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diff --git a/old/67027-0.txt b/old/67027-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4a63b85..0000000 --- a/old/67027-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5328 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Turquois mosaic art in ancient -Mexico, by Marshall H. Saville - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico - -Author: Marshall H. Saville
- -Release Date: December 27, 2021 [eBook #67027] - -Language: English
- -Produced by: Alan Thompson, Charlene Taylor, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN -ANCIENT MEXICO *** - - - - - - CONTRIBUTIONS - FROM THE - MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN - HEYE FOUNDATION - VOLUME VI - - - - - TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART - IN ANCIENT MEXICO - - -[Illustration: PL. I - -SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - - - - - TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART - IN ANCIENT MEXICO - - BY - MARSHALL H. SAVILLE - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN - HEYE FOUNDATION - 1922 - - - - - CONDÉ NAST PRESS GREENWICH, CONN. - - - - - TO - GEORGE GUSTAV HEYE - - _In appreciation of his long-continued interest in all - that pertains to the study of the aboriginal race of - America, which has reached fruition in the opening of the_ - - MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN - - HEYE FOUNDATION - - _this volume is dedicated by the author and the - staff of the Museum_ - - - - -PREFACE - - -The writer has undertaken the present study of Mexican Turquois Mosaics -in honor of the approaching opening to the public of the Museum of -the American Indian, Heye Foundation, the only institution devoted -exclusively to the study of the aboriginal American peoples ever -established; and the proximate International Congress of Americanists -to be held at Rio de Janeiro this summer. Owing to lack of time it has -been impossible to obtain new photographic illustrations of all the -specimens of mosaic-work in European museums, but the author desires to -express his thanks to T. A. Joyce, Esq., for his courtesy in furnishing -photographs of the examples in the British Museum. To Dr. Franz -Heger, of the State Natural History Museum, Vienna, we are under deep -obligations for photographs and description of the interesting Xolotl -figure preserved in that Museum. Dr. S. K. Lothrop has kindly had -photographs made of the objects of this class in the Prehistoric and -Ethnographic Museum in Rome, and has made certain valuable observations -concerning them. To Drs. A. M. Tozzer and H. J. Spinden special -acknowledgment is due for their generous permission to illustrate the -mosaics from Chichen Itza, thus anticipating their own description of -the objects in the work now being prepared regarding one of the most -important discoveries ever made in ancient America. The fine drawings -are from the pen of William Baake, and the beautiful plates represent -the best efforts of the Heliotype Company. Finally must be acknowledged -the characteristic generosity of one of the trustees of the Museum, -James B. Ford, Esq., who has made it possible for us to publish this -paper, and to whom the Museum is indebted for its acquisition of the -precious collection of Mexican mosaics which are now described for the -first time. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE ix - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS MOSAIC - IN MEXICO 3 - - The Grijalva Expedition, 1518 3 - - Loot obtained by Cortés, 1519-1525 8 - - TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO THE AZTEC RULERS 22 - - SOURCE OF TURQUOIS 27 - - THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORK 29 - - OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC 40 - - EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC 47 - - Minor Examples 48 - - Chichen Itza Specimens 55 - - Major Examples 59 - - Helmet 60 - - Masks 60 - - Skull Masks 67 - - Shields 68 - - Ear-plug 79 - - Animal Figures 80 - - God Figure 82 - - Knife Handles 82 - - Human Femur Musical Instrument 84 - - CONCLUSION 86 - - NOTES 92 - - LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS 103 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PLATES - - PAGE - - I. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration - Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York _Frontispiece_ - - II. Stone idol with mosaic decoration National Museum, - Mexico 22 - - III. _a_, Wooden staff with turquois mosaic decoration, - from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, - Yucatan Peabody Museum, Cambridge - - _b_, Wooden rattle with turquois mosaic decoration, - from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan - Peabody Museum, Cambridge 22 - - IV. Wooden helmet with mosaic decoration British - Museum, London 24 - - V. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration - British Museum, London 26 - - VI. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration - British Museum, London 28 - - VII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration - Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome 30 - - VIII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration - Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome 32 - - IX. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration - Museum of the American Indian, Heye - Foundation, New York 34 - - X. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration - Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 36 - - XI. Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic - decoration Museum of the American Indian, - Heye Foundation, New York 38 - - XII. Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic - decoration Museum of the American Indian, - Heye Foundation, New York 40 - - XIII. Wooden mask with mosaic decoration Museum - of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 42 - - XIV. Wooden mask with mosaic decoration Museum - of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 44 - - XV. Wooden mask (fragment) with mosaic decoration - Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 46 - - XVI. Wooden mask formerly covered with mosaic decoration - Museum of the American Indian, - Heye Foundation, New York 48 - - XVII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration, - from Honduras Museum of the American - Indian, Heye Foundation, New York 50 - - XVIII. Skull mask with mosaic decoration Ethnographical - Museum, Berlin 52 - - XIX. Skull mask with mosaic decoration British Museum, - London 54 - - XX. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration - British Museum, London 56 - - XXI. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration - State Natural History Museum, Vienna 58 - - XXII. Back of wooden shield illustrated in Pl. I. Museum - of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 60 - - XXIII. Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum - of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 62 - - XXIV. Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum - of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 64 - - XXV. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration. - Museum of the American Indian, Heye - Foundation, New York 66 - - XXVI. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration. - Museum of the American Indian, Heye - Foundation, New York 68 - - XXVII. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration. - Museum of the American Indian, Heye - Foundation, New York 70 - - XXVIII. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration. - Museum of the American Indian, Heye - Foundation, New York 72 - - XXIX. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration. - Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 74 - - XXX. Wooden ear-plug with mosaic decoration. Museum - of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, - New York 76 - - XXXI. Wooden head with head-piece, with mosaic decoration. - National Museum, Copenhagen 78 - - XXXII. _a_, Wooden jaguar head with mosaic decoration. - Ethnographical Museum, Berlin - - _b_, Wooden head of animal and human face in - jaws with mosaic decoration. National Museum, - Copenhagen 78 - - XXXIII. _a_, Wooden head of animal with mosaic decoration. - State Natural History Museum, Vienna - - _b_, Wooden head of monkey with mosaic decoration. - British Museum, London 78 - - XXXIV. _a_, Wooden two-headed jaguar figure with mosaic - decoration. Ethnographical Museum, Berlin - - _b_, Wooden bird’s head with mosaic decoration. - Museum, Gotha 78 - - XXXV. Wooden animal figure on haunches with mosaic - decoration. British Museum, London 78 - - XXXVI. Wooden double-headed snake figure with mosaic - decoration. British Museum, London 80 - - XXXVII. Wooden figure of Xolotl god with mosaic decoration. - State Natural History Museum, Vienna 80 - - XXXVIII. Flint knife with wooden handle with mosaic decoration. - British Museum, London 82 - - XXXIX. _a_, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration. - Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome - - _b_, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration. - Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome 82 - - XL. Human femur musical instrument with mosaic - decoration. Prehistoric and Ethnographic - Museum, Rome 84 - - - TEXT FIGURES - - 1. Bowl filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma 24 - - 2. Ten masks of turquois. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma 24 - - 3. Small bag filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of - Montezuma 25 - - 4. Shields with turquois mosaic decoration. After Tribute - Roll of Montezuma 25 - - 5. Serpent scepter with turquois mosaic decoration. After - Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid 43 - - 6. _a_, Gold crown with turquois mosaic decoration. After - Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid - - _b_, Gold crown. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma 45 - - 7. Pottery disc with hematite mosaic decoration, from - Cuilapa, Oaxaca. American Museum of Natural History, - New York 51 - - 8. Gold shield breast ornament with turquois mosaic decoration, - from Yanhuitlan, Oaxaca. National Museum, - Mexico 52 - - 9. Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration, - from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan. - Peabody Museum, Cambridge 57 - - 10. Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration, - from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, - Yucatan. Peabody Museum, Cambridge 57 - - 11. Rattle of the god Xipe Totec. After Sahagun, manuscript - of the Real Palacio, Madrid 58 - - 12. _a_, _b_, _c_, Crowns with mosaic decoration, from sculptured - wall, Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen - Itza, Yucatan. After Maudslay 58 - - 13. Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall, - Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan. - After Maudslay 59 - - 14. Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall, - Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan. - After Maudslay 59 - - 15. Mask of wood with turquois mosaic decoration. Prehistoric - and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After - Pigorini 63 - - 16. God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic. - After Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid 70 - - 17. God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic. - After Sahagun, Florentine manuscript 70 - - 18. Glyphs of the town of Culhuacan. After Codex Telleriano - Remensis 74 - - 19. Knife handle of wood with turquois mosaic decoration. - Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After - Pigorini 83 - - - - -TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO - -BY MARSHALL H. SAVILLE - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -One of the tragedies of the discovery of the New World was the abrupt -and summary blotting out of the flourishing and still advancing -civilization of the Aztec and other Mexican tribes. Had their complete -conquest and subjection been delayed a few decades they in all -probability would have developed a written phonetic language. Their -intellectual abilities are evidenced by a study of the intricate -calendar system, and the picture and hieroglyphic records which -survive. The triumphs of their architectural attainments are well -known, and may be investigated in the numerous monuments and buildings -in the ruined cities scattered throughout Mexico. They had made notable -strides toward civilization in certain of the minor fine arts. Ignorant -of glass and of glazed pottery, they nevertheless developed the -ceramic art to a high degree of excellence. Their inventive genius and -technical skill were manifest in their goldsmith’s art.[1] - -Without the knowledge of iron, in the working of hard precious -and semi-precious stones into idols and personal ornaments, their -craftsmanship was equal to that of the best lapidaries of Europe at -the beginning of the sixteenth century. In the lapidarian art they had -advanced so far as to fashion and adorn many objects with designs, both -geometric and realistic, in stone mosaic, employing turquois chiefly -for this purpose, but also making use of other stones--marcasite and -shell. But the supreme esthetic achievement of the Aztecs was the -production of a class of mosaics in which they used tiny bits of -colored feathers instead of stones in making the designs. This unique -art was employed in adorning objects for personal use, for warfare, or -for priestly ceremonies. The patterns were produced by applying the -tiny bits of feathers with glue either directly on wood or on wooden -objects covered with skin or with native paper. From descriptions of -feather mosaics in the writings of early chroniclers, and from a study -of the handful of specimens which have escaped the ravages of time, it -is evident that this art reached the highest artistic level attained by -any of the aboriginal tribes of America. - -We will not enter into a discussion of feather mosaics at this time, -but will consider primarily the parallel art of turquois mosaic. Aside -from the numerous historical notices contained in the early chronicles -and in the inventories of the loot of the Aztecs sent to Europe by -Cortés, there is little of this art upon which to base a careful -study that has survived. It is one of the most interesting and highly -developed arts of ancient America, but it was practised by only a -few tribes. Apart from the Mexican region where turquois mosaic was -most highly developed, excellent examples have been found with other -ancient remains of the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, and incrusted -objects have also been found with ancient burials on the coast of -Peru, indicating a somewhat similar technique though far less skill in -application. The materials usually employed in Mexico were turquois, -jadeite, malachite, quartz, beryl, garnet, obsidian, marcasite, gold, -bits of red and other colored shell, and nacre. The base upon which -the incrustation was laid was wood, stone, gold, shell, pottery, and -possibly leather and native paper, the mosaic being held in place by -means of a tenacious vegetal pitch or gum, or a kind of