irons. “Four hundred bears were killed in a single day -under Caligula; three hundred on another day under Claudius. Under Nero, -four hundred tigers fought with bulls and elephants; four hundred bears -and three hundred lions were slaughtered by his soldiers. In a single -day, at the dedication of the Colosseum by Titus, five thousand animals -perished. Under Trajan the games continued for one hundred and -twenty-three successive days. Lions, tigers, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, -giraffes, bulls, stags, even crocodiles and serpents, were employed to -give novelty to the spectacle.” - -And yet the civilization that produced these games gave to the world, -forever, the moral precepts of the stoics and philosophers. Cicero had -maintained the doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man. “Nature -ordains,” he says, “that a man should wish the good of every man, -whoever he may be, for this very reason: that he is a man.” Menander -maintained that “man should deem nothing human foreign to his interest.” -Lucan looked forward to the time when “the human race will cast aside -its weapons, and all nations learn to love.” In a letter on the death of -his slaves Pliny exhibited feelings of strong human affection, and -Plutarch, in a letter of consolation to his wife on the death of his -daughter, left a touching record of the tenderness of his heart in the -recital of a simple trait of the child: “She desired her nurse to press -even her dolls to the breast. She was so loving that she wished -everything that gave her pleasure to share in the best that she had.” -Says Seneca, “The whole universe which you see around you, comprising -all things both divine and human, is one. We are members of one great -body.” And Epictetus, “You are a citizen and a part of the world. The -duty of a citizen is in nothing to consider his own interest distinct -from that of others.” - -The contrast between these noble moral sentiments and the actual life of -the Roman people is truly startling.[E5] It is plain that the profession -of lofty moral sentiments by a class, the possession of high literary -attainments, and an extensive acquaintance with the arts, do not always -afford protection against national degradation and decay. Nor is it by -any means certain that the Christian religion is destined to effect more -in this regard than the pagan code of morals. Rome embraced religion, -but its conversion was powerless to avert political and commercial -destruction. - -The modern city has for guides the example of all the ancient -civilizations and political and moral systems, and in addition it has, -in its most vital form, the Christian system of morals and faith. But -notwithstanding all these helps it is politically corrupt and morally -depraved. Its streets are the scenes of vice scarcely less revolting -than those of ancient Rome. It harbors an army of criminals which grows -with its growth, and is without any systematized effort either to reform -or abolish it. Indeed this army of criminals is constantly reinforced in -an increasing ratio to the whole population from the ranks of the rising -generation, which is to a degree enforced to ignorance by the inadequacy -of educational facilities.[12] Its power to accumulate wealth is -increasing, but this power is confined to relatively fewer hands, and -this is one of the most alarming features of the situation. For the -increase of ignorance, vice, and crime is sure to keep pace with the -abnormal growth of estates, stimulated to the highest degree by -dishonest business practices and gigantic schemes of speculation. - - [12] In support of the truth of these propositions it is sufficient - merely to allude to the late disclosures by the _Pall Mall Gazette_ of - the prevalence of revolting crimes in London, England. It is also - pertinent to remark the attitude of hostility maintained by the higher - classes (so called) of the English people towards the editor of the - journal in which the disclosures were made, as significant of an - alarming degeneration of the moral sense of the British public. - -It does not follow because prevailing methods of education promote the -spirit of selfishness, and hence contain the seeds of social and moral -decay, that they are wholly vicious; but it does follow, if they are not -positively wrong, that they are negatively wrong. Let us assume that -they are only negatively wrong, that they lack an essential element in -all mental and moral training--the manual element; and let us try to -discover what would be the effect of the incorporation of this element -into the curriculum of the schools. - -A system of education consisting exclusively of mental exercises -promotes selfishness because such training is subjective. Its effects -flow inward; they relate to self. All mental acquirements become a part -of self, and so remain forever, unless they are transmuted into things -through the agency of the hand. - -It is through the hand alone that the mind finally impresses itself upon -matter. In other words, thought and speech must be incarnate in things -or they are dead. The orator appeals to the people to strike for their -rights; the people rend the air with shouts and subside into silence. -The orator cries, “To Arms!” Again the people shout, and again subside -into silence. The orator’s thoughts are of carnage, his words of flames, -but they are as dead as if never uttered because no hand is raised to -embody them in deeds. - -Manual training, on the other hand, promotes altruism because it is -objective. Its effects flow outward; they relate not to self but to the -human race. The skilled hand confers benefits upon man, and each benefit -so conferred exerts the natural reflex moral influence of a good act -upon the mind of the benefactor.[E6] - -Morality is not a mere sentiment, a barren ideality. It is true there is -a negative morality which consists in refraining from the commission of -wrongful acts. But the morality of the great ethical teachers is -positive; it consists in doing. Christ said, “Inasmuch as ye have done -_it_ unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done _it_ unto -me.” Words without acts are as dead as faith without works. Paul said, -“Though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not -charity, I am nothing.” - -Morality is a vital principle whose exemplification consists in doing -justice; and justice is that virtue “which consists in giving to every -one what is his due; practical conformity to the laws and to principles -of rectitude in the dealings of men with each other; honesty, integrity -in commerce or mutual intercourse.” It follows that morality can no more -be acquired by memorizing a series of maxims than the art of using tools -can be acquired by studying the laws of mechanics and of mechanism. - - [E4] “No city was ever so deeply disgraced by its municipal government - as the city of New York. Fourteen years ago the exposure of the Tweed - Ring revealed a corruption in that government which had mastered - Legislatures and courts, and was plotting to control the national - administration; and as we write, all of the living ex-members of the - late Board of Aldermen, except two, are held for trial for bribery and - corruption, or are in hiding. - - “Such a shame is unprecedented. It is in itself a sharp satire upon - popular elections, as well as upon the character and public spirit of - New York; and the worst of it is that, bad as it is, no citizen - probably feels himself to be humiliated, or is conscious of any - personal responsibility. To the most stupid man, however, such facts - forecast a constant deterioration of the situation.”--“Harper’s - Weekly,” April 24, 1886. - - [E5] The morality of the present age, like that of the Romans, is a - mere theory, entirely destitute of vital force. Selfishness is still, - as it always has been, the controlling element in human conduct, and - selfishness and morality are utterly incompatible. Moral precepts are - inculcated in a perfunctory way, as Greek is taught because it is the - fashion, but with no more idea that they will be adopted as the rule - of life, than that the language of Homer will again be used as the - instrument of speech. The contempt in which morality is commonly held - is well shown by the remark of a popular lecturer, who said of Peter - the Great, that, “viewed morally he was a monster, and by the gauge of - decency, a brute, but a giant from the lofty heights of statesmanship - and civilization.” How vain is the hope of reform while leaders of men - deem it possible for statesmanship to be rendered lofty by a moral - monster, or that the cause of civilization may be advanced by a brute! - - [E6] “The artisan stands between every man, woman, and child and the - crude materials embodied in the three kingdoms of Nature, and by the - magic of his skill they are transformed into means serviceable for - use. The wood in the forest, the marble in the quarry, the clay in the - bank, the metal in the mine pass through his hands, take on the form - of his thought, become arranged by his intelligence, and the product - is the modern dwelling. Is there any fancy in fairy tale more - wonderful than this? By the skill of the tanner and the shoemaker the - raw skin is transformed into the useful shoe. Do you ever think of - your indebtedness to these humble toilers for your protection and - comfort? Do they ever think of the service they are rendering you?--a - service which cannot be compensated by dollars and cents. The jewels - which sparkle in royal crowns and add lustre to queenly beauty, the - silks and precious stuffs which clothe and give new charms to the - loveliness of women, owe their beauty, their lustre, their value to - the artisan. He stands between the worm, the mine, and the wearer; and - by the transforming power of his skill and patient labor they become - robes of beauty and gems of light. But of far greater importance is - the service he is rendering to our common humanity. He takes the - material which our Heavenly Father has provided in such abundance, - puts his thought, his intelligence, and he has every conceivable - motive for putting his love and good-will toward men, into them and - passing them on as tokens of his love and fidelity to human good. - Everything he touches becomes a message not only of his knowledge and - his skill but a fit embodiment of his regard for his - fellow-men.”--“Mechanical Employments as Means of Human Culture.” Rev. - Chauncey Giles. Eleventh Series Tracts, p. 15. Philadelphia: New - Church Tract and Publication Society. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE MIND AND THE HAND. - - The Mind and the Hand are Allies; the Mind speculates, the Hand tests - its Speculations in Things. -- The Hand explodes the Errors of the - Mind -- it searches after Truth and finds it in Things. -- Mental - Errors are subtile; they elude us, but the False in Things stands - self-exposed. -- The Hand is the Mind’s Moral Rudder. -- The Organ of - Touch the most Wonderful of the Senses; all the Others are Passive; it - alone is Active. -- Sir Charles Bell’s Discovery of a “Muscular - Sense.” -- Dr. Henry Maudsley on the Muscular Sense. -- The Hand - influences the Brain. -- Connected Thought impossible without - Language, and Language dependent upon Objects; and all Artificial - Objects are the Work of the Hand. -- Progress is therefore the Imprint - of the Hand upon Matter in Art. -- The Hand is nearer the Brain than - are the Eye and the Ear. -- The Marvellous Works of the Hand. - - -A purely mental acquirement is a theorem--something to be proved. As to -whether the theorem is susceptible of proof is always a question until -the doubt is solved by the act of doing. Hence Comenius’s definition of -education--“Let those things that have to be done be learned by doing -them”--is profoundly philosophical, since nothing can be fully learned -without the final act of doing, owing to the fact of the incompleteness -of all theoretical knowledge. - -The mind and the hand are natural allies. The mind speculates; the hand -tests the speculations of the mind by the law of practical application. -The hand explodes the errors of the mind, for it inquires, so to speak, -by the act of doing, whether or not a given theorem is demonstrable in -the form of a problem. The hand is, therefore, not only constantly -searching after the truth, but is constantly finding it.[13] It is -possible for the mind to indulge in false logic, to make the worse -appear the better reason, without instant exposure. But for the hand to -work falsely is to produce a misshapen thing--tool or machine--which in -its construction gives the lie to its maker. Thus the hand that is false -to truth, in the very act publishes the verdict of its own guilt, -exposes itself to contempt and derision, convicts itself of -unskilfulness or of dishonesty. - - [13] “In other cases, even by the strictest attention, it is not - possible to give complete or strict truth in words. We could not, by - any number of words, describe the color of a ribbon so as to enable a - mercer to match it without seeing it. But an ‘accurate’ colorist can - convey the required intelligence at once, with a tint on paper.”--“The - Laws of Feesole,” Vol. I., p. 7. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John - Wiley & Sons, 1879. - -There is no escaping the logical conclusion of an investigation into the -relations existing between the mind and the hand. The hand is scarcely -less the guide than the agent of the mind. It steadies the mind. It is -the mind’s moral rudder, its balance-wheel. It is the mind’s monitor. It -is constantly appealing to the mind, by its acts, to “hew to the line, -let the chips fly where they may.” - -Dr. George Wilson says, “In many respects the organ of touch, as -embodied in the hand, is the most wonderful of the senses. The organs of -the other senses are passive; the organ of touch alone is active.... The -hand selects what it shall touch, and touches what it pleases. It puts -away from it the things which it hates, and beckons towards it the -things which it desires.... Moreover, the hand cares not only for its -own wants, but when the other organs of the senses are rendered useless -takes their duties upon it.... The blind man reads with his hand, the -dumb man speaks with it; it plucks the flower for the nostril, and -supplies the tongue with objects of taste. Not less amply does it give -expression to the wit, the genius, the will, the power of man. Put a -sword into it and it will fight, a plough and it will till, a harp and -it will play, a pencil and it will paint, a pen and it will speak. What, -moreover, is a ship, a railway, a light-house, or a palace--what indeed -is a whole city, a whole continent of cities, all the cities of the -globe, nay the very globe itself, so far as man has changed it, but the -work of that giant hand with which the human race, acting as one mighty -man, has executed his will.”[14] - - [14] “The Five Gateways of Knowledge,” p. 121. By George Wilson, M.D., - F.R.S.E. London: Macmillan & Co., 1881. - -There is a philosophical explanation of the versatility of the hand so -graphically portrayed in the foregoing passage, and it is found in Sir -Charles Bell’s great discovery of a “muscular sense.” The principle of -this discovery is that “there are distinct nerves of sensation and of -motion or volition--one set bearing messages from the body to the brain, -and the other from the brain to the body.” - -In his work on the hand, after reviewing the line of argument which led -to his discovery, Sir Charles says, “By such arguments I have been in -the habit of showing that we possess a muscular sense, and that without -it we could have no guidance of the frame. We could not command our -muscles in standing, far less in walking, leaping, or running, had we -not a perception of the condition of the muscles previous to the -exercise of the will. And as for the hand, it is not more the freedom of -its action which constitutes its perfection, than the knowledge which we -have of these motions, and our consequent ability to direct it with the -utmost precision.”[15] - - [15] “The Hand: its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing - Design,” p. 151. By Sir Charles Bell, K.G.H., F.R.S., L. and E. Harper - & Brothers, 1864. - -On the influence of the muscular sense, Dr. Henry Maudsley has these -pertinent observations: - -“Those who would degrade the body, in order, as they imagine, to exalt -the mind, should consider more deeply than they do the importance of our -muscular expressions of feeling. The manifold shades and kinds of -expression which the lips present--their gibes, gambols, and flashes of -merriment; the quick language of a quivering nostril; the varied waves -and ripples of beautiful emotion which play on the human countenance, -with the spasms of passion that disfigure it--all which we take such -pains to embody in art--are simply effects of muscular action.... Fix -the countenance in the pattern of a particular emotion--in a look of -anger, of wonder, or of scorn--and the emotion whose appearance is thus -imitated will not fail to be aroused. And if we try, while the features -are fixed in the expression of one passion, to call up in the mind a -quite different one, we shall find it impossible to do so.... We -perceive, then, that the muscles are not alone the machinery by which -the mind acts upon the world, but that their actions are essential -elements in our mental operations. The superiority of the human over the -animal mind seems to be essentially connected with the greater variety -of muscular action of which man is capable; were he deprived of the -infinitely varied movements of hands, tongue, larynx, lips, and face, in -which he is so far ahead of the animals, it is probable that he would be -no better than an idiot, notwithstanding he might have a normal -development of brain.”[16] - - [16] “Body and Mind,” p. 32. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. - Appleton & Co., 1883. - -It is through the muscular sense that the hand influences the brain. -According to Sir Charles the hand acts first. It telegraphs, for -example, that it is ready to grasp the chisel or the sledge-hammer, or -seize the pen, whereupon the brain telegraphs back precise directions as -to the work to be done. These messages to and fro are lightning-like -flashes of intelligence, which blend or fuse all the powers of the man, -both mental and physical, and inform and inspire the mass with vital -force.[17] - - [17] The goldsmith’s art was one of the finest among the ancients, and - so continued far into the Middle Ages. The cutting of cameos, for - example, required the highest skill and produced the most exquisite - results. Mr. Ruskin calls attention to the fact that “all the great - early Italian masters of painting and sculpture, without exception, - began by being goldsmiths’ apprentices;” and that “they felt - themselves so indebted to, and formed by, the master craftsman who had - mainly _disciplined their fingers_, whether in work on gold or marble, - that they practically considered him their father, and took _his_ name - rather than their own.”--“Fors Clavigera,” Part III., p. 291. By John - Ruskin. LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1881. - -Through constant use the muscular sense is sharpened to a marvellous -degree of fineness, and the hand, permeated by it, forms habits which -react powerfully upon the mind. If, now, during the period of childhood -and youth, the hand is exercised in the useful and beautiful arts, its -muscular sense will be developed normally, or in the direction of -rectitude, and the reflex effect of this growth upon the mind will be -beneficent. - -It is thus that the trained hand comes at last to foresee, as it were, -that a false proposition is surely destined to be exploded. The habit of -rectitude gives it prescience. It invariably discovers, sooner or later, -that a false proposition, when embodied in wood or iron, becomes a -conspicuous abortion, involving in disgrace both the designer and the -maker. A false proposition in the abstract may be rendered very -alluring; a false proposition in the concrete is always hideous. One of -the chief effects of manual training is, then, the discovery and -development of truth; and truth, in its broadest signification, is -merely another name for justice; and justice is the synonym of morality. - -It has been shown that thought and speech are dead unless embodied in -things. It may also be asserted with confidence that man would lose the -power of speech almost wholly if his words should cease to be realized -in things. Mr. Darwin declares that “a complex train of thought can no -more be carried on without the aid of words, whether spoken or silent, -than a long calculation without the use of figures or algebra.”[18] And -Dr. Maudsley says, “But neither these instances nor the case of Laura -Bridgman can be used to prove that it is possible to think without any -means of physical expression. On the contrary the evidence is all the -other way. The deaf and dumb man invents his own signs, which he draws -from the nature of objects, seizing the most striking outline, or the -principal movement of an action, and using them afterwards as tokens to -represent the objects. The deaf and dumb gesticulate also as they think; -and Laura Bridgman’s fingers worked, making the initial movements for -letters of the finger alphabet, not only during her waking thoughts, but -in her dreams. If we substitute for ‘names’ the motor intuitions, or -take care to comprise in language all the modes of expressing thoughts, -whether verbal, vocal writing, or gesture language, then it is -unquestionable that thought is impossible without language.”[19] - - [18] “The Descent of Man,” p. 88. By Charles Darwin, M.A. New York: D. - Appleton & Co., 1881. - - [19] “Physiology of the Mind,” p. 480. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New - York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. - -As connected thoughts are impossible without words, or signs of words, -so words are dependent upon objects for their existence. Says Dr. -Maudsley, “Words cannot attain to definiteness save as living outgrowths -of realities.”[20] And Heyse says, “Thought is not even present to the -thinker till he has set it forth out of himself.” - - [20] “I therefore declare my conviction,” says Max Müller, “whether - right or wrong, as explicitly as possible, that thought in one sense - of the word, _i. e._, in reasoning, is impossible without - language.”--“Physiology of the Mind,” p. 480. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. - New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. - -It follows that language has its origin not less in external objects -than in the mind. Objects make impressions upon the mind through the -senses, and words serve as the means of preserving a record of such -impressions and of communicating them to other minds. If, now, the mind -should cease to receive impressions, language would no longer be -required, since there would be nothing to express; and the occasion for -the use of language ceasing to exist, the power of speech would -ultimately be lost. The power of speech, then, depends upon a -continuous succession of impressions made upon the mind by its contact, -through the senses, with matter in its various forms, whether in nature -or in art. - -It may also be claimed that the power of speech depends almost entirely -upon the endless succession of fresh objects presented to the mind by -the hand. These form the subject as well as the occasion of speech. If -the hand should cease to make new things, new words would cease to be -required. The principal changes in language arise out of new discoveries -in science and new inventions in art, each fresh discovery of science -giving rise to many new things in art. Art and science react upon each -other.[21] The growth of a State, its advance in the scale of -civilization, depends upon progress in the practical arts. Hence the -fact that, when a State ceases to advance, its language ceases to grow, -becomes stationary, stagnates. In such a State there would be no -occasion for new words. If a constantly diminishing number of objects -were presented to the mind, speech would become less and less necessary. -If no new objects were presented, no fresh impressions upon the mind -would be made, and speech would degenerate into a mere iteration. If the -hands should cease to labor in the arts, should cease to make things, -should cease to plant and gather, the scope of speech would be still -further restricted, would be confined to an expression of the wants of -savages subsisting on the native fruits of field and forest. - - [21] “And the great advances in science have uniformly corresponded - with the invention of some instrument by which the power of the senses - has been increased, or the range of action extended.”--“Physiology of - the Mind,” p. 8. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co., - 1883. - -It comes to this, that progress can find expression only in the -concrete. Guttenberg had an idea that he could employ movable types in -the production of books. Suppose he had been content with the mere -promulgation of his theory in words, and that those who came after him -had been similarly content? There would have been no printing-presses -down to the present time. Suppose that Watt and Stephenson and Fulton -had been content with the declaration, in words, of the discoveries they -made in regard to the application of the power of steam to useful -purposes, and that those who came after them had been similarly content? -There would have been neither railways, nor steamships, nor steam-driven -machinery of any kind down to the present time. - -As words are essential to the processes of thought, so objects are -essential to words or living speech. And as all objects made by man owe -their existence to the hand, it follows that the hand exerts an -incalculable influence upon the mind, and so constitutes the most potent -agency in the work of civilization. It was not without good reason that -Anaxagoras characterized man as the wisest of animals because of his -having hands. And what is it to be wise? To be wise is “to have the -power of discerning and judging correctly, or of discriminating between -what is true and what is false; between what is fit and proper and what -is improper.” The hand is used as the synonym of wisdom because it is -only in the concrete that the false is sure of detection, and it is -through the hand alone that ideas are realized in things.[22] Again we -have the hand as the discoverer of truth. - - [22] “Let him [the youth] once learn to take a straight shaving off a - plank, or draw a fine curve without faltering, or lay a brick level in - its mortar, and he has learned a multitude of other matters which no - lips of man could ever teach him.”--“Time and Tide,” p. 145. By John - Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1883. - -The assertion of the majesty of the hand by the Ionic philosopher of the -fifth century B.C. contained the germ of the manual training idea of -this latter part of the nineteenth century. Anaxagoras was -unconsciously, no doubt, struggling toward the light, toward the -inductive method of investigation, toward the sole avenue through which -it is possible to study the mind, namely, through the body. The -ignorance of the ancients on the subject of physiology was so dense as -to leave them no resource save speculative philosophy. The progress made -in the study of anatomy, and organic and inorganic chemistry at -Alexandria, was, however, considerable. The foundations of a systematic -physiology were being securely laid by Hippocrates, Herophilus, and -their compeers of the medical profession, and the way was thus being -opened to an intelligent study of the mind. It is highly probable that -this growing disposition to investigate things, together with the -increasing importance to civilization of the useful arts, would soon -have reacted destructively upon the speculative philosophy of the time -had not a series of national disasters, involving the fall of Greece and -Rome, overwhelmed both arts and philosophy in one common ruin. - -From the fall of Rome to the time of Bacon speculative philosophy -dominated the world. Progress dates from the beginning of the -seventeenth century, but it was very slow until within a hundred years. -Philosophy has now, however, found a scientific basis. Instead of -speculating about the “theory of vitality,” it concerns itself with “the -natural phenomena of living bodies, so far as they are appreciable by -the human senses and intelligence.” - -But the schools have not moved forward with events. Their methods are -unscientific; they are still dominated by the mediæval ideas of -speculative philosophy. One of the ablest educators in this country has -well observed that “there has been very little change in the ideas which -have controlled our methods of education, and these ideas were formed -something like four hundred years ago. Like nearly all the great -agencies of modern civilization, the established system of education -dates from the Renaissance, and the direction given to the schools at -that time has been followed with but slight modification ever -since.”[23] - - [23] Mr. James MacAlister, Superintendent of Schools of the City of - Philadelphia, before the American Institute of Instruction at - Saratoga, July 13, 1882. - -The justice of this arraignment of the schools for extreme conservatism -is shown by the remark of a prominent educator who opposes the -incorporation of manual training in the curriculum of the public -schools. He says, “Some even go so far as to regard the fingers as a new -avenue to the brain, and think that great pedagogic advantages will be -given by the new method, so that boys may make equal attainments in -arithmetic, reading, and grammar in less time.... They [teachers] will -still find the eye and ear nearer to the brain than the hand.” No -assumption could be more false than this, that the eye and the ear are -more important organs than the hand because they are located, -physically, nearer the brain. The attribute of mobility with which the -hand is endowed confers upon it not only the potency of the closest -possible proximity, but each of the countless positions it may assume, -together with its flexibility and adaptability, multiplies its powers in -the order of a geometrical ratio. - -This disposition to undervalue the hand is an inheritance from the -speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages, which was based on contempt -of the body and all its members. The effect of this false doctrine has -been vicious in the extreme. Contempt for the body has generated a -feeling of contempt for manual labor, and repugnance to manual labor has -multiplied dishonest practices in the course of the struggle to acquire -wealth by any other means than manual labor, and so corrupted society. - -That man should feel contempt for the most efficient member of his own -body is, indeed, incomprehensible, since contempt for the hand leads -logically to contempt for its works, and its works comprise all the -visible results of civilization. To enumerate the works of the hand -would be to describe the world as it at present exists in -contradistinction to the world in a state of nature. Everywhere we -behold with admiration and wonder the marvellous triumphs of the hand, -from the iron bridge that spans the torrent of Niagara to the steel -micrometer that measures the millionth part of an inch. It matters not -whether the hand is nearer or farther from the brain than the eye and -the ear, it is able to afford powerful aid to them. - -Man would explore the planetary system; he lifts his longing eyes to the -starry vault, but in vain; it is a sealed book! The hand fashions the -telescope, adjusts it, places it at a convenient angle, and the milky -way is resolved into millions of stars, “scattered like glittering dust -on the black ground of the general heavens,” the lunar mountains are -measured, and the spots on the sun revealed. Man would study the anatomy -and habits of the myriads of insects in which the teeming earth abounds. -Impossible! The mechanism of the eye is not adapted to such a delicate -operation. But the hand presents the microscope, and a world of hitherto -unknown minute existences is revealed with a distinctness which permits -the most exhaustive investigation. Thus, through the aid of the hand, -the eye now contemplates with philosophic interest the ever-changing -aspect of the spots on the sun at a distance of ninety million miles, -and now imprisons the red ant, measuring only ⁶⁄₁₀₀ of an inch in -length, and studies its physiology, counting its pulsations, classifying -its nerves and muscles, and weighing its brain. Man would speak with his -friend or business correspondent miles away. Neither the voice nor the -ear is adapted to the task. But the hand fashions and presents the -telephone, and the conversation proceeds even in a whisper. It will be -said that the mind devises the telescope, the microscope, and the -telephone. True, but their construction would be impossible without the -hand. And is it at all probable that the mind would have devised these -admirable instruments if man had been made without hands?[24] - - [24] “The hand is the most marvellous instrument in the world; it is - the necessary complement of the mind in dealing with matter in all its - varied forms. It is the hand that ‘rounded Peter’s dome;’ it is the - hand that carved those statues in marble and bronze, that painted - those pictures in palace and church, which we travel into distant - lands to admire; it is the hand that builds the ships which sail the - sea, laden with the commerce of the world; it is the hand that - constructs the machinery which moves the busy industries of this age - of steam; it is the hand that enables the mind to realize in a - thousand ways its highest imaginings, its profoundest reasonings, and - its most practical inventions.”--Mr. James MacAlister, Superintendent - of Schools of the City of Philadelphia, before the American Institute - of Instruction at Saratoga, July 13, 1882. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. - - The Legend of Adam and the Stick with which he subdued the Animals. -- - The Stick is the Symbol of Power, and only the Hand can wield it. -- - The Hand imprisons Steam and Electricity, and keeps them at hard - Labor. -- The Destitution of England Two Hundred Years ago: a Pen - Picture. -- The Transformation wrought by the Hand: a Pen Picture. -- - It is due, not to Men who make Laws, but to Men who make Things. -- - The Scientist and the Inventor are the World’s Benefactors. -- A - Parallel between the Right Honorable William E. Gladstone and Sir - Henry Bessemer. -- Mr. Gladstone a Man of Ideas, Mr. Bessemer a Man of - Deeds. -- The Value of the latter’s Inventions. -- Mr. Gladstone - represents the Old Education, Mr. Bessemer the New. - - -It has been remarked that man is the wisest of animals because he has -hands. It is equally true that he is the most powerful of animals -because he has hands. It is with the hand that man has subdued all the -animals. There is a legend to the effect that on the day when Adam -revolted against his Maker, the animals, in their turn, revolted against -him, and ceased to obey him. “Adam called on the Lord for help, and the -Lord commanded him to take a branch from the nearest tree and make of it -a weapon, and strike with it the first animal that should refuse to obey -him. Adam took the branch, the leaves fell from it of their own accord, -and he found himself furnished with a stick proportioned to his height. -When the animals saw this weapon in the hands of the man they were -seized with an instinctive fear mingled with wonder, and they did not -dare to attack him. A lion alone, bolder than the rest, leaped upon him -to devour him, but Adam, who stood upon his guard, swift as lightning -whirled his stick and felled him to the earth with a single blow! At -this sight the terror of the other animals was so great that they -approached him trembling, and in token of their submission licked the -stick that he held in his hand.”[25] - - [25] “The Story of the Stick,” p. 2. Translated and Adapted from the - French of Antony Réal [Fernand Michel]. New York: J. W. Bouton, 1875. - -Throughout all the early ages the stick was both the symbol and the -instrument of power; and it is only the hand that can grasp and wield -the stick. The early kings reigned by virtue of the strong arm and the -supple hand. They claimed to be descended from Hercules, and their -emblem of power was a knotty stick. Nor does empire depend less upon the -hand now than it did in the morning of time. - -The hand no longer grasps the knotty stick; it no longer menaces -mankind. But it wields the mechanical powers. It imprisons steam and -electricity, and keeps them at hard labor. It makes ploughs, planters, -harvesters, sewing-machines, locomotives, and steamships. It digs -canals, opens mines, builds bridges, makes roads, erects mills and -factories, constructs harbors and docks, reclaims waste lands, and -covers the globe with tracks of steel over which the commerce of the -world is borne. - -Two hundred years ago England was destitute of most of these things. It -had then no good dirt roads even, no good bridges, no canals, no public -works worth mentioning, and scarcely any manufactories of importance. -The post-bags were carried on horseback once a week. The highways were -besieged by robbers. One-fifth of the community were paupers. Mechanics -worked for from sixpence to a shilling a day. The chief food of the poor -was rye, barley, or oats. The people were ignorant and brutal--masters -beat their servants, and husbands beat their wives. Teachers used the -lash as the principal means of imparting knowledge. The mob rejoiced in -fights of all kinds, and shouted with glee when an eye was torn out or a -finger chopped off in these savage encounters. Executions were favorite -public amusements. The prisons were full, and proved to be fruitful -nurseries of crime. - -From little better than a wilderness, and almost a state of savagery, -England has been transformed into a fruitful field, and its people -raised in the scale of civilization. Its public works are the admiration -of the world; its coffers are full of gold; its strong boxes are piled -high with evidences of the indebtedness of other nations; its ships -plough the billows of every sea, and bear the commerce of every land; -and its manufactories, of vast extent, are monuments of inventive -genius, industry, perseverance, and skill, more imposing far than the -pyramids of Egypt or the temples of Greece and Rome. - -To whom do the people of England and of the world owe this national -progress, this progress in the useful arts on a scale so colossal as, by -comparison, to dwarf the achievements of all the earlier epochs of -history? Not to statesmen or legislators. They neither dig canals, open -mines, build railways, lay ocean cables, nor erect factories. The pen in -their hands may be mightier than the sword; but it is no match for the -plough and the reaper, the electric battery and imprisoned steam. -Legislators make laws but mechanics make things. On this subject, after -an exhaustive investigation, Buckle says, “Seeing, therefore, that the -efforts of government in favor of civilization are, when most -successful, altogether negative, and seeing, too, that when these -efforts are more than negative they become injurious, it clearly follows -that all speculations must be erroneous which ascribe the progress of -Europe to the wisdom of its rulers. This is an inference which rests not -only on the arguments already adduced, but on facts which might be -multiplied from every page of history.... We have seen that their laws -in favor of industry have injured industry, that their laws in favor of -religion have increased hypocrisy, and that their laws to secure truth -have encouraged perjury.... But it is a mere matter of history that our -legislators, even to the last moment, were so terrified by the idea of -innovation that they refused every reform until the voice of the people -rose high enough to awe them into submission, and forced them to grant -what, without much pressure, they would by no means have conceded.”[26] - - [26] “History of Civilization in England,” Vol. I., pp. 204, 205, 361. - By Henry Thomas Buckle. New York: D. Appleton & Co. - -It is, then, clearly not to the men who make laws that we are indebted -for progress in civilization, but to the men who make things. The -scientist who discovers a new principle in physics is a public -benefactor. The inventor who devises a new machine helps forward the -cause of progress. Whitney’s cotton-gin trebled the value of the -cotton-fields of the South. The mechanic who constructs a machine that -will make ten or a hundred things in the time before required to make -one thing is in the front rank of the civilizers of the human race.[27] - - [27] “Your wealth, your amusement, your pride, would all be alike - impossible, but for those whom you scorn or forget.... The sailor - wrestling with the sea’s rage; the quiet student poring over his book - or his vial; the common worker, without praise, and nearly without - bread, fulfilling his task as your horses drag your carts, hopeless, - and spurned of all: these are the men by whom England lives.”--“Sesame - and Lilies,” p. 68. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, - 1884. - -Inventors, not statesmen, rule the world through their machines, which -augment the powers of man and sharpen his senses. Steam has made all -civilized countries prosperous and great by vastly increasing man’s -powers--by making him hundred-handed.[28] - - [28] “The causes which most disturbed or accelerated the normal - progress of society in antiquity were the appearance of great men; in - modern times they have been the appearance of great - inventions.”--“History of European Morals,” Vol. I., p. 126. By - William Edward Hartpole Lecky, M.A. New York: D. Appleton & Co. - -In 1809 there was born to a distinguished baronet of Liverpool, England, -a son. The boy was educated at Eton and Christ Church College, Oxford, -graduating in 1831. In 1832 the young man entered parliament. In 1834 he -took office under Sir Robert Peel. The name of the young man who -commenced life under such auspicious circumstances was William Ewart -Gladstone. For nearly half a century Mr. Gladstone was a prominent -figure in English politics and administration. During that long period -of time he was in the eye of the world, so to speak. He moulded the laws -of an empire, repealed old statutes and made new statutes, largely -influenced both the domestic and the foreign policy of a great nation, -and exerted a considerable degree of control over the international -affairs of the continent of Europe. - -In 1813, four years after the birth of Mr. Gladstone, at Charlton, in -Hertfordshire, England, Henry Bessemer was born. His father, Anthony -Bessemer, had fled to England in 1792, a refugee from France. Henry -Bessemer’s early training consisted of the rudiments of an ordinary -education received in the parish school of the neighboring town of -Hitchin. His father was a skilled mechanic and inventor, and Henry -inherited the inventive faculty. He studied and practised the art of -wood-turnery, producing, before arriving at the age of manhood, the most -difficult patterns known to the art. - -At the age of eighteen, in the year 1831--the year in which Mr. -Gladstone completed his education--young Bessemer appeared in London, an -obscure, unknown stranger. He, however, secured employment as a modeller -and designer. His attention was soon directed to the imperfections of -government stamps, in which there had been no improvement since the time -of Queen Anne. He was informed by Sir Charles Persley, of the -Stamp-office, that the frauds in stamps probably aggregated one hundred -thousand pounds per annum. In the evenings of a few months he invented -and made an improved stamp which obviated the objections to the one then -in use. The invention was at once adopted by the Stamp-office, and in -lieu of a stipulated sum in payment therefor, young Bessemer was asked -“whether he would be satisfied with the position of superintendent of -stamps, with five hundred or six hundred pounds per annum?” The -suggested appointment he agreed to accept. Meantime, before the -contemplated change occurred in the Stamp-office, the young inventor -devised a further improvement in the new stamp, which not only made it -much more perfect, but rendered it unnecessary for the government to -employ a superintendent of stamps. In perfect good faith young Bessemer -exhibited to the chief of the Stamp-office his new stamp, which was so -palpably an improvement on the other that it was at once preferred and -promptly adopted. What is more, the government not only declined to -appoint the inventor to a place, but declined to give him a penny for -his invention. This was in 1834, the year in which Mr. Gladstone began -his long career as a representative of the British Crown. As young Mr. -Gladstone entered the Treasury, its “junior lord,” young Mr. Bessemer -retired from it an unsuccessful suitor for the just reward of genius and -toil. He says, “Thus sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of -injustice overpowering all other feelings, I went my way from the -Stamp-office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably my -right.”[29] - - [29] “The Creators of the Age of Steel,” p. 20. By W. T. Jeans. New - York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1884. - -From this point, both of time and event, there is a very wide divergence -in the lives of these great men. The one is a man of ideas, the other a -man of deeds. Mr. Gladstone thinks, talks, makes treaties and laws. He -is constantly in the public eye, and his name ever on the public tongue. -He is regarded as a great financier; he is certainly a great orator. He -sways the multitude with his eloquence. He takes distinguished part in -the wordy contests which occur every now and then in Parliament. These -debates are much talked of. At the conclusion of one of them there is a -vote of want of confidence, and Mr. Gladstone goes out of office and Mr. -Disraeli comes in. At the conclusion of another of them there is a vote -of want of confidence, and Mr. Disraeli goes out of office and Mr. -Gladstone comes in. But whether Mr. Gladstone goes out and Mr. Disraeli -comes in, or Mr. Disraeli goes out and Mr. Gladstone comes in, makes -very little difference with the trade and commerce of the kingdom. The -railway traffic continues in the one event or the other; the steamers -continue to cross and recross the ocean; the “post” comes and goes; the -electric current continues to act as messenger-boy; the telephone brings -us face to face with our business correspondent or friend. There is, -indeed, no reason why a vote of want of confidence in Mr. Gladstone or -Mr. Disraeli should imply a want of confidence in steam or electricity, -because neither Mr. Gladstone nor Mr. Disraeli ever had anything to do -with the application of these great forces to the uses of man. They were -entirely absorbed, the one in promoting the advancement of Liberalism, -and the other in promoting the advancement of Toryism. And it is a -curious fact, as showing the mutability of political opinion, that Mr. -Disraeli entered public life as a Liberal, and subsequently became a -great Tory leader; and Mr. Gladstone entered public life as a Tory, and -subsequently became a great Liberal leader. - -For twenty-two years after he retired empty-handed from the government -Stamp-office Mr. Bessemer continued his career as an inventor and -manufacturer, without, however, attracting any great share of public -attention. But in 1856 he announced that he had made a discovery of vast -importance in the process of steel making.[30] For a hundred years -previously the Huntsman process had held the field. It yielded -excellent steel but was very expensive. Mr. Bessemer announced that he -could produce splendid cast-steel at about the cost of making iron! The -announcement was received with much incredulity; but the “Bessemer -converter” was exhibited, the new process shown, and the result seemed -to confirm the verity of the claim of the inventor. Practical -difficulties, however, postponed its complete success till 1860, when -the new process supplanted all others. - - [30] “The first patent of Sir H. Bessemer in which air is mentioned as - the oxidizing agent is dated October 17, 1855, and other three months - were spent in experimenting before the idea of introducing the air - from the bottom of a large converter struck him. The patent embodying - the latter idea is dated February 11, 1856.”--“The Creators of the Age - of Steel,” note to p. 38. By W. T. Jeans. New York: Charles Scribner’s - Sons, 1884. - -Mr. Bessemer now stood at the head of the inventors of the world, and -Mr. Gladstone, as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Palmerston, had -come to be regarded as one of the most skilful governmental financiers -in Europe, which meant that he was an adept in devising schemes of -taxation calculated to yield the most revenue with the least popular -discontent. When it is considered that it is necessary for the English -Minister of Finance to draw from the British people more than a million -dollars every morning of the year, including Sundays, before either the -English lord or the English peasant can indulge in a free breakfast, the -extreme delicacy of the duties devolving upon him will be understood and -appreciated. If he proposes the repeal of the soap tax in order to -extinguish the slave-trade, he must impose an additional penny in the -pound on malt liquors in order to put an end to the vice of drunkenness. -He is constantly between Scylla and Charybdis--in keeping off the one -he is in danger of being swallowed up in the other. And if he can, at -the end of the fiscal year, find a million dollars to apply to the -liquidation of the public debt, he is extremely fortunate. From 1836, -about the time Mr. Gladstone began his public career, down to 1877, the -several chancellors of the English Exchequer, including Mr. Gladstone, -contrived to save, in the aggregate, about twelve million pounds -sterling for this purpose. - -Let us recur a moment to the subject of the invention of Mr. Bessemer. -It went into operation in 1860. The temptation to reproduce Mr. -Bessemer’s own description of his process, which revolutionized the -manufacture of steel, is irresistible. It is as follows: - -“The converting vessel is mounted on an axis at or near its centre of -gravity. It is constructed of boilerplates, and is lined either with -fire-brick, road-drift, or gannister, which resists the heat better than -any other material yet tried, and has also the advantage of cheapness. -The vessel, having been heated, is brought into the requisite position -to receive its charge of melted metal, without either of the tuyeres (or -air-holes) being below the surface. No action can therefore take place -until the vessel is turned up (so that the blast can enter through the -tuyeres). The process is thus in an instant brought into full activity, -and small though powerful jets of air spring upward through the fluid -mass. The air, expanding in volume, divides itself into globules, or -bursts violently upward, carrying with it some hundredweight of fluid -metal, which again falls into the boiling mass below. Every part of the -apparatus trembles under the violent agitation thus produced; a roaring -flame rushes from the mouth of the vessel, and as the process advances -it changes its violet color to orange, and finally to a voluminous pure -white flame. The sparks, which at first were large, like those of -ordinary foundery iron, change into small hissing points, and these -gradually give way to soft floating specks of bluish light as the state -of malleable iron is approached. There is no eruption of cinder as in -the early experiments, although it is formed during the process; the -improved shape of the converter causes it to be retained, and it not -only acts beneficially on the metal, but it helps to confine the heat, -which during the process has rapidly risen from the comparatively low -temperature of melted pig-iron to one vastly greater than the highest -known welding heats, by which malleable iron only becomes sufficiently -soft to be shaped by the blows of the hammer; but here it becomes -perfectly fluid, and even rises so much above the melting point as to -admit of its being poured from the converter into a founder’s ladle, and -from thence to be transferred to several successive moulds.”[31] - - [31] “The Creators of the Age of Steel,” p. 71. By W. T. Jeans. New - York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1884. - -What is the value of this process? What is the extent of the service -rendered by Mr. Bessemer to man? It is estimated that in the twenty-one -years first elapsing after the successful working of the Bessemer -process, the production of steel by it, notwithstanding its necessarily -slow progress, amounted to twenty-five million tons. At $200 a ton, the -alleged saving in cost as compared with the old process, this represents -an aggregate saving of $5,000,000,000. In 1882 the world’s production -was four million tons, which at the rate named yielded a saving of the -enormous aggregate of $800,000,000 in a single year.[E7] These sums seem -almost fabulous, especially so since they result from simply blowing air -through crude melted iron for a quarter of an hour! But the radical -character of the change wrought in the metal by the air-blowing process -is shown by the fact that a steel rail is worth as much as twenty iron -rails.[32] - - [32] “At the Birmingham meeting of the British Association in 1865, - Sir Henry Bessemer explained that at Chalk Farm steel rails were laid - down on one side of the line and iron rails on the other, so that - every engine and carriage there had to pass over both steel and iron - rails at the same time. When the first face was worn off an iron rail - it was turned the other way upward, and when the second face was worn - out it was replaced by a new iron rail. When Sir Henry exhibited one - of these steel rails at Birmingham only one face of it was nearly worn - out, while on the opposite side of the line eleven iron rails had in - the same time been worn out on both faces. It thus appeared that one - steel rail was capable of doing the work of twenty-three iron - ones.”--“The Creators of the Age of Steel,” p. 93. By W. T. Jeans. New - York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1884. - -All the governments of Europe honored Mr. Bessemer for his great -invention, some by medals and orders of merit, and others by -appropriating without compensation his process of steel-making. Of these -latter Prussia stood in the front rank. England alone stood aloof. “A -prophet is not without honor save in his own country and among his own -kin.” From 1860 to 1872 England continued to load Mr. Gladstone and Mr. -Disraeli with honors, but not until the latter year did the government -recognize Mr. Bessemer, when the Prince of Wales presented him with the -Albert gold medal, and in 1879 he was knighted by the Queen. - -A comparison between the lives and services to man of two of the most -distinguished statesmen of England, with the life and services, to man, -of Sir Henry Bessemer, cannot fail to be of great value to every young -man who possesses the power of just discrimination. But can just -discrimination be expected of any young man entering upon the stage of -active life when such discrimination is not possessed by the public at -large? For example: The question being propounded, What is the value of -the combined services to man of Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, as -compared with those of Sir Henry Bessemer? ninety-nine out of a hundred -men of sound judgment would doubtless say, “The value of the services of -the two statesmen is quite unimportant, while the value of the services -of Mr. Bessemer is enormous, incalculable.” But how many of these -ninety-nine men of sound judgment could resist the fascination of the -applause accorded to the statesmen? How many of them would have the -moral courage to educate their sons for the career of Mr. Bessemer -instead of for the career of Mr. Disraeli or of Mr. Gladstone?* Not many -in the present state of public sentiment. It will be a great day for -man, the day that ushers in the dawn of more sober views of life, the -day that inaugurates the era of the mastership of things in the place of -the mastership of words. - -Mr. Gladstone stands for politics and statesmanship at their best, and -his career is the product of the old system of education at its best. -Mr. Bessemer stands for science and art united, and his career is the -product of the new education. - - [E7] But the pecuniary value of Mr. Bessemer’s discovery is not the - consideration of chief import. Its social influence extends to the - remotest bounds of civilization, and includes the whole human race, - because it abridges the period of labor necessary to the production of - a given quantity of useful things, thereby enhancing the sum of life’s - comforts and pleasures. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE INVENTORS, CIVIL ENGINEERS, AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND, AND ENGLISH -PROGRESS. - - A Trade is better than a Profession. -- The Railway, Telegraph, and - Steamship are more Potent than the Lawyer, Doctor, and Priest. -- - Book-makers writing the Lives of the Inventors of last Century. -- The - Workshop to be the Scene of the Greatest Triumphs of Man. -- The Civil - Engineers of England the Heroes of English Progress. -- The Life of - James Brindley, the Canal-maker; his Struggles and Poverty. -- The - Roll of Honor. -- Mr. Gladstone’s Significant Admission that English - Triumphs in Science and Art were won without Government Aid. -- - Disregarding the Common-sense of the Savage, Legislators have chosen - to learn of Plato, who declared that “The Useful Arts are Degrading.” - -- How Improvements in the Arts have been met by Ignorant Opposition. - -- The Power wielded by the Mechanic. - - -The young man with a mechanical trade is better equipped for the battle -of life than the young man with a learned profession. The prizes may not -be so dazzling, but they are more numerous, and they are within reach. -The skilled mechanic, with industry and prudence, is sure of a cottage, -and the cottage may grow into a mansion, while the man of letters -struggles so often in vain to mount the steps of a palace. The railroad, -the telegraph, and the steamship exert a more potent influence upon the -destinies of mankind than the lawyer, the doctor, and the priest. The -giants, steam and electricity, which bear the great burdens of commerce, -have to be harnessed to enable them to do their work; and to make this -harness, the furnace, the forge, and the shop are brought into -requisition. The railroad alone taxes to the utmost nearly every -department of the useful arts. To the construction of the -passenger-coach, for instance, more than a hundred trades contribute the -varied cunning and skill of their workmanship. - -This is the age of steel, and he who knows how to mould the king of -metals into puissant forms has his hand nearest the rod of empire. Who -would not rather be able to construct a Corliss engine than learn the -trick of drawing a bill in chancery? - -There was a time, not long ago, when inventors and discoverers were -little recognized and poorly compensated for their splendid -achievements. But that time is past. The book-makers of to-day are -groping about the old shops where the inventors of last century worked, -and the cottages where they lived, in order to tell the simple story of -their lives, and write their names in the temple of fame. Huntsman, who -emerged from long seclusion over the furnace and crucible, and presented -to his fellow-workmen a piece of steel which rivalled that of old -Damascus, and drove from the British markets all other steels--how -resplendent his name is now! How every incident in the life of Watt is -sought for--his struggles, his disappointments, and his final success! -And so of Mushet, Neilson, Bramah, Maudslay, Clement, Murray, Nasmyth, -Stephenson, and Fulton. When Watt had devised his engine he found no -workmen expert enough to make it. Then Maudslay, Clement, and Murray -invented automatic iron hands and fingers, and endowed them with almost -human intelligence, and far more than human precision, and Watt’s -difficulty was removed. - -The “greasy mechanics” did more to hasten the world’s progress in a -century--1740 to 1840--than had been accomplished up to that time by -all the statesmen of all the dead ages. But those heroes of the workshop -had none of the opportunities afforded by the manual training school of -the present age. They toiled many hours each day for a shilling or two, -and lived in stuffy hovels, and puzzled over the _a_ _b_ _c_ of -mechanics by the light of a tallow-candle. Some of them gained fortunes, -while others were robbed of the fruits of genius, and slept in unknown -graves; but all their names are treasured and honored now. The world -moves, and in this age it moves always toward a higher appreciation of -the value of the useful arts. This country is destined to become a vast -workshop, and in this workshop the best energies, the strongest vital -forces of the American people are eventually to be exerted. How -necessary, then, to educate the hands as well as the brain of the youth -of the country.[E8] - -Mr. Smiles, in his “Lives of the Engineers,” has shown us the true -springs of English greatness. In telling the story of the struggles and -triumphs of the canal-makers, the bridge-builders, the coal-miners, the -millwrights, the road-makers, the harbor and dock makers, the -ship-builders, the iron and steel makers, and the railway-builders--in -telling this story of persistence, of nerve, and “pluck,” he has -sketched the career of the real heroes of English progress. A brief -sketch of the life of James Brindley will serve to show how these noble -men wrought, how they suffered, and how they conquered. - -James Brindley was born in 1716. His parents were poor. His father was a -ne’er-do-well. His mother taught him to be honest and industrious. James -worked as a common laborer till he was seventeen years of age. In 1733 -he became a millwright’s apprentice--bound for seven years. He was a -dull boy, learning slowly, but before the end of his “bound” term he -became the best workman in the neighborhood. He helped the now -celebrated Wedgwoods out of a difficulty by inventing and constructing -flint-mills for their works. He invented and constructed pumps for -clearing the Clifton coal-mines of water--an entirely new device that -opened coal chambers which had long been completely drowned out. His -compensation for this class of work--the work of genius--was two -shillings a day! - -In 1755 he built a silk-mill, in which he made several important -improvements in machinery, etc. But this man, who possessed inventive -genius of a high order and large executive ability, could neither write -legibly nor spell correctly, and his charge for almost inestimable -services was still, in 1757, only two to four shillings a day. His -struggles to improve the steam-engine form a curious chapter in the -story of his life. It was to him that the Duke of Bridgewater owed his -success in canal-making. - -The duke was born in 1736. He was a weak and sickly child, his mental -capacity being apparently defective to a degree sufficient to debar him -from his inheritance of the family title and estates. An affair of the -heart which resulted unfavorably rendered him morose, and changed his -whole course of life. He abruptly quitted the race-track, where he had -condescended even to play the rôle of “jockey,” and turned his attention -to the improvement of his estates. They contained coal deposits, which -he undertook to develop through cheapening transportation, and Brindley -became his engineer. His first canal, consisting largely of aqueducts, -was called “Brindley’s castle in the air,” and his “river hung in the -air.” It was this “river hung in the air”--the first English -canal--that made the Manchester of to-day possible. Another canal -enterprise of the duke cost more than a million dollars--that connecting -Liverpool with Manchester. This latter canal yielded £80,000 per annum -income, and it was constructed by Brindley at a salary of 3_s._ 6_d._ a -day! - -Brindley was obstinate, and often quarrelled with his employer about the -methods of construction of great works; and what is more, the duke -always yielded. He humbly submitted to every demand made by his engineer -except a demand for compensation. Brindley’s “wage” rate during the many -years occupied in the duke’s great canal enterprises was 3_s._ 6_d._ per -day. This, at all events, is the price named by Smiles in his life of -Brindley. In a note to the work it is, however, stated that his -stipulated pay was a guinea a day. It is agreed on all hands, however, -that whatever the rate agreed upon was, Brindley was not paid, and that -his heirs were begging unsuccessfully for his just dues long after his -death. In a word, Brindley’s honor as an engineer being at stake, and it -being dearer to him than any money consideration, he worked for nothing -rather than allow the enterprise to fail. And the duke was parsimonious -enough to take the engineer’s services for nothing, and his heirs were -mean enough to refuse payment for such services when demanded by his -widow. - -In a literary point of view Brindley was ignorant, but in no other -respect. This was said of him by one of his contemporaries: - -“Mr. Brindley is one of those great geniuses whom Nature sometimes rears -by her own force, and brings to maturity without the necessity of -cultivation. His whole plan is admirable, and so well calculated that he -is never at a loss; for if any difficulty arises he removes it with a -facility which appears so much like inspiration that you would think -Minerva was at his fingers’ ends.”[33] - - [33] “Lives of the Engineers.” By Samuel Smiles. London: John Murray, - 1862. Vol. I., “Life of James Brindley.” - -The life of Brindley is typical of a score of biographies presented in -the “Lives of the Engineers,” among which the following are especially -worthy of mention: William Edwards, John Metcalf, John Perry, Sir Hugh -Myddelton, Cornelius Vermuyden, Andrew Yarranton,[34] Andrew Meikle, -John Rennie, John Smeaton, Thomas Telford, William Murdock, Dr. D. -Papin, Thomas Savery, Dud Dudley, Matthew Boulton, and William -Symington. These, and their natural coadjutors, the discoverers of new -forces in nature and the inventors of new things in art, the -iron-workers and tool-makers--these are _the_ great names in English -history. They are the names without which there would have been no -English history worth writing. Mr. Gladstone once said of them, naming -Brindley, Metcalf, Smeaton, Rennie, and Telford, “These men who have now -become famous among us had no mechanics’ institutes, no libraries, no -classes, no examinations to cheer them on their way. In the greatest -poverty, difficulties, and discouragements their energies were found -sufficient for their work, and they have written their names in a -distinguished page of the history of their country.” - - [34] “He was the founder of English political economy, the first man - in England who saw and said that peace is better than war, that trade - is better than plunder, that honest industry is better than martial - greatness, and that the best occupation of a government is to secure - prosperity at home, and let other nations alone.”--“Elements of - Political Science.” By Patrick Edward Dove. Edinburgh: 1854. - -The admission of Mr. Gladstone that the great achievements of these -heroes of invention and discovery were won without any aid whatever, -either from the government or the people of England, is a pregnant fact. -It is the key-note of this work, the reason why it is written and -published. - -The neglect of the useful arts by all the governments of the world, from -the dawn of civilization down to the present time, is an impeachment of -the common-sense of mankind as shown in the conduct of public affairs. -The civilized man might have learned wisdom from the savage, who is -taught to fight, to hunt, and to fish, the brain, the hand, and the eye -being trained simultaneously. But he chose to learn of Plato, who in the -“Republic” says to Glaucon, “All the useful arts, I believe, we thought -degrading.” And further in the same work: “We shall tell our people, in -mythical language, you are doubtless all brethren as many as inhabit the -city, but the God who created you, mixed gold in the composition of such -of you as are qualified to rule, which gives them the highest value, -while in the auxiliaries he made silver an ingredient, assigning iron -and copper to the cultivators of the soil and the other workmen. -Therefore, inasmuch as you are all related to one another, although your -children will generally resemble their parents, yet sometimes a golden -parent will produce a silver child, and a silver parent a golden child, -and so on, each producing any. The rulers, therefore, have received this -in charge first and above all from the gods, to observe nothing more -closely, in their character of vigilant guardians, than the children -that are born, to see which of these metals enters into the composition -of their souls; and if a child be born in their class with an alloy of -copper or iron, they are to have no manner of pity upon it, but giving -it the value that belongs to its nature, they are to thrust it away into -the class of artisans or agriculturists. And if, again, among these a -child be born with an admixture of gold or silver, when they have -assayed it they are to raise it either to the class of guardians or to -that of auxiliaries, because there is an oracle which declares that the -city shall then perish when it is guarded by iron or copper.”[35] - - [35] “The Republic of Plato,” p. 114. London: Macmillan & Co., 1881. - -So ingrained in the public mind has this contempt for the artisan and -laborer become in the course of ages, that notwithstanding the fact of -the admitted kingship of iron among metals, and notwithstanding the fact -that without iron the world would almost sink into a state of barbarism, -still the opposition to the introduction of tool practice into the -public schools is violent, and most violent among those classes who -would be most benefited by it. Pending consideration of a bill by the -Massachusetts Assembly in 1883, providing for the admission of manual -training to the public-school curriculum, an opponent of the measure -said: “The introduction of the use of tools is only another attempt to -deprive the poorer classes of a good education. It is simply an attempt -to overload the course of studies in the schools so that children shall -not learn anything; so that the poor may be made poorer, while the -children of the rich having a good time in the public schools may have -their thought and health preserved for higher or special education.” - -This is a repetition of the old answer of the Inquisition to Galileo -upon the announcement and defence of his great discovery. He was -summoned to Rome, and “accused of having taught that the earth moves, -that the sun is stationary, and of having attempted to reconcile these -doctrines with the Scriptures.” Bruno had been driven to and fro over -the face of the civilized world, and finally burned in the year 1600 for -teaching the system of Copernicus. Having the fear of Bruno’s fate -before his eyes, Galileo recanted, and promised neither to publish nor -defend his theories. But his love of science overcame his fear of -oppression, and in 1632 he published his “System of the World.” Again he -was summoned before the Inquisition, which was destined forever after to -torment and persecute him. He was driven to his knees before the -cardinals, consigned to prison, and tortured to blindness. After his -death in a prison of the Inquisition at the age of seventy-seven years, -his right to make a will was disputed, his body was denied burial in -consecrated ground, and his friends were prohibited the privilege of -raising a monument to his memory in the Church of Santa Croce in -Florence. - -Eighteen hundred years ago a Roman emperor refused to sanction the use -of improved machinery in the prosecution of a great public work, on the -ground that it would deprive the poor of employment. - -In 1663 a Dutchman erected a saw-mill in England, but the hostility of -the workmen compelled its abandonment. More than a hundred years elapsed -before the second saw-mill was put in operation in England, and that was -destroyed by hand-sawyers. - -The Flemish weavers who introduced improved weaving machinery into -England in the seventeenth century were met by protests. One of these -protests, addressed to Parliament, represented that the Flemish weavers -had “made so bould as to devise engines for working of tape, lace, -ribbin, and such like, wherein one man doth more among them than seven -Englishe men can doe, so as their cheap sale of commodities beggereth -all our Englishe artificers of that trade and enricheth them.” - -A little more than a hundred years ago, in England, when the Sankey -Canal, six miles long, was authorized, it was upon the express condition -that the boats plying upon it should be drawn by men only. - -Illustrations of the _vis inertiæ_ of ignorance might be multiplied -indefinitely. Ignorance reverences the past. Ignorance never doubts. -Ignorance is content; perfectly satisfied with its own knowledge, if the -paradox may be allowed, it never seeks to increase it. But it is -suspicious. In every effort to enlighten it discovers a conspiracy to -undermine. Incapable of the intellectual effort of inquiry, it -stagnates, and regards as a deadly enemy those who seek to disturb the -serenity of its muddy pool. - -When labor was only another name for a state of slavery, to teach men to -labor skilfully was merely to raise them to a little higher grade of -servitude. Hence it is only at a very recent period that it has occurred -to mankind to teach skilled labor in the schools. All educational -systems, our own among the rest, seem to have been intended to make -lawyers, doctors, priests, statesmen, _littérateurs_, poets. But this is -the age of steel, the age of machines and machinery. Tremendous forces -in nature have been discovered and utilized, and these discoveries and -their utilization have so multiplied vast enterprises that the -importance of the mere ornamental branches of learning is dwarfed in -their presence. “This is the practical age, and an educational system -which is not practical is nothing. We shall still have our Tennysons, -and our Longfellows, and our doctors of abstract philosophy; but there -is little time to sentimentalize with the poets or speculate with the -philosophers. There is work to do.[E9] The mine is to be explored and -its treasures brought to the surface; more and more powerful machines -are to be constructed to bear the burdens of commerce; new elements of -force are to be discovered and applied to the constantly increasing -wants of mankind.[36] - - [36] “To know the ‘use’ either of land or tools you must know what - useful things can be grown from the one and made with the other. And - therefore to know what is useful, and what useless, and be skilful to - provide the one, and wise to scorn the other, is the first need for - all industrious men. Wherefore, I propose that schools should be - established wherein the use of land and tools shall be taught - conclusively--in other words, the sciences of agriculture (with - associated river and sea culture), and the noble arts and exercises of - humanity.--“Fors Clavigera,” p. 302. Part. III. By John Ruskin, LL.D. - New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1881. - -On the subject of the demand for a more comprehensive educational -system, Col. Augustus Jacobson says, with great force, “Youth is the -expensive period of man’s existence. Youth produces nothing and eats all -the time. If the youth is not trained there can hardly be a profit to -mankind on his existence. As mankind is liable for, and bound to pay, -his expenses, he should be so trained that he may repay them. He can -only become a profitable investment by training. If he is left -unskilled, the money spent on him is wasted. There is no profit on a -whole generation of Spaniards or Turks. Mankind should be wise enough to -reap the profit there always is in finishing raw material, by making -human raw material into a highly finished product.” - -There are millions of intelligent little children in the public schools -of the United States, receiving, doubtless, excellent intellectual or -mental training. But they are not being trained for the actual duties of -life as the savage child is taught to fight, to fish, and to hunt. They -are not taught to labor with their hands, either skilfully or -unskilfully. They are not given instruction in any department of the -useful arts, notwithstanding the fact that in the case of a vast -majority of them the alternative of earning their bread by the labor of -their unskilled hands, or resorting to their wits for a support, will be -presented immediately on their entrance upon the stage of active life. -The apprentice system gave skilled mechanics to England, and her -splendid manufacturing establishments are the result. The trained -English apprentice became an inventor, and his inventions and art -discoveries studded the island with workshops filled with automatic -product-multiplying machinery. - -The savage of Australia in Captain Cook’s time could kill a pigeon with -a spear at thirty yards, but he couldn’t count the fingers on his right -hand. The Southern Esquimau turns a somersault in the water in his boat -with ease. But his more Northern brother has no canoe, and is ignorant -of the existence of a boat; he has no use for a boat, because the sea in -the latitude of his home is frozen the entire year. The savage is taught -what he needs to know in his condition, and is taught nothing else; -hence his skill in the few avocations he pursues. - -The civilized boy in school is taught many theories, but is not required -to put any of them in practice; hence he enters upon the serious duties -of life unprepared to discharge any of them.[37] It may be said that he -is in real danger of the penitentiary until he learns a profession or a -trade. “Of four hundred and eighty-seven convicts consigned to the State -Prison for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania in 1879, five-sixths had -attended public schools, and the same number were without trades.” It is -noticeable also that during the same period “not five were received who -were what are called mechanics.” In the penitentiary of the State of -Illinois four out of five of the convicts have no handicraft. The fact -that the skilled workman is far more likely than the common laborer to -keep out of the penitentiary is a powerful argument in favor of joining -manual training to the mental exercises of our common schools. - - [37] Discussion of the subject of technical education at a meeting of - the Society of Arts, London, England, 1885. - - Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S.: “It should be their aim in [elementary schools] - to give such a notion of the value of materials and the use of tools - as could afterwards be turned to use in any required direction. There - were two great difficulties in the way of doing this. The first and - greatest was the inveterate notion that education consisted of - book-learning.... Another difficulty was the ignorance of teachers in - this respect. If an endeavor were made to introduce some knowledge of - science into schools, they generally found that the teachers had some - kind of theoretical knowledge, but it had been obtained mainly from - books; and what was chiefly wanted was that things should be taught as - well as words and before words.” - - Prof. Guthrie, F.R.S.: “This method of bringing the hand and the mind - to work together really lay at the basis of all true technical - instruction; where the mind alone was employed the knowledge acquired - passed away, but when the mind and the hand had been educated together - the knowledge was never forgotten.” - -The general adoption of a comprehensive system of mechanical education -in the public schools would quickly dispel the unworthy prejudice -against labor which taints the minds of the youth of the country. The -splendid career which this age opens to the educated mechanic should be -made clear to the vision of every boy in the land, and he will see, in -the tools he is taught to handle, the key not only to fair success, but -to wealth and fame. Professor Thurston, President of the American -Society of Mechanical Engineers, thus sums up the mighty power wielded -by the mechanic: - -“The class of men from whose ranks the membership of this society is -principally drawn direct the labors of nearly three millions of -prosperous people in three hundred thousand mills, with $2,500,000,000 -capital; they direct the payment of more than $1,000,000,000 in annual -wages; the consumption of $3,000,000,000 worth of raw material, and the -output of $5,000,000,000 worth of manufactured products. Fifty thousand -steam-engines, and more than as many water-wheels, at their command turn -the machinery of these hundreds of thousands of workshops that -everywhere dot our land, giving the strength of three million horses -night or day.”[38] - - [38] Inaugural address, as President of the American Society of - Engineers, New York, November 4, 1880. - - [E8] “Deeds are greater than words. Deeds have such a life, mute but - undeniable, and grow as living trees and fruit-trees do; they people - the vacuity of Time, and make it green and worthy.”--“Past and - Present,” p. 139. By Thomas Carlyle. London: Chapman & Hall. - - [E9] “Natural science is the point of interest now, and I think it is - dimming and extinguishing a good deal that was called poetry. These - sublime and all-reconciling revelations of nature will exact of poetry - a correspondent height and scope, or put an end to it.”--Letter of R. - W. Emerson to Anna C. L. Botta, “Memoirs of --. By her friends,” 8vo, - pp. 459. J. Selwin, Tait & Sons. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -POWER OF STEAM AND CONTEMPT OF ARTISANS. - - A few Million People now wield twice as much Industrial Power as all - the People on the Globe exerted a Hundred Years ago. -- A Revolution - wrought, not by the Schools and Colleges, but by the Mechanic. -- The - Union between Science and Art prevented by the Speculative Philosophy - of the Middle Ages. -- Statesmen, Lawyers, Littérateurs, Poets, and - Artists more highly esteemed than Civil Engineers, Mechanics, and - Artisans. -- The Refugee Artisan a Power in England, the Refugee - Politician worthless. -- Prejudice against the Artisan Class shown by - Mr. Galton in his Work on “Hereditary Genius.” -- The Influence of - Slavery: it has lasted Thousands of Years, and still Survives. - - -What the civil engineers and mechanics of England have done for that -country the same classes here have done for America. It is by these -classes that all civilized countries have been made prosperous and -great. And the agent through which the power of man has been augmented a -thousand-fold is steam. “In the manufactures of Great Britain alone, the -power which steam exerts is estimated to be equal to the manual labor of -four hundred millions of men, or more than double the number of males -supposed to inhabit the globe.”[39] This is the most significant fact of -all time, namely, that a few millions of people in a small island now -wield twice as much industrial power as all the people on the globe -exerted one hundred years ago. And it is a fact of the utmost -significance that the public educational institutions of England -contributed scarcely anything to this industrial revolution, whose -influence now comprehends all civilized countries. The men by whom it -was wrought came not from the classic shades of the universities, but -from the foundery, the forge, and the machine-shop. There has been very -little change in educational methods since the time when Bacon said, -“They learn nothing at the universities but to believe.” He proposed -that a college be established and devoted to the discovery of new truth. -No such college has, however, been established, but many new truths have -been discovered. Suppose all the universities of England, of the United -States, and of all other highly civilized countries had, from the time -of Bacon, been conformed to his ideas, and devoted to the discovery of -new truths? Such a course would have united science and art, and insured -vastly greater progress, no doubt, than that which has actually taken -place. The union of science with art has thus far been rendered -impossible by reason of the wide prevalence of purely speculative views. -The speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages still projects its baleful -influence over our institutions of learning. Abstract ideas are still -regarded as of more vital importance than things. Statesmen, lawyers, -littérateurs, poets, and artists are more highly esteemed than civil -engineers, machinists, and artisans. Mr. Smiles, in his excellent work -on the Huguenots, has shown that England owes to the French and the -Flemish immigrants “almost all her industrial arts and very much of the -most valuable life-blood of her modern race.”[40] Commenting upon this -fact in his work on “Hereditary Genius,” Mr. Francis Galton says, - -“There has been another emigration from France of not unequal magnitude, -but followed by very different results, namely, that of the revolution -of 1789. It is most instructive to contrast the effects of the two. The -Protestant emigrants were able men, and have profoundly influenced for -good both our breed and our history; on the other hand, the political -refugees had but poor average stamina, and have left scarcely any traces -behind them.”[41] - - [39] “Brief Biographies: James Watt,” p. 1. By Samuel Smiles. Chicago: - Belford, Clark & Co., 1883. - - [40] “In short, wherever the refugees settled they acted as so many - missionaries of skilled work, exhibiting the best practical examples - of diligence, industry, and thrift, and teaching the English people in - the most effective manner the beginnings of those various industrial - arts in which they have since acquired so much distinction and - wealth.”--“The Huguenots,” p. 107. By Samuel Smiles. New York: Harper - & Brothers, 1867. - - [41] “Hereditary Genius,” p. 360. By Francis Galton, F.R.S., etc. New - York: D. Appleton & Co., 1880. - -This is the testimony of a distinguished student of biology; and it is -to the effect that the refugee artisan is of immense value to the -country where he finds an asylum, while the refugee politician is of no -value at all. We should naturally say, our author having made this -important discovery will enlarge upon it. First of all, he will deduce -the conclusion that if the refugee politician is of no value to the -country where he finds an asylum, the home politician is an equally -unimportant factor in the social problem. Then he will make an -exhaustive study of the industrial class as the chief basis of his -propositions and speculations on the subject of the science of life. Not -at all. Mr. Galton, in his work on “Hereditary Genius,” offers another -striking illustration of the repressive force of habit and the influence -of popular prejudice. In his classifications of men according to their -professions, with a view to the inquiry whether “genius, talent, or -whatever we term great mental capacity, follows the law of organic -transmission--runs in families, and is an affair of blood and breed”--in -such classifications Mr. Galton forgets for the time being that there is -an industrial class. He runs through the entire social scale, from “the -judges of England between 1660 and 1865,” not omitting Lord Jeffreys, -down through statesmen, commanders, literary men, poets, musicians, men -of science, painters, divines, the boys in Cambridge, oarsmen, and -wrestlers of the North Country, but has no word to say of the civil -engineers, or of the inventors--those immortal men whose monuments in -stone and iron exist in every corner of England. - -Buckles’s caustic remark, “the most valuable additions made to -legislation have been enactments destructive of preceding legislation, -and the best laws which have been passed have been those in which some -former laws have been repealed,” does not apply to the works of the -civil engineers, inventors, and mechanics of England or of any other -country. Their works live after them and never fail to reflect honor -upon them. The “acts” of the inventor may be amended but they are never -repealed. Each inventive step, however short and apparently unimportant, -constitutes a substantial link in the chain of progress; and it is a -substantial link, because it invariably contains a hint of the next -sequential step. - -Mr. Galton is an original thinker of great power, and an untiring -investigator. In contrasting the politician with the artisan he -discriminates admirably. He finds that the politician is of no value, -practically, to the community, while the artisan is of almost -inestimable value; and this conclusion he states curtly, without -appearing to care a rush for the public sentiment which reverences -politics and so-called statesmanship. But when he “makes up his jewels,” -so to speak, on the subject of “hereditary genius,” Mr. Galton, as -already remarked, forgets that it is worth while to consider the class -of men who in the last hundred years have literally almost created a new -world. Why is this? The late Mr. Horace Mann answered the question long -ago, and he answered it so well that his answer is here reproduced _in -extenso_: “Mankind had made great advances in astronomy, in geometry, -and other mathematical sciences, in the writing of history, in oratory -and in poetry, in painting and in sculpture, and in those kinds of -architecture which may be called regal or religious, centuries before -the great mechanical discoveries and inventions which now bless the -world were brought to light; and the question has often forced itself -upon reflecting minds why there was this _preposterousness_, this -inversion of what would appear to be the natural order of progress? Why -was it, for instance, that men should have learned the courses of the -stars and the revolution of the planets before they found out how to -make a good wagon-wheel? Why was it that they built the Parthenon and -the Coliseum before they knew how to construct a comfortable, healthful -dwelling-house? Why did they build the Roman aqueducts before they -framed a saw-mill? Or why did they achieve the noblest models in -eloquence, in poetry, and in the drama before they invented movable -types? I think we have arrived at a point where we can unriddle this -enigma. The labor of the world has been performed by ignorant men, by -classes doomed to ignorance from sire to son; by the bondmen and the -bondwomen of the Jews, by the helots of Sparta, by the captives who -passed under the Roman yoke, and by the villeins and serfs and slaves of -more modern times.” - -When the great educational reformer of Massachusetts thus graphically -pointed out slavery as the cause of the contempt in which the useful -arts had been held from the dawn of history, four millions of men were -kept in bondage, and compelled to toil under the lash by one of the most -enlightened nations of the earth. Later thirteen millions of people -pledged “their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor” to the -perpetuation of slavery, and half a million soldiers marched repeatedly -to battle to do or die in behalf of the right (?) of one man to buy and -sell the bodies of his fellow-men. - -There is, then, a logical reason for Mr. Galton’s neglect of the artisan -class. Slavery in its most odious form not only existed in the heart of -a so-called “free” nation twenty-five years ago, but dared Liberty to a -deadly contest. Nor were the upholders of slavery without moral support -among the governments and peoples of the world. The government of -England, of which Mr. Galton is a subject, under cover of a pretended -neutrality aided the American slaveholders’ Confederacy in sweeping -Freedom’s ships from the sea; and the great families of England, the -families cited by Mr. Galton in support of his proposition that genius -“is an affair of blood and breed”--those great families were well -pleased when Freedom’s ships went down and Freedom’s armies retreated -before the assaults of the slave confederacy. - -This somewhat extended reference to Mr. Galton is not intended to impugn -his good faith as an author. Its design is simply to show that the -influence of slavery is not yet extinct; that it still moulds ideas, -controls habits of thought, inspires literary men, and permeates -literature. In a word, the cause of the contempt in which the useful -arts were held in Babylon in the time of Herodotus was in full force in -this country down to the date of the issuance of Mr. Lincoln’s -proclamation of emancipation; and it is scarcely necessary to observe -that the British Constitution grew out of the feudal system, which was -only another name for slavery. It is a proverb in England to this day -that it is safer to shoot a man than a hare; and the sentiment of the -proverb is a complete justification of human bondage, since it implies -that property rights are more sacred than the rights of man. Thus -slavery has kept its brand of shame upon the useful arts for thousands -of years, and the mind of man has been so deeply impressed thereby that -it does not react now that slavery is extinct. Like the slave released -from bondage, who still feels the chain, still winces and shrinks from -the imaginary scourge, the mind of man continues to revolve -automatically in the old channels.[E10] - - [E10] “It is related of the Scythians that they became involved in a - contest with the descendants of certain of their slaves, who - successfully resisted them in several battles, whereupon one of them - said: ‘Men of Scythia, what are we doing? By fighting with our slaves, - both we ourselves by being slain become fewer in number, and by - killing them we shall hereafter have fewer to rule over. Now, - therefore, it seems to me that we should lay aside our spears and - bows, and that everyone, taking a horsewhip, should go directly to - them; for so long as they saw us with arms, they considered themselves - equal to us, and born of equal birth; but when they shall see us with - our whips instead of arms, they will soon learn that they are our - slaves, and being conscious of that will no longer resist.’ The - Scythians, having heard this, adopted the advice; and the slaves, - struck with astonishment at what was done, forgot to fight and - fled.”--Herodotus, “Melpomene,” IV. §§ 3, 4. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1882. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. - - The Past tyrannizes over the Present by Interposing the Stolid - Resistance of Habit. -- Habits of Thought like Habits of the Body - become Automatic. -- There is much Freedom of Speech but very little - Freedom of Thought: Habit, Tradition, and Reverence for Antiquity - forbid it. -- The Schools educate Automatically. -- A glaring Defect - of the Schools shown by Mr. John S. Clark, of Boston. -- The Automatic - Character of the Popular System of Education shown by the Quincy - (Mass.) Experiment. -- Several Intelligent Opinions to the same - Effect. -- The Public Schools as an Industrial Agency a Failure. -- A - Conclusive Evidence of the Automatic and Superficial Character of - prevailing Methods of Education in the Schools of a large City. -- The - Views of Colonel Francis W. Parker. -- Scientific Education is found - in the Kindergarten and the Manual Training School. -- “The - Cultivation of Familiarity betwixt the Mind and Things.” -- Colonel - Augustus Jacobson on the Effect of the New Education. - - -All reforms must encounter the stolid resistance of habit. It is not -less tyrannical because it is a negative force. It braces itself and -holds back with all its might. It is in this manner that the past -dominates the present.[E11] This automatic habit of mind is precisely -like certain automatic habits of the body which operate quite -independently of any act of volition. For example: “When we move about -in a room with the objects in which we are quite familiar, we direct our -steps so as to avoid them, without being conscious what they are or what -we are doing; we _see_ them, as we easily discover if we try to move -about in the same way with our _eyes_ shut, but we do not _perceive_ -them, the mind being fully occupied with some train of thought.”[42] In -the same way the mind under certain conditions becomes an automaton, -constantly revolving old thoughts after the causes that gave rise to -them have ceased to operate. Piano-forte playing affords an excellent -illustration of this automatic action of the mind. “A pupil learning to -play the piano-forte is obliged to call to mind each note, but the -skilful player goes through no such process of conscious remembrance; -his ideas, like his movements, are automatic, and both so rapid as to -surpass the rapidity of succession of conscious ideas and -movements.”[43] - - [42] “Body and Mind,” p. 22. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. - Appleton & Co., 1883. - - [43] Ibid., p. 26. - -Freedom of speech and freedom of thought are catch-penny phrases. There -is much of the former, but very little of the latter. Speech is -generally the result of automatic thought rather than of ratiocination. -Independent thought is of all mental processes the most difficult and -the most rare; habit, tradition, and reverence for antiquity unite to -forbid it, and these combined influences are strengthened by the law of -heredity. The tendency to automatic action of the mind is still further -promoted by the environment of modern life. The crowding of populations -into cities, and the division and subdivision of labor in the factory -and the shop, and even in the so-called learned professions, have a -tendency to increase the dependence of the individual upon the mass of -society. And this interdependence of the units of society renders them -more and more imitative, and hence more and more automatic both mentally -and physically. - -Another powerful influence contributes to the same end. The schools -educate automatically. They train the absorbing powers of the brain, but -fail to cultivate the faculties of assimilation and re-creation, and -neglect almost wholly to develop the power of expression. Mr. John S. -Clark, of Boston, has made this point of the failure of the schools to -train the brain-power of expression to its utmost, so plain that it is -here reproduced in full, as follows: - -[Illustration: - - Five senses. - - Tongue. - - Hand. - -Fig. 1.] - -“Studying the functions of the brain, we find that for educational -purposes it may be likened to an organism with a threefold form of -working, an organism with a power of absorption, a power of assimilation -and re-creation, and a power of expressing or giving out. The force or -character of a brain is measured entirely by its expressing power, by -what comes out of it. Examining a little closer, we find that the brain -absorbs through all the five senses, while for expressing purposes it -makes use of but two of these senses, or rather of but two organs of -these senses--the tongue and the hand. _Fig._ 1 is a simple diagram -representing a brain with the five senses placed on one side, as means -of absorbing power, while on the other side the tongue and the hand are -placed as organs of expressing power. The other function of the brain, -that of assimilation and re-creation, cannot of course be graphically -represented. It may, however, be said to be the result of the action of -the other two functions. Now, the equipping of a brain, or the healthy -education of a brain, consists in giving it expressing power through -the tongue and the hand, coextensive with the power of absorption and -the power of re-creation. - -[Illustration: - - Reading. } - Mathematics. } - Geography. } Five Senses. - Grammar. } Tongue. - History. } Speech. - Languages. } - Physiology. } Hand. - Literature. } Writing. - Natural History. } - Theoretical Sciences.} - -Fig. 2.] - -“Applying our popular schemes of education to the brain, and especially -those based on the 3-R idea of education, we find what is indicated in -_Fig._ 2, that provision has been made for greatly distending the -absorbing side of the brain, while for the expressing side, the -practical side, provision has been limited to the use of the tongue in -speech and to the hand in writing. If now we follow the result of this -brain equipment into practical life, we find that speech and writing, as -means for expressing thought, have their applications mainly in the -commercial and financial employments and the professions, and only -incidentally in the industrial and mechanical employments. With such an -inadequate and one-sided brain equipment it is not possible in any -broad, practical way to bring thought or brain-power to the service of -industry. The fact so generally admitted, that we are getting so few -intelligent artisans or mechanics from our scheme of public education, -that we turn out pupils of both sexes with a decided repugnance to -industrial labor, is an attestation to the truth of this statement. The -simple fact is that our education is not broad enough on the expressing -side of the brain, that too much attention has been given to the -absorbing side of this organ, that no adequate provisions have been -made whereby it can discharge its power in work connected with the -industries. - -[Illustration: - - Reading. } - Mathematics. } - Geography. } Five Senses. - Grammar. } - History. } Tongue. - Languages. } Speech. - Physiology. } - Literature. } {Writing. - Natural History. } Hand. {Drawing. - Theoretical Sciences.} {Manual Arts. - Practical Sciences. } - -Fig. 3.] - -“In _Fig._ 3 a remedy for this defect is indicated in the addition of -the study of graphic and æsthetic art, through drawing, and of training -in the manual arts, to the previous brain equipment. Observe where these -features come in the scheme--on the expressing side of the brain and in -the service of the hand, thus giving the brain ample power to discharge -thought in its most complete form for use or for beauty. With these -features added to the brain equipment its power of expressing thought in -all practical directions will be coextensive with its absorbing and -re-creating powers; and just as soon as the public can clearly see that -in the outcome of our public education there is no respecting of persons -or of classes, that pupils are trained for honest labor with their hands -as well as to living by their wits, are taught to produce something, to -_create values_ by the action of their brain through the work of their -hands, a much deeper interest in public education will not only be -manifested, but generous provisions for its support will also be -given.”[44] - - [44] Address delivered before the Philadelphia Board of Trade and the - Franklin Institute, June 6, 1881. - -The charge that the schools educate automatically rather than -rationally is of such vital importance that it should be sustained by -the best attainable proof. Strong proof is at hand in the history of the -so-called Quincy (Mass.) experiment. - -In 1878 doubt of the efficiency of the schools of Norfolk County, long -indulged, culminated in action by the Association of School Committees -and Superintendents. It was insisted by certain members of the committee -that the existing methods were “about as good as human intelligence -could devise,” and by others that the people were getting “no adequate -returns for the money expended under the system in general use.” It was -resolved to institute a searching investigation, and the standard for -the measurement of the acquirements of pupils adopted was, “a reasonable -degree of ability to read, to write legibly, correctly, and -grammatically, and to deal readily with simple mathematics after about -eight years of schooling.” - -The association selected Mr. George A. Walton, an experienced educator, -to make the examination of the schools of the county, and the number of -pupils examined exceeded three thousand. In their preface to Mr. -Walton’s report the gentlemen of the association say: - -“Publicity, discussion, and discontent are wholesome things to apply to -school management in Massachusetts. That this is a fair sample of the -results now accomplished cannot be questioned. But though they may not -be flattering to our pride, we yet believe that they are as good as can -be obtained in any other county in Massachusetts, or, indeed, of any -other State where similar tests are applied in a similar manner. If any -school authorities elsewhere doubt the truth of this statement, let the -experiment be tried in the schools of their county. - -“The questions naturally arise, What is the cause of this lamentable -ignorance? and what is the remedy? The answer to the former suggests the -reply to the latter. Too much has been attempted in the schools. There -has been a slavish adherence to text-books, and no room given for -freedom and originality of thought. Rules have been memorized, and the -children taught to recite from the text-book, while they have not had -the slightest conception of the true meaning of the subject.... - -“The rules and exceptions in grammar are faithfully committed to memory, -and most intricate sentences can be successfully analyzed, the phrases -separated, and the modifiers named in true grammatical style, while the -pupils who have undergone such severe training in this respect are -unable to present their own thoughts concisely or clearly, or even -_correctly_, upon paper. The _memory_ is cultivated, and the _reason_ -allowed to slumber. - -“In arithmetic the pupils show a readiness to solve a problem when they -are able to fit it to some rule that they have learned; but when they -are given a simple question out of the regular course, they are like a -ship at sea without rudder or compass.” - -This is the severest and most sweeping criticism ever passed upon our -American common-school system, and it emanates from its friends and the -friends of universal education. - -Mr. Walton says of reading, as taught in the Norfolk County schools, “As -for any systematic analysis by which the pupil learns to make a careful -and independent study of his piece, it is but little practised in the -schools even of the grammar grade;” and he declares that reading, -without comprehending the ideas of which the words are mere signs, “is -not merely useless, but dangerous, just in proportion to the facility -with which the words are called.” - -Of the results of his examinations in penmanship Mr. Walton says, “Most -of the faults in the writing indicate imperfect teaching.” Of his -examinations in spelling he says that “the commonest words are -misspelled when used in sentences or composition, while words of -difficult orthography are spelled with accuracy when dictated for -spelling.” For example, he says, “The words ‘whose,’ ‘which,’ and -‘father,’ when spelled orally, were generally correct, but when written -in sentences they were frequently, in many schools, in a majority of -cases, erroneous.” No test could more clearly demonstrate the purely -mechanical character of the methods of instruction than this of a -comparison between the pupils’ oral and written spelling. The average of -excellence in spelling the three simple words “which, whose, scholar,” -of the primary grade for the whole county of Norfolk, as found by Mr. -Walton, was the exceedingly low one of 55.9, the basis being 100. - -The ingenuity in bad spelling of this grade of pupils, who had been at -least four years in school, is well illustrated by the example of the -word “carriage,” written as follows: “Carage, carrage, craidge, caradg, -carege, carriag, carrige;” and of the word “sleigh,” written “saly, -slay, slaig, slaigh, slagh, slaw, sleig, sleugh, sleight, sligh, sley, -slew, slave, sleygh;” and of the word “Tuesday,” written “Tusgay, -tuestay, toesday;” and of the word “Wednesday,” written “wanesday, -wedenyday, Wedernsday, wednest, Wenday, Wendsday, wensday, wenesday, -wensdaw, wenze, Wenzie, Wendsstay, wenstday, Wesday, Whensday, winday, -Windday, Winsday,” etc. - -The word “scholar” presented one hundred and sixty different erroneous -spellings; that of “depot” fifty, among which were the following: -“Deappow, deppowe, deaphow, deapohoe, teapot, doopo,” and “bepo.” An -exercise in spelling by both grades of pupils, the “primary,” composed -of pupils from eight and a half to ten and a half years old, and the -“grammar,” composed of pupils from twelve and a half to fifteen and a -half years old, showed errors of which the following are examples: -_Any_, spelled ane and enny; _along_, aloud and alon; _amongst_, amunt; -_animals_, anables; _arithmetic_, rithmes; _asked_, asted; _beautiful_, -beuful; _been_, ben, bene, and bin; _by-and-by_, bimeby; _coat_, coot, -coth, cote, goat, and coate; _Boston_, bostone; _boy_, poy, and bou; -_city_, sitty; _eggs_, ages; _custard-pie_, custed puy; _coming_, comin, -commun, gomming, and comming. - -An exercise in composition developed the following specimen errors: “The -was two boys; They was two boys; How is all the boys? Things that was -good; They is not many here I know; He come to school; I see him -yesterday; He asked cyrus what he done that day; I had saw him; he had -wore a coat,” etc. - -The examinations in mathematics yielded similar results to those -developed in reading, writing, spelling, and composition. Mr. Walton -says, “If instead of this [the routine method of the school] the pupil -should be compelled to deal with real things, and to find his answer by -studying the conditions of his problem, the fiction which arithmetic now -is to most pupils would become to them a reality.”[45] - - [45] “The New Departure in the Common Schools of Quincy,” by Charles - F. Adams, Jr., and the “Report of Examination of Schools in Norfolk - County, Mass.,” by George A. Walton. Boston: Estes & Lauriat, 1881. - -The prime difficulty is here stated. The schools deal in “fictions.” In -the language of the Norfolk County committee, “The _memory_ is -cultivated and the _reason_ allowed to slumber.” Now, if to every fact -memorized the pupil were required to apply the test of reason to analyze -it and find out its relation to other facts, and fix it with all its -relations in his mind, he would possess certain solid information of an -ascertained practical value. It is very simple. It is making the pupil -think for himself by showing him how to think for himself instead of -thinking for him. Of course this is object-teaching. In the -reading-lesson the pupil is required to know the meaning of the words of -which it is composed in order to read with correct expression. When -required to spell a word orally he is also required to write it. In the -study of arithmetic he is shown certain objects, blocks of cubical and -other forms, and required to apply the rules of the book to the -ascertainment of their contents. In grammar the analysis of the sentence -is followed by the writing of it, and the construction of other -sentences involving similar principles in the art of composition, and so -on. - -This is the kindergarten system now rapidly coming into high favor as an -essential preliminary step in education. It is also the system of the -manual training school. Under this system the pupil is not merely told -that the saw is a thin, flat piece of steel with teeth used for cutting -boards and timbers; a saw is placed in his hand and he is taught to use -it: and so of all the hand and machine tools of the trades. He stands at -the forge, bends over the moulding-form, shoves the plane in the -carpenter-shop, presides at the turning-lathe, that ingenious invention -of Maudslay--an automaton truer than the human eye, more cunning and -more accurate than the human hand; executes plans for patterns and then -makes the patterns, and finally, from the faint lines he has traced on -paper, constructs a machine, breathes the breath of life (steam) into -its veins, and with it moves mountains! - -In further support of the charge that the schools educate automatically, -and hence superficially, the following intelligent opinions are cited: - -Charles Francis Adams, Jr., remarks that the common schools of -Massachusetts cost $4,000,000 a year; and adds, “The imitative or -memorizing faculties only are cultivated, and little or no attention is -paid to the thinking or reflective powers. Indeed it may almost be said -that a child of any originality or with individual characteristics is -looked upon as wholly out of place in a public school.... To skate is as -difficult as to write; probably more difficult. Yet in spite of hard -teaching in the one case and no teaching in the other, the boy can skate -beautifully, and he cannot write his native tongue at all.”[46] - - [46] “Scientific Common-school Education.”--_Harper’s Magazine_, - November, 1880 (see note [E12] at end of chapter). - -Mr. Edward Atkinson says, “We are training no American craftsmen, and -unless we devise better methods than the old and now obsolete apprentice -system, much of the perfection of our almost automatic mechanism will -have been achieved at the cost not only of the manual but also of the -mental development of our men. Our almost automatic mills and -machine-shops will become mental stupefactories.”[47] - - [47] “Elementary Instruction in the Mechanic Arts.”--_Scribner’s - Monthly_, April 1881, p. 902. - -Prof. Barbour, of Yale College, says, “Our schools are suffering from -congestion of the brain: too much thought and too little putting it in -practice.” - -An English observer of our public schools says, “They teach apparently -for information, almost regardless of development. This system develops -no special individuality or power, forms few habits of observation, -benefits little except the memory, and herein lies its great weakness.” - -The late Mr. Wendell Phillips said, “Our system stops too short, and as -a justice to boys and girls as well as to society it should see to it -that those whose life is to be one of manual labor should be better -trained for it.” - -Mr. Wickersham, late Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State -of Pennsylvania, says, “It is high time that something should be done to -enable our youth to learn trades and to form industrious habits and a -taste for work.” - -Dr. Runkle, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, says, “Public -education should touch practical life in a larger number of points; it -should better fit all for that sphere in life in which they are destined -to find their highest happiness and well-being.” - -Opinions of this character might be multiplied almost indefinitely. They -reflect the general sentiment that, as an industrial agency, the public -school is a failure; but its value as an enlightening and civilizing -agency is not therefore underestimated. It was not established as an -industrial agency; it was established as a bulwark of liberty, and nobly -did it fulfil its mission. The colonial fathers had a horror of -ignorance, and as a barrier against it they raised the public school. -But they were without industrial interests in the higher departments of -skilled labor, and without commerce in a large way. Lord Sheffield said -that the American colonies were founded with the sole view of securing -to England a monopoly of their trade, and Lord Chatham declared that -they had no right to manufacture even a nail or a horseshoe. Even after -the Revolution, in 1784, the commerce of the country was so -insignificant that eight bales of cotton shipped from South Carolina -were seized by the customs authorities of England on the ground that so -large a quantity could not have been produced in the United States! - -These humble conditions no longer exist, and to object to the expansion -of the public-school system to meet the requirements of new exigencies -is to ignore the logic and march of events. The nations are running an -industrial race, and the nation that applies to labor the most thought, -the most intelligence, will rise highest in the scale of civilization, -will gain most in wealth, will most surely survive the shocks of time, -will live longest in history. In the race for industrial supremacy we -are not at the front. It is a fact to be pondered that we are exchanging -the products of unskilled for skilled labor with the nations of Europe. -In the course of a year, for example, England exports of raw material -and food only about $150,000,000 in value, while her exports of -manufactures aggregate about $850,000,000 in value. On the other hand, -our exports consist almost entirely of raw material and food, their -annual value being about $800,000,000, while of manufactures we export -only a beggarly $75,000,000 worth, and our imports of manufactures are -of the annual value of about $250,000,000. In crude, uneducated, -unskilled labor capacity, we have grown much more rapidly than in the -departments of educated, skilled labor; and in the exact ratio of this -growth of unskilled over skilled labor, we are behind the age. We are -industrially ill-balanced. We are selling brawn and buying -thought--cunning, invention, genius; exhausting our physical manhood and -impoverishing a virgin soil. We are suffering from a paucity of skilled -labor, and we hesitate to apply the needed and obviously adequate -remedy--the training of the youth of the country in the elements of the -useful arts, in the public schools. - -A final and conclusive evidence of the verity of the charge that -prevailing methods of education are automatic, and hence superficial in -their character, is found in an examination test recently made in one of -the public schools in a large American city, in the department of -mathematics. The superintendent begins to distrust his own system of -abstract instruction, and resolves to test the acquirements of certain -classes of pupils ranging from ten to twelve years of age. He submits a -series of questions in number, which are promptly solved either orally -or in chalk on the black-board, showing a complete mastery of the -subject from the abstract side, or point of view. To test the practical -value of the knowledge thus exhibited the superintendent repeats his -series of questions, applying them to things. For example: He passes six -cards to a pupil, and requests that one-half of them be returned. This -question having been promptly and correctly answered by the return of -three of them, and the six cards being again placed in the hands of the -pupil, the second question is propounded, namely, “Please give me -one-third of one-half of the cards in your hand.” The pupil is puzzled; -he fumbles the cards nervously, blushes, and returns a wrong number or -becomes entirely helpless and “gives it up.” This question, or some -other question of similar general import, is submitted to each member -of the class with a like unfavorable result in eight or nine cases in a -total of ten cases. The superintendent is astonished; he is more than -astonished, he is deeply chagrined; for he knows that the kindergarten -child of six or seven years of age, with the blocks, would answer his -series of questions correctly eight or nine times in a total of ten. - -It is impossible to conceive of a more striking illustration of the -prime defects of automatic education than is afforded by the foregoing -described experiment. It sustains and justifies the severe criticism of -the schools by Mr. Charles Francis Adams, Jr., in his magazine article -of 1880, in the course of which he says, - -“From one point of view children are regarded as automatons; from -another, as india-rubber bags; from a third, as so much raw material. -They must move in step and exactly alike. They must receive the same -mental nutriment in equal quantities and at fixed times. Its -assimilation is wholly immaterial, but the motions must be gone through -with. Finally, as raw material, they are emptied in at the primaries, -and marched out at the grammar grades--and it is well!”[48] - - [48] “Scientific Common-school Education.”--_Harper’s New Monthly - Magazine_, November, 1880, p. 937. - -The testimony of Col. Francis W. Parker, of the Cook County (Illinois) -Normal School, is to the same effect. He says, - -“The most important work of to-day is to collect, reconcile, and apply -all the principles and methods of education that have been discovered in -the past, into one science and art of teaching. This would certainly -radically change all our school work in this country. When this is done -the ground will be made ready for new advances in the incomplete science -of education. Because a complete science has not yet been discovered is -a very poor reason for not applying what we already know. What specific -changes would the application of known mental laws, in teaching about -which all psychologists are in agreement, bring about? For it is only by -a sharp comparison of what is now done according to tradition and custom -in our schools, with that which can be done by the application of the -simplest principles of teaching, that the value of the true art of -instruction may be in some degree appreciated. - -“To illustrate this it may be mentioned that little children have been -taught to read, in the past, and a great majority of them are now -taught, by a method that is utterly opposed to a mental law, about which -there can be no dispute among those who know anything of the science of -teaching. I refer to the A B C method. Nearly three hundred years ago -Comenius discovered a rule of teaching which may be said to embrace all -rules in its category--‘Things that have to be done should be learned by -doing them.’ This rule is so simple and plain that every one, except the -teachers, has adopted and used it since man has lived upon the earth. If -I am not very much mistaken, the school-master for the last fifty years -has been incessantly inventing ways of doing things in the school-room -by doing something else. We try to teach the English language by rules, -definitions, analyses, diagrams, and parsing. Before the poor innocent -child can write a single sentence correctly, we teach the painful -pronunciation of words without the grasping of thought as reading. We -vainly endeavor to give children a knowledge of number by teaching -figures, the signs of number. We cram our victim’s mind full of empty, -meaningless words, instead of inspiring and developing it by the sweet -and strong realities of thought. This futile struggle to do things by -doing something else is to-day costing the people of this country -millions and millions of hard-earned dollars; and it is much to be -feared that it will one day cost their children the blessings of free -government. This is a serious charge. - -“The three hundred thousand teachers of this country are as faithful, -honest, and earnest as any other class of active workers. If, then, -these great truths in education be at the doors of our educators, why do -they not acquire and use them? The answer is not far to seek. Not one -teacher in five hundred ever makes a practical, thorough study of the -_history_ of education, to say nothing of the science. - -“The tremendous projecting power of tradition stands stubbornly in the -way of progress in education. It can only be met and overcome by the -most thorough searching and indefatigable study of the child’s nature, -and of the means by which the possibilities for good in God’s greatest -creation may be realized.”[49] - - [49] Letter to the author under date of April, 1883, and by him - reproduced in a communication published in the _Chicago Tribune_, - April 23, 1883. - -The change from automatic to scientific education ought not to be very -difficult. It has been made in the kindergarten. It consists in -substituting things in place of signs of things. The boys should be -taught to read in school as he will be required to read; to write as he -will be required to write; and to cipher as he will be required to -cipher, when he becomes a man. - -In teaching chemistry, for example, there should be a laboratory with -the necessary illustrative apparatus. In teaching geography, in addition -to the books and the globe, the form of the continent should be moulded -in sand, with coast lines, mountain ranges, rivers, canals, harbors, -cities, etc. In teaching number the pupil should have the things and -parts of things, represented by signs, in his hands. In teaching -mechanics the pupil should handle the saw, the plane, the file, the -hammer, and the chisel, and stand at the bench, the forge, and the -turning-lathe. It is in this way only that the pupil can be taught the -power of expressing, as Mr. Clark puts it, “what has been absorbed on -the receptive side.” - -Mr. MacAlister illustrates the force of Mr. Clark’s diagrams in a -sentence: “We must not close our eyes to the fact that by far the larger -number of men in every civilized community are workers to whom a skilled -hand is quite as important as a well filled head.”[50] The prevailing -methods of teaching fill the head but do not provide for assimilation, -re-creation, and expression. Now to assimilate, to reduce to practical -value and put to use facts memorized, and to create, the power of -expression is an essential prerequisite; creating is expressing ideas in -concrete form. But under the old _régime_ of education only two modes of -expression are provided--speech and writing. A third mode--drawing--has -been very generally adopted. Drawing, however, is only the first step, -an incomplete step, so to speak, of expression. It is a sign, an -outline, of a thing. What we want is the thing itself. That thing can -only be produced at the forge, the bench, or the lathe; and this is -manual training in the arts. - - [50] Mr. James MacAlister, Superintendent of Schools of the City of - Philadelphia, Pa., at the meeting of the American Institute of - Instruction, Saratoga, N. Y., July 13, 1882. - -What manual training will do for the pupil is expressed in the following -terse paragraph by Col. Augustus Jacobson: - -“The boy leaving school should carry with him mechanical, business, and -scientific training, fitting him for whatever it may become necessary -for him to do in the world. I would secure for society the advantage of -all the brain capacity that is born and all the training it can take. It -is possible and practicable to let every child of fair capacity start in -life from his school a skilled worker, with the principal tools of all -the mechanical employments, an athlete with the maximum of health -possible to him, and thoroughly at home in science and literature. The -child so trained would, when grown, be to the ordinary man of to-day -what Jay-Eye-See is to an ordinary plough-horse.” - - [E11] “Fortunately the past never completely dies for man. Many may - forget it, but he always preserves it within him. For, take him at any - epoch, and he is the product, the epitome, of all the earlier epochs. - Let him look into his own soul, and he can find and distinguish these - different epochs by what each of them has left within him.”--“The - Ancient City,” p. 13. By Fustel De Coulanges. Boston: Lee & Shepard, - 1882. - - [E12] “In fact, memory comes from interest. What children are deeply - interested in they will never forget. A boy who can never say his - lesson by heart will remember every detail of the cricket or football - matches in which his heart really lives.”--“Educational Theories,” p. - 116. By Oscar Browning, M.A. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1885. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION--_Continued_. - - The Failure of Education in America shown by Statistics of Railway and - Mercantile Disasters. -- Shrinkage of Railway Values and Failures of - Merchants. -- Only Three Per Cent. of those entering Mercantile Life - achieve Success. -- Business Enterprises conducted by Guess: Cause, - Unscientific Education. -- Savage Training is better because - Objective. -- Mr. Foley, late of the Massachusetts Institute of - Technology, on the Scientific Character of Manual Education -- Prof. - Goss, of Purdue University, to the same Effect -- also Dr. Belfield, - of the Chicago Manual Training School. -- Students love the Laboratory - Exercises. -- Demoralizing Effect of Unscientific Training. -- The - Failure of Justice and Legislation as contrasted with the Success of - Civil Engineering and Architecture. - - -A striking illustration of the defective character of both public and -private systems of education, in the United States, is afforded by the -statistics of commercial, railway, and other business failures. In 1877 -a careful compilation of figures in regard to the shrinkage of railway -values showed the following result: - -“In round numbers, _eighteen hundred millions of dollars_, or -thirty-eight per cent. of the capital reported as invested in two -hundred of our railway companies alone, is wholly unproductive to the -investors, and the greater part is wholly lost to them. This is -sufficiently appalling, but when we consider how many companies that -have managed to keep up the interest on their bonds have wholly, or -almost, ceased to pay any interest on their capital stock, which stock, -in turn, has shrunk to seventy-five, fifty, twenty-five, ten, in some -cases _five_ per cent. of its par value, it will seem to be a reasonable -conclusion that the actual shrinkage and loss to _somebody_ on the face -value of railway investments in the United States has been fully fifty -per cent.!”[51] - - [51] _The Chicago Railway Age._ - -In view of this startling exhibit it is evident that in the projection, -construction, and management of the railways of the United States there -has been gross incompetency. - -In 1881 Messrs. R. G. Dun & Co., the well-known commercial agents, -showed that of the wholesale merchants doing business in the city of -Chicago in 1870 fifty per cent. had failed, suspended, or compromised -with their creditors. - -Forty years ago Gen. Dearborn, a prominent citizen of Chicago, declared -that not more than three per cent. of the individuals who embark in -trade end life with success. The success meant, doubtless, is unbroken -solvency during the business experience of the merchant, and the final -accumulation of a competence. The mercantile ranks in the United States -afford many instances of individual merchants and firms who have settled -or compromised with their creditors several times, and finally -succeeded--succeeded at the expense of their creditors. But this is not -the success meant by Gen. Dearborn. This statistical information, -furnished by Messrs. R. G. Dun & Co., tends to confirm, approximately, -the verity of the common remark that in trade not one in a hundred -succeeds. - -Let us suppose that three merchants in a hundred so conduct their -business as never to ask their creditors for a favor, never to “settle” -for 50 or 25 cents, but always pay “dollar for dollar,” and come out in -the end rich. This is strictly legitimate success. It would be very -interesting to learn what becomes of the other ninety-seven merchants. -Most of them go down after a few years, never again to emerge above the -surface of commercial affairs. They live on salaries, enter the ranks of -the speculative class, or become genteel paupers. But doubtless seven at -least of the ninety-seven “compromise” and “settle” themselves over the -breakers, and finally achieve success. So that of the ten successful -merchants out of a hundred those who succeed at the expense of their -creditors are as seven to three of those who win success by the highest -degree of mercantile merit. - -With ninety utter failures, seven successes which involve the misfortune -or wreck of others, and only three untarnished successes in a hundred, -the general ambition to enter mercantile life is simply unaccountable. -Of course the small number of successful merchants have to calculate -upon the failures which will inevitably occur. They must discount the -losses they are sure to incur through those failures--provide for them -by increasing the otherwise sufficient profit of each transaction. In -this way the public pays the cost of each failure. In other words, the -consumer is taxed to pay the expense of ninety complete failures, and -seven partial failures, in every hundred mercantile experiments. This -expense aggregates scores of millions of dollars in this country alone, -every year. The sum of losses by the failure of merchants in good -seasons is very large, and in seasons of commercial depression it is -vast. - -It is evident that ninety-seven in every hundred merchants mistake their -avocation. Only three in a hundred are exactly fitted for the business -they undertake. They are morally the “fittest” who survive by virtue of -ability and integrity; the seven who survive by levying contributions on -their creditors may also be regarded as the “fittest” according to the -Darwinian theory. Of the ninety who go down without even a struggle to -“settle” or “compromise,” they answer to the received definition of -dirt--“matter out of place.” - -The investigation made by Messrs. R. G. Dun & Co., which resulted in the -statistical information here reproduced and commented upon, was brought -about by the assertion in 1881 of a life-insurance agent that fifty per -cent. of the wholesale merchants doing business in the city of Chicago -in 1870 had meantime failed, suspended, or compromised with their -creditors. Out of this investigation the question logically springs, “Is -not failing in business made too easy?”[52] If “compromises,” -“settlements,” and “failures” carry with them no disgrace, it is but -natural that thousands should take the risk of them in the contest for -the great prizes which are the reward of success. The distinction in the -public mind between the three merchants in a hundred who succeed -legitimately and the seven who succeed by questionable “compromises” or -“settlements” is very slight; and too many of the ninety who fail -utterly retire with large sums of money which belong honestly to their -creditors. Doubtless the life-insurance agent, in depicting the perils -of mercantile ventures, urged the propriety of the merchant fortifying -himself against disaster by insuring his life for the benefit of his -family. This is a legitimate argument when addressed to the merchant in -solvent condition; but the life-insurance agent’s intimate acquaintance -with the shaky finances of nine-tenths of the commercial community -teaches him that a large share of the money he receives in premiums, -comes not from the merchant, but from the merchant’s creditors, who will -soon be called upon, in the natural course of events, to consent to a -composition of his claim, while the shaky merchant will retire with a -paid-up policy of insurance in favor of his family. - - [52] “Mercantile honor is held so high in some countries that the - calamity of bankruptcy drives men mad. In France there are numerous - instances of almost superhuman struggles on the part of ruined - merchants to regain, by patient effort and pinching economy, their - lost station in the business community. César Birotteau, Balzac’s hero - of such a struggle, dies from excess of emotion in the hour of his - triumph. ‘Behold the death of the just!’ the Abbé Loraux exclaims, as - he regards, with lofty pride, the expiring merchant.”--“Ten-minute - Sketches,” p. 220. By Charles H. Ham. Chicago and New York: Belford, - Clark & Co., 1884. - -It is quite plain that in nine cases out of ten the merchant who carries -a large policy of insurance on his life actually pays for it out of his -creditors’ instead of his own money. To be sure, it may be said that the -nine merchants hope and expect to succeed, as well as the one. But is -not it the duty of the merchant who owes large sums of money to think -more of providing means for the payment of his immediate debts than of -laying up a support for himself and family in the event of failure? Some -disgrace ought to attach to failure in business; that is to say, -disgrace enough to make the merchant cautious and economical, with a -view, not to his own protection in the event of failure, but to the -protection of his creditors, and of his own reputation as a business -man. - -These failures, on so vast a scale, of railway enterprises, and the -almost total wreck of mercantile ventures, show that the business of -this country is done, as a Yankee might say, “by guess,” or as the -mechanic of the old _régime_ would say, “by the rule of thumb.” The -conclusion is hence irresistible that the youth of the United States are -not so educated as to fit them for the conduct, to a successful issue, -of great business enterprises. And this is an impeachment of what is -regarded, on the whole, as the best system of popular education in -operation in the world. A system of education which turns out -ninety-three or ninety-seven men who fail, to three or seven men who -succeed in business, must be very unscientific. If the savage system of -education were not better adapted to the savage state, the savage would -perish from the earth in the process of civilization. The savage bends -his ear to the ground and robs the forest of its secrets, not three -times in a hundred, but ninety and nine times. Ninety-nine times in a -hundred he traces the footsteps of his enemy in the tangled mazes of the -pathless wood. - -In “Aborigines of Australia”[53] Mr. G. S. Lang states that “one day -while travelling in Australia he pointed to a footstep and asked whose -it was. The guide glanced at it without stopping his horse, and at once -answered, ‘Whitefellow call him Tiger.’ This turned out to be correct; -which was the more remarkable as the two men belonged to different -tribes, and had not met for two years.” Among the Arabs it is asserted -that some men know every individual in the tribe by his footstep. -Besides this, every Arab knows the printed footsteps of his own camels, -and of those belonging to his immediate neighbors. He knows by the depth -or slightness of the impression whether a camel was pasturing, and -therefore not carrying any load, or mounted by one person only, or -heavily loaded. The Australian will kill a pigeon with a spear at a -distance of thirty paces. The Esquimau in his kayak will actually turn -somersaults in the water. After giving many illustrations of the skill -of various races of savages, Sir John Lubbock says, - -“What an amount of practice must be required to obtain such skill as -this! How true, also, must the weapons be! Indeed it is very evident -that each distinct type of flint implement must have been designed for -some distinct purpose.” He adds, “The neatness with which the -Hottentots, Esquimaux, North American Indians, etc., are able to sew is -very remarkable, although awls and sinews would in our hands be but poor -substitutes for needles and thread. As already mentioned (in page 332), -some cautious archæologists hesitated to refer the reindeer caves of the -Dordogne to the Stone Age, on account of the bone needles and the works -of art which are found in them. The eyes of the needles especially, they -thought, could only be made with metallic implements. Prof. Lartet -ingeniously removed these doubts by making a similar needle for himself -with the help of flint; but he might have referred to the fact stated by -Cook in his first voyage, that the New Zealanders succeeded in drilling -a hole through a piece of glass which he had given them, using for this -purpose, as he supposed, a piece of jasper.”[54] - - [53] “Aborigines of Australia,” p. 24. - - [54] “Prehistoric Times,” pp. 544, 548. By Sir John Lubbock, Bart., - M.P. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1875. - -The education which enables the savage to make these extremely nice -adjustments of means to ends is scientific. The observation, for -example, of the Arab who draws such accurate conclusions from the -“printed footstep of the camel,” if applied to the problems of civilized -life, would result in success, not failure. - -The excellence of this savage training consists in its practical -character, in its perfect adaptation to the end in view. For example, -the Esquimau boy is not instructed in the theory of turning somersaults -in the water, in his kayak. He sees his father perform the feat; he is -given a kayak and required to perform it also. The result is early and -complete success. So of the Arab. In traversing the desert it is -important for him to read every sign, to translate every mark left in -the sand. Upon the accuracy of his observation his life may often -depend. The print of the camel’s footstep may tell him whether he is, -soon or late, to meet friend or foe. Hence from early childhood his -faculty of observation is trained until it soon becomes as delicate and -nice as the sense of touch of a blind, deaf mute. Sir John Lubbock -thinks that a great amount of practice must be required to achieve so -much skill; but the results are due, probably, more to the nature, than -to the extent, of the practice. It is the excellence of the training -that produces results which excite wonder and admiration. The savage is -indolent; he works only that he may eat, and he works well, simply -because he has been taught objectively, instead of subjectively. - -The difference in results between the best and the poorest methods of -instruction is very great, as witness the testimony of Mr. Thomas Foley, -late instructor in forging, vise-work, and machine-tool work in the -school of mechanic arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He -says, - -“It is a great waste of time to spend two or three years in acquiring -knowledge of a given business, profession, or trade, that can be -acquired in the short space of twelve or thirteen days, under a proper -course of instruction. Twelve days of systematic school-shop instruction -produces as great a degree of dexterity as two or more years’ -apprenticeship under the adverse conditions which prevail in the -trade-shop.”[55] The manual training methods are the same as those which -enable the savage to perform such feats of skill. They are the natural -and hence most efficient methods of imparting instruction. - - [55] Report on “The Manual Element in Education,” p. 30. By John D. - Runkle, Ph.D., LL.D., Walker Professor of Mathematics, Institute of - Technology, Boston, Mass. - -The manual training school is a kindergarten for boys fourteen years of -age. Miss S. E. Blow, in formulating the theory of the kindergarten, -describes the methods of the savage’s school, and those of the manual -training school, as follows: - -“It is a truth now universally recognized by educators that ideas are -formed in the mind of a child by abstraction and generalization from the -facts revealed to him through the senses; that only what he himself has -perceived of the visible and tangible properties of things can serve as -the basis of thought; and that upon the vividness and completeness of -the impressions made upon him by external objects, will depend the -clearness of his inferences and the correctness of his judgments. It is -equally true, and as generally recognized, that in young children the -perceptive faculties are relatively stronger than at any later period, -and that while the understanding and reason still sleep, the sensitive -mind is receiving those sharp impressions of external things which, held -fast by memory, transformed by the imagination, and finally classified -and organized through reflection, result in the determination of thought -and the formation of character. - -“These two parallel truths indicate clearly that the first duty of the -educator is to aid the perceptive faculties in their work by supplying -the external objects best calculated to serve as the basis of normal -conceptions, by exhibiting these objects from many different -stand-points--that variety of interest may sharpen and intensify the -impressions they make upon the mind, and by presenting them in such a -sequence that the transition from one object to another may be made as -easy as possible.”[56] - - [56] “The Kindergarten. An address, delivered April 3, 1875, before - the Normal Teachers’ Association, at St. Louis, Mo.” - -This admirable exposition of the theory of scientific education solves -the mystery which has always enveloped savage skill. It also affords a -philosophic explanation of the fact discovered by Mr. Foley, namely, -that the student of the manual training school acquires as much -knowledge in one hundred and twenty hours as the apprentice of the -machine-shop does in two years. In a word, it shows exactly why -scientific education is so incomparably superior to automatic education. -Mr. Foley asserts, in substance, that the scientific methods of the -manual training school are twenty times as valuable to the student as -the unscientific methods of the trade-shop are to the apprentice. - -In a familiar letter to the author, Prof. Goss[57] shows why the methods -of the manual training school are so very valuable. He says: - -“In such a school, or course, a student is taught to perform a series -of operations, involving practice with a variety of tools, on pieces of -suitable material. It is not to be supposed that his ability to make a -certain piece is directly valuable, for the experience of a lifetime may -never require him to make it again. It is not expected that while making -the piece he will learn a number of formulated facts relating to his -work, and its application to other work, for that is not the best way to -learn. Nor can we expect him to acquire a high degree of hand skill -(accuracy and rapidity of movement combined), for this his limited time -will not permit. But he does this: he works out a practical mechanical -problem with every piece he makes. He sees how the tool should be -handled, and how the material operated on behaves. He comes to -understand why the tool cuts well in some directions and not so well in -others; and all the time he queries to himself where it was that he saw -a joint like the one he is making. He is an investigator--as much so as -a student in chemistry. His mind must always guide his hand; his -reasoning opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel. - - [57] Prof. William F. M. Goss, a graduate of the school of mechanic - arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and at present - instructor in the mechanic arts department of the Purdue University. - -“A boy ten years old, who was a member of a class under my direction in -Indianapolis in 1883, is reported to have said, ‘Why, mother, I never -looked at the doors and windows so much in all my life as I have since I -began at the wood-working school.’ - -“I tell my students how to go to work, when they are likely to make -mistakes, and how mistakes may be avoided. In operating along the line -directed they thoroughly understand what they are doing, and why they do -it. They see on all sides of their work. - -“If I have several different tools for doing work of the same -character, I frequently give a student first one and then another, until -he has tried them all. Then I ask him which he likes best, and why. -Suppose we are to make a drawing-board. The class having already been -made familiar with the principles governing the shrinkage and warping of -woods, is asked in what way the cleats, to prevent warping, may best be -fastened to the ends. The question is left open for a day or two, and -sketches are submitted and views exchanged on the subject. - -“I frequently ask my students to pass to me, in writing, as many facts -(not in the form of a composition) as they can think of regarding -certain stated features of their work--not facts to be obtained from -books, but from things they have seen and with which they are familiar. -The replies are often remarkable for accuracy and force of statement.... - -“The manual training school that does not by its work inspire thought -and encourage investigation is poor indeed; the school that assumes its -work to be _mind training by hand practice_ is the ideal school, and the -school that will succeed.... - -“My answer to your second and third questions is already evident. I -consider an hour in the shop as valuable for its intellectual training -as an hour of book-study, and two hours in the shop as valuable as two -hours of study. I do not think that a student can take two hours of -shop-work in addition to a full course of outside study; but I am -convinced that two hours in the shop can be made to take the place of -one hour of study without extra burden to the student. Therefore, this -being done, the student will get as much again intellectual benefit from -the shop as he would get if the shop-work equivalent in time were given -to book-study.” - -This description of the mental operations which accompany the laboratory -exercises of the manual training school shows the intimacy of the -relations existing between the brain and the hand. It shows how they act -and react upon each other, and affords an explanation of the remark of -Dr. Belfield,[58] that the laboratory exercises are in fact a great -strain upon the mental constitution of the student. This observation of -Dr. Belfield, one of the most distinguished teachers of the old _régime_ -in the United States, entirely justifies the claim made in behalf of the -scientific character of manual training as an educational agency, for it -shows that such training is in no sense automatic. If manual training is -a great strain upon the mental faculties, it must be because the use of -tools stimulates such faculties to great activity. And if this is true, -the mental discipline derived from manual training must be -proportionally great. This is a pivotal point; for if the observation of -Dr. Belfield is well founded in fact and reason, it proves to a -demonstration the high educational value of manual training--proves its -superiority over all the methods of the old _régime_. - - [58] Henry H. Belfield, A.M., Ph.D., Director of the Chicago Manual - Training School. - -Prof. Goss says, “The manual training school student is an -investigator--as much so as a student in chemistry. His mind must always -guide his hand, his reasoning opens new fields of thought with every -stroke of the chisel. He sees on all sides of his work.”[59] And Dr. -Belfield says that these varied operations of the mind cause a severe -mental strain. It would be difficult to find a better exemplification of -scientific education than a course of training which exercises -simultaneously the powers of both body and mind, a course which with -every fresh burden put upon the mind puts new vitality into the body. -This is, indeed, the very opposite of automatic education, and we may -well call it scientific education. - - [59] “No extent of acquaintance with the meanings of words can give - the power of forming correct inferences respecting causes and effects. - The constant habit of drawing conclusions from data, and then of - verifying those conclusions by observation and experiment, can alone - give the power of judging correctly.”--“Education,” p. 88. By Herbert - Spencer. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. - -Another leaf from the experience of Dr. Belfield is worthy of -reproduction here. On the 20th of February, 1884, he took the sense of -the students in his school on the question whether or not they should -indulge in a vacation on Washington’s birthday anniversary. Somewhat to -his surprise the vote was almost unanimous in the affirmative. He -acceded to the wishes of the students, but no sooner was the -announcement made, than he was besieged with applications from nearly -all of them for permission to convert the holiday into a work-day in the -laboratories! Dr. Belfield has been compelled to post a peremptory order -against the occupancy of the school laboratories by the students on -Saturdays, which are regular vacation days. - -Natural training is scientific training. The fondness of the student for -the manual training school is evidence of its scientific character. He -is fond of it because it is natural. Miss Blow says of the child: “Only -what he himself has perceived of the visible and tangible properties of -things can serve as the basis of thought, and upon the vividness and -completeness of the impressions made upon him by external objects will -depend the clearness of his inferences and the correctness of his -judgments.” This is the education both of the kindergarten and the -manual training school, and it brightens, stimulates, and develops, -while automatic education stupefies. - -Mr. Foley, formerly of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, -declares, as the result of his experience, as already stated, that the -scientific methods of the manual training school are twenty times as -valuable to the student as the unscientific methods of the trade-shop -are to the apprentice. But we have shown in a former chapter that the -training of the trade-shops of England, during the past one hundred and -fifty years, has been better than that of the English schools and -universities; in a word, that England is more indebted for her greatness -to her apprentice system than to her school system. It follows that the -school system of England must have been almost indescribably poor. - -That the system of popular education in the United States, which is much -more comprehensive, and presumably better, than that of England, is very -poor indeed in results, is shown by the statistics of railway and -mercantile disasters; and it is scarcely necessary to remark that these -disasters show prevailing methods of education to be as defective -morally as they are mentally. The reason of this is that, being -automatic, they lead neither to the discovery of truth nor to the -detection of error. It is easy to juggle with words, to argue in a -circle, to make the worse appear the better reason, and to reach false -conclusions which wear a plausible aspect. But it is not so with things. -If the cylinder is not tight the steam-engine is a lifeless mass of iron -of no value whatever. A flaw in the wheel of the locomotive wrecks the -train. Through a defective flue in the chimney the house is set on fire. -A lie in the concrete is always hideous; like murder, it will out. -Hence it is that the mind is liable to fall into grave errors until it -is fortified by the wise counsel of the practical hand. - -It is obvious that the reason of the demand for the manual element in -education is not so much that industrial interests require to be -promoted, as that mental operations may be rendered more true, and hence -more scientific. What we need more than we need a better class of -mechanics is a better class of men--men of a higher grade both morally -and intellectually. The study of things so steadies and balances the -mind that the attention being once turned in that direction great -results soon follow, as witness, the history of discovery and invention -in England. - -The world moves very fast industrially, but very slow morally and -intellectually. Mechanics stand the test of scrutiny far better than -merchants. Civil engineers and architects are more competent than -railway presidents, lawyers, judges, and legislators. The reason of this -fact is that mechanics, civil engineers, and architects are educated -practically in the world’s shops and the world’s technical schools. They -are trained in things, while merchants, railway presidents, lawyers, -judges, and legislators have only the automatic word-training of the -schools. It is notorious that criminals are not punished in this -country. Suppose there were such a failure of bridges as there is of -justice. That is to say, suppose nine-tenths of the bridges constructed, -whether for railway or other purposes, should fall within a few months -of their completion. What would be thought of the technical schools -whence the civil engineers graduate? - -Ninety-seven merchants in a hundred fail. Suppose ninety-seven buildings -in a hundred, constructed under the direction of architects, should -tumble down over the heads of their occupants six months after their -erection. The education of the architects would no doubt be regarded as -defective. - -Buckle says of English legislation, “The best laws which have been -passed have been those by which some former laws were repealed.”[60] It -will be admitted that the same is true of American legislation.[61] In -other words, the average legislator is wiser in the statutes he repeals -than in the bills he enacts. What if the incompetency of the legislator -were paralleled by that of the machinist? Suppose ninety-seven in every -one hundred locomotives should break down on the “trial-trip,” and be -returned to the builder’s shop for remanufacture. Such a result would be -an impeachment of the education of the locomotive builder. - - [60] “History of Civilization in England,” Vol. I, p. 200. By Henry - Thomas Buckle. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1864. - - “In a paper read to the Statistical Society in May, 1873, Mr. Janson, - Vice-president of the Law Society, stated that from the statute of - Merton (20 Henry III.) to the end of 1872 there had been passed 18,110 - public acts, of which he estimated that four-fifths had been wholly or - partially repealed. He also stated that the number of public acts - repealed wholly or in part, or amended, during the three years - 1870-71-72 had been 3532, of which 2759 had been totally repealed. To - see whether this rate of repeal has continued I have referred to the - annually issued volumes of the ‘Public General Statutes’ for the last - three sessions. Saying nothing of the numerous amended acts, the - result is that in the last three sessions there have been totally - repealed, separately or in groups, 650 acts _belonging to the present - reign_, besides many of preceding reigns.... - - “Seeing, then, that bad legislation means injury to men’s lives, judge - what must be the total amount of mental distress, physical pain, and - raised mortality which these thousands of repealed Acts of Parliament - represent.”--“The Man _versus_ the State,” pp. 50, 51. By Herbert - Spencer. New York: D. Appleton & Co. - - [61] “So thoroughly have the conscience and intelligence of the North - apprehended these facts [neglect to educate and enlighten the - freedmen], that while the Nation has done nothing they have given in - private charity, intended to remedy this evil, nearly a million - dollars a year for nearly twenty years. This is the instinct of a - people _versus_ the stupidity of their legislators.... Of the true - character of the South he [the author] was, like all his class, - profoundly ignorant, almost as ignorant as the men who made the - Nation’s laws.”--“An Appeal to Cæsar,” pp. 52, 56. By A. W. Tourgée. - -Ninety-seven in every hundred boys who graduate from the public schools -and embark in mercantile pursuits fail. Suppose ninety-seven in every -hundred watches made in the American watch factories should prove to be -worthless. The watch companies would, no doubt, soon be in the hands of -the sheriff. But, as a matter of fact, the Elgin National Watch Company, -for example, makes twelve hundred watches a day, and each and every one -of them is an almost perfect time-keeper. - -There is, then, no such failure of the arts as there is of justice; no -such failure of mechanics as of merchants; no such failure of -locomotives and watches as of legislation. It follows that the education -of artisans is better, more scientific, than that of merchants, judges, -lawyers, and legislators. And this is a very significant fact when it is -considered that the State does much for education in _belles-lettres_ -and scarcely anything for education in the arts and sciences.