cement. - - - - -EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS MOSAIC IN MEXICO - -THE GRIJALVA EXPEDITION, 1518 - - -The first knowledge received by Europeans of the existence of turquois -mosaic objects among the Mexicans was by members of the expedition sent -out from Cuba by the governor, Diego Velásquez, during the spring of -1518, under the command of Juan de Grijalva. After reaching the shores -of Yucatan near the island of Cozumel, the party coasted the Yucatan -peninsula, reaching the territory of the present State of Campeche, -which had been discovered the previous year by Francisco Hernández de -Córdoba. Proceeding westward along unknown lands, they reached a great -river in the State of Tabasco, to which the name of the commandant was -given, and it is still known as Rio de Grijalva. Here, according to -some accounts, the expedition obtained the first specimens of turquois -mosaic. We shall consider this point later. Leaving the Rio de Grijalva -they went westward and arrived at the site of the present city of Vera -Cruz, where they obtained by barter with the Indians a considerable -treasure, including some objects of turquois mosaic, which Grijalva -decided to send immediately to the governor in Cuba with a report of -his discoveries up to that time. Consequently, on June 24, 1518, one of -Grijalva’s captains, Pedro de Alvarado, set out on the return voyage to -Fernandina (Cuba), while Grijalva himself continued the exploration of -the eastern coast of Mexico. - -The provenience of the treasure obtained by Grijalva on this first -expedition of discovery to the coasts of Tabasco and Vera Cruz in 1518 -is not at all clear from the accounts of this voyage in the writings -both of the eye-witnesses themselves and of those who shortly afterward -wrote of the conquest from the reports of the participants in the -events. It has been generally assumed that Grijalva obtained mosaic -objects from the Indians of Tabasco; this is specifically stated -by both Oviedo and Gomara, who recorded detailed accounts of the -Grijalva expedition. The account by Oviedo[2] is even more extended -and valuable than the narrations of the eye-witnesses, namely, Juan -Díaz[3] the chaplain, and the redoubtable Bernal Díaz. Oviedo states -that his account is from the report forwarded to the King of Spain by -the governor Velásquez, who sent out the expedition from Cuba. Gomara, -who for a time was chaplain of Cortés in Spain, never visited the New -World, but had access to the various reports sent to Spain regarding -the conquest. - -Unfortunately in the writings of the eye-witnesses no detailed -descriptive lists are to be found relating just what pieces of -mosaic-work were obtained by Grijalva from the Mayan Indians of Tabasco -and the people of the coast of the present State of Vera Cruz. The -extended account given by Oviedo recites the voyage from day to day and -the character of various objects received from the Tabasco Indians, -followed by the list of specimens obtained from the Mexican Indians -near the Isla de Sacrificios, Vera Cruz. We will quote from these -lists later. Gomara’s list is quite extended. In the first part of -his _Historia de las Indias_ he describes various articles procured -by Grijalva from the Indians at the mouth of the river in Tabasco, -to which his name was applied, followed in turn by the inventory of -objects obtained at San Juan de Ulua, Vera Cruz. In the second part of -his history, the _Conquista de Mexico_, he gives only a single long -inventory of the barter obtained, as he says, “from the Indians of -Potonchan [Tabasco], San Juan de Ulua, and other places of that coast.” -It seems highly probable, however, that such interesting and valuable -loot must have been accompanied with an inventory when it was sent -to Spain late in 1518 or early in 1519 by Governor Velásquez. Oviedo -mentions seeing the things, apparently in Barcelona, in May 1519. It -is possible that both Oviedo and Gomara may have had access to such an -inventory, or if not, they wrote their own descriptions of the objects -after seeing them. - -Bernal Díaz, who accompanied both Grijalva and Cortés to Mexico, -wrote his history nearly fifty years after the stirring events of the -discovery and conquest. He was a prejudiced writer, and seems to have -been largely animated in his old age to tell the story of the conquest -primarily to refute many of the statements of Gomara. Bernal Díaz -writes bluntly at the very outset of his invaluable history, which he -calls the “True History,” that he speaks “here in reply to all that -has been said and written by persons who themselves knowing nothing, -have received no true account from others of what really took place, -but who nevertheless now put forward any statements that happen to suit -their fancy.” While not describing the treasure obtained by Grijalva, -he mentions “some gold jewels some (of which) were diadems and others -were in the shape of ducks like those of Castile, and other jewels like -lizards, and three necklaces of hollow beads, and other articles of -gold not of much value, for they were not worth more than two hundred -pesos.”[4] These he states were obtained from the Indians of Potonchan. -For some reason he apparently was not greatly impressed either by the -technical excellence or by the esthetic beauty of the objects procured -by barter from the vicinity of the present city of Vera Cruz; he simply -writes that the Spaniards were engaged for six days in trading with the -Indians and got more than sixteen thousand dollars’ worth of jewelry of -low-grade gold worked into various forms. He then says: “This must be -the gold which the historians Gomara, Yllescas, and Jovio say was given -by the natives of Tabasco, and they have written it down as though it -were true, although it is well known to eye-witnesses that there is no -gold in the province of the Rio de Grijalva or anywhere near it, and -very few jewels.”[5] Torquemada wrote in later years to the same effect. - -In none of the accounts by the participants of this expedition are -mosaic pieces specifically mentioned. The chaplain of Grijalva’s -fleet, Juan Díaz, states merely that they were given “a mask of gold -beautifully wrought, and a little figure of a man with a little mask of -gold, and a crown of gold beads with other jewels and stone of various -colors.” This report was first printed in Venice, March 3, 1520, -appearing in Italian as an appendix to the _Itinerario_ of Ludovico de -Varthema. - -An anonymous independent relation in Italian of this voyage seems to -have been printed at Venice in the same year under the title _Littera -Mãdata della Insula de Cuba_, etc., the copy in the Marciana Library, -Venice, being the only one known. From a photostat copy of the Italian -we are able to present a translation of the mention of these objects, -somewhat similar to that given by Juan Díaz. The _Littera Mãdata_ -states that the Spaniards obtained “a mask of gold, and the figure of a -man all of gold, seemingly of the age of twelve, and a fan of gold, and -other jewels of divers colors.”[6] - -Another anonymous early printed report, in Latin, without date or place -of printing, affords practically the same information as that contained -in the _Itinerario_ of Juan Díaz and in the _Littera Mãdata_.[7] - -The earliest printed information regarding the Grijalva voyage in which -mosaic objects are specifically noted is in Peter Martyr’s _De Nvper -Sub D. Carolo Repertis Insulis_, printed in Basle in 1521. In speaking -of the valuable objects obtained by Grijalva in Coluacan (Vera Cruz), -and sent to Spain, he mentions that “the cacique brought a small golden -statue of a man, also a gold fan, and a mask beautifully wrought and -decorated with stones.”[8] It will be observed that these objects -correspond with those mentioned in the reports noted above, only that -Peter Martyr speaks of the decoration of the mask with stones. With the -exception of this note by Peter Martyr, who saw the objects in Spain, -there is, as we have said, no special statement regarding mosaic-work -to be found in the earliest known printed accounts of the Grijalva -voyage. In 1535 the great work of Oviedo was first published, and here -we find the following itemized description of pieces of mosaic-work, -said to have been obtained from the Indians of Potonchan, Tabasco.[9] - - Another mask covered from the nostrils upward with well set - mosaic-work of stones resembling turquoises, and from the nostrils - downward with a thin plate of hammered gold. - - Another mask resembling the first, but the stones were placed from the - eyes upward, and below them there were thin plates of beaten gold over - wood, the ears being of turquois mosaic-work. - - Another mask made with bands or rods of wood, two of the strips being - covered with mosaic-work, and the remaining other three with thin - beaten gold. - - A thin disc with a figure of a cemi or devil, covered above with - beaten gold-leaf, and in other parts were scattered some stones. - - A tablet of wood like the headstall of a horse in armor, covered over - with thin gold-leaf, with some strips of black stones well set between - the gold. - - The head of a dog covered with stones, and very well made. - -From Ulua in Vera Cruz these mosaic pieces are noted: - - Two masks of small stones like turquois set over wood like mosaic, - with some spangles of gold in the ears. - - Two guariques of blue stones set in gold, each having eight pendants - of the same. - - A mask of stone mosaic-work. - -In the work of Gomara, printed in 1553, appears also an extended -account of this barter.[10] - -Seler[11] and Lehmann[12] believe that most of the mosaic objects -“apparently came from the eastern provinces, i.e., Tabasco.” -Relying on the authority of both Oviedo and Gomara, Lehmann further -uses in his discussion the original Nahuatl text of Sahagun in -the Florentine manuscript copied and translated by Seler. In this -section of Sahagun’s work relating to the attributes of the Mexican -deities occurs the paragraph, “_In jtlatquj Quetzalcoatl coa-xaiacatl -xiuhticatl achivalli, quetzalapanecaiotl_,” which Lehmann renders, “The -Quetzalcoatl dress, the snake-mask with turquois work, the feather -ornament of the people of Quetzalapan (Tabasco).”[13] But there -is no mention in early chronicles or on early maps of any town _in -this region_ bearing the name Quetzalapan, and Torquemada in giving -an account of some of the wars of Montezuma writes that “during the -twelfth year of his reign (which was in 1514), his armies set out for -the land of the Chichimecas, and entered the Huaxteca, subduing those -of Quetzalapan.”[14] Other places bearing the name Quetzalapan were in -the present states of Morelos, Guerrero, and Colima.[15] In recounting -the episode of the conquest of this town, Clavijero writes explicitly -that “Montezuma sent out an army in 1512 to the north against the -Quetzalapanecas and conquered them with but little loss.”[16] Hence -the place mentioned by Sahagun would seem to have been in Vera Cruz, -and probably the region of Huaxteca or Cuexteca, for the Aztecs had -considerable communication with this territory. - - -LOOT OBTAINED BY CORTÉS, 1519-1525 - -But the treasures of native art secured by the Grijalva expedition were -insignificant by comparison with the enormously valuable loot obtained -the next year (1519) by Cortés. It is not necessary in this study of -Mexican mosaics to enter into the details of the expedition which set -out from Cuba to follow the discoveries of Grijalva and which resulted -in the conquest of Mexico. This has been done many times, but in the -main most weight is given to the writings of the Spanish participants -and to the early chroniclers. We have already studied in considerable -detail the accounts of the art objects sent to Spain by Cortés, as -contained in these early writings, and especially the inventories which -accompanied the shipments of objects sent to Europe by the conqueror. -Let us quote here merely what we wrote in presenting a summary of the -events that occurred when Cortés first landed on the coast of Vera Cruz. - - After the arrival of the Spaniards on the coast of Vera Cruz, the - Indians were not long in ignorance of the consuming thirst of the - conquerors for gold. In order to placate the formidable strangers - with childlike confidence that by giving them their wish the invasion - of his dominions would be averted, Montezuma sent rich presents to - Cortés through Tendile (Teuhtlile), governor of Cuetlaxtla (the - modern Cotastla), which was then subject to the Aztecs. When all this - treasure thus brought together was ready to be sent to Spain, with the - report of the voyage, an inventory or list of the objects was drawn - up and despatched with two special messengers, Alonso Portocarrero - and Francisco de Montejo, who were charged to deliver the treasure to - the King. These valuable gifts have been briefly described by several - members of the expedition who saw them before they left Mexico, - and on their receipt in Spain they were described by various other - chroniclers. - -From the inventory, which we translated, we select the items relating -to objects ornamented with stone mosaic. - - Item: two collars of gold and stone mosaic-work (precious stones).... - - Another item: a box of a large piece of feather-work lined with - leather, the colors seeming like martens, and fastened and placed in - the said piece, and in the center (is) a large disc of gold, which - weighed sixty ounces of gold, and a piece of blue stone mosaic-work a - little reddish, and at the end of the piece another piece of colored - feather-work that hangs from it. - - Item: a miter of blue stone mosaic-work with the figure of monsters in - the center of it, and lined with leather which seems in its colors to - be that of martens, with a small (piece) of feather-work which is, as - the one mentioned above, of this said miter. - - Item: ... a scepter of stone mosaic-work with two rings of gold, and - the rest of feather-work. - - Item: an armlet of stone mosaic-work.... - - Item: a mirror placed in a piece of blue and red stone mosaic-work, - with feather-work stuck to it, and two strips of leather stuck to - it.... - - Item: some leggings of blue stone mosaic-work, lined with leather, of - which the colors seem like martens; on each one of them (there are) - fifteen gold bells. - - Item: two colored (pieces of) feather-work which are for two (pieces - of) head armor of stone mosaic-work.... - - More: two guariques (ear ornaments) of blue stone mosaic-work, which - are to be put in the head of the big crocodile. - - More: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with twenty gold - bells which hang pendent at the border, with two strings of beads - which are above each bell, and two guariques of wood with two plates - of gold. - - Item: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with twenty-five - gold bells, and two beads of gold above each bell, that hang around it - with some guariques of wood with plates of gold, and a bird of green - plumage with the feet, beak, and eyes of gold. - - Moreover: sixteen shields of stone mosaic-work with their colored - feather-work hanging from the edge of them, and wide-angled slab with - stone mosaic-work with its colored feather-work, and in the center of - the said slab, made of stone mosaic-work, a cross of a wheel which is - lined with leather, which has the color of martens. - - Again: a scepter of red stone mosaic-work, made like a snake, with its - head, teeth, and eyes (made) from what appears to be mother-of-pearl, - and the hilt is adorned with the skin of a spotted animal, and below - the said hilt hang six pieces of small feather-work. - - Item: a piece of colored feather-work which the lords of this land - are wont to put on their heads, and from it hang two ear-ornaments of - stone mosaic-work with two bells and two beads of gold, and above a - feather-work of wide green feathers, and below hang some white, long - hairs.