[62] - - [62] The reason why statutes fail more frequently than steam-engines - and bridges is not wholly because the legislator has to deal with - human nature and the mechanic with inanimate matter. Steam and - electricity are subtle forces, but man has quickly mastered them and - successfully applied them to a variety of uses. - - It is not to the interest of any one that the machinist should make a - defective locomotive, for example; but it is often to the interest of - some one that the legislator should enact vicious laws. Vicious - statutes are enacted with a design to injure the public in order that - certain individuals may be benefited thereby. - - If the mind should act as honestly in legislation as the hand does in - construction, statutes would not have to be repealed yearly. - - We have fallen into the habit of regarding education as a polite - accomplishment having very little to do with the real business of - life; but this is not the fact. Education begins in the cradle and - continues through life; and it makes the man what he is. If he goes to - the penitentiary it is his education that sends him there. If he is - sent to the General Assembly of the State or to the Congress of the - Nation, and there helps to enact vicious laws, it is his education - that is responsible for such laws. If the man as a citizen sells his - franchise at the polls, or his vote in the legislative hall, for - money, it is the education he has received that is responsible for his - baseness. - - It will be said that the explanation of the greater apparent accuracy - of the work of the hand is to be found in the fact that it operates - upon matter while the mind deals with metaphysical subtilties. The - contention will not be that mind is less plastic than matter, but that - it is more difficult of comprehension. But how do we know this to be - the fact? Where has the experiment been tried of honest contact mind - with mind? It was not tried by the ancients. It is not on trial in any - part of the world to-day. There is, hence, no place in which to seek - evidence as to how mind would act upon mind if treated honestly, as - matter is treated by the hand. But if the quality of selfishness is - eliminated, there will be no difficulty in bringing all minds to an - agreement, as the parts of a watch are brought into harmonious and - useful action. And it is through the hand that this beneficent union - is destined to be effected; for the hand is the source of wisdom, - which is simply the power of discriminating between the true and the - false. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION--_Continued_. - - The Training of the Merchant, the Lawyer, the Judge, and the - Legislator contrasted with that of the Artisan. -- The Training of the - Merchant makes him Selfish, and Selfishness breeds Dishonesty. -- - Professional Men become Speculative Philosophers, and test their - Speculations by Consciousness. -- The Artisan forgets Self in the - Study of Things. -- The Search after Truth. -- The Story of Palissy. - -- The Hero is the Normal Man; those who Marvel at his Acts are - abnormally Developed. -- Savonarola and John Brown. -- The New England - System of Education contrasted with that of the South. -- American - Statesmanship -- its Failure in an Educational Point of View. -- Why - the State Provides for Education; to protect Property. -- The British - Government and the Land Question. -- The Thoroughness of the Training - given by Schools of Mechanic Art and Institutes of Technology as shown - in Things. -- Story of the Emperor of Germany and the Needle-maker. -- - The Iron Bridge lasts a Century, the Act of the Legislator wears out - in a Year. -- The Cause of the Failures of Justice and Legislation. -- - The best Law is the Act that Repeals a Law; but the Act of the - Inventor is never Repealed. -- Things the Source and Issue of Ideas; - hence the Necessity of Training in the Arts. - - -There is a cause for the failure of the merchant, the lawyer, the judge, -and the legislator, as well as for the success of the artisan. And the -cause must be sought in the courses of training, respectively, of the -two classes. Let us assume that the artisan and the merchant, the -lawyer, the judge, and the legislator, graduate at the same time from -the public high school, or from Harvard or Yale. The merchant at once -begins to trade, to buy and sell. He concerns himself with things only -as they have a value, either naturally arising from the law of demand -and supply, or arbitrarily imposed by circumstances. His consideration -of the relations of things is confined to the single question of the -percentage of profit which may accrue to him from traffic in them. These -are subjective processes of thought, and the merchant becomes absorbed -in them to the exclusion of all other topics. It goes without saying -that he becomes intensely selfish. The struggle is one of mercantile -life or death--ninety-three to ninety-seven in a hundred die; three to -seven survive. - -Among merchants there is, hence, very little thought of the subject of -justice, and no effort to discover truth. There must, at the end of the -year, be a favorable balance on the right side of the ledger, or the -balance on the wrong side unerringly points the way to ruin. This is the -post-school training of the merchant. That neither it nor his previous -education renders him skilful we know, since he fails ninety-three to -ninety-seven times in a hundred trials. That subjective training does -not and never can promote rectitude has been shown in a former chapter -of this work. That merchants who compromise with their creditors, and -subsequently accumulate fortunes, very rarely repay the debt formerly -forgiven is a notorious fact. A Chicago merchant who himself repaid such -a composition debt early in his career, states, at the end of -twenty-five years’ experience, that of compromises involving several -hundred thousand dollars, made by him in favor of debtors, not one -dollar has ever been repaid. - -Upon leaving school or college the lawyer, the judge, and the legislator -at once apply themselves to books; their subsequent training is -exclusively subjective. Their ideas receive color from, and are verified -only by reference to, consciousness. Subjective truths have no -relations to things, and hence are susceptible of verification only -through consciousness. They are, therefore, mere speculations after all, -often ingenious but always problematical. The result of such training is -selfishness--selfishness of a very intense character; and, as has been -already shown, selfishness is merely another name for injustice. - -On the other hand the artisan devotes himself to things. His training is -exclusively objective. His ideas flow outward; he studies the nature and -relations of things. In this investigation he forgets self because his -life becomes a grand struggle in search of truth; and the discovery of -truth in things, if not easy, is ultimately sure of attainment, since -harmony is its sign, and its opposite, the false, is certain of exposure -through its native deformity; for however alluring a lie may be made to -appear in the abstract, in the concrete it is a monster unmasked. - -From the false the artisan intuitively shrinks. He can only succeed by -finding the truth, and embodying it in some useful or beautiful thing -which will contribute to the comfort or pleasure of man. Hence his -watchword is utility, or, beauty in utility. Of the engrossing character -of this struggle the story of Bernard Palissy affords a splendid -illustration. Palissy was an artist, a student, and a naturalist, but -poor, and compelled to follow the profession of surveying to support his -family. At the age of thirty he saw an enamelled cup, of Italian -manufacture, which fired his ambition. Ignorant of the nature of clays, -he nevertheless resolved to discover enamel, and entered upon a -laborious course of investigation and experiment with that end in view. -After many years of Herculean effort and indescribable privation, which -beggared and estranged his family, and rendered him an object of -ridicule among his neighbors, he achieved a grand success. At a critical -period of his experiments, in the face of the indignant protests of his -almost starving family, having exhausted his credit to the last penny, -he consigned to the flames of his furnace the chairs, tables, and floors -of his humble cottage, and continued to watch his chemicals with -all-absorbing attention, while his wife in despair rushed through the -streets making loud proclamation of the scandal. - -But Palissy was more than a potter; he was a Christian, a philosopher, -and an austere reformer. Notwithstanding he had been petted and -patronized as an ingenious artisan by the royal family of France, he was -finally cast into prison under charge of heresy. It was there that the -remarkable interview with King Henry III. occurred, which immortalized -Palissy as a hero. “My good man,” said the king, “you have been -forty-five years in the service of the queen, my mother, or in mine, and -we have suffered you to live in your own religion, amid all the -executions and the massacres. Now, however, I am so pressed by the Guise -party and my people that I have been compelled in spite of myself to -imprison these two poor women and you.” “Sire,” answered the old man, -“the count came yesterday on your part, promising life to these two -sisters upon condition of the sacrifice of their virtue. They replied -that they would now be martyrs to their own honor as well as for the -honor of God. You have said several times that you feel pity for me; but -it is I who pity you, who have said, ‘I am compelled!’ That is not -speaking like a king. These girls and I, who have part in the kingdom of -heaven--we will teach you to talk royally. The Guisarts, all your -people, and yourself, cannot compel a potter to bow down to images of -clay!”[63] And Palissy the potter and heretic, at the age of seventy, -died in the Bastile, proudly defying a king. - - [63] “Palissy the Potter,” Vol. II., pp. 187, 188. By Henry Morley. - Boston: Ticknor, Reed & Fields, 1853. - -The more absorbing the struggle for the discovery of truth the less room -there is in the mind for selfishness; and as selfishness recedes, -justice assumes its appropriate place as the controlling element in -human conduct. The hero is an honest man, that’s all,-- - - “Though love repine, and reason chafe, - There comes a voice without reply; - ’Tis man’s perdition to be safe, - When for the truth he ought to die.” - -If all men were heroes--honest--there would be no occasion for heroism. -If all education can be made scientific, all men can be made honest. The -struggle to find truth is more natural than the struggle to succeed -regardless of, or against, truth. The reason why what we call heroism -appears so grand is this: the standards of public judgment have become -so perverted by long custom in the abuse of truth, that normal conduct -appears strange. - -When Palissy burned his chairs and tables in the cause of art, his -family and his neighbors derided him, and denounced him as a madman, and -in prison the king urged him, as a friend, to save himself from death by -recanting his assertion of the right of freedom of religious opinion. -Palissy was a hero neither to his family, his friends, nor his king;[64] -but he was right, and his discovery and his firmness rendered him -immortal. We now know, three hundred years farther down the course of -time, that Palissy’s struggle over the furnace in the cause of art was -mentally and morally normal, while the opposition he encountered was -abnormal; and that his defiance of the king was mentally and morally -normal, while his persecution was abnormal and cruel. - - [64] “I had nothing but reproaches in the house; in place of - consolation, they gave me maledictions. My neighbors, who had heard of - this affair [the failure of an experiment], said that I was nothing - but a fool, and that I might have had more than eight francs for the - things that I had broken; and all this talk was brought to mingle with - my grief.”--“Palissy the Potter,” Vol. I., p. 190. By Henry Morley. - Boston: Ticknor, Reed & Fields, 1853. - -Palissy’s mind was trained naturally in the direction of rectitude, -while the minds of the millions of men who permitted him to die -unfriended, a prisoner in the Bastile, were developed unnaturally. Their -education was unscientific, and their characters were hence deformed. -The one symmetrical character was that of Palissy, the lover of truth, -who was ready to starve, if need be, for his art, and ready to die for -his faith. The thin ranks of the so-called heroes of the ages of history -constitute the measure of the poverty of the systems of education that -have prevailed among mankind. These so-called heroes are merely normally -developed men--men who search for the truth, and having found it, honor -it always and everywhere. They are peculiar to no clime, to no country, -to no age. They are cosmopolitan, and the fact that they are honored, -after death, by succeeding ages is proof positive of the world’s -progress, or rather of the progress of moral ideas. - -The civilization of Italy in the middle of the fifteenth century -presents the most violent possible contrast to that of America in the -last half of the nineteenth century. But the one produced Savonarola, -the hater of abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, and the other John -Brown, the stern, uncompromising hater of human bondage. Four hundred -years is a long period in the history of civilization; but the priest of -the fifteenth century, and the farmer of the nineteenth, are as near of -kin in spirit, as if they had been born of the same mother, and reared -in the same moral atmosphere. - -The true hero is always inexorable--as Savonarola in the presence of the -majesty of a dying, remorse-stricken, half-repentant prince, and John -Brown in the presence of his exultant but half-terrified captors. When -Lorenzo di Medici lay terror-stricken, on his death-bed, Savonarola -demanded of the dying prince, as the price of absolution, a restoration -of the liberties of the people of Florence; and this being refused, the -priest departed without one word of peace. - -When John Brown, wounded and bleeding, lay a captive at Harper’s Ferry, -listening to the taunts of angry Virginians, he said, calmly and firmly, -“You had better--all you people of the South--prepare yourselves for a -settlement of this question. It must come up for settlement sooner than -you are prepared for it, and the sooner you commence that preparation -the better for you. You may dispose of me very easily--I am nearly -disposed of now--but this question is still to be settled--this negro -question, I mean. The end of that is not yet.”[65] - - [65] “The Public Life of Captain John Brown.” p. 283. By John Redpath. - Boston: Thayer & Eldridge, 1860. - -There is nothing grander in history, whether real or mythological, than -the picture of the humble priest of the fifteenth century, with no power -except the justice of his cause, shaking thrones and making proud -prelates, and even the Pope himself, tremble with fear! And the exact -parallel of this picture is found, four hundred years down the stream of -time, in the person of the farmer, John Brown, defying the Constitution, -law, and public sentiment of his country in the interest simply of the -cause of justice. - -It has been shown through citations from the Walton report, as well as -by the opinions of many competent witnesses, that the New England system -of education, whether correct in theory or not, is, in actual operation, -very defective. But at the time of its establishment it was the best -system in existence. To it this country owes the quality of its -civilization. The neglect of education by the Government of the United -States is the most astonishing fact of its history. It is -incomprehensible how, with a comparatively excellent educational system -in operation, and in full view in the New England, Middle, and Western -States, the National Government could calmly and inactively contemplate -the almost entire neglect of popular education in the States of the -South, and ignore, from year to year, the steadily accumulating horrors -of ignorance and vice which were destined to lead to such deplorable -political and social results. - -The difference between the civilization of New England and that of South -Carolina, for example, is exactly measured by the difference between -their respective educational systems. New England undertook, at a very -early day, to educate every class of its citizens; South Carolina made a -monopoly of education, confining it to a single class. - -It must be admitted that the American statesmanship of the whole period -of our history has been scarcely less short-sighted than that of England -under the Georges, which resulted in saddling upon her people a debt -that they can never pay. If England had provided a comprehensive and -scientific system of popular education at the beginning of the -eighteenth century, who doubts that the wars through which her debt was -incurred would have been averted? If the Government of the United States -had compelled the adoption of a scientific educational system by the -States of the South, who doubts that slavery would have peaceably passed -away, and the occasion for war passed away with it? - -The conspicuous failure of American statesmanship consists in a failure -to appreciate the value of scientific education, it shows that good -citizenship is impossible without good education--for good education and -good citizenship are convertible terms. And it is easy to show, by the -past, that to hesitate on the subject of education is to be lost.[66] - - [66] “If you examine into the history of rogues, you will find that - they are as truly manufactured articles as anything else, and it is - just because our present system of political economy gives so large a - stimulus to that manufacture that you may know it to be a false one. - We had better seek for a system which will develop honest men than for - one which will deal cunningly with vagabonds. Let us reform our - schools, and we shall find little reform needed in our - prisons.”--“Unto This Last,” p. 50. By John Ruskin. New York: John - Wiley & Sons, 1883. - -Why do we provide for popular education? Is it out of pure generosity -that the rich citizen consents to be taxed to pay for the education of -his poor neighbor’s children? Does the man who has no children willingly -surrender a portion of his estate for the education of the children of -others, as an act of benevolence? Not at all. There is no security for -property in a community devoid of education and consequent intelligence. -Intelligence alone confers upon property a sacred character. In one of -two ways only can property be rendered secure in the owner’s hands. It -may be protected by a hired soldiery, through the force of arms,[E13] or -through the force of public sentiment enlightened by education. The -reason why the poor but educated citizen would not lay violent hands on -the rich citizen’s property is the fact that he indulges the intelligent -hope of himself acquiring property. Besides, the morals of a community -are in the ratio of its intelligence. The indulgence of hope promotes -self-esteem, and self-respect, and these qualities react ethically. - -It should be borne in mind that while one of the main purposes of all -governments is to preserve property rights, nearly all the governments -of history have been shattered in pieces in the effort to fulfil this -function of their existence. It may be said that there is never anything -sacred about property unless it is honestly acquired. All the force of -our own government was exerted in a vain effort to protect property in -slaves. England has been compelled to disturb the property rights of the -Irish landlords, and this is only the prelude to an attack upon the -property rights of her own landlords. It was the ignorance of the -English people hundreds of years ago that permitted the establishment of -a land system which is now about to crumble in pieces, and in its fail -wreck certain property rights. - -There is nothing sacred about property unless it is honestly acquired -and honestly held; and property can only be honestly acquired and -honestly held, in communities intelligent enough to guard its -acquisition, and continued possession, by just and adequate laws. It -follows that education is the sole bulwark of the State, and so of -property. - -The question of the first consequence is, therefore, always, What is -the best system of education? It is obvious, also, that the subject of -cost should not enter into the discussion; that the best education is -the cheapest, is an indisputable proposition. We have seen that the New -England system of education, which has spread over the whole country, is -very much better than the system which prevailed in those States of the -Union where slavery continued to exist down to 1864. But we have seen, -also, that that system is very defective; that it is automatic, and -hence not natural, not practical, not scientific. It does not produce -great merchants, great lawyers, great judges, or great legislators. That -it does not, is abundantly shown by the fact that in mercantile life -there are ninety-three to ninety-seven failures in every one hundred -experiments; by the fact that there is notoriously a general failure of -justice; and by the fact that here, as in Great Britain, the chief -business of statesmen is the undoing of vicious legislation. - -There is a system of training which produces a much higher average of -culture than that of the public schools and the universities. We allude -to the training received by the students of special mechanical and -technical institutions, and by the apprentices in trade-shops. The proof -of this is found in the world’s railways, ships, harbors, docks, canals, -bridges, telegraph and telephone lines, and in a thousand and one other -manifestations of skill in art. In the adaptation of means to an end, -and in nicety of construction, the mechanic and the civil engineer show, -in innumerable ways, with what thoroughness both their minds and their -hands have been trained. If mercantile operations were governed by such -excellent rules in projection, and by such precision in execution, -ninety-seven merchants in a hundred would not go to the wall. - -A story has lately gone the round of the public prints to the effect -that, during a visit to a needle factory by the Emperor of Germany, a -workman begged a hair of his head, bored an eye in it, threaded it, and -handed it back to the monarch, who had expressed surprise that eyes -could be bored in the smaller sizes of needles. It does not matter -whether or not this story is literally true; it illustrates the delicacy -of modern mechanical operations. Hundreds of similar illustrations might -be given, showing how marvellously skilful the hand has become. - -It is not claimed that the hand is a nicer instrument than the mind. As -a matter of fact, in drilling the hole in the hair the mind and the hand -work together--the mind directs the hand, we will say. The mind devises -or invents a watch--every wheel, pinion, screw, and spring--and directs -the hand how to make it, and how to set it up, and it ticks off the -time. Why does the mind succeed so admirably when it employs the hand to -execute its will, but so ill when it devises and attempts, itself, to -execute? How is it that the mind invents a watch which, being made by -the hand, records the hour to a second, ninety-nine times in a hundred, -but fails ninety-three to ninety-seven times in a hundred to devise and -carry into execution a mercantile venture? How is it that the mind -invents a steam-engine consisting of a hundred pieces, so that, each -piece being made by a different hand, the machine shall, when set up, -ninety-nine times in a hundred, at once perform the work of five hundred -horses without strain or friction, but when it grapples with law and -fact in the chair of lawyer or judge produces a most pitiable wreck of -justice? How is it that the mind devises and the hand executes with such -nice adaptation of means to the end in view, a bridge, that resembles a -spider’s web, and yet bears thousands of tons and endures for ages, but -when it undertakes to legislate evolves statutes that wear out in a -year? The first iron bridge constructed spanned the Severn, in England. -It was opened to traffic a hundred years ago, but it is still a stanch -structure likely to stand for centuries. Where are the English statutes -of that time? Repealed to give place to a long line of others which in -turn have been repealed. When the famous iron bridge across the Severn -was constructed, English legislators were passing bills to compel the -American colonies to trade only with the mother country, and to tax them -without their consent. Lord Sheffield said, with charming frankness, -that the colonies were founded with the sole view of securing to England -a monopoly of their trade; and Lord Chatham declared that they would not -be permitted to make even a nail or a horseshoe. - -In 1516 Sir Thomas More denounced the criminal law of England, declaring -that “the loss of money should not cause the loss of man’s life.”[67] -But this humane and enlightened sentiment had so little weight that -during the reign of Henry VIII. seventy-two thousand thieves were -hanged--at the rate of two thousand a year. In 1785 twenty men were -executed in London at one time for thefts of five shillings. The Lord -Chief-justice and the Lord Chancellor agreed that it would be dangerous -to repeal the law punishing pilfering by youths. In 1816 the Commons -passed a bill abolishing capital punishment for shoplifting--stealing -the value of five shillings--but the Lords defeated it, Lord -Ellenborough, Chief-justice, observing, peevishly, “They want to alter -these laws which a century has proved to be necessary, and which are now -to be overturned by speculation and modern philosophy.”[68] - - [67] “The History of England,” Vol. II., p. 83. By Harriet Martineau. - Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. - - [68] “The History of England,” Vol. II., p. 85. By Harriet Martineau. - Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. - -The cause of these failures--of mercantile ventures, of justice, and of -legislation--is this: Subjective mental processes are automatic, and -hence they neither generate power nor promote rectitude; they enfeeble -rather than energize the brain. Men whose characters are formed by such -educational processes never originate anything. They become selfish, -they venerate the past, their eyes are turned backward; hence, if they -sometimes make a feeble effort to move forward they stumble. The lawyer, -the judge, and the legislator are examples of this class. Their -guide-books are musty folios in a dead language; they look for -“precedents” in an age whose civilization perished with its language, -and whose maxims and rules of life were long ago exploded. Such men can -be compelled to move forward only by the lash of public opinion. Buckle, -speaking of the reforms extorted from the legislators of England, says, - -“But it is a mere matter of history that our legislators, even to the -last moment, were so terrified by the idea of innovation that they -refused every reform until the voice of the people rose high enough to -awe them into submission, and forced them to grant what without such -pressure they would by no means have conceded.”[69] - - [69] “History of Civilization,” Vol. I., p. 361. By Henry Thomas - Buckle. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1864. - -On the other hand, the inventor, the discoverer, and the artisan are -always in the advance, and always moving forward. They never look back -except to catch the vital principle of the invention or discovery of -yesterday for utilization in the improved machine of to-day. Their acts -are never repealed because they never become odious. They never become -odious because they contain the germs of imperishable truth. They are -never false; they are suitable to their time and the stage of -development; they constitute links in the chain of progress. While the -legislator is horrified at the thought of innovation, the inventor, the -discoverer, and the artisan are electrified by the discovery of a new -principle in physics, and delighted at its application in a new -invention, and its practical operation in a new and useful machine. - -The difference in effects upon the mental and moral nature, between -purely mental training and mental and manual training combined, is -susceptible of logical explanation. It is only in things that the truth -stands clearly revealed, and only in things that the false is sure of -exposure.[70] Hence exclusively mental training stops far short of the -objective point of true education. For if it be true that the last -analysis of education is art, progress can find expression only in -things--in the work of men’s hands. And it is true; for ideas are mere -vain speculations until they are embodied in things. Nor is this -materialism unless all civilization is material; for the prime -difference between barbarism and civilization consists in the presence, -in a state of civilization, of more things of use and beauty than are -found in a state of barbarism. To exalt things is not materialistic; -they are both the source and issue of ideas, and the measure of -civilization. Ideas and things are hence indissolubly connected; and it -follows that any system of education which separates them is radically -defective.[71] Exclusively mental training does not produce a -symmetrical character, because at best it merely teaches the student how -to think, and the complement of thinking is acting. Before thoughts can -have any influence whatever upon the world of mind and matter external -to the mind originating them they must be expressed. They may be -expressed feebly, through the voice, in words; more durably, and -therefore more forcibly, with the pen, on paper; more forcibly still in -drawing--pictures of things; and, with the superlative degree of force, -in real things. - - [70] “To know the truth it is necessary to do the truth.”... - - “We rightly seek the meaning of the abstract in the concrete, because - we cannot _act_ in relation to the abstract, which is only a - representative sign; we must give it a concrete form in order to make - it a clear and distinct idea; until we have done so we do not know - that we really believe--only believe that we believe it. A truth is - best certified to be a truth when we live it and have ceased to talk - about it.”--“Body and Will,” p. 49. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: - D. Appleton & Co., 1884. - - [71] “Prof. Huxley seems to hold that zoology cannot be learned with - any degree of sufficiency unless the student practises dissection. In - support of this position there are strong reasons. In the first place, - the impression made on the mind by the actual objects, as seen, - handled, and operated upon, is far beyond the efficacy of words or - description. And not only is it greater, but it is more faithful to - the fact. While diagrams have a special value in bringing out links of - connection that are disguised in the actual objects, they can never - show the things exactly as they appear to our senses; and this full - and precise conception of actuality is the most desirable form of - knowledge; it is truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. - Moreover, it enables the student to exercise a free and independent - judgment upon the dicta of the teacher.”--“Education as a Science,” p. - 303. By Alexander Bain, LL.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1884. - -The object of education is the generation of power. But to generate and -store up power, whether mental or physical, or both, is a waste of -effort, unless the power is to be exerted. Why generate steam if there -is no engine to be operated? Steam may be likened to an idea which finds -expression through the engine--a thing. Why store the mind with -facts--historical, philosophical, or mathematical--which are useless -until applied to things, if they are not to be applied to things? And if -they are to be applied to things, why not teach the art of so applying -them? As a matter of fact, the system of education which does not do -this is one-sided, incomplete, unscientific. Rousseau says, “Education -itself is certainly nothing but habit.” If this be true, it will be -conceded that the habit of expressing ideas in things should be formed -in the schools, because the chief way in which man is benefited is -through the expression of ideas in things. The system of education which -tends to form this habit is that of the kindergarten and that of the -manual training school. These systems are one in principle. They are not -new; they at least date back to Bacon, who declared that he would -“employ his utmost endeavors towards restoring or cultivating a just and -legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things.” The kindergarten -and the manual training school exactly realize Bacon’s idea. The idea of -the manual training school was in the mind of Comenius when he said, -“Let things that have to be done be learned by doing them.” It was in -the mind of Pestalozzi when he said, “Education is the generation of -power.” It was in the mind of Froebel, not less than the kindergarten, -when he said, “The end and aim of all our work should be the harmonious -growth of the whole being.” - -These are excellent definitions of education, and they are sequential. -If things that have to be done are learned by doing them, there will be -in the course of the process a wholesome exercise of both body and mind, -and this exercise will result in the generation of power--power to think -well, and to do well; and the process being continued, the result cannot -fail to be the harmonious growth of the whole being. This is scientific, -as opposed to automatic, education.[72] - - [72] “Intellectual progress is of necessity from the concrete to the - abstract. But regardless of this, highly abstract subjects such as - grammar, which should come quite late, are begun quite early. - Political geography, dead and uninteresting to a child, and which - should be an appendage of sociological studies, is commenced betimes, - while physical geography, comprehensible and comparatively attractive - to a child, is in great part passed over. Nearly every subject dealt - with is arranged in abnormal order--definitions and rules and - principles being put first, instead of being disclosed, as they are in - the order of nature, through the study of cases. And then, pervading - the whole, is the vicious system of rote learning--a system of - sacrificing the spirit to the letter.... - - “A leading fact in human progress is that every science is evolved out - of its corresponding art. It results from the necessity we are under, - both individually and as a race, of reaching the abstract by way of - the concrete, that there must be practice and an accruing experience - with its empirical generalizations before there can be - science.”--“Education,” pp. 61, 124. By Herbert Spencer. New York: D. - Appleton & Co., 1883. - - [E13] But the protection to property afforded by arms is only - temporary. An increase of the standing army involves an increase of - ignorance and poverty, and the last analysis of ignorance and poverty - is anarchy. The anarchists of Chicago [1886] were of foreign birth. - They came to the United States from the standing-army-ridden countries - of Europe. They were the product, the victims, of the European - governmental system. Hence, the proposal to adopt arms as a remedy for - anarchy is a proposal to abandon the American idea of government for - that of Europe. To preserve the society of to-day from violent - dissolution, it is necessary to shoot the anarchist. But to assure the - permanence of society it is necessary to educate the child of the - anarchist. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM--HISTORIC. - -_EGYPT AND GREECE._ - - Fundamental Propositions. -- Selfishness the Source of Social Evil; - Subjective Education the Source of Selfishness and the Cause of - Contempt of Labor; and Social Disintegration the Result of Contempt of - Labor and the Useful Arts. -- The First Class-distinction -- the - Strongest Man ruled; his First Rival, the Ingenious Man. -- - Superstition. -- The Castes of India and Egypt -- how came they about? - -- Egyptian Education based on Selfishness. -- Rise of Egypt -- her - Career; her Fall; Analysis thereof. -- She Typifies all the Early - Nations: Force and Rapacity above, Chains and Slavery below. -- Their - Education consisted of Selfish Maxims for the Government of the Many - by the Few, and Government meant the Appropriation of the Products of - Labor. -- Analysis of Greek Character -- its Savage Characteristics. - -- Greek Treachery and Cruelty. -- Greek Venality. -- Her Orators - accepted Bribes. -- Responsibility of Greek Education and Philosophy - for the Ruin of Greek Civilization. -- Rectitude wholly left out of - her Scheme of Education. -- Plato’s Contempt of Matter: it led to - Contempt of Man and all his Works. -- Greek Education consisted of - Rhetoric and Logic; all Useful Things were hence held in Contempt. - - -It is a fundamental proposition of this work that selfishness is the -essence of depravity, and hence the source of all social evil; and in -previous chapters it has been shown, argumentatively, that exclusively -subjective processes of education tend, in a high degree, to promote -selfishness. Another fundamental proposition of this work is that the -useful arts are the true measure of civilization, and that, as they are -the product of labor, contempt of the laborer leads inevitably to social -disintegration and the destruction of the State. If these propositions -are true, the solution of all social problems is to be sought through a -radical change in educational methods. If they are true, it is of the -first importance that they be proved, not only by argument, but by the -citation of such facts of history as bear upon the subject. Civilization -is the product of education.[E14] If the education is good the product -will be good, if evil the product will be evil. The purpose of this and -the four following chapters is, therefore, to trace the progress of -civilization, to sketch in bold outline the social history of man. - -The aphorism, all men are created equal, is a fine phrase, but its truth -is reserved for realization by the civilization of the future. A -tendency to the formation of class-distinctions in human society, -whether savage or civilized, is disclosed by all history. - -The first class-distinction sprang from the physical superiority of one -savage over his fellows. He whose powerful frame and commanding eye -enabled him best to cope with the beasts of field and forest became -chief of the tribe. He held the first place by virtue of his brawny arm, -and the less athletic, and more timid, became his subjects. But he was -not long without rivals. His first rival was the dwarf, or hunchback, -who, struggling to overcome the misfortune of his deformity, in the -seclusion of his mud hut, invented the stone hatchet and stone-pointed -arrow-head. His next rival was the puny, pale-faced youth who converted -pantomimic signs and rude gestures into a language of sounds, and so -armed communities with the power of combination for mutual protection. -Those who soonest mastered the first alphabet took high rank in the -social circle, while those who could still only make themselves -understood by grimaces and gestures fell to the grade of ciphers in the -body politic, and came to be looked upon as dunces in society. -Thereafter the women, who had previously been won as wives by personal -prowess, were more equally parcelled out. The savage who had invented -the bow and the arrow was exempted from the toils of the chase, and from -the general contention at the courting season; a wife was assigned to -him, and his tent was supplied with game in the hope that he would -invent some other useful thing. Thus mind began to assert its empire -over matter, the division of labor commenced, and a class-distinction -was formed. Doubtless the youth who invented language cultivated -superstition among the ignorant, and so, increasing his already -considerable influence, secured the first social rank. Hence the castes -of India and Egypt, consisting, in their order, of the priesthood, the -army, the mercantile class, and, at the bottom of the scale, the servile -laborer. - -Of the long period of social progress from a state of savagery to the -proud civilization of historic Egypt the record is faint and -fragmentary. Ages passed, during which men struggled, and died, and left -no sign--neither hieroglyphic character, monument, nor buried city. -Through what mental alchemy was the savage chief transformed, in the -course of hundreds of generations, into the learned, accomplished, and -astute Egyptian priest, from whose courtly lips Herodotus received the -chronicles of the Egyptian kings and the romantic story of the residence -in Egypt of Helen of Troy?[73] How were the members of the savage tribe -converted, one into an obedient soldier, another into an adroit, -self-seeking merchant, and another into a cringing slave? These are -secrets of antiquity, destined, doubtless, to remain forever unrevealed. -We do know, however, that the civilization of Egypt, like all other -civilizations, was the product of training or education; and the nature -of the education may be inferred from the character and fate of the -civilization. - - [73] “Herodotus, ‘Euterpe,’” II., §§ 112-116. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1882. - -Of the Egyptian system of education selfishness was the basis. Given -chains and slavery for the lowest class and there were force and -rapacity in the highest class.[74] Before the free-born savage was -reduced to slavery and made to toil under the lash, whole hecatombs of -lives were sacrificed. Before the mind of the savage was degraded to the -baseness of slavery, his body, hacked and hewn, bent submissively to the -scourge. For the Egyptian boy there was, doubtless, a “Poor Richard’s -Almanack,” which taught him that he must “look to the main chance;” that -“in the race of life the devil takes the hindmost;” and that -“self-preservation is the first law of nature.” Thus trained he entered -the ranks of the priesthood, one of his brothers took a commission in -the army, and the others embarked in mercantile life. For the servile -class there was no education beyond their several occupations. Each man -was compelled to follow the trade of his father, to marry within his own -class, to die as he was born. - - [74] “The Martyrdom of Man,” p. 18. By Winwood Reade. New York: - Charles P. Somerby, 1876. - -Ruled by the priests, and the army, Egypt grew rich. Her commerce, -conducted by means of caravans, embraced the whole civilized world and -included all its products. She became a great military and naval power, -her armies overrunning Asia, and her fleets sweeping the Indian Ocean. -Her victorious campaigns opened new markets to her commerce, and through -these channels wealth poured into the empire. In the track of the wheels -of the Egyptian war-chariots the Egyptian merchant quickly followed. At -the point of the arrows of her archers she offered her linen goods to -conquered peoples, as England, at the point of the bayonet, subsequently -offered her cotton goods to prostrate India. - -In Egypt all the learning of the time was concentrated. It was the -university of Greece. Every intellectual Greek made a voyage to Egypt; -it was regarded as a part of education, as a pilgrimage to the -cradle-land of their mythology.[E15] The possession of great wealth led -to habits of luxury. The house of the Egyptian gentleman was a palace -adorned with the triumphs of art, and devoted to pleasure. Its walls, -its floors, and its furniture reflected the skill, not to say genius, of -slaves--for all the manual labor of Egypt was performed by slaves. At -the end of the fashionable dinner, given in the palace by its rich -master, a mummy, richly painted and gilded, was presented to each guest -in turn by a servant, who said, “Look on this; drink and enjoy thyself, -for such as it is now so thou shalt be when thou art dead.”[75] - - [75] “Herodotus, ‘Euterpe,’” II., p. 78. New York: Harper & Brothers, - 1882. - -One day when the priests were sacrificing in the temples, and the chief -officers of the army were dining with a contractor for army supplies, a -band of mountaineers rushed out of the recesses of Persia and swept like -a wind across the plains. They were dressed in leather; they had never -tasted fruit nor wine; they had never seen a market; they knew not how -to buy or sell. They were taught three things--to ride on horseback, to -hurl the javelin, and to speak the truth.[76] All Asia was covered with -blood and flames. The allied kingdoms fell at once, and India and Egypt -were soon afterwards added to the Persian empire. - - [76] “Herodotus, ‘Clio,’” I., §§ 71, 136, 153. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1882. - -Egypt typifies all the early nations. In its rise, progress, and fall, -the course of the others may be traced. First there is a band of hardy -men whose prowess renders them irresistible. They are inured to toil; -they practise all the manly virtues; they are trained to labor with -their hands; they are taught to speak the truth. They lay the -foundations of the State in industry[E16] and prudence; their children -develop its resources; their children’s children, through many -generations, gradually accumulate wealth. The arts flourish, and -luxuries are multiplied. There are many great estates, and those who -inherit them cease to labor, and, ceasing to labor, they become a charge -upon the public; for the value of an estate created one hundred years -ago, or one year ago, can be maintained in no other way than by the -labor of to-day.[77] The idlers increase in number, and the struggle for -existence, of the workers, becomes more intense. Idleness breeds vice, -and the public morals are debauched.[E17] We see this class at the feast -of Belshazzar and at the dinner of the Egyptian _bon vivant_. On the -wall of every such banqueting room there is an ominous handwriting, -provided, only, that there is a Daniel to interpret it. It means that -the nation that degrades labor, tolerates idleness, and deifies vice, is -ripe for annihilation. If, now, there is on the frontier of the effete -nation a virile people, it is only a question of time and opportunity, -when they will make slaves of the revellers, and spoil of their -inherited estates. The worn-out, exhausted nation disappears in blood -and flames. The rich idler, the poor sycophant, the rulers and the -ruled, the slave and his master, the priest, the soldier, the merchant, -and the laborer, all go to destruction together. - - [77] “It is not equitable that what one man hath done for the public - should discharge another of what it has a right to expect from him; - for one, standing indebted in himself to society, cannot substitute - anything in the room of his personal service. The father cannot - transmit to his son the right of being useless to his - fellow-creatures.... The man who earns not his subsistence, but eats - the bread of idleness, is no better than a thief.... To labor, then, - is the indispensable duty of social or political man. Rich or poor, - strong or weak, every idle citizen is a knave.”--“Emilius and Sophia,” - Vol. II., pp. 92, 93. By J. J. Rousseau. London: 1767. - -In the ancient nations there was always force and rapacity above, and -chains and slavery below. Education was confined to a small class, and -consisted of selfish maxims for the government of the many, and -government was only another name for the appropriation of the products -of their labor. Selfishness bred injustice, and the practice of -injustice undermined the State. Whether the State survived or fell was a -matter of indifference to the slave. A slave he remained in any -event--if not of the Egyptian then of the Persian. But the importance of -labor is shown by those bloody revolutions. The battles of antiquity -were contests for the possession of the labor class. Which -nationality--the Egyptian or the Persian--should drive the toilers to -their daily tasks; which should reap the fruit of the sweat of their -brows; which should buy and sell them; which scourge them to their -dungeons? These were the questions which agitated the minds of ancient -rulers. They were the questions which agitated the mind of Xerxes when -he invaded Greece, with millions of followers, to encounter defeat at -the hands of a few thousand men of a superior type. - -The Greek civilization sprung from mythology and ended in anarchy. In -the East the Greeks were called the people of youth. Their religion was -of the savage type. Their gods were immortalized men; they loved and -hated, transgressed and suffered; they resorted to stratagems to compass -their ends; they were a kind of exalted but unscrupulous aristocracy. - -Greek patriotism was narrow; each city was politically independent, and -the citizen of one city was an alien and a stranger in the territory of -every other. The Greeks were superstitious. If the omens were -unfavorable the general refused to give battle; the plague was a visible -sign of the wrath of the gods; the priests sacrificed perpetually; the -oracle of Apollo outlived Grecian independence hundreds of years.[E18] - -Grecian national festivals were childish, consisting of wrestling, -boxing, running, jumping, and chariot-racing. But the victor in those -games conferred everlasting glory upon his family and his country, and -was rewarded with distinguished honors. - -Like savages, the Greeks were treacherous. The destiny of Greece was -controlled by renegades. There was disloyalty in every camp, a Greek -deserter in every opposing army, and a traitor, or a band of traitors, -in every besieged Greek city.[E19] They were cruel; of their captives -they butchered the men and enslaved the women, and they stripped and -robbed the bodies of the slain, on the battle-field. Like savages they -assassinated ambassadors, and like savages surrendered prisoners to -their personal enemies to be massacred.[E20] Their sense of honor was -dull. Xenophon, after winning imperishable renown, in conducting the -famous retreat of the “Ten Thousand,” led a detachment of them on a -pillaging expedition, and so amassed a fortune. “My patriotism,” says -Alcibiades, “I keep not at a time when I am being wronged.” “For there -was neither promise that could be depended on, nor oath that struck them -with fear,” exclaims Thucydides.[78] - - [78] “The History of the Peloponnesian War,” Vol. I., p. 210. London: - George Bell & Sons. - -Venality was the predominating trait in Greek character, and venality -unrestrained is savagery. In the Greek Pantheon the highest niche was -reserved for the God of Gain. The early Greeks were pirates; they -plundered one another; they sometimes actually sold themselves into -slavery, so great was their lust of gold. The richest cities ruled the -poor cities. Pericles boasted that he could not be bribed, but he robbed -all Greece to embellish Athens, and was accused of peculation, tried, -convicted, and fined. The Athenians declared that the Spartans were -taught to steal, and the Spartans retorted that the best Athenians were -invariably thieves. When Persia could no longer fight she defended her -territory against Greek invasion with gold coins. - -The Greek orators never refused a bribe, and oratory ruled Greece.[E21] -Greek oratory was very persuasive. A discriminating writer declares -that, with their fine phrases and rhetorical expressions, the Greek -orators swindled history, obtaining a vast amount of admiration under -false pretences.[79] - - [79] “The Martyrdom of Man,” p. 88. By Winwood Reade. New York: - Charles P. Somerby, 1876. - -For these defects in Greek character, and for the resulting decay of -Greek civilization, Greek philosophy and Greek education must be held -responsible. Metaphysics and rhetoric ruined Greece. It was in the -schools of rhetoric that the young Greeks received their training for -the duties of public life. There they were taught the art of oratory; -there they learned how to make the worse appear the better reason. There -they were taught, not to expound the truth, but to indulge in the arts -of sophistry. It was in those schools that the young Greek was trained -to be eloquent, to win applause in the courts of law, not to convince -the judgments of judge, or juror; for judicial decisions were -notoriously subjects of the most shameful traffic. - -The element of rectitude was wholly left out of the Greek system of -education, and hence wholly wanting in Greek character. The Greeks had a -profound distrust of one another. They were dishonest; they were -treacherous; they were cruel; they were false; and all these vices are -peculiar to a state of savagery.[E22] In ethics they never emerged from -the savage state, and hence in politics their failure was complete; for -the prime condition of the most simple form of civil society is mutual -confidence. But the mutual distrust of the Greeks, based on want of -integrity, was so absolute that political unity was impossible, and the -failure to combine the several cities under one government led, -eventually, to the destruction of Greek civilization. - -To this result Greek philosophy also contributed. Plato’s contempt for -matter was so profound that he regarded the soul’s residence in the body -as an evil. He taught that the philosopher should emancipate himself -from the illusions of sense, devoting his life to reflection, and -surrendering his mind “to communion with its kindred eternal -essences.”[E23] Contempt of matter led logically to contempt of the -physical man, and hence to contempt of things, the work of man’s hands. -Such a philosophy was necessarily “in the air.” It afforded no aid to -the sciences; for science is the product of generalizations from matter. -It scorned art; for the arts are applications of the sciences in useful -things. With the Greek school-master rhetoric was the chief part of -education; with the Greek philosopher dialectics was the science _par -eminence_. - -Thus the Greek system of education was confined to rhetoric and -logic--the art of speaking with propriety, elegance, and force, and the -power of deducing legitimate conclusions from assumed premises.[E24] In -the Greek schools of rhetoric there was no struggle to find the truth; -in the schools of philosophy there was no respect for the evidence of -the senses. The Greek orator harangued the jury eloquently while his -client bargained with the court for the price of justice! The Greek -philosopher confounded his audience with the force of his unanswerable -logic, and appealed to his inner consciousness in support of the -soundness of his premises! - -The explanation of Greek duplicity is found in Greek metaphysics. To -scorn things is to disregard facts, and disregard of facts is contempt -of the truth. Greek education was confined to a consideration of the -subject of the nature and relations of abstract ideas, while the subject -of the nature and relations of things was wholly neglected. Such a -system of education led logically to selfishness, and out of selfishness -grew inordinate ambition and greed; and these passions led, through -treachery and dishonesty, to factional contests, which, eventuating in -bloodshed, could only end in anarchy. Distracted by the jealousies and -rivalries of States constantly in hostile conflict, and enfeebled by the -never-ending strife between the rich and the poor, Greece fell a prey to -the rapacity, and lust of power, of her unscrupulous Roman neighbor. - - [E14] “All the happiness of families depends upon the education of - children, and houses rise or sink according as their children are - virtuous or vicious.”--Plato’s “Divine Dialogues,” p. 262. London: S. - Cornish & Co., 1839. - - [E15] “The Egyptians were, in the opinion of the Greeks, the wisest of - mankind.”--Herodotus, “Euterpe,” II., § 160. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1882. - - “For my part, I think that Melampus, being a wise man, both acquired - the art of divination, and having learned many other things in Egypt, - introduced them among the Greeks, and particularly the worship of - Bacchus.”--Ibid, “Euterpe,” II., § 49. - - “And indeed the names of almost all the Gods came from Egypt into - Greece.”--Ibid, “Euterpe,” II., § 50. - - “The manner in which oracles are delivered at Thebes in Egypt and at - Dodona, is very similar; and the art of divination from victims came - likewise from Egypt.”--Ibid, “Euterpe,” II., § 57. - - “The Egyptians were also the first who introduced public festivals, - processions, and solemn supplications: And the Greeks learned these - from them.”--Ibid, “Euterpe,” II., § 57. - - To the same effect, see also: - - Ibid, “Euterpe,” II., § 64. - „ „ „ § 109. - „ „ „ § 123. - „ „ „ § 160. - „ „ „ §§ 164-166. - „ „ „ § 171. - - And Ibid, “Melpomene,” IV., § 180. - - [E16] “Amasis it was who established the law among the Egyptians that - every Egyptian should annually declare to the governor of his district - by what means he maintained himself; and if he failed to do this, or - did not show that he lived by honest means, he should be punished with - death. Solon, the Athenian, having brought this law from Egypt, - established it at Athens; and that people still continue to observe - it, as being an unobjectionable regulation.”--Herodotus, “Euterpe,” - II., § 177. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1882. - - [E17] “Lysimachus, son of Aristides the Just, and Melesias, son of - Thucydides, to the Athenian generals, Nicias and Laches: - - “Both he and I have entertained our children with thousands of brave - actions done by our fathers both in peace and war, while they headed - the Athenians and their allies; but to our great misfortune we can - tell them no such thing of ourselves. This covers us with shame; we - blush for it before our children, and are forced to cast the blame - upon our fathers; who, after we grew up, suffered us to live in - effeminacy and luxury; while they were employing all their care for - the interest of the public.”--Plato’s “Divine Dialogues,” p. 256. - London: S. Cornish & Co., 1839. - - [E18] “After the encounter between the cavalry had taken place, - Agesilaus, on offering sacrifice the next day with a view to - advancing, found the victims inauspicious and in consequence of this - indication turned off and proceeded toward the coast.”--Xenophon, - “Hellenics,” p. 369. London: George Bell & Sons, 1881. - - See, also, Thucydides, Vol. II., p. 348. London: George Bell & Sons, - 1880. - - And Ibid, Vol. II., p. 484. - - And, “Plutarch’s Lives [Timoleon],” p. 177. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1850. - - [E19] Alcibiades to the Lacedæmonians: “And now, I beg that I may not - be the worse thought of by any among you, because I am now strenuously - attacking my country with its bitterest enemies, though I formerly had - a reputation for patriotism.”--Thucydides, Vol. II., p. 439. London: - George Bell & Sons, 1880. - - Of Pausanias and Themistocles, who were both traitors, Thucydides - says: “Such was the end of Pausanias the Lacedæmonian and Themistocles - the Athenian, _who had been the most distinguished of all the Greeks - in their day_.”--“History of the Peloponnesian War,” Vol. I., pp. - 75-83. - - See also Ibid, Vol. I., p. 288. - „ „ „ pp. 292-293. - „ „ „ p. 304. - „ „ „ pp. 306-307. - „ „ „ p. 241. - „ „ Vol. II., p. 510. - - See also Herodotus, “Melpomene,” IV., § 142. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1882. - - [E20] “When the Corcyræans had got possession of them [prisoners - surrendered by their allies the Athenians] they shut them up in a - large building, and, afterward taking them out by twenties, led them - through two rows of heavy-armed soldiers posted on each side; the - prisoners being bound together were beaten and stabbed by the men - ranged in the lines, _whenever any of them happened to see a personal - enemy_; while men carrying whips went by their side, and hastened on - the way those that were proceeding too slowly.”--Thucydides, Vol. I., - pp. 256-257. London: George Bell & Sons, 1880. - - Ibid, Vol. I., p. 62. - „ II., p. 376. - „ II., p. 468. - „ II., p. 495. - „ II., pp. 510-511. - „ II., p. 523. - - See also Herodotus, “Terpsichore,” V., § 6. - - Ibid, “Terpsichore,” V., § 21. - Ibid, “Urania,” VII., §§ 104, 105, 106. - - See also Xenophon, “Hellenics,” p. 328. London: George Bell & Sons, - 1882. - - See also “Plutarch’s Lives [Lycurgus],” p. 42. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1850. - - [E21] “For the Grecians in old time, ... turned to piracy, ... and - falling upon towns that were unfortified, ... they rifled them, and - made most of their livelihood by this means.”... “For through desire - of gain the lower orders submitted to be slaves to their betters; and - the more powerful, having a superabundance of money, brought the - smaller cities into subjection.”--Thucydides, Vol. I., pp. 3, 4, 5. - London: George Bell & Sons, 1880. - - “Yet that the boys might not suffer too much from hunger, Lycurgus, - _though he did not allow them to take what they wanted without - trouble_, gave them leave to steal certain things to relieve the - cravings of nature; _and he made it honorable to steal as many cheeses - as possible_.”--Xenophon’s “Minor Works,” p. 208. London: George Bell - & Sons, 1882. - - “Demosthenes could not resist the temptation; it made all the - impression upon him that was expected; he received the money, like a - garrison into his house, and went over to the interest of Harpalus. - Next day he came into the Assembly with a quantity of wool and - bandages about his neck; and when the people called upon him to get up - and speak, he made signs that he had lost his voice, upon which some - that were by said, ‘it was no common hoarseness that he got in the - night; it was a hoarseness occasioned by swallowing gold and - silver.’”--“Plutarch’s Lives [Demosthenes],” pp. 594-595. New York: - Harper & Brothers, 1850. - - See also, “Plutarch’s Lives [Agesilaus],” p. 431. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1850. - - Ibid [Demosthenes], p. 591. - „ [Aristides], p. 232. - - “And Plato, among all that were accounted great and illustrious men in - Athens, judged none but Aristides worthy of real esteem.”--“Plutarch’s - Lives [Aristides],” p. 243. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1850. - - But it was Aristides who said of a public measure: “It is not just, - but it is expedient.” - - “As to the proceedings in courts of law they [the Athenians] have less - regard to what is just than to what is profitable to - themselves.”--Xenophon’s “Minor Works,” pp. 235-236. London: George - Bell & Sons, 1882. - - Ibid, pp. 243, 244. - - When Mardonius the Persian consulted with the Thebans how to subdue - Greece, they said: “Send money to the most powerful men in the cities, - and by sending it you will split Greece into parties, and then, with - the assistance of those of your party, you may easily subdue those who - are not in your interest.”--Herodotus, “Calliope,” IX., § 2. New York: - Harper & Brothers, 1882. - - Ibid, “Urania,” VIII., §§ 128-134. - „ “Calliope,” IX., § 44. - - See also “Plutarch’s Lives [Pericles],” p. 123. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1850. - - Ibid, “Pericles,” p. 118. - „ “Pericles,” p. 115, _note_. - - “Accordingly, as the Athenians state, these men while staying at - Delphi, prevailed on the Pythian by money, when any Spartans should - come thither to consult the oracle, either on their own account or - that of the public, to propose to them to liberate Athens from - servitude.”--Herodotus, “Terpsichore,” V., § 63. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1882. - - Ibid, “Erato,” VI., §§ 72, 100. - - [E22] Euripides makes Andromache say: “O, ye inhabitants of Sparta, - most hated of mortals among all men, crafty in counsel, king of liars, - concoctors of evil plots, crooked and thinking nothing soundly, but - all things tortuously, unjustly are ye prospered in Greece. And what - evil is there not in you? Are there not abundant murders? Are ye not - given to base gain? Are ye not detected speaking ever one thing with - the tongue but thinking another? A murrain seize you!”--“The Tragedies - of Euripides [Andromache],” Vol, II., p. 138. New York: Harper & - Brothers, 1857. - - [E23] “Is it not by reasoning that the soul embraces truths? And does - it not reason better than before when it is not encumbered by seeing - or hearing, by pain or pleasure? When shut up within itself it bids - adieu to the body, and entertains as little correspondence with it as - possible; and pursues the knowledge of things without touching - them.... Is it not especially upon this occasion that the soul of a - philosopher despises and avoids the body and wants to be by itself?... - Now, the purgation of the soul, as we were saying just now, is only - its separation from the body, its accustoming itself to retire and - lock itself up, renouncing all commerce with it as much as possible, - and living by itself, whether in this or the other world, without - being chained to the body.”--Plato’s “Divine Dialogues,” pp. 180, 181, - 182. London: S. Cornish & Co., 1839. - - [E24] “During most of the flourishing age of Hellenistic culture the - rhetor was the acknowledged practical teacher; and his course, _which - occupied several years_, with the interruption of the summer holidays, - comprised first a careful reading of classical authors, both poetical - and prose, with explanations and illustrations. This made the student - acquainted with the language and literature of Greece. But it was only - introductory to the technical study of expression, of eloquence based - on these models, and of accurate writing as a collateral branch of - this study. When a man had so perfected himself, he was considered fit - for public employment.”--“Old Greek Education,” p. 137. By J. P. - Mahaffy, M. A. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1882. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM--HISTORIC. - -_ROME._ - - Vigor of the Early Romans -- their Virtues and Vices; their Rigorous - Laws; their Defective Education; their Contempt of Labor. -- Slavery: - its Horrors and Brutalizing Influence. -- Education Confined to the - Arts of Politics and War; it transformed Courage into Cruelty, and - Fortitude into Stoicism. -- Robbery and Bribery. -- The Vices of - Greece and Carthage imported into Rome. -- Slaves construct all the - great Public Works; they Revolt, and the Legions Slaughter them. -- - The Gothic Invasion. -- Rome Falls. -- False Philosophy and - Superficial Education promoted Selfishness. -- Deification of - Abstractions, and Scorn of Men and Things. -- Universal Moral - Degradation. -- Neglect of Honest Men and Promotion of Demagogues. -- - The Decline of Morals and Growth of Literature. -- Darwin’s Law of - Reversion, through Selfishness, to Savagery. -- Contest between the - Rich and the Poor. -- Logic, Rhetoric, and Ruin. - - -In the city of the Seven Hills there was no statue to Pity, as at -Athens. In the long line of Roman conquerors there was no one possessing -the title to fame, of which, on his death-bed, Pericles boasted, namely, -that “no Athenian had ever worn mourning on his account.” - -The dominion of Rome was logical. In the legend of Romulus and Remus, -suckled by the she-wolf, there is a hint of the rugged vigor which -characterized the Roman people, and distinguished them from the earlier -nationalities. In all the civilizations anterior to that of Rome there -was an element of pliability or softness which belongs to the youth of -man. But from the day on which Romulus, with the brazen ploughshare, -drew a furrow around the Palatine, both the sinews and the souls of his -followers hardened into maturity. The rising walls of the city, so the -legend runs, were moistened with the life-drops of Remus, whose derisive -remark and act cost him his life, his slayer exclaiming, haughtily, “So -perish all who dare to climb these ramparts.” The rape of the Sabines, -the conflicts which ensued with that outraged people, their -incorporation with the conquerors, their subsequent joint conquests, and -the shrewdness displayed in the conservation of the fruits of -victory--these events show that man had attained his majority. Under the -shadow of the walls of the Eternal City all the great races were -associated and mingled--Latins, Trojans, Greeks, Sabines, and Etruscans. -The Roman civilization was the product of all that had gone before, as -it was destined to be the father of all that should follow it. The Roman -had no peer either in courage or fortitude. Aspiring to universal -dominion, he toughened himself to achieve it. Dooming his enemy to death -or slavery, he was not less self-exacting, his own life, through the cup -of poison, the sword, or the opened vein, becoming the forfeit equally -of misfortune and shame. The tragic fate of Lucretia, the resulting -revolution, the banishment of the Tarquins, and the abolition of the -kingly government show the swiftness of Roman retribution and the -terrible force of Roman resolution. Roman persistence in the path of -conquest for many centuries is typified by Cato in his invocation of -destruction upon Carthage. The masculine character of the Roman vices -finds illustration in the struggle of Appius, the Decemvir, to possess -the person of Virginia by wresting the law from its true purpose, the -conservation of justice, and converting it into a shield for lust; and -the vigor of Roman virtue is exemplified in the act of Virginius -plunging the knife into the heart of his beloved daughter to save her -honor. The rigorous laws of Rome testify to the stamina of her people. -The father to whom a deformed son was born must cause the child to be -put to death, and any citizen might kill the man who betrayed the design -of becoming king. - -A scientific system of education would have conserved and developed the -noble and eliminated the ignoble traits of Roman character. But neither -Roman education, philosophy, nor ethics inculcated either respect for -labor or reverence for human rights; and hence the laborer was reduced -to slavery, and the slave made the victim of every known atrocity. -Slavery became the corner-stone of the Roman State, and slavery and -labor were synonymous terms. The Roman supply of laborers was maintained -by depopulating conquered countries. In the train of the legions, -returning to Rome in triumph, there were not only statues, paintings, -and other works of art, but thousands of men, women, and children -destined to slavery. And the laws in regard to slaves were terrible, as -laws touching slavery must always be--for a state of slavery is a state -of war. It was a law of Rome that if a slave murdered his master the -whole family of slaves should be put to death; and Tacitus relates an -instance of the execution of four hundred slaves for the murder of a -citizen, their master. In the course of the servile rebellion in Sicily -a million slaves were killed; and it should be borne in mind that they -were valuable laborers--many of them skilled artisans. Vast numbers of -them were exposed to wild beasts in the arena, for the popular -amusement. The rebellion of the gladiators was put down only by a resort -to awful atrocities, among which was the crucifixion of prisoners. The -revolt of the allies was quelled at the cost of half a million lives. -But slaves were plenty, for Rome had her bloody hand at the throat of -all mankind, and her hoarse cry was, “Your life or your liberty!” - -Every Roman freeman was a soldier, and the cultivation of the land, -manufactures, and all the pursuits of industry, were carried on by -slaves. Slave labor was cheaper than the labor of animals; cattle were -taken from the plough and slaughtered for beef that slaves--men--might -take their places. Labor fell to the lowest degree of contempt, and the -laborer was a thing to be spurned--for the free citizen to labor with -his hands was more disgraceful than to die of starvation. Hence there -was a class of citizen paupers to whom largesses of corn were doled out -by the demagogues of the Senate and the army. Ultimately these -citizen-paupers became so vile and filthy that they engendered leprosy -and other loathsome diseases, as they dragged their palsied limbs -through the streets of the city, crying, “Bread and circuses! bread and -circuses!” - -Roman education was confined almost exclusively to the training of the -sons of rich citizens in the arts of politics and war; and in a State -where labor was despised, and whose corner-stone was slavery, and whose -shibboleth was conquest, the baseness of these arts may be imagined but -hardly described. It promoted selfishness, and in the course of -centuries selfishness transformed Roman courage into cruelty, and Roman -fortitude into brutal stoicism. The Roman sense of justice was swallowed -up in Roman lust of power. Rome became the great robber nation of the -world. She was on the land what Greece had once been on the sea--a -pirate. She made the streets of the cities she conquered run with -blood. Thousands of captives she doomed to death; other thousands graced -the triumphs of her generals, and the spoil saved from the fury of the -flames, and the more ungovernable fury of the licentious soldiery, was -carried home to the Eternal City, there to fall into the hands of the -most cunning among the demagogues, for use in the bribery of courts, -senators, and the populace. - -Tacitus deplored the decline of public virtue. He declared, mournfully, -that “Nothing was sacred, nothing safe from the hand of rapacity.” His -environment blinded him to the true cause of the depravity he so -eloquently deplored--selfishness. Had he been familiar with the -inductive method he would have found in a defective system of education -the cause of Roman venality and corruption. He might thus have realized -the weakness of a community of men who wanted the necessary force and -virtue to depose a Tiberius and elevate to his place a Germanicus; or to -dethrone a Domitian and crown in his stead an Agricola. - -Education in Rome deified selfishness, and hence realized its last -analysis--total depravity. Of course nothing was sacred in a community -where men were ruthlessly trampled underfoot! Of course nothing was -“safe from the hand of rapacity” where the laborer was degraded to a -place in the social scale below the leprous pauper whose filthy person -provoked disgust, and whose poisonous breath, as he cried for bread, -spread abroad disease and death! - -It was inevitable that the nation that grew rich through plunder should -grow poor in public and private virtue. And such was the fact. The -eagles that protected robbers abroad, spread their sheltering wings over -defaulters, bribers, and thieves at home. There had been a time in Rome -when bribery was punishable with death, but now candidates for office -sat at tables in the streets near the polling-places and openly paid the -citizens for their votes. The change in the habits of the people was as -pronounced as the change in the laws. The early triumphs of the Romans -were industrial--flocks and herds; their trophies, obtained in single -combat, consisted of spears and helmets. When Cincinnatus was sent for -to assume the dictatorship he was found in his field following the -plough. Valerius, four times consul, and by Livy characterized as the -first man of his time, died so poor that he had to be buried at the -public charge. But with the fall of Greece and Carthage, and the -reduction of Asia, there was a great social change at Rome. The Roman -legions not only carried home the wealth of the countries they conquered -but the vices of the peoples they subdued. An ancient writer summarizes -the situation in the following graphic sentence: “The only fashionable -principles were to acquire wealth by every means of avarice and -injustice, and to dissipate it by every method of luxury and profusion.” - -The end is not far off. The story of Persia, of Egypt, and of Greece is -the story equally of Rome. Avarice and injustice, luxury and profusion -do their sure work. The Roman civilization is more than a thousand years -old. Asiatic wealth, the luxury and false philosophy of Greece, and a -vicious system of education, promoting selfishness, have united to sap -its foundations. Society is divided into three classes--an aristocracy -based solely upon wealth, cruel and profligate, a mob of free citizens, -otherwise paupers, who live by beggary and the sale of their votes, and -laborers who are slaves. - -On the occasion of the presentation of spectacles, among a variety of -presents slaves (laborers) are thrown into the arena to be scrambled for -by the free citizens! But men are cheap. In Asia they sell for sixpence -apiece, and Rome has only to send an army there to get them for nothing. -To this class, to these slaves, however, the Roman people are indebted -for all the arts which make life agreeable. They construct all the great -public works. They build the splendid roads over which the Roman legions -follow their generals in triumph home to Rome. They make the aqueducts, -dig the canals, and construct the buildings, public and private, whose -remains still attest their magnificence--the Forum, the amphitheatres, -and the golden house of the Cæsars. They build the villas overlooking -the Bay of Naples, in which the nobles live in riot and wantonness; they -cook the dinners given in those villas; they make the clothes the nobles -wear, and the jewels that adorn their persons. They cultivate the -fields, follow the plough, train and trim the vine, and gather in the -harvest. They raise the corn that is distributed by the nobles among the -soldiery, and given as a bribe to the diseased and debauched free -citizens for their votes. They feel deeply the injustice of their lot, -and, like men, strike for liberty. But the Roman legions are set on them -like blood-hounds, and hundreds of thousands of them are slaughtered and -made food for birds of prey, and other thousands are thrown into the -arena to be torn by wild beasts, and still others are bestowed as gifts -upon the populace at the games. - -The contest between the rich and the poor is at an end; the rich are -millionaires, the poor are beggars. It is the story of Dives and Lazarus -over again. The rich are clothed in purple and fine linen, and fare -sumptuously every day; the poor are full of sores, and live upon the -crumbs that fall from the tables of the rich. Rome topples to her fall. -The Gothic invader is at her gates, and there is no army to defend them. -The barbarian demands a ransom. To obtain it the statues are despoiled -of their ornaments and precious stones, and the gods of gold and silver -are melted in the fire. The ransom is given, and Alaric retires. But he -returns, and this time to pillage. The city is sacked; rich and poor, -bond and free, are whelmed in one common ruin. At last the diabolic wish -of the infamous Caligula is realized. The Roman people have but one -neck, and the Goth puts his foot upon it. Rome falls, the victim of her -own crimes, strangled by her own gluttony. Thus ends the first period of -the world’s manhood--ends in exhaustion, and a syncope which is destined -to last a thousand years. - -Long before the fall of the republic Rome had become the seat of all the -world’s learning. In robbing conquered countries she not only took their -gold and silver, a share of their people for slaves, and their works of -art, but their libraries, their philosophy, and their literature. But -neither the Greek nor the Roman philosophy contributed in the least to a -solution of the pressing social problems of the time. The wise men of -Rome were powerless to help either themselves or their fellow-men, -because their philosophy was false. It was purely speculative; it had no -body of facts to rest upon. - -The Roman educators and philosophers were almost as ignorant of -physiology as Plato was hundreds of years before, hence they were unable -to study the mind in the sole way in which it is intelligently -approachable, namely, through its bodily manifestations. In studying the -mind as an independent entity there could be no general rules of -investigation. The metaphysical philosopher did not study the mind of -man; he explored his own mind merely--consulted his own inner -consciousness. Hence there were, in Rome, as many systems of philosophy, -more or less clearly defined and distinct, as there were philosophers. -But they were merely metaphysical speculations, dreams, dependent upon -purely subjective processes; and those processes were in turn dependent -upon the ever-changing states of mind of each philosopher. - -It is obvious that these systems of philosophy could exert no influence -upon the community at large, for the community formed no part of the -subject matter of their speculations. But they did exert an influence, -and a very pernicious one, upon the philosophers themselves, and indeed -upon all the cultured men of Rome; for they were thereby made thoroughly -selfish, and so rendered incapable of forming a just judgment of public -affairs. In considering the mind apart from the body, the body naturally -fell into utter contempt. This was the great crime of speculative -philosophy; for in engendering a feeling of contempt for the human body -it furnished an excuse for slavery. And this contempt logically included -manual labor, for the only manual laborer was a slave; and it also -extended to the useful arts, for all those arts were the work of slaves. -Hence the laborer, being a slave, was placed lower in the social scale -than the pauper who sold his vote for a glass of wine. And thus it came -about that a factitious right--the right of suffrage--was more highly -esteemed by the public than the cardinal virtue of industry, upon which -alone the perpetuity of the social compact depends. - -And, again, the wretched state of public morals may be inferred from the -fact that the right of suffrage, through which the idle, leprous pauper -was elevated above the industrious laborer and above the useful arts, -was notoriously the subject of open traffic in the streets of Rome on -every election day. Thus Roman philosophy landed the Roman people in the -last ditch, for it led to the deification of abstract ideas and to scorn -of things. That this utter perversion of the truth and wreck of justice -was the cause of the decline of the Roman Empire there is no doubt. - -It is equally plain that the noted men of Rome were utterly ignorant of -the cause of the disorders which afflicted the body politic. There is no -evidence, either in their lives or their works, that they brought to the -consideration of the great social problems of the time any practical -philosophy whatever. Suetonius, with a graphic pen, portrays the -cruelties of the Cæsars, but hints at no cause therefor inherent in the -social system. Cicero forecasts the doom of the republic, but has no -remedy to propose except that of the elevation of Pompey rather than -Cæsar. Livy and Tacitus deplore the decay of public and private virtue, -but are silent on the subject of the infamy of slavery and on the shame -of degrading labor. The moral sentiments of Seneca and Aurelius are of -the most elevated character, but the fact that they ignore slavery, the -slave, the laborer, and the useful arts, shows either that they never -thought upon those fundamental social questions, or that their thoughts -ran in the popular channel; in a word, that their philosophy was so -shallow as to render them callous to the great crimes upon which the -Roman State rested. - -That the subjective philosophy and the defective educational system of -the Romans rendered them selfish, and hence corrupt, there is abundant -evidence. Cicero professed the most lofty patriotism, but he was -without moral courage. It was he who congratulated the public men of -Rome, after the usurpation of Cæsar, upon the privilege of remaining -“totally silent!” He regarded Pompey as “the greatest man the world had -ever produced,” but deserted him in his extremity, which was equally the -extremity of his country. He denounced Cæsar as the cause of the -culminating misfortunes of Rome, but went down upon his knees to him, -and rose to his feet only to exhaust all the resources of his matchless -eloquence in fulsome adulation of the destroyer of the Republic. - -Seneca’s moral precepts are sublime, but his political maxims are -atrocious. Witness this pretence of an all-embracing love for -man--“Whenever thou seest a fellow-creature in distress know that thou -seest a human being.” Contrast with this exalted sentiment of the great -stoic his political maxim--“Terror is the safeguard of a kingdom”--and -reflect that he lived under the reigns of Claudius and Nero. The -millions of slaves in the Roman dominions were “human beings,” but -Seneca had no practical regard for them as “fellow-creatures in -distress.” His beautiful humanitarian sentiment was a barren -ideality--it bore no fruit; but his brutal political maxim caused him to -thrive. Under the favor of Claudius he amassed a vast fortune. His -palace in the city was sumptuously furnished, his country-seats were -splendidly appointed, and he possessed abundance of ready money. “There -can be no happiness without virtue,” exclaims this prosperous Roman -citizen. But while he pens this lofty sentiment he is accused of -avarice, usury, and extortion, charged with complicity in the Piso -conspiracy, and banished for the crime of adultery. - -The debasing influence of the Greek philosophy, upon the Roman people, -is shown by contrasting the characters of the distinguished men who were -honored by the public at widely separated periods of time. Thus, during -the period 400-350 B.C., Camillus, noted above all his contemporaries -for the purity of his public life, was uninterruptedly honored with the -highest offices in the State, and loved and respected by all classes of -the community. But three hundred years later Cæsar, who involved the -country in civil war to compass his ambition, and in which struggle -liberty perished--he was preferred, in all the political struggles -preliminary to his assumption of supreme power, to Cato, whose -patriotism was unquestioned, and whose rigid virtue was proverbial -throughout the Roman Empire. So also of a still later period, Agricola -and Germanicus were renowned for the possession of the highest qualities -of true manhood, joined to the practice in public life of the most -austere and self-sacrificing virtue. Both served the State with courage, -ability, and zeal; but the one, after a brilliant career in the West, -was forced into retirement, and the other, after splendid services in -the East, was exiled and poisoned. - -Previous to the introduction of the Greek philosophy, and the Greek -education and social habits, the Roman people were worthy of their -noblest representative--Camillus. At that early period of their history -they rewarded virtue and punished vice. But during the Empire, after the -invasion of Greek manners, they were unworthy of their best -representatives--Cato, Germanicus, and Agricola. To those great and good -men they preferred Cæsar, Caligula, and Nero: they rewarded vice and -punished virtue. There is in this circumstance unquestionable evidence -of a great declension in character. But the remarkable fact in regard to -this period of Roman history is that the declension in character was -accompanied by a species of great mental growth or power. - -During this period a literature was created which has ever since been -famous, and which still exerts a considerable influence upon man. -Cæsar’s Commentaries, the Orations of Cicero, the Annals of Tacitus, -Livy’s History, the Odes and Satires of Horace, the Meditations of -Aurelius, and the Morals of Seneca are in all the world’s libraries, -and, in the universities, are placed in the hands of the most favored -youth of all the civilized countries of the world, as models of style -and exponents of a civilization whence all modern civilizations sprung. -But this literature possessed no saving quality, because in so far as it -was elevated in morals it did not represent the Roman people, not even -the authors themselves generally, as has been shown. As a matter of -fact, during the period of the creation of the great literature of Rome, -Darwin’s law of “reversion” was in active operation. There was a “black -sheep” in every noble Roman family. Bad men appeared, not now and then, -at long intervals, as in all civilizations, but every day and -everywhere; and these men were political and social leaders. They -moulded the policy of the State and set the fashion in society. Under -their direction the Roman people retrograded towards a state of -savagery, and savagery is but another name for selfishness. Selfishness -in its worst estate is the essence of human depravity, and to that -condition the Roman people fell, at the time when their moralists were -inditing those sublime sentiments which still challenge the admiration -of all great and good men. - -That the Roman people were as dead to the influence of high moral -sentiments as the Britons were when first encountered by Cæsar, shows -that they had degenerated to a similar condition of savagery, or to a -condition of absolute selfishness, which is its moral equivalent. Given -a savage state, two savages and one dinner; the savages will fight to -the death for the dinner. Given a state of civilization absolutely -selfish, two contestants and one prize; each contestant will exhaust all -the resources of artifice, duplicity, and falsehood to secure the prize. -To this deplorable condition the Roman people were reduced by subjective -educational processes. Selfishness causes the individual to seek his own -interest in total disregard of the interest of others. Hence it tends -directly to the disintegration of society, since the essence of the -civil compact is the pledge of each member of the community that he will -do no injury to his fellows. Selfishness violates this pledge; for to -gain its end it ruthlessly crushes whatever appears in its path. - -In Rome selfishness did its complete work. It transformed the government -from a pure democracy into an oligarchy composed of wealthy citizens, -who called themselves nobles. By this class wealth was made the sole -standard of social and political distinction, and in its presence, and -through its influence, the old strife between the patricians and the -plebeians gave way to a state of hostility between the rich and the -poor--always the last analysis of social disorder. The contest was -distinguished by assassinations, embezzlements of the public money, the -quarrels of rival demagogues, and civil wars, and it culminated in Cæsar -and the empire. - -The nobles, or aristocrats, who wrought the work of transformation, were -refined and elegant in their manners, and accomplished in the tricks of -finance, the technicalities of the law, and the arts of oratory. They -were the product of the Roman schools of rhetoric and logic, whose -subjective methods obscured the truth, promoted vanity, and deified -selfishness. All the guards of honor and rectitude having been swept -away by Cæsar, a savage contest for supremacy ensued among the -aristocrats. The prize for which they contended consisted of the spoil -of the Roman legions and the product of the labor of the Roman slaves. -This was the Roman patrimony--the price of blood and of the sweat of -enforced toil. For this prize the Roman aristocrats struggled like -savages fighting for the one dinner. - -It is the old struggle, the struggle witnessed by each, in turn, of the -nations of antiquity--the struggle in which selfishness vanquishes -itself. But this is a struggle of giants, is on a grander scale, and is -more conspicuous, for the historian, pen in hand, records its bloody -scenes. It is the last act in a great drama, a drama that has lasted a -thousand years. It is the conclusion of the long struggle of a few -large-brained, unscrupulous individuals, to grasp the fruits of the toil -of all men. The conspirators are about to fail, as such conspiracies -have always failed and must always fail, and like Samson in his blind -fury they will pull down upon their own devoted heads the pillars of the -temple. The struggle culminates in a hand-to-hand conflict for the -mastery between the baffled chiefs of the conspiracy to enslave -mankind--the supreme effort of selfishness--and it involves the authors -and their victims in one common disaster. Once more it is proved that a -false system of education, a system which exalts abstract ideas and -degrades things, promotes selfishness; that selfishness is the -equivalent of savagery, and that savagery, however refined, wrecks -society. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM--HISTORIC. - -_THE MIDDLE AGES._ - - The Trinity upon which Civilization Rests: Justice, the Arts, and - Labor; and these Depend upon Scientific Education. -- Reason of the - Failure of Theodoric and Charlemagne to Reconstruct the Pagan - Civilization. -- Contempt of Man. -- Serfdom. -- The Vices of the - Time: False Philosophy, an Odious Social Caste, and Ignorance. -- The - Splendid Career of the Moors in Spain, in Contrast. -- Effect upon - Spain of the Expulsion of the Moors. -- The Repressive Force of - Authority and the Atrocious Philosophy of Contempt of Man. -- The Rule - of Italy -- a Menace and a Sneer. -- The work of Regeneration. -- The - Crusades. -- The Destruction of Feudalism. -- The Invention of - Printing. -- The Discovery of America. -- Investigation. -- - Discoveries in Science and Art. - - -Civilization languishes in an atmosphere of injustice, and if the -injustice is gross, as slavery, for example, and long continued, the -State perishes in the social convulsion which ensues. Thus perished the -nations of antiquity. Civilization depends upon the useful arts; in them -it had its origin, and with them it advances. The savage, in his most -primitive state, is ignorant of all the arts; the most highly civilized -man is familiar with, and under obligations to, all of them. The useful -arts depend upon labor. If the laborer is degraded, the useful arts -decline, as he sinks, in the social scale; if he is honored, they -advance, as he rises. The trinity upon which civilization rests is, -therefore, justice, the useful arts, and labor; and this trinity of -saving forces depends in turn upon the scientific education of man. -Rome held all these things in contempt, and Rome perished. Anarchy -ensued, and, from a state of governmental chaos, the feudal system was -evolved. A brief analysis of the history of the mediæval period will -show that education was unscientific, and consequently that justice was -scorned, the useful arts neglected, and labor despised. - -Theodoric strove to stem the tide of demoralization which succeeded the -overthrow of the pagans in Italy. He was a semi-barbarian, but a man of -genius, and ten years of his youth, spent at Constantinople, taught him -the value of civilization. Under his reign there was a restoration of -the common industries, work on internal improvements was resumed, and -there was a revival of polite literature and the fine arts. But there -was no general prosperity because there was no general system of -education. Polite literature must rest upon a basis of general culture, -or it is valueless to the country in which it flourishes. So of the fine -arts; they can exist legitimately only as the natural outgrowth and -embellishment of the useful arts.[80] In the due order of development -the useful precede the fine arts. Theodoric began the reconstruction of -the exhausted Roman civilization from the top, and his work was a -complete failure, of course, because it had no foundation. It was like -the Greek and Roman philosophy, it had no basis of things to rest upon. -Hence the order evoked from chaos by the great Ostrogoth to chaos soon -returned. - - [80] “But it is one thing to admit that æsthetic culture is in a high - degree conducive to human happiness, and another thing to admit that - it is a fundamental requisite to human happiness. However important it - may be, it must yield precedence to those kinds of culture which bear - more directly upon the duties of life. As before hinted, literature - and the fine arts are made possible by those activities which make - individual and social life possible; and manifestly that which is made - possible must be postponed to that which makes it - possible.”--“Education,” p. 72. By Herbert Spencer. New York: D. - Appleton & Co., 1883. - -Charlemagne also attempted to reconstruct a worn-out civilization -through the revival of polite literature and the fine arts. He assembled -at his court distinguished _littérateurs_ from all parts of the world, -with the view of reviving classical learning. He established a normal -school called “The Palatine,” whence classically trained teachers were -sent into the provinces. He constructed gorgeous palaces, some of which -were ornamented with columns and sculptural fragments, the spoil of the -earlier architectural triumphs of Italy. But he did not found schools -for the education of the common people. The common people were serfs. -The theory of Plato still prevailed, namely, that the majority is always -dull, and always wrong; that wisdom and virtue reside in the minority. -In pursuance of this theory, which happens, curiously enough, to inure -to the exclusive benefit of its inventors and supporters, education was -confined to a small class. The training of the masses was wholly -neglected, and they were poor, ignorant, and brutal. The state of -mediæval society is graphically summarized by a modern historian: - -“In the castle sits the baron, with his children on his lap, and his -wife leaning on his shoulder; the troubadour sings, and the page and the -demoiselle exchange a glance of love. The castle is the home of music -and chivalry and family affection; the convent is the home of religion -and of art. But the people cower in their wooden huts, half starved, -half frozen, and wolves sniff at them through the chinks in the walls. -The convent prays and the castle sings; the cottage hungers and groans -and dies.”[81] - - [81] “The Martyrdom of Man.” By Winwood Reade. New York: Charles P. - Somerby, 1876. - -Enterprise was the slave of superstition and ignorance. Some monks in -Germany desired to erect a corn-mill, but a neighboring lord objected, -declaring that the wind belonged to him. The useful arts were unknown -and unstudied except by the monks, and their practice of them was -confined chiefly to fashioning utensils for the use of the altar. -Mankind lay in a state of intellectual and moral paralysis. Feudalism -emasculated human energy. One art only flourished--the art of war. The -pursuit of any of the useful arts, beyond that of agriculture, by the -serfs, was impracticable, since sufficient time could not be spared from -feudal strife for the proper tillage of the soil. The vassal was always -subject to summary call to arms. If in the spring the noble wished to -fight, the fields remained unplanted; if he wished to fight in the fall, -the harvest remained ungathered. The serf, therefore, led a precarious -life. If he escaped death in battle, he was still quite likely to die of -starvation. In the fertile plains of Lombardy, in the first half of the -thirteenth century, there were five famines! - -Nothing happens without due cause. The misfortunes suffered by the -people of Europe during the Middle Ages did not fall upon them from the -clouds. The moral darkness which veiled the face of justice, and the -intellectual stupor which prevented scientific and art researches, are -not inexplicable mysteries. The vices, the cruelties, the poverty, and -the pitiable superstitions of that time were the product of a false -philosophy, an odious social caste, and a state of general ignorance. - -It happens that for hundreds of years of this period of wretchedness and -crime there was in the heart of Europe an industrious, cultured, -prosperous, and happy people. Their religion forbade the taking of -usurious interest under terrible moral penalties; it also forbade “all -distinctions of caste,” and enjoined full social equality. They were the -friends of education. “To every mosque was attached a public school, in -which the children of the poor were taught to read and write.” They -established libraries in their chief cities, and were the patrons of the -sciences and of the useful arts in all their forms. In a word, to the -general prevalence of superstition and ignorance in Europe the Moors in -Spain constituted a glowing exception. - -Wherever the Saracen went he carried science and art. He honored labor, -and genius and learning followed in his footsteps. Taught by learned -Jews, he studied the works of the ancient philosophers, and preserved -and extended their knowledge of astronomy, chemistry, algebra, and -geography. Cordova was the abode of wealth, learning, refinement, and -the arts. Its mosques and palaces were models of architectural splendor, -and its industries employed 200,000 families. Seville contained 16,000 -silk-looms, and employed 130,000 weavers. The banks of the Guadalquivir -were thickly studded with those gems of free labor, manufacturing -villages. The dyeing of silk and wool fabrics was carried to great -perfection, and the Moorish metal-workers were the most expert of the -time. The Saracen invented cotton paper, introduced into Spain cotton -and leather manufactures, and promoted the cultivation of sugar-cane, -rice, and the mulberry. Nor did he neglect agriculture in any of its -branches; he created a new era in husbandry. His kingdom in Spain was -the richest and most prosperous in the Western world; indeed, its -prosperity was in striking contrast with the poverty and misery of the -peoples by whom it was surrounded. Under the third caliph its revenue -reached £6,000,000 sterling, a sum, as Gibbon remarks, which in the -tenth century probably surpassed the united revenues of all the -Christian monarchs. But these industrious, cultured people were the -descendants of invaders, and the Spaniards, under the influence of a -blind and unreasoning impulse of religious and patriotic zeal, drove -them from the soil they had literally made to “blossom like the rose,” -and themselves relapsed into a state of indolence, ignorance, and -poverty. - -From the effects of the persecution of a race of artificers, and the -proscription of the useful arts, Spain has never recovered. She has -since always been, and is to-day, a striking exemplification of the -verity of the proposition that stagnation in the useful arts is the -death of civilization. In the last half of the seventeenth century the -people of Madrid were threatened with starvation. To avert the impending -calamity the adjacent country was scoured by the military, and the -inhabitants compelled to yield supplies. There was danger that the Royal -family would go hungry to bed. The tax-gatherer sold houses and -furniture, and the inhabitants were forced to fly; the fields were left -uncultivated, and multitudes died from want and exposure. During the -seventeenth century Madrid lost half its population; the looms of -Seville were silenced; the woollen manufactures of Toledo were -transferred by the exiled Moriscoes to Tunis; Castile, Segovia, and -Burgos lost their manufactures, and their inhabitants were reduced to -poverty and despair.[82] - - [82] “The Intellectual Development of Europe,” Vol. II., Chap. II. By - John William Draper, M.D., LL.D. New York: Harper & Brothers; “History - of Civilization in England,” Vol. II., Chap. I. By Henry Thomas - Buckle. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1864. - -Two leading causes contributed to reduce the people of Europe during the -Middle Ages to a state of moral obliquity, intellectual torpor, and -physical incapacity--the repressive force of authority and the atrocious -philosophy of contempt of man formulated by Machiavelli. The one forbade -scientific investigation, the other strangled the spirit of invention in -the grip of enforced ignorance. Authority chilled courage, and contempt -withered hope. Italy governed the world, and her rule consisted of a -menace and a sneer. Under this _régime_ of cruelty and cynicism man -shrunk into a state of moral cowardice and intellectual lethargy. - -The political maxims which bear the name of Machiavelli were not -invented by him. When he formulated them, in 1513, they had been in -force in Italy a thousand years. These maxims explain the fact of the -existence of a period of the world’s history known as “the Dark Ages.” -The chief of them divides the human race into three classes, the members -of the first of which understand things by their own natural powers; the -second when they are explained to them; the third not at all. The third -class embraces a vast majority of men; the second only a small number; -the first a very small number. The first class is to rule both the other -classes, the second by craft and duplicity, the third by authority, and, -that failing, by force. Other maxims assume the despicable character of -all men, and justify falsehood, duplicity, cruelty, and murder, in the -ruling class. A single proposition shows the infamy of the whole system, -namely, “There are three ways of deciding any contest--by fraud, by -force, or by law, and a wise man will make the most suitable -choice.”[83] These are maxims not of civilization but of barbarism. They -involve a state of slavery, and where slavery exists the useful arts -decline, and ultimately perish. And so it was in the Middle Ages. - - [83] “The Prince,” Chap. XVIII. By Niccolo Machiavelli. - -Several great events led to the emancipation of the people of Europe -from the joint reign of authority and contempt. The learning of the Jews -and Saracens--their knowledge of the arts and sciences--gradually -spread, and occupied the minds of cloistered students, giving to them an -intellectual impulse. The Crusades, pitiful and prolific of horrors as -they were, shed a great light upon Europe. They brought the men of the -West face to face with a practical progressive civilization--a -civilization that “filled the earth with prodigies of human skill.” The -Crusaders were told that they would be led against hordes of barbarians. -What astonishment must have seized them when they stood under the walls -of Constantinople and beheld its splendors! Nor was their surprise less, -doubtless, in the character of the foe they encountered. They had -expected to meet with treachery and cruelty; they found chivalry, -courtesy, and high culture.[84] - - [84] “The Intellectual Development of Europe,” Vol. II., pp. 135, 136. - By John William Draper, M.D., LL.D. New York: Harper & Brothers. - -These surprises and contrasts profoundly impressed the Crusaders, and -they returned to Europe relieved of many illusions, and notably of the -fallacy that the wealth of Eastern princes was destined to supply the -waste of their own squandered estates. They returned, too, to find a new -civilization in process of development. Two hundred years of comparative -freedom from the repressive force of feudalism changed the face of the -country and the character of its people. During the absence of the -nobles, in the Holy Land, a middle class sprung into existence, -possessing the qualities which always distinguish that class--thrift and -prudence. The mortgaged estates of the Crusaders had fallen partly into -their hands, and partly into the hands of the Crown. Towns had sprung -up, and a commercial class and a manufacturing class had been formed. -The artisan became a factor in the social problem. He offered his wares -to the lords and ladies of the castles, and they bought themselves poor. -As Emerson says, “The banker with his seven per cent. drove the earl out -of his castle.” In the eleventh century nobility was above price, in the -thirteenth it was for sale, and soon afterwards it was offered as a -gift. - -The invention of printing, the art preservative of all arts, removed the -seal from the lips of learning. The desire to conceal is no match for -the desire to print. Thenceforth, through the medium of types, the voice -of genius was destined to reach to the ends of the earth; and, more -important still, every discovery in science, and every invention in art, -became the sure heritage of future ages. - -The discovery of America was the crowning act of man’s emancipation. In -sweeping away the last vestige of the theory on which patristic -geography was based, Columbus freed mankind. In the cry of “land ho!” -with which he greeted the new continent, he sounded the death-knell of -intellectual slavery. His was the last act in a series of acts which -struck off the shackles of thought, and let in upon the long night of -the Middle Ages the clear light of day. Leonardo da Vinci took up the -interrupted work of Archimedes, and the science of mechanics made rapid -progress. At last it was correctly observed that “experiment is the only -interpreter of nature,” and the development of natural philosophy began. -Bruno was still to be burned, and Galileo imprisoned. But the -persecutors of those great men were no longer moved by mere blind zeal. -They believed and trembled, and in seeking to drown the truth in the -blood of the votaries of science, they rendered it more conspicuous. By -the light of the flames which consumed the body of the too daring -philosopher a thousand scientists studied the stars, the earth, and the -air. - -The invention of printing paralyzed authority, and the discovery of -America gave wings to hope. A few manuscripts could be locked in vaults -or burned, but millions of books must inevitably, ultimately, find their -way to the people. Books were, therefore, the sure promise of universal -culture--the precursor of the common school. The discovery of another -continent startled the people of Europe from the deep sleep of a -thousand years, and sent a fresh current of blood surging through their -veins. It seemed like a sort of new creation, and appealed powerfully to -the imagination. And it is always the imagination that “blazes” the path -to glorious achievements. It is through the imagination that men are -moved to “crave after the unseen,” and through the imagination that the -human mind becomes big with “bold and lofty conceptions.” A new world -having been discovered by one man, it was natural that all men should -be put upon inquiry. Hence the era of investigation, the resulting -discoveries of science, and their innumerable applications, through the -useful arts, to the fast multiplying needs of man. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM--HISTORIC. - -_EUROPE._ - - The Standing Army a Legacy of Evil from the Middle Ages. -- It is the - Controlling Feature of the European Situation. -- Its Collateral - Evils: Wars and Debts. -- The Debts of Europe Represent a Series of - Colossal Crimes against the People; with the Armies and Navies they - Absorb the Bulk of the Annual Revenue. -- The People Fleeing from - them. -- They Threaten Bankruptcy; they Prevent Education. -- Germany, - the best-educated Nation in Europe, losing most by Emigration. -- Her - People will not Endure the Standing Army. -- The Folly of the European - International Policy of Hate. -- It is Possible for Europe to Restore - to Productive Employments 3,000,000 of men, to place at the Disposal - of her Educators $700,000,000, instead of $70,000,000 per annum, and - to pay her National Debts in Fifty-four Years, simply by the - Disbandment of her Armies and Navies. -- The Armament of Europe Stands - in the Way of Universal Education and of Universal Industrial - Prosperity. -- Standing Armies the Last Analysis of Selfishness; they - are Coeval with the Revival during the Middle Ages of the Greco-Roman - Subjective Methods of Education. -- They must go out when the New - Education comes in. - - -The mediæval period conferred upon man two great blessings--a new -continent and the art of printing. It also left a legacy of evil. With -the partition of Europe into great States the modern age began, and it -began with this inheritance of evil from the Middle Ages--the standing -army. - -The feudal lords wrecked their estates and sacrificed their lives during -the Crusades, and a middle class arose and united with the kings in the -government of the State. But this alliance was of short duration; it -soon gave way to an alliance which proved to be enduring--an alliance -between the aristocracy and the kings. - -By the ruin of feudalism thousands of serfs were set free. Trained to -arms, it was easy to make soldiers of them. They were accordingly -converted into mercenary troops--mustered into the service of the new -alliance as guards of the modern State. Thus the standing armies of the -“great powers” originated. This legacy of evil has so increased in -magnitude that it is, to-day, the dominant feature of European public -economy, and the portentous fact of the social problem. - -The standing armies of Europe number two million five hundred thousand -men, and their naval auxiliaries consist of three thousand vessels, -thirty thousand guns, and two hundred thousand men. This is the mammoth -evil bequeathed to Europe by the Middle Ages, and out of it many -collateral evils have sprung, as wars, debts, and exorbitant tax -levies.[E25] - -Thirty years ago the national debts of the governments of Europe had -risen to $9,000,000,000. Since that time they have almost trebled! The -cause of this vast increase is easy to find. It consists chiefly of four -great wars, namely, the Crimean war of 1854-56, the Franco-Sardinian war -against Austria in 1859, the German-Italian war of 1866, and the -Franco-Prussian war of 1870-72. These wars were waged to maintain what -is termed the balance of power; they involved no principle affecting the -rights of man. Whatever their issue, no gain could hence accrue to the -people of Europe. And this is the nature of most of the wars in which -the standing armies of Europe have been employed since their -organization. But the European budget shows that they are the -overshadowing feature of the European governmental systems. - -The annual revenue of the States of Europe is about $1,725,000,000. Of -this sum $700,000,000 is devoted to the support of the standing armies -and navies, and as much more is required to meet the interest charge on -the debts created in the prosecution of wars waged to maintain the -balance of power! Thus, of the aggregate of European revenue, the sum of -$1,400,000,000 is devoted to the purely supposititious theory that the -subjects of the great powers are inflamed with an intense desire to cut -one another’s throats, while the small sum of $325,000,000 is left for -the support of the civil service, comprising all the strictly legitimate -objects of government, and including education! - -The national debts of Europe represent a series of colossal crimes -against the people. They were incurred in the prosecution of unnecessary -wars, and for the support of unnecessary standing armies. With relation -to these debts the people are divided into two classes--one class owns -them and the other class pays interest on them. This relationship -comprehends future generations in perpetuity. Every child born in Europe -inherits either an estate in these debts or an obligation to contribute -towards the payment of the interest upon them. Thus the fruits of a -great crime have been transmuted into a vested right in one class of -people, and into a vested wrong in another class.[85] - - [85] “For instance, I have seven thousand pounds in what we call the - Funds or Founded things; but I am not comfortable about the founding - of them. All that I can see of them is a square bit of paper, with - some ugly printing on it, and all that I know of them is that this bit - of paper gives me the right to tax you every year, and make you pay me - two hundred pounds out of your wages; which is very pleasant for me; - but how long will you be pleased to do so? Suppose it should occur to - you, any summer’s day, that you had better not? Where would my seven - thousand pounds be? In fact, where are they now? We call ourselves a - rich people; but you see this seven thousand pounds of mine has no - real existence--it only means that you, the workers, are poorer by two - hundred pounds a year than you would be if I hadn’t got it. And this - is surely a very odd kind of money for a country to boast of.”--“Fors - Clavigera,” Part I., p. 67. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley - & Sons, 1880. - -If the European standing armies and navies had not been raised and kept -up, and if the revenue devoted to their support had been expended for -schools, there would not now be an uneducated person in Europe. If these -standing armies and navies were now disbanded, and the revenue at -present expended for their support diverted to the support of schools, -and so applied continuously for half a century, there would not be, at -the end of that period, an illiterate person in Europe. - -Under existing conditions the debts of the European nations cannot be -paid. But vast as the sum of them is, their payment is not only -possible, but practicable in a very short time. Disband the standing -armies and navies, and continue the present rate of taxation, and there -would be an annual surplus revenue of $700,000,000. Apply this sum, -together with the surplus of the interest appropriation, accruing -through the resulting yearly decrease of the interest charge, to the -liquidation of these debts, and they would be extinguished in about -twenty years.[E26] But if the period during which provision is made for -the extinguishment of these debts be extended to fifty-four years, and, -meantime, the present rate of taxation be maintained, there would be -released and rendered available for educational purposes, annually, the -sum of $600,000,000. - -What is the purpose, it may be inquired, of these calculations? Their -purpose is to show what the armies and navies of Europe cost, and what -they stand in the way of. They cost so much that not a dollar of the -national debts of Europe can be paid while they continue to exist. They -cost so much that the people who are taxed to support them are fleeing -from them as from a scourge. They cost so much that the decline of the -nations which support them has already begun, and this decline can be -arrested only by their disbandment. - -That the nations of Europe are declining is shown by the statistics of -emigration. The foundation of national prosperity is manual labor. There -must be a solid basis of industrial growth for the superstructure of -elegance, refinement, luxury, and culture. Manual labor is as essential -to triumphs in literature, music, and the fine arts as the foundations -of the Brooklyn Bridge, buried in the earth, are to the beautiful arch -which spans the great river. And in the strife for supremacy between the -nations of the world the maintenance of these triumphs depends, also, -upon manual labor.[86] The real flower of a population is, therefore, -its labor class. All other classes depend upon it, and all national -triumphs spring from it. Hence a drain upon the labor class of a nation -is a drain upon its most vital resource. The nation that suffers such a -drain continuously is in its decadence. It loses some of its vigor, some -of its productive power, and the loss is not supplied. True, the poor -emigrant takes with him no part of the splendors of the country he -leaves, but his brawny arm and skilled hand have contributed to the -support of national pomp and social elegance, and as he steps aboard the -steamer he withdraws that support forever. - - [86] “Now, therefore, see briefly what it all comes to. First, you - spend eighty millions of money in fireworks [war], doing no end of - damage in letting them off. - - “Then you borrow money to pay the firework-maker’s bill, from any - gain-loving persons who have got it. - - “And then, dressing your bailiff’s men in new red coats and cocked - hats, you send them drumming and trumpeting into the fields, to take - the peasants by the throat, and make them pay the interest on what you - have borrowed, and the expense of the cocked hats besides. - - “That is ‘financiering,’ my friends, as the mob of the money-makers - understand it. And they understand it well. For that is what it always - comes to, finally--taking the peasant by the throat. He _must_ - pay--for he only _can_. Food can only be got out of the ground, and - all these devices of soldiership, and law, and arithmetic, are but - ways of getting at last down to him, the furrow-driver, and snatching - the roots from him as he digs.”--“Fors Clavigera,” Part II., p. 27. By - John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1882. - -Napoleon the Infamous plundered the conquered capitals of Europe to -beautify and enrich the art treasuries of Paris. The art treasures of -Europe are destined to cross the ocean, in the track of the column of -emigration, if the flower of her labor class continues to flee from her -standing armies and navies, as the statues of Rome followed the army of -the modern Cæsar. For where the flower of the world’s labor class -gathers, there wealth most abounds. Labor, not gold and silver, is the -source of wealth, hence it is to the laborer that art triumphs are due, -and this is the order of their development. The laborer provides for -immediate, pressing wants; he is prudent, and accumulates a surplus; he -hungers for education; he develops a love of the beautiful; he seeks to -dignify his life and adorn his home; he patronizes art; he draws to -himself the art treasures of the world. - -The standing armies and navies of Europe have cost the European laborer -the sacrifice of all these pleasing and noble aspirations.[E27] Beyond -the point of providing for “immediate pressing wants” he has not been -able to pass. His surplus goes to the tax-gatherer, to feed and clothe -the army and the navy. His desire for education, his love of the -beautiful, his hope of a dignified life, and of a home adorned by -art--these all are dreams, illusions, which vanish into thin air in the -presence of the substantial fact of the annual European budget--for the -support of the standing armies and navies $700,000,000! - -In the way of the payment of the national debts of Europe her standing -armies and navies rear themselves like an impassable wall. Against any -general educational system they have hitherto constituted an -insurmountable barrier; and in the future, as in the past, their -maintenance dooms the masses to illiteracy. They stand in the way -especially of the incorporation, in the curriculum of the public -schools, of the manual element in education, because it is the most -expensive, as it is the most important part of instruction. - -Germany affords an admirable example of the power of education, even -though defective in character, and of the disgust with which standing -armies inspire an intelligent people. The Germans are the best-educated -people in Europe. The educational system of Germany was established by -Prussia as a politico-economic measure after the humiliation of the -German States by Bonaparte. Said Frederick William, “Though territory, -power, and prestige be lost, they can be regained by acquiring -intellectual and moral power.” The outcome of the Franco-Prussian war of -1870 verified the truth of this prediction. Her freedom from debt -enabled Prussia to inaugurate and carry forward a comprehensive -educational system, which in turn enabled her not only to vanquish her -ancient enemy, but to make France pay the cost of her own humiliation. -Thus at a single stroke Prussia avenged the defeats suffered at the -hands of the first Napoleon, and permanently weakened France by -compelling her vastly to increase her national debt. - -The alacrity with which the French people subscribed for the new bonds -was much remarked upon, at the time, as evincing both financial -soundness and patriotism. But the really grave feature of the -situation--the vast augmentation of the public burdens of France--was -scarcely mentioned, and was, perhaps, philosophically considered only by -that astute statesman, Prince Bismarck. The war with Germany cost France -$2,000,000,000, and compelled an enormous increase of taxation. The debt -statement for 1877 was $4,635,000,000--the expenditures $533,000,000; -and of this latter sum $373,000,000 were absorbed by the army, the navy, -and the national debt! - -The significant feature of the European situation is the freedom from -debt of Germany. It is by virtue of this fact that she holds the first -place in Europe. Her rate of taxation is as low as that of little -Switzerland. All the other Great Powers are hampered by great debts. -Spain is bankrupt; she does not pay the interest on her debt. Austria -increases her debt every year; she is practically bankrupt. It is only a -question of time, if standing armies and navies continue to be -maintained and wars to occur, when all the debtor nations will be -reduced to bankruptcy.[87] The nation sinks as the column of debt -rises. France cannot double her debt again and make her people pay -interest on it. England draws from her citizens a larger _per capita_ -revenue than any other nation of Europe, except France, and she has -nearly touched the limit of their capacity to pay taxes. A sudden and -considerable increase of her debt would strain the Government, and might -shatter it. - - [87] “The progress of the enormous debts which at present oppress, and - will in the long run probably ruin, all the great Nations of Europe, - has been pretty uniform.”--“Wealth of Nations,” Vol. III., p. 392. By - Adam Smith, LL.D., F.R.S. Edinburgh, 1819. - -Thus, the more searching the analysis of the European situation, the -more clear does the exceptional strength of Germany appear. But out of -her abundant strength a weakness has been evolved. The system of -education that rendered the Germans so powerful against France as -soldiers, has made them thoughtful citizens. It has revolutionized the -public sentiment of Germany on the subject of government. In the place -of passion it has substituted reason. The Prussian “subject” for whom -the king thought, has become a German citizen who thinks for himself, -and one of his earliest reflections is that, in modern civilization, a -standing army is a solecism. The ignorant Prussian hated the French -because hatred of them was enjoined upon him as the correlative of the -duty of blind devotion to his king. But the educated German knows that -the sole motive of the continuance of the standing army is the -maintenance of the balance of power, which is merely a tacit agreement -between the European rulers, by divine right, to perpetuate their own -lease of power. Hence the “intellectual and moral power” conferred upon -the German people, by education, reacts upon Germany in the form of a -drain of the flower of her population by emigration. - -The citizenship of Germany is more valuable, in an economic sense, than -that of any other country of Europe--more valuable because Germany is -the most powerful nation of the European family of States; more valuable -because of them all she alone is free from debt; more valuable by reason -of her more moderate scale of taxation. But she still furnishes the -heaviest contingent to the column of emigration steadily moving towards -the United States. In a word, the most valuable citizenship in -Europe--that of Germany--is least regarded and most freely surrendered. -Why? Because the Germans are the best-educated people in Europe. Poor as -the German primary school system is, it is universal, and it has -destroyed what it was founded chiefly to promote and perpetuate, namely, -reverence for, and loyalty to, government by Divine right. German -intelligence revolts from taxation for the support of a standing army. -It revolts from the theory and policy of hate upon which standing armies -are based. It comprehends perfectly that the standing army is a menace -to the freedom of the citizen, at home, rather than a defence against -pretended danger from abroad. It scorns, as absurd, the threadbare -assumption that Englishmen, Frenchmen, Italians, Russians, and Germans -desire to fly at one another’s throats, and that they can be restrained -only by a cordon of bayonets.[E28] It realizes that the perpetuation of -the era of hate, through the standing army, retards the mental and -physical progress of the human race, which would be greatly promoted by -the free intermingling of the various nationalities of Europe.[88] That -it is from the standing army that the emigrant flees is shown by the -records of the military department of the German government. - - [88] The multiplicity of languages is due to the policy of - international hate, inaugurated by the nations of Europe to promote - the selfish purposes of rulers. Barbarism is diversity; civilization - is unity. The human race is one, provided it is civilized, and it - should have but one language. Language is a tool, and time consumed in - acquiring skill in the use of more than one tool designed for the same - end, is wasted. The standing armies of Europe obstruct the way to - unity of language. The time will come when all civilized peoples will - speak one tongue, probably the English. Then language will cease to be - a mere vain accomplishment, and become what it ought always to have - been, the simple means of familiarizing the mind with things, and of - the communication of knowledge. - -In the year 1883 twenty-nine thousand men were arrested for attempting -to emigrate from Germany to avoid the required military service, and -more than a hundred thousand others, from whom service was due, refused, -both to report for duty, and to furnish the required excuses for the -failure to enroll themselves. - -The law of Germany requires every male citizen, capable of bearing arms, -to serve three years in the standing army--to devote three of the best -years of his life to the preservation of the balance of power in Europe! -In addition, he must serve four years in the reserve, and five years in -the landwehr. And this service is regarded as a debt due the government. -Every male child born in Germany contracts this debt, in contemplation -of law, in the act of drawing his first breath, and nothing but death -releases him from the obligation. Having been taught in the emperor’s -schools to love the emperor, when he reaches the military age, a musket -is placed in his hands, and he is taught to shoot the emperor’s -enemies. If he refuses to enter the army he is fined; if he refuses to -pay the fine he is imprisoned. - -The German emperor attributes the decline in the military organization -to the negligence of his military staff, but its true cause is the -German educational system. The steady augmentation of the rolls of -military delinquents is the measure of the growth of German -intelligence. The ease with which Germany conquered France flattered the -vanity of the educated German, but it did not prevent him from -emigrating to America. To the cultured mind the army that wins the -contest in which no principle is involved is as odious as the army that -loses. To the cultured mind all standing armies are odious, because they -are an embodied assumption of the barbarism of man, and a denial of the -efficacy of reason. The great stream of German emigration attests the -superiority of German culture. The educated German declines to learn the -art of shooting the emperor’s enemies, but he knows that Germany is, in -fact, governed by its standing army--by muskets--and he quits the -country. - -Thus the chief power of Germany becomes her chief weakness. A system of -education which has made her the first nation in Europe produces -wide-spread discontent among her people, because she is governed by -obsolete ideas. Nor can the loss in virile force suffered by Germany, -through emigration, be made good by a counter movement of immigrants -from the less favored countries of Europe. The economic condition of -Germany--her freedom from debt and her comparatively low rate of -taxation--invite such a movement. But the European policy of -international hate, created and perpetuated by standing armies, forbids -Germany to recoup her losses of men to America, through corresponding -gains of men from the overtaxed populations of neighboring countries. -The grinning skeletons of a hundred battles in which the rival -nationalities of Europe have been pitted against one another, rise to -challenge the social intermingling of peoples separated for centuries by -the arts of diplomacy, traditions of blood and flames, and the serried -ranks of standing armies. - -The disposition of Germans to emigrate irritates the emperor and his -prime-minister. The loss of numbers might be borne, for notwithstanding -the steady outward flow of emigrants there is a slight increase of -population in Germany. But it is the quality of the exodus that annoys -the emperor and his chancellor. The German emigrants are strong men and -women--strong mentally and physically. All the weaklings, all the -paupers, all the imbeciles, the aged, and the infirm remain, only the -young and vigorous go. Those who go have been taught at the expense of -the State to love the emperor and hate his enemies, but they do neither. -The German system of education, from the point of view of rulers by -divine right, is, hence, a conspicuous failure. It makes better men but -poorer subjects. The more thoroughly the man is educated the more -valuable he is to himself and to the community, but the less valuable to -his king. His growth in intelligence is the measure of his decline in -reverence for rulers by divine right, and the standing armies by which -they are alone supported. This is the cause of German emigration, and -its effect is to weaken the German Empire. Germany is not so strong as -she was when her armies swept over France; she declines in power each -year, through the loss of men--the sole support of a State.[E29] They -flee from her standing army to the United States, a republic with only -a handful of soldiers. - -The system of education established to increase the power of Prussia in -Europe has accomplished its purpose. But it has done much -more--something never thought of by its founders. It has produced a -wide-spread feeling of intelligent discontent; and discontent is an -inarticulate cry for reform. The cultured German scorns the standing -army, refuses to serve in it, protests against its longer existence, and -demands more and better education for his children. His protest is -unheeded, and he quits the country. But the demand for higher education -is not, cannot be, disregarded. Intelligence is contagious; it infects -with a thirst for knowledge all with whom it comes in contact. Education -is the arch-revolutionist whose onward march is irresistible. Soon a -riper culture will make the German Protestants more courageous and more -imperative in their demands, and they will remain in the country to -enforce them. Education made Germany the first military power in Europe; -but education could not have been put to a more ignoble service. The -desire of intelligent Germans is that Germany shall become the first -industrial power in Europe, and this desire can be realized by the -disbandment of her standing army. - -This review of the situation in Europe shows that it is practicable for -her to restore, at once, to productive employments three millions of -men--the flower of her population--now not only idle, but a public -charge. It shows, also, that it is practicable for Europe to place, at -once, at the disposal of her educators $700,000,000 per annum instead of -$70,000,000 per annum, as at present. The corollary of these two -propositions is a third, namely, that it is practicable for Europe to -extinguish her national debts in fifty-four years. It follows that the -regular armies of Europe alone stand in the way of universal education, -and of universal industrial prosperity. - -Standing armies everywhere within the lines of advanced civilization -must soon disappear before the march of education.[89] Social questions -cannot much longer be settled by emigration. The world’s virgin soil is -being rapidly appropriated. When the surface of the whole earth shall -have become occupied, barbarisms of every nature will be intolerable. -Man must then be highly civilized, and the only highly civilizing -influence is education. The age of force is passing away; the age of -science and art--the age of industrial development--has begun, and -standing armies are as abnormal in Europe now as slavery was in the -United States twenty-five years ago.[90] - - [89] “This nation to-day is in profound peace with the world; but in - my judgment it has before it a great duty, which will not only make - that profound peace permanent, but shall set such an example as will - absolutely abolish war on this continent, and by a great example and a - lofty moral precedent shall ultimately abolish it in other continents. - I am justified in saying that every one of the seventeen independent - Powers of North and South America is not only willing but ready--is - not only ready but eager--to enter into a solemn compact in a congress - that may be called in the name of peace, to agree that if, unhappily, - differences shall arise--as differences will arise between men and - nations--they shall be settled upon the peaceful and Christian basis - of arbitration. - - “And, as I have often said before, I am glad to repeat, in this great - centre of civilization and power, that in my judgment no national - spectacle, no international spectacle, no continental spectacle, could - be more grand than that the republics of the Western world should meet - together and solemnly agree that neither the soil of North nor that of - South America shall be hereafter stained by brothers’ blood.”--Extract - from the Speech of Hon. James G. Blaine at the Delmonico Dinner, - October 29, 1884. - - [90] “It is only slowly, and after having been long in contact with - society, that man becomes more indulgent towards others and more - severe towards himself.”--“Suicide: an Essay on Comparative Moral - Statistics,” p. 226. By Henry Morselli, M.D. New York: D. Appleton & - Co., 1882. - -Standing armies are the instruments of tyranny; they are the last -analysis of selfishness, the incarnation of depravity; for they do not -reason--they strike. It is worthy of note that the standing armies of -Europe are coeval with the revival of learning, and the revival of -learning was a revival of the Greco-Roman subjective educational -methods. The logical effect of those methods was the promotion of -selfishness, and the standing armies conserved the selfish designs of -the rulers of the newly-formed States. It is hence not a mere -coincidence that standing armies and the revival of learning through -subjective processes of thought are of common origin. The Machiavellian -philosophy of cruelty, duplicity, and contempt of man sprung logically -from egoism, and as logically led to the formation of standing -armies--bodies of armed men, trained, under compulsion, to kill, burn, -and destroy. - -The synonyms of the standing army are selfishness and its vile issue, -feudalism, serfdom, slavery, ignorance, and contempt of man. These -conditions are passing away, and the standing army, the worst, as it is -the most costly relic of savagery, must pass away with them. It cannot -withstand the advance of the new education, whose mission is peace, -whose quest is the truth, whose premise is a fact, whose conclusion is a -thing of use and beauty, and whose goal is justice. - - [E25] War is not merely a relic of barbarism; it is barbarism - triumphant. It is evidence of the presence, active and malignant, of - all the bad passions of man. Nor are idle armies less infamous than - armies in deadly conflict. Carlyle well says that the one monster in - the world is the idle man; and the standing army is a vast horde of - idle men quartered on the community. The standing armies of Europe, on - parade, in barracks, and in forts, are as unmixed an evil as the - legions of Rome were in Gaul, in Greece, or before Carthage. It is a - shame to civilization that arbitration did not long ago take the place - of the coarse brutality of war. The _duello_ between Nations is not - less absurd, and it is a thousand-fold more wicked, than the _duello_ - between individuals. It is savagery pure and simple, the child of - selfishness, and not less inconsistent with a high state of - civilization than slavery. - - [E26] Of the British funding system when it was in its infancy, as - early as 1748, Lord Bolingbroke said: “It is a method by which one - part of the nation is pawned to the other, with hardly any hope left - of ever being redeemed.” - - See, also, in the _North American Review_ for September, 1886, an - exhaustive article on the impolicy of national debt perpetuation, by - N. P. Hill, in which it is alleged that “great interests are at work - to prevent the payment of the national debt of the United States.” - - [E27] In his recent great work--“The Wonderful Century”--Mr. Alfred - Russel Wallace, on the authority of “The Statesman’s Year Book” for - 1897, states that the standing armies and navies of Europe number - three millions of men; cost 180,000,000 pounds sterling per annum, and - withdraw from useful employments ten millions of men engaged in - repairing the waste of war.--“The Wonderful Century,” pp. 335-336. New - York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1898. - - [E28] “I know now that my fellowship with others cannot be shut off by - a frontier, or by a government decree which decides that I belong to - some particular political organization. I know now that all men are - everywhere brothers and equals. When I think now of all the evil I - have done, that I have endured, and that I have seen about me, arising - from national enmities, I see clearly that it is all due to that gross - imposture called patriotism--love for one’s native land.” ... “I - understand now that true welfare is possible for me only on condition - that I recognize my fellowship with the whole world.”--“My Religion,” - p. 256. By Count Leo Tolstoi. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. - - [E29] There is another cause of the decline of Germany: War degrades; - it is a reversion toward barbarism. Not only is the soldier brutalized - by martial exercises and scenes of carnage, but the moral and mental - fibre of the people of a nation which indulges in war is rendered - coarser. The remark of M. Renan on the subject is profoundly - philosophical: - - “The man who has passed years in the carriage of arms after the German - fashion is dead to all delicate work whether of the hand or - brain.”--“Recollections of my Youth,” p. 159. By Ernest Renan. New - York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM--HISTORIC. - -_AMERICA._ - - An Old Civilization in a New Country. -- Old Methods in a New System - of Schools. -- Sordid Views of Education. -- The highest Aim - Money-getting. -- Herbert Spencer on the English Schools. -- Same - Defects in the American Schools. -- Maxims of Selfishness. -- The - Cultivation of Avarice. -- Political Incongruities. -- Negroes - escaping from Slavery called Fugitives from Justice. -- The Results of - Subjective Educational Processes. -- Climatic Influences alone saved - America from becoming a Slave Empire. -- Illiteracy. -- Abnormal - Growth of Cities. -- Failure of Justice. -- Defects of Education shown - in Reckless and Corrupt Legislation. -- Waste of an Empire of Public - Land. -- Henry D. Lloyd’s History of Congressional Land Grants. -- The - Growth and Power of Corporations. -- The Origin of large Fortunes, - Speculations. -- Old Social Forces producing old Social Evils. -- - Still America is the Hope of the World. -- The Right of Suffrage in - the United States justifies the Sentiment of Patriotism. -- Let - Suffrage be made Intelligent and Virtuous, and all Social Evils will - yield to it; and all the Wealth of the Country is subject to the Draft - of the Ballot for Education. -- The Hope of Social Reform depends upon - a complete Educational Revolution. - - -The discovery of America startled Europe. It was a great blow to -prevailing dogmatisms. It upset many learned (?) theories. It swept away -patristic geography. It completed the figure of the earth, rendering it -susceptible of intelligent study. The advantages of such investigation -accrued to man, to a degree, before the social and civil life of America -began. In the century and a quarter which elapsed between the landing of -Columbus and that of the Pilgrims, on these shores, considerable social -and political progress was made in Europe, and especially in England. -From the turbulent scenes of the reigns of James I. and Charles I., -which eventuated in the Cromwellian rebellion and victory of the -Commons, the Pilgrims escaped. They not only bore with them, to the new -continent, the impress of the long struggle for liberty waged by the -English people, but they were, in a certain sense, the product of the -progress of all the ages. But they constituted only a small part of the -column of immigrants. Detachments of the Cavaliers came also, and -Germans, Frenchmen, and Irishmen came with them. - -The discovery of America was a sort of new creation,[91] but its almost -virgin soil was destined to become the home of an old civilization. From -all the nationalities of the Old World the New World was to be peopled. -The ambitious, the restless, the adventurous, the enterprising, and the -hardy of every tongue, were gradually to assemble in the new field of -action. The manner in which they treated the natives of the new country, -both north and south, showed their origin and their training. Their -determination to conquer and hold the new territory was but thinly -disguised. Their descent upon the Atlantic coast was not the exact -counterpart of that of Cæsar upon the coast of Britain, but it was the -same in spirit; and the active trade in slaves which soon sprang up, and -which was thereafter vigorously prosecuted for two hundred years, showed -the taint of savagery--the impress of Roman cruelty, rapacity, and -injustice. - - [91] “The discovery of America is the greatest event which has ever - taken place in this world of ours, one half of which had hitherto been - unknown to the other. All that until now appeared extraordinary seems - to disappear before this sort of new creation.”--Voltaire. - -It is evident that in its most important feature--the formation of -character--education had made little if any progress at the time of the -organization of civil society in America. The democratic idea was not -new. It found expression in every form during the struggles of Greece -and Rome, and the revival of learning had led to the discussion of -governmental questions in the light of history. Besides, the reformation -of Luther had opened the way to the last analysis of dissent in the -person of Roger Williams, who asserted the right of absolute freedom of -thought and speech. Of the religious right of private judgment the -political right of an equal voice in public affairs is the corollary. -Hence, that the Puritans should establish the town organizations so -justly lauded by M. Tocqueville was quite logical.[92] Nor was the -public-school system less logical; all citizens being members of the -government, all children must be prepared for the duties of citizenship. -But unfortunately the old system of education was put into the new -schools, as the old civilizations had been transferred to the new -country. The system of education under which the kings and ruling -classes of England and of the continent of Europe were trained to -selfishness, cruelty, and injustice, was heedlessly adopted in the -schools of New England, which became the models of schools throughout -the country. - - [92] “Town meetings are to liberty what primary schools are to - science; they bring it within the people’s reach, they teach men how - to use and how to enjoy it.... The township institutions of New - England form a complete and regular whole; they are old; they have the - support of the laws, and the still stronger support of the manners of - the community, over which they exercise a prodigious - influence.”--“Democracy in America,” Vol. I., p. 76. By Alexis De - Tocqueville. Boston: John Allyn, 1876. - -The popular idea in regard to the schools was (1) that they fitted their -pupils for the duties of citizenship, or, more properly, for the art of -governing, and (2) that they taught the art of getting on in the world; -and getting on in the world was interpreted to mean getting and keeping -money. That this sordid view of education was generally held in the -rural districts of New England is shown by the fact that any culture -beyond a limited and imperfect knowledge of reading, writing, and -arithmetic was regarded as superfluous. Not even the rudiments of either -the sciences or the arts were imparted, and yet it is only through a -knowledge of the sciences and the arts that progress in civilization is -made. The early settlers of New England devised a new system of schools, -but they imported into them an old system of education, the Greco-Roman -subjective system, introduced into England with the revival of learning. -Of this system Mr. Herbert Spencer says, “Had there been no teaching but -such as is given in our public schools, England would now be what it was -in feudal times.” And he adds: - -“The vital knowledge, that by which we have grown as a nation to what we -are, and which now underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge that -has got itself taught in nooks and corners, while the ordained agencies -for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas.”[93] - - [93] “That which our school courses leave almost entirely out, we thus - find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life. All - our industries would cease were it not for that information which men - begin to acquire as they best may after their education is said to be - finished.”--“Education,” p. 54. By Herbert Spencer. New York: D. - Appleton & Co., 1883. - -But these are merely negative effects of subjective methods of -education. The positive evil effect of them is selfishness, the sum of -all villanies. Under the new system of schools--schools for all--the old -philosophy of life flourished. Under the name of prudence, selfishness -was deified. The maxim of Herbert--“Help thyself and God will help -thee”--was reproduced by Franklin in a hundred forms. The child was -taught, not that “The half is more than the whole,” but that “In the -race of life the devil takes the hindmost.” - -Thus greed and avarice were cultivated to the sacrifice of honesty. -Calling selfishness prudence led to confounding right and wrong--freedom -and slavery. Hence we have the Declaration of Independence containing -the lofty sentiment, “All men are created equal,” and the Constitution -throwing the shield of its protection over human bondage. A false system -of education led to political incongruities of the grossest character, -as, in the preamble to the Constitution, the declaration of its high -purpose--to establish justice and secure the blessings of liberty--and -in the body of the instrument a guaranty of the slave-trade for -twenty-five years, and a compact that it should be the duty of the -national army to shoot rebellious slaves, and the duty of free citizens, -of the free States, to hunt down escaping slaves and surrender them to -their owners in the slave States. - -The failure of the prevailing system of education to promote rectitude -and right thinking was so complete that negroes escaping from slavery -were called “fugitives from justice!” Its failure was so complete that -the very streets of Boston in which patriots had struggled to the death -in the cause of liberty now echoed the groans of the slave, and -resounded with the clank of his chains. Its failure was so complete that -in Faneuil Hall, the cradle of liberty, slavery was justified. Its -failure was so complete that a senator, for daring to characterize -slavery as barbaric, was stricken down and beaten with a club, until he -lay helpless in a pool of blood on the floor of the legislative hall of -the great, free republic. - -These are characteristics of the early civilizations, the civilizations -of Greece and Rome. They are the product of selfishness, and they show -that subjective educational processes--processes which proceed from the -abstract to the concrete, thus violating the natural law of -investigation--produce the same effects in the nineteenth century as -they did in the first century. - -Ethically, slavery was tried only by the test of self-interest. In the -North, as in Europe, it was not profitable, and it faded away; in the -South, in the cotton and rice fields, it was thought to be profitable, -and it spread and flourished. That the opposition to slavery, at the -North, did not grow out of education in the schools, is evident, because -the sons of the Southern ruling class were educated in the high schools -and colleges of the North; but they became, notwithstanding such -training, almost to a man, slavery propagandists. The heinousness of -slavery was perceptible only to those who had no personal interest in -its perpetuation. It is plain that the effect of the education of the -schools upon the youth of the country was to make them callous to the -common impressions of right and wrong; in a word, to render them -thoroughly selfish. - -It is difficult to resist the conclusion that, if slavery had been as -profitable at the North as it was at the South, it would have been -perpetuated, and would have poisoned the infant civilization of America -as that of Rome was vitiated and destroyed. Assuming the truth of this -hypothesis, climate conditions, not education, saved this continent -from the scourge of slavery. To the fact that a large part of the -territory of the United States is situated in the temperate zone we owe -the elimination of slavery from the social problem. - -Existing social conditions in the United States do not differ materially -from those of the chief countries of Europe. We have only a small -standing army; but the sole great question which divided the people -during the first hundred years of our political existence--slavery--had -to be settled as such questions have been settled from the beginning of -history, as savages settle all questions--by violence, by an appeal to -the logic of brute force. - -Our government differs from the governments of Europe both in principle -and form, but the governmental influence is only one of many influences -which unite to mould social habits. The democratic principle, adopted as -the foundation of our political institutions, has not served to -counteract the tendency to the formation of social class distinctions. -The people lack the wisdom, or the virtue, or both, to insist upon the -first prerequisite to even an approximation to social equality, namely, -universal education. Of our population of fifty millions, five millions -of persons, ten years old and over, are unable to read, and six millions -are unable to write. In the last census decade we made the paltry gain -of three per cent, in intelligence, but in 1880 we had six hundred -thousand more illiterates than in 1870. Nearly two millions of the legal -voters in the United States are illiterates. Every sixth man who offers -his ballot at the polls is unable to write his name. Under such -circumstances class distinctions of the most pronounced type are -inevitable. - -The tendency to the concentration of populations in cities in the -United States is not less decided than it is in the countries of Europe. -In 1820 the population of our cities constituted less than one-twentieth -of the whole population of the country, but in 1880 it constituted more -than one-fifth of the whole. - -Cities have always been the chief source of societary disturbances. In -the worst days of the Roman Empire tranquillity and prosperity reigned -in many of the distant provinces. While at the city of Rome “every kind -of vice paraded itself with revolting cynicism,” in the provinces “there -was a middle class in which good-nature, conjugal fidelity, probity, and -the domestic virtues were generally practised.” - -Of one of the youngest large cities in the United States the late -superintendent of a Training School for Waifs says, “Never in the -history of this city has infant wretchedness stalked forth in such -multiplied and such humiliating forms. It is hard to suppress the -conviction that even Pagan Rome, in the corrupt age of Augustus, did not -witness a more rapid and frightful declension in morals than that which -can to-day be found in the city of Chicago.” - -The most graphic description ever given of a waif came from the lips of -John Morrissey.[94] He said of himself, - -“I was, at the age of seven years, thrown a waif upon the streets of -Dublin. I slept in alleys and under sidewalks. I disputed with other -waifs the possession of a crust. We fought like young savages for the -garbage that fell from the basket of the scullion. The strongest won -and satisfied the cravings of hunger; the weakest starved. I had no idea -that anything was to be gained by other means than brute force. Hence my -code of moral and political ethics--the strongest man is the best man. I -became a pugilist.” - - [94] A noted pugilist, proprietor of gambling-houses in New York City - and at Saratoga Springs, and a politician who represented a New York - City district in Congress. - -The substantial citizen who passes the street waif with contempt should -reflect that ten or a dozen years later he will meet him, a full-grown -man, at the polls, still clothed in rags, perhaps, but his peer in all -the rights of citizenship. It was the unfortunates of the dark alleys -and noxious streets of New York--the waifs, the savages of the John -Morrissey type--that made Tweedism[95] possible, that made robbery in -the name of law possible, that made taxation the equivalent of -confiscation in that city. - - [95] For an account of the career of William Marcy Tweed, see “The - American Cyclopædia,” Vol. XVI, p. 85. New York: D. Appleton & Co., - 1881. - -Mr. Charles Dickens, in “Bleak House,” in the course of a pen-picture of -a wretched quarter of London, under the name of “Tom-all-alones,” shows -how ignorance, poverty, and vice react upon society. He says, “There is -not an atom of Tom’s slime, not a cubic inch of any pestilential gas in -which he lives, not one obscenity or degradation about him, not an -ignorance, not a wickedness, not a brutality of his committing but shall -work its retribution through every order of society, up to the proudest -of the proud, and to the highest of the high.” - -The presence of the poison is already shown in the failure of justice. -These waifs, grown to man’s estate, but destitute of education and moral -principle, wielding the power of the ballot, desecrate the jury-room -with their vile presence, and tug at the skirts of sheriffs, -prosecuting officers, and judges, and notorious criminals escape -punishment! So grievous has the abuse become that Judge Lynch has opened -his summary, awful court in almost every State of the Union. - -To say that this class menaces the government with destruction is to -state it mildly. In every case of the failure of justice the government -is in part subverted; for when crime goes unpunished, the law, violated -in that particular instance, becomes a dead letter; and when lynching -shall have become the rule, and the execution of the law the exception, -government by law will have ceased to exist--it will have given way to -government by force. Then the army will be invoked to shoot down the men -for whose education the law failed to provide, in every city of the -land, as it was invoked in Pittsburg in 1877. - -What are we doing to avert this danger which threatens our institutions? -With the exception of here and there a weak effort on the part of a few -humanitarians, as in the training school referred to, we are leaving -hundreds of thousands of waifs to develop into savages, and, what is -worse, savages with the power to tax civilized people! We have a system -of public schools into which such children as choose may enter to a -certain limit, remain as long as they please, and depart when they -please. But there are thousands of children in every large city who -could not enter if they would, and who are not compelled to receive the -civilizing benefits of education, and who hence join the army of waifs -and study the art of savagery; and, as has been remarked, they go to -swell the ranks of a populace as depraved as that which in Rome cried -for “bread and circuses!” and sacked the city while it was in flames. - -The defective, not to say vicious character of our system of education, -is shown by the reckless course of our legislators on the subject of the -disposition of the public domain. William the Conqueror, conceiving that -any social revolution is incomplete until it disturbs the proprietorship -of land, confiscated the entire landed estates of England, and conferred -what remained of the proprietary, after reservations in the Crown, upon -his retainers, the Normans. Eight hundred years have elapsed since the -issue of William’s land-tenure edict, but it still remains the -controlling feature of the British Constitution. It has compelled the -deportation of millions of Englishmen; it has reduced the masses of -Scotland to a grinding poverty, and converted their country into -hunting-grounds for the amusement of the landlord class; it has -depopulated Ireland, and exasperated almost to madness the remnant of -her people. - -But we have failed to profit by the example of England. Our legislators -have been blind to the lessons of history, or they have been corrupt. -They have been ignorant of political and social laws, or they have been -wanting in rectitude. In the period of thirty years, ended in 1880, -Congress gave to railway corporations over 240,000 square miles, or -154,067,553 acres, of the best public lands in the States and -Territories of the Union--an area double that of the whole kingdom of -Great Britain and Ireland, including the adjacent isles. - -On the 17th of March, 1883, the _Chicago Daily Tribune_ published a -history of these land grants, compiled by Mr. Henry D. Lloyd, under the -following summary: - -“_The story of the dissipation of our great national inheritance--thrown -away by Congress, wasted by the Land Office, stolen by thieves. A land -monopoly worse than that of England, begotten in America. English -monopoly is in families; American monopoly is in corporations; and -corporations are the only aristocrats that have no souls, and never -die._” - -The following passages from the opening paragraphs of Mr. Lloyd’s -history are reproduced here by permission of the author: - -“The public are profoundly ignorant of the facts about the public land. -They know, in a dim way, that it is passing out of their hands, and that -huge monopolies are being created out of the lands which they meant -should be the inheritance of the settler. The land set apart for homes -for families has been made into empires for corporations. In the story -recited below, every element of human fault and fraud will be seen to -have been at work in the spoliation of the land of the people. Congress -has been extravagant and has failed to act when part of the results of -its extravagance might have been saved. The Land Office has been -inadequately equipped by Congress, and has on its own account been -careless, dishonest, and traitorous to the interests of the people. It -has been wax in the hands of the great railroad corporations, but -double-edged steel in the side of the poor settler. It has overruled -decisions of the Supreme Court and nullified acts of Congress to betray -its trust and enrich the railroads, but has refused even to exercise its -discretion when the home of a settler, held by a righteous title, was to -be confiscated at the demand of corporate greed. The niggardliness of -Congress makes clerks, on salaries of twelve hundred to eighteen hundred -dollars a year, untrained in the law, knowing nothing of the rules of -evidence, judges of the law and facts in cases involving millions of -dollars and thousands of homes. There is no worse chapter in the -history of government than the facts we have to give showing the -deliberate and heartless evictions of the European immigrant and the -American settler in order to give their farms to covetous corporations. -The land-grant roads have had millions of acres granted them by the Land -Office in excess of the grants by Congress. The whole story is summed up -in the recent remark of one who had thoroughly investigated the -subject--that the history of the management of the land-grant roads by -the Land Office is a history of the management of the Land Office by the -railroads. - -“No chapter in this story will be found of more sombre interest than the -statements made as to the Supreme Court by the Senate Committee on -Public Lands, in a report submitted by Senator Van Wyck recommending a -bill to compel the railroads to pay taxes on their lands. Its decisions -as to the titles of the railroads and the settlers to the lands, like -those of a weathercock, have pointed the way the corporation blew its -breath.” - -The summary of Mr. Lloyd’s paper by the editor of the _Tribune_, as a -preface to its publication, and the foregoing characterization of the -acts of Congress, of the Land Office, and of the Supreme Court, by Mr. -Lloyd, are fully justified by the alleged facts marshalled in the body -of the sketch; and these allegations, after a year and a half of public -scrutiny, stand unchallenged. - -It would be difficult to conceive of a more reckless series of -legislative acts than those through which the public domain in the -United States has been squandered; and they are rendered either ignorant -or vicious by the fact that in the vast empire surrendered almost -totally without consideration, each legislator, in common with the -people by and for whom he was deputed to act, had a personal interest. -Through this series of acts of Congress the public domain was rudely -wrested from its rightful owners, the people; the abnormal growth of -corporate power unduly promoted, and a tendency to the concentration, in -a few hands, of the landed estates of the country fostered. - -The social and economic effects of this land legislation must be very -great and far-reaching. Of the effects of the concentration of landed -estates in a few hands we need not speak; they are sufficiently plain in -England, Scotland, and Ireland.[96] But great corporations are a -creation of yesterday; they are the product of steam. The railway, the -factory, the mine of iron or coal, the furnace, the foundery, and the -forge--these vast interests, chartered and endowed with certain -muniments of sovereignty, are, as property, almost as indestructible as -landed estates protected by the law of primogeniture. Men are trained -from generation to generation to the care and conduct of them, and hence -they are far less liable to waste and dispersion than private estates, -which, in transmission, may be subjected to disastrous changes of -management. Being also enterprises of a semi-public character, the -public is bound, as well as their owners, to see to their preservation. - - [96] “The more essential and important consideration is this--that - whenever the few rapidly accumulate excessive wealth, the many must, - necessarily, become comparatively poorer.... In every case in which we - have traced out the efficient causes of the present depression we have - found it to originate in customs, laws, or modes of action which are - ethically unsound, if not positively immoral. Wars and excessive war - armaments, loans to despots or for war purposes, the accumulation of - vast wealth by individuals, excessive speculation, adulteration of - manufactured goods, and, lastly, _our bad land system_, with its - insecurity of tenure, excessive rents, confiscation of tenants’ - property, its common enclosures, evictions, and depopulation of the - rural districts--all come under this category.”--“Bad Times,” pp. 65, - 117. By Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D. London: Macmillan & Co., 1885. - -It is to a small number of the greatest of these great companies that -Congress has given an empire of land in the West--an area double that -owned by the lords of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In the railway -proprietor of the United States the two great elements of power are -united--steam and land. It needs no argument to show that only the -nation can control the proprietor of both the land and the railway--the -sole means of reaching a market for the products of the land. The -appellative--kingship--to the railway proprietor is not a misnomer. He -is a real potentate, both by virtue of the multitudes of men over whom -he rules autocratically, and of the magnitude of the revenue he wields. -Presidents come and go, but he remains. Legislators investigate him and -report upon him, but they are met by a flat denial of the authority of -either State or nation to interfere with his “vested rights.” He claims -the right of himself and associates to control, absolutely, the internal -commerce of the country; and this claim involves the pretence that they -may confiscate merchandise seeking a market by charging, for carriage, -the full value of the thing transported. - -The railway and the factory, the two great products of steam, are new -factors in the social problem, and to properly control them will require -new wisdom; and the new wisdom is not to be drawn from old educational -fountains. - -State legislation has been as vicious as that of the nation. The people -of nearly every State in the Union have been made the victims of great -frauds and gross ignorance at the hands of their representatives. In -nearly every State syndicates have been formed with the design of -securing valuable franchises without consideration; and to effectuate -such designs bribery has been freely and successfully resorted to in a -vast number of cases. But rarely has the guilty agent of the guilty -syndicate, or the perjured, purchased legislator been brought to -justice, notwithstanding the fact that exposure has often followed the -iniquity. - -Evidence of the essentially European character of the American -civilization is afforded by the prevalence of speculation.[E30] In Wall -Street, New York, on the Board of Trade, Chicago, and on the exchanges -of all large cities speculation rages. The real transactions of those -business marts are very small, indeed, as compared with the transactions -of a speculative character. On the New York Cotton Exchange the -speculative trades in “futures” are thirty times more than the cotton -sales. On the Chicago Board of Trade the speculative trades in “futures” -are fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions, and so of -the exchanges of all other large cities. To support these speculative -operations fresh money is required to be constantly poured into the -pool, and it is drawn from every class in the community. Very little of -the “fresh money” is ever returned. Most of it remains in the hands of -the pool managers, of those whose profession it is to manipulate the -markets. Thus the fever of speculation extends from centre to -circumference of the country, stimulating bad passions, creating -distaste for labor, relieving the countryman of his surplus, and -increasing the already overgrown fortune of the city operator. A writer -on current topics, discussing this subject, says, “Put your finger on -one of our great fortunes, and nine times out of ten you will feel -underneath it the cold heart of some one who has mined on the San -Francisco Stock Exchange, or packed pork on the Chicago Board of Trade, -or built railroads in Wall Street.”[97] - - [97] “America does not now suffer from this cause [standing armies], - but nowhere in the world have colossal fortunes, rabid speculation, - and great monopolies reached so portentous a magnitude, or exerted so - pernicious an influence.”--“Bad Times,” p. 80. By Alfred Russel - Wallace, LL.D. London: Macmillan & Co,. 1885. - -A sufficient number of the salient features of American civilization -have been brought under review to show that the new continent has not -borne new social fruits. Under extremely favorable physical -conditions--a country of vast resources, a wide range of climates, and a -soil of great fertility--we planted old social forces, and old social -evils are in process of rapid development. We are transplanted -Europeans, controlled by European mental and moral habitudes. And the -virile force, evoked by the splendid physical opportunities of a vast -new country, so intensifies the struggle for wealth and power, that -European social abuses are not only reproduced, but sometimes -exaggerated in this land of boasted equal political rights. - -But notwithstanding the fact that social tendencies in America seem to -be similar to those of Europe, it is upon America alone that the eyes of -mankind rest with an expression of ardent hopefulness. Nor is this hope -destitute of a basis of rationality. It is in the United States, for the -first time in all the ages, that a good reason can be given for -indulging the sentiment of patriotism. Love of country here is a due -appreciation of the value of the right of suffrage. The private soldier -who goes forth to fight the battles of the United States is a man and -citizen, and upon his return from the field he may, with the ballot, -devote to the education of his children a share of the estate of the -army contractor who amassed a fortune while he defended the country. All -the property in the United States, whether honestly or dishonestly -acquired, is subject to the order of the ballot of the citizen. It may -be taken for war purposes, and it may be taken for educational purposes. -In the universality of the right of suffrage lies the power of -correcting all social evils. It is through the right of suffrage that -the wrongs inflicted upon a too patient people by corrupt and ignorant -legislation may be ultimately righted. By the suffrages of the people -the tax bill is voted; and it is through the tax bill that the vast -estates of corporations and individuals, whether obtained by dishonest -practices or not, may be made to contribute to the thorough education of -all the children of the country. And it is through the sentiment of -patriotism thus inspired that the right of universal suffrage in the -United States is destined to preservation forever. - -The late proposition to limit suffrage in the city of New York is -explainable only on the theory put forth in this chapter, that our -civilization is the product of European ideas--that we are Europeans in -disguise. On any other hypothesis it would be amazing. It is even now -sufficiently startling that the proposition to restrict suffrage should -precede the proposition to make education universal by making it -compulsory, and to purge it of its glaring defects. Every attempt to -restrict the right of suffrage in the United States will, however, fail. -The right of self-government can be taken from the American people only -by force. The American citizen will not vote away his right to vote, as -the careless Greek sold his freedom, and as the Chinaman sells his life. - -That American social abuses do not spring from free suffrage is evident, -because similar abuses exist in countries where the masses have little -or no share in the government. Social evils are the product of defective -education. So long as European educational methods prevail in this -country, so long European social abuses will characterize our -civilization. Our education is scant in quantity and poor in quality; -hence the standard of the suffrage is lowered by the presence of -ignorance and depravity. But when the suffrage shall be better informed, -it will be more honest; and when it shall have become more honest and -more intelligent, it will have gained the power to grapple with social -abuses. - -Such examination of history as we have been able to make fails to -disclose any radical change in educational methods for three thousand -years. The charge of Mr. Herbert Spencer against the schools of England, -to wit, “That which our school courses leave almost entirely out we thus -find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life”--this -charge applies with almost as much force to the schools of the United -States as to the Greek and Roman schools of rhetoric and logic. Bacon’s -aphorism--“Education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate -familiarity betwixt the mind and things”--is two hundred and fifty years -old, but it has as yet exerted scarcely an appreciable influence upon -the methods of our public schools. We still reverse the natural order of -investigation proceeding from the abstract to the concrete, thus -lumbering the mind of the student with trash which must be removed as a -preliminary to the first step in the real work of education. We still -impart a knowledge of words instead of a knowledge of things; we still -ignore art, notwithstanding the fact that it is through art alone that -education touches human life. We still inculcate contempt of labor, and -teach the student how to “make his way in the world” by his wits, rather -than by giving an equivalent for what he shall receive; and, worst of -all, we continue, through subjective processes of thought, to charge the -mind with selfishness, the essence of depravity. - -Meantime, social problems press for a solution, a solution here and now. -Our social problems cannot be settled as those of Europe have been, for -two hundred years, by emigration. We have no Columbus, and if we had -such an explorer, there is no new hemisphere for him to discover. The -lesson of all history is, that selfish people cannot dwell together in -unity. The struggle to secure more than a fair share of the products of -the labor of all is sure to end in a quarrel; the quarrel ends in a -revolution, and the revolution, under the glare of flames, drowns in -blood the records of civilization. But in America the man must live with -his fellows. As Mr. Henry D. Lloyd well says, in “Lords of Industry,” -“Our young men can no longer go West; they must go up or down. Not new -land, but new virtue must be the outlet for the future. Our halt at the -shores of the Pacific is a much more serious affair than that which -brought our ancestors to a pause before the barriers of the Atlantic, -and compelled them to practise living together for a few hundred years. -We cannot hereafter, as in the past, recover freedom by going to the -prairies; we must find it in the society of the good.” [98] - - [98] _North American Review_, June, 1884, p. 552. - -If we are to find freedom only in the society of the good, we must -create such a society--a society free from selfishness; for to the -stability of society public spirit is essential, and with a pure public -spirit selfishness is at war. Hence, in a system of education like the -prevailing one, which promotes selfishness, the germs of social -disintegration are present, and, from the beginning, the end may with -absolute certainty be predicted. It follows that any hope of social -reform is wholly irrational that does not spring from the postulate of a -complete educational revolution. - - [E30] The speculative habit has so debauched public sentiment in - England and America that distinguished authors hesitate not to give - free expression to a feeling of contempt for the ancients because of - their failure to engage in colossal swindling operations, as witness - the following: - - “The charges of fraud [in the Attic courts], which are many, are of - the vulgarest and simplest kind, depending upon violence, on false - swearing, and upon evading judgment by legal devices. There is not a - single case of any large or complicated swindling, such as is - exhibited by the genius of modern English and American speculators. - There is not even such ingenuity as was shown by Verres in his - government of Sicily to be found among the clever Athenians.”--“Social - Life in Greece,” p. 408. By the Rev. J. P. Mahaffy, F.T.C.D. London: - Macmillan & Co., 1883. - - [E31] “On all hands of us, there is the announcement, audible enough, - that the Old Empire of Routine has ended; that to say a thing has long - been, is no reason for its continuing to be. The things which have - been are fallen into decay, are fallen into incompetence; large masses - of mankind, in every society of our Europe, are no longer capable of - living at all by the things which have been. When millions of men can - no longer by their utmost exertion gain food for themselves, and ‘the - third man for thirty-six weeks each year is short of third-rate - potatoes,’ the things which have been must decidedly prepare to alter - themselves!”--“Lectures on Heroes,” p. 157. By Thomas Carlyle. Chapman - & Hall’s People’s Edition. - - “Change the sources of a river, and you will change it throughout its - whole course; change the education of a people, and you will alter - their character and their manners:”--“Studies of Nature,” Vol. II., p. - 575. By Bernardin St. Pierre. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1846. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION IN 1884. - - The Kindergarten and the Manual Training School one in Principle. -- - Russia solved the Problem of Tool Instruction by Laboratory Processes. - -- The Initiatory Step by M. Victor Della-Vos, Director of the - Imperial Technical School of Moscow in 1868. -- Statement of Director - Della-Vos as to the Origin, Progress, and Results of the New System of - Training. -- Its Introduction into all the Technical Schools of - Russia. -- Dr. John D. Runkle, President of the Massachusetts - Institute of Technology, recommends the Russian System in 1876, and it - is adopted. -- Statement of Dr. Runkle as to how he was led to the - adoption of the Russian System. -- Dr. Woodward, of Washington - University, St. Louis, Mo., establishes the second School in this - Country. -- His Historical Note in the Prospectus of 1882-83. -- First - Class graduated 1883. -- Manual Training in the Agricultural Colleges - -- In Boston, in New Haven, in Baltimore, in San Francisco, and other - places. -- Manual Training at the Meeting of the National Educational - Association, 1884. -- Kindergarten and Manual Training Exhibits. -- - Prof. Felix Adler’s School in New York City -- the most Comprehensive - School in the World. -- The Chicago Manual Training School the first - Independent Institution of the Kind -- its Inception; its - Incorporation; its Opening. Its Director, Dr. Belfield. -- His - Inaugural Address. -- Manual Training in the Public Schools of - Philadelphia. -- Manual Training in twenty-four States. -- - Revolutionizing a Texas College. -- Local Option Law in Massachusetts. - -- Department of Domestic Economy in the Iowa Agricultural College. -- - Manual Training in Tennessee, in the University of Michigan, in the - National Educational Association, in Ohio. -- The Toledo School for - both Sexes. -- The Importance of the Education of Woman. -- The Slöjd - Schools of Europe. - - -The principle of the manual training school exists in the kindergarten, -and for that principle we are indebted directly to Froebel, and -indirectly to Pestalozzi, Comenius, Rousseau, and Bacon. But it was -reserved for Russia to solve the problem of tool instruction by the -laboratory process, and make it the foundation of a great reform in -education. The initiatory step was taken in 1868 by M. Victor Della-Vos, -Director of the Imperial Technical School of Moscow. The following -statement is extracted from the account given by Director Della-Vos of -the exhibit of the Moscow school at Philadelphia (Centennial of 1876), -and at the Paris Exposition in 1878, as best showing the inception of -the new education: - -[Illustration: M. VICTOR DELLA-VOS, THE FOUNDER OF MANUAL TRAINING IN -RUSSIA.] - -“In 1868 the school council considered it indispensable, in order to -secure the systematical teaching of elementary practical work, as well -as for the more convenient supervision of the pupils while practically -employed, to separate entirely the school workshops from the mechanical -works in which the orders from private individuals are executed, -admitting pupils to the latter only when they have perfectly acquired -the principles of practical labor. - -“By the separation alone of the school workshops from the mechanical -works, the principal aim was, however, far from being attained. It was -found necessary to work out such a method of teaching the elementary -principles of mechanical art as, firstly, should demand the least -possible length of time for their acquirement; secondly, should increase -the facility of the supervision of the graded employment of the pupils; -thirdly, should impart to the study of practical work the character of a -sound systematical acquirement of knowledge; and fourthly and lastly, -should facilitate the demonstration of the progress of every pupil at -every stated time. Everybody is well aware that the successful study of -any art whatsoever, free-hand or linear drawing, music, singing, -painting, etc., is only attainable when the first attempts at any of -them are strictly subject to the laws of gradation and successiveness, -when every student adheres to a definite method or school, surmounting -little by little, and by certain degrees, the difficulties encountered. - -“All those arts which we have just named possess a method of study which -has been well worked out and defined, because, since they have long -constituted a part of the education of the well-instructed classes of -people, they could not but become subject to scientific analysis, could -not but become the objects of investigation, with a view of defining -those conditions which might render the study of them as easy and well -regulated as possible. - -“If we except the attempts made in France in the year 1867 by the -celebrated and learned mechanical engineer, A. Cler, to form a -collection of models for the practical study of the principal methods of -forging and welding iron and steel, as well as the chief parts of -joiners’ work, and this with a purely demonstrative aim, no one, as far -as we are aware, has hitherto been actively engaged in the working out -of this question in its application to the study of hand labor in -workshops. To the Imperial Technical School belongs the initiative in -the introduction of a systematical method of teaching the arts of -turning, carpentering, fitting, and forging. - -“To the knowledge and experience in these specialties, of the gentlemen -intrusted with the management of the school workshops, and to their warm -sympathy in the matter of practical education, we are indebted for the -drawing up of the programme of systematical instruction in the -mechanical arts, its introduction in the year 1868 into the workshops, -and also for the preparation of the necessary auxiliaries to study. In -the year 1870, at the exhibition of manufactures at St. Petersburg, the -school exhibited its methods of teaching mechanical arts, and from that -time they have been common to all the technical schools of Russia. - -“And now (1878) we present our system of instruction, not as a project, -but as an accomplished fact, confirmed by the long experience of ten -years of success in its results.” - -For the introduction of the manual element in education to the United -States we are indebted to the intellectual acumen of Dr. John D. Runkle, -Ph.D., LL.D., Walker Professor of Mathematics, Institute of Technology, -Boston, Mass. In 1876 Doctor Runkle was President of the Massachusetts -Institute of Technology. In his official report for that year he gave an -exhaustive exposition of the Russian system, in the course of which he -said, - -“We went to Philadelphia, therefore, earnestly seeking for light in this -as well as in all other directions, and this special report is now made -to ask your attention to a fundamental, and, as I think, complete -solution of this most important problem of practical mechanism for -engineers. The question is simply this, Can a system of shop-work -instruction be devised of sufficient range and quality which will not -consume more time than ought to be spared from the indispensable -studies? - -“This question has been answered triumphantly in the affirmative, and -the answer comes from Russia. It gives me the greatest pleasure to call -your attention to the exhibit made by the Imperial Technical Schools of -St. Petersburg and Moscow, consisting entirely of collections of tools -and samples of shop-work by students, illustrating the system which has -made these magnificent results possible.” - -In conclusion Doctor Runkle made the following earnest recommendation: - -“In the light of the experience which Russia brings us, not only in the -form of a proposed system, but proved by several years of experience in -more than a single school, it seems to me that the duty of the Institute -is plain. We should, without delay, complete our course in Mechanical -Engineering by adding a series of instruction shops, which I earnestly -recommend.” - -In accordance with this recommendation the “new school of Mechanic Arts” -was created, and made part of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. - -In his report for 1877 Doctor Runkle said, - -“The plan announced in my last report, of building a series of shops -[laboratories] in which to teach the students in the department of -Mechanical Engineering and others the use of tools, and the fundamental -steps in the art of construction, in accordance with the Russian system, -as exhibited at Philadelphia in 1876, has been carried steadily forward, -and I have now the pleasure of announcing its near completion.” - -Reference is also made in the same report to the action of the trustees -of the Institute in acknowledging the reception of certain models -illustrating the system of Mechanic Art education, presented by the -government of Russia, as follows: - -“At a meeting of the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of -Technology, held November 20, 1877, a communication from his Excellency, -Hon. George H. Boker, American Minister at St. Petersburg, was read, -announcing the gift to this Institute of eight cases of models, -illustrating the system of Mechanic Art education, as devised and so -successfully applied at the Imperial Technical School of Moscow. The -undersigned have been charged with the agreeable duty of transmitting to -his Imperial Highness the following resolutions: - -[Illustration: DR. JOHN D. RUNKLE, THE FOUNDER OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE -UNITED STATES.] - -“_Resolved_, That the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of -Technology takes this opportunity to cordially congratulate his Imperial -Highness, Prince Pierre d’Oldenbourg, that, at the Imperial Technical -School of Moscow, education in the Mechanic Arts has been for the first -time based upon philosophical and purely educational grounds, fully -justifying for it the title of the ‘Russian system.’ - -“_Resolved_, That this Corporation hereby tenders its grateful thanks to -his Imperial Highness for his most valuable gift, with the assurance -that these models will be of the greatest aid in promoting Mechanic Art -education not only in the School of this Institute, but in all similar -schools throughout the United States.” - -Appreciating the value of the services rendered to the cause of the new -education by Dr. Runkle, in introducing to the schools of the United -States tool practice by laboratory methods, and desiring to inform the -public of the course of thought which led to results so important, the -author addressed him on the subject. His reply, under date of May 22, -1884, is in substance as follows: - -“From the first the course in Mechanical Engineering has been an -important one in the Institute of Technology. A few students came with a -knowledge of shop-work, and had a clear field open to them on -graduation, but the larger number found it difficult to enter upon their -professional work without first taking one or two years of -apprenticeship. This always seemed to me a fault in the education, and -yet I did not see the way to remedy it without building up manufacturing -works in connection with the school--a step which I knew to be an -inversion of a true educational method. - -“At Philadelphia, in 1876, almost the first thing I saw was a small case -containing three series of models--one of chipping and filing, one of -forging, and one of machine-tool work. I saw at once that they were not -parts of machines, but simply graded models for teaching the -manipulations in those arts. In an instant the problem I had been -seeking to solve was clear to my mind; a plain distinction between a -Mechanic Art and its application in some special trade became apparent. - -“My first work was to build up at the Institute a series of Mechanic Art -shops, or laboratories, to teach these arts, just as we teach chemistry -and physics by the same means. At the same time I believed that this -discipline could be made a part of general education, just as we make -the sciences available for the same end through laboratory instruction. - -“All teaching has in an important sense a double purpose: first, the -cultivation of the powers of the individual, and second, the pursuit of -similar subjects, by substantially the same means, as a professional -end. Now we use our shops [laboratories] both for educational and -professional ends.... In brief, we teach the mechanic arts by laboratory -methods, and the student applies the special skill and knowledge -acquired, or not, as circumstances or his inclinations dictate.” - -The second manual training school in this country was founded as a -department of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., by Dr. C. M. -Woodward. In a paper read before the St. Louis Social Science -Association, May 16, 1878, Dr. Woodward discussed the subject of -education both philosophically and practically. In the course of his -address he gave a full account of the Russian system of manual training -as expounded by Dr. Runkle, endorsed it, and recommended it to the -people of St. Louis as the true method of education in the following -pregnant sentence: “The manual education which begins in the -kindergarten, before the children are able to read a word, should never -cease.”[99] - - [99] The pressing problem of the time in methods of practical - education is to devise suitable manual exercises for the school period - embraced in the interim between the end of the kindergarten series of - lessons and the beginning of the series of laboratory exercises - described in this work--the grammar-school period--for children of - both sexes from six to fourteen years of age. - -In the same paper Dr. Woodward thus modestly describes the beginning of -the school which is now one of the most highly-esteemed educational -institutions of St. Louis: - -“With the aid of our stanch friend, Mr. Gottlieb Conzelman, we fitted up -during last summer a wood-working shop, with work-benches and vises for -eighteen students; a second shop for vise-work upon metals and for -machine-work; and a third with a single outfit of blacksmith’s tools. -During the last few months systematic instruction has been given to -different classes in all these shops. Special attention has been paid to -the use of wood-working hand-tools, to wood-turning, and to filing.” - -These tentative steps promoted a healthy public sentiment, and attracted -the attention of several wealthy men, who in 1879 contributed the funds -for the permanent foundation of the school. The prospectus for the year -1882-83 contains the following “historical note,” which shows great -progress: - -“The ordinance establishing the Manual Training School was adopted by -the Board of Directors of the University, June 6, 1879. - -“The lot was purchased and the building begun in August of the same -year. In the November following a prospectus of the school was -published. In June, 1880, the building being partially equipped, was -opened for public inspection, and a class of boys was examined for -admission. On September 6, 1880, the school began with a single class of -about fifty pupils. The whole number enrolled during the year was -sixty-seven. A public exhibition of drawing and shop-work was given June -16, 1881. - -“The _second year_ of the school opened September 12, 1881, and closed -June 14, 1882. There were two classes, sixty-one pupils belonging to the -first year, and forty-six to the second year, making one hundred and -seven in all. Of the second-year class, forty-two had attended the -school the previous year. - -“The _third year_ of the school will open on September 11th, when three -classes will be present. - -“The large addition now in progress (June, 1882) is to be completed and -furnished by the day set for the examination of candidates for -admission, September 8th. The number of pupils in the new first-year -class is to be limited to one hundred. _Nearly one-half of that number -have already been received._” - -The capacity of the school since the completion of the “addition” -alluded to in the “historical note” is two hundred and forty students. -The first class was graduated in June, 1883; the second class in June, -1884. The establishment of this excellent school is due first to the -energy and educational foresight of Dr. Woodward, and second, to the -munificent money donations of three citizens of St. Louis--Mr. Edwin -Harrison, Mr. Samuel Cupples, and Mr. Gottlieb Conzelman. Other citizens -emulated their noble example, and the result was a sufficient fund for -the support of the school, whose purpose is to demonstrate the -practicability of uniting manual and mental instruction in the public -schools of St. Louis and of the country. With a single further quotation -from the prospectus of the second great manual training school in the -United States, on the subject of labor, we close this too brief notice: - -“One great object of the school is to foster a higher appreciation of -the value and dignity of intelligent labor, and the worth and -respectability of laboring men. A boy who sees nothing in manual labor -but mere brute force despises both labor and the laborer. With the -acquisition of skill in himself comes the ability and willingness to -recognize skill in his fellows. When once he appreciates skill in -handicraft, he regards the workman with sympathy and respect.” - -Considerable progress in manual training has been made in the State -agricultural colleges of the country. In twelve of these colleges -drawing and tool practice have been introduced. Generally the tool -practice covers pattern-making, blacksmithing, moulding and founding, -forging and bench-work, and machine-tool work in iron. The most -pronounced success has been achieved at Purdue University, Lafayette, -Ind., under the directorship of Prof. Wm. F. M. Goss, who graduated from -the school of Mechanic Arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology -in 1879. - -Manual training in connection with the public-school system of education -has been inaugurated in Boston and Milford, Mass.; New Haven, and the -State Normal School, New Britain, Conn.; Omaha, Neb.;[100] Eau Claire, -Wis.;[101] Moline, Peru, and the Cook County Normal School, Normal Park, -Ill.; Montclair, N. J.; Cleveland and Barnesville, Ohio; San Francisco, -Cal.; and Baltimore, Md. - - [100] In charge of Albert M. Bumann, B.S., graduate of the St. Louis - Manual Training School, class of 1885. - - [101] In charge of William F. Barnes, B.S., graduate of the St. Louis - Manual Training School, class of 1885. - -On the occasion of the annual meeting of 1884 of the National -Educational Association of the United States, at Madison, Wis., manual -training received a very large share of the attention of educators. Very -creditable exhibits of various manipulations in wood, iron, and steel -were made by the following institutions, namely, the Massachusetts -Institute of Technology, Purdue University, the St. Louis Manual -Training School, the Illinois Industrial University, the University of -Wisconsin, and the Spring Garden Institute of Philadelphia. There were -also about thirty kindergarten exhibits, and a large number of exhibits -of specimens of drawing from public schools in various parts of the -country. - -Prof. Felix Adler’s educational enterprise in the city of New York--The -Workingman’s School and Free Kindergarten--is unique in this that, while -it is entirely a work of charity, it is the most comprehensive -educational institution in existence, as appears from the following -description of its course of instruction: - -“The Workingman’s School and Free Kindergarten form one institution. The -children are admitted at the age of three to the kindergarten. They are -graduated from it at six, and enter the workingman’s school. They remain -in the school till they are thirteen or fourteen years of age. -Thereafter those who show decided ability receive higher technical -instruction. For the others who leave the school proper and are sent to -work, a series of evening classes will be opened, in which their -industrial and general education will be continued in various -directions. This graduate course of the workingman’s school is intended -to extend up to the eighteenth or twenty-first year. - -“From the third year up to manhood and womanhood--such,” says Prof. -Adler, “is the scope embraced by the purposes of our institution!” - -The following extracts from a late report of the principal of the -school, Mr. G. Bamberger, on its “purposes,” show that they are -identical with those of the so-called manual training school, and also -that its methods are similar: - -“We, therefore, have undertaken to institute a reform in education in -the following two ways: We begin industrial instruction at the very -earliest age possible. Already in our kindergarten we lay the foundation -for the system of work instruction that is to follow. In the school -proper, then, we seek to bridge over the interval lying between the -preparatory kindergarten training and the specialized instruction of the -technical school, utilizing the school age itself for the development of -industrial ability. This, however, is only one characteristic feature of -our institution. The other, and the capital one, is, that we seek to -combine industrial instruction organically with the ordinary branches of -instruction, thus using it not only for the material purpose of -creating skill, but also ideally as a factor of mind-education. To our -knowledge, such an application of work instruction has nowhere as yet -been attempted, either abroad or in this country.... - -“In the teaching of history to these young children we hold it essential -that the teacher should be entirely independent of any text-book, and -able to freely handle the vast material at his disposal, and to draw -from it, as from an endless storehouse, with fixed and definite purpose. -We attach even greater importance to the moral than to the intellectual -significance of history. The benefits which the understanding, the -memory, and the imagination derive from the study of history are not -small. But history, considered as a realm of actions, can be made -especially fruitful of sound influence upon the active, moral side of -human nature. The moral judgment is strengthened by a knowledge of the -evolution of mankind in good and evil. The moral feelings are purified -by abhorrence of the vices of the past, and by admiration of examples of -greatness and virtue. Text-books are not to be discarded, but their -choice is a matter of great difficulty. Thus, all books in which -historical instruction is given in the shape of printed questions and -answers are highly objectionable. They are convenient bridges which lead -to nothing.” - -The following extract from a late report of Prof. Adler shows the -purpose of the establishment of what he calls the “model school” to be -identical with that of the projectors of the St. Louis and Chicago -manual training schools, namely, the ultimate adoption by the public -schools of the country of a far more rational system of instruction than -that which at present prevails. He says, - -“It seemed to us, therefore, far more necessary, far more calculated to -really advance the public good, that one model school should be erected -in which the entire system of rational and liberal education for the -children of the poorer class might be exhibited from beginning to end. -We ventured to hope that such an example, having once been set, would -not be without effect upon the common-school system at large, and that -the extension of our work would proceed by the natural course of the -‘survival of what is fittest.’ It was decided, therefore, that the -twenty-five graduates from the kindergarten should be invited to remain -with us, that a complete school should be instituted, and that a teacher -should be at once appointed to take in hand the instruction of the -lowest class. The munificence of Mr. Joseph Seligman, to whose name we -cannot refer without gratitude and respect, at this stage enabled us to -go on with our undertaking, when the dearth of funds would otherwise -have compelled us to wait, or perhaps desist altogether. His timely gift -of ten thousand dollars was the means of starting the school, and on -this as well as on other accounts his memory deserves to be cherished by -those who cherish the educational interests of the people.” - -The Chicago Manual Training School is the only independent educational -institution of the kind in the world. All the schools of this character -to which reference has been made in this chapter are departments of -colleges or institutes of technology. The Chicago school is unique in -another respect: it owes its origin entirely to laymen. Professional -educators labored long and earnestly to found the schools we have -described, but the Chicago school was inspired by men unknown in the -field of educational enterprise, advocated by a secular daily journal, -and established by an association of merchants, manufacturers, and -bankers. For many years the _Chicago Tribune_ had very freely and -severely criticised the educational methods of the public schools. Early -in the year 1881 its editorial columns were opened to the author of this -work, who began and continued, therein, the advocacy of the -establishment of a manual training school in Chicago, as a tentative -step towards the incorporation in the curriculum of the public schools, -of more practical methods of instruction. - -The editorial advocacy of the _Tribune_ was continued for twelve months, -articles appearing about once a week, without apparent effect beyond -provoking a controversy with certain professional educators, who -attacked the positions assumed by the _Tribune_. But a public sentiment -had been created on the subject, and the Commercial Club was destined -soon to embody that sentiment in action. At its regular monthly meeting, -March 25, 1882, the subject of reform in methods of education was -discussed by members of the club, and by men invited to be present for -that purpose; the establishment of a school was resolved upon, and -$100,000 pledged for its support. - -The Chicago Manual Training School Association was incorporated April -11, 1883; the corner-stone of its building was laid September 24, 1883; -and the sessions of the school commenced on the 4th of February, 1884, -with a class of seventy-two students, “selected by examination from one -hundred and thirty applicants, under the directorship of Henry H. -Belfield, A.M., Ph.D.” - -The Board of Trustees consists of E. W. Blatchford, president; R. T. -Crane, vice-president; Marshall Field, treasurer; William A. Fuller, -secretary; John Crerar, John W. Doane, N. K. Fairbank, Edson Keith, and -George M. Pullman. - -The object of the school is stated in the articles of incorporation as -follows: - -“Instruction and practice in the use of tools, with such instruction as -may be deemed necessary in mathematics, drawing, and the English -branches of a high-school course. The tool instruction as at present -contemplated shall include carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-making, iron -chipping and filing, forge-work, brazing and soldering, the use of -machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character as -may be deemed advisable to add to the foregoing from time to time, it -being the intention to divide the working hours of the students, as -nearly as possible, equally between manual and mental exercises.” - -From the first annual catalogue, under the title “Building and -Equipment,” we extract the following: - -“The school building is beautifully located on Michigan Avenue, and -contains ample accommodations, in rooms for study and work, for several -hundred pupils. - -“The equipment in the mechanical department consists mainly, at present, -of twenty-four cabinet-makers’ benches; bench and lathe tools of the -best quality for seventy-two boys; twenty-four speed lathes, twelve-inch -swing, thirty inches between centres; a fifty-two horse-power Corliss -engine, twelve-inch cylinder, thirty-six inch stroke; two tubular -boilers, forty inches in diameter, fourteen feet long. The Corliss -engine, boilers, and lathes were made especially for the school. - -“A very valuable scientific library of nearly five hundred volumes, the -property of the American Electrical Society, has been placed in the -school. To this library, which is particularly rich in works pertaining -to electricity and chemistry, but which contains also cyclopedias, -dictionaries, and other works of reference, the pupils have access. - -“The Blatchford Literary Society, an organization of pupils for -improvement in composition, debate, etc., has lately had a handsome -donation of money for the purchase of books to be placed in their alcove -in the school library. Several periodicals are regularly placed on the -library tables through the generosity of the publishers. - -“By the kindness of Dr. Wm. F. Poole, librarian, pupils are able to -obtain books from the Chicago Public Library on unusually favorable -conditions.” - -Thus the Chicago Manual Training School, a practical school, a school of -instruction in things, a school after Bacon’s “own heart,” sprang from -the brains of a number of plain, practical business men, full-armed, as -Minerva from the brain of Jupiter. - -The Trustees were fortunate in securing Dr. Belfield for the -directorship of the school. Before the introduction of the new education -to this country, eleven years ago, while Russia was struggling with the -problem of tool practice by the laboratory method, Dr. Belfield urged -the need of manual training in the public schools of Chicago, in which -he was a teacher. He was met with derision; but the president of the -Board of Education of Chicago and the superintendent of schools are now -advocates of the new system of training. - -In conclusion we present the following extracts from the inaugural -address of Dr. Belfield, delivered before the Chicago Manual Training -School Association, June 19, 1884, as embodying the results of his -experience and observation as to the value of the new system of -training: - -“The distinctive feature of the manual training school is the education -of the mind, and of the hand as the agent of the mind. The time of the -pupil in school is about equally divided between the study of books and -the study of things; between the academic work on the one hand, and the -drawing and shop-work on the other. Observe, I do not say between -_school-work_ and _shop-work_, for the shop is as much a school as is -any other part of the establishment. Nor do I mean that the shop gives -an education of the hand alone, and the class-room an education of the -brain; but I mean that the shop educates _hand and brain_. That the -_hand_ is educated I need not stop to prove; but the shop educates the -mind also. - -“Had you been in the wood-working room of this school a few hours ago, -what would you have seen? Twenty-four boys at work at lathes driven by a -powerful engine. Are any idle? No. Are any inattentive to their work? -No; you notice the closest and most earnest attention, frequently -approaching abstraction. Here, then, is the cultivation of a most -important faculty of the mind, attention, the power of concentration; -and it is worthy of remark that this attention is not an _enforced_ -attention, but is cheerful, voluntary, and unremitting. - -“The young workman is engaged on a problem in wood, just as, a few hours -earlier, he was engaged on a problem in algebra. He has before him a -drawing made to a scale. The problem is this: He must gain a clear -conception of the object represented by the drawing; he must _imagine_ -it; he must select or cut a block of wood of the proper dimensions and -of the right quality. It must not be too large, for he must guard -against waste of material and waste of time. It must be large enough, -for there must be no incompleteness about the finished product of his -labor. Observe him as the work grows under his hand; observe the -selecting of the proper tools for the different parts of the process; -observe the careful measuring, the watchful eye upon the position of the -chisel, the speed of the lathe, the gradual approach of the once -rectangular block to the model which exists in his brain--and you must -admit that this work demands and develops, not manual dexterity alone, -but attention, observation, imagination, judgment, reasoning.... - -“My own opinion is that an hour in the shop of a well-conducted manual -training school develops as much mental strength as an hour devoted to -Virgil or Legendre.... - -“But of this I am confident, that three years of a manual training -school will give at least as much purely intellectual growth as three -years of the ordinary high school, because, as has been said, every -school hour, whether spent in the class-room, the drawing-room, or in -the shop, is an hour devoted to intellectual training. And I am also -convinced that the manual training school boy’s comprehension of some -essential branches of knowledge will be as far superior to that of the -other boy’s, as the realization of the grandeur and beauty of the Alps -to the man who has seen their glories is superior to the conception of -him who has merely read of them.... - -“And here is the mistake of those who would degrade a manual training -school into a manufacturing establishment. The fact should never be lost -sight of for an instant that the product of the school should be, not -the polished article of furniture, not the perfect piece of machinery, -but the polished, perfect _boy_. The acquisition of industrial skill -should be the means of promoting the general education of the pupil; the -education of the hand should be the means of more completely and more -efficaciously educating the brain.... - -“Take two boys, one with little or no education, the other a high-school -graduate; let them enter the machine-shop of a large manufactory, -beginning, as boys ignorant of the technique of the trade must begin, at -the lowest round of the ladder. It cannot be doubted that in three or -four years the high-school graduate, if he had been willing to do the -drudgery incident to the place, would have reached a higher position -than the other boy, and would be in a fair way to succeed to some -responsible post in the establishment. But the graduate of the manual -training school, by reason of his superior knowledge of machinery and -materials, his skill in the use of tools, added to his general mental -training, would begin at the point reached by the high-school boy after -his years of apprenticeship. From the day of his entrance into the -factory he would be conspicuous. While the other boys would stand in the -presence of the huge Titan of the shop lost in the wonder of ignorance, -the manual training boy would gaze with delight on the marvel of -mechanism, wrapped in the admiration begotten of a thorough -understanding of its construction, and strong in the consciousness of -his mastery of it.” - -Manual training was introduced in the Pennsylvania State College, -experimentally, about three years ago. In 1883 the course was “greatly -extended,” and in September, 1884, it went into full operation. The -course is substantially the same as that of the Chicago school; and that -it was the outgrowth of the Russian system, and inspired by Dr. Runkle, -is shown by the following extract from a circular lately issued by Prof. -Louis E. Reber: - -“Some may think that the variety of operations in the mechanic arts is -so great as to make it impossible to give the student any real knowledge -in the time at his disposal. It should be borne in mind, however, that -this multiplicity of processes may be reduced to a small number of -manual operations, and the numerous tools employed are only -modifications of, or convenient substitutes for, a few tools which are -in general use.” - -A course in tool practice by the laboratory method has been made part of -the curriculum of the College of the City of New York.[102] I am -permitted to make an extract from a letter written in August last by -Alfred G. Compton, Professor of Applied Mathematics of the College of -the City of New York, to Dr. Runkle. I print this extract to show the -exacting nature of the demands made upon instructors by the new -education. It is as follows: - - [102] “The first report of the Industrial Educational Association of - New York gives a list of thirty-one schools in that city in which - industrial education is furnished.”--Address of Prof. S. R. Thompson, - Industrial Department of the National Educational Association, - Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July, 1885. - -“We are anxious to find, by the opening of our term in September, a -competent instructor in wood-working for our course in mechanic arts, -now in its second year. He should be a good and ready draughtsman, -skilful in perspective and projections, and ready in black-board -sketching, besides being acquainted with the use of tools, and apt at -class-teaching. He will have at first $1000 a year.” - -The lack of competent instructors is the most serious difficulty which -the new education is destined to encounter. The desire to adopt tool -practice is so widespread among the people that educators, whether -willing or otherwise, are compelled to attempt to gratify the demand. -At the same time the force of competent instructors is very small, and -the danger is that the new system of education will be brought into -disrepute through the failure of its proper administration. - -In 1882 Mr. Paul Tulane, of Princeton, N. J., made a large donation, -consisting of his realty in the city of New Orleans, in aid of education -in the State of Louisiana. In 1884 the University bearing its donor’s -name--Tulane--came into existence. In the deed of donation Mr. Tulane -declared that by the term education he meant to “foster such a course of -intellectual development as shall be useful and of solid worth, and not -be merely ornamental or superficial.” Hence manual training has been -made a prominent feature of the institution.[103] - - [103] John M. Ordway, A.M., late Professor of Metallurgy and - Industrial Chemistry of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has - been called to New Orleans to organize and direct the manual training - department of the institution; and he is assisted by Charles A. Heath, - B.S., and Everett E. Hapgood, graduates of the School of Mechanic Arts - of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. - -There is in operation at Crozet, Va., a manual training school called, -after its founder, Mr. Samuel Miller, “The Miller Manual Labor School;” -but of the methods of training pursued at this school the author is not -accurately informed. - -Girard College, dedicated nearly forty years ago, has adopted manual -training. In response to a letter by the author, asking for information, -Mr. W. Heyward Drayton, of Philadelphia, gives the following historical -sketch of the introduction and progress of tool practice by the -laboratory method in that noble institution: - -“From time to time some of the directors recognized the importance of -mechanical instruction, but after one or two attempts further efforts in -this direction were abandoned, as those proved utter failures. It was -not until Dr. Runkle, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at -the instance of the late Mr. William Welsh, then president of the Board -of Directors of City Trusts, delivered a short address on the subject in -the lecture-room of the Franklin Institute in this city, that any -practical mode of introducing this branch of study into the college was -presented. - -“... Following as nearly as possible the scheme suggested by Dr. Runkle, -and aided by many suggestions from him, in April, 1882, we began to -instruct the larger boys to use tools in several kinds of metals. We -were so fortunate as to secure the services of a very competent and -enthusiastic instructor, who confined his instruction merely to teaching -the use of tools, but without any pretence of teaching any trade. The -result of two years’ experience has been so satisfactory that our boys -leave the college to go to workshops, where they secure sufficient wages -to support them at once; and they have, in many cases, been found so -expert that in a few months their wages have been increased. We have -been so encouraged by this as a substitute for apprenticing lads, which -is fast becoming impossible, that we have just erected commodious -workshops [laboratories], in which, on the same system, but to many more -boys, we propose to teach the use of tools in wood-work also, as we have -heretofore taught in metals. To this time we have been compelled, from -want of facilities, to confine our instruction to about one hundred and -seventy-five boys. We expect next month (October, 1884) to increase the -number to three hundred--only being limited by the youth of the pupils, -many of whom are too young to permit of their handling tools.” - -Manual training has been made part of the curriculum of the Agricultural -and Mechanical College of Auburn, Ala., and the department is under the -direction of a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of -Technology.[104] - - [104] George H. Bryant, B.S., graduate of the Massachusetts Institute - of Technology, class of 1883. - - * * * * * - -Manual training has been adopted as a branch of education in the Denver -(Col.) University, and the director of the department is a graduate of -the manual training department of the Washington University of St. -Louis, Mo.[105] - - [105] C. H. Wright, B.S., graduate of the St. Louis Manual Training - School, class of 1885. - -The present year (1885) witnesses a very important addition to the list -of manual training schools--that of Philadelphia. - -It is not too much to say that Mr. James MacAlister has revolutionized -the public schools of Philadelphia in the short period of two years -during which he has held the office of superintendent; and the last wave -of the revolution reveals a fully-equipped manual training school as -part of the public-school system of the conservative, grand old Quaker -city. And this practical element in education is to be free to all -public-school boys fourteen years of age, who can show themselves -qualified to enter, as witness the following “rules” of the Philadelphia -public schools: - -“Promotions to the Manual Training School shall be made at the close of -the June term, from the Twelfth Grade, or any higher grade, of the -Boys’ Grammar, Consolidated and Combined Schools; but no boy shall be -promoted who is under fourteen years of age. - -“It shall be the duty of the Principals of the several Boys’ Grammar, -Consolidated and Combined Schools, to certify to the superintendent of -schools the names of all boys of the proper age who have finished the -course of study in the Twelfth Grade, or any higher grade, and are -desirous of promotion to the Manual Training School.” - -In calling the attention of the public to the establishment of a manual -training school as part of the educational system of Philadelphia, a -committee of the City Board of Education say, under date of June 10, -1885, - -“The undersigned desire to call attention to the new manual training -school to be opened in this city next September. It is intended for boys -who have finished the Twelfth Grade, or any higher grade, of the -Grammar-school course. The instruction will embrace a thorough course, -so far as it goes, in English, mathematics, free-hand and mechanical -drawing, and the fundamental sciences; but in addition to these branches -a carefully graded course of manual training will form a leading feature -of the school. This manual training is intended to give the boys such a -knowledge of the tools and materials employed in the chief industrial -pursuits of our time as shall place them in more direct and sympathetic -relations with the great activities of the business world. The school -will make our public education not only more complete and symmetrical in -character than it has been heretofore, but it will be at the same time -better adapted to enable the pupils to win their way in life. No matter -what future a parent may have marked out for his boy--whether he be -intended for an industrial, a mercantile, or a professional occupation, -it is believed that such an education will be of immense advantage to -him. Upon the industries of the world, to a much larger extent than ever -before in its history, depend the progress, the prosperity, the -happiness of society. To prepare boys for this condition of things will -be the aim of this school. The entire course of instruction and training -will be _practical_ in the largest and best sense of that term. The -culture it gives will include the hand as well as the head, and its -graduates will be trained to work as well as to think. The course will -extend over a period of three years, but it is so arranged that boys -whose intended pursuits in life will not warrant spending so much time -may participate in its advantages for a shorter period before entering -upon other studies or a permanent occupation. - -“The Manual Training School has been organized in response to a growing -sentiment respecting the character of public education which has been -strongly manifested in Philadelphia, and the Board of Public Education -believe that the movement, when fully understood, will meet with the -cordial approval of our people. Your careful consideration of the nature -and objects which the school seeks to accomplish is respectfully -solicited.” - -This act of the school authorities of the city of Philadelphia is the -strongest popular endorsement the theory of manual training as an -element of education has received. It commits a great city to a fair -trial of the new education under the most favorable auspices--under the -conduct of Mr. James MacAlister, one of the most accomplished, as well -as most sternly practical educators in the United States. - -But this is only part of a general system of manual training introduced -throughout the whole course of instruction given in the public schools -of Philadelphia. There are kindergartens (sub-primaries) for children -from three to six years of age, and an industrial art department for all -the students (of both sexes) of the grammar schools. In this latter -department the course of training comprises “drawing and design,” -“modelling,” “wood-carving,” “carpentry and joinery,” and “metal work.” -These courses, including manual training proper, “at the top,” form a -comprehensive system of head and hand training known as the new -education. Mr. MacAlister says, “The conviction is gradually obtaining -among the members of the Board of Education [of Philadelphia], and in -the public mind, that every child should receive manual training; that a -complete education implies the training of the hand in connection with -the training of the mind; and that this feature must ultimately be -incorporated into the public education. What is this but the realization -of the principles which every great thinker and reformer in education -has insisted upon, from Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau, to Pestalozzi, -Froebel, and Spencer!”[106] - - [106] In a letter to the author, Mr. MacAlister re-enforces the - observations quoted in the text. He says, - - “I wish you to understand that all my own convictions and action in - connection with this movement are based upon what in my judgment - should constitute an education fitted to prepare a human being for the - social conditions of to-day, _and not merely upon the industrial - demands of our time_.... I believe there is a great future for the - manual training movement in Philadelphia. I feel encouraged to go - forward with the work. The great principles which underlie the system - are with me intense convictions; _they mean nothing less than a - revolution in education_. The great ideas of the reformers of school - training must be realized in the public schools, or they will fail in - accomplishing the ends for which they were instituted and have been - maintained.” - -The rapid progress of the revolution in education is shown by the fact -that manual training in some form has been adopted in certain of the -schools of at least twenty-four of the States of the American Union. - -In some of the higher educational institutions the new education is -warmly welcomed, while in others public sentiment alone compels its -adoption. The State Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas has -been revolutionized in this way. A member of the Faculty[107] writes as -follows: - - [107] H. H. Dinwiddie, Professor of Chemistry, Chairman of the - Faculty. - -“This institution was opened on the 4th of October, 1876. In spite of -its name, the conditions of its endowment, and its avowed object, it was -founded on the plan of the old classical and mathematical college, and -had no industrial features whatever till the beginning of the year 1880. -At that time the public sentiment of the State had condemned so -decidedly and repeatedly the misappropriation of the funds, and -perversion of the energies of the college under its administration as a -literary school, that the directors found it necessary to reorganize it -by accepting the resignation of the members of the faculty without -exception, and calling in a new corps of instructors. In 1880-81 a large -dormitory building was converted into a shop [laboratory]. This was -fitted with tools for elementary instruction in wood-working for the -accommodation of about fifty students. A small metal-working plant was -also erected, the whole being furnished with power from a -twelve-horse-power engine. Since that time a brick shop [laboratory] has -been provided for the accommodation of the metal-working machinery, -which now includes the principal machines used in ordinary -iron-working, all driven by a twenty-horsepower engine.” - -Massachusetts, the cradle of the American common-school system, is the -first State to legalize by statute the new education, placing manual -training on an equal footing with mental training, by the following act: - -“Section I. of Chapter XLIV. of the Public Statutes, relating to the -branches of instruction to be taught in public schools, is amended by -striking out in the eighth line the words ‘and hygiene,’ and inserting -instead the words ‘hygiene and the elementary use of hand-tools;’ and in -any city or town where such tools shall be introduced they shall be -purchased by the school committee at the expense of such city or town, -and loaned to such pupils as may be allowed to use them free of charge, -subject to such rules and regulations, as to care and custody, as the -school committee may prescribe.”[108] - - [108] “School Laws of Massachusetts. Supplement to the Edition of - 1883, containing the Additional Legislation to the Close of the - Legislative Session of 1885; issued by the State Board of Education.” - -The Legislature of Connecticut adopted a similar statute last year -(1884). - -The Iowa Agricultural College is the first educational institution in -the country to recognize the importance of instruction in the arts of -home life. In this college domestic economy has been elevated to the -dignity of a department called the “School of Domestic Economy,” with -the following “special faculty:” - - The President, Mrs. Emma P. Ewing, Dean. _Domestic Economy_. - J. L. Budd _Horticulture and Gardening_. - A. A. Bennett _Chemistry_. - B. D. Halsted _Botany_. - D. S. Fairchild _Hygiene and Physiology_. - Laura M. Saunderson _Elocution_. - -The course of study is as follows: - - FIRST YEAR. - - _First Term._ _Second Term._ - - Domestic Economy. Domestic Economy. - Botany. Physiology and Hygiene. - Physical Training. Dress-fitting and Millinery. - Household Accounts. Essays. - - - SECOND YEAR. - - _First Term._ _Second Term._ - - Domestic Economy. Domestic Economy. - Chemistry. Home Architecture. - Duties of the Nurse. Home Sanitation. - Designing and Free-hand Drawing. Home Æsthetics and Decorative Art. - Landscape and Floral Gardening. Essays and Graduating Thesis. - -Mrs. Ewing, dean of the school, thus states, clearly and powerfully, the -reasons for its establishment and its purposes: - -“This school is based upon the assumption that no industry is more -important to human happiness than that which makes the home; and that a -pleasant home is an essential element of broad culture, and one of the -surest safeguards of morality and virtue. It was organized to meet the -wants of pupils who desire a knowledge of the principles that underlie -domestic economy, and the course of study is especially arranged to -furnish women instruction in applied house-keeping and the arts and -sciences relating thereto--to incite them to a faithful performance of -the every-day duties of life, and to inspire them with a belief in the -nobleness and dignity of a true womanhood. - -“No calling requires for its perfect mastery a greater amount of -practice and theory combined than that of domestic economy, and -students, in addition to recitations and lectures on the various topics -of the course, receive practical training in all branches of house-work, -in the purchase and care of family supplies, and in general household -management. They are not, however, required to perform a greater amount -of labor than is necessary for the desired instruction. - -“The course of study is for graduates of colleges and universities. It -extends through two years, and leads to the degree of Master of Domestic -Economy.”[109] - - [109] Annual Catalogue of the Iowa Agricultural College. - -The Le Moyne Normal Institute of Memphis, Tenn., is a private school, -“sustained chiefly by benevolently disposed people at the North, for -colored youth.” In a letter to the author the principal of this school -thus describes the manual features of its curriculum: - -“Besides our Normal work proper, we give girls of the school two years’ -training in needle-work of different kinds, one year’s instruction in -choice and preparation of foods, with practice in an experimental -kitchen, and six months’ training in nursing or care of the sick. One -hour a day is given to each of the foregoing subjects for the time -indicated. - -“I am about to erect workshops for training for our boys in the use of -wood-working tools, and in iron-working and moulding--the course to -comprise two years’ time, two hours per day at the benches. We shall -also have type-setting and printing as specialties for individual -students. This work will be in operation in January, 1886.”[110] - - [110] A. J. Steele. - -The professor in charge of the Mechanical Engineering Department of the -University of Michigan writes to the author as follows: - -“There can be no doubt in the mind of a sane man that this practical -instruction [laboratory work] is exactly what is needed by our -engineering students. We are assured of that fact by the expression of -gratification on the part of our engineering _alumni_ to find here the -very instruction which they were obliged to spend two or three years to -secure after graduating. We give our students work of an elementary -character for a few weeks, or until they become accustomed to tools, -when we put them to work on some part of a machine. If they spoil it, -well and good--it goes into the scrap-heap; if they succeed, they have -the pleasure of seeing a perfect machine grow up under their eyes and -hand. Students having matured minds, as most of ours have, work better -with a definite plan in view. We always require them to work from -drawings. Our course in forging is very popular; and it is especially -useful, as it gives our young men that knowledge of the different kinds -of iron and steel which will be of the greatest benefit to them as -engineers.”[111] - - [111] Mortimer E. Cooley, Assistant Engineer, U. S. Navy. - -The National Educational Association of the United States, at its last -meeting, at Saratoga Springs, N. Y. (1885), took a great step forward in -the adoption of a resolution[112] endorsing the kindergarten. The -association was, however, singularly illogical in its subsequent -action, in voting to lay upon the table a resolution[113] recommending -the introduction of manual training to the public schools. The -kindergarten and manual training are one in principle, and should be one -in practice. All educators will soon see this, and the National -Educational Association will no doubt soon place itself as heartily on -record in support of manual training as it has already done in support -of the kindergarten. - - [112] “_Resolved_, that we trust the time is near at hand when the - true principles of the kindergarten will guide all elementary - training, and when public sentiment and legislative enactment will - incorporate the kindergarten into our public-school system.” - - [113] “_Resolved_, That we recognize the educational value of training - the hand to skill in the use of tools, and recommend that provision be - made, as far as practicable, for such training in public schools.” - -Ohio ranks as the third State in the Union industrially, and she is -making great strides in the direction of a more practical system of -education. This is shown by the prominent place given to instruction in -the mechanic arts in the State University at Columbus, by the prosperity -of the Case School of Applied Science, and the introduction of manual -training to the public-school system at Cleveland, and by the -establishment of the Scott Manual Training School at Toledo. The city of -Toledo owes the inception of the movement in support of the new -education to the munificence of the late Jesup W. Scott, who during his -life conveyed to trustees for purposes of industrial education, in -connection with the public-school system, certain valuable real estate. -After the death of Mr. Scott, his three sons,[114] still residents of -Toledo, supplemented their father’s donation with a sufficient sum of -money to secure the erection and complete equipment of a manual training -school for three hundred and fifty pupils. - - [114] William F., Frank J., and Maurice Scott. - -The school is modelled after the schools of St. Louis and Chicago; but -it gives only the manual side of the curriculum, because it is -conducted in connection with the public High School, receiving its -pupils therefrom. It opened in the autumn of 1884 with sixty pupils, ten -of whom were girls. Its register now numbers two hundred, fifty of whom -are girls. Its course for boys is substantially the same as that of the -Chicago school. The course for girls includes free-hand and mechanical -drawing, designing, modelling, wood-carving, cutting, fitting, and -making garments, and domestic science, including food preparation and -household decoration. A distinguished lawyer and citizen of Toledo,[115] -who has been prominent in the work of establishing the school, says, - - [115] Hon. A. E. Macomber. - -“The brightest and most faithful pupils of the High School have eagerly -availed themselves of the opportunity for manual instruction, and the -zeal with which this new work is pursued has added a new charm to school -life.” - -The school is in charge of Mr. Ralph Miller, B.S., who is assisted by -Mr. Geo. S. Mills, B.S.[116] It is especially interesting, both as the -newest educational enterprise and because it places the sexes on a -footing of absolute equality. Reform in education must begin with woman, -for it is from her that man inherits his notable traits, and from her -that he receives the earliest and most enduring impressions. In the arms -of the mother the infant mind rapidly unfolds. It is in the cradle, in -the nursery, and at the fireside that the child becomes father of the -man. The regeneration of the race through education must, then, begin -with the child, and be directed by the mother; and this being the fact, -the education of woman becomes far more imperative than that of man. - - [116] Graduates of the St. Louis Manual Training School, class of - 1884. - -That the ancients made so little progress in morals is due to the fact -of their neglect of the education of woman. Neither in Egypt nor Persia -was provision made for her mental or moral training. There were schools -for boys in Greece, but none for girls; and not till late in the Empire -was there any special culture for girls in Rome. - -In the Middle Ages learning was confined to the religious orders. The -narrow bounds of the convent contained all there was of science and art. -In the castle and at the tournament woman ministered to man’s pride and -vanity; and in the peasant’s hut, which was the abode equally of poverty -and ignorance, she endured both mental and moral starvation. Sir Walter -Raleigh, Lord Bacon, Swift, Addison, Lord Chesterfield, Dr. Johnson, and -Southey treated woman with mingled contempt and pity, and yet they were -familiar with the story of Lucretia, of Virginia, and of the Maid of -Orleans! But Shakespeare, with a sublimer genius, portrayed a Cordelia, -a Desdemona, an Imogen, and a Queen Catharine, and with rare prevision -of a future better than the age he knew, wrote these glowing lines: - - “Falsehood and cowardice - Are things that women highly hold in hate.” - -This is the rational age, though not less truly chivalrous than that of -Arthur and his knights; for, as Ruskin well says, “The buckling on of -the knight’s armor by his lady’s hand is the type of an eternal -truth--that the soul’s armor is never well set to the heart unless a -woman’s hand has braced it.”