[17] - -Peter Martyr, who saw the specimens in Spain shortly after they -arrived, speaks of “certain miters beset with precious stones of divers -colors, among which some are blue, like unto sapphires.” Also “two -helmets garnished with precious stones of a whitish blue color: one of -these is edged with bells and plates of gold, and under every bell two -knobs of gold. The other, beside the stones wherewith it is covered, is -likewise edged with XXV golden bells and knobs: and hath on the crest, -a green bird with the feet, bill, and eyes of gold.”[18] - -Las Casas describes “a helmet of plates of gold, and little bells -hanging (from it), and on it stones like emeralds.” Also “many shields -made of certain thin and very white rods, intermingled with feathers -and discs of gold and silver, and some very small pearls, like -misshapen pearls.”[19] - -These are some of the statements of early Spaniards. Let us now -consider what the Indians have said about the treasure given by -Montezuma to Cortés at that time. Our best source of information is -the great _Historia_ composed by Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, who spent -many years in the valley of Mexico gathering information at first-hand -from intelligent Indians. This was shortly after the conquest when -the natives still retained vivid recollections of the fall of their -country. Without this work the history of ancient Mexico, and of the -customs and traditions of the Indians, could not be written. - -We must not lose sight of the fact that Montezuma, for a number of -reasons which we need not relate here, expected the “second coming” of -the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, the great beneficent god of the Aztecs. -This myth was one of the several causes that led to the comparatively -easy conquest of a numerous and warlike people by the Spaniards. We -have translated several chapters of Sahagun’s _Historia_ relating -to the first coming of the Christians to the coast of Mexico, which -contain a description of some of the gifts sent by Montezuma to Cortés, -while he still believed the Spanish conqueror to be the great god -Quetzalcoatl. It is really a report transmitted to us from the Aztecs, -and is a most fascinating chapter of the history of the conquest of -Mexico.[20] - - CHAPTER II. _Of the first (Spanish) ships which arrived at this land - said to have been those of Juan de Grijalva._ - - The first time that ships appeared on the coast of New Spain, the - captains of Montezuma, who were called calpixques, who were near the - coast, at once went to see what it was that had come, never having - seen ships; one of whom was the calpixque of Cuextecatl, named Pinotl: - other calpixques went with him, one of whom, named Yaotzin, lived in - the town of Mictlanquauhtla, another named Teozinzocatl resided in the - town of Teociniocan, another named Cuitlalpitoc was not a calpixque - but the servant of one of these calpixques, and principalejos, and - another principalejo named Tentlil. These went to see what the thing - was, and carried some things to sell under pretence, so as to see what - the thing was: they carried some rich mantles which only Montezuma, - and no other (person), wore, nor had permission to wear: they entered - canoes and went to the ships, saying amongst themselves, “We are here - to guard this coast; it is right that we should know for a certainty - what this is, in order to carry accurate news to Montezuma.” They - entered at once the canoes and commenced to paddle to the ships, - and when they arrived near the vessels and saw the Spaniards, all - kissed the prows of the ships, in sign of adoration, thinking that - it was the god Quetzalcoatl that had returned, which god, as appears - in the history, was already expected. Then the Spaniards spoke and - said: “Who are you? Whence have you come? From where are you?” Those - who came in the canoes responded, “We have come from Mexico.” The - Spaniards said, “If it is true that you are Mexicans, tell us what - is the name of the Lord of Mexico.” They replied, “Our Lord, he is - called Montezuma,” and then they presented all of those rich mantles - which they had brought to him who went as general of those ships, - who was, as is said, Grijalva, and the Spaniards gave to the Indians - some glass beads, some green and others yellow, and the Indians when - they saw them were very much astonished and esteemed them greatly, - and then they (the Spaniards) dismissed the Indians, saying, “Now we - return to Castile, and will soon return and will (then) go to Mexico.” - The Indians returned to land and soon departed for Mexico, where they - arrived in a day and a night, to give the news of what they had seen - to Montezuma, and they brought to him the beads which had been given - them by the Spaniards, and spoke to him (Montezuma) as follows: “Our - Lord, we are deserving of death; hear what we have seen, and what we - have done. Thou hast placed us on guard at the seashore; we have seen - some gods on the sea, and went to receive them, and give them various - rich mantles; look at these beads that they gave us, saying to us, - ‘Is it true that you are Mexicans? Look at these beads, give them to - Montezuma, that he may know of us.’” And they told him all that had - happened when they were with those (people) on the sea in the ships. - Montezuma responded: “You have come tired and worn out; go and rest. - I have received this (news) in secret, and command you not to say - anything whatever about what has happened.” - - CHAPTER III. _Of what Montezuma disposed after he heard the news from - those who saw the first (Spanish) ships._ - - As soon as he (Montezuma) heard the news from those who had come from - the seashore, he ordered to be called at once the highest chief of - those who were called Cuextecatl, and the others who had come with - the message, and ordered them to place guards and lookouts in all the - farms along the shores of the sea, the one called Naulitlantoztlan, - and the other Mictlanquactla, so that they might see when those ships - returned, and at once give a report. The calpixques and captains then - left, and at once ordered the placing of lookouts on the said farms, - and Montezuma then summoned the most confidential of his chieftains - and communicated to them the news which had arrived, and showed them - the glass beads which the messengers had brought, and said, “It seems - to me that they are precious stones; take great care of them in the - wardrobe that none of them be lost, and if any are lost, those who - have charge of the wardrobe will have to pay.” One year hence, in the - year thirteen rabbit, those who were on guard saw ships on the sea, - and at once came with great speed to give notice to Montezuma. As soon - as he had heard the news, Montezuma despatched men for the reception - of Quetzalcoatl, because he thought that it was him who came, because - they expected him daily, and as he had received news that Quetzalcoatl - had gone by sea toward the east, and the ships came from the eastward, - for this (reason) they thought that it was he: he sent five of his - chief lords to receive him and to present to him a great present, - which he sent. Of those who went the most prominent one was called - Yallizchan, the second in rank Tepuztecatl, the third Tizaoa, the - fourth Vevtecatl, and the fifth Veicaznecatlheca. - - CHAPTER IV. _What Montezuma ordered when he learned the second time - that the Spaniards had returned, this was D. Hernando Cortés._ - - To the above mentioned (messengers) Montezuma spoke, and said, “Look, - it has been said that our Lord Quetzalcoatl has arrived; go and - receive him and listen to what he may say to you with great attention; - see to it that you do not forget anything of what he may say; see - here these jewels which you are to present to him in my behalf, and - which are all the priestly ornaments that belong to him.” First a - mask wrought in a _mosaic of turquois_; this mask had wrought in - the same stones a doubled and twisted snake, the fold of which was - the beak of the nose; then the tail was parted from the head, and - the head with part of the body came over one eye so that it formed - an eyebrow, and the tail with a part of the body went over the other - eye, to form the other eyebrow. This mask was inserted on a high and - big crown full of rich feathers, long and very beautiful, so that on - placing the crown on the head, the mask was placed over the face: it - had for a (central) jewel a medallion of gold, round and wide: it - was tied with nine strings of precious stones, which, placed around - the neck, covered the shoulders and the whole breast: they carried - also a large shield bordered with precious stones with bands of gold - which went from the top to the bottom of it, and other bands of pearls - crossing over the gold bands from the top to bottom of it, and in - the spaces left by these bands, which were like the meshes of a net, - were placed zapitos (little toads) of gold. This shield had edgings - in the lower part; there was attached on the same shield a banner - which came out from the handle of the shield, made of rich feathers: - it also had a big medallion made of _mosaic-work_ which was fastened - and girded around the loins: they carried also strings of precious - stones with gold bells placed in between the stones to be tied to - the ankles: they carried also a bishop’s staff all decorated with - _turquois mosaic-work_, and the crook of it was like the head of a - snake turned around or coiled. They also carried sandals (cotaras) - such as great lords were accustomed to wear. They also carried the - ornaments or finery with which Tezcatlipoca was adorned, which was a - head-piece made of rich feathers which hung down on the back almost to - the waist, and was strewn all over with stars of gold. They carried - also ear-ornaments of gold: they had hanging from them little gold - bells and strings of little white and beautiful sea-shells. From - these strings hung a piece of leather like a plastron (peto), and it - was carried tied in such a manner that it covered the breast down to - the waist: this plastron had strewn on it and hanging from it many - little shells. They carried also a corselet of painted white cloth; - the lower border of this corselet was edged with white feathers in - three strips all around the border: they also carried a rich mantle - the cloth of which was a light blue, and embroidered all over with - many designs of a very fine blue: this mantle was worn around the - waist, the (four) corners tied to the body: over this mantle was - worn a medallion of _turquois [work]_ attached to the body over the - loins: they also carried strings of gold bells to tie around the - ankles, and also white sandals (cotaras) like those the lords are - wont to wear. They also carried the ornaments and decorations of the - god Tlalocantecutli, which were, a mask with its feather-work, and - a banner like the one above mentioned: also wide ear-ornaments of - chalchivitl with snakes of chalchivites inside: and also a corselet - painted with green designs, and strings or collar of precious stones, - and also a medallion with which they girded the loins, like the one - above described, with a rich mantle, with which they girded themselves - like the one described above, and golden bells to place on the feet, - and the staff like the one above described. Other ornaments which they - carried were also of the same Quetzalcoatl, a miter of tiger-skin, and - hanging from the miter a hood of raven’s feathers: the miter also had - a large chalchivitl rounded at the end, and also round ear-ornaments - of _turquois mosaic_ with a hook of gold called ecacozcatl, and a - rich mantle with which he girded himself, and some gold bells for the - feet, and a shield which had in the center a round plate of gold, - which shield was bordered with rich feathers. From the lower part of - the shield came out a sash of rich feathers in the shape of the one - above described: it had a staff wrought in _turquois mosaic_, and - its crook was set with rich stones or conspicuous pearls. They also - had on top of it all some sandals (cotaras), such as the lords were - accustomed to wear. All these things were brought by the messengers - and presented, as they say, to D. Hernando Cortés. Many other things - they presented to him which are not written about, such as a miter of - gold made like a periwinkle with edging of rich feathers which hung - over the shoulders, and another plain miter of gold and other jewels - of gold which are not written about. All these things were placed in - hampers (petacas), and upon taking leave from Montezuma he said to - them, “Go and worship in my name the god who comes, and say to him we - have been sent here by your servant Montezuma: these things which we - bring have been sent by him, for you have come to your dwelling, which - is Mexico.” These messengers set out on the road at once, and arrived - at the seaside, and there took canoes [_cañas_, undoubtedly _canoas_ - was written], and arrived at a place called Xicalanco: from there they - took other canoes with all their clothes, and reached the ships, and - then those of the ships asked them, “Who are you, and whence have you - come?” And those of the canoes answered, “We come from Mexico.” And - those of the ships said to them, “Perchance you are not from Mexico, - but falsely say you are from Mexico and deceive us.” And upon this - they took and gave (bartered?), until they were satisfied on both - sides, and they tied the canoe to the ship, and a ladder was let down, - by which they climbed up to the ship and came to where D. Hernando - Cortés was. - - CHAPTER V. _Of what happened when the messengers of Montezuma entered - the ship of D. Hernando Cortés._ - - They commenced to climb up to the ship on the ladders, and brought - the presents that Montezuma had commanded them to carry. When they - were in front of the captain D. Hernando Cortés, all kissed the ground - [deck] in his presence, and spoke in this wise: “May the god whom we - come to adore in the name of his servant Montezuma, who for him rules - and governs the city of Mexico, know, and who says that the god has - come after much hardship.” And at once they took out the ornaments - they had brought, and placed them in front of the captain D. Hernando - Cortés, adorning him with them, placing first the crown and mask - which has been described above, and all the other things: they put - around his neck the collars of (precious) stones with the jewels of - gold which they had brought, and put on his left arm the shield above - described, and all the other things were placed in front of him in the - order they were accustomed to put their presents. The captain said, - “Is there something more?” And they said to him, “We have not brought - anything else than these things that are here.” The captain at once - ordered them to be tied, and ordered shots of artillery fired, and the - messengers who were tied hand and foot, when they heard the thunder of - the bombardment, fell on the floor like dead, and the Spaniards lifted - them from the floor, and gave them wine to drink, with which they - strengthened them and revived them. After this captain D. Hernando - Cortés said to them, through the interpreter: “Listen to what I say - to you. I have been told that the Mexicans are valiant men, that they - are great conquerors and great warriors, and are very skillful at - arms: they tell me that one Mexican alone is enough to conquer from - ten to twenty of his enemies. I wish to prove whether this is true, - and whether you are so strong as I have been told.” Then he ordered - swords and shields to be given them that they might fight with as many - Spaniards, so that he might see who might win, and the Mexicans then - said to captain Cortés, “May it please your grace to listen to our - excuse, for we are not able to do what you command, and it is because - our Lord Montezuma has sent us to do nothing else than to salute you - and give you this present, we cannot do anything else, nor are we - able to do what you order us, for if we did we should offend our Lord - Montezuma, and he would order us killed.” And the captain responded: - “You will have to do by all means what I say. I have to see what kind - of men you are, for over yonder in our country we have been told that - you are very courageous men: arm yourselves with these arms and be - ready that we encounter one another tomorrow on the (battle) field. - - CHAPTER VI. _Of how the messengers of Montezuma returned to Mexico - with the report of what they had seen._ - - After what has been related was done, they took leave of the - captain, and entered their canoes, and commenced to go toward the - land, paddling with great speed, and saying to one another, “There - are valiant men; let us exert ourselves to paddle before anything - happens.” They arrived very quickly at the town of Xicalanco, and - there they ate and rested a little, and then they got into their - canoes again, and paddling with great speed they arrived at the town - called Tecpantlayacac, and from there began to journey by land, - running with great speed, and they reached the town called Cuetlaxtla: - there they ate and rested a little, and those of the town begged them - that they should rest at least a day, but they responded that they - could not, because they had to go with great speed to make known to - Montezuma what they had seen, very new things, and never before seen - nor heard of, of which no one else could speak about: and so traveling - with great speed by night and day, they arrived in Mexico by night.” - -In the accounts of the vast treasure secured by Cortés from Montezuma -before his untimely death, there is to be found no specific mention -or description of objects decorated with stone mosaic. Much of the -treasure secured in the final sack of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) was lost. -The “empire” of the Aztecs was completely subjugated in 1521. From -that time, and up to 1525, Cortés sent to Europe at various intervals -great quantities of loot, gathered as tribute from the stores of the -Indians, accompanied with inventories, a number of which have been -published. From these inventories we select the following items which -clearly relate to stone mosaic objects. - - _Report of the Feather-work and Jewels sent to Spain to be distributed - to the following Churches and Monasteries and Special Persons._ - [Without date.] - - For the Lord Bishop of Burgos - - Item: something like a staff (crosier) of stone mosaic-work of many - colors, for him (the Bishop). - - _Copy of the Register of the Gold, Jewels, and other Things which - are to go to Spain in the Ship Santa María de la Rábida, its Master - (being) Juan Baptista. (The year 1522.)_ - -This report contains a register of much treasure sent in one of the -several ships which left Mexico in June, 1522, in charge of the -treasurer Julian Alderete, and Alonso Dávila and Antonio de Quiñones, -proctors. The register contains statements of the monetary value of -certain treasure registered by various persons, among whom we find one -Juan de Rivera, who carried treasure for himself, Cortés, and other -persons named in the inventory; but none of the articles is described. -In the margin of the report are notes stating that a considerable -portion remained in the Azores. In another inventory, from which we -shall quote later, are descriptions of certain pieces, jewels, and -feather-work that remained in the Azores in charge of the above-named -proctors. According to Peter Martyr the greater part of this treasure -was destined for the King of Spain, but it never reached him, for the -vessel, which with the others had put into the Azores to escape French -pirates, was captured later by these corsairs and the rich spoils of -the Aztecs went to augment the treasure of Francis I. - -The ship _Santa María de la Rábida_ seems to have arrived in Sevilla -in November, 1522, and Peter Martyr saw the treasure that it brought -and interviewed Juan de Rivera at length concerning the people and -country of New Spain. The account which he wrote, based on a view of -the wonderful objects and what Rivera had told him, comprises an entire -book in the Fifth Decade of his _De Orbe Novo_, first printed in 1530. -It contains a mass of valuable and generally trustworthy information, -gleaned not only at first hand from Rivera, but also from a young -native Mexican whom Rivera had brought to Spain as a slave and servant. -This account supplies certain information describing the treasure, -which is missing in the inventory. The report is so interesting that -we quote what Peter Martyr writes about some of the objects of stone -mosaic-work which Rivera displayed.[21] - - We have been particularly delighted with two mirrors of exceptional - beauty: the first was bordered with a circle of gold, one palm in - circumference, and set in green wood; the other was similar. Ribera - states that there is stone found in these countries, which makes - excellent mirrors when polished; and we admit that none of our mirrors - more faithfully reflect the human face. - - We also admire the artistically made masks. The _superstructure_ is of - wood, covered over with stones, so artistically and perfectly joined - together that it is impossible to detect their lines of junction, with - the fingernail. They seem to the naked eye to be one single stone, - of the kind used in making their mirrors. The ears of the mask are - of gold, and from one temple to another extend two green lines of - emeralds; two other saffron colored lines start from the half-opened - mouth, in which bone teeth are visible; in each jaw two natural teeth - protrude between the lips. These masks are placed upon the faces of - the gods, whenever the sovereign is ill, not to be removed until he - either recovers or dies. - -Peter Martyr gives us details regarding the King’s share of the loot -brought by the _Santa María de la Rábida_, writing as follows: - - Without mentioning the royal fifth, that ship brings the treasure - which is composed of a part of what Cortés amassed, at the cost - of risks and dangers, and the share belonging to his principal - lieutenant: they offer it all in homage to their King. Ribera has been - instructed to present to the Emperor in his master’s [Cortés’] name - the gifts he sends, while the others will be presented in the name of - their colleagues by the officers who, as I have said, remained behind - at the Azores.... The treasure destined for the Emperor is on board - the vessel which has not yet arrived: but it is said that it amounts - to 32,000 ducats of smelted gold in the form of bars. Were all the - rings, jewels, shields, helmets, and other ornaments now smelted, the - total would amount to 150,000 ducats. The report has spread, I know - not how, that French pirates are on the watch for these ships: may - they come safely in. - -As we have stated, the ships were captured and the treasure was -irretrievably lost to the Spaniards. An inventory of the treasure, -preserved in Spain, reads: - - _Statement of Pieces, Jewels, and Feather-work sent from New Spain for - His Majesty, and that Remained in the Azores in the Charge of Alonso - Dávila and Antonio Quiñones._ [Without date.] - - Statement of the pieces, jewels, and feather-work that are sent to - Their Majesties in the following boxes: - - A shield with blue stone mosaic-work with its rim of gold. - - A shield of stone mosaic-work, with a rim of blue and red feathers. - - A shield of stone mosaic-work, the casco (crown) of feathers and the - clasps of gold, and on the rim some long green feathers. - - A shield of stone mosaic-work and confas (shells) with some pendants - on the rim, of large and small gold bells. - - _Report of the Objects of Gold that are Packed in a Box for His - Majesty which are Sent in Care of Diego de Soto._ [Without date.] - - A face of gold with the features of stone mosaic-work. - - A face of tiger-skin [_sic_] with two ear-ornaments of gold and stone - mosaic-work. - - _Report of the Things Carried by Diego de Soto from the Governor in - Addition to what he Carries Listed in a Notebook of Certain Sheets of - Paper for His Majesty_. [Without date.] - - A large shield with some moons of stone mosaic-work and with much gold. - - Two stone mosaic-work shields. - -The final inventory from which we extract items relating to stone -mosaic-work objects is dated 1525. It is: - - _Report of the Gold, Silver, Jewels, and Other Things that the - Proctors of New Spain Carry to His Majesty._ (_Year of 1525_.) - - A large head of a duck of blue stone mosaic-work. - - Two pieces of gold, such as the natives of these parts wear in their - ears with some red and blue stones, weighing altogether ten pesos. - - A bracelet with four greenstones set in gold like the hoof of a stag. - Not weighed. - - Another bracelet of gold with ten pieces like azicates, and two claws - of greenstone set in gold. - - An armlet of tiger-skin with four greenstones and four small bars of - gold of little weight. - - A shell like a venerica set in gold with a greenstone in the center. - - A large shell set in gold with a face of greenstone, with some blue - and yellow little stones around the neck. - - A butterfly of gold with the wings of venera, and the body and head of - greenstone. - - Two veneras, one purple and the other yellow, each one respectively - with greenstones in the center and other blue ones around it, set in - gold. - - Another white venera, set in gold, having some blue and red eyes, the - one inserted in the other. - - A monster of gold with some greenstone mosaic-work in the belly, - weighing altogether eleven pesos. - - A poniard (or jewel broncha) of white shell set in gold, weighing - altogether thirty-seven pesos, five tomins. - - A butterfly of shell, of fancy work, set in gold, weighing altogether - eleven pesos, six tomins.[22] - - - - -TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO THE AZTEC RULERS - - -Mosaic objects, and especially the raw material for their manufacture, -formed a part of the annual tribute paid by some of the coast provinces -of ancient Mexico to the Aztec kings of Tenochtitlan. We have the -pictorial representation of some of the objects of such tribute in -an important native book or codex, painted in colors on maguey fiber -paper, known as the Tribute Roll of Montezuma. This original codex was -at one time in the famous Boturini collection, and is now one of the -treasured possessions of the Museo Nacional in the City of Mexico. It -lacks, however, several leaves which were abstracted about a century -ago, and which came into possession of Joel R. Poinsett, who had been -American Minister to Mexico, and who presented them to the American -Philosophical Society of Philadelphia in 1830, where they now are. On -the pages have been written explanations of the pictures and figures -in both Nahuatl and Spanish. “The Nahuatl words look as if made by -a pencil, style, or short brush similar to that used in delineating -the figures, and with a sepia-like preparation; while the Spanish -ones have evidently been made with an ink containing iron, and an -instrument which disturbed the gloss of the paper, as is shown by its -penetration to fibres adjacent, giving the lines a sort of hazy margin -occasionally.”[23] - -Some time between the years 1534 and 1550, Don Antonio de Mendoza, the -first Viceroy of Mexico, during this period, had the Indians prepare -for the Emperor Charles V, a book on European paper, containing a -pictorial account, in colors, of some things relating to the history -and life of the natives of the Mexican plateau. It was painted in three -sections, the first being a chronological record of the Aztec kings and -their conquests, the third relating to the habits and customs of the -natives and especially of the education of Mexican youth. - -[Illustration: PL. II - -STONE IDOL: THE GODDESS COATLICUE, WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -NATIONAL MUSEUM, MEXICO] - -[Illustration: PL. III - -STAFF AND RATTLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -PEABODY MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE] - -The _second_ part was a copy of the Tribute Roll above referred to. -These pictures were given to other Indians for the interpretation of -their import, which was written down in the Nahuatl language, and -another person, well versed in both the Indian and Spanish languages, -made a translation into Spanish, which was incorporated in the book. -It was then despatched to Spain, probably about the year 1549, but the -vessel was captured by French pirates, and the book came into the hands -of the French geographer, André Thevet, in 1553. After Thevet’s death -it was purchased, about the year 1584, by Richard Hakluyt, at that time -chaplain to the English Ambassador to France. Hakluyt bequeathed the -volume to Samuel Purchas, who published it, without colors, with an -English translation of the text, in _Purchas His Pilgrimes_, London, -1625. The English text was translated into French and accompanied with -the plates was published by Melchisedec Thevenot in his _Relations des -Divers Voyages_, in 1663. The codex ultimately became the property -of Selden, and with some other original Mexican codices later became -a part of the Bodleian Library at Oxford, where it is now preserved. -In 1831, Lord Kingsborough issued it for the first time in colors, -together with a new and more accurate English rendering of the Spanish -text, in his monumental work on the _Antiquities of Mexico_. - -The Tribute Roll was published by Archbishop Lorenzana in Mexico in -1770, in his edition of the _Cartas de Cortés_, the drawing, uncolored, -being traced in a very inferior manner from the original in Mexico. -Finally, Dr. Antonio Peñafiel included a beautiful colored facsimile of -the Tribute Roll in his work, _Monumentos del Arte Mexicano Antiguo_, -published in Berlin in 1890, the missing leaves, in Philadelphia, -being reproduced from a very poor drawing of the codex on European -paper, probably executed for Boturini. These leaves were published in -exact facsimile in 1892, with an article entitled, The Tribute Roll of -Montezuma, edited by Dr. D. G. Brinton and Henry Phillips, in vol. XVII -of the _Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1] - -On plate XVIII (we refer to the Peñafiel edition), in the second -section of the plate, among other objects of tribute is a small bowl -containing pieces of cut turquois (see fig. 1). In the explanation -given by Purchas, this item is described as “a little panne full of -Turkes stones,” and in the Kingsborough text it has been translated -“a little vessel of small turquois stones.” On the plate published -by Lorenzana is the caption, “Matlauac Rosilla con q. se tiñe -azul.” The word _matlauac_ is probably a corruption of the Nahuatl -word _matlaltic_, meaning ‘blue,’ but the rest of the sentence in -Spanish is confused, for _rosilla_ means ‘reddish,’ and _con q. se -tiñe azul_, ‘with which they dyed blue,’ seems to indicate that the -phrase is incomplete. Accompanying the objects depicted as tributes -are the hieroglyphs of the towns which paid them. These glyphs have -been interpreted in the same manner in all of the reproductions -of the codex, but we use the spelling adopted by Peñafiel, in -preference to that given by Purchas or by Kingsborough. They are: -(1) _Quiyauhtecpan_, “temple of rain or of its deities” _Tlaloc_ -or _Chalchiuhtlicue_; (2) _Olinalan_, “place of earthquakes;” (3) -_Cuauhtecomatlan_, “place of tecomates;” (4) _Cualac_, “place of good -drinkable water;” (5) _Ichcatlan_, “cotton-plantation;” (6) _Xala_, -“sandy ground.” These places are given in the explanation as being -“cities of warm provinces.” - -In the third section of the same plate (XVIII) are the objects shown in -figs. 2 and 3. Peñafiel writes of fig. 2 as “ten little figures worked -in turquois.” Only one object painted blue is depicted, the number -ten being indicated by the ten dots. That masks form this tribute is -clearly evident; in Purchas the description is “tenne halfe faces of -rich blew Turkey stones,” and in Kingsborough, “likewise 10 middling -sized masks of rich blue stones like turquois.