[117] - - [117] “Sesame and Lilies,” p. 97. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John - Wiley & Sons, 1884. - -The distinguishing features of this time are its homes and its schools, -and the purity of the one and the efficiency of the other depends upon -woman. It was reserved for Froebel to rescue woman from the scorn of -preceding ages by declaring her superior fitness for the office of -teacher--the most exalted of civil functions. - -The growth of the kindergarten has not been commensurate with its -importance. Indifference and prejudice have united to discourage -progress. Ancient contempt of childhood--that contempt which in Persia -excluded the boy from the presence of his father until the fifth year of -his age[118]--projects its sombre shadow down the ages. But manual -training, which is the kindergarten in another form, is leading captive -the imagination of the American people, and where the imagination leads, -woman is in the van. Woman is to man what the poet is to the scientist, -what Shakespeare was to Newton, the celestial guide. She tempts to deeds -of heroism and self-sacrifice. She is less selfish than man, because a -more vivid imagination inspires her with a deeper feeling of compassion -for the misfortunes and follies of the race. Her intuitions are truer -than those of man, her ideals higher, her sense of justice finer, and of -duty stronger; and she has a better appreciation of the moral value of -industry, remembering the temptations of her sex to evil through habits -of idleness, enforced by the decrees of custom. And she is our teacher, -whether we will or no--our teacher from the cradle to the grave--and it -is through her ministry that we are destined to realize our highest -mental and moral ideals.[E32] - - [118] “Herodotus,” Clio I., p. 136. - -This sketch of the history of manual training in the United States is -doubtless incomplete. It is, however, sufficient to show that the -subject is already one of absorbing interest in all parts of the -country. - -Manual training in the public schools of Europe can scarcely be called -educational, since the pupils usually make articles for household use. -The purpose is purely industrial, and hence the mental culture received -in the course of the manual exercise is the mere incident of a -mechanical pursuit. But the making of things in the schools of Europe is -gradually extending. - -In Denmark an annual appropriation ($2000) is made by the Legislature -for the encouragement of _slöjd_ (hand-cunning) in the schools. All -pupils in Danish and Swedish schools make things. - -In Germany, Dr. Erasmus Schwab published in Vienna, in 1873, a book, -“The Work School in the Common School.” Rittmeister Claussen Von Kaas, -of Denmark, travelled through Germany and delivered lectures on manual -training, and now there is a considerable agitation of the subject. - -In Finland all the country schools are _slöjd_ schools. - -In 1881 the Legislature of Norway appropriated $1250 for the support of -_slöjd_ in the schools. - -In France a law (1882) makes manual training obligatory, and a school -for training teachers has been established--“L’école Normale Superieure -de travail Manuel”--in which there are about fifty students. Prof. G. -Solicis was the chief supporter of manual training in France. - -In Sweden, in 1876, there were eighty _slöjd_ schools. In 1877 the -number had increased to one hundred; in 1878, to one hundred and thirty; -in 1879, to two hundred; in 1880, to three hundred; in 1881, to four -hundred; and in 1882, to five hundred. - -In Nääs, in Sweden, there is a seminary for the training of _slöjd_ -teachers.[119] Of this seminary Otto Salomon is director. In the _slöjd_ -schools small articles are made for use in the house, kitchen, on the -farm, etc. The course of instruction embraces one hundred models. The -materials for the first series of twenty-five models cost about 40 -cents; for the second series of twenty-five the cost is 75 cents; and -for the third series of fifty the cost is $3.25. The annual expense of -the manual training in a Swedish country school is about ten to eleven -dollars. - - [119] “Four young women have graduated from the Slöjd Teacher’s - Seminary at Nääs, Sweden, and two of them are now engaged in teaching - manual arts.”--Letter from John M. Ordway, A.M., Chair of Applied - Chemistry and Biology, and Director of Manual Training, Tulane - University of Louisiana. - -The technical and mechanic art or trade schools of Europe, generally, -whether public or private, do not come within the scope of this work, -since their purpose is industrial, not educational. - - [E32] “In fine, I have been beloved by the four women whose love was - of the most comfort to me: My mother, my sister, my wife and my - daughter. I have had the better part, and it will not be taken from - me, for I often fancy that the judgments which will be passed upon us - in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, will be neither more nor less than those - of women, countersigned by the Almighty.”--“Recollections of My - Youth,” p. 306. By Ernest Renan. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -PROGRESS OF THE NEW EDUCATION--1883-1898. - - Educational Revolution in 1883-4. -- Urgent Demand for Reform -- - Existing Schools Denounced as Superficial, their Methods as Automatic, - their System as a Mixture of Cram and Smatter -- The Controversy - between the School-master of the Old Régime and the Reformer -- The - Leaders of the Movement, Col. Parker, Dr. MacAlister, and Others -- - Followers of Rousseau, Bacon, and Spencer -- “The End of Man is an - Action, not a Thought” -- The Conservative Teachers Fall into Line -- - The New Education Becomes an Aggressive Force, Pushing on to Victory - -- The Physical Progress of Manual Training -- Its Quality Not Equal - to its Extent -- The New System of Training Confided to Teachers of - the Old Régime -- Ideal Teachers Hard to Find -- Teachers Willing to - Learn Should Be Encouraged -- The Effects of Manual Training Long - Antedate its Introduction to the Schools -- Bacon’s Definition of - Education -- Stephenson and the Value of Hand-work -- Manual Training - is the Union of Thought and Action -- It is the Antithesis of the - Greek Methods, which Exalted Abstractions and Debased Things -- The - Rule of Comenius and the Injunction of Rousseau -- Few Teachers - Comprehend Them -- The Employment of the Hands in the Arts is More - Highly Educative than the Acquisition of the Rules of Reading and - Arithmetic -- What the Locomotive has Accomplished for Man -- - Education Must be Equal, and Social and Political Equality will Follow - -- The Foundation of the New Education is the Baconian Philosophy as - Stated by Macaulay -- Use and Service are the Twin-ministers of Human - Progress -- Definitions of Genius -- Attention -- Sir Henry Maine -- - Manual Training Relates to all the Arts of Life -- Mind and Hand -- - Newton and the Apple -- The Sense of Touch Resides in the Hand -- - Robert Seidel on Familiarity with Objects -- Material Progress the - Basis of Spiritual Growth -- Plato and the Divine Dialogues -- - Poverty, Society, and the Useful Arts -- Selfishness Must Give Way to - Altruism -- The Struggle of Life -- The Progress of the Arts and the - Final Regeneration of the Race -- The Arts that Make Life Sweet and - Beautiful -- The Final Fundamental Educational Ideal is Universality - -- Comenius’s Definition of Schools -- The Workshops of Humanity -- - That One Man Should Die Ignorant who had Capacity for Knowledge is a - Tragedy -- Mental and Manual Exercises to be Rendered Homogeneous in - the School of the Future -- The Hero of the Ideal School. - - -Fifteen years ago a great wave of educational awakening swept over this -country. It penetrated every nook and corner of the land, pervading both -cities, large and small, and the rural districts. It took the shape of a -demand, often almost inarticulate, for reform. The schools were -denounced as superficial; their methods as automatic; their teachers as -unintelligent and untrained, their system of instruction as a mixture of -cram and smatter. - -The school-master is a conservative, and with his champions he came -promptly to the defence of the old schools and their old methods. The -controversy became heated, and soon the rival forces joined battle. Col. -Francis W. Parker, of the Chicago Normal School, and Dr. James -MacAlister, now President of the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and -others were prominent leaders of the new reform movement, whose banner -was “Manual Training,” or “The New Education.” - -Under this brilliant and enthusiastic leadership the movement became a -crusade in the interest of the educational ideas of Montaigne, Rousseau, -Bacon, Locke, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Spencer, Mann, and their -long array of sympathizers and supporters, who, with Bacon, declare that -“the end of man is an action, not a thought.” - -But the work of the reformers was too serious to be long controlled, -either by emotion or passion. The more intelligent and better educated -and trained teachers gradually came to the support of the new system and -methods, and the mass of the teaching fraternity caught something of the -enthusiasm by which the reformers were inspired to struggle for a great -cause. Thereafter Manual Training became an aggressive force openly -demanding recognition, and pushing for victory and ultimate control. - -In the Appendix hereto the physical progress of Manual Training is shown -in tabulated form; and the extent of such progress is all, if not more, -than its most ardent friends and advocates could rationally desire. But -it is not to be doubted that the quality of the progress the new -education has made in the period of fifteen years under consideration is -far inferior to its extent. The statistics here presented relate mainly -to the village, town, and city schools of this country, and especially -to its public schools, with some general observations and facts in -relation to the progress of the new education in England and the chief -countries in Europe. In a few instances the tabulations include -institutions designed for industrial rather than strictly educational -purposes. But it is deemed wise to retain them, on the ground that -whether so designed or not all industrial training is educative. - -It is worthy of intelligent inquiry whether as a matter of fact, not -only in this country, but in all countries, the progress of Manual -Training has not been very unsatisfactory in quality. In most cases the -new education was necessarily confided to teachers of the old régime, -who, as a preliminary, were compelled to unlearn what was false and -erroneous in the old system, to overcome the prejudices of years, -sometimes of a lifetime, and to become faithful and laborious students -of a new and scientific scheme of education. The main difficulty in -matters educational has always been to secure ideal teachers. Education -is the first of human considerations, and its professors should be the -most learned of human beings. If the teachers who have been called to -the Priesthood, of the New Education, have proved incompetent in many -instances, instead of being hastily condemned they should be helped -forward towards the goal of competency by all friends of that progress -in education which is the sole hope of human perfection. - -The most striking effects of Manual Training long antedate its -introduction to the schools. For thousands of years, in every shop where -the humble mechanic wrought; at every fireside where the domestic arts -obtained a foothold; in every field where a step forward was made -through the invention of some less crude implement of husbandry than the -one that preceded it, the mind and the hand expressed their joint -struggle towards the achievement of that skill in useful things which -constitutes the very kernel of civilization. Bacon’s definition of -education--“the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt -the mind and things”--is a recognition of the philosophic fact that the -hand is the source of wisdom; and the life of George Stephenson, the -inventor of the locomotive, affords a most impressive illustration of -the educative value of hand-work. At the coal-pit’s mouth Stephenson, -meantime learning his “A B C’s,” invented the “Rocket,” while the -bookish engineers were declaring it to be a mechanical impossibility. -Stephenson’s achievement was the realization in things of Bacon’s -luminous precept--“The end of man is an action, not a thought.”--This -is the philosophy, the rationale, of Manual Training; it is the union of -thought and action, and it therefore demands the elimination from -educational methods of the abstract philosophy of the Greeks. In his -declaration, “All the useful arts are degrading,” Plato defined the -character of the revival of learning which was to occur hundreds of -years afterwards; it was a revival of Greek methods, which exalted -abstractions, and debased things. Mr. Herbert Spencer refers to its -baleful effects upon the schools of England in the severest terms of -condemnation. That Mr. Spencer’s arraignment of the schools is just, is -shown by its antithesis expressed in the dictum of Dr. Dwight, of Yale -College, who says: “Education is for the purpose of developing and -cultivating the thinking power. It is to the end of making a knowing, -thinking mind.” - -Bacon discovered, and did not hesitate to declare, that “the -understanding is more prone to error than the senses”; and this fact -constitutes the basis of his philosophy of “things,” which is another -name for the law of induction. “For if we would look into and dissect -the nature of this real world,” he says, “we must consult only things -themselves.” If we would find the corner-stone of education, we must -consult labor. Nothing great is accomplished without a due mingling of -drudgery and humility; for of all the virtues humility is the most -excellent. The Greeks failed to comprehend the true educational idea -because of their pride. They associated use with slavery, because in -Greece all labor was performed by slaves; and, scorning labor, they -scorned use, and, by consequence, service, the greatest of the -moralities. - -Upon the foundation laid by Bacon, Rabelais, and Montaigne, Comenius, -Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel raised a great superstructure of -educational ideas. Words were subordinated, and things ennobled. - -Comenius’s rule, to “leave nothing until it has been impressed by means -of the ear, the eye, the tongue, the hand,” and the injunction of -Rousseau that “the student will learn more by one hour of manual labor -than he will retain from a whole day’s verbal instructions; that the -things themselves are the best explanations”--these are the maxims of -the new education. - -But to what extent has the old school-master adopted the new education, -to what extent occupied the old school-room with new ideas? How many -school-masters of even the present _régime_ comprehend with John Ruskin -that “the youth who has once learned to take a straight shaving off a -plank, or to draw a fine curve without faltering, or to lay a brick -level in its mortar, has learned a multitude of other matters which no -lips of man could ever teach him?” In other words, to what extent does -the conviction pervade the ranks of the fraternity of teachers, whether -of public-schools, private schools, colleges, or universities, that the -employment of the hands in the useful arts is more highly educative than -the acquisition of the rules of reading, writing, and arithmetic? Or, -considering the subject of the history and career of George Stephenson, -for instance, what, in the opinion of the modern school-master, -contributed most to his development as a man and citizen of the -world--the mental exercise of learning to read, write, and cipher, which -task he accomplished while engaged in inventing the locomotive, or the -combined mental and manual exercise of taking apart, repairing, and -putting together the stationary engine used at the colliery where he -was employed? If, in the course of our investigation, it should be found -that doing things as Stephenson did is more conducive to intellectual -development than memorizing words and reciting poetry, as the Greeks -did, some light may be thrown on the general subject of existing -educational methods. Their chief defect is their lack of moral power. -Morality does not reside in the letters of the alphabet, but there is in -the locomotive, for example, a great moral principle--the principle of -the brotherhood of man. For, in devising the locomotive, Stephenson made -man’s neighborhood coterminous with earth’s utmost bounds; thus, in a -single act, achieving his own apotheosis, and assuring, ultimately, the -moral and intellectual kinship of the race. For the hand stands for use, -for service, and for unyielding integrity; and it may be confidently -asserted on the conviction of observation, experience, and a studious -consideration of historic facts, that its drill and discipline as -enforced in the world’s workshops, and in the best of existing -Manual-training schools, results in a far greater degree of mind -development than is produced by any exclusively academic course, and -hence that Manual Training is the most important of all methods of -education. - -The most sacred of human rights is the right of the poor child, born in -a highly civilized, wealthy community, to the same kind and degree of -education as that received by the child of the most opulent citizen. - -It was long ago remarked that “the inequalities of intellect, like the -inequalities of the surface of our globe, bear so small a proportion to -the mass that in calculating its great revolutions they may safely be -neglected;” and the late Henry George declared that the differences in -men, intellectually, are no greater than their physical differences. - -The perpetuity of free institutions depends upon social not less than -upon political equality. But social equality is impossible without -educational equality: the very thought of intimate relations with the -ignorant is repulsive to the learned. Education, impartial and -universal, is, therefore, the sole guarantee of an ideal civilization, -and so of an imperishable state. - -Old social evils constantly recur because the old crime of inequality in -education is forever and ever repeated. It follows that we shall make -all things equal through equal education. But what sort of education? We -shall not train the child, as the ancients did, “to dispute in learned -phrase as to whether we can be certain that we are certain of nothing!” -Nor shall we stuff his memory with the grammar and rhetoric of an -ancient tongue, in view of the profound observation of Dr. Draper, that -a living thought can no more be embodied in a dead language than -activity can be imparted to a corpse. But we shall rather instruct him -in the principles of the Baconian philosophy, of which Macaulay so aptly -says: “Its characteristic distinction, its essential spirit, is its -majestic humility--the persuasion that nothing can be too insignificant -for the attention of the wisest which is not too insignificant to give -pleasure or pain to the meanest.” - -The end sought in education by the ancients was ornament, and its strict -analogy is found in barbaric life. Spencer has pointed out that the -savage smeared his body with yellow ochre before he covered it with -clothes, and that he adorned his head with feathers before he built a -hut. So, under the laws of evolution, before a Bacon could arise, whole -generations of philosophers were born, lived, speculated, and died, -without leaving to mankind the smallest heritage of that common sense by -which we nevertheless live. - -A philosophy which scorned the useful in all its aspects was essentially -barbaric; for art differentiates civilized from savage life: its law was -stagnation, as the law of scientific investigation is progress. Use is -the greatest thing in the material world, as service is the greatest -thing in the moral world; and they are united in the philosophy of -Bacon, which, beginning in observation and ending in art, multiplies -useful things that are beautiful, and beautiful things that are useful. - -The old education was an outgrowth of the old philosophy; the new -education springs as logically from the new, or Baconian, philosophy. -The old education was ornamental; the new is scientific, or useful. The -old education was designed to make masters; the new is designed to make -men. - -President Eliot, of Harvard University, admits that his method of -education is to compel the student to work. On the other hand, the -method of the new education is to attract him. Genius has many -definitions, one of which is “a capacity for taking infinite pains.” But -its humblest equivalent is “attention”; and we propose to secure the -student’s attention through his hands: for the most significant fact in -all the realm of certitude is the fact that man impresses himself upon -nature through the hand alone! - -Let us then, in the new school, unite mind and hand in a crusade after -the truths that are hidden in things. For Manual Training, -educationally, is the blending of thought and action. The thought that -does not lead to an act is both mentally and materially barren. For as -it confers no benefit upon the human race, neither does it profit the -mind that conceives it. Nay, more. An unprolific thought exhausts the -mind to no purpose, as an unfruitful tree cumbers the ground. It follows -that the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the submission -of its immature judgments to the verification of things. Hence the -correlation of thoughts and things is as necessary to mental and moral -growth as the application of the principles of abstract mechanics to the -arts of peace is essential to human progress. - -Sir Henry Maine supports this doctrine in a graphic paragraph: -“Unchecked by external truth the mind of man has a fatal facility for -ensnaring and entrapping and entangling itself. But happily, happily for -the human race, some fragment of physical speculation has been built -into every false system.” - -Things are the source of ideas. Action generates thought. He who has -tools in his hand thinks best as well as acts best. The man whose finger -is on Nature’s pulse feels her heart-throbs, and so discovers and -utilizes her secrets. The men and women who do the world’s work are -better educated than the schoolmen who vainly tell them how to do it; -and they are better educated because they are in closer relationship -with things, through the supreme sense of touch, which refines and -spiritualizes the hand--that wonderful member which differentiates man -from the other animals, and makes him their master. - -Manual Training educationally, then, relates to all the arts whose sum -is the art of living. For whether it be the chair on which we sit; or -the bed on which we lie; or the garments we wear; or the house that -shelters us; or the railway train on which we cross continents; or the -ship that takes us over seas; or the unspeakable marvels of the world’s -museums and galleries upon which we gaze with rapture; or the orchestra -of an hundred instruments, whose music enchants us; or the treasures of -dead cities--long buried--now unearthed; or the temples in which we -worship; or the monuments which commemorate our heroes and martyrs; or -the tombs in which we moulder away to dust--they are all the work of the -hand! - -Manual Training is the acquisition by the hand of the arts through which -man expresses himself in things. It is a series of educational -generalizations in things. The purpose of it is to put the mind and hand -_en rapport_ with each other; to make the hand acquainted with the -elementary manipulations of the typical arts, by actual exercises, as -the mind is familiarized with the fundamental principles of the sciences -by studying their laws. - -Superior observation is only another name for genius. To the dull eye -the falling apple taught no lesson, but to Newton’s quick apprehension -it revealed the law of gravitation! - -It is not alone, however, in the sense of sight that observation -resides; nor is it keenest there. We have recently learned the value of -object teaching; but we have yet to learn, popularly and practically, -what has long been known to science--that the sense of touch is the -master sense, whence all the other senses spring. It is because of this -fact, and of the further fact that the sense of touch is most highly -developed in the hand, that man is the wisest of animals. - -It follows that more than in the sense of seeing, hearing, tasting, or -smelling--nay, more than in all these senses combined--the faculty of -observation resides in the hand. - -Dr. Wilson declares that touch “reigns throughout the body, and is the -token of life in every part”; and Dr. Maudsley says: “It is the -fundamental sense, the mother-tongue of language.” - -How apt is this definition of the sense of touch--“the token of life in -every part”--and how comprehensive this--“the mother-tongue of -language!” And of this master sense the hand is the chief organ and -minister. How versatile it is; what adaptability it possesses; what -helpfulness! In the moment of danger how reassuring its supporting -grasp; how consoling its gentle touch when grief overwhelms! In defeat -how it trembles with emotion, and how tense with exaltation it becomes -in the hour of victory! With what infinite loathing it shrinks from a -hated contact, and with what sympathetic vibrations of ardor responds to -the clinging pressure of love! - -If we would become familiar with objects we must subject them to the -test of touch, we must handle them. As Robert Seidel, a great teacher, -well says: “We must stretch them, beat them, cool them, expose them to -the sun, the water, the air--we must work them.” - -It is through these processes of loving manipulation that the mechanic -and the artisan transform things crude and ugly into forms of use and -beauty. And it is in this way, and this way only, that man has trod the -path of progress. It is a rugged road, whose steeps are to be climbed -alone by those whose hearts are warm with holy zeal, whose souls are -aglow with enthusiasm, and whose hands are endowed with the rich -experiences of thoughtful toil. And we shall fit all mankind for this -noble task by training them to usefulness--that is, by teaching them, -not merely how to think, but how to act, how to work. - -It is a broad and conclusive generalization of Herbert Spencer that -since literature and the fine arts are made possible by the useful arts, -manifestly that which is made possible must be postponed to that which -makes it possible. Nor does this rational and sober view of art detract -in the least from its dignity or sentiment. On the contrary, it provides -a foundation for works of the imagination--a basis for that spirituality -which is the fruit of the happy conjunction of a multitude of material -conditions evolved from the humblest as well as the noblest of the -useful arts--a basis without which the beautiful arts could never exist. - -It thus becomes plain that social and economic conditions are the -product of education in things. Art education differentiates the -civilized from the savage man. The pathway of progress which now blazes -with the glory of electricity stretches back to the gloom of the caves -where our early ancestors dwelt; and the steps of this advance consist -of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts. From gesture to -speech; from pictures to types; from the canoe to the steamship, and -from the canal to the locomotive, the race has moved forward, always and -only, through art triumphs. - -So all the generations of men have lived and toiled for us. We are the -heirs of the hoarded learning, of the accumulated mental and moral -fibre, and of the treasured arts of the ages. And we are hence the -elders, as Bacon says, of the philosophers, the sages, and the inventors -and discoverers of all time. Their achievements are heights whence we -may discern and occupy new and wider fields of human endeavor. - -The precise relation of the useful arts to social and economic -conditions is, therefore, that of creator. As your art education is, so -shall your society be. There are persons who unconsciously dissociate -art and civilization--who think that things are not essential to -spiritual development, who fail to realize the fact that the main reason -of the barbaric character of the savage is the absence from his -environment of the arts of peace and plenty. If, for example, Plato had -not been provided with food and clothing and shelter, he would doubtless -not have composed the divine dialogues; and if there had been neither -mechanics, nor architects, nor sculptors to adorn with palaces and -temples the Greek cities, his ideal republic would not have had a place -in classic literature; and finally, if there had been no (slave) -hand-workers in Greece (for art products are all, directly or -indirectly, the work of the hand), instead of being the most venerated -of philosophers, Plato might have been, perhaps, the most wretched of -savages, prolonging a miserable existence by means the most inglorious. -But so unconscious was he of the true relation of the useful arts to -life that he denounced them all as “degrading”! - -Poverty is the chief scourge of society; and it is a familiar economic -fact that where the useful arts are most flourishing poverty is least -pressing, so that to abolish poverty it would seem to be only necessary -to multiply and extend the arts. And if poverty is to be abolished; if -there is ever to be an ideal civilization, the controlling motive of -humanity must be changed from selfishness to altruism; and this change -can come only through love of work. So long as work shall be regarded -as a “curse,” the paramount purpose of the individual will be to avoid -it, and to compel others to submit to it. Hence the antagonisms that -arise at every point of human contact. The sum of these antagonisms is -what we call the struggle of life, which is merely the struggle of each -to survive at the expense of his fellows, and is therefore barbaric. - -Now as we have seen that it is through the arts that man has been -civilized--that, in a word, the arts differentiate the civilized from -the savage man--it is evident that the further regeneration of the race -is to be wrought by analogous means--that is to say, by a wider -expansion of the arts of peace. And the way to achieve this result is to -transform our schools, which were modelled after the classic methods of -Greece and Rome, into laboratories for the development of useful men and -women, through the mastery of the useful arts; the arts that make life -sweet and beautiful; the arts that adorn our homes, that render the -earth fertile and make it blossom as the rose; the arts that annihilate -distance and so promote man’s brotherhood by enlarging his -neighborhood--these are the arts that inspire us with just and generous -impulses, the arts in which the noblest moral sentiments are made -manifest in things. - -These, then, are the arts which ought to be made the subject of thorough -and exhaustive education--the arts that led Comenius to define schools -as the workshops of humanity. The final essential educational condition -is universality; for it is obvious that inequality of educational -opportunity is the grossest injustice of which organized society is -capable. It is against this injustice that Carlyle exclaims: “That there -should one man die ignorant, who had capacity for knowledge, this I -call a tragedy, were it to happen more than twenty times in the minute.” - -This is indeed the tragedy of tragedies--the tragedy on the heels of -which slavery stalks; in whose train caste rides in scornful state; in -whose hideous shadow war waits to shed blood and spread pestilence and -famine. All these are the satellites of ignorance, and hardly less of -partial education than of total unenlightenment; and hence the only hope -that civilization shall finally triumph over barbarism rests in -universal, impartial, and scientific education. - -The contrasts between the old and the new school methods pointed out in -this chapter show along what lines educational progress is to be sought. -The ideal school is to consist, not of one academic department, and a -department of Manual Training, but of mental and manual exercises so -related as to produce homogeneity. - -The tabulations of facts which will be found in the Appendix show that a -vast number of schools have been dedicated to the new education. If they -are to be developed into ideal schools thousands of ideal teachers must -devote themselves to the arduous task. Each school transformed from the -dull routine of mediocrity to the vigor and elasticity which wait on -development will cost the life of a hero. The school that has no hero to -struggle for its salvation will surely languish and die. Every great -school of the future must therefore have its hero, for it is only the -hero who toils without thought of reward. As Carlyle so well says: “The -wages of every noble work do yet lie in heaven or else nowhere.” And he -has left this message of advice and encouragement to the hero of the -school of the future which is to revolutionize the world: “Thou wilt -never sell thy life in a satisfactory manner. Give it like a royal -heart; let the price be nothing: thou hast then, in a certain sense, got -all for it!” - - - - -APPENDIX - - -STATISTICS.--MANUAL TRAINING, 1883-1898, IN THE UNITED STATES - -MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOLS - - -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- - | | | Manual |Teachers| Pupils - | | |Training| of | Taking - | | | Estab- | Manual | Manual - NAME OF SCHOOL |CITY OR TOWN |STATE| lished |Training|Training - -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- - High-school |Peru |Ill. | 1883 | 2 | 41 - Polytechnic High-school|Baltimore |Md. | 1883 | 16 | 674 - High-school |Eau Claire |Wis. | 1884 | 1 | 50 - Central Manual-training| | | | | - School |Philadelphia |Penn.| 1885 | 13 | 406 - Industrial Training | | | | | - High-school |Indianapolis |Ind. | 1885 | 10 | 676 - Rochester Free Academy |Rochester |N. Y.| 1885 | .. | 908 - High-school |Toledo |Ohio | 1885 | 11 | 394 - Central Manual-training| | | | | - School | Cleveland |Ohio | 1885 | 4 | 200 - Central High-school |Washington |D. C.| 1886 | .. | 235 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |New Haven |Conn.| 1886 | 13 | .. - Manual-training School |Springfield |Mass.| 1886 | 3 | 34 - High-school |Minneapolis |Minn.| 1886 | 4 | 375 - Newburg Free Academy |Newburg |N. Y.| 1886 | 2 | 133 - Manual-training School |Galesburg |Ill. | 1887 | 1 | 74 - High-school |St. Paul |Minn.| 1887 | 5 | 350 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Stillwater |Minn.| 1887 | 1 | 12 - High-school |Jamestown |N. Y.| 1887 | 1 | 48 - Central High-school |Easton |Del. | 1888 | .. | .. - High-school |Easton |Md. | 1888 | .. | .. - Ridge Manual-training | | | | | - School |Cambridge |Mass.| 1888 | 9 | 178 - High-school |Concord |N. H.| 1888 | 4 | 52 - Orange High-school |Orange |N. J.| 1888 | 3 | 180 - High-school |Albany |N. Y.| 1888 | 3 | 750 - Dist. 20 Central High- | | | | | - school |Pueblo |Col. | 1889 | 1 | 160 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Davenport |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 82 - West Des Moines High- | | | | | - school |Des Moines |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 50 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Fall River |Mass.| 1889 | 1 | 62 - High-school |Duluth |Minn.| 1889 | 2 | 80 - High school |Omaha |Neb. | 1889 | .. | 100 - High-school |Union |N. J.| 1889 | 3 | 200 - High-school |Westchester |Penn.| 1889 | 4 | 240 - English High and | | | | | - Manual-training School |Chicago |Ill. | 1890 | 17 | 430 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Louisville |Ky. | 1890 | 13 | 212 - Approved High-school |Vineland |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 150 - High-school |Passaic |N. J.| 1890 | 2 | 53 - High-school |South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 150 - West Manual-training | | | | | - School |Cleveland |Ohio | 1890 | 3 | 100 - East and West High- | | | | | - schools |Milwaukee |Wis. | 1890 | 4 | 144 - Norwich Free Academy |Norwich |Conn.| 1891 | 1 | 33 - High-school |Waterbury |Conn.| 1891 | 1 | .. - High-school |Springfield |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 20 - Moline High-school |Moline |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 47 - Manual training High- | | | | | - school |Waltham |Mass.| 1891 | 2 | 18 - High-school |Bay City |Mich.| 1891 | [120] | [120] - Ridgewood High-school |Ridgewood |N. J.| 1891 | 3 | 35 - Manual training High- | | | | | - school |Camden |N. J | 1891 | 3 | 150 - Manual training High- | | | | | - school |Seattle |Wash.| 1891 | 2 | 70 - High-school |Menominee |Wis. | 1891 | 5 | 103 - High-school |Bristol |Conn.| 1892 | 1 | 30 - Willard Hall High- | | | | | - school |Wilmington |Del. | 1892 | 3 | 210 - Fremont Manual-training| | | | | - School |Fremont |Ohio | 1892 | 1 | 50 - North East Manual- | | | | | - training School |Philadelphia |Penn.| 1892 | 9 | 369 - High-school |Norristown |Penn.| 1892 | 2 | 290 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Providence |R. I.| 1892 | 18 | 280 - High-school |Spokane |Wash.| 1892 | 3 | 85 - Polytechnical High- | | | | | - school |San Francisco|Cal. | 1893 | 4 | 250 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Mason City |Iowa | 1893 | 1 | 125 - High-school |Manchester |N. H.| 1893 | 1 | 12 - High-school |Atlantic City|N. J.| 1893 | 1 | 235 - East Orange High-school|East Orange |N. J.| 1893 | 3 | 125 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Denver |Col. | 1894 | .. | 400 - High-school |Frankfort |Ky. | 1894 | 2 | 100 - Mechanics Arts High- | | | | | - school |Boston |Mass.| 1894 | 11 | 324 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Brooklyn |N. Y.| 1894 | .. | 800 - Washington High-school |Washington |Penn.| 1894 | .. | 27 - Townsend Industrial | | | | | - School |Newport |R. I.| 1894 | 2 | 26 - Ryan High-school |Appleton |Wis. | 1894 | 1 | 26 - Manual-training School |Lowell |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 50 - English High-school |Somerville |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 75 - English and Classical | | | | | - High-school |Worcester |Mass.| 1895 | 4 | 283 - High-school |Medford |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 20 - English High-school |Lynn |Mass.| 1895 | 3 | 72 - High-school |Lawrence |Mass.| 1895 | 1 | 33 - Royen High-school |Youngstown |Ohio | 1895 | 1 | 200 - High-school |Fitchburg |Mass.| 1895 | .. | .. - High-school |Burlington |Wis. | 1896 | .. | .. - High-school |Los Angeles |Cal. | 1896 | 6 | 315 - High-school |Rockford |Ill. | 1896 | 1 | 27 - High-school |Florence |Wis. | 1896 | 2 | 36 - Brookline High-school |Brookline |Mass.| 1896 | 1 | 50 - High-school |Janesville |Wis. | 1896 | .. | .. - High-school |Malden |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 60 - Hackley Manual-training| | | | | - School |Muskegon |Mich.| 1896 | 4 | 350 - Ishpeming Manual- | | | | | - training School |Ishpeming |Mich.| 1896 | 1 | 75 - Menominee Manual- | | | | | - training School |Menominee |Mich.| 1896 | 1 | 25 - High-school |Summit |N. J.| 1896 | 1 | 40 - Barlow School of | | | | | - Industrial Art |Binghamton |N. Y.| 1896 | 3 | 173 - High-school |Syracuse |N. Y.| 1896 | .. | 50 - High-school |Akron |Ohio | 1896 | 2 | 180 - Cross Creek School |Washington |Penn.| 1896 | .. | 14 - High-school |Waupaca |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 16 - High-school |Winnetka |Ill. | 1897 | 1 | 16 - High-school |Fond du Lac |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 50 - Manual-training High- | | | | | - school |Kansas City |Mo. | 1897 | 27 | 800 - High-school |Oshkosh |Wis. | 1897 | 3 | 250 - Central and Martin Park| | | | | - High-schools |Buffalo |N. Y.| 1897 | 1 | 50 - High-school |Mayville |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 30 - High-school |Red Bank |N. J.| 1897 | 1 | 375 - High-school |Hartford |Conn.| 1898 | 4 | 140 - Manual-training High | | | | | - school |Newark |N. J.| 1898 | .. | .. - Howard School |Wilmington |Del. | [121] | 1 | 45 - High-school |Iowa City |Iowa | [121] | .. | .. - High-school |Brockton |Mass.| [121] | .. | .. - High-school |South Omaha |Neb. | [121] | .. | .. - High-school |Stamford |Conn.| [121] | .. | .. - -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- - |101 Cities |23 | | 320 |15,942 - | |States| | | - -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- - - [120] Abandoned temporarily for want of funds. - - [121] Date of establishment not reported. - -MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS--GRAMMAR GRADES - - -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- - | | Manual | | | - | | Training |Separate|Teachers| Pupils - | |Established| Manual-| of | Taking - | | in Grammar|training| Manual | Manual - CITY OR TOWN |STATE | Grades | Schools|Training|Training - -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- - Montclair |N. J. | 1882 | All | 4 | 530 - Peru |Ill. | 1883 | 2 | 2 | .. - New Haven |Conn. | 1884 | .. | .. | .. - Jamestown |N. Y. | 1884 | 2 | 2 | 800 - Eau Claire |Wis. | 1884 | 1 | .. | 100 - Waltham |Mass. | 1885 | 1 | 2 | 425 - Rochester |N. Y. | 1885 | .. | .. | 336 - Toledo |Ohio | 1885 | 11 | 11 | 2,257 - Washington |D. C. | 1886 | 40 | 43 | 9,452 - Springfield |Mass. | 1886 | 1 | 3 | 267 - Boston |Mass. | 1886 | All | 81 | 37,240 - Newburg |N. Y. | 1886 | 1 | 2 | 95 - Tidioute |Penn. | 1886 | .. | .. | .. - Beardstown |Ill. | 1887 | 1 | 2 | .. - Easton |Del. | 1888 | .. | .. | .. - Brookline |Mass. | 1888 | 1 | 2 | 525 - Winchester |Mass. | 1888 | 1 | 2 | 408 - Concord |N. H. | 1888 | 2 | 4 | 402 - Hoboken |N. J. | 1888 | 6 | 6 | 1,229 - Orange |N. J. | 1888 | 5 | 3 | 842 - New York |N. Y. | 1888 | 37 | 32 | 10,187 - Meadville |Penn. | 1888 | .. | 2 | 263 - Wilmington |Del. | 1889 | 1 | .. | 45 - Davenport |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 1 | 101 - Vineland |N. J. | 1889 | All | 1 | 500 - Union |N. J. | 1889 | All | All | 643 - St. Louis |Mo. | 1890 | 1 | 8 | 116 - | | | [122] | [122] | [122] - Duluth |Minn. | 1890 | 12 | 25 | 1,000 - Passaic |N. J. | 1890 | .. | 2 | 152 - Garfield |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 2 | 550 - Paterson |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 1 | 300 - Ridgewood |N. J. | 1890 | .. | 4 | 200 - Knoxville |Tenn. | 1890 | .. | .. | .. - South Orange |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 1 | 300 - Waterbury |Conn. | 1891 | .. | .. | .. - Springfield |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 50 - Moline |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 279 - Salem |Mass. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 160 - Northampton |Mass. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 900 - Bay City |Mich. | 1891 | [123] | [123] | [123] - San Francisco |Cal. | 1892 | 3 | 2 | 560 - St. Paul |Minn. | 1892 | .. | 4 | 2,366 - Camden |N. J. | 1892 | .. | 4 | 4,600 - Norristown |Penn. | 1892 | 2 | 3 | 1,430 - Providence |R. I. | 1892 | 13 | .. | .. - Menominee |Wis. | 1892 | 2 | 4 | 200 - Bristol |Conn. | 1893 | 2 | .. | 276 - Haverhill |Mass. | 1893 | 1 | 1 | 190 - Manistee |Mich. | 1893 | .. | .. | .. - Minneapolis |Minn. | 1893 | 5 | 5 | 1,214 - St. Cloud |Minn. | 1893 | 1 | 1 | 150 - Manchester |N. H. | 1893 | All | 1 | 196 - Bayonne |N. J. | 1893 | All | All | All - East Orange |N. J. | 1893 | All | 2 | 755 - Cleveland |Ohio | 1893 | 2 | 1 | 3,500 - Newport |R. I. | 1893 | .. | 4 | 633 - Staunton |Va. | 1893 | .. | 1 | 200 - Santa Barbara |Cal. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 232 - San Diego |Cal. | 1894 | 5 | 1 | 270 - Portland |Maine | 1894 | 1 | 3 | 900 - Medford |Mass. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 400 - New Bedford |Mass | 1894 | 1 | 1 | 400 - Ithaca |N. Y. | 1894 | 2 | 2 | 420 - Mason City |Iowa | 1894 | 1 | 1 | 50 - Denver |Colo. | 1895 | All | .. | 2,500 - Chicago |Ill. | 1895 | 28 | 32 | 8,200 - Cape May |N. J. | 1895 | All | 3 | 411 - Fitchburg |Mass. | 1895 | .. | .. | .. - Buffalo |N. Y. | 1895 | .. | 1 | 200 - Pittsburg |Penn. | 1895 | 3 | 2 | 400 - Barbadoes Township |N. J. | 1895 | 3 | 3 | 713 - Woonsocket |R. I. | 1895 | .. | 1 | 150 - Oakland |Cal. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 425 - Carlstadt |N. J. | 1896 | All | 5 | 240 - Los Angeles |Cal. | 1896 | 7 | .. | 2,080 - Summit |N. J. | 1896 | 3 | 3 | 200 - Hartford |Conn. | 1896 | All | 5 | 800 - Des Moines |Iowa | 1896 | 2 | 2 | 80 - Florence |Wis. | 1896 | 1 | .. | .. - Menominee |Mich. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 80 - Brooklyn |N. Y. | 1896 | .. | .. | .. - Glens Falls |N. Y. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 60 - Utica |N. Y. | 1896 | .. | 4 | 2,300 - Akron |Ohio | 1896 | .. | 2 | 210 - Washington |Penn. | 1896 | 5 | 3 | 112 - Pueblo Dist. No. 1 |Colo. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 180 - Winnetka |Ill. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 48 - Oshkosh |Wis. | 1897 | 25 | 28 | 1,400 - Indianapolis |Ind. | 1897 | 1 | 2 | 1,000 - North Adams |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 247 - Lynn |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 351 - Newton |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 135 - Worcester |Mass. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 397 - Cambridge |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 2 | 136 - Muskegon |Mich. | 1897 | 2 | 4 | 700 - Kansas City |Mo. | 1897 | .. | .. | .. - Newark |N. J. | 1897 | .. | 3 | 2,265 - Milwaukee |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 15 - Pueblo Dist. No. 20|Colo. | 1898 | .. | 2 | 300 - New Britain |Conn. | 1898 | .. | .. | 190 - Peabody |Mass. | 1898 | .. | .. | .. - Moberly |Mo. | 1898 | .. | .. | .. - Stockton |Cal. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Santa Cruz |Cal. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Manchester |Conn. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Stamford |Conn. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Iowa City |Iowa | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Augusta |Me. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Baltimore |Md. | [124] | All | .. | All - Hyde Park |Mass. | [124] | 3 | 3 | 204 - Holyoke |Mass. | [124] | 1 | .. | .. - Easton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Fall River |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Dedham |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Malden |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Milton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Waterbury |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Wellesley |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Canton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - Richmond |Va. | [124] | .. | .. | .. - -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- - 119 Cities |24 | | 287 | 444 |118,835 - |States| | | | - -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- - - [122] Colored School. - - [123] Abandoned temporarily for want of funds. - - [124] Date of establishment not reported. - -MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS--PRIMARY GRADES - - ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------- - | | Manual |Separate| | - | | Training | Manual |Teachers| Pupils - | |Established|Training| of | Taking - | | in Primary| Primary| Manual | Manual - CITY OR TOWN[125] |STATE| Grades | Grades |Training|Training - ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------- - Montclair |N. J.| 1882 | All | All | 1,047 - Jamestown |N. Y.| 1882 | All | All | 2,400 - Baltimore |Md. | 1884 | .. | .. | .. - Washington |D. C.| 1886 | 55 | .. | 12,900 - Newburg |N. Y.| 1886 | .. | .. | .. - Tidioute |Penn.| 1886 | .. | .. | .. - Oakland |Cal. | 1888 | .. | 2 | 2,159 - Springfield |Mass.| 1888 | All | .. | 29,256 - Concord |N. H.| 1888 | .. | .. | .. - Orange |N. J.| 1888 | 4 | 3 | 2,132 - New York |N. Y.| 1888 | .. | .. | 12,000 - Union |N. J.| 1889 | All | All | 560 - Vineland |N. J.| 1889 | All | 1 | 700 - Westchester |Penn.| 1889 | .. | 1 | .. - Garfield |N. J.| 1890 | .. | 1 | 200 - South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 1 | 200 - Waterbury |Conn.| 1891 | .. | 1 | .. - Moline |Ill. | 1891 | .. | .. | .. - Northampton |Mass.| 1891 | .. | 1 | 900 - Ridgewood |N. J.| 1891 | .. | 3 | 200 - San Francisco |Cal. | 1892 | 1 | 1 | 176 - St. Paul |Minn.| 1892 | 40 | .. | 4,500 - Camden |N. J.| 1892 | .. | .. | 3,080 - Providence |R. I.| 1892 | 50 | .. | .. - Bristol |Conn.| 1893 | 2 | 2 | 144 - Minneapolis |Minn.| 1893 | 44 | .. | 4,446 - Stillwater |Minn.| 1893 | .. | .. | .. - Cleveland |Ohio | 1893 | .. | .. | 3,500 - Staunton |Va. | 1893 | .. | 1 | 200 - Menominee |Wis. | 1893 | .. | 2 | 200 - St. Cloud |Minn.| 1894 | .. | 2 | 488 - Philipsburg |N. J.| 1894 | All | All | 700 - Elyria |Ohio | 1894 | All | All | 700 - Newport |R. I.| 1894 | .. | 2 | 101 - Denver |Colo.| 1895 | .. | .. | .. - Oshkosh |Wis. | 1896 | 20 | 25 | 800 - Waltham |Mass.| 1896 | .. | .. | 100 - Carlstadt |N. J.| 1896 | All | 5 | .. - Utica |N. Y.| 1896 | .. | .. | .. - Akron |Ohio | 1896 | All | All | 1,800 - San Diego |Cal. | 1897 | 5 | 3 | 250 - Newark |N. J.| 1897 | .. | .. | .. - Indianapolis |Ind. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 500 - Moberly |Mo. | 1897 | .. | .. | .. - Passaic |N. J.| 1897 | .. | 1 | 375 - Pueblo Dist. No. 1|Colo.| 1898 | .. | 1 | 180 - Santa Cruz |Cal. | .. | .. | .. | .. - Elgin |Ill. | .. | .. | 1 | .. - Augusta |Me. | .. | .. | .. | .. - Detroit |Mich.| .. | .. | .. | .. - Toledo |Ohio | .. | .. | .. | .. - Pittsburg |Penn.| .. | .. | .. | .. - Shenandoah |Penn.| .. | .. | .. | .. - La Crosse |Wis. | .. | .. | .. | .. - ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+---------- - 54 Cities |20 | | 222 | 62 | 88,398 - |States| | | | - ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+---------- - - [125] Of the 54 cities tabulated, only 9 report the number of separate - primary schools in which Manual Training is taught. These 9 cities - report 202 schools, or an average of 22.4 schools per city. Nine - cities report all. Thirty-four cities do not report. If the average - obtained from the cities reporting can be applied to all, then 1120 - primary schools have Manual Training. Thirty-one cities do not report - the number of teachers. Twenty cities report 34. Applying the above - method shows 85 teachers of Manual Training in primary schools. It - must be remembered that there are special or supervising teachers; the - regular teachers doing most of this work under supervision. Thirty-two - cities report 87,598 pupils taking Primary Manual Training; or 2737 on - the average to each city reporting. Applying this average to the 51 - cities reporting, the total is 139,587. - -KINDERGARTENS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS - - ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- - | | Kinder- |Separate| Kinder-|Kinder- - | | garten | Kinder-| garten |garten - CITY OR TOWN |STATE|Established| gartens|Teachers|Pupils - ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- - St. Louis |Mo. | 1873 | 60 | 400 | 7,694 - Milwaukee |Wis. | 1880 | 42 | 83 | 3,816 - Cedar Rapids |Iowa | 1881 | 12 | 16 | 766 - Newport |R. I.| 1882 | 4 | 8 | 250 - Lowell |Mass.| 1883 | 12 | 25 | 400 - Pawtucket |R. I.| 1883 | 4 | 9 | 295 - La Porte |Ind. | 1884 | 3 | 5 | 163 - Muskegon |Mich.| 1884 | 8 | 10 | 581 - Philadelphia |Penn.| 1884 | 135 | 180 | 6,500 - Traverse City |Mich.| 1885 | 4 | 4 | 180 - San José |Cal. | 1885 | 7 | 17 | 337 - Augusta |Ga. | 1887 | 4 | 8 | 183 - Des Moines |Iowa | 1887 | 14 | 28 | 807 - Marshalltown |Iowa | 1887 | 7 | 10 | 260 - Louisville |Ky. | 1887 | 10 | 59 | 750 - Albany |N. Y.| 1887 | 19 | 30 | 750 - Boston |Mass.| 1888 | 67 | 126 | 3,925 - Brookline |Mass.| 1888 | 11 | 18 | 373 - Rochester |N. Y.| 1888 | 13 | 68 | 1,972 - Sheboygan |Wis. | 1888 | 9 | 27 | 980 - Bristol |Conn.| 1889 | 3 | 7 | 253 - Richmond |Ind. | 1889 | 2 | 2 | 75 - Cambridge |Mass.| 1889 | 11 | 22 | 583 - Grand Rapids |Mich.| 1889 | 8 | 7 | 352 - Montclair |N. J.| 1889 | 5 | 12 | 273 - Louisburg |N. Y.| 1889 | 5 | 10 | 165 - North Tonawanda |N. Y.| 1889 | 4 | 4 | 200 - Norwich |Conn.| 1890 | 3 | 7 | 120 - Lexington |Ky. | 1890 | 5 | 10 | 360 - Grand Haven |Mich.| 1890 | 1 | 3 | 105 - Garfield |N. J.| 1890 | 2 | 2 | 80 - East Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 6 | 6 | 180 - South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 2 | 55 - Providence |R. I.| 1890 | 15 | 31 | 700 - Los Angeles |Cal. | 1891 | 29 | 78 | 1,800 - Covington |Ky. | 1891 | 5 | 10 | 600 - Frankfort |Ky. | 1891 | 1 | 2 | 50 - Somerville |Mass.| 1891 | 5 | 11 | 200 - Iron Mountain |Mich.| 1891 | 11 | 11 | 586 - Ironwood |Mich.| 1891 | 3 | 9 | 290 - Negaunee |Mich.| 1891 | 2 | 2 | 78 - Concord |N. H.| 1891 | 5 | 7 | 288 - Passaic |N. J.| 1891 | 6 | 8 | 284 - Greenwich |Conn.| 1892 | 1 | 1 | 52 - Terre Haute |Ind. | 1892 | 16 | 11 | 435 - Worcester |Mass.| 1892 | 10 | 19 | 518 - Lowell |Mass.| 1892 | 12 | 26 | 900 - Duluth |Minn.| 1892 | 16 | 27 | 1,000 - Omaha |Neb. | 1892 | 26 | 40 | 1,600 - Plainfield |N. J.| 1892 | 5 | 5 | 230 - Utica |N. Y.| 1892 | 11 | 26 | 750 - Cohoes |N. Y.| 1892 | 2 | 4 | 127 - Niagara Falls |N. Y.| 1892 | 4 | 6 | 156 - San Diego |Cal. | 1893 | 6 | 6 | 250 - Denver |Colo.| 1893 | 25 | 50 | 2,534 - Chicago |Ill. | 1893 | 51 | 121 | 2,500 - Newton |Mass.| 1893 | 13 | 29 | 569 - Lincoln |Neb. | 1893 | 8 | 22 | 700 - Menominee |Mich.| 1893 | 5 | 5 | 350 - Kansas City |Mo. | 1893 | 5 | 5 | 200 - Ridgewood |N. J.| 1893 | 1 | 2 | 75 - Union |N. J.| 1893 | 2 | 3 | 120 - Saratoga Springs|N. Y.| 1893 | 9 | 24 | 500 - Flushing |N. Y.| 1893 | 3 | 4 | 60 - New Rochelle |N. Y.| 1893 | 5 | 7 | 476 - El Paso |Tex. | 1893 | 1 | 3 | 100 - Burlington |Vt. | 1893 | 4 | 8 | 137 - Racine |Wis. | 1893 | 6 | 11 | 573 - Fond du Lac |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 11 | 250 - Hammond |Ind. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 80 - Oskaloosa |Iowa | 1894 | 5 | 5 | 210 - Sioux City |Iowa | 1894 | 3 | 6 | 125 - Springfield |Mass.| 1894 | 8 | 17 | 346 - Peabody |Mass.| 1894 | 3 | 6 | 126 - Medford |Mass.| 1894 | 4 | 8 | 220 - Superior |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 11 | 225 - Lawrence |Mass.| 1894 | 1 | 2 | 36 - Escanaba |Mich.| 1894 | 4 | 4 | 225 - Winona |Minn.| 1894 | 8 | 13 | 400 - Natchez |Miss.| 1894 | 1 | 1 | 50 - Portsmouth |N. H.| 1894 | 4 | 6 | 180 - Binghamton |N. Y.| 1894 | 13 | 14 | 600 - Geneva |N. Y.| 1894 | 4 | 5 | 150 - Sing Sing |N. Y.| 1894 | 3 | 3 | 91 - Wilkesbarre |Penn.| 1894 | 2 | 2 | 80 - Marinette |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 5 | 300 - La Crosse |Wis. | 1894 | 3 | 3 | 150 - Madison |Wis. | 1894 | 2 | 6 | 134 - Oakland |Cal. | 1895 | 1 | 1 | 60 - Jeffersonville |Ind. | 1895 | 7 | 7 | 200 - Burlington |Iowa | 1895 | 5 | 10 | 200 - North Adams |Mass.| 1895 | 3 | 6 | 120 - Vicksburg |Miss.| 1895 | 4 | 5 | 180 - Fremont |Ohio | 1895 | 3 | 5 | 160 - Oshkosh |Wis. | 1895 | 9 | 25 | 800 - Winnetka |Ill. | 1896 | 1 | 5 | 57 - Indianapolis |Ind. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 53 - Dubuque |Iowa | 1896 | 4 | 8 | 232 - Malden |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 5 | 85 - Northampton |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 90 - Ishpeming |Mich.| 1896 | 2 | 6 | 300 - Detroit |Mich.| 1896 | 6 | 12 | 91 - Nashua |N. H.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 120 - Syracuse |N. Y.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 97 - Mt. Vernon |N. Y.| 1896 | 2 | 2 | 30 - Cleveland |Ohio | 1896 | 12 | 24 | 500 - Stevens Point |Wis. | 1896 | 4 | 5 | 180 - New Bedford |Mass.| 1897 | 3 | 6 | 140 - Walden |Mass.| 1897 | 1 | 2 | 40 - Newark |N. J.| 1897 | 26 | 50 | 2,100 - Hoboken |N. J.| 1897 | 7 | 15 | 368 - Bayonne |N. J.| 1897 | [126] | [126] | [126] - Brooklyn |N. Y.| 1897 | 14 | 28 | .. - Woonsocket |R. I.| 1897 | 1 | 2 | 30 - Pueblo |Colo.| 1898 | 1 | 2 | 65 - Akron |Ohio | 1898 | 1 | 3 | 30 - Seattle |Wash.| 1898 | 1 | 2 | 51 - Appleton |Wis. | 1898 | 4 | 8 | 200 - Anniston |Ala. | .. | 2 | .. | 122 - Hot Springs |Ark. | .. | 1 | 1 | 16 - Sacramento |Cal. | .. | 4 | 8 | 172 - Santa Cruz |Cal. | .. | 1 | 2 | 53 - Manchester |Conn.| .. | 1 | 8 | 210 - New Britain |Conn.| .. | 6 | 13 | 410 - New Haven |Conn.| .. | 8 | 19 | 676 - Hartford |Conn.| .. | 12 | 138 | 1,326 - Norwalk |Conn.| .. | 3 | 6 | 95 - Rockville |Conn.| .. | 1 | 1 | .. - Willimantic |Conn.| .. | 2 | 6 | 229 - Rome |Ga. | .. | 1 | 1 | 16 - Evanston |Ill. | .. | 2 | 6 | 100 - Augusta |Me. | .. | 1 | 1 | .. - Portland |Me. | .. | 6 | 10 | 125 - Fall River |Mass.| .. | 2 | 4 | 202 - Sault Ste. Marie|Mich.| .. | 3 | 5 | 300 - St. Paul |Minn.| .. | 28 | 57 | .. - Trenton |N. J.| .. | 1 | 1 | 65 - Paterson |N. J.| .. | 15 | 17 | 500 - [127]Buffalo |N. Y.| .. | 10 | 15 | 925 - Gloversville |N. Y.| .. | 4 | 4 | 411 - New York |N. Y.| .. | 15 | 16 | 571 - Schenectady |N. Y.| .. | 1 | 2 | 40 - Newark |Ohio | .. | 2 | 3 | 33 - Pittsburg |Penn.| .. | 16 | 48 | 800 - Oil City |Penn.| .. | 2 | 2 | 104 - Allegheny |Penn.| .. | 3 | 12 | 120 - ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- - 146 Cities |26 | .. | 1,202 | 2,695 |73,543 - |States| | | | - ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- - - [126] All first-grade schools have kindergartens. - - [127] Kindergartens are conducted by a private association financially - assisted from public-school funds. - -MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE - - ---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+-------- - | | | Manual |Teachers| Pupils - | |Grade of |Training| of | Taking - NAME OF | |Academic | Estab- |Manual | Manual - INSTITUTION |LOCATION |Work | lished |Training|Training - ---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+-------- - Storrs School |Atlanta, Ga. |Grammar | 1865 | .. | 120 - | | | | | - Shaw University|Raleigh, N. C. |Collegiate| 1865 | 6 | 216 - | | | | | - Storer College |Harper’s Ferry,|High | 1867 | 9 | 121 - |W. V. | | | | - | | | | | - Hampton Normal |Hampton, Va. |Gram. and | 1868 | 48 | 658 - Institute | |High | | | - | | | | | - Mt. Hermon |Clinton, Miss. |High | 1875 | 2 | 16 - Female Seminary| | | | | - | | | | | - Southland Col. |Southland, Ark.|Primary to| 1876 | .. | 56 - and Normal | |Coll. | | | - Inst. | | | | | - | | | | | - Princess Anne |Princess Anne, |High | 1878 | 7 | 101 - Academy |Md. | | | | - | | | | | - Colored |Huntsville, |High | 1879 | 4 | 150 - Industrial |Ala. | | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Knoxville |Knoxville, |Gram. and | 1879 | 4 | 125 - College |Tenn. |High | | | - | | | | | - Penn Normal and|Frogmore, S. C.|High | 1880 | 3 | 164 - Ind. School | | | | | - | | | | | - State Colored |Salisbury, |Gram. and | 1881 | 4 | 118 - Normal School |N. C. |High | | | - | | | | | - Allen |Columbia, S. C.|Primary to| 1881 | 4 | 332 - University | |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Tuskegee Nor. |Tuskegee, Ala. |Gram. and | 1882 | .. | 661 - and Ind. | |High | | | - Institute | | | | | - | | | | | - Tougaloo |Tougaloo, Miss.|Primary to| 1882 | .. | 175 - University | |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Albion Academy |Franklinton, |High | 1882 | 5 | 100 - |N. C. | | | | - | | | | | - Spelman |Atlanta, Ga. |Gram. and | 1883 | 16 | 375 - Seminary | |High | | | - | | | | | - Ballard Normal |Macon, Ga. |Gram. and | 1883 | 12 | 415 - and Ind. School| |High | | | - | | | | | - Scotia Seminary|Concord, N. C. |Gram. and | 1883 | 16 | 286 - | |High | | | - | | | | | - Central |Nashville, |Gram. to | 1884 | 7 | 103 - Tennessee |Tenn. |Coll. | | | - College | | | | | - | | | | | - Hartshorn |Richmond, Va. |High | 1884 | 8 | 108 - Memorial | | | | | - College | | | | | - | | | | | - Biddle |Charlotte, |Gram. to | 1885 | 6 | 136 - University |N. C. |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Fisk University|Nashville, |Gram. and | 1885 | 4 | 275 - |Tenn. |High | | | - | | | | | - Roger Williams |Nashville, |High and | 1885 | 1 | 68 - University |Tenn. |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Paul Quinn |Waco, Tex. |High | 1885 | 3 | 31 - College | | | | | - | | | | | - Norfolk Mission|Norfolk, Va. |.. | 1886 | 2 | 320 - College | | | | | - | | | | | - Howard |Washington, |.. | 1887 | 6 | 169 - University |D. C. | | | | - | | | | | - Colored Public |Jacksonville, |Prim. to | 1887 | .. | .. - Schools |Fla. |Gram. | | | - | | | | | - Straight |New Orleans, |High | 1887 | 3 | 50 - University |La. | | | | - | | | | | - Wilberforce |Wilberforce, |Gram. and | 1888 | 7 | 133 - University |Ohio. |High | | | - | | | | | - Mary Allen |Crockett, Tex. |Gram. and | 1888 | .. | 445 - Seminary | |High | | | - | | | | | - Virginia |Petersburg, Va.|High | 1888 | 5 | 389 - Institute | | | | | - | | | | | - Scofield |Aiken, S. C. |Grammar | 1889 | 6 | 155 - Industrial | | | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Institute for |Philadelphia, |High and | 1889 | 9 | 259 - Colored Youth |Penn. |Norm. | | | - | | | | | - Burrell Academy|Selma, Ala. |Grammar | 1890 | 8 | 238 - | | | | | - Emerson Mem. |Ocala, Fla. |Gram. and | 1890 | 2 | 30 - Home School | |High | | | - | | | | | - State Normal |Tallahassee, |High | 1890 | 1 | 27 - and Ind. |Fla. | | | | - College | | | | | - | | | | | - State Nor. |Frankfort, Ky. |High | 1890 | 3 | 96 - School for Col.| | | | | - Persons | | | | | - | | | | | - Southern |New Orleans, |Gram. to | 1890 | 5 | 107 - University |La. |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Alcon Agr. and |West Side, |Collegiate| 1890 | 5 | 298 - Mech. College |Miss. | | | | - | | | | | - State Normal |Goldsboro, |High | 1890 | 4 | 163 - School |N. C. | | | | - | | | | | - Lincoln Academy|King’s Mount’n,|Gram. and | 1890 | 6 | 186 - |N. C. |High | | | - | | | | | - St. Augustine |Raleigh, N. C. |Gram. to | 1890 | 4 | 88 - School | |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Lincoln Academy|Jefferson City,|High | 1891 | 8 | 400 - |Mo. | | | | - | | | | | - Arkansas |Pine Bluff, |High | 1892 | 6 | 62 - Industrial |Ark. | | | | - University | | | | | - | | | | | - Berea College |Berea, Ky. |High and | 1892 | 2 | 56 - | |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Colored |Bordentown, |Gram. and | 1892 | 6 | 54 - Industrial |N. J. |High | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Bishop College |Marshall, Tex. |Gram. and | 1892 | 5 | 109 - | |High | | | - | | | | | - Brewer Normal |Greenwood, |Gram. and | 1893 | 1 | 120 - School |S. C. |High | | | - | | | | | - Hearne Academy |Hearne, Tex. |High | 1893 | 1 | 35 - | | | | | - Shorter |Arkadelphia, |Gram. and | 1894 | 1 | 20 - University |Ark. |High | | | - | | | | | - Knox Institute |Athens, Ga. |Gram. and | 1894 | 2 | 87 - | |High | | | - | | | | | - Walker Baptist |Augusta, Ga. |High | 1894 | 2 | 67 - Institute | | | | | - | | | | | - Chandler Normal|Lexington, Ky. |Gram. and | 1894 | 2 | 150 - School | |High | | | - | | | | | - Washburn |Beaufort, N. C.|Gram. and | 1894 | 1 | 77 - Seminary | |High | | | - | | | | | - State Col’d |Normal, Ala. |High | .. | 10 | 248 - Nor. and Ind. | | | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Cookman |Jacksonville, |High | .. | .. | .. - Institute |Fla. | | | | - | | | | | - Beach Institute|Savannah, Ga. |Gram. and | .. | 7 | 85 - | |High | | | - | | | | | - Allen |Thomasville, |High | .. | 2 | 80 - Industrial |Ga. | | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Leland |New Orleans, |High and | .. | .. | .. - University |La. |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - New Orleans |New Orleans, |.. | .. | .. | .. - University |La. | | | | - | | | | | - Mississippi |Holly Springs, |High | .. | 1 | 85 - State Normal |Miss. | | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - State Colored |Elizabeth City,|High | .. | .. | .. - Normal School |N. C. | | | | - | | | | | - Plymouth State |Plymouth, N. C.|High | .. | .. | .. - Normal School | | | | | - | | | | | - Rankin-Richards|Orangeburg, |Gram. and | .. | 20 | 454 - Institute |S. C. |High | | | - | | | | | - Slater Training|Knoxville, |Gram. and | [128] | 1 | 25 - School |Tenn. |High | | | - | | | | | - Tillotson |Austin, Tex. |.. | .. | 4 | 55 - Institute | | | | | - | | | | | - Emerson |Mobile, Ala. |Gram. and | .. | .. | .. - Institute | |High | | | - ---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+-------- - 67 Manual-training Schools | 327 | 10,332 - ---------------------------------------------------+--------+-------- - - [128] The date given is that of establishment of school. Date of - establishment of Manual Training was not ascertained in these - instances. - -PRIVATE MANUAL-TRAINING SCHOOLS - - --------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------ - | | | |Teachers| - | |Grade of|Date of | of | - NAME OF | |Academic| Estab- | Manual | - INSTITUTION |LOCATION |Work |lishment|Training|Pupils - --------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------ - Massachusetts Inst. |Boston, Mass. |High | 1876 | .. | .. - of Technology[129] | | | | | - | | | | | - Penn. School of |Philadelphia, |High | 1876 | .. | .. - Industrial Arts |Penn. | | | | - | | | | | - Working-men’s School|New York, N. Y.|Grammar | 1878 | 19 | 353 - | | | | | - Miller Manual-labor |Crozet, Va. |High | 1878 | .. | 198 - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Washington |St. Louis, Mo. |High | 1879 | 14 | 300 - University M. T. | | | | | - School | | | | | - | | | | | - Girard College |Philadelphia |Gram. | 1882 | 11 | 650 - |Penn. |and High| | | - | | | | | - Chicago Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |High | 1893 | 13 | 263 - training School | | | | | - | | | | | - Hebrew Technical |New York, N. Y.|Grammar | 1883 | 11 | 254 - Institute | | | | | - | | | | | - M. T. School of |New Orleans, |High | 1884 | 6 | 114 - Tulane University |La. | | | | - | | | | | - H. Mann School and |New York, N. Y.|Primary | 1884 | 12 | 257 - Teachers’ Coll. | |to Coll.| | | - | | | | | - Haish Manual- |Denver, Col. |.. | 1886 | 2 | 11 - training School | | | | | - | | | | | - Pratt Institute |Brooklyn, N. Y.|High | 1887 | .. | 125 - | | | | | - H. S. Newcom |New Orleans, |High and| 1887 | .. | .. - Memorial College |La. |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Sloyd Manual- |Boston, Mass. |Normal | 1889 | 3 | 104 - training School | | | | | - | | | | | - Tyler School |Providence, |Gram. | 1890 | 6 | 330 - |R. I. |and High| | | - | | | | | - Jewish Training |Chicago, Ill. |Prim. | 1890 | 27 | 700 - School | |and | | | - | |Gram. | | | - | | | | | - National University |Chicago, Ill. |.. | 1890 | 5 | 500 - | | | | | - Miss Sayer’s School |Newport, R. I. |Gram. | 1891 | 2 | 20 - | |and High| | | - | | | | | - Swedenborgian School|Waltham, Mass. |Grammar | 1891 | 1 | 60 - | | | | | - Thorp Polytechnic |Pasadena, Cal. |Gram. to| 1892 | 8 | 300 - Institute | |Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Friends’ Select |Philadelphia, |High | 1892 | .. | 123 - School |Penn. | | | | - | | | | | - Providence Training |Providence, |Normal | 1893 | 1 | 49 - School for Sloyd |R. I. | | | | - | | | | | - Plainfield Academy |Plainfield, |Prim. to| 1893 | 2 | 25 - |N. J. |High | | | - | | | | | - California School of|San Francisco, |High | 1895 | 7 | 310 - Mechanical Arts |Cal. | | | | - | | | | | - St. Andrew’s |Rochester, |High | 1895 | 1 | 60 - |N. Y. | | | | - | | | | | - Lewis Institute |Chicago, Ill. |High and| 1896 | 10 | 200 - | | Coll. | | | - | | | | | - Free Industrial |San Diego, Cal.|Gram. | 1896 | 2 | 80 - School | |and High| | | - | | | | | - Commons Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |Grammar | 1896 | 1 | 40 - training School | | | | | - | | | | | - Hull House Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |Gram. | 1897 | 2 | 70 - training School | |and High| | | - | | | | | - Elmwood School |Buffalo, N. Y. |.. | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | - Franklin School |Buffalo, N. Y. |.. | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | - Lasell Seminary |Auburndale, |.. | .. | .. | .. - |Mass. | | | | - | | | | | - Talladega College |Talladega, Ala.|.. | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | - Kenilworth Academy |Kenilworth, |.. | .. | .. | .. - |Ill. | | | | - | | | | | - Y. M. C. A. Manual- |Hartford, Conn.|.. | .. | .. | .. - training Dep’t. | | | | | - | | | | | - Clark University |Atlanta, Ga. |.. | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | - Private Manual- |Winnetka, Ill. |.. | .. | .. | .. - training Class | | | | | - --------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------ - - [129] The Massachusetts Institute of Technology was established in - 1865; but in 1876 it adopted Manual Training as a system into all its - grades, and thus became the first distinctive Manual-training School - without prejudice to its high standing as an Institute of Technology. - -MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC NORMAL SCHOOLS - - -----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+-------- - | | Manual |Teachers| Pupils - | |Training| of | Taking - | | Estab- | Manual | Manual - NAME OF SCHOOL |LOCATION | lished |Training|Training - -----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+-------- - Santee Normal Training |Santee Agency, Neb.| 1870 | 12 | 72 - School | | | | - | | | | - Cook County Normal |Chicago, Ill. | 1883 | .. | 450 - School[130] | | | | - | | | | - State Normal School |Whitewater, Wis. | 1883 | 2 | 100 - | | | | - State Normal Training |New Britain, Conn. | 1884 | 5 | 253 - School | | | | - | | | | - Industrial Institute |Columbus, Miss. | 1885 | 1 | 123 - and College | | | | - | | | | - West Chester State |West Chester, Penn.| 1889 | 2 | 220 - Normal School | | | | - | | | | - State Normal School |San José, Cal. | 1890 | 3 | 700 - | | | | - Georgia Normal and |Milledgeville, Ga. | 1891 | 15 | 284 - Industrial College | | | | - | | | | - State Normal and Model |Trenton, N. J. | 1891 | 1 | 225 - School | | | | - | | | | - State Female Normal |Farmville, Va. | 1891 | 2 | 75 - School | | | | - | | | | - Normal College of New |New York, N. Y. | 1892 | 12 | 257 - York | | | | - | | | | - Normal and Industrial |Greensboro, N. C. | 1892 | 5 | 300 - School | | | | - | | | | - Keystone State Normal |Kutztown, Penn. | 1892 | 2 | 106 - School | | | | - | | | | - State Normal School |Framingham, Mass. | 1893 | 1 | 25 - | | | | - Westfield Normal School|Westfield, Mass. | 1893 | 5 | 70 - | | | | - State Normal School |Los Angeles, Cal. | 1894 | 2 | 475 - | | | | - Alabama Normal College |Livingston, Ala. | .. | 1 | .. - for Girls | | | | - -----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+-------- - - [130] The Cook County (Illinois) Normal School was originally - established as a private school. It is now the public training school - for teachers in the public schools. - -PRIVATE TRADE SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES OF TECHNOLOGY - - ------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------ - | |Date of | | - | | Estab- | | - NAME OF INSTITUTION |LOCATION |lishment|Teachers|Pupils - ------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------ - Rensselaer Polytechnic |Troy, N. Y. | 1824 | 18 | .. - Institute | | | | - | | | | - Ohio Mechanics’ Institute |Cincinnati, | 1828 | .. | 720 - |Ohio. | | | - | | | | - Massachusetts Institute of |Boston, Mass. | 1865 | 6 | 222 - Technology | | | | - | | | | - Cornell University |Ithaca, N. Y. | 1865 | 36 | 599 - | | | | - Worcester Polytechnic |Worcester, | 1868 | .. | .. - Institute |Mass. | | | - | | | | - Stevens Institute of |Hoboken, | 1871 | 22 | 256 - Technology |N. J. | | | - | | | | - Lowell School of Practical |Boston, Mass. | 1872 | .. | 65 - Designing | | | | - | | | | - Rhode Island School of Design |Providence, | 1878 | .. | 341 - |R. I. | | | - | | | | - Chicago College of Horology |Chicago, Ill. | 1880 | .. | .. - | | | | - Case School of Applied |Cleveland, | 1881 | 11 | .. - Sciences |Ohio. | | | - | | | | - School of Ind. Art and Tech. |New York, | 1881 | .. | .. - Design for Women |N. Y. | | | - | | | | - New York Trade School |New York, | 1881 | 26 | 556 - N. Y. | | | - | | | | - Rose Polytechnic Institute |Terre Haute, | 1883 | 6 | .. - |Ind. | | | - | | | | - [131]Textile Schools |Philadelphia, | 1883 | .. | 65 - |Penn. | | | - | | | | - Milwaukee Cooking School |Milwaukee, | 1884 | 2 | .. - |Wis. | | | - | | | | - Newark Technical School |Newark, N. J. | 1885 | 6 | 250 - | | | | - Technical School of |Cincinnati, | 1886 | .. | .. - Cincinnati |Ohio. | | | - | | | | - Technical Drawing School |Providence, | 1887 | .. | .. - |R. I. | | | - | | | | - Cogswell Polytechnic School |San Francisco,| 1888 | 7 | 150 - |Cal. | | | - | | | | - Institute for Artisans |New York, | 1888 | .. | .. - |N. Y. | | | - | | | | - Watchmakers’ Trade School |La Porte, Ind.| 1888 | .. | .. - | | | | - Institute for Colored Youth |Philadelphia, | 1889 | 9 | 259 - |Penn. | | | - | | | | - Master-Builders’ Mechanical |Philadelphia, | 1890 | 6 | 67 - School of Phil’a. |Penn. | | | - | | | | - Lawrence Scientific School of |Cambridge, | 1891 | 3 | 64 - Harvard Univ’ty |Mass. | | | - | | | | - Baron de Hirsch Trade School |New York, | 1891 | .. | .. - |N. Y. | | | - | | | | - [132]University of Cincinnati |Cincinnati, | 1891 | .. | .. - |Ohio. | | | - | | | | - Leland Stanford University |Palo Alto, | 1891 | .. | .. - |Cal. | | | - | | | | - Williamson Free School of |Williamson | 1891 | 10 | 160 - Mechanical Trades |Schools, Pa. | | | - | | | | - Springfield Industrial |Springfield, | 1891 | 5 | 105 - Institute |Mass. | | | - | | | | - Drexel Institute |Philadelphia, | 1892 | 38 | .. - |Penn. | | | - | | | | - Armour Institute |Chicago, Ill. | 1893 | 15 | 300 - | | | | - Mechanics’ Institute |Rochester, | 1893 | 15 | 972 - |N. Y. | | | - | | | | - Private School of Carpentry |Racine, Wis. | 1896 | 1 | 30 - | | | | - Lafayette College |Easton, Penn. | .. | .. | .. - | | | | - Vanderbilt University |Nashville, | .. | .. | .. - |Tenn. | | | - | | | | - Boston Normal School of |Boston, Mass. | .. | .. | .. - Cookery | | | | - ------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------ - - NOTE.--Private trade schools for teaching watch-making, some fifteen - in number, are united, because no data was secured. Private cooking - schools, dress-making schools, barber schools, etc., have within the - last five years sprung up in various parts of the country. Some of - these are of considerable importance, but most are small, and no - effort has been made to secure reports from them. - - [131] These schools are supported by both legislative appropriations - and private endowments. They are not public schools in the usual sense - of the term. - - [132] The University of Cincinnati is supported by both public funds - and private endowments. It is unique in this, that, although a - university in its grade of work, it is essentially a part of the - public-school system. The city collects a one-tenth mill tax annually - for its benefit; and the university, including its technical and - Manual-training course, is free to residents of the city. The - necessary expenses, such as laboratory fees, are kept to the lowest - possible limit; and every family in the municipality is entitled to - educate its children in this thoroughly equipped university, - practically without cost. - -TECHNOLOGY IN PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF COLLEGIATE -GRADE--EXCLUSIVE OF PURELY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES - - -------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------ - | |Technical| | - | |Training | | - | | Estab- | | - INSTITUTION |LOCATION | lished |Teachers|Pupils - -------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------ - United States Naval |Annapolis, Md. | 1845 | .. | .. - Academy | | | | - | | | | - State Agricultural |Agricultural | 1857 | 14 | 332 - College |College, Mich. | | | - | | | | - Maine State College |Orono, Me. | 1864 | 13 | 191 - | | | | - University of Vermont |Burlington, Vt. | 1865 | 11 | 119 - | | | | - Illinois University |Urbana, Ill. | 1868 | .. | .. - | | | | - University of Minnesota |Minnesota, Minn. | 1869 | 9 | 159 - | | | | - University of Tennessee |Knoxville, Tenn. | 1869 | 6 | 150 - | | | | - University of Iowa |Ames, Iowa. | 1869 | 9 | 284 - | | | | - Kansas State Agricultural|Manhattan, Kan. | 1873 | 20 | 530 - College | | | | - | | | | - Ohio State University |Columbus, Ohio. | 1873 | 9 | 373 - | | | | - University of California |Berkeley, Cal. | 1874 | 3 | 84 - | | | | - [133]Purdue University |Lafayette, Ind. | 1874 | 10 | 280 - | | | | - Agricultural and |College Station, | 1876 | 16 | 313 - Mechanical College |Tex. | | | - | | | | - State Agricultural |Fort Collins, Col.| 1879 | 2 | 137 - College | | | | - | | | | - Agricultural and |Agricultural | 1880 | 3 | .. - Mechanical College |College, Miss. | | | - | | | | - Agricultural and |Blacksburg, Va. | 1880 | 18 | 190 - Mechanical College | | | | - | | | | - Mechanical College of |Baton Rouge, La. | 1880 | 1 | 56 - State University | | | | - | | | | - Storrs Agricultural |Storrs, Conn. | 1881 | 4 | 145 - College | | | | - | | | | - Agricultural and |Auburn, Ala. | 1885 | 4 | 200 - Mechanical College | | | | - | | | | - Arkansas Industrial |Fayetteville, Ark.| 1885 | 7 | 150 - University | | | | - | | | | - Michigan Mining School |Houghton, Mich. | 1886 | 11 | 82 - | | | | - Agricultural College of |Brookings, S. D. | 1887 | 11 | 160 - South Dakota | | | | - | | | | - Florida Agricultural |Lake City, Fla. | 1888 | 2 | 62 - College | | | | - | | | | - Oregon State Agricultural|Corvallis, Ore. | 1888 | 9 | 237 - College | | | | - | | | | - Agricultural College of |Logan, Utah. | 1889 | 7 | 119 - Utah | | | | - | | | | - New Mexico College of |Messilla Park, | 1890 | .. | .. - Mechanical Arts |N. M. | | | - | | | | - University of Michigan |Ann Arbor, Mich. | 1890 | 5 | .. - | | | | - Delaware College |Newark, Del. | 1891 | 3 | 23 - | | | | - Agricultural and |Lexington, Ky. | 1891 | 3 | 31 - Mechanical Coll. of | | | | - Kentucky | | | | - | | | | - State University |Columbia, Mo. | 1891 | 2 | 145 - | | | | - College of Mining |Rolla, Mo. | 1891 | 7 | 225 - | | | | - University of Nebraska |Lincoln, Neb. | 1891 | 3 | 210 - | | | | - Nevada State University |Reno, Nev. | 1891 | 1 | 106 - | | | | - University of Wyoming |Laramie, Wy. | 1891 | 4 | 60 - | | | | - North Dakota Agricultural|Fargo, N. D. | 1892 | 2 | 24 - College | | | | - | | | | - West Virginia University |Morgantown, W. Va.| 1892 | 5 | 79 - | | | | - Clemson Agricultural |Clemson College, | 1893 | 9 | 635 - College |S. C. | | | - -------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------ - - [133] Purdue University is partially supported by endowment, but as it - secures regular appropriations, it is here classified as a State - University. - -INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN CHARITY SCHOOLS[134] - - ---------------------------+---------------+--------+-----------+----- - | | Indus- |Teachers| Pupils - | | trial | of | Taking - | |Training| Indus- | Indus- - | | Estab- | trial | trial - NAME OF SCHOOL |LOCATION | lished |Training|Training - ---------------------------+---------------+--------+--------+-------- - | | | | - Baltimore Manual-labor |Arbutus, Md. | 1841 | 2 | 60 - School | | | | - | | | | - Wilson Industrial School |New York, N. Y.| 1853 | 3 | 100 - for Girls | | | | - | | | | - Industrial Home School |Washington, | 1867 | 6 | 60 - |D. C. | | | - | | | | - McDonough School |McDonough, Md. | 1873 | 5 | 140 - | | | | - South End Industrial School|Roxbury, Mass. | 1884 | 21 | 313 - | | | | - Five Points House of |New York, N. Y.