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 2] - -[Illustration: PL. IV - -HELMET OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3] - -The second item in this section (fig. 3) is described by Peñafiel as “a -small bag of the same stones.” Kingsborough’s statement is, “a large -bag of the said blue stones,” while in Purchas the translation reads, -“a great trusse full of the said Turkey stones.” On the bag which is -painted blue, with two red vertical bands, is the Aztecan hieroglyph -for stone, _tetl_. The towns whence this tribute was exacted are: -(1) _Yoaltepec_, “place consecrated to the deity of the night;” (2) -_Ehaucalco_, “in the place of tanning;” (3) _Tzilacapan_, “river of -chilacayotes;” (4) _Patlanalan_, “place where parrots abound;” (5) -_Ixicayan_, “where the water comes down;” (6) _Ichcaatoyac_, “river of -cotton.” These cities are of the warm provinces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4] - -The only finished objects of mosaic-work in the Tribute Roll are -on plate XXXII. This is one of the leaves of the original codex in -Philadelphia, and we have traced fig. 4 from this original. They are -described by Purchas as “two pieces like platters decked or garnished -with rich Turkey stones.” Kingsborough mentions them as “two pieces -like salvers ornamented or set with rich turquoise stones.” Lorenzana -has correctly printed the legend which we find reproduced in the -Philadelphia publication of this leaf; it is “_Ontetl xiuhtetl_,” -followed by the Spanish, “turquesas o piedras finas.” _Ontetl_ is -Nahuatl for “two,” and _xiuhtetl_, or _xiuitl tetl_, “turquois stone.” -The mosaic character of these two pieces is graphically represented by -the ancient artist. The towns paying the tribute illustrated on this -sheet are as follows: (1) _Tochpan_, or _Tuchpan_, “over the rabbit;” -(2) _Tlaltizapan_, “place situated over chalk;” (3) _Cihuateopan_, “in -the temple of Cihuacoatl;” (4) _Papantla_, “place of the priests;” (5) -_Ocelotepec_, “place of the ocelot;” (6) _Mihuapan_, “river of the ears -of corn;” (7) _Mictlan_, “place of rest.” - -In the _Crónica_ of Tezozomoc is an account of the campaign of the -Aztecan king Ahuitzotl into southern Mexico in 1497. The towns of -Xuchtlan, Amaxtlan, Izhuatlan, Miahuatla, Tecuantepec, and Xolotlan, -in the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, had revolted against him. -After the complete rout of the rebellious Indians, it was related -by Tezozomoc that “the kind of arms carried by the coast people -was very rich, so much so that the undisciplined soldiers began to -strip the bodies of the dead of the very rich feather-work pieces -called _quetzalmanalli_, and from their military ornaments remove a -round emerald like a mirror which sparkled in its perfection, called -_xiuhtezcatl_. Others of the dead carried on the back of their arms -that which was called _yacazcuil_, outside of fine gold, and in the -nose they wore stones; others (wore) gold, and the shield which they -carried had a very rich greenstone in the center, and around it a -decoration of very fine stones set in (mosaic-work), said shield being -called _xiuhchimal_.” Those who remained after the slaughter came to -Ahuitzotl, saying: “Our Lords, let us speak. We will give our tribute -of all that is produced and yielded on these coasts, which will be -chalchihuitl of all kinds and colors, and other small stones called -_teoxihuitl_ (turquois) for setting in very rich objects [mosaic], -and feathers of the richest sort brought forth in the whole world, -very handsome birds, the feathers of which are called _xiuhtototl_, -_tlaquechol_, _tzinitzcan_, and _zacuan_; tanned skins of the tiger -(ocelot), lions (puma), and great wolves, and other stones veined with -many divers colors.”[24] - -In the same _Crónica_ we read that Montezuma, who succeeded Ahuitzotl -after his death in 1502, received a royal tribute from his vassals in -Xaltepec, a coast town of Tehuantepec, among which were “broad collars -[_sic_] for the ankles, strewn with gold grains and very rich stone -mosaic-work.”[25] - -[Illustration: PL. V - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - - - - -SOURCE OF TURQUOIS - - -The source of the considerable quantity of turquois used in Mexico -in pre-Spanish times for personal ornaments and mosaic incrustation -is still an unsolved problem. Thus far no prehistoric workings have -been found in Mexico. Only recently turquois has been discovered at -the silver mines at Bonanza, Zacatecas, but Dr. Kunz, who has called -our attention to this, writes that he has no information regarding -prehistoric workings there.[26] In the extensive bibliography on the -geology of Mexico by Aguilar y Santillan[27] we find only a single -entry for turquois, that being the study of Mexican mosaics in Rome by -Pigorini.[28] Pogue[29] writes that there are no important turquois -deposits that do not show signs of prehistoric exploitation, and he -is also of the opinion that it is very difficult to trace the source -of the turquois used by the Indians of ancient Mexico and Central -America. Pogue’s conclusion is that “as no occurrence at all adequate -as an important source has been discovered south of the present Mexican -boundary, it therefore seems probable that the Aztecs and allied -peoples, through trade with tribes to the north, obtained supplies -of turquois from the Cerrillos hills [New Mexico] and perhaps other -localities of the Southwest.” - -Sahagun is the only early chronicler who affords information concerning -this point. He writes explicitly that “the Toltecs had discovered -the mine of precious stones in Mexico, called _xiuitl_, which are -turquoises, which mine, according to the ancients, was in a hill called -Xiuhtzone, close to the town of Tepotzotlan [State of Hidalgo].” We -will quote other statements by Sahagun concerning turquois: - - The turquois occurs in mines. There are some mines whence more or less - fine stones are obtained. Some are bright, clear, and transparent; - while others are not.... _Teoxiuitl_ is called turquois of the gods. - No one has a right to possess or use it, but always it must be - offered or devoted to a deity. It is a fine stone without any blemish - and quite brilliant. It is rare and comes from a distance. There are - some that are round and resemble a hazelnut cut in two. These are - called _xiuhtomolli_.... There is another stone, used medicinally, - called _xiuhtomoltetl_, which is green and white, and very beautiful. - Its moistened scrapings are good for feebleness and nausea. It is - brought from Guatemala and Soconusco [State of Chiapas]. They make - beads strung in necklaces for hanging around the neck.... There are - other stones, called _xixitl_; these are low-grade turquoises, flawed - and spotted, and are not hard. Some of them are square, and others are - of various shapes, and they work with them the mosaic, making crosses, - images, and other pieces.[30] - -If we are to credit Sahagun, turquois was worked not only in the -immediate region of the central Mexican plateau, but they received -supplies from distant points, and specifically from Chiapas and -Guatemala. The raw material mentioned in the Tribute Roll of Montezuma -as coming from coast towns and from the south, must also be taken into -consideration. Hence, notwithstanding the present lack of information -respecting the localities where turquois is to be found _in situ_ -in central and southern Mexico, we cannot reject the opinion that -ultimately ancient workings will be found at more than one site in -Mexico. We do not believe it necessary to assume that the source -of supply of both the Toltecs and the Aztecs, as well as of other -tribes, such as the Tarasco, and the Mixtec and Zapotec, which also -made use of this material, was the far-distant region of New Mexico. -It was formerly asserted by some students that the jadeite of Middle -America must have come by trade from China,[31] because no deposits -have as yet been found in the former region; but it is now known by -chemical analysis that the Middle American jadeite is distinct from -that of Asia. In fact, the writer has long held that not alone in one, -but in at least five, different localities, jadeite will in time be -discovered.[32] - -[Illustration: PL. VI - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - - - - -THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORKS - - -The development of the art of the lapidaries and mosaic-workers, like -that of the goldsmiths, is attributed by Sahagun to the Toltecs, under -the beneficent influence of Quetzalcoatl, the culture hero god. In -treating of the pre-Aztec people called Tultecas, or people of Tollan -or Tula, by Sahagun, he states that they were very skilful in all that -pertained to the fine arts. He writes: - - The Tultecas were careful and thorough artificers, like those of - Flanders at the present time, because they were skilful and neat in - whatsoever they put their hands to; everything (they did) was very - good, elaborate, and graceful, as for example, the houses that they - erected, which were very beautiful, and richly ornamented inside with - certain kinds of precious stones of a green color as a coating (to the - walls), and the others which were not so adorned were very smooth, - and worth seeing, and the stone of which they were fashioned appeared - like a thing of mosaic.... They also knew and worked pearls, amber, - and amethyst, and all manner of precious stones, which they made into - jewelry.[33] - -We find another statement to the effect that-- - - The lapidary is very well taught, and painstaking in his craft, a - judge of good stones, which, for working, they take off the rough part - and bring together or cement with others very delicately with bitumen - or wax, in order to make mosaic-work.[34] - -In the pictorial section of the Florentine manuscript of Sahagun,[35] -in the Codex Mendoza,[36] and in the Mappe Tlotzin,[37] are pictures -delineating artisans engaged in various crafts, such as weavers, -painters, carpenters (wood-carvers), stone carvers, lapidaries, -goldsmiths, and feather-mosaic workers, yet we find no actual -representation of turquois-mosaic workers. In the third section of -the Codex Mendoza appears a picture of a father teaching his son the -secrets of the lapidary’s art. The interpreter of the codex writes: - - The trades of a carpenter, jeweler (lapidary), painter, goldsmith, - and embroiderer of feathers, accordingly as they are represented and - declared, signify that the masters of such arts taught these trades - to their sons from their earliest boyhood, in order that, when grown - up to be men, they might attend to their trades and spend their time - virtuously, counseling them that idleness is the root and mother of - vices, as well as of evil-speaking and tale-bearing, whence followed - drunkenness and robberies, and other dangerous vices, and setting - before their imaginations many other grounds of alarm, that hence they - might submit to be diligent in everything. - -The elaborate series of pictures of the various crafts in the -Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (laminas liv to lxiv) includes those -that show in detail the work of the goldsmiths and the feather-workers; -but the illustrations devoted to the lapidaries we are unable to -correlate, in the absence of the text, with the Nahuatl text of the -Sahagun manuscript in the Real Academia de la Historia in Madrid, which -we will give later from the study by Dr. Seler containing a translation -of the native text into French. This description of the work of the -lapidaries informs us only concerning the working and polishing of the -stones. Unlike the other accounts by Sahagun regarding the goldsmiths -and the feather-workers, which enlighten us with respect to the details -of these two fine arts, he does not here enter into any description -concerning the delicate work of the artists who fashioned the beautiful -pieces of stone mosaic. Although such work was turned out by the -Aztecan workmen, as we have already demonstrated, it seems highly -probable that in times immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, the -Aztecan kings Ahuitzotl and Montezuma obtained a considerable number of -such objects through tribute and by barter with the tribes living in -what are now the states of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and western Chiapas. As -our knowledge of Mexican archeology, now all too meager, is extended, -it is very probable that we will find vestiges of this art in the -Pacific state of Guerrero, where great numbers of jadeite and other -greenstone objects have been discovered, with a respectable number -of specimens indicating the high artistic skill of the indigenes of -that section. We may also hope to find relics of this art in the area -of Matlaltzincan culture to the north of the valley of Mexico, and -also in the field of Tarascan culture in the states of Michoacan and -Jalisco, for, as will be related, mosaic specimens have been recovered -from ancient ruins as far north as the State of Zacatecas. - -[Illustration: PL. VII - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME] - -Sahagun’s account (chap. II) of the work of the lapidaries we herewith -append, with the Nahuatl text and a translation of the French rendering -by Seler.[38] - - 1. _In tlateque tulteca ynic quitequi yn yztac tehuilotl yoan - tlapaltehuilotl yoan chalchiuitl yoan quetzalitztli ynica teoxalli - yoan tlaquauac tepuztli._ - - 1. The lapidary artisans cut rock-crystal, amethyst, emerald, both - common and precious, by means of emery and with an instrument of - tempered copper: - - 2. _Auh ynic quichiqui tecpatl tlatetzotzontli._ - - 2. And they scraped it by means of cutting flint. - - 3. _Auh ynic quicoyonia ynic quimamali teputztlacopintli._ - - 3. And they dug it out (hollowed) and drilled it by means of a little - tube of copper. - - 4. _Niman yhuian quixteca quipetlaua quitemetzhuia, auh yn yc - quicencaua._ - - 4. And then they faceted it very carefully; they burnished (polished) - it and gave it the final luster. - - 5. _Ytech quahuitl yn quipetlaua ynic pepetlaca, ynic motonameyotia - ynic tlanextia._ - - 5. They polished it set in wood, so that it comes to be very - brilliant, shining, glossy. - - 6. _Anoço quetzalotlatl ynitech quilau ynic quicencaua ynic - quiyecchiua yn intultecayo tlatecque._ - - 6. Or they polish it mounted in bamboo, and the lapidaries finish it - thus, and conclude their work. - - 7. _Auh çannoiuhqui yn tlapaltehuilotl ynic mochiua ynic mocencaua._ - - 7. And in the same manner they work and smooth amethyst. - - 8. _Achtopa quimoleua quihuipeua teputztica yn tlatecque yn tulteca - ynic yyoca quitlatlalia yn qualli motquitica tlapaltic yn itaqui._ - - 8. In the first place the lapidary artisans break into pieces the - amethyst and crush it with an instrument of copper, for they work only - the beautiful pieces which are entirely reddish. - - 9. _Çan niman yuhqui tlatlalia yn campa monequiz quimoleua tepuztica._ - - 9. They do not set up the precious stones named in this manner, except - in the parts where it is necessary, when they break them with the - copper instrument. - - 10. _Auh niman quichiqui quixteca yoan quitemetzhuia yoan quipetlaua - ytech quahuitl yn tlapetlaualoni ynic quiyectilia ynic quicencaua._ - - 10. Then they scrape it, and they facet it, and they smooth it, and - they polish it, mounted in wood, set on the instrument called polisher - or burnisher, and they manufacture and finish it. - - 11. _Auh yn yehoatl yn moteneua eztecpatl ca cenca tlaquauac chicauac - camo ma vel motequi ynica teoxalli._ - - 11. The stone called blood silex (heliotrope) is very hard and very - strong, and they do not cut it well with emery. - - 12. _Çaçan motlatlapana motehuia._ - - 12. They break it and they cut it up in any kind of way. - - 13. _Yoan motepehuilia yn itepetlayo yn amo qualli, yn amo uel no - mopetlaua._ - - 13. And they throw away the vein-stone, the useless stone, that which - does not lend itself readily to polishing. - - 14. _Çan yehoatl mocui motemolia yn qualli, yn vel mopetlaua yn eztic, - yn uel cuicuiltic._ - - 14. They do not take or seek except the beautiful pieces that lend - themselves to good polishing, the red-banded, that permit themselves - to be well cut. - - 15. _Michiqui atica yoan ytech tetl cenca tlaquauac vnpa uallauh yn - matlatzinco._ - - 15. They rub them with water and mounted in a very hard stone that - comes from the country of Matlatzinca [district of Toluca]. - - 16. _Ypampa ca uel monoma namiqui, yniuh chicauac tecpatl noyuh - chicauac yn tetl, ynic monepanmictia._ - - 16. And because these two stones are companions, the one to the other, - as the silex is very hard, so the stone is hard, they kill one another - (the one kills the other). - - 17. _Çatepan mixteca yca teoxalli yoan motemetzhuia yca ezmellil._ - - 17. Then they facet and polish them by means of emery. - - 18. _Auh çatepan yc mocencaua yc mopetlaua, yn quetzalotlatl._ - - 18. And they finish and polish them with bamboo. - - 19. _Ynic quicuecueyotza quitonameyomaca._ - - 19. In this way they make them scintillate and give to them a luster - like the rays of the sun. - - 20. _Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia vitzitziltecpatl niman yuh yolli - tlacati._ - - 20. And that which they call hummingbird silex (stone of a thousand - colors) is (in color like) an animal of that nature. - - 21. _Miyec tlamantli ynic mocuicuiloua, iztac yoan xoxoctic yoan - yuhquin tletl, anoço yuhqui citlali yoan yuhquin ayauhcoçamalotl._ - - 21. It is tinted (painted) in a thousand colors, white, blue, clear - brilliant red, black with white spots, and the color of the rainbow. - - 22. _Çan tepiton xalli ynic michiqui ynic mopetlaua._ - - 22. They scrape it and simply polish it with fine sand. - - 23. _Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia xiuhtomolli camo tlaquauac camo - ezmellil ytech monequi ynic michiqui ynic mixteca yoan ynic - motemetzhuia yoan ynic mopetlaua ynic moquetzalotlahuiaya ynic - motonameyotia motlanexyotia._ - - 23. The stone that they call round turquois is not very hard, so - they have no need of emery to scrape, facet, smooth, or polish, for - they apply to it the bamboo, then it receives its radiant luster and - brilliancy. - - 24. _Auh yn yehoatl teoxihuitl ca amo cenca tlaquauac._ - - 24. The fine turquois is not very hard either. - - 25. _Çanno tepiton xalli ynic mopetlaua ynic moyectilia auh yn - uel no yc motlanextilmaca motonameyomaca occentlamantli ytoca - xiuhpetlaualoni._ - - 25. They polish it likewise with fine sand and they give to it a very - brilliant luster and radiance by the method of another polisher, - called the polisher of turquois. - -[Illustration: PL. VIII - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME] - -Regarding the patron deities of the lapidaries, Sahagun has given us a -detailed account which is so interesting that we translate _in extenso_. - - The lapidaries who worked precious stones in the time of their - pagandom adored four gods, or better said devils: the first was - called _Chicunavitzcuintli_, the second _Naoalpilli_, the third - _Macuilcalli_, and the fourth _Cintcutl_: to all these last three - gods they made a festival when there reigned the sign or character - called _Chicunavitzcuintli_, which is a woman, and for this (reason) - they painted it so: to this (one) they attributed the cosmetics of the - women, and in order to signify this they painted it with a crosier - in the right hand, and in the left they put a shield, in the which - (shield) there was represented a foot. They also put ear-ornaments of - gold on it, and from the cartilage of the nose hung a butterfly of the - same metal, and they dressed it (the idol) with a _uipil_ and woman’s - shirt that was woven white and red, and also the skirts: they put on - some sandals, also colored, having some paintings that appeared like - almonds. To all these four (gods) they gave their images or their - titles, so that they might die in their service on the day of their - festival. That one called _Naoalpilli_ they decked out, and they cut - the strands of hair in unequal lengths, very badly cut, disheveled or - standing on ends, and divided in two parts. They put on the forehead - a delicate plate of gold (thin) like paper, some earrings of gold in - the ears, and in the hand a crosier decorated with rich feathers, and - in the other (hand) a shield made like a net, and in four parts it had - rich feathers badly placed. They also dressed it with a jacket woven - white and red, with edging in the lower end: they also put on it some - colored sandals. And the other god, called _Macuilcalli_, they also - composed like a man, the hair cut in the middle of the head like a - ridge, that is called _quachichiquille_, and this ridge was not of - hair but made of the richest feathers. They placed in the temples some - plates of delicate gold, and a jewel hung from the neck also, made - of a round and wide marine shell. In the hand a crosier made of rich - feathers was placed, and in the other hand was a shield with some - circles of red, some inside the others; they had the body painted - vermilion color, and they also put on it some sandals of the same - color. The other god, called _Cinteutl_, was fashioned in the likeness - of a man, with a mask wrought like mosaic-work, with some rays of the - same (mosaic-work), coming out of the same mask. They put on it a - jacket of cloth dyed light-blue; a jewel of gold hung from the neck. - They place it (the idol) on a high platform from which it looked out, - which platform, called _cincalli_, was composed of cornstalks after - the manner of a _xacal_. They adorned it with some white sandals, - the fastenings of which were made of loose cotton; they say that to - these gods they attribute the artifice of working precious stones, of - the making of barbotes (the tops of helmets), and ear-ornaments of - black stone, of crystal, and of amber, and of other white (stones). - They also attribute to these gods the working of beads, anklets, - strings of pearls which they carried on their wrists, and all kinds of - work in stones and chalchihuites, and the hollowing-out and polishing - of all the stones; they said that these gods had invented it, and for - this reason they were honored as gods, and to them the elder artisans - of this craft and all the other lapidaries made a festival. By night - they intoned their hymns and set the captives who were to die, on - watch in their honor, and they did not work during the festival. This - (festival) was celebrated in Xochimilco, because they said that the - forefathers and ancestors of the lapidaries had come from that town, - and there was the place of origin of these artisans.[39] - -[Illustration: PL. IX - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK] - -The ruler of the eighteenth week of the astrological calendar, or -_tonalamatl_, was a goddess named _Chantico_ or _Quaxolotl_, also -nicknamed _Chiconaui-itzcuintli_,[40] from the ninth day of the -thirteen-day period or week. Seler writes: - - She was the goddess of Xochimilco, and consequently also the chief - deity of the guild of the tlatecque, of the stone cutters, the - stone polishers, the jewelers, who were also supposed to come from - Xochimilco. (Duran calls her wrongly Ciuacoatl and identifies her - with the goddess of Colhuacan, which place stood opposite the city - of Xochimilco).... Besides _Chiconaui-itzcuintli_ the stone-cutters - had still a few other titles for the goddess. Such were Papaloxaual - and Tlappepalo, i.e., “she of the red butterfly painting,” and - “she with the red butterfly,” and these have reference to fire.... - The stone-cutters also gave their goddess a butterfly as her nasal - ornament, which, red and white, are the colors of her robe.[41] - -In some of the different versions or paintings of the _tonalamatl_ -contained in old Mexican codices, opposite the delineation of the -goddess Chantico there is placed a fasting man in an enclosure. In both -Codex Borbonicus[42] and Codex Telleriano Remensis,[43] this figure is -found. Seler describes it as-- - - an enclosure inlaid with gold discs or rings. The interpreter - designates it as “house of gold.” Beyond doubt this name has - reference to one of the four little fasting houses (_necaualcalli_) - which the hero of Tollan, Quetzalcoatl, built for himself, and - naturally corresponded to the four quarters of the heavens, the - first of which was said to be made of gold or embellished with gold - (_coztic teocuitlacalli_), the second decorated with red musselshells - (_tapachcalli_), the third with turquoises (_xiuihcalli_), the fourth - with white musselshells (_teccizcalli_).[44] - -Seler draws this inference from the legend given by Sahagun, which we -have translated in full below. - -As often is the case, there is some confusion in the description -of Chantico in the early writings. This deity is also asserted to -be a male. In the explanation of the Codex Telleriano Remensis the -attributes of Chantico or Cuaxolotle are recited. It is said that-- - - Chantico presided over these thirteen signs (a division of the - tonalamatl, or divinatory calendar), and was the lord of chile or of - the yellow woman. He was the first who offered sacrifice after having - eaten fried fish; the smoke of which (sacrifice) ascended to heaven; - at which Tonacotli (Tonacatecutli, the father of all the gods) became - incensed, and pronounced a curse against him that he should be changed - into a dog, which accordingly happened, and he named him Chantico on - this account, which is another name for Miquitlatecotle. From this - transgression the destruction of the world ensued. He was called Nine - Dogs, from the sign on which he was born. Chantico or Cuaxolotle - is the symbol which the country people of Xolotle wear on their - heads.[45] (The symbol of the city of Xolotlan in the Codex Mendoza is - the head of a Dog.) - -In the Sahagun manuscript of the Real Palacio in Madrid[46] the deity -is painted with the shirt and skirt of a woman, and also in the Codex -Borbonicus[47] and the Tonalamatl Aubin.[48] In his explanation -of the last codex Seler has treated exhaustively of the various -representations and attributes of this goddess.[49] - -Among the laws of the Mexicans was the following: - - They hung and very severely punished those sons who squandered the - property left them by their fathers, or destroyed the arms, jewels, or - remarkable things that their fathers had left.[50] - -[Illustration: PL. X - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -In another study[51] we have called attention, as follows, to the daily -traffic of gold and precious stones in the great market of Tenochtitlan. - - Cortés describes the great market of Tenochtitlan, and the great - quantity of things daily exposed for sale included jewels of gold, - silver, and stones. The Anonymous Conqueror, in describing the great - market, states that “on one side of the plaza are those who sell - gold, and adjoining are those who sell precious stones of various - classes set in gold, in the shapes of various birds and animals.”[52] - This refers to mosaic jewels with stone and gold inlays. Cortés - further informs us that Montezuma had in his house representations - in gold, silver, stones, or feathers, of every object of his domain, - beautifully executed; and there is also a statement (by Ixtlilxochitl) - that in the collection of Nezahualcoyotl, king of Texcoco, were the - representations in stone mosaic-work and gold of every bird, fish, or - animal which could not be obtained alive.[53] - -A most interesting description is given by Sahagun of one of the -edifices erected by the Toltecs in Tula. If true, it clearly shows -that in pre-Aztec times much more elaborately decorated buildings were -erected than in the more recent period, for there are no accounts in -the writings of the Spaniards of such lavishly ornamented buildings -existing in the numerous cities conquered by them during the beginning -of the sixteenth century. This is corroborated by the excavations now -being conducted in the ruins of Teotihuacan, the greatest city known -to us from Toltec times, where some marvelous structures have been -unearthed.