| 1885 | 9 | 331 - Industry | | | | - | | | | - Indiana Soldiers’ Orphans’ |Kingstown, Ind.| 1885 | 7 | 80 - Home | | | | - | | | | - Skyland Institute |Blowing Rock, | 1886 | .. | .. - |N. C. | | | - | | | | - Samuel Ready School for |Baltimore, Md. | 1887 | 3 | 60 - Female Orphans | | | | - | | | | - Chicago Waifs’ Mission and |Chicago, Ill. | 1888 | 3 | 30 - Training School | | | | - | | | | - Industrial School |Brooklyn, N. Y.| 1888 | 8 | 80 - Association | | | | - | | | | - Kalamazoo Industrial School|Kalamazoo, | 1889 | 18 | 224 - |Mich. | | | - | | | | - Industrial School of |Rochester, | 1890 | 5 | 120 - Rochester |N. Y. | | | - | | | | - Industrial School for Boys |Glenwood, Ill. | 1890 | .. | 400 - | | | | - Jewish Orphan Asylum |Cleveland, Ohio| 1891 | 8 | 157 - | | | | - St. George’s Boys’ |New York, N. Y.| 1892 | 6 | 259 - Industrial Trade School | | | | - | | | | - Boys’ Club in Carpentry |Lynn, Mass. | 1895 | 1 | 25 - | | | | - Polish Orphans’ Home |Chicago, Ill. | .. | .. | .. - | | | | - Unity Church Manual- |Chicago, Ill. | .. | .. | .. - training School | | | | - | | | | - Iowa Orphans’ Home |Davenport, | .. | .. | .. - |Iowa. | | | - ---------------------------+---------------+--------+--------+-------- - - [134] Industrial Training, rather than Manual Training, characterizes - the Charity Schools, the central idea being to prepare the child for - some occupation by which it can become self-supporting. As will be - seen by the table, this idea found very early expression in the - Manual-labor School at Arbutus, Maryland. The co-education of mind and - hand, because of its equal, or greater, educational value, was not - thought of in these charity institutions until recently, and cannot be - said to obtain in any of them even now. - -PROGRESS OF MANUAL TRAINING BY YEARS, IN CITIES - -The following table shows growth by years, as represented by cities -establishing Manual Training or Kindergartens in Public Schools. The -number refers to cities adopting this feature of education in the years -named. - - -------------+--------------+--------------+-------------- - HIGH SCHOOLS |GRAMMAR GRADES|PRIMARY GRADES|KINDERGARTENS - ------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------ - |Number| |Number| |Number| |Number - Year | of | Year | of | Year | of | Year | of - |Cities| |Cities| |Cities| |Cities - ------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------ - .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1873 | 1 - .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1880 | 1 - .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1881 | 1 - .. | .. | 1882 | 1 | 1882 | 2 | 1882 | 1 - 1883 | 2 | 1883 | 1 | 1883 | 0 | 1883 | 2 - 1884 | 1 | 1884 | 3 | 1884 | 1 | 1884 | 3 - 1885 | 5 | 1885 | 3 | 1885 | 0 | 1885 | 2 - 1886 | 5 | 1886 | 5 | 1886 | 3 | 1886 | 0 - 1887 | 4 | 1887 | 1 | 1887 | 0 | 1887 | 5 - 1888 | 6 | 1888 | 8 | 1888 | 5 | 1888 | 4 - 1889 | 8 | 1889 | 4 | 1889 | 3 | 1889 | 7 - 1890 | 7 | 1890 | 8 | 1890 | 2 | 1890 | 7 - 1891 | 10 | 1891 | 6 | 1891 | 4 | 1891 | 9 - 1892 | 7 | 1892 | 6 | 1892 | 4 | 1892 | 10 - 1893 | 5 | 1893 | 11 | 1893 | 6 | 1893 | 15 - 1894 | 7 | 1894 | 7 | 1894 | 4 | 1894 | 20 - 1895 | 8 | 1895 | 8 | 1895 | 1 | 1895 | 7 - 1896 | 15 | 1896 | 13 | 1896 | 5 | 1896 | 12 - 1897 | 8 | 1897 | 13 | 1897 | 5 | 1897 | 7 - 1898 | 2 | 1898 | 4 | 1898 | 1 | 1898 | 4 - [135] | 5 | [135] | 18 | [135] | 8 | [135] | 28 - ------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------ - - [135] Not reported. - -NOTE ON STATE LAWS IN RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING. - -Connecticut, in 1888, authorized and empowered school boards to -introduce Manual Training in public schools. - -Congress appropriated $8000 to Manual Training equipment in the District -of Columbia in 1896. - -In 1885 the State of Georgia passed a law authorizing and recommending -school boards to introduce Manual Training in the public schools of the -state. The law was simply a moral indorsement, and had little practical -effect. - -Indiana has a law authorizing the introduction of Manual Training into -the public schools of all cities of 100,000 inhabitants or over. - -Massachusetts passed an authorizing act in 1884, and on April 14, 1894, -a law was adopted, section one of which is as follows: - - “After the first day of September in the year eighteen hundred and - ninety five, every city of twenty thousand or more inhabitants shall - maintain as part of its high-school system the teaching of Manual - Training. The course to be pursued in said instruction shall be - subject to the approval of the state board of education.” - -In 1887 New Jersey passed a law to encourage the introduction of Manual -Training in public schools. The chief provision of the act was, that -whenever any school district should raise by taxation, subscription, or -both, a sum of money not less than $1000, for the establishment of -Manual Training in such school district, the state should appropriate a -sum equal to that raised by the district, to aid in the establishment of -such school; provided that no one district should receive over $5000 in -any one year from state funds. In 1888 this law was amended so as to -include districts that should raise not to exceed $500, the state -agreeing to duplicate the sum raised. The effect of this law was very -marked in 1890, resulting in the establishment of a large number of -schools. - -In 1888 New York passed a law authorizing local school boards to -establish Manual Training within their respective jurisdictions. The -same law makes the teaching of Manual Training compulsory in normal -schools, subject, however, to recommendations of the state -superintendent of public instruction, which provision has practically -nullified it. - -Ohio has a law authorizing a tax levy of ⁵⁄₁₀ of a mill for cities of a -certain size, and ¹⁄₅ of a mill for certain other cities, in excess of -other taxes; the sums so raised to be used for the purpose of -introducing Manual Training into the public schools. - -In 1895 Wyoming authorized school boards to establish Manual Training in -the public schools. - -In 1895 Wisconsin authorized the establishment of Manual Training in its -public schools providing state aid for the same, but limiting the number -to receive state aid to ten high-schools to be selected by the state -superintendent of schools. - -The best of existing state-aid laws is that of Maryland, enacted April -7, 1898. It is very liberal and will doubtless greatly stimulate the -progress of the new education in that state. The Wisconsin law gives -$250 to each of its schools per year, and the New Jersey law duplicates -whatever the school board raises for that purpose. But the Maryland law -gives $1500 to each school the first year, and $50 per pupil per year -thereafter, up to the limit of $1500 per school per year--enough, -probably, to pay the entire expense of the system. Following is the text -of the statute: - - “_Whereas_, The establishment of well-conducted and liberally - supported schools, or departments, in one of the large graded schools - or high-schools in each county of the state, for the development and - training of the manual ability of pupils, must tend to supply a - growing want in each county of the state; and - - _Whereas_, It is especially the duty of the state to afford the best - educational facilities to its youth in those technical studies which - are directly associated with the material prosperity of its people; - and - - _Whereas_, It is for the best interests of this state that the colored - population of each county shall have an opportunity for the - establishment of separate industrial schools; therefore, - - SEC. 1. _Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland_, That it - shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners, when a - suitable building, or room or rooms connected with one of the large - graded schools or high-schools shall be provided by the county, or - money sufficient for the erection of such building, or room or rooms, - to accept the same (if, in the judgment of the board, there is any - necessity therefor), and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of - a Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, for said - county, and the salaries of teachers and Manual Training instructors, - out of the general school fund and the state aid hereinafter provided. - - SEC. 2. _And be it enacted_, That whenever a Manual Training school, - or Manual Training department, is opened in any county, the president - and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said - county shall report to the secretary of the state board of education, - and the state board of education shall, without delay, proceed to - appoint the principal of the state normal school, or one of the - teachers in said school, well qualified for such service, to visit the - school and give a certificate of approval of its condition and the - plan upon which it is conducted; and thereafter the president and - secretary of the board of county school commissioners shall report to - the comptroller the condition of the school, the number of - instructors, and the number of pupils enrolled, on or before the - twentieth day of January in each year. - - SEC. 3. _And be it enacted_, That the comptroller of the treasury, - after receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county - Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, according to - the provisions of the second section of this act, is hereby authorized - and directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for - the sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable to the order of the - treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county - filing the certificate of approval aforesaid, out of any moneys in the - state treasury not otherwise appropriated, on the first day of October - in each year, for the support of said Manual Training school, or - Manual Training department. - - SEC. 4. _And be it enacted_, That the county Manual Training school, - or the Manual Training department and the school to which it is - attached, shall be under the management and control of the board of - county school commissioners. - - SEC. 5. _And be it enacted_, That it shall be the duty of the board of - county school commissioners of each county in this state, whenever a - suitable building, or room or rooms connected with one of the colored - schools of said county, shall be provided by the county to accept the - same, if in the judgment of the said board there is any necessity - therefor, and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of such member - [number] of separate colored industrial schools as in their judgment - may be needed, and the salaries of such teachers as may be required - for that purpose shall be paid out of the general fund and the state - aid hereinafter provided. - - SEC. 6. _And be it enacted_, That whenever any such separate colored - industrial school or schools are opened in any county, the president - and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said - county shall report the fact to the secretary of the state board of - education, and the state board of education shall without delay - proceed to appoint a proper person well qualified for such service, to - visit the said school or schools and give a certificate of approval of - its condition and the plan upon which it is conducted, and thereafter - the president and secretary of the said board shall report to the - comptroller of this state the condition of said school or schools, the - number of instructors and the number of pupils enrolled during the - school year last ended, on or before the 20th day of August in each - year. - - SEC. 7. _And be it enacted_, That the comptroller of the treasury upon - receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county colored - industrial school or schools, as aforesaid, according to the - provisions of the sixth section of this act, is hereby authorized and - directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for the - sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable to the order [of the] - treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county, - upon the filing of the certificates of approval aforesaid, out of any - moneys in the state treasury not otherwise appropriated, on the first - day of October in each year, for the support of said colored - industrial school or schools, and thereafter the said industrial - school or schools shall be under the management and control of the - said board of county school commissioners. - - SEC. 8. _And be it enacted_, That no entire appropriation for the - benefit of any Manual Training school, provided for under this act, - shall be paid as authorized, after the first annual appropriation, - unless said school have had an average daily attendance of thirty - scholars for the preceding year; and in case said attendance shall - fall short of said number, then there shall only be paid towards the - maintenance of said school at the rate of fifty ($50.00) dollars for - each scholar of its daily average annual attendance, to be determined - by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the comptroller. - - SEC. 9. _And be it enacted_, That no appropriation for the benefit of - the colored industrial schools of any county, provided for under this - act, shall be paid after the first annual appropriation, unless the - average daily attendance at such school or schools shall have been, - for the preceding year, at least thirty scholars; and in case said - attendance shall fall short of said number, then there shall be paid - to the treasurer of the county school commissioners maintaining said - school or schools, only at the rate of fifty ($50.00) dollars a - scholar, for the daily average annual attendance at the same, to be - determined by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the - comptroller. - - Approved April 7, 1898.” - -The report of the state superintendent of public instruction for -Michigan, for the year 1897, shows that Kindergartens exist in the -public schools of the following cities and towns: Cities of over 4000 -population as shown by state census of 1894--Albion, Big Rapids, -Cadillac, Calumet, Detroit, Escanaba, Grand Haven, Grand Rapids, -Holland, Ionia, Ironwood, Ishpeming, Jackson, Menonimee, Mt. Clemens, -Muskegon, Negamee, Niles, St. Joseph, Traverse City, West Bay City, -Wyandotte--twenty-two cities of over 4000 population. The twenty-four -cities and towns with less than 4000 population as shown by state census -of 1894, and having Kindergartens in their public schools, are: Algonac, -Alma, Au Sable, Caro, Crystal Falls, Dowagiac, Fremont, Greenville, -Hartford, Houghton, Ithaca, Lake Linden, Lake View, Mancelona, -Manistique, Montague, Morenci, Nashville, Pentwater, Reed City, Sand -Beach, Stanton, Union City, Vassar. Such of these cities and towns as -furnished reports will be found in the accompanying tables; from the -others no data was received. - -Two thoroughly equipped Manual Training schools are projected: one, to -be in Pullman, Illinois, is to result from a bequest in the will of the -late Mr. George M. Pullman, who left a large sum for its construction, -and an annuity of $25,000 for its maintenance; the other school is to be -built by the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, at Calumet, Michigan. -Both these schools will be free, and will probably become a part of the -public-school system of their respective towns. - -The legislature of Massachusetts in 1898 passed an act establishing a -trade-school for weavers, to be located at Lowell, Massachusetts, -provided the city would raise half the money necessary for its -construction, the state to pay the other half. This is the first -well-defined movement in this country to establish public trade-schools -to teach the trades prevailing in the locality of the school. Europe has -many such schools. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA. - -There is, as yet, no established national school system in Russia. The -school systems of Finland and other Russian dependencies are provincial -and local. An imperial decree of March 7, 1888, however, contained an -elaborate plan for elementary national education, in which Manual -Training, Technical, and Trade education were given not only prominence -but precedence. The doctrine of state aid to educational institutions -is, however, fully and liberally recognized. Manual Training was founded -in Russia in 1868, as mentioned in the first edition of this work, by M. -Victor Della Vos, and revived and extended in 1884 by the then Minister -of Finance, who sent two teachers to Naäs, Sweden, to take a six weeks’ -course of instruction, and a workshop for boys’ hand labor was the same -year established in connection with the Teachers’ Institute in St. -Petersburg. In 1885 this was made a permanent feature of Teachers’ -Institute work, and an annual grant of 3000 rubles ($1659) was voted; -and in 1887 a course in metal work was added to this school. In 1888 -three normal courses for instructing teachers in Manual Training were -instituted and subsidized by the imperial government. One of these at -Novaia Ladoga trains both city and country school-teachers; at Riga, -city teachers only, while at Kiev only country teachers are trained. The -instruction of teachers in Manual Training was also made part of the -teachers’ institutes at Glookhov, Vilna, and Orenboorg in 1889. Besides -these there were in 1890 eleven vacation institutes, training two -hundred and fifty teachers for the work of imparting manual instruction. -These teachers’ institutes, vacation and permanent (or normal schools), -have increased rapidly and received rich subsidies from the imperial -treasury. In 1891 the Russian Minister of War introduced Manual Training -into all the cadet schools. The most recent available data indicate the -introduction of Manual Training into one hundred and sixteen -establishments, as follows: four teachers’ institutes, fourteen -teachers’ seminaries, four intermediate schools, forty-four higher -public schools, and thirty-four elementary common schools. A more recent -report--which, however, is not at hand--is said to show remarkable -developments in Manual Training in common and rural schools. A brief -survey of technical and trade schools in Russia follows. - -The technical schools at Moscow and St. Petersburg are imperial schools -of university grade, richly endowed, and reputed to be the best equipped -schools in Europe. The oldest and best technical school in Moscow below -university rank, and making no attempt to teach trades, is the Komisarof -Technical School, founded in 1865 by two railroad contractors. It now -receives government aid, and has about four hundred pupils. The Society -for the Promotion of Technical Education in 1873 founded a school called -the “Mechanical Handicraft School of Moscow.” The government contributes -$1000 per year to this school. There are five technical schools having a -grade of academic work comparable with our high schools--the Komisarof -Technical School of Moscow, mentioned above, founded in 1865; the Lodz, -in 1869; Irkootsk, 1873; Kungursk, 1877; and the Omsk, in 1882. The five -schools had 1052 students at date of latest available report. -Trade-schools of grammar grade, twenty-three in number, had 2474 pupils. -Of these schools three were established in 1868; one in 1871; two in -1872; one in 1873; one in 1874; one in 1875; two in 1877; one in 1878; -two in 1879; one in 1880; two in 1883; two in 1885; three in 1886; one -in 1887. Trade-schools of primary grade, sixty-three in number, with -2562 pupils. One was established in 1865; one in 1866; two in 1867; one -in 1870; one in 1871; three in 1872; two in 1873; five in 1874; six in -1875; one in 1876; six in 1877; four in 1878; three in 1879; two in -1880; two in 1881; four in 1882; five in 1883; five in 1884; one in -1885; one in 1886; four in 1887; two in 1888; one in 1889. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN FINLAND. - -Finland was the birthplace of the man who first devised and practised -that method of education known as Sloyd--a form of Manual Training. - -Otto Cygneans, of Helsingfors Teachers’ Seminary, after a thorough study -of Froebel and Pestalozzi (to whom he gives ample credit), originated in -1858 a system for carrying the education of the hand beyond the -kindergarten into all grades of schools. To Finland also belongs the -credit of being the first country to officially recognize the value of -such education. Since 1866 (sometimes stated 1868) Manual Training -(Sloyd) has been compulsory in all the elemental and normal schools of -Finland. In 1896 there were four normal schools with 569 students, and -75,712 pupils taking Manual Training in the elementary schools of the -cities. Statistics of rural schools are not obtainable. In addition to -these, there were in 1896 forty-two separate and distinctively -Manual-training high-schools, with 1030 pupils, besides eight industrial -schools, with 56 teachers and 380 pupils. All are public schools. There -are technical and trade schools of all grades, from the Polytechnic -School at Helsingfors to the elementary trade and weaving schools. There -are seven schools where navigation is taught, twelve weaving, dyeing, -and sewing schools, supported wholly or in part by the government, -fourteen elementary technical schools, five high-grade technical -schools, and ten trade-schools other than weaving and navigation. -Government aid is granted to all of these schools. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN ENGLAND. - -The activity of Germany along the line of trade and technical schools, -immediately following the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, alarmed -the people of England, producing in 1882 what has been termed a -“Technical education scare.” The friends of Manual Training, acting upon -this popular and commercial anxiety, secured the passage of the -“Technical Instruction Act of 1889.” By the terms of this act the -schools organized under it were not to be trade-schools; and the -construction put upon the expression “Manual Instruction” makes the term -practically synonymous with our term Manual Training. The following -table shows the growth of these schools. The growth of cooking schools -is also statistically represented in the table. - - ----+-----------------------++--------------------------------- - | MANUAL INSTRUCTION || SCHOOLS OF COOKERY AND - DATE| NUMBER OF SCHOOLS || DOMESTIC SCIENCE - ----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - | | Number of || | | - | Number of | Schools || Number of | Number of | - | Schools |Established|| Schools | Schools | - |Existing in| During ||Existing in|Established|Number of - YEAR| Year Named| Year Named|| Year Named|During Year| Pupils - ----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - 1876| .. | .. || 29 | 29 | .. - 1877| .. | .. || 125 | 96 | .. - 1878| .. | .. || 178 | 53 | .. - 1879| .. | .. || 223 | 45 | .. - 1880| .. | .. || 276 | 53 | .. - 1881| .. | .. || 299 | 23 | .. - 1882| .. | .. || 347 | 48 | .. - 1883| .. | .. || 420 | 73 | 1,251 - 1884| .. | .. || 541 | 121 | 7,597 - 1885| .. | .. || 715 | 174 | 17,754 - 1886| .. | .. || 812 | 97 | 24,526 - 1887| .. | .. || 921 | 109 | 30,431 - 1888| .. | .. || 1,086 | 165 | 42,159 - 1889| .. | .. || 1,355 | 269 | 57,539 - 1890| 30 | 30 || 1,554 | 199 | 66,820 - 1891| 145 | 115 || 1,796 | 242 | 68,291 - 1892| 285 | 140 || 2,113 | 317 | 90,794 - 1893| 430 | 145 || 2,419 | 306 | 108,192 - 1894| 677 | 247 || 2,634 | 215 | 122,325 - 1895| 949 | 272 || 2,775 | 141 | 134,930 - | [136] | || | | - ----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+--------- - - [136] The number of pupils taking Manual Training cannot be given; as - an indication, however, it may be said that the London School Board - reports that in 1895, 30,508 boys were instructed in wood work in - London schools alone. - -Governmental aid to drawing and Manual Training, when incorporated in -the curriculum of day grammar-grade schools, evening “continuation -schools,” and teachers’ training colleges, is bestowed through the -executive department, styled “The Science and Art Department.” Special -attention is paid to training teachers in the teachers’ colleges, so -that they will be able to give instruction in Manual Training. This is -specially true to grammar-grade teachers. In 1894 56 teachers’ colleges -were giving Manual Training to 4,434 teacher-pupils, the government -granting $13,290 in aid of such training. In 1895, the science and art -department, upon examinations aided 910 elementary Manual-training -schools, giving instruction to 67,470 pupils; the amount of aid granted -was $81,537. - -In 1890 a law was passed empowering county councils to use the surplus -from duties on liquor to aid Manual-training and technical schools. -Many districts use the “liquor money” to establish purely -Manual-training schools, attaching them to municipal technical schools. -Generally, however, the “liquor money” goes to technical and art -schools. The report for 1895 shows $5,699,046 applied by local -authorities to technical instruction under the “liquor money” law. -Scotland secured in 1887 a law empowering local authorities to levy a -tax of a penny in the pound for the support of technical schools. In -1889 a similar law was passed for England. The Welsh law of 1889 -organizing intermediate schools, recognizes and defines Manual Training. -These acts led up to the “liquor money” law referred to. - -The City and Guilds of London Institute, organized in 1876, is the -principal private promoter of technical education in England. This -organization has founded three schools of its own, besides aiding -liberally similar schools in all parts of the kingdom. With the -exception of the well-known South-Kensington school, the Manchester -school, and the Birmingham schools, the technical schools of England, as -well as its Manual-training schools and kindergartens, are of recent -origin. Huddersfield Technical School, founded as a mechanics’ institute -in 1841, is another exceptionally old and especially good school of its -class. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN SWITZERLAND. - -As each canton regulates its own school system, the federal constitution -requiring only that education must be obligatory and free, the same -diversity of conditions exists in the cantons of Switzerland that is -found in the states of our own Union:-- - -Thus in the canton of Geneva, kindergartens and Manual-training schools -are a part of the public-school system, entirely supported by public -funds, and Manual Training is compulsory for all male pupils, in all -grades of the public schools. The gradual advance from kindergarten work -to primary, grammar, and high-school, makes a complete course in Manual -Training in the schools of Geneva--perhaps the most complete to be found -in any single public-school system. In other cantons, however, -kindergartens exist generally as private institutions, aided by public -funds and contributions from societies and individuals. The growth of -kindergartens in Switzerland by years cannot be shown from any data at -hand; the following table, however, shows the status at the date of most -recent available data: - -PUPILS AND TEACHERS IN KINDERGARTENS OF SWITZERLAND - - -----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- - | Number of | | - | Separate |Number of|Number of - CANTON |Kindergartens| Pupils | Teachers - -----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- - Zurich | 61 | 3,532 | 79 - Berne | 62 | 2,550 | 63 - Lucerne | 3 | 260 | 6 - Uri | 1 | .. | .. - Schwytz | 4 | 91 | 4 - Unterwalden | 2 | 85 | 2 - Zug | 5 | 188 | 6 - Freyburg | 10 | 912 | 10 - Soleure | 8 | .. | .. - Basel Town | 32 | 2,117 | 46 - Basel Land | 8 | 452 | 8 - Appenzell Outer Rhodes | 16 | 843 | 19 - Appenzell Inner Rhodes | 1 | 60 | 2 - Grisons | 2 | 80 | 4 - Aargau | 13 | .. | 13 - Ticino | 23 | 1,351 | 43 - Vaud | 160 | 4,000 | 160 - Valais | 3 | 249 | 3 - Neuchâtel | 36 | 997 | 36 - Geneva | 65 | 3,872 | 85 - -----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- - Total | 515 | 21,639 | 589 - -----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- - -Manual Training for boys was introduced into the Switzerland schools in -1884 by M. Rudin, who in that year instructed a class of forty teachers; -in 1891 over one hundred teachers were taking a Manual-training course -under his instruction. The following table shows the growth of Manual -Training to 1889, or five years after its introduction. More recent data -are unfortunately not available. - -MANUAL-TRAINING CLASSES IN SWITZERLAND - - ------------+---------+---------+--------- - |Number of|Number of|Number of - CANTON | Classes | Pupils | Teachers - ------------+---------+---------+--------- - Zurich | 19 | 305 | 13 - Basel | 32 | 558 | 19 - Saint Gall | 6 | 122 | 8 - Schaffhausen| 2 | 120 | 2 - Grisons | 2 | 48 | 2 - Thurgau | 2 | 46 | 1 - Soleure | .. | 40 | 1 - Aargau | 1 | .. | 1 - Berne | 5 | 175 | 5 - ------------+---------+---------+--------- - -Classes in Manual Training are reported from the cantons of Vaud, -Neuchâtel, Appenzell, Freyburg, and Glarus; but statistics are not -given. Manual Training for girls has been an integral part of the public -schools of Switzerland for many years, and in practically all of the -cantons this instruction is obligatory. The instruction consists in -knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, and fitting, with lectures on -house-keeping, and was introduced into the schools rather for its -industrial use than in recognition of its educational value. Switzerland -early recognized the importance of technical instruction and the -development of artisan skill. The Municipal School of Art at Geneva was -founded in 1751, and is intended as a school for working-men. It is the -oldest in Switzerland. The working-man’s school at Berne was founded in -1829, and, though a private institution, it is subsidized by the federal -government. The Polytechnic School at Zurich was founded by the federal -government in 1854. The Industrial School in that city, founded in 1873 -by a society, is subsidized by the city, canton, and federal government. -“The Tecknikum” of Winterthur, probably the most complete of its class -of schools, was founded as a cantonal institution in 1873. The most -extensive are the technical institutions for the education of -working-men. The government began the establishment of these at the -beginning of this century. By 1865, ninety-one had been established; in -1889, eleven hundred and eighty-four of these schools, having 26,716 -pupils, were reported. Trade-schools have sprung up everywhere, adapting -themselves to local industries and common needs. The School of -Watchmaking, at Fleurier, was founded as a private institution in 1850, -but has been municipal property since 1875. Municipal Schools of -Watchmaking exist at Chaux-de-Fonds, 1865; St. Imier, 1866; Locle, 1868; -Neuchâtel, 1871; Bienne, 1872; Porentruy, 1883, is a municipal and state -school, as is also that at Soleure, 1884. The Trade School for Women is -a private institution of Basel, founded in 1879; that of Berne, in 1888. -These schools are founded by Societies for the Advancement of Public -Utility, and teach women the millinery and dress-making trades, and give -instruction in household work, and all the means by which women can -become self-supporting. The societies have also founded numerous -House-keeping Schools, and Schools for Domestic Servants. - -No attempt is here made to give a complete list of Switzerland’s -trade-schools, or the efforts being made to advance the skill of her -artisans. It is but proper, however, to mention the latest efforts to -overcome the difficulties growing out of the decline in apprenticeship. -In 1884 the Mannheim Trade Unions asked for a committee of investigation -into the condition of the small trades. The committee reported, -recommending the adoption of a suggestion received from the Karlsruhe -Trades Union. It was in effect, that master-workmen who are willing to -train apprentices systematically, according to regulations prescribed by -school authorities, shall be aided by the state treasury. In 1888 Baden -appropriated 5000 marks per annum for this purpose, and in 1892 -twenty-two trades, or one hundred and twenty-two workshops, having one -hundred and eighty apprentices, were subsidized. In 1895 the -appropriation was increased. In 1898 the federal government of -Switzerland adopted the plan and purposes to greatly extend it. The -result of this is, practically, that every skilled master-workman who -desires may become to a certain extent a public-school teacher, and -every factory or workshop is, or may become, a school-house. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN GERMANY. - -The officials of the regular school systems of Germany, while for some -years past active in advancing trade-schools, have never recognized -Manual Training as worthy a place in the public schools, except as -regards female handiwork, which is everywhere a part of the course in -grammar and high schools for girls. Individuals, and “societies for the -promotion of practical education,” must therefore take the initiative in -Manual Training, and this results either in private schools, or in -persuading municipal or state authorities to annex a Manual-training -department to some public school. - -Of the 328 Manual-training schools for boys existing in 1892, 126 were -independent schools, and 202 were annexes attached to other educational -institutions of various kinds. Special societies maintain 50 schools and -72 annexes, of the above total, while municipal authorities maintain 70 -schools and state authorities 66 annexes. The growth by years since 1878 -is shown in the following table: - - -------------+-----------+------------- - ESTABLISHED |Independent| Annexes to - | Schools |Other Schools - -------------+-----------+------------- - Prior to 1878| .. | 26 - 1878 | 1 | .. - 1879 | 3 | .. - 1880 | 4 | 4 - 1881 | 9 | 6 - 1882 | 4 | 3 - 1883 | 2 | 6 - 1884 | 3 | 10 - 1885 | 2 | 11 - 1886 | 1 | 9 - 1887 | 8 | 11 - 1888 | 13 | 11 - 1889 | 19 | 23 - 1890 | 21 | 30 - 1891 | 27 | 36 - 1892 | 9 | 16 - -------------+-----------+------------- - Total | 126 | 202 - -------------+-----------+------------- - -In 1892 there were 285 teachers and 7374 pupils in the independent -schools; 363 teachers and 6841 pupils in the annexes, or 648 teachers -and 14,235 pupils in both. While something had been done in Germany in -the way of trade-schools prior to that date, the general interest and -official zeal was created by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia -in 1876, when Professor Reuleaux cabled to Bismarck, “Our goods are -cheap but wretched.” The various states began to inaugurate the -educational system that had made the manufactures of France so superior -to those of her competitor, and from 1879 to 1890 over 50 trade-schools -were established in Prussia. - -Some of the German states, notably Saxony and Würtemberg, had early -established trade-schools. In 1837 three royal labor-schools were -established by the state of Saxony; one in 1838, and two in 1840. -Special schools for instruction in weaving, embroidery, and lace-making -were established; one in 1835, one in 1857, one in 1861, one in 1866, -and one in 1881. Of the 32 trade-schools in Saxony seven have been -established since 1886. In the 20 “_Kleinstaaten_” or so-called small -states of Germany there were, in 1895, 218 trade-schools having 2047 -pupils. Practically all of these have been established since 1879. The -city of Berlin in 1895 reported 21 trade-schools with 8992 pupils, 332 -teachers, and expenditures (exclusive of state aid) for these schools of -$129,102; besides $80,339 spent for trade education in so-called -“continuation” schools. In February, 1897, the number of students -attending these schools in Berlin was 14,750, or 1 per cent. of the -population. - -It will be interesting, in view of the antagonistic attitude of the -school authorities to the introduction of Manual-training methods in -public schools from kindergartens up, to note how long Germany will -follow the trade-school experiment of France, without learning, as did -France, to fit her boys for the trade-schools by putting their little -hands to school in the kindergarten, the primary school, and so on -through grammar and high school; so that by the time the trade-school -comes in to differentiate and accentuate special skill, the boy will -have learned equally the use and control of muscle and of mind. - -The highest results of trade-schools upon a nation’s manufactures, and -therefore upon its exports and its wealth, cannot be realized until the -Manual-training school has furnished the educated hand as raw material -for the trade-school to work upon. The nation that begins with the -trade-school first will have a long and expensive lesson to learn. -France learned it. Will Germany require as long and expensive a tuition? -Germany has, however, the advantage, in that many of her private -citizens, and “societies for practical education,” are, as usual, far -more intelligent than her school authorities. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN FRANCE. - -The thorough reorganization of the public schools of France by the law -of June 16, 1881, renders any reference to the prior system unnecessary -here. - -By this law primary education was rendered absolutely free; and by the -law of March 28, 1882, compulsory education for all children between the -ages of 6 and 13 years was established. The law of October 30, 1886, -systematized the public schools, classifying and grading them, and -fixing a curriculum. Kindergartens admitting pupils from the ages of 2 -to 6 years were made general by this law, and in 1886-87 there were 3597 -kindergartens with 543,839 pupils. In 1895 this number had grown to 4734 -kindergartens, 714,734 pupils, and 9199 teachers, all women. - -The government programme contemplates that Manual Training proper shall -begin where its elements in the kindergarten leave off, and be continued -throughout the four grades of primary instruction. But the full purpose -of the law seems slow of realization, for in 1890, four years after the -passage of the law, only 400 shop-schools of primary grade had been -established, 101 of these in Paris. Manual Training has been compulsory -in all public high-schools of France since 1886. These may be either -independent schools or classes annexed to an elementary school. In the -latter case they are called _cours complémentaires_. In 1886 there were -16,217 boys and 5150 girls in public high-schools; in 1895 there were -21,996 boys and 8660 girls, a rise of 35 per cent. for boys and of 68 -per cent. for girls in the ten years. - -In the _cours complémentaires_ there were 11,518 boys and 5223 girls in -1895, an increase of 37 per cent. for boys and 26 per cent. for girls -over the figures for 1886. This result was not, however, accomplished at -once. There had been the usual struggle for Manual-training schools -before the law of 1886 made them universal and compulsory. The school -authorities of Paris introduced sewing into the public schools in 1867, -and in 1873 M. Salicis began the introduction of Manual Training into -what we would term grammar-schools. Shops were annexed to the boys’ -school in the Rue Tournefort in 1873. From that time until the general -law of 1886 the growth was gradual. There are in France a large number -of Manual Apprenticeship schools. They are a kind of primary -trade-school. Prior to 1880 various cities, as Paris, Havre, Rheims, -etc., had founded apprenticeship schools. Private schools of the same -character had been established by individuals and industrial -associations. The law of 1880 organized these efforts, assimilated all -these institutions, and brought them under the control of the public. -The tendency to bring all industrial institutions, whether classical, -manual, trade, or technical, under control of the state has been very -marked since 1880 in France, and still more so since the law of 1886. Of -the six industrial and house-keeping schools for girls in Paris four -were founded by the city; the others were private institutions absorbed -by the city--one in 1884, the other in 1886. They are of high-school -grade, and, in addition to general domestic economy, teach special -trades to women, such as millinery and artificial flower work. The -nation maintains high-class trade and technical schools in all -industries important to her commerce. And there can be no doubt that the -excellence of her manufactures has its origin in the large number, -variety, and excellence of her free schools. The National School of -Watch-makers was founded in 1848 by the government of Savoy, and -reorganized by the French government in 1890. The National Schools of -Arts and Trades, four in number, are the oldest and most important of -the public institutes of technology and trades. The first of these was -founded as a private institution in 1780, and became national property -during the First Republic. The second of these schools was established -in 1804, the third in 1843, and the fourth completed in 1892. These -schools instruct fully in the mechanical arts, the purpose being to -educate at public expense thoroughly equipped superintendents and -masters of workshops for industrial establishments. Such, too, is the -purpose of the Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, which, -founded as a private institution in 1829, became the property of the -state in 1857. - -Schools of Mining, such as the one at Houghton, Michigan, are located, -one at Paris (National High-school of Mines); one at St. Étienne (School -of Mines); and schools for master miners at Alais and at Douai. The -National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, founded by the National -Convention in 1794, began in 1819, under special ordinance of the -government, gratuitous courses of instruction upon the application of -the sciences and industrial arts. It is to industrial education what the -College of France is to classicism and “pure science”--whatever that may -mean. No attempt is here made to give a complete list of the trade and -technical schools of France, whether public or private. They are -exceedingly numerous, and cover every phase of industry. The purpose -here, however, is to call attention to the fact that France began with -trade-schools, and, after a hundred years of experimenting with trade -and technical institutions, she reached the wisdom embodied in the laws -of 1886 and 1890, which provide for the training of the hand of the -child in the kindergarten and continuously throughput the school age, -thus furnishing aptest possible pupils for her higher trade and -technical institutes, and the greatest possible development of skill for -her industries. The character of her manufactures shows the importance -of the scholar in industry. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN ITALY. - -Discussions in 1882 and 1885 led to an official adoption of Manual -Training in normal schools in 1892, when twenty selected teachers were -given one month’s gratuitous training. In 1893 Sloyd was made obligatory -in the practice department of all normal schools. In 1893, 34 men and 34 -women teachers were taking the Manual-training course at Repatrausone. -The school authorities in Italy acting upon the English idea of teaching -Manual Training to the teachers first, and so interest them that they -will introduce Sloyd into the elementary schools of their districts. - -Beyond the statement that Manual Training was experimentally taught to -400 pupils in Genoa in 1892, no data is at present obtainable as to the -success of this plan. There are 194 industrial schools, seeking to teach -special industries. In 1887 there were 419 technical schools, of more or -less importance, and 74 institutes of secondary technology. With the -exception of the Aldini-Valeriani institute in Bologna, founded in 1834, -and the _Scuola Professionale_ at Foggia, established by the state in -1872, the trade and technical schools of Italy seem to be of recent -origin. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN BELGIUM. - -The law of July 1, 1879, reorganizing the public-school system of -Belgium, made kindergartens a universal and integral part of the public -schools. Children are admitted at 3 years of age, remaining till seven. -“At Brussels, Liege, and Verviers, experimental transition classes -exist, which prolong kindergarten methods in the primary grades, the -Manual-training exercises of Froebel reappearing in the primary schools, -and there developing into some simple form of actual hand labor, with -paper, pasteboard, or clay. The results have been very satisfactory.” In -1891 the city of Liege reported 4717 children attending public -kindergartens. A normal school for training kindergarten teachers is -maintained at Liege. In 1890 Belgium maintained 1042 kindergartens -having 104,760 pupils. The movement to generalize Manual Training in the -public schools began in 1882, took definite shape three years later, and -by 1887 the state made Manual Training obligatory in all state normal -schools, sixteen in number. Fifty cities also reported Manual Training -established in their public schools in 1888. The more recent reports, -while not given much to statistics, show satisfactory growth in the -system. Schools of apprenticeship and of trade have received more -encouragement in Belgium than Manual Training has in the schools of -grammar and high-school grades. - -Apprenticeship schools to teach lace-making to the indigent peasantry -were established by the state as early as 1776. With the introduction of -machinery, and the expansion of industries, the character of these -schools was changed. Abuses grew up. Academic tuition was abandoned for -work, and the schools practically turned over to financial interests of -the exploiters of the labor of children. A reorganization occurred in -1890 when the state subsidized some forty of these apprenticeship -schools, and abolished many others. - -Trade-schools of every variety, from the schools for fishermen at Ostend -and Blankenberg to the famous trade-schools of Brussels, abound in -Belgium. While these schools are for the most part private schools, they -are usually subsidized by the city or local government. The industrial -school at Ghent is a technical school of importance founded in 1828. -That at Tournay was opened in 1841. These are the oldest schools of -their type in Belgium. A new impetus was given to these schools in 1885, -and from that date many have sprung up in all parts of the country, the -local industries determining the character of the trade-schools. The -trade-school at Ghent, established in 1890, is the best expression of -modern methods, as distinguished from the early ideas represented by -Tournay. This school was overcrowded with pupils in 1892. The state -grants a subsidy of 6000 francs ($1158), and the province also aids the -school. In 1889, 54 industrial schools were reported in Belgium. In 1872 -a house-keeping school for girls was established by M. Smits, of -Couillet, the first of its kind in Belgium. In 1890 there were 160, and -in 1892, 250 such schools, and classes in house-keeping attached to -other schools. Practically all of these were either public schools or -free classes in private institutions. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN AUSTRIA. - -In Austria no attempt is made to combine in the same institutions the -discipline of shop-work and the academics of the public schools. The -first shop-school was established in Vienna by a private association, -August 10, 1883. The second followed, February 16, 1887. In 1884 a -normal school for the training of Manual-training teachers was -established. At Budapest a Manual-training school was organized by -private initiative in 1886. - -The municipal statutes almost immediately required one such school to be -maintained by each school district, and in 1889 there were in the twelve -districts sixteen such schools. One unimportant trade-school dates back -to 1871; but with the exception of the work done in Vienna and Budapest, -and a few so-called “continuation schools” and trade-schools, nothing of -importance was done by Austria until 1896. The activity of the empire -since the latter date has been directed towards the establishment of -apprenticeship schools. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK. - -From Finland the new educational ideals developed by Otto Cygnaeus -spread to Sweden, and thence to the world at large. Dr. Salomon of Naäs -introduced Manual Training (Sloyd) into his school in 1872, and in 1878 -there were 103 Sloyd schools in Sweden. In 1879 there were 163; in 1880, -234; in 1881, 300; in 1882, 377; in 1883, 463; in 1884, 584; in 1885, -727; in 1886, 872; in 1887, 991; in 1888, 1167; in 1890, 1278; in 1891, -1492; in 1892, 1624; in 1893, 1787; in 1894, 1887; in 1895, 2483; or an -increase of 2380 in 17 years. In 1877 parliament voted $4000 per annum -to advance Sloyd instruction; in 1891 this was increased to $30,000 per -annum, in addition to amounts given by provincial authorities, -agricultural and private societies, and parish authorities. The Naäs -seminary for the instruction of teachers of Sloyd (Dr. Salomon’s school) -reports that 2627 teachers of Sloyd had been taught between 1875 and -1896. In the Sloyd teachers training-school at Stockholm 573 women -instructors were taught in the years from 1885 to 1897, inclusive. There -are 32 evening and holiday schools, which in 1895 received a subsidy of -$12,060. - -There is no definite data on Manual Training in Norway earlier than -1889, though Sloyd had doubtless been introduced from adjacent countries -prior to that time. By law, however, Sloyd was made compulsory in all -city elementary and intermediate grade schools in 1892, and optional in -village schools. In 1891, $5060 was given as a subsidy for teaching -Sloyd in 178 schools. The number of students in rural elementary schools -in which Sloyd is optional is given at 236,161; number of students in -city schools where Sloyd is compulsory, 58,871. - -In 1883 the first Danish Sloyd school was established. The Copenhagen -Seminary for instructing teachers of Sloyd was established in 1885. In -1888, 46 schools reported Sloyd courses with 2000 pupils under -instruction; this number in 1889 had grown to 59, and in 1896 to 114. Of -this latter number 30 are regular Sloyd schools; the others educational -institutions having Sloyd as a part of the course. In 1890, $4368 was -appropriated to further the introduction of Sloyd into the schools of -Denmark. In this connection must be mentioned the “Home Industry” -schools of Denmark. Not less than 500 of these schools exist, generally -attached to other schools, and supported by 400 societies for promotion -of home industries and by state aid. It was the powerful advocacy of -these schools by their champion, Clauson-Kaas, that delayed the -introduction of Sloyd into Danish schools until 1883, when the influence -of Professor Mikkelsen began to gain the ascendency. Not only was -Clauson-Kaas a powerful man in his advocacy of these home industry -schools, but equally vociferous and partisan in his opposition to Manual -Training or Sloyd as a means of education and intellectual development. -In the terrific strife of partisan school-teachers as to what -constituted education, the schools of Denmark not only deteriorated but -were wellnigh closed. That the home industry schools had their use is -witnessed by the fact that practically every Danish housewife is not -only an expert needlewoman and house-keeper, but expert in all those -arts that go by the name of female handicraft. Grade schools and -technical education have not developed greatly in Scandinavian -countries. Sweden has two important schools for weaving, the Eskilstuna -school for metal-workers, and four technical schools. Norway has two -schools for teaching the wood-carver’s trade, two of carpentry, a school -for mechanics, three technical schools, and four industrial schools for -women. Apart from the numerous schools of home industries, difficult if -not impossible to classify, Denmark has a trade-school for shoemakers, -and one of considerable importance for watch-makers. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN THE NETHERLANDS. - -The normal course in the Netherlands includes Manual Training for boys, -it being the intention to teach teachers first, and to establish Manual -Training in the schools later. There are a large number of trade and -apprenticeship schools, the government taking far more interest in these -than in Manual Training. In 1895 there were twenty “_Ambachtscholen_” -(for training tinners, carpenters, and dyers), with 2295 students. There -are forty-eight industrial schools. - - -MANUAL TRAINING IN ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. - -January 13, 1896, a commission was appointed to report a plan for the -introduction of kindergartens and Manual Training into the public-school -system. In 1897 the report was made, and its recommendations were -enacted into a law going into effect January 1, 1898. The introduction -of Manual Training is to begin with the national colleges, sixteen in -number, with 2629 pupils; the normal schools, thirty-five in number, -with 1770 pupils. Ultimately under the law Manual Training will be -adopted in the 3749 elementary schools, having 264,294 pupils, though no -statistics are at hand showing to what extent this has been already -accomplished. The papers presented before the commission which sat -through February, 1896, were upon the importance of kindergartens as a -basis for Manual Training; Manual Training as a means of education; -Manual Training from the hygienic standpoint, etc. Some speakers favored -industrial rather than Manual-training schools, but the commission -reported that the system of Sloyd used at Naäs, Sweden, with certain -modifications to suit local conditions, was the proper one to adopt. The -kindergarten system recommended is purely Froebelian. From one of the -papers read before the commission it is learned that Manual Training is -a recognized part of the course of instruction in the national colleges -of Uruguay, and to some extent in its elementary schools. Definite data -for Uruguay schools are not, however, at hand. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Abstract ideas regarded as of more vital importance than things, 185. - - Adam, legend of, and the stick, 157. - - Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., arraigns the schools of Massachusetts for - automatism, 201; declares that, in the public schools, children are - regarded as automatons, etc., 205. - - Adler, Prof. Felix, declaration of [in note], that manual training - promotes rectitude, 142; unique educational enterprise of, in New York - City, 342; extracts from report of, as to purposes of the “model - school,”, 344, 345. - - Age of force, the, is passing away, 303. - - Age of science and art, the, has begun, 303. - - Agricola, noted for the practice of the most austere virtue, 274; - after great services, was retired, 274. - - Agricultural colleges, manual training in twelve, of the State, 341. - - Agriculture nearly perishes in the Middle Ages--prevalence of famines, - 281. - - Alabama, Agricultural and Mechanical College of, adopts manual - training, 355. - - Alcibiades kept not his patriotism when he was being wronged, 255. - - Alison, his theory of the cause of the decline of Rome, 63. - - Altruism, stability of government depends upon, 135. - - America, discovery of, the crowning act of man’s emancipation from the - gloom of the Dark Ages, 286; gives wings to hope, 287; startles the - people of Europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years, 287; a great - blow to prevailing dogmatisms, 307; completes the figure of the earth, - rendering it susceptible of intelligent study, 307. - - America, early immigration to, consisted of Puritans and Cavaliers, - Germans, Frenchmen, and Irishmen, 306; destined to become the home of - an old civilization, 306; the manner in which the colonists of, - treated the natives showed the Roman taint of savagery, 306; European - social abuses exaggerated in, 323; the eyes of mankind rest upon, - alone with hope, 323. - - Americans, are transplanted Europeans controlled by European mental - and moral habitudes, 323; will not vote away their right to vote, 324, - 325. - - Anaxagoras, his characterization of man as the wisest of animals - because he has hands, 152. - - Ancients, reverence due them for their art triumphs, 73; temples of, - remained long as instructors of succeeding generations, 73; - educational theory of, contrasted with that of moderns, 123; ignorance - of, on the subject of physiology, 153; speculative philosophy the only - resource of, 153; slow growth of, in morals due to the fact of their - neglect of the education of woman, 366; contempt of, for children, - 367. - - Anossoff, a Russian general, experiments of, in the effort to produce - Damascus steel, 72. - - Antwerp, Flemish silk-weavers of, flee to England upon the sacking of, - 34. - - Apollo, bronze statue of, at Rhodes, 47. - - Apprentice system, the, gives skilled mechanics to England, 181. - - Apprentices better educated than school and college graduates, 239. - - Architecture, limit of, attained in Greece and Rome, 73. - - Aristocracy, alliance of, with the kings, 290. - - Arithmetic, automatism in teaching it in the schools of the United - States, as shown by the Walton report, 197; Colonel Parker’s - declaration in regard to the defective methods of instruction in, 206, - 207. - - Arnold, John, inventor of the chronometer, 86; his ingenious watch, of - the size of twopence and weight of sixpence, 86. - - Art, its cosmopolitan character, 12; the product of a sequential - series of steps, 73; the preservation of a record of each step - essential to progress, 73; printing makes every invention in, the - heritage of all the ages, 286; triumphs due to the laborer, 294; - ignored in educational systems, 326. - - Artisan, the, embodies the discoveries of science in things, 13; more - deserving of veneration than the artist, 74; regarded with disdain by - statesmen, lawyers, _littérateurs_, poets, and artists, 185; education - of, more scientific than that of merchants, lawyers, judges, etc., - 227; training of, is objective, 231; intuitively shrinks from the - false, and struggles to find the truth, 231; always in the advance, - 242. - - Artists more highly esteemed than engineers, machinists, and artisans, - 185. - - Arts, the fine, not so fine as the useful, 74; can exist legitimately - only as the natural outgrowth of the useful arts, 279; the so-called - fine arts must wait for the expansion and perfection of the useful - arts, 383; civilization and the, are one, 384. - - Arts, the useful, finer than the so-called fine arts--their processes - more intricate, 74; no limit to their development except the - exhaustion of the forces of nature, 74; neglect of, by all the - governments of the world is amazing, 176; Plato’s contempt of, 176; no - instruction is given in the public schools, 181; slavery’s brand of - shame still upon, 190; no such failure of the, as there is of justice, - 227; the true measure of civilization, 247; depend upon labor, 278; - precede the fine arts, 279; unknown in the Middle Ages, 281; - stagnation in, is the death of civilization, 283. - - Athenians and Spartans as thieves, 255. - - Atkinson, Edward, declares that the perfection of our almost automatic - mechanism is achieved at the cost not only of the manual but of the - mental development of our men, 201. - - Attention--the equivalent of genius, 380. - - Aurelius, Marcus, sublime moral teachings of, 138. - - Austria, Emperor of, has a suit of clothes made from the fleece in - eleven hours, 87; increases her debt each year, 296. - - Authority, in the Middle Ages, chilled courage, 284. - - Automata, of the ancients--hint of modern automatic tools in, 8; of - the moderns, triumphs of mechanical genius, 86. - - Automatism, of mind and body, 191; of mind promoted by the environment - of modern life, 192; promotion of, by the schools, 193; in the schools - of Norfolk County, Mass., as shown by the Walton report, 196; as shown - in the Walton report in grammar, in arithmetic, in reading, in - penmanship, in spelling, and in composition, 197, 198, 199; a final - and conclusive test of the prevalence of, in the schools, 204. - - - B. - - Babylon, the hundred brazen gates of, 55; influence of ideas of, in - full force in the United States down to the time of the emancipation - proclamation of President Lincoln, 190. - - Bacon, Lord, the school he wished for, 2; his aphorism, 4; his - apothegm on the sciences, 13; condemns the old system of education, - 126; his opinion of the universities, 127; his proposal that a college - be established for the discovery of new truth, 185; his proposal to - bring the mind into accord with things, 245; foresees the kindergarten - and the manual training school, 245; celebrated aphorism of, has had - but little influence upon the methods of our public schools, 325; the - basis of his philosophy of things, 374. - - Bacon, Roger, his daring prediction of mechanical wonders, 98. - - Ballot, power of, in the United States, 324. - - Baltimore, Md., manual training in, 342. - - Bamberger, Mr. G., Principal of the Workingman’s School, New York - City--extracts from report of, on purposes of the school, 343, 344. - - Barnesville, O., manual training in, 342. - - Belfield, Dr. Henry H., Director of the Chicago Manual Training - School, 346; his early appreciation of the mental value of manual - training, 348; extracts from the inaugural address of, 348-351. - - Bell, Sir Charles, his great discovery of the muscular sense, 146; his - definition of the office of the sixth sense, 146. - - Bells, that of Pekin, China, 47; that of Moscow, 47; they show an - intimate knowledge of the founder’s art, 48. - - Bernot, M., inventor of file-cutting machine, 91. - - Bessemer, Sir Henry, his birth and early training, 162; his appearance - in London, a poor young man--his first invention, 162; as young - Gladstone enters the Treasury, he retires an unsuccessful suitor for - the just reward of genius and toil, 163; his burning sense of outrage, - 163; announcement of his discovery of a new process in steel-making, - 164; his declaration that he could make steel at the cost of iron - received with incredulity, 165; his process of steel-making a complete - success in 1860, 165; compared with Mr. Gladstone, 165, 166; - description of the process that revolutionized the steel manufacture, - 166, 167; value of process of, 167; the government of England slow in - honoring, 168; comparison between the life and services of, to man and - those of Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, 168, 169; stands for the new - education, 169. - - Black-walnut, its natural history studied in the wood-turning - laboratory, 36; its structure, growth, and uses, 37; the poet Bryant’s - great tree, 37. - - Blatchford, E. W., President of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Blatchford Literary Society, an organization of students of the - Chicago Manual Training School, 348. - - Blow, Miss S. E., in formulating the theory of the kindergarten, - describes the method equally of the savage and the manual training - school, 218, 219. - - Board of Trade of Chicago, the speculative trades in futures on, are - fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions, 322. - - Body, contempt of the, by the ancients, led to contempt of manual - labor, 155. - - Book-makers, the, writing the lives of the old inventors in the temple - of fame, 171. - - Books, the sure promise of universal culture, 287; the precursor of - the common school, 287. - - Boston, the streets of, in which patriots had struggled for liberty, - now echoed the groans of the slave, 311; manual training in, 341. - - Boy, the civilized, is not trained in school for the actual duties of - life, 181; is taught many theories, but not required to put any of - them in practice, 181; is in danger of the penitentiary until he - learns a trade or profession, 181, 182. - - Boys, ninety-seven in a hundred, who graduate from the public schools - and embark in mercantile pursuits, fail, 227. - - Brain, the, its absorbing and expressing powers--diagram illustrating, - 193; the healthy education of, consists in giving to the expressing - side power equal to that of the absorbing side, 193, 194; the - functions of the absorbing side extended, while those of the - expressing side are restricted--diagram illustrating, 194; functions - of the expressing side of, increased by adding drawing and the manual - arts, 195. - - Bramah, Joseph, inventor of automatic tools, 84. - - Breighton helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. - - Bridge, the first iron, across the Severn, one hundred years old, but - likely to last for centuries, 241. - - Bridgman, Laura, used the finger alphabet in her dreams, 150. - - Brindley, James, sketch of the life of, 172; a common laborer--a - millwright’s apprentice--a man of honor--an illiterate, but a genius - and an originator of great canal enterprises, 172-175; the engineer of - the Duke of Bridgewater, 173; his “castle in the air” and “river hung - in the air,” 173; his obstinacy, poverty, and poor pay for splendid - services of which he was robbed by the duke, 174; his life and career - typical of a score of biographies presented in Mr. Smiles’s “Lives of - the Engineers,” 175. - - Bronze, castings of, in the ruins of Egypt and Greece, 46. - - Brooklyn Bridge illustrates the necessity of practical training for - the civil engineer, 97. - - Brown, John, Captain, in the presence of his exultant but - half-terrified captors, 235; defying the constitution, the laws, and - public sentiment in the interest of the cause of justice, 236. - - Bruno, his fate, condemned by the Inquisition and burned as a heretic, - 178; persecution of, a link in the chain of progress, 287. - - Buckle, Henry Thomas, his testimony to the practical uses of - imagination, 38; his scathing arraignment of English statesmen and - legislators, 160; his declaration that the best English laws are those - by which former laws are repealed, 187; his declaration in regard to - the obstinacy and stupidity of English legislators, 242. - - Budget, the European, shows that the standing armies are the - overshadowing feature of the situation, 290; the portion of, that goes - to the maintenance of the standing armies, 291. - - Burgos, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from - Spain, 283. - - - C. - - Cæsar preferred to Cato, whose patriotism was above question, 274; - commentaries of, in all the world’s universities, 275. - - Caligula, his pleasure in witnessing the countenances of dying - gladiators, 138. - - Camillus honored in the early days of Rome, 274. - - Carlyle, his apostrophe to tools, 7. - - Carpenter’s laboratory, class of students at the black-board in, - discussing the history and nature of certain woods, 21; working - drawings of the lesson put on the black-board by the instructor in, - 25; parts of the lesson executed by the instructor in, 25; new tools - introduced, and their care and use explained, 25; the students at - their benches in, making things, as busy as bees, 26; a call to order - and a solution of the main problem of the day’s lesson, 26; a tenon - too large for its mortise, 29. - - Caste, a tendency to, disclosed in all history, 248; illustration of, - the earliest--the chief of the brawny arm, 248; illustrations of, in - savage and half-civilized communities, 248, 249; in Egypt--in India, - 249; in the United States, 313. - - Castile, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from - Spain, 283. - - Castle of the Middle Ages, the home of music and chivalry, 280. - - Cato a type of Roman persistence in the path of conquest, 264; - patriotism and virtue of, 274. - - Centennial Exposition, exhibit of models of tool-practice in the - Imperial Technical School, Moscow, Russia, at the, 331. - - Charcoal, the forests of England swept away to provide it for the - smith’s and smelter’s fires, in the early time, 63. - - Charlemagne, attempt of, to reconstruct a worn-out civilization, 280; - neglect of the education of the people the cause of the failure of, - 280. - - Chatham, Lord, declaration of, that the American colonies had no right - to make a nail or a horseshoe, 203. - - Chicago, comparison of, with ancient Rome, 138. - - Chicago Manual Training School, description of building, 1; its main - purpose intellectual development, 3; theory of, 4; engine-room of, 14; - engine of, doing duty as a school-master, 14; an epitome of, in the - engine-room, 15; its purpose not to make mechanics, but men, 38; - conditions of admission to, 106; detail of questions used in - examination of candidates for the first class in, 106-110; curriculum - of, 110, 111; optional studies of, 111; blending of manual and mental - instruction in, 111; missionary character of, 111; the only - independent educational institution of the kind in the world, 345; - owes its origin entirely to laymen, 345; established by an association - of merchants, manufacturers, and bankers, 345, 346; incorporated April - 11, 1883, 346; corner-stone of, laid September 24, 1883, 346; opened - February 4, 1884, 340; officers and trustees of association of, 346; - object of, mental and manual culture, 347; equipment of, 347; library - of, 347; Dr. Henry H. Belfield director of, 348. - - _Chicago Tribune_, criticism of the methods of the public schools by - the, 346; columns of, opened to the author, 346; effect of advocacy of - manual training by the, 346. - - Child, the, becomes father of the man, in the cradle, the nursery, and - at the fireside, 365; contempt of, by the ancients, 367. - - Chipping, filing, and fitting laboratory, 88; course in the, 88; the - ante-room to the machine-tool laboratory, 88. - - Christian religion, the, its failure to save Rome, 140. - - Cicero, his doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man, 139; - forecasts the doom of the Roman Republic, but has no remedy for the - public ills to propose, 272; without moral courage, 273. - - Cincinnatus found at the plough, 268. - - Cities, rapid concentration of population in, 137; plague-spots on the - body politic, 137; dominated by selfishness, 137; statistics of - increase of population in, 313, 314; the chief sources of society - disturbances, 314. - - City, the modern, the despair of the political economist, 137; the - centre of vice, 137; pen-picture of its vices and crimes, 140; picture - of vice in, 314. - - City of New York, College of, manual training in, 352; first report of - the industrial educational association of, gives a list of thirty-one - schools in, where industrial education is furnished (_note_), 352. - - Civil engineer, the modern, must be familiar with all the processes of - the machine-tool shop, 97; his works may be amended, but never - repealed, 187; more competent than the railway president, the lawyer, - the judge, or the legislator, 225; trained in things, 225. - - Civilization, progress of, depends upon progress in invention and - discovery, 65; a growth from the state of savagery, 131; evils of, - flow from mental development wanting the element of rectitude, 132; - contrast presented by that of Italy in the fifteenth century, and that - of America in the nineteenth, 234; difference between, and barbarism, - 244; the useful arts the true measure of, 247; the product of - education, 248; of Greece sprang from mythology and ended in anarchy, - 254; languishes in an atmosphere of injustice, 278; the trinity upon - which it rests is justice, the useful arts, and labor, 278; American, - has not borne new social fruits, 323. - - Clark, John S., his elaborate exposition of the defects of existing - educational methods, 193, 194, 195. - - Claudius, under the favor of, Seneca amassed a vast fortune, 273. - - Clement, Joseph, great English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; - his two improvements in the slide-rest, and the medals he received for - them, 92. - - Cleveland, O., manual training in, 342. - - Coal, subject of production, cost, demand, and supply discussed in - forging laboratory, 62; history of application of, to useful arts, 63; - prejudice against use of mineral, in the beginning of the seventeenth - century, 64; smelting with mineral, successfully introduced in England - in 1766, 66. - - Coalbrookdale Iron-works, mineral coal first used at, for smelting - purposes, 65, 66. - - Columbus, in proving that the world is round, frees mankind, 286; - sounds the death-knell of intellectual slavery, 286, 287. - - Comenius, the school he struggled in vain to establish, 2; his theory - of learning by doing, 13; condemns the old system of education, 126; - his definition of education, 127; foresees the kindergarten and the - manual training school, 245. - - Commerce, early, of America, so insignificant that in 1784 eight bales - of cotton shipped from South Carolina were seized by the custom - authorities of England on the ground that so large a quantity could - not have been produced in the United States, 203. - - Commercial Club, the, founds the Chicago Manual Training School, 2; - guarantees $100,000 for its support, 3; meeting of, March 25, 1882, - 346. - - Common-school system of the United States, glaring defects of, shown - by the Walton report, 197, 198, 199. - - Composition, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United - States, as shown by the Walton report, 199. - - Compton, Prof. Alfred G., on the exacting nature of the demands made - upon instructors by the new education, 352. - - Concrete, progress can find expression only in the, 151, 152; a lie - always hideous in the, 224. - - Connecticut, manual training in State Normal School, 342; legislature - of, adopts manual training as part of the course of public - instruction, 360. - - Contempt, in the Middle Ages, withered hope, 284. - - Convent, of the Middle Ages, the home of religion and of art, 280. - - Cook County Normal School, Ill., manual training in, 342. - - Cooley, Lieut. Mortimer E., letter of, to the author on effects of - manual training in the University of Michigan, 363. - - Cordova the abode of wealth, learning, refinement, and the arts, 282. - - Corporate power unduly promoted by reckless legislation on the subject - of land in the United States, 320. - - Corporations, a creation of yesterday, the product of steam, 320; - almost as indestructible as landed estates, 320; men trained from - generation to generation to the care of, 320. - - Cort, Henry, an English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; - experiments of, with a view to the improvement of English iron, 115. - - Cotton-gin, the, trebled the value of the cotton-fields of the South, - 160. - - Cotton Exchange of New York, speculative trades in futures on, thirty - times more than the actual cotton sales, 322. - - Crane, R. T., Vice-President of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Cranege, the Brothers, inventors of the reverberatory furnace, 66. - - Crerar, John, Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Crusaders, their astonishment at the splendors of Constantinople, 285; - they expected to meet with treachery and cruelty--they found chivalry - and high culture, 285; they returned to Europe relieved of many - illusions, 285, 286. - - Crusades, the, pitiful and prolific of horrors as they were, shed a - great light upon Europe, 285; brought the men of the West face to face - with a progressive civilization, 285. - - - D. - - Dædalus, invention of turning ascribed to, by the Greeks, 33. - - Damascus blades, the most signal triumph of the art of the smelter and - the smith, 72; the material of which they were made, and their - temper, 72; first encountered by Europeans during the Crusades, 72; - triumphs of genius not less pronounced than the Athena of Phidias, 74. - - Dark Ages, the shame of, caused by the neglect of the useful arts, 64; - maxims of Machiavelli explain the fact of the existence of, 284; gloom - of, dispelled by the discovery of America, 286. - - Darwin, Charles, declares that a complex train of thought cannot be - carried on without the aid of words, 149; law of reversion of, in - operation during the decay of the Roman civilization, 275. - - Da Vinci, Leonardo, took up the work of Archimedes, and the science of - mechanics made progress, 287. - - De Caus helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. - - Della Vos, M. Victor, Director of the Imperial Technical School, - Moscow, 121; testimony of, as to value of manual training, 121; author - of the laboratory process of tool instruction, 331. - - Democratic idea, the, not new when adopted in America, 309. - - Democratic principle in the United States Government does not prevent - class distinctions, 313. - - Denmark appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the schools, - 368. - - Denver (Col.) University, manual training in, 355. - - Dickens, Charles, his pen-picture of “Tom All-alone’s”--philosophy of, - 315. - - Dinwiddie, Prof. H. H., his account of the manner in which the - Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas was revolutionized in the - interest of manual training, 359. - - Disasters, mercantile and other, show that business is done by the - “rule of thumb,” 214. - - Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), his tribute to the value of the - imagination as a useful quality, 38; his alternations of political - power with Mr. Gladstone--from Liberalism to Toryism an easy - transition, 164; England heaps honors upon him while it neglects Mr. - Bessemer, 168; comparison between the life services of, to man and - those of Sir Henry Bessemer, 169. - - Doane, John W., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Dogmatist, the, no place for, in the modern order of things, 124. - - Domestic economy made a department of the Iowa Agricultural College, - 360; part of the curriculum of the Le Moyne Normal Institute, 362. - - Draper, Dr. John W., profound observation by, 377; drudgery and - humility, the value of, 374. - - Drawing, thoroughness of training in, 16; definition of, 16; sketches - of certain geometric forms, 17; working drawings, pictorial drawings, - and designs applied to industrial art, 18; its æsthetic element, 18; - geometry its basis, examples of, 18; from objects in the school - laboratories, 19; value of, as an educational agency, 19; language of, - common to all draughtsmen--pen-picture of class in, 20; first step of - expression, 208. - - Drayton, W. Heyward, historical sketch of origin of manual training in - Girard College by, 353-355. - - Dudley, Dud, inventor of machinery for the application of mineral coal - to smelting purposes, 64; sketch of career of, 64, 65; combinations - against, by the charcoal iron-masters, 64, 65; furnaces of, destroyed - by mobs, and their owner reduced to beggary and driven to prison, 64, - 65. - - Dun, R. G., & Co., statistics of, in relation to commercial failures, - 211. - - - E. - - Ear not a more important organ than the hand because situated nearer - the brain, 154. - - Eau Claire, Wis., manual training in, 342. - - Edict of Nantes, revocation of, drove artisans to England, 34. - - Education, the philosopher’s stone in, 2; laying the foundation of, in - labor, 3; the power to do some useful thing the last analysis of, 12; - definition of, 12; confined to abstractions in the past, 13; the - new--claims made in its behalf, 105; universal, a modern idea, 123; - difference in systems of, constitutes difference between ancient and - modern civilizations, 123, 124; every child entitled to receive, 124; - certain fundamentals of, upon which all are agreed, 125; Rousseau’s - definition of, 125; begins at birth and continues to the end of life, - 126; Froebel’s definition of, 126; old system of, condemned by Bacon, - Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, 126; of woman more - important than that of man, 128; develops innate mental qualities and - forms character, 130; all, is both mental and moral, 133; any system - of, that does not produce altruism is vicious, 136; first step in, to - eliminate selfishness and put rectitude in its place, 136; a system - of, consisting exclusively of mental exercises, promotes selfishness, - 141; methods of, controlled by the Classicism of the Renaissance, 154; - of the hands as well as the brain necessary, 172; the old, designed to - make