[54] The temple in question is said by Sahagun to have been -built in honor of Quetzalcoatl, and included in its embellishment some -of the most precious work of which they were capable. - - It had four halls. The eastern one (had the walls) covered with plates - of gold, and it was called the golden hall or house. The western - hall was called the hall of emeralds, or turquoises, because inside - they had (the walls) covered with fine stonework, with all manner of - stones, all placed and joined (together) as a coating or covering, - like work of mosaic. The southern hall had the walls of divers marine - shells, and in place of any other covering, they had silver, which - was put together so nicely with the shells that the joints were not - visible. The fourth hall, the northern one, had the walls made of - colored jasper and shell, put on in a very ornamental manner.[55] - -The fame of this temple or palace seems to have been firmly -established, as Sahagun recurs to it in another part of his history, -but in less detail. Sahagun follows the fortunes of the culture -hero while he was in the ascendency in Tula, and states that -later, owing to circumstances which it is needless to relate in -this place, Quetzalcoatl determining to abandon Tula, ordered the -burning of “all the houses that he had made of silver and shell, and -furthermore commanded that other precious things should be buried -in the neighboring hills and ravines.”[56] This indicates that the -mosaic-decorated building was laid in ruins, and part of the treasure, -at least, was buried before the inhabitants left the region and -commenced the migration southward. - -In presenting the tradition of this migration of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun -states that he (Quetzalcoatl) is reputed to have made and erected some -houses underground which are called _Mientlancalco_. This of course -refers to the famous ruins of Mitla, and seems to be an authentic -tradition of the Nahuan origin of this important city of southern -Mexico. It is doubly significant, when considered in connection with -the description of the mosaic-decorated buildings in Tula, for, as is -well known, the dominant architectural feature of the Mitla group of -structures is the mosaic treatment of many of their outer and inner -walls. - -[Illustration: PL. XI - -MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -It is not necessary to give more than brief attention to this -application of mosaic-work in architecture. The traditional -mosaic-decorated buildings of Tula have disappeared, but the structures -of Mitla are still standing in an excellent state of preservation, and -moreover are easily accessible to travelers by rail and automobile; -therefore they have been visited and admired by more people than -perhaps any ruins in ancient America. In the embellishment of the walls -a true mosaic decoration was employed, differing in kind only from -the turquois mosaic on small objects. Geometric patterns were produced -by fitting together small stones of different shapes and sizes, some -of which were more deeply imbedded than others, so that the designs -were traced out by the stones which projected more than others; in -single panels, several planes were necessary to bring out the desired -patterns. In many cases the stones are so neatly fitted that the joints -can hardly be traced. We have written elsewhere that-- - - the massiveness of the construction and simple and chaste - ornamentation place the Mitla structures in a class unapproached by - any other existing ruined edifices in ancient America. The workmanship - revealed in the stonework, the elegant precision with which the - stones are laid and carved, is not equaled in any of the Mayan - ruins. However, as noted by Holmes, the geometric fretwork mosaics - differ from the great façades of the Mayan buildings “in subject - matter rather than in kind, for the decorated surfaces there, though - depicting animal forms, are mosaics in the sense that they are made - up of separate hewn or carved stones set in mortar to form ornamental - designs.”[57] - - - - -OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC - - -In the ancient chronicles are found many descriptions of the employment -of mosaic-work decoration in the central Mexican region. From the -writings of Sahagun and others it is clearly evident that many -such decorated objects were made for and were used as parts of the -paraphernalia with which great idols of wood or of stone representing -various deities were adorned for the frequent religious festivals which -occurred at stated intervals. The rulers and the priests and members of -the so-called nobility used such objects on these occasions. The major -employment of the mosaic art seems to have been for the adornment of -objects or ornaments used ceremonially, such as crowns or head-bands, -helmets, masks, shields, scepters, ear-ornaments, nose-ornaments, -breast-plates, bracelets, and anklets. The material on which the mosaic -incrustation was placed was chiefly wood, but gold, shell, bone, and -stone were also used. Small figures of the gods, either in human or in -animal form, as well as musical instruments, were thus adorned. There -are also indications that pottery vessels were sometimes decorated by -embedding turquois in the clay. - -Unfortunately we still possess only scant knowledge of the various -objects ornamented in this manner. In the data obtained from the early -chronicles there is abundant evidence that, in the central plateau of -Mexico during the period immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, -the art was highly developed. Visual evidence is at hand in the few -beautiful examples now in European museums, specimens which were sent -across the water by Cortés during the earliest period of the conquest, -between the years 1518 and 1525. - -A few references from some of the early writers regarding the use of -turquois mosaic by the Aztecs will be presented. - -[Illustration: PL. XII - -MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -Stone idols were often decorated with mosaic incrustations. Andrés -de Tapia describes an idol probably representing Huitzilopochtli, -showing this type of embellishment, in the great temple at -Tenochtitlan. Tapia’s account is worthy of attention, for he was one of -the captains of Cortés, and took a prominent part in the capture of the -capital of Montezuma. He writes: - - There were two idols on two pedestals, each one of the bulk of an ox; - the pedestals measured a yard in height, and above these (were) two - idols, each one almost three yards in height, of polished grain: and - the stone was covered over with nacre, which is the shell in which - pearls are created, and over this (mother-of-pearl), fastened with - bitumen after the manner of paste, were (set in) many jewels of gold, - and men, snakes, birds, and histories (hieroglyphs), made of small - and large turquoises, of emeralds and amethysts, so that all the - mother-of-pearl was covered, except in some places where they left it - (uncovered) so as to make work with the stones. These idols had plump - snakes of gold (as) girdles, and for collars each (one had) ten or - twelve hearts made of gold, and for the face a mask of gold and eyes - of mirror (obsidian or iron pyrites), and they had another face in the - back of the head like the head of a man without flesh.[58] - -Pomar describes the idol of Huitzilopochtli as of wood, “having on -the breast a jewel of turquoises set in gold, with some gold bells -(hanging), and on the face (were) two stripes of gold and two of -turquoises, very beautifully wrought and placed.”[59] - -In describing this idol, Bernal Díaz writes that “the whole body was -covered with precious stones, and gold and pearls, and with seed pearls -stuck on with a paste that they make in this country out of a sort of -root, and all the body and head was covered with it, and the body was -girdled by great snakes made of gold and precious stones.” He goes on -to mention another idol close to it, which held “a short lance and a -shield richly decorated with gold and stones.”[60] - -Concerning the ancestral treasure of the Aztecan kings which Montezuma -inherited from his father Axayacatl, finally exacted by Cortés from the -unfortunate ruler, Bernal Díaz describes “three blowguns with their -pellet molds and their coverings of jewels and pearls, and pictures in -feathers of little birds covered with pearl shell, and other birds, all -of great value.[61] - -Tezozomoc, in describing the great sacrifices offered to the god -Huitzilopochtli in honor of the coronation of Montezuma, and the -presents brought by neighboring chiefs and lords as tributes from the -various towns under their jurisdiction, writes: - - In the center of the great square there was a building (_xacal_) where - was the _teponaztli_, and the great _tlapanhuehuetl_ with which they - made music. On the _xacal_ was the device of the Mexican arms with a - small _peñula_ (rock?) of painted paper, like a natural rock, with a - great cactus (_tuna_) on it, and on the cactus a royal eagle having - in its claws a great mangled snake, and the eagle had a crown of - doubled or twisted paper very well (made) and gilded, and (with) very - rich stone mosaic-work round about it, in the Mexican custom called - _teocuitla amayxcuatzolli_.[62] - -At this festival Montezuma had the king of Aculhuacan attired in -special raiment, which Tezozomoc describes as “a netted mantle with -much rich stonework in the knots of the mantle, and with little gold -bells hanging from the fringe.[63] - -According to Sahagun, Xiuhtecutli, god of fire, wore “earrings in the -holes of the ears worked with mosaics of turquois.... In his left hand -he carried a shield with five greenstones called _chalchihuite_, placed -like a cross on a round gold plate, which nearly covered the whole of -the shield.”[64] - -[Illustration: PL. XIII - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -Chalchihuitlicue, goddess of water, fountains, and rivers, wore -earrings of turquois fashioned in mosaic-work. In describing the -idol of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun says that, for ceremonial occasions, -ear-ornaments of turquois mosaic were placed on it, and “in the -right hand was placed a scepter like a bishop’s crosier or staff, -the upper part crooked like a bishop’s staff, and wrought with stone -mosaic-work.” In treating of the presents sent to Cortés by Montezuma -we have already given the description of the paraphernalia pertaining -to this deity. This scepter is there described as having “the crook -like the head of a snake turned around or coiled.” In the codices the -god or his priest is represented with this staff with a crook, but the -serpent-headed scepter is shown by Sahagun (manuscript of the Real -Palacio, Madrid, estampa VII, fig. 1) as part of the ceremonial outfit -of Huitzilopochtli (fig. 5). The body of the serpent is painted blue, -representing the scales done in turquois mosaic. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5] - -In describing the god Tezcatlipoca, Pomar states that he was -represented with “a mask with three stripes (_vetas_) of _espejuelo_ -(either transparent lamellated gypsum [selenite], or more probably -obsidian), and two of gold, which crossed over the face.”[65] The idol -was fashioned from wood in the figure of a man. _Espejuelo_, he states, -was a kind of shining metal called _tezcapoctli_. - -In the invocation to the god Paynal, which has been preserved to us in -the original Mexican tongue by Sahagun, is the strophe, “_yxiuh chimal, -xiuhtica tlatzaqualli chimalli imax mani_,” which has been translated -by Seler, “the blue shield, covered with the turquois mosaic, hangs -from his arm ... he carries the (blue mosaic) shield.”[66] This chapter -was copied by Seler from the manuscript in the Real Palacio, Madrid. -In the reproduction of the pictorial part of the manuscript published -in colors by Troncoso, we find the representation of this deity, in -which the mosaic shield is graphically drawn and painted blue (see our -fig. 70, p. 17). Sahagun (book 1, chap. 2) briefly describes “this god -called Paynal, who was a kind of under-captain of Huitzilopochtli.” He -is said to have been a man adored as a god. - -The Anonymous Conqueror affords valuable information regarding the use -of shields. He says: - - They use shields of various kinds, made of thick reeds which grow in - that country, interwoven with cotton of double thickness, and they - cover them with precious stones (turquois mosaic-work) and round - plates of gold, which make them so strong that nothing can go through - them, unless from a good crossbow. Some arrows, it is true, pierced - them, but could do no harm. And because some of these shields have - been seen in Spain, I say that they are not of the kind borne in - war, but only those used in the festivals and dances which they are - accustomed to have.[67] - -In his chapter devoted to a consideration of “the finery that the lords -used in their dances,” Sahagun mentions “bracelets of mosaic-work made -of turquoises,” and also “masks worked in mosaic, and (having) false -hair such as they now use, and some plumes of gold which came out of -the masks.” He further describes the costumes, as follows: - - They also wear attached to the wrists thick bands of black leather - made soft with balsam, and decorated with a large bead of chalchihuitl - or other precious stone. They also wore labrets of chalchihuitl set in - gold, placed through the flesh, although they do not have this custom - now. They also have these ornaments made of large rock-crystals, - with blue feathers set in them, which give them the appearance of - sapphires. They wear also many other precious stones protruding - through openings made in the lower lip. The noses of the great lords - are also pierced, and they wear in the openings fine turquoises and - other precious stones, one on each side. They wear also some strings - of precious stones around the neck; they wear a disc of gold hanging - from a collar, and in the middle of it a plain precious stone, and - around the circumference some pendants of pearls. They use bracelets - of mosaic-work made of turquois, with some rich feathers which come - out from them higher than the head, and bordered with rich plumes and - gold, and some bands of gold which rise with the feathers.[68] - -[Illustration: PL. XIV - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK] - -The distinctive head-band or crown worn by the Mexican rulers is -mentioned by numerous early writers and illustrated in many codices. -It was known as the _xiuhtzolli_ or _xiuhuitzontli_, and was called -also _copilli_. We have selected for illustration (fig. 6) two examples -from the codices. The first (_a_) is taken from the Sahagun manuscript -of the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid (estampa XVII). This page -contains pictures of a number of Aztecan rulers, all represented with -the turquois-mosaic crown painted blue. Moreover, the hieroglyphic -name of Montezuma, here placed above his head, is a mosaic crown. The -crown itself was of gold, on which the turquois mosaic was placed. The -other example (_b_) is from the Tribute Roll of Montezuma (Peñafiel -edition, pl. XIX). It is part of the hieroglyph for the place-name -Tecmilco, signifying “the lands of the royal crown,” the combination -being the crown painted blue resting on the sign for cultivated land. -Our figure shows a plain gold crown, but it is painted blue in the -codex. - -[Illustration: _a_ FIG. 6 _b_] - -A copper crown from Tenango, State of Mexico, has been figured by -Peñafiel. It is properly a head-band with a triangular projection -with rounded top which rose from the forehead, and was probably worn -by a warrior or sub-chief.[69] In this work Peñafiel illustrates the -mask in Rome (see our pl. VII), and states that the upper part is a -_xiuhhuitzolli_, or turquois-mosaic crown. We will discuss this point -later. Many years ago, in Mexico, the writer heard of a gold _copilli_ -as having been found in the Matlaltzincan region near Toluca, but was -never able to verify the story. A few extracts from the chroniclers, -relating to these golden crowns with turquois mosaic, follow. - -In the Codex Cozcatzin the Aztec king Axayacatl is represented with the -_xiuhuitzontli_, the turquois mosaic-work head-band.[70] - -In the selection of Ahuitzotl as king, Tezozomoc writes: - - They put on him the crown which was blue, of rich stone mosaic-work, - (in shape) like a half miter called _xiuhtzolli_ (or _xihuitzolli_), - and also placed on him, among other things, a netted mantle strewn - with small stonework. This formed part of his costume when he went to - the temple of Huitzilopochtli to worship. When adored by neighboring - subjugated tribes he wore a crown of gold (adorned) with much stone - mosaic-work of a half miter shape, and on the left shoulder was put a - sash called _matemacatl_ which was all gilded and enameled with fine - stone mosaic-work, which was also called _teocuitla cozehuatl_, as - we now speak of a shoe-ribbon, and on the foot was placed something - like an anklet of _acero_ [_sic_] strewn with emerald stones, all - gilded.[71] - -Duran states that among the offerings buried with the Aztec king -Ahuitzotl were “crowns of the fashion that they used, of gold and of -stone mosaic-work.”[72] - -It is related by Tezozomoc that after the death of Netzahualpilli, king -of Texcoco, Montezuma assembled the senate of Aculhuacan in order to -select a new king. The choice fell on the fifth son, Quetzalacxoyatl. -In the ceremony of investiture they placed on him “the blue crown or -forehead-band decorated with stone mosaic-work.”[73] - -The Anonymous Conqueror writes: - - To guard the head, they carry things like the heads of serpents, - tigers, lions, or wolves with open jaws, and the head of the man is - inside the head of the creature as if it was being devoured. They - are of wood covered over with feathers and with jewels of gold and - precious stones, which is a wonderful sight.[74] - -From Alonso de Molina’s _Vocabulario Mexicano_ (Mexico, 1555, reprinted -1571) we are able to interpret the Nahuan words which occur in the -chronicles in connection with the use of turquois in the decoration -of various objects. The following are some of the more common: -_nacochtli_, ear-plugs; _tentetl_, labret; _yacaxuitl_, nose-ornament; -_copilli_, crown; _xiuhxayacatl_, mask of turquois mosaic; _xayacatl_, -mask; _cactli_, sandal; _tilmatl_, mantle; _amaneahapantli_, -mantle for lords richly wrought; _teopixcatla-quemitl_, vestment -of priests; _ecaceuaztli_, fan; _chimalli_, shield; _teteotl_, -stone idol; _tequacuilli_, large stone idol or statue; _xiuitl_, -turquois; _tlaquauac xiuitl_, hard turquois; _xiuhtomolli_, turquois; -_omichicauaztli_, bone musical instrument; _ayacachtli_, rattle. - -[Illustration: PL. XV - -MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - - - - -EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC - - -We will now consider the existing specimens of mosaic-work. It has been -demonstrated, by the extended quotations from the old chronicles and -codices, that this art was considerably employed in adorning objects -of a special nature in connection with the dress of kings, nobles, -warriors, and priests, and the paraphernalia of the gods. We have at -present no actual examples of many of the objects which we have learned -were thus ornamented, consequently whatever conception we may gain by -a study of existing specimens will give us an inadequate idea of the -art. It is evident that the most elaborate works in stone mosaic sent -to Europe, as noted in the inventories, have not been preserved, a fact -borne out by the descriptions in the early accounts of the discovery -and “things” of Mexico. Moreover, many of the pieces now in European -museums are either in a poor state of preservation or are incomplete. - -Until recently only twenty-four major examples of mosaic-work had -come to light and been placed on record by printed description and -illustration. Of these twenty-three are in Europe. The other specimen -was found a few years ago in a cave in Honduras, and for some time was -exhibited in the National Museum at Washington, but later came into the -possession of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. The -twenty-three known specimens in Europe were probably all sent to the -Old World by Cortés or his companions. - -Some years ago an Indian found a deposit of ceremonial objects of -wood, incrusted with mosaic-work, in a cave in the mountains of the -Mixteca region of the State of Puebla. These specimens, seventeen in -number, are now exhibited in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye -Foundation. The chief object of this monograph is to describe and -illustrate this unique collection. - -We are also now enabled to record and illustrate, through the courtesy -of the officials of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, four other -objects decorated with mosaic-work. These were found in the sacred -_cenote_ at the ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, and are now exhibited -in the Central American hall of the Museum mentioned. This brings the -number of known specimens to forty-five, of which twenty-two are in -the United States, and twenty-three in Europe. These specimens are now -preserved in the following museums: - - British Museum, London, nine specimens. - - Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome, five specimens. - - Ethnographical Museum, Berlin, three specimens. - - State Natural History Museum, Vienna, three specimens. - - National Museum, Copenhagen, two specimens. - - Museum, Gotha, one specimen. - - Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York, eighteen - specimens. - - Peabody Museum, Cambridge, four specimens. - -In this census are not included the minor objects with mosaic -decoration, which we will also describe. Of the forty-five pieces -enumerated, all but three are of wood; two are human skulls, and one a -human femur. As the European specimens have hitherto been described, -and in some instances their history traced to the middle of the -sixteenth century, it will be necessary only to refer the student -to these studies, note of which will be found in the bibliography -at the close of this volume. In the present study we have assembled -photographs or drawings of all of these major specimens, as well as of -nearly all the minor pieces, and drawings of some of the mosaic objects -represented in color in the codices. Our pictorial record is therefore -practically complete. - - -MINOR EXAMPLES - -The use of mosaic incrustation in the decoration of stone idols is -illustrated in pl. II. This stone figure, 3 feet 10 inches high, came -from Cozcatlan, district of Tehuacan, Puebla, and is now preserved in -the National Museum of Mexico. It represents the goddess Coatlicue, -mother of Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecan war god. The Sahagun manuscript -in the Real Palacio, Madrid, represents this deity with a rattlesnake -girdle around the waist; held in the right hand is a staff in the -form of a rattlesnake with the head downward, and having depending -feathers projecting from the rattles, which are opposite the face of -the figure. Above the deity is the caption “_Yztac ciuatl coatlicue_.” -This statue, together with another, of colossal size, also in the -Museo Nacional of Mexico, has often been denominated _Teoyamiqui_, -and again at times it has been called _Mictecacihuatl_. The turquois -decoration is still preserved in the statue illustrated, in the -incrustation of the circular ear-ornaments and in the discs of mosaic -in each cheek. The teeth are made of white shell; the inner part of -the mouth is of red shell; the nose is inlaid with white shell. There -are traces of incrustation around the eyes, but this mosaic feature is -practically destroyed. In the breast is set a circular mirror of iron -pyrites. Around the upper part of the forehead are small holes which -probably at one time contained stone or shell inlays. A poorly colored -representation of this idol has been published by Brocklehurst, with -the title “Teoyamiqui, goddess of death.”[75] - -[Illustration: PL. XVI - -MASK OF WOOD, MOSAIC DECORATION MISSING - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -One of the most interesting uses of turquois-mosaic decoration was in -the embellishment of wooden covers for the ancient books or codices. We -are fortunate in still having preserved even a single example bearing -traces of this art. In 1896 the Due de Loubat had reproduced the first -of his series of Mexican codices, being the first to appear in exact -facsimile, even to the ancient binding. This work was Codex Vaticanus -No. 3773, a pre-Columbian Nahua picture-writing preserved in the -Vatican Library. In a pamphlet by Francisco del Paso y Troncoso which -accompanies the reproduction is an interesting description of the book, -from which we quote with respect to the covers: - - It is of fine and thin wood. Each cover measures six by five - inches.... The wood of the covers is whitish, and traces of the - brilliant lacquer which covered it may still be seen.... (One) cover - bears a character which shows us that this is the point at which to - begin the reading of the book. As in modern binding the first cover - bears a lettering or coat-of-arms; so too, as a rule, the Indians - indicated the beginning of their books, and placed on the first cover - the decorative incrustations which indicate that here is the first - page.... On the center of the cover, placed two in a line, are four - reliefs. At first these appeared to have been made by impression on - the lacquer, but Monseigneur Francisco Plancarte, who examined them - with a microscope, has discovered that they are composed of a paste - with which the Indians fasten precious stones in their settings, and - in these incrustations we have the impress left by the inequalities of - the materials once fixed on the surface. One round greenstone is left, - of the kind used by the Mexicans in their mosaics; it is on the upper - right-hand corner of the volume, when held ready to be opened. Below - it, in the lower right-hand corner may be observed a corresponding - conical shaped depression, and the remains of the lacquer in which a - stone was fixed. In the other angles there is no trace of anything, - proving that nothing existed there of the same kind as that which - remains. - -In the Loubat reproduction all these features are faithfully -represented, even to the single greenstone remaining in place. - -The existence of mosaic objects in the Zapotecan region of Oaxaca was -one of the important discoveries made by the Loubat Expedition of the -American Museum of Natural History, under the direction of the writer, -during the winters of 1898 and 1902. In mounds locally called _mogotes_ -were discovered stone burial chambers in which skeletons interred with -numerous offerings were uncovered. - -In the burial vaults at Xoxo, excavated in 1898, practically no -personal ornaments were found, but fragments of mosaic objects were -discovered in the form of bits of shell, obsidian, jadeite, turquois, -and hematite, on fragmentary stucco matrices.[76] - -[Illustration: PL. XVII - -MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION FROM HONDURAS - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -In the graves and tombs at Cuilapa were discovered many personal -ornaments made of jadeite, amazon stone, and turquois. In an excavation -made during January, 1902, in the great temple mound, or teocalli, -dominating the group of mogotes at Cuilapa, a grave was discovered on -the summit at a depth of six feet from the surface. It contained the -skeleton of a child, whose bones, together with the accompanying -artifacts, were stained bright-red by hematite paint which had been -thrown into the grave. Surrounding the skeleton were seventeen -greenstone idols in the form of human figures; more than four hundred -beads of greenstone and jadeite of varying sizes; thirty-five shells -of various kinds, perforated for suspension; bits of mother-of-pearl, -obsidian, and hematite, which evidently were fragments of disintegrated -mosaic objects; but the most interesting objects recovered were a pair -of small discs of pottery, upon the flat upper surfaces of which were -cemented small pieces of very thin, highly-polished hematite, placed in -mosaic. These last were undoubtedly mirrors, although from the small -perforation in the center of each we are inclined to regard the pair as -having been used also as ear-ornaments. One of these specimens should -be in the Museo Nacional of Mexico, where it belongs; the other is in -the American Museum of Natural History. The latter, now illustrated for -the first time (fig. 7), is an inch and three-quarters in diameter, and -an eighth of an inch in thickness. Our reproduction of this interesting -object has been made possible by the courtesy of Dr. Clark Wissler, -Curator of Anthropology. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7] - -An interesting specimen of the combination of gold with turquois -mosaic in jewelry has been recently figured in colors, and described -by the writer (see fig. 8).[77] It is in the form of a shield, with -four arrows or darts and pendent bells, and has an extreme length of -three and one-eighth inches from the top of the shield to the bottom -of the central bells. We have described in detail the meaning of the -hieroglyph formed by the mosaic-work, and shown that the brooch-like -jewel was the insignia of one of the four principal chiefs of the -Aztecan army, who governed one of the four wards, or _calpullis_, into -which Tenochtitlan, the capital of Montezuma, was divided. As a matter -of fact, the jewel was found in a grave in Yanhuitlan, in the Mixteca -region of Oaxaca. It is the only known specimen that shows turquois -set on gold, a combination to which we have called attention, in -quoting from Sahagun and others, regarding turquois mosaic on crowns, -bracelets, and other gold objects for personal adornment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8] - -In the collections of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye -Foundation, are three mirrors faced with highly-polished marcasite -on their original matrices, apparently slate--the only specimens of -this character that we have seen. Two of these mirrors, which were -collected by William Niven from ancient graves near Iguala, Guerrero, -are perforated for suspension, and all three average five inches in -diameter and a quarter of an inch in thickness. With these mirrors -were found numerous little unpolished