lawyers, doctors, priests, statesmen, _littérateurs_, and poets, - 179; that is not practical, in the Age of Steel, is nothing, 179; not - broad enough on the expressing side of the brain, 194; illustrations - of defects of, shown by the Walton report, 196, 197, 198, 199; in - existing systems of, the memory is cultivated while the reason is - allowed to slumber, 200; defective methods of, result in vast - mercantile and railway disasters, 215; defective morally, since the - truth is to be found only in things, 224; the New England system of, - very defective, but to it the country owes the quality of its - civilization, 235; in South Carolina the monopoly of a class, 235; a - scientific system of, would have averted the War of Rebellion in the - United States, and kept down the debt of England, 237; why popular, is - provided for by the State, 237; the sole bulwark of the State, 238; - the best is the cheapest, 239; of New England does not produce great - lawyers, great judges, or great legislators, 239; exclusively mental, - stops far short of the objective point of true, 243; the last - analysis of, is art, 243; any system of, which separates ideas and - things, is radically defective, 244; the object of, is the generation - of power, 244; the system of, which does not teach the application of - facts to things, is unscientific, 245; among the ancients, was - confined to a small class, and consisted of selfish maxims for the - government of the many, 253; of the Greeks responsible for the - destruction of Greek civilization, 256; defects of the Roman, 265; - Roman, deified selfishness and so realized its last analysis--total - depravity, 267; a false system of, wrecks the Roman civilization, 277; - scientific, essential to the salvation of the trinity upon which - civilization rests, 278; how to make it universal in Europe, 292, 293; - possible only in Europe through the disbandment of the standing - armies, 295; in Germany, has taught the people to hate standing - armies, 298, 299; is causing the emigration of Germany’s best - citizens, 302; is the arch-revolutionist whose march is irresistible, - 302; the new, will come in as the standing armies go out, 304; had - made little progress at the time of the organization of civil society - in America, 309; the system of, under which the kings and ruling - classes of Europe had been trained to selfishness, cruelty, and - injustice, put into the New England common schools, 309; sordid view - of, generally held in the rural districts of New England, 310; Herbert - Spencer’s view of the prevailing methods of, 310; positive ill effects - of the prevailing methods of, 310, 311; a false system of, in the - United States, led to political incongruities of the grossest - character, 311; complete failure of, to promote rectitude, 311; - defects of system of, in the United States, shown by the ignorance and - crimes of legislators, 317; may be made universal through the ballot, - 324; all property may be taken for, by the ballot, 324; American, is - scant in quantity and poor in quality, 325; no radical change in - methods of, for 3000 years, 325; a complete revolution in, essential - to social reform, 327; must begin with the child and be directed by - the mother, 366; the new, becomes one aggressive force, 372; the new, - confided to the teachers of the old régime, 372; the first of human - considerations, 373; its professors should be the most learned of - human beings, 373; the new, maxims of, 375; what form and character - shall our education take?, 377; the old, was designed to make masters, - the new to make men, 378; universality and equality of, the first and - last essential, 384. - - Edward III. of England uses the smiths at the siege of Berwick, 72. - - Egypt, how the castes of, arose, 249; progress of the civilization of, - 249; civilization of, the product of education, 250; selfishness the - basis of the system of education of, 250; wealth, commerce, and - military and naval power of, 250; learning of, 251; luxury of, 251; - conquered by Persia, 251, 252; no provision in, for the training of - woman, 366. - - Electricity must be “harnessed” at the forge and in the shop to enable - it to do its work, 170. - - Elizabeth, Queen, use of iron by, to defeat the Spanish Armada, 61. - - Emerson, his declaration that Napoleon was typical of the modern man, - 134; his observation that during the Crusades “the banker with his - seven per cent. drove the earl out of his castle,” 286. - - Emigrant, the, withdraws his support from the fatherland, 290. - - Emigration, social questions cannot much longer be settled by, 299. - - Empire, art of mechanism greatest of modern times, 61. - - England, history of the early iron manufacture of, 63; decline of the - iron industry of, during the seventeenth century, 65; the people of, - import their pots and kettles, 65; workshops of, originate great - inventions during the period 1740-1840, 115; apprentices of, become - learned men, 115; material condition of, 250 years ago, 158, 159; - civilization and transformation of--how accomplished, 159; studded - with workshops, filled with automatic machines through the apprentice - system, 181; debt of, to the French and Flemish immigrants, 185; - constitution of, grew out of the feudal system, 190; safer to shoot a - man than a hare in, 190; school system of, indescribably poor, 224; a - scientific system of education in, would have averted wars and kept - down the national debt of, 237; criminal laws of, 241; draws from her - people a larger _per capita_ revenue than any nation of Europe, 297; - has nearly reached the limit of the power of her people to pay taxes, - 297; land system of--its terrible effect upon the English, Scotch, and - Irish, 317. - - English history, the great names in--the names without which there - would have been no English history, 175. - - Enterprise, in the Middle Ages, the slave of superstition and - ignorance, 277. - - Epictetus, lofty patriotism of, 139. - - Equality, social and educational, essential to an ideal civilization, - 375. - - Europe, face of, and civilization of, changed during the Crusades, - 286; growth of the middle class of, 286; the artisan became a factor - in the social problem of, 286; art treasures of, destined to follow in - the track of her fleeing population, 294; may restore to productive - employments three millions of men, 302; may place at the disposal of - her educators seven hundred million dollars per annum, instead of - seventy million dollars, as at present, 302; may extinguish her - national debts in fifty-four years, 303; progress in, previous to the - discovery of America, 307, 308. - - Ewing, Mrs. Emma P., Dean of the Domestic Economy Department of the - Iowa Agricultural College, 361; on the importance of the study of - domestic economy, 361, 362. - - Expression, power of, quite as important as that of absorption, 208; - susceptible of being made clear only in things, 208. - - Eye, not a more important organ than the hand, because it is situated - nearer the brain, 154. - - - F. - - Fairbank, N. K., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Faneuil Hall, slavery justified in, 311. - - Feudalism emasculated human energy, 281; the ruin of, set thousands of - serfs free, 290. - - Field, Marshall, Treasurer of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - File, the, older than history, dating back to the Greek mythological - period, 91; of the Swiss watch-makers, 91; dexterity of the - hand-working cutter of, 91; invention of file-cutting machine in 1859, - 91. - - Finland, all the schools of, give instruction in hand-cunning, 368. - - Fire, legend in regard to its discovery, 62. - - Foley, Thomas, on the excellence of the laboratory methods of - instruction, 217, 218. - - Force, new elements of, to be discovered and applied to the needs of - man, 180. - - Forging, laboratory of, 58; pen-picture of a class of students in, 61; - story of the origin of the Turkish Empire related by the instructor - in, 61; the management of the forge fires in, 62; lessons in, on the - black-board and at the forges, in detail, 66; the instructor in, at - the forge, 69; questions by the students in, 69; the school-room - converted into a smithy which resounds with the clang of sledges, 69, - 70; healthful effects of the exercise--the anvil chorus, 70; the tests - of merit in, applied, 75; the instructor in, gives a lecture on the - steam-hammer, 75; extent of the course in, 77. - - Founding, laboratory of, 45; history of the art of, 46; first applied - to bronze, 46; lesson of the day, casting a pulley, 48; the process in - detail, 51; pen-picture of the students pouring the steaming metal - into moulds, 52. - - France, permanently weakened by the increase of her national debt, - 296; debt, statement of--what the war with Germany cost her, 296; - cannot double her debt again and make her people pay interest on it, - 297; a law of, makes manual training obligatory, 368; supports a - school for training teachers of manual training, 368; Prof. G. Solicis - the chief supporter of manual training in, 368. - - Franklin, the famous selfish maxims of, 311. - - Froebel, the school be struggled in vain to establish, 2; first - applies Rousseau’s ideas to school life, 126; his definition of - education, 126; condemns the old system of education, 126; a character - of, 127; his discovery of the superior fitness of woman for the office - of teacher, 127, 128; foresees the manual training school, 245; it was - reserved for him to rescue woman from the scorn of the ages, 367. - - Fuller, William A., Secretary of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Fulton, Robert, an American inventor, 84. - - - G. - - Galileo, persecution of, for his great discovery, 177, 178; - persecutors of, believed and trembled, 287. - - Galton, Francis, declaration of, that brain without heart is - insufficient to achieve eminence, 134; his testimony to the great - value of artisan immigration, and the worthless character of political - refugees, 186; his neglect of the artisan class in his speculations on - the subject of the science of life, 186, 187; reason of his neglect of - the artisan class stated by Horace Mann--the influence of slavery, - 188. - - George III. an expert wood-turner, 34; gives John Arnold five hundred - guineas for a miniature watch, 86. - - Germanicus noted for the highest public virtue, 274; after great - services, is exiled and poisoned, 274. - - Germany, Emperor of, experience of, in a needle factory, illustrative - of the delicacy of mechanical operations, 240. - - Germany, foundation of her educational system, 295, 296; superior - training of her people enabled her to humiliate France, 296; freedom - from debt of, the significant feature of the European situation, 296; - low rate of taxation in, 296; weakness of, through emigration, 297; - the educated subject of, has become a thoughtful citizen, who rebels - against the standing army, and flees from it, 297, 298; high value of - citizenship of, 298; citizenship freely abandoned, because the - educated German revolts at the standing army, 298; the military - records of, show the cause of German emigration to be disgust of the - policy of international hate, 299; increase in the number of military - delinquents in, is the measure of the growth of German intelligence, - 300; the chief power of, becomes her chief weakness, 300; cannot - recoup her losses to America through gains from neighboring countries, - on account of the policy of international hate, 300, 301; losing the - flower of her population--the strong--the weaklings, the paupers, the - aged, and the infirm remain, 301; is growing weaker each year, 301; - agitation on the subject of manual training in, 368. - - Gibbon on the wealth of the Saracens in Spain, 283. - - Girard College, manual training in, 353; Dr. Runkle’s influence in - promoting the adoption of manual training in, 354. - - Gladiatorial games, atrocities of, in Rome, contrasted with the - sublime precepts of Seneca, Plutarch, and Marcus Aurelius, 138; extent - of slaughter of animals at their celebration, 138. - - Gladstone, William Ewart, political power and popularity of, 161; - enters upon his long official career as young Henry Bessemer retires - from the Stamp-office without his just reward, 163; a great orator, - and a great financier, a talker, a maker of laws and treaties, - constantly in the public eye, 163; in office and out of office, 163, - 164; from Toryism to Liberalism--an easy transition, 164; compared - with Sir Henry Bessemer, 165, 166; England heaps honors upon him while - she neglects Mr. Bessemer, 168; comparison of the life and services - of, to man, with those of Mr. Bessemer, 169; stands for the old system - of education, 169; admission of, that the great mechanics of England - had no aid from the government, 175. - - Gold, once the king of metals, surrenders its sceptre to iron, 124. - - Goss, William F. M., his exposition of the methods of the manual - training school in detail, 219, 220, 221, 222; pronounced success of - the Manual Training Department of Purdue University, under - directorship of, 341. - - Grammar, automatism in teaching, in the common schools of the United - States, as shown in the Walton report, 197; criticism of Colonel - Parker on methods of instruction in, 206. - - Great Powers of Europe all hampered by great debts, 296. - - Greece, Egypt the University of, 251; every intellectual Greek made a - voyage to Egypt, 251; the destiny of, was controlled by - renegades--there was disloyalty in every camp, a traitor in every - army, and a band of traitors in every besieged city, 254; the orators - of, never refused bribes, and oratory ruled in, 255; philosophy and - education of, responsible for decay of the civilization of, 256; - ruined by metaphysics and rhetoric, 256; no schools in, for girls, - 366. - - Greeks, the people of youth, 254; religion and patriotism of, 254; - were treacherous, cruel, and their sense of honor dull, 254; they - enslaved women and robbed the bodies of the slain on the battle-field, - 254; declaration of Thucydides that there was neither promise that - could be depended upon, nor oath that struck them with fear, 255; in - the Pantheon the highest niche was reserved for the God of Gain, 255; - the early, were pirates, and some sold themselves into slavery, so - great was their lust of gold, 255; armies of the, bribed by Persia, - 255; young, taught the arts of sophistry in the schools of rhetoric, - 256; never emerged from the savage state, 256. - - Guttenberg and the printing-press, 152. - - - H. - - Habit, all reforms must encounter the stolid resistance of, 191. - - Hand, it is through the, alone, that the mind impresses itself upon - matter, 141; the skilled, confers benefits upon man, 141; and the mind - are natural allies, 144; tests the speculations of the mind by the law - of practical application, 144; explodes the errors of the mind, 144; - finds the truth, 145; if it works falsely, publishes its own guilt in - the false thing it makes, 145; Dr. Wilson’s graphic picture of the - versatility of the, 145; not less the guide than the agent of the - mind, 145; influences the mind through the muscular sense, 148; how - its habit of labor leads to the discovery of the truth and the - exposure of the false, 149; the preserver of the power of speech - through the endless succession of objects it presents to the mind, - 151; the, ceasing to labor in the arts, to plant and to gather, speech - would degenerate into a mere iteration of the wants of savages - subsisting on fruits, 151; the most potent agency in the work of - civilization, 152; mobility of, multiplies its powers in a geometrical - ratio, 154; contempt of, an inheritance from the speculative - philosophy of the Middle Ages, 155; the works of, comprise all the - visible results of civilization, 155; marvels wrought by the, 155, - 156; James MacAlister on the power and versatility of the [_note_], - 156; wields the mechanical powers--its works, 158; the wise counsel of - the practical, steadies the mind, 225; not a nicer instrument than the - mind, 240; the, stands for use, for service, and for integrity, 376; - its drill and discipline more highly educative than any exclusively - academic course, 376; through it alone man impresses himself upon - Nature, 378; is refined and spiritualized by the sense of touch, 379; - the multitudinous works of the, 379, 380. - - Hand-work, difficulties of, illustrated, 86; educative value of, 375. - - Hargreaves, James, inventor of the “spinning-jenny,” 84. - - Herbert, the famous selfish maxim of, 311. - - Hero, of Alexandria, the inventor of the steam-engine, 14. - - Hero, the, is an honest man, 233; the, in education, 385. - - Herodotus, his description of the hundred brazen gates of Babylon, 55; - his contempt for the artisan, 56. - - Heroes, the thin ranks of, constitute the measure of the poverty of - the systems of education that have prevailed among mankind, 234; are - normally developed men who honor the truth everywhere, 234; the fact - that they are honored after death evidence of progress, 234. - - Heroism rendered grand by contrast with the debased standards of - public judgment, 233. - - Herophilus opens the way to an intelligent study of the mind, 153. - - Hippocrates opens the way to an intelligent study of the mind, 153. - - Holtzapffels, speculation of, as to the origin of the invention of the - lathe, 33. - - Honesty, only another name for heroism, 233; scientific education will - make it universal, 233. - - Hood, Tom, his song of the shirt, 87. - - Huntsman, Benjamin, an English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; - sketch of the career of, 116; his invention of cast-steel, and its - effect upon the Sheffield cutlery market, 116; how his secret was - stolen, 117; declines a membership of the Royal Society, 117; how - resplendent his name is now, 171. - - - I. - - Ideas are mere vain speculations till embodied in things, 243; and - things are indissolubly connected, 244. - - Ignorance, illustration of, in the opposition of a Roman Emperor to - the use of improved machinery, 178; reverences the past, never doubts, - is suspicious, an enemy of all progress, 179; in the schools of - Norfolk County, Mass., 197. - - Illinois Penitentiary, statistics of show that four out of five of the - inmates of have no handicraft, 182. - - Imagination, Buckle’s tribute to the, 38; Disraeli on Sir Robert - Peel’s want of, 38; Disraeli’s career an illustration of the value of, - 39; the discovery of America appealed powerfully to the, 287; blazes - the path to glorious achievements, 287. - - Imperial Technical School, Moscow, manual training adopted as part of - curriculum of the, in 1868, 331; sketch of the history of manual - training in, by Director Della Vos, 331-333. - - India, how the castes of, arose, 249. - - Injustice, civilization languishes in an atmosphere of, 278. - - Inquisition, the, its persecution of Galileo, 177, 178. - - Instructors, lack of competent, in the new education, 352, 353. - - Intelligence, the basis of morality, 113. - - Inventions, a growth, 14; each step of constitutes a link in the chain - of progress, 187; contain the germs of imperishable truth, 243. - - Inventive genius, to the, mankind owes more than to the philosophers, - _littérateurs_, professors, and statesmen of all time, 84. - - Inventor, the, produces a machine that will make a thousand things in - the time required by the hand-worker to make one, 86; helps on the - cause of progress, 160; rules the world, 161; his works are never - repealed, 187; is always in the advance, 242. - - Iowa, Agricultural College of, makes domestic economy a part of its - curriculum, 360; faculty and course of study in the department of - domestic economy of, 360, 361. - - Iron, Locke’s famous apothegm on the value of, 45; the most potent - instrument of power, 61; use of by Queen Elizabeth to defeat the - Spanish Armada, 61; the equivalent of civilization, 62; is king, and - the smelter and smith are his chief ministers, 62; to make a ton of, - required hundreds of cords of wood before the introduction of “pit” - coal for smelting purposes, 63; the foundation of every useful art, - 81. - - Italy, government of, during the Middle Ages, consisted of a menace - and a sneer, 284. - - - J. - - Jacobson, Col. Augustus, on the demand for a more comprehensive system - of education, 180; on the proper equipment of the boy upon leaving - school, 209. - - Jerusalem, when conquered, its smiths and other craftsmen were carried - away as captives by the Babylonians, 70. - - Jews, learning of, exerted an ameliorating influence upon the darkness - of the Middle Ages, 285. - - Judges, training of, is exclusively subjective, 230; rendered selfish - by subjective processes of thought, 231; venerate the past, 242. - - Justice assumes the place of selfishness in the mind of the hero, 233; - cause of the failure of, 242. - - - K. - - Keith, Edson, Trustee of Chicago Manual Training School Association, - 340. - - Kindergarten, the, father of the manual training school, 5; fills a - place unoccupied until the time of Froebel, 126; educational - principles of, susceptible of universal application, 126; analysis of, - 128; leads logically to the manual training school, 129; method of, is - scientific, 207; method of, is the expression of ideas in things, 245; - realizes the dream of Bacon, Comenius, and Pestalozzi, 245; exhibits - of work of, at the meeting of the National Educational Association in - 1884, 342; endorsed by the National Educational Association, 363; the - growth of, prevented by prejudice and indifference, 367. - - Kings, alliance of, with the aristocracy, 286. - - - L. - - Labor class, the real flower of a population, 293; all other classes - depend upon the, 294; a drain upon the, is a drain upon the most vital - resource of the State, 294; where the flower of gathers, wealth most - abounds, 294. - - Labor, manual, scorn of, among the ancients, 56; its slow recovery of - independence, its destined dignity through scientific and art culture, - 57; repugnance to, has multiplied dishonest practices, 155; respect - for, would be increased by the adoption in the public schools of a - comprehensive system of mechanical training, 182; cause of the scorn - of--the slavery of the laborer, 188; of to-day alone maintains the - value of property, 252; of men cheaper than that of cattle, in Rome, - 266; the useful arts depend upon, 278; the foundation of national - prosperity, 293; essential to triumphs in literature, music, and the - fine arts, 293; not gold and silver, is the source of wealth, 294; - draws to itself the art treasures of the world, 294, 295; contempt of, - inculcated by educational systems, 326. - - Laborer, the, degraded through slavery, 10; contempt of, ingrained in - the public mind, 177; contempt of, leads inevitably to social - disintegration, 247; the battles of antiquity were contests for the - possession of, 253; reduced to slavery in Rome, 265; spurned in Rome, - 266; the useful arts decline if he is degraded, 278, and advance if he - is honored, 278; the standing armies of Europe have cost him all his - noble ambitions, 295; surplus of, goes to the tax-gatherer, 295; - forced to sacrifice his desire for education, his love of the - beautiful, of dignity, and of a home adorned by art, 295. - - Laborers thrown into the arena in Rome to be scrambled for, 269. - - Landed estates, effect of concentration of, in a few hands, 320; vast, - conferred upon a few corporations in the United States--double the - area of that owned by the lords of England, Scotland, and Ireland, - 321. - - Language, thought impossible without, 150; changes in, arise out of - new discoveries in science and new inventions in art, 151; stagnates - when the State ceases to advance, 151; invention of, 248; when nations - shall dwell together in unity there will be but one, 299 [_note_]. - - Lawyers more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and - artisans, 185; training of, is exclusively subjective, 230; rendered - selfish by subjective processes of thought, 231; look for precedents - in an age whose civilization perished with its language, 242. - - Layard, discoveries of, in the ruins of Nineveh, 46. - - Learning, the revival of exalted abstractions and debased things, 374. - - Legislation, restrictive, in England, to prevent the conversion of - timber into charcoal for smelting purposes, 63; the best, in England, - is that by which former statutes were repealed, 226; of the United - States no better than that of England, 226; cause of failure of, 242; - reckless, in the United States, on the subject of the public domain, - 319; of the States of the Union vicious and corrupt, 322. - - Legislators, not the authors of English progress, 159; Buckle’s - scathing arraignment of, 160; wiser in the statutes they repeal than - in those they enact, 226, 227; training of, is exclusively subjective, - 230; rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought, 231; become - selfish, and venerate the past, 242; refuse to grant reforms until - awed into submission, 242. - - Le Moyne Normal Institute, manual training and domestic economy in, - 356. - - Life Insurance, ethical aspect of, 214. - - Literature, full of maxims in honor of selfishness, 134; polite, must - rest upon a basis of general culture, or it is valueless, 279. - - _Littérateurs_ more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, - and artisans, 185. - - Livy characterizes Valerius as the first man of his time, 264; - deplores the decay of virtue, 272. - - Lloyd, Henry D., his history of the land system of the United - States--syllabus of, 317; opening paragraphs of the history of the - United States by, 318, 319; declaration of, that we must hereafter - find freedom in the society of the good, 326. - - Locke, the school he dreamed of, 2; famous apothegm of, on iron, 45. - - Locomotive, the--stands for the brotherhood of man, 376. - - Locomotives, no such failure of, as there is of legislation, 227. - - Lombardy, five famines in, 281. - - Louis XVI. an expert locksmith, 34. - - Lubbock, Sir John, on the skill of the savage, 216. - - Lucan, his gospel of universal love, 139. - - Lucretia, political effects of the tragic fate of, 264. - - Luther, the reformation of, opened the way to the last analysis of - dissent in America, 309. - - - M. - - MacAlister, James, declaration of, that there has been but little - change in the ideas that have controlled our methods of education in - four hundred years, 154; his graphic description of the power and - versatility of the hand [_note_], 156; observation of, that a skilled - hand, to the majority of men, is quite as important as a well-filled - head, 208; has revolutionized the public schools of Philadelphia in - two years, 355; one of the most accomplished as well as sternly - practical educators in the United States, 357; opinion of, that every - child should receive manual training, 358; opinion of, that the great - principles which underlie the system mean nothing less than a - revolution in education [_note_], 358, 364. - - Macaulay’s, Lord, analysis of the Baconian philosophy, 377. - - Machiavelli, philosophy formulated by, 284; political maxims of, not - invented by him, 284; maxims of, atrocious character of, 284, 285; - maxims of, promote barbarism, 285. - - Machines, automatic, nails, screws, pins, and needles flying from the - fingers of, by the thousand million, 82; more powerful to be - constructed in the future, 180. - - Machine-tool laboratory, the students of, enter upon a most important - inquiry, 82; the study of minute and ponderous tools in, 83; delicacy - of the processes of, 91; the poverty of words as compared with things - asserted in, 91; silence of, how eloquent, 91, 92; a screw-engine - lathe taken to pieces in, 92; improvements in the lathe explained in, - 92; fundamental and auxiliary tools of, explained, 93; course of - training in, orderly, 93; students work from their own drawings in, - 94; why skill is required to handle steam-driven tools of the, 94; - aspect of the, when in repose, 97; aspect of the, when steam is on, - 98; pen-picture of students of, 99; students of, at work on graduating - projects in, 100; dream of instructor in, 100-103; completing - graduating projects in, 103, 104. - - Machine-tool shop, the modern, an aggregation of hand-tools made - automatic, and driven by steam, 8; revolution in the useful arts - caused by the, 78; what this creation of modern times, a huge - automaton with steam coursing through its veins, does, 78-81; its - arms, its hands, its brain, its food, and its products, 81; lines of - modern development converge in the, 81; human pursuits widely - diversified by, 82. - - Macomber, A. E., on the Toledo Manual Training School, 365. - - Madrid, people of, threatened with starvation, 283; lost half its - population in the seventeenth century, 283. - - Maine, Sir Henry--his tribute to things, 379. - - Man, the two states of--with and without tools--contrasted, 7; the - gulf between the civilized and savage, spanned by the - seven-hand-tools, 8; the wisest of animals because he has hands, 152; - the most powerful of animals because he has hands, 157; powers of, - increased by steam, 161; the most highly civilized, familiar with all - the arts, 278; in the Middle Ages, shrunk into a state of moral - cowardice and intellectual lethargy, 284. - - Mann, Horace, cause of the degradation of labor stated by, 5; reason - for the scorn of labor given by, _in extenso_, 188. - - Manual training, promotes rectitude, 132; promotes altruism because it - is objective, 141; its effects relate to the human race, 141; Prof. - Felix Adler in support of its tendency to promote rectitude, 142; idea - of, grasped by the Ionic philosopher, 153; exactly what it is, 200; is - natural and hence efficient, 218; required to render mental operations - more true, 225; possible in Europe only through the disbandment of the - standing armies, 295; in all the technical schools of Russia, 333; - theory of, by Dr. John D. Runkle, 338; in the Massachusetts Institute - of Technology, 333, 334; in the St. Louis school, 338, 339; in twelve - of the State agricultural colleges, 341; in Purdue University, 341; in - Boston and Milford, Mass., New Haven, and the State Normal School, - Conn., Omaha, Neb., Eau Claire, Wis., Moline, Peru, and the Cook - County Normal School, Normal Park, Ill., Montclair, N. J., Cleveland - and Barnesville, O., San Francisco, Cal., and Baltimore, Md., 342; - exhibits of work of, at the meeting of the National Educational - Association in 1884, 342; in Prof. Felix Adler’s Workingman’s School, - 342; in Chicago, 345; Dr. Belfield on the mental effect of, 350; in - the Pennsylvania State College, 351; Prof. Louis E. Reber in support - of, 351, 352; in the College of the City of New York, 352; in - thirty-one schools in the city of New York [_note_], 352; in the - Tulane University, 353; in the Miller School at Crozet, Va., 353; in - Girard College, 353; in the Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical - College, 355; in the Denver (Col.) University, 355; in the public - schools of Philadelphia, 356; in twenty-four of the States of the - Union, 359; in the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 359; - part of the course of public instruction by Massachusetts and - Connecticut, 360; in the Le Moyne Normal Institute, 362; in the - University of Michigan, 363; laid on the table by the National - Educational Association, 363, 364; in the State University, Cleveland, - and Toledo, O., 364; is leading captive the imagination of the - American people, 367; the purpose of, in the schools of Europe, 368; - progress of--its extent greater than its quality, 372; acquisition by - the hand of the arts through which man expresses himself in things, - 380; a series of educational generalizations in things, 380. - - Manual training school the child of the kindergarten, 5; destined to - unite science and art, 5; its highest text-books tools, 7; must be - made part of the public system of education, 112; gain of the pupil - of, 122; pupil of, constructs a machine, breathes into it the breath - of life, and with it moves mountains, 201; methods of, twenty times - more valuable than the unscientific methods of the trade-shop, 219; - pupil of, is an investigator, his reasoning opens new fields of - thought with every stroke of the chisel, 220; pupil of, gets as much - again intellectual benefit from the laboratory as he would if the - laboratory equivalent in time were given to book study, 221; - laboratory exercises of, a great strain upon the mental constitution, - and hence highly educational, 222; pupils of, love it--an incident, - 223; method of the, is the expression of ideas in things, 245; - realizes the idea of Bacon, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, 245. - - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, its models of mechanical - manipulation presented by the Emperor of Russia, 66; first institution - of learning in the United States to adopt manual training, 333; manual - training adopted by, in 1876, 334; resolution of thanks for a series - of models, presented by the Emperor of Russia, adopted by, 334, 335. - - Massachusetts, legislature of, adopts manual training as part of the - public school course of, 360. - - Maudslay, Henry, his improvement of the lathe made it the king of the - machine-tool shop, 33; without his slide-rest Watt’s engine could not - have been made, 35; through his slide-rest alone the mechanic is able - to make two things exactly alike, 92; slide-rest of, an automaton - truer than the human eye, more cunning than the human hand, 200, 201. - - Maudsley, Dr. Henry, on the contribution of the muscular sense to - mental operations, 147; on the impossibility of thinking without - physical expression, 149. - - Mechanic, the, who makes a machine that multiplies products is in the - front rank of the civilizers of the race, 160; prospects of the - skilled, in life, 170; did more to hasten the world’s progress from - 1740 to 1840 than all the statesmen of previous ages, 171; splendid - career which this age opens to the educated, 182; tremendous power - wielded by, 183; has wrought an industrial revolution, 185; works of, - reflect honor upon, 187; stands the test of scrutiny better than the - merchant, 225; trained in things, 225. - - Mechanics, skilled, the use of automatic tools increases rather than - diminishes the demand for, 94; of the early time had none of the - advantages of the manual training school, 172; their sufferings and - misfortunes, 172; no such failure of, as there is of merchants, 227; - thoroughness of training of, 239. - - Mediæval period, the speculative philosophy of, still projects its - baleful influence over our institutions of learning, 185; graphic - picture of society in, by Winwood Reade, 280, 281; the art of war only - flourished in, 281; precarious condition of the serfs in--fate of--to - be killed in battle or die of starvation, 281; causes of the moral and - intellectual darkness of the, 281, 282; causes of the moral and - intellectual torpor of the people of, 284; conferred upon man two - great blessings, and left a legacy of evil, 289; degradation of woman - in the, 366. - - Memory cultivated at the expense of the reason, 200. - - Men sold for sixpence apiece in Asia, 269. - - Menander, lofty moral precepts of, 139. - - Mental acquirement, a, is a theorem--something to be proved, 144. - - Mental development, law of, 131; which is most conducive to, doing - things, or memorizing words, 376. - - Mental training, exclusively, does not produce a symmetrical - character, 244. - - Merchants, percentage of failure of, in Chicago from 1870 to 1881, - 211; three per cent. of, only, succeed, 211; ninety-seven per cent. - of, go to the wall, 212; cost of failures of, borne by the public, - 212; ninety-seven per cent. of, mistake their avocation, 212; failure - of, made too easy, 213; honor of, in France [_note_], 213; - ninety-seven in one hundred fail, 225; cause of failures of, 229; - selfishness of--do not seek for justice, or to find truth, 230; who - compromise with their creditors, and subsequently accumulate fortunes, - rarely repay the forgiven debt, 230; cause of failure of, 242. - - Mercury, bronze statue of, at the Museum of Naples, 47. - - Michigan, University of, manual training in, as described by - Instructor Lieut. M. E. Cooley, 363. - - Microscope, the work of the hand, 156. - - Milford, Mass., manual training in, 342. - - Miller Manual Training School, the, of Crozet, Va., 353. - - Mind, the, mental laws of, 132, 133; moral laws of, 133; and the hand - are natural allies, 144; indulges in false logic without instant - detection, 145; the hand its moral rudder, its balance-wheel, 145; - influenced by the hand through the muscular sense, 148; steadied by - the wise counsel of the practical hand, 225; steadied and balanced by - the study of things, 225; devises a watch, and the hand makes it, 240; - fails when it attempts to execute its devices, 240; succeeds when the - hand executes its plans, but fails in merchandizing, law, and justice, - 240; should not be stored with facts unless they are to be applied to - things, 245; how it began to assert its empire over matter, 249. - - Moline, Ill., manual training in, 342. - - Montclair, N. J., manual training in, 342. - - Moors, the, in Spain in the Middle Ages constituted a glowing - exception to the general prevalence of superstition and ignorance, - 282; skilled in all the arts, 282. - - Morality, springs from intelligence, 113; is not a mere sentiment, a - barren ideality, 142; of Christ and Paul, 142; is a vital principle - whose exemplification consists in doing justice, 142; cannot be - acquired by memorizing a series of maxims, 143; of a community is in - the ratio of its intelligence, 238. - - Morrissey, John, his brief autobiography, 314, 315. - - Mother, the, in the arms of, the infant mind rapidly unfolds, 365. - - Moulding, the oldest of human discoveries, 46. - - Murray, Matt, inventor of flax machinery, 84. - - Muscular sense, the, its discovery by Sir Charles Bell, 146; its power - over the movements of the frame--walking, etc., 146; Dr. Henry - Maudsley on the, 147; actions of essential elements in mental - operations, 147; sharpened to marvellous fineness by constant use, - 148; if trained in the direction of truth, it will react in the - direction of rectitude, on the mind, 148, 149. - - Mushet, David, an English inventor and author, 84; his discovery of - the value of black band iron-stone, 117; his papers on iron and steel, - 117; sprung from the labor class, 117. - - Mythology, the highest place in its Pantheon given to Vulcan, the God - of Fire, 70. - - - N. - - Napoleon, the incarnation of selfishness, 134, 135; the infamous, - plundered the conquered capitals of Europe, 294. - - Nasmyth, James, invented the steam-hammer in 1837, and applied the - principle of it to the pile-driver in 1845, 76. - - Nation, the, that degrades labor is ripe for destruction, 253; that - loses its population by emigration is in its decadence, 294. - - National debts of Europe, amount of, thirty years ago, 286; doubled - since 1850, 290; cause of the rapid increase of, 290; represent a - series of colossal crimes against the people, 291; with relation to - them, the people are divided into two classes--one class owns them, - the other class pays interest on them, 291; in one class they are a - vested right, in the other a vested wrong, 291; how they can be paid, - and education promoted at the same time, 292; can be paid only by - disbanding the standing armies, 295; will reduce their governments to - bankruptcy unless standing armies are disbanded, 296. - - National Educational Association, manual training exhibits at, 1884, - meeting of, 342; meeting of 1885 adopts a resolution endorsing the - kindergarten, 363; illogical action of, in laying upon the table a - resolution endorsing manual training, 363, 364. - - Nations, the rise, progress, and decay of, 252, 253; sink as the - column of debt rises, 297. - - Neilson, James B., inventor of the hot-blast, 84; revolutionizes the - processes of iron manufacture, 117; sprang from the labor class, and - is made a member of the Royal Society, 117. - - New England, system of education of, moulded the character of the - civilization of the United States, 235; difference between the - civilization of, and that of South Carolina, measured by the - difference in their respective educational systems, 235; educational - system of, is unscientific, 239. - - New Haven, Conn., manual training in, 342. - - Newcomen helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. - - Nineveh, bronze castings recovered from the ruins of, 46. - - Nobility above price in the eleventh century, for sale in the - thirteenth, and soon afterwards offered as a gift, 286. - - Norway appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the schools, - 368. - - - O. - - Object teaching, example of, 4; the corner-stone of the kindergarten - and the manual training school, 129; an analysis of, with examples, - 200. - - Observation, the power of, resides chiefly in the hand, 380. - - Ohio, high rank of, industrially, 364; making great strides towards a - more practical system of education, 364; State University of, manual - training in, 364; prosperity of the Case School of Applied Science in, - 364; manual training schools of Cleveland and Toledo, in, 364. - - Omaha, Neb., manual training in, 342. - - - P. - - Palissy, Bernard, sketch of his career, 231, 232, 233; burns the - furniture of his house in the cause of art, 232; is cast into prison - for heresy--his defiance of King Henry III., 232; dies in the Bastile, - 233; was right, and his devotion to art rendered him immortal, 233, - 234; struggle of, over the furnace in the cause of art, was mentally - and morally normal, while the opposition he encountered was abnormal, - 234; mind of, was developed normally, while the minds of the millions - of men who permitted him to die unfriended were developed abnormally, - 234; willing to starve for his art, and ready to die for his faith, - 234. - - Papin helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. - - Paris Exposition, exhibit of models of tool practice in the Imperial - Technical School, Moscow, Russia, at the, 331. - - Parker, Col. Francis W., declares that the application of science to - methods of instruction would produce a radical change in all school - work, 205; his forcible exposition of the defects of prevailing - methods of instruction, 205, 206, 207; asserts that teachers are - faithful, honest, and earnest, but ignorant of the history and science - of education, 207, 364. - - Patriotism can be indulged with good reason only in the United States, - 323. - - Penmanship, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United - States, as shown by the Walton report, 198. - - Pennsylvania State College, manual training in the, 351. - - Pennsylvania State Prison, statistics--five-sixths of the inmates of, - had attended public schools, and the same number were without trades, - 182. - - Pericles boasted that he could not be bribed, but robbed all Greece to - embellish Athens, and was convicted of peculation and fined, 255. - - Persia, no provision in, for either the mental or moral training of - woman, 366; the boy in, excluded from the presence of his father till - the fifth year, 367. - - Peru, Ill., manual training in, 342. - - Pestalozzi, the school he struggled in vain to establish, 2; his - definition of education, 12; his condemnation of the old system of - education, 126; foresaw the kindergarten and the manual training - school, 245. - - Phidias familiar with the turning lathe, 33. - - Philadelphia, manual training made part of the public school system - of, 353; rules of the public schools of, 355, 356; report of a - committee of the Board of Education of, in regard to manual training, - 356, 357; hand-training introduced into the public schools of, 358. - - Philosophers, the, little time to speculate with, 180. - - Philosophy established on a scientific basis--the study of natural - phenomena, 153; of the Greeks scorned both science and art, 257. - - Physical development, law of, 131. - - Pile-driver, the steam-hammer principle applied to the, 76; power of - the, 76. - - Pilgrims, the product of the progress of all the ages, 308. - - Pine, in the forest and in lumber, 21; description of the tree by the - son of a lumberman, 21; uses of, commerce in, supply of, 22; sources - of information of students in regard to--newspapers and encyclopedias, - 25. - - Plato, his theory of the divine origin of caste, 123; blinded by - half-truths, 124; how he was controlled by his environment, 124; his - theory of the importance of early training, 125; his contempt for the - useful arts, 176, 177, 369; regarded the soul’s residence in the body - as an evil, 256; opinion of, that the majority is always dull and - always wrong, 280; the creation of his Divine Dialogues depended upon - the useful arts, 383. - - Pliny, affection of, for his slaves, 139. - - Plutarch, sublime moral teachings of, 138; on the death of his - daughter, 139. - - Poets, the, little time to sentimentalize with, 180; more highly - esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185. - - Poole, Dr. William F., courtesy of, to the students of the Chicago - Manual Training School, 348. - - Poverty, its final abolition depends upon the multiplication of the - useful arts, 383. - - Power, generation of, the object of education, 244; to generate and - store up either mental or physical, not to be exerted, is a waste of - energy, 245. - - Printing, the art of, essential to progress in the useful arts, 73; - not so necessary to progress in the so-called fine arts, 73; removes - the seal from the lips of learning, 286; makes every discovery in - science and every invention in art the heritage of all the ages, 286; - the invention of, paralyzed authority, 287. - - Progress, if Guttenberg had rested content with an idea, there would - have been no printing-press, 152; if Watt, Stephenson, and Fulton had - stopped at words, there would have been neither railways nor - steamships, 152; dates from the beginning of the seventeenth century, - 153; slow until within one hundred years, 153; due not to the men who - make laws, but to the men who make things, 160; of the world towards a - higher appreciation of the value of the useful arts, 172; of moral - ideas shown by the honors lavished upon the memory of heroes, 234; can - find expression only in things, 243; the path of, a rugged road, 381; - its steps consist of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts, - 382; the lines on which educational, is to be sought, 385. - - Property, no security for, in a community devoid of education, 237; - intelligence alone confers a sacred character upon, 237; may be - protected by a hired soldiery, or by public sentiment enlightened by - education, 238; the main purpose of governments is to protect, but - nearly all the governments of history have been destroyed in the - effort to fulfil this function of their existence, 238; in slaves, - failure of the United States to protect, 238; rights of, in English - land, about to be disturbed, 238; not sacred unless honestly acquired - and honestly held, 238; all in the United States may be devoted to - education by the ballot, 324. - - Prudence, extreme, consistent with rectitude, 136; selfishness deified - under the name of, 311. - - Public lands of the United States squandered by Congress, 317; history - of waste of, by Henry D. Lloyd, in the _Chicago Tribune_, 317, 318, - 319. - - Public schools of New England, 309; the old system of education put - into the, 303; popular idea of the, 310; neither science nor art - taught in the, 310; revived the Greco-Roman subjective system, 310. - - Public schools of the United States, attendance in, not - compulsory--some children enter them, and some do not, 316; leave out - that which most nearly concerns the business of life, 325. - - Pugilist, how John Morrissey became a, 314, 315. - - Pullman, George M., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School - Association, 346. - - Purdue University, pronounced success achieved in manual training in, - under the directorship of Professor Goss, 341. - - - R. - - Railroad, the, influence of, upon the destinies of mankind, 170; taxes - to the utmost nearly every department of the useful arts, 171; - incompetency of management of, as shown by shrinkage in values of - stocks of, 210; in the proprietor of, the two great elements of modern - power, land and steam, are united, 321; proprietor of the, is a king, - 321; monstrous claims of the proprietor of, 315. - - Reading, automatism of teaching, in the schools of the United States, - as shown by the Walton report, 197; Colonel Parker declares that - prevailing methods of instruction in, are “utterly opposed to a - mental law about which there can be no dispute,” 206. - - Reason, in existing systems of education, allowed to slumber, 200. - - Reber, Prof. Louis E., in support of manual training, 352. - - Reform--demand for, 371. - - Revolution--educational, 1883-4, 371. - - Richard I. presents King Arthur’s sword Excalibar to Tancred, 71. - - Right, of the poor child to equal education sacred, 376. - - Roberts, Richard, a great English inventor of the eighteenth century, - 84. - - “Rocket,” the, George Stephenson’s first locomotive, 118. - - Roebuck, Dr. John, a patron of Watt, 84. - - Roman aristocrats, were refined and accomplished, 276, 277; savage - contest for supremacy among the, 277. - - Roman civilization the product of all that had gone before, 260. - - Roman literature, possessed no saving quality, 275; did not represent - the Roman people, 275. - - Roman State, the, slavery the corner-stone of, 265. - - Romans, the, had no peer either in courage or fortitude, 264; vices - of, shown in the character of Appius, the Decemvir, 264; virtues of, - shown in the character of Virginius, 265; sense of justice of, - swallowed up in lust of power, 266; early triumphs of industrial, 268; - indebted to slaves for all the arts, 269; philosophy of, so shallow as - to render them callous to the great crimes upon which the State - rested, 272; debasing influence of the Greek philosophy upon, 274; - under the Empire rewarded vice and punished virtue, 274; preferred - Cæsar, Caligula, and Nero to Cato, Germanicus, and Agricola, 274; - retrograded towards a state of savagery under the Empire, 275; became - absolutely selfish, and hence totally depraved, 276. - - Rome, the decline of, caused by the failure of the fuel supply, and by - her neglect of the useful arts, 63, 64; had she possessed great - mechanics her fall might have been averted, 64; her civilization - culminated at the limit of the application of iron to the useful arts, - 83; a pen-picture of the decline of, 83; her splendors and her - degradation, 138; fall of, stopped the study of physiology, 153; the - dominion of, logical--vigorous but pitiless, 263; all the great races - mingled in, 264; laws of, show the stamina of her people, 265; supply - of laborers for, maintained by depopulating conquered countries, 265; - in the train of the legions returning to, were men, women, and - children destined to slavery, 265; laws of, in regard to slaves, - terrible, 265; for the free citizen of, to labor with his hands was - more disgraceful than to die of starvation, 266; free citizen paupers - of, crying “bread and circuses,” 266; education in, confined to - politics and war, 266; became the great robber nation of the world, - 266; was on the land what Greece had been on the sea--a pirate, 266; - the spoil of conquered countries used to bribe courts, senators, and - the populace, 267; nothing safe in, from the hand of rapacity, 267; - grew rich through plunder, and poor in public and private virtue, - 267; bribery in, 268; great social change in, after the fall of Greece - and Carthage and the reduction of Asia, 268; summary of the causes of - the fall of, 268; scenes immediately preceding the fall of, 269, 270; - the seat of all the world’s learning, 270; the wise men of, powerless - to help their fellow-men, because their philosophy was false, 270; - metaphysical philosophy of, 270, 271; the philosophy of, furnished an - excuse for slavery, 271; suffrage in, the subject of open traffic, - 271, 272; noted men of, ignorant of the cause of the disorders which - afflicted the body politic, 272; in the city of, vice reigned supreme, - while in the provinces there was a middle class by whom all the - domestic virtues were practised, 314; no culture in, for girls till - late in the Empire, 366. - - Romulus and Remus, legend of, 259. - - Rousseau, the school he described, 2; his opinion that the poor need - no education, 124; his theory of the vital importance of early - training, 125; his definition of education, 125; his appreciation of - the importance of the education of woman, 125, 126; his condemnation - of the old system of education, 126; declaration of, that education is - nothing but habit, 245. - - Runkle, Dr. John D., his declaration that public education should - touch practical life in a larger number of points, 202; the founder of - manual training in the United States, 333; excerpts from the report - of, in 1876, recommending the adoption of manual training by the - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 333, 334; letter of, to the - author, containing an exposition of the theory of manual training, - with an account of its origin in the mind of, 337, 338; assists in - introducing manual training into Girard College, 354. - - Ruskin, on finding the truth in things [_note_], 145; on disciplining - the fingers in the laboratory of the goldsmiths [_note_], 148; on - learning by labor what the lips of man could never teach [_note_], - 152; tribute of, to labor [_note_], 161; on rogues, a manufactured - article [_note_], 237; on how national debts bear upon labor [_note_], - 291; on how standing armies are supported [_note_], 293. - - Russia, arbitrary act of, in 1770, in relation to the export of iron, - 115; solves the problem of tool instruction by the laboratory process, - 331; manual training introduced into all the technical schools of, - 333. - - Russia, Emperor of, presents one hundred models of mechanical - manipulations to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 69; offers - John Arnold five thousand dollars for a duplicate of his George III. - watch, 86. - - - S. - - San Francisco, Cal., manual training in, 342. - - Sankey Canal, the, authorized upon condition that boats plying upon it - should be drawn by men only, 179. - - Saracens, the friends of education, of science, and art, 282; - inventors of cotton-paper, promoters of all the industries, including - agriculture, 282, 283; driven from the soil they had made to blossom - like the rose, 283; ameliorating influence of, upon the ignorance and - superstition of the Middle Ages, 285. - - Savage, the, how he is trained, 9; helplessness of, 11; how he is - taught to hunt and fish, 176; is taught what he needs to know in his - condition, and nothing else, 181; if his education were as - unscientific as that of the civilized boy, the race would perish, 215; - ninety-nine times in a hundred he traces the footsteps of his enemy in - the forest, 215, 216; education of, is scientific, 216; in the - practical character of the training of, consists its excellence, 217; - mystery which envelops skill of, solved, 219; ignorant, in his - primitive state, of all the arts, 278. - - Savonarola, the hater of abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, 234; at - the death-bed of Lorenzo de Medici, 235; shaking thrones and making - proud prelates tremble, 235. - - Savory helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. - - Saw-mills, opposition to their introduction in England, 178. - - School, of the future, 2; proposed by Ruskin [_note_], 180. - - Schools, the, have not moved forward with events, 154; are still - dominated by mediæval ideas of speculative philosophy, 154; as an - industrial agency are a failure, 202; were established as a bulwark of - liberty, 202; denounced, 371; must be transformed from the ornamental - type of Greece into laboratories for the development of useful men and - women, 384; a vast number of, have been dedicated to the new - education--are they to be developed into ideal schools?, 385. - - Schoolmaster, the, and the Reformer, 371; the old, and the new - education, 375. - - Schools of England, arraignment of, by Herbert Spencer, 325. - - Schwab, Dr. Erasmus, and “The Work School in the Common School,” 368. - - Science, effect of divorce of, from art, 11; through printing every - discovery in, becomes the heritage of future ages, 286. - - Scientific education, simplicity of, 207, 208; difference between, and - unscientific, 217; description of, by Miss S. E. Blow, 218, 219; is - natural education, 223; brightens, stimulates, and develops, while - automatic stupefies, 223, 224. - - Scientist, the, a public benefactor, 160; studies the stars, the - earth, and the air in the light of the flames of persecution, 287. - - Scott, Frank J., contributor to the fund for the founding of the - Toledo, Ohio, Manual Training School, 364. - - Scott, Jesup W., the founder of the Toledo Manual Training School, - 358. - - Scott, Maurice, contributor to the fund for the founding of the Toledo - Manual Training School, 364. - - Scott, William F., contributor to the fund for the founding of the - Toledo Manual Training School, 364. - - Sculpture, limit of, reached in Greece, 73. - - Scythians, among the, the iron sword was a god, 70. - - Segovia, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from - Spain, 283. - - Seligman, Mr. Joseph, munificence of, established Professor Adler’s - Workingman’s School in New York City on a firm basis, 345. - - Selfishness, the arch-enemy of virtue, 134; maxims in honor of, 134; - Napoleon a colossal example of the folly of, 135; in conflict with the - true spirit of civilization, 135; causes revolutions and destroys - governments, 135; is blind of one eye--sees only one side of a cause, - 136; let not prudence be confounded with, 136; extreme, the synonym of - depravity, 136; promoted by prevailing systems of education, 136; - promoted by a mercantile career, 230; of the lawyer, the judge, and - the legislator, 230, 231; as it recedes from the mind, justice assumes - its appropriate place as the controlling element in human conduct, - 233; the source of all social evil, 247; transformed Roman courage - into cruelty, and Roman fortitude into brutal stoicism, 266; - transformed the government of Rome from a pure democracy into an - oligarchy of wealth, 276; vanquishes itself in Rome, 277; the - equivalent of savagery, 277; deified under the name of prudence, 311; - calling it prudence led to confounding right and wrong, 311; effects - of, in the nineteenth century the same as in the first, 312; the mind - charged with, through subjective educational processes, 326; ends in a - struggle which ends in a revolution, 326. - - Seneca, sublime moral precepts of, contrasted with the horrors of the - gladiatorial games, 138; his doctrine of humanity, 139; ignores - slavery, the slave, the laborer, and the useful arts, 268; morals of, - glittering generalities, politics of, practical, 269; put money in his - purse, 269; charged with complicity in the Piso conspiracy, and - banished for the crime of adultery, 269. - - Serfs of the Middle Ages the mercenary troops of the modern State, - 290. - - Service--the greatest thing in the moral world, 378. - - Seville, silk industry of, 292; looms of, silenced in the seventeenth - century, 283. - - Sewing-machine, the, its accuracy, 87; it illustrates the - interdependence of the practical arts, 87; it multiplies garments - beyond the power of figures to express, 87. - - Sheffield, Lord, his estimate of the value of Henry Cort’s - improvements in iron and the steam-engine of Watt, 115; his - declaration of the purpose of the establishment of the American - colonies, 202. - - Sheffield, town of, its insignificance in 1715, 116; its manufacturing - importance now, 116. - - Skill being prolific of good should be brought to bear upon - educational systems, 132. - - Slavery existed in the United States when Horace Mann declared it to - be the cause of the degradation of labor and the laborer, 189; aided - by England in its struggle for survival, 189; influence of, not yet - extinct, 189; has kept its brand of shame upon the useful arts for - thousands of years, 190; how the Egyptian was reduced to, 250; and - labor were synonymous terms in Rome, 265; a state of, is a state of - war, 265; confounded with freedom in the United States, 311; negroes - escaping from, called fugitives from justice, 311; justified in - Faneuil Hall, the cradle of liberty, 311; tried only by the test of - self-interest, 312; in the North it faded away, in the South it - flourished, 312; climate conditions, not education, saved this - continent from the scourge of, 312, 313; question of continuance of, - in the United States, settled by violence, as savages settle - controversies, 313. - - Slaves, in Rome, laws in relation to, 265; a million killed in the - course of the servile rebellion in Sicily, 265; exposed to wild beasts - in the arena for the popular amusement, 265; all industrial pursuits - in Rome carried on by, 266; labor of, in Rome, cheaper than that of - cattle, 266; construct all the great public works in Rome, 269; strike - for liberty in Rome, and are slaughtered, 271; clank of the chains of, - in the streets of Boston, 311. - - Smeaton helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15; the best workman - of his time, 85. - - Smiles, Samuel, declares that the automata of the Middle Ages led to - the useful automatic tools of the eighteenth century, 35; his peculiar - views about Maudslay’s great invention, 36; his history of the Dutch - and German mechanics who contributed to the solution of the problem of - the application of mineral coal to smelting purposes, 64; his graphic - picture of the versatility of the smith, 71; his pen-picture of the - steamship _Warrior_ “breasting the billows of the North Sea,” 85; - shows the true springs of English greatness in his “Lives of the - Engineers,” 172; shows the origin of useful arts in England in his - great work on the Huguenots, 185. - - Smith, the, gives direction to the course of Empire, 62; a man of - great consequence in England in the early time, 71; name of, descends - to more families than that of any other profession, 71; versatility - of, 71, 72; conducts the engineering at the siege of Berwick, 72; - ancient, kin to all the ages through his works, 74. - - Social evils, are the product of defective education, 325. - - Social problems, solution of, to be sought through a radical change in - educational methods, 248; the railway and factory are new factors in, - 321; of America cannot be settled as those of Europe are, by - emigration, 326. - - Solicis, Prof. G., the chief supporter of manual training in France, - 368. - - South Carolina, educational system of, confined to a class, as opposed - to universal education in New England, 235. - - Spain, ruined by the expulsion of the Moors, 283; destitution in the - chief cities of, 283; danger that the royal family of, would go hungry - to bed, 283; is bankrupt, 296. - - Speculation, rages on the exchanges of all large American cities, 322; - affects every class in the community, 322; stimulates bad passions, - and creates a distaste for labor, 322. - - Speculative philosophy, only resource of the ancients, 153; dominated - the world from the fall of Rome to the time of Bacon, 153. - - Speech, must be incarnate in things or it is dead, 141; man would lose - the power of, if his words should cease to be realized in things, 149; - dependent upon objects for its existence, 150; has its origin not less - in external objects than in the mind, 150; would be lost if the senses - should cease to be impressed by things, 150; freedom of, and of - thought, catch-penny phrases, 192. - - Spelling, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United States, - as shown by the Walton report, 198, 199. - - Spencer, Herbert, on the defects of the schools of England, 325; the - contrast between his views and the dictum of Dr. Dwight of Yale - University, 374; pointed out, the analogy between early methods of - education and barbarism, 377. - - Standing armies, a legacy of evil from the Middle Ages, 289; recruited - from the ranks of the serfs, 290; the dominant feature of European - public economy, 290; number of, 290; collateral evils of, 290; - responsible for illiteracy and pauperism, 292; what they cost and what - they stand in the way of, 293; how they are supported [_note_], 293; - an assumption of the barbarism of man, 300; stand in the way of - education and prosperity, 303; must everywhere soon disappear before - the march of education, 303; are as abnormal in Europe as slavery was - in the United States, 303, 304; are the instruments of tyranny, the - last analysis of selfishness, 304; the result of the Greco-Roman - methods of education, 304. - - State, a, growth of, depends upon progress in the practical arts, 151; - ceasing to advance, its language ceases to grow, becomes stationary, - stagnates, 151. - - Statesmen, not the authors of English progress, 159; Buckle’s scathing - arraignment of, 160; more highly esteemed than civil engineers, - machinists, and artisans, 185. - - Statutes, that wear out in a year, 241. - - Steam, power of, known to the ancients, 14; makes all civilized - countries prosperous and great, 161; must be harnessed at the forge - and in the shop to enable it to do its work, 170; power exerted by, in - the manufactories of Great Britain equal to the manual labor of four - hundred millions of men, 184; may be likened to an idea which finds - expression through the engine--a thing, 245; the railway and the - factory two great products of, 321. - - Steam-hammer, the, in works of Mr. Crane, Chicago, 75; in Pittsburg, - Pa., and at Krupp’s cast-steel works, Essen, Germany, 75; invention - of, in 1837, its accuracy, power, and delicacy, 76; application of the - principle of, to the pile-driver in 1845, 76. - - Steamship, the, influence of, upon the destinies of mankind, 170. - - Steel, Age of, great enterprises of the, dwarf the merely ornamental - branches of learning, 179. - - Steele, Prof. A. J., Principal of the Le Moyne Normal - Institute--letter of, to the Author, 362. - - Stephenson, George, inventor of the locomotive, 84; sketch of his - remarkable career, 118, 119; declines knighthood and a membership in - the Royal Society, 119; the founder of the railway system of the - world, 119. - - Stephenson, Robert, an English railway engineer, 84. - - Stick, Adam and the, 157; the symbol and instrument of power, 158. - - Stoics and philosophers of Rome, lofty moral sentiments of, in - contrast with the Roman vices, 139. - - Suetonius, portrays the cruelties of the Cæsars, but hints at no cause - therefor inherent in the social system, 272. - - Suffrage, love of country in the United States is a due appreciation - of the right of, 323; in the universality of the right of, lies the - power of correcting all social evils, 324; destined to preservation - forever in the United States, 324; attempt to limit, in New York - accounted for by the prevalence of European ideas, 324; the right of, - can be taken from the American people only by force, 324; standard of, - lowered by ignorance and depravity, 325; when better informed it will - be more honest, 325; with increased intelligence it will gain the - power to grapple with social abuses, 325. - - Superstition, how it arose through ignorance and selfishness, 249. - - Sweden, five hundred _slöjd_ schools in, in 1882, 368; supports a - school for the training of teachers of _slöjd_ schools at Nääs, 369. - - Syria, the founders, smiths, and all the artisans of, were slaves, 56. - - - T. - - Tacitus, his account of the execution of four hundred slaves for the - murder of one man, 265; his lament at the decline of public virtue, - 267; is silent on the subject of the infamy of slavery, and on the - shame of degrading labor, 272. - - Tancred the Crusader pays for King Arthur’s sword Excalibar “four - great ships and fifteen galleys,” 71. - - Tarquins, the banishment of the, 264. - - Telegraph, the, influence of, upon the destinies of mankind, 170. - - Telephone, the work of the hand, 156. - - Telescope, the work of the hand, 155. - - Texas, Agricultural and Mechanical College of, 359. - - Theodoric, attempt of, to reconstruct the Roman civilization, 279; the - order evoked from chaos by, to chaos soon returned, 280. - - Theorem, a, always a question solved, 144. - - Things both the subject and occasion of speech, 151; regarded as of - less vital importance than abstract ideas, 185; the false, easily - detected in--examples, 224; the study of, steadies and balances the - mind, 225; the truth revealed only in, 243; ideas are mere vain - speculations till embodied in, 243; the habit of expressing ideas in, - should be formed in the schools, 245; the truths that are hidden in, - 378; the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the - submission of its immature judgments to the verification of, 379; the - source of ideas, 379; essential to spiritual development, 384. - - Thinking, acting is the complement of, 244. - - Thought, must be incarnate in things, or it is dead, 141; is not even - present to the thinker until he has set it forth, out of himself, 150; - independent, of all mental processes the most difficult--habit, - tradition, and reverence for antiquity unite to forbid it, 192. - - Thoughts must be expressed to have influence, 244; may be expressed - most forcibly in things, 244. - - Thucydides arraigns the Greeks as falsifiers and perjurers, 255. - - Thurston, Robert H., on the tremendous power wielded by the mechanic, - 183. - - Toledo, O., Manual Training School, inception of, due to the - generosity of the late Jesup W. Scott and his three sons, 364; - connected with the public high-school, 364, 365; students of, consist - of both sexes, 365; the course for girls in, 365. - - Toledo, Spain, woollen manufactures of, transferred by the exiled - Moors to Tunis, 283. - - “Tom All-alone’s” in “Bleak House”--social philosophy of, 315. - - Tool practice, quickens the intellect, 114; engenders a thirst for - wisdom, 114; history of, in England confirms this view, 114; the - foundation of James Watt’s culture, 119; George Stephenson’s career an - illustration of the intellectual effect of, 119; testimony of the - Director of the Artisans’ School at Rotterdam, Holland, as to - intellectual effect of, 121; testimony of Dr. Woodward, Director of - the St. Louis Manual Training School, as to intellectual effect of, - 121; testimony of M. Victor Della Vos, Director of the Imperial - Technical School of Moscow, as to intellectual effect of, 121; effect - of, as shown by the experience of the Mechanic Art School at Komotan, - Bohemia, 122. - - Tools, influence of, upon modern civilization, 9; represent the steps - of human progress, 10; the great civilizing agency of the world, 11. - - Touch, the master sense, whence all the other senses spring, 380; - reigns throughout the body, and is the token of life in every part, - 381; is the fundamental sense, the mother-tongue of, language, 381; - its versatility, 381. - - Townships of New England, their establishment logical, 309. - - Tradition, tyranny of, 124. - - Truth, the struggle after, 233; the love of, natural, 233; heroes - honor it, 234; conspicuous through efforts to suppress it, 287. - - Tulane, Paul, founder of the Tulane University of New Orleans, La., - 353. - - Tulane University, manual training a prominent feature in the, 353. - - Turkish Empire, story of its origin through the art of forging, 61. - - Tweedism, what made it possible in the city of New York, 315. - - Types, through the medium of, the voice of genius is destined to reach - to the ends of the earth, 286. - - - U. - - United States, the, not at the front in the race of nations for - industrial supremacy, 203; comparison of imports and exports of, with - those of England, 203; industrially ill-balanced, 204; suffering from - a paucity of skilled labor, 204; educational system of, very poor, as - shown by the statistics of railway and commercial disasters, 224; - educational system of, as poor morally as mentally, 224; neglect of - education by, the most astonishing fact in the history of, 235; a - scientific educational system forced upon the South by, would have - averted the war of rebellion, 237; could not protect property in - slaves, 238; social conditions in, similar to those prevailing in - Europe, 313; illiteracy in, 313; increase of illiteracy in, 313; every - sixth man who votes in, is unable to write his name, 313; land system - of, rivals that of England in injustice, 317; history of the land - system of, by Henry D. Lloyd, in the _Chicago Tribune_, 317-319; the - sentiment of patriotism justifiable only in, 323; the soldier of, is a - citizen of, 323, 324. - - Universities, the men who have transformed the face of the earth came - not from the, 185; Bacon’s caustic remark in relation to the, 185; on - Bacon’s plan would have united science and art, 185. - - Use--the greatest thing in the material world, 378. - - - V. - - Valerius, died so poor that he was buried at the public charge, 268. - - Venus, made the wife of Vulcan, the God of Fire, 70. - - Von Kaas, Rittmeister Claussen, lectures on the subject of manual - training in Germany, 368. - - Vulcan, the God of Fire, given Venus to wife, the father of Cupid, 70. - - - W. - - Waif, the, description of, by John Morrissey, 314; destined to become - an equal citizen, 315; made Tweedism in New York City possible, 315; - pollutes the fountains of justice, 315, 316; menaces the government - with destruction, 316; permitted by the hundred thousand to develop - into a savage, 316; power of, to tax civilized people, 316. - - Walton, George A., report of, in regard to investigation of the - schools of Norfolk County, Mass., 196-199. - - Wars, modern, of European nations involve no principle, 290. - - Washington University, manual training department of, established in - 1878, 338, 339; excerpts from the prospectus of, 1882-83, showing the - progress of manual training, 339, 340; founding of manual training - department of, due to the energy and foresight of Dr. Woodward first, - and second, to the donations of private citizens, 340, 341. - - Watch Company, Elgin National, makes a thousand watches a day--all - perfect, 87; makes two hundred thousand watch-screws in a few minutes, - 87. - - Watt, James, the last link in the chain of steam-engine inventors, 15; - Dr. Draper’s eulogy of, 15; chief difficulty of, in perfecting the - steam-engine, 84, 85; Smeaton’s opinion that the engine of, could not - be made to work with hand-made tools, 85; sketch of the life and - career of, 119, 120; a dull boy in school, 120; tribute of Sir Walter - Scott to the greatness of, 120; every incident in the life of, now - eagerly sought for, 171. - - Weaving Machinery, improved, opposition to introduction of, in - England, 178. - - Whitney, Eli B., inventor of the cotton-gin, 84. - - William the Conqueror, his appreciation of the importance of land - proprietorship, 317. - - Williams, Roger, the champion of absolute freedom of thought and - speech, 309. - - Wilson, Dr. George, his panegyric on the hand, 145. - - Wisdom, the power of discriminating between what is true and what is - false, 152; the hand used as the synonym of, because it is only in the - concrete that the false is sure of detection, 152. - - Woman, tremendous influence of, upon the destinies of the human race, - 125; neglect of past ages to educate, a crime, 125; education of, more - important than that of man, 128; condition of, in a state of savagery, - 249; reform in education must begin with, 365; the education of, more - imperative than that of man, 365; neglect of the education of, among - the ancients, 366; degradation of, in the Middle Ages, 366; contempt - of, by Bacon, Swift, Addison, and Johnson, 366; Shakespeare’s tribute - to, 366; Ruskin’s worship of, 366; the purity of the home and the - efficiency of the school depends upon, 367; in the van where the - imagination leads, 367; less selfish than man, 367; intuitions of, - truer, ideals higher, sense of justice finer, and of duty stronger - than those of man, 367; the teacher of man from the cradle to the - grave, 367. - - Woodward, Dr. C. M., Director of the St. Louis Manual Training School, - 121; statement of, as to intellectual effect of manual training, 121; - his account of the origin of the St. Louis school, 339. - - Wood-turning laboratory, radical change of, from carpentry--from - angles to spherical, cylindrical, and eccentric forms, 30; the value - in the arts of the lathe, 30; its mythical origin, 33; its application - and uses among the ancients, 34; fashionable in the sixteenth and - seventeenth centuries in England and France, 34; purpose of, is not - to make turners, but to educate boys, 39; the machinery of, in motion, - 39; pen-picture of the students in, 39; the lesson in detail in, 40; - the students at their lathes in, 43; the instructor passes upon the - work of the class in, 44. - - Wootz, or Indian steel, produced near Golconda, and used in the - fabrication of Damascus blades, 72; millions of dollars expended in - efforts to produce the equal of, 72. - - Words, weakness of, 141; cannot attain to definiteness save as living - outgrowths of realities, 150; easy to juggle with, and make the worse - appear the better reason, 224; educational systems still train in, - rather than in things, 325, 326. - - Workingman’s School and Free Kindergarten of New York City, the most - comprehensive educational institution in the world, 342; scope of, - 343; purpose of, identical with that of the manual training school, - 343; methods of instruction in the, 343, 344. - - - Y. - - Yarranton, Andrew, according to Patrick Edward Dove, was the founder - of English political economy, 175. - - - Z. - - Zenophon, after conducting the retreat of the Ten Thousand, led a - detachment of Greeks on a pillaging expedition, 255. - - -THE END - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, etc. (including in proper - names) have been retained, except as mentioned below. - - Depending on the hard- and software and their settings used to read - this text, not all elements may display as intended. - - As explained in the Preface, the book contains both endnotes per - chapter and footnotes. This distinction has been kept in this text, - with the endnotes being numbered E1, E2, E3, ... and the footnotes - having numbers 1, 2, 3, .... - - Page 85, “Machine-made tools were unknown ...: either the closing - quote mark is missing, or the opening quote mark was included - erroneously. - - Page 169: there is a footnote marker * on this page, but no footnote. - - Page 179, paragraph starting When labor was only another name ... and - related foot- and endotes: several quote marks appear to be lacking. - - Page 180, Footnote 36: there probably should have been a closing quote - mark after ... exercises of humanity. - - Page 327, Endnote [E31]: there is no marker in the text for this note. - - Page 400, Minnesota, Minn.: as printed in the source document; - probably an error for Minneapolis, Minn. - - Page 464, Zenophon: the text consistently uses Xenophon. - - - Changes: - - Illustrations and footnotes have been moved out of text paragraphs. - - Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently. - - Table of Contents: Several page numbers have been corrected to the - book’s actual page numbers. - - Page 6, Endnote 1: closing quote mark inserted after ... principles of - scientific education. - - Page 13: closing quote mark inserted after ... be learned by doing - them. - - Page 58: ... accessaries, as anvils, ... changed to ... accessories, - as anvils, .... - - Page 77, Endnote 2: opening quote mark inserted before The inquiry of - truth .... - - Page 171: Maudslay, Clement Murray, Nasmyth changed to Maudslay, - Clement, Murray, Nasmyth. - - Page 194: Opening quote mark inserted before Applying our popular - schemes .... - - Page 257: Endnote marker numbering [E1] corrected to [E11] to conform - to endnotes for this chapter. - - Page 392, footnote [125]: Of the 51 cities tabulated ... changed to Of - the 54 cities tabulated .... - - Page 432: Chicago Manual Training School, equipment of: 341 changed to - 347. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MIND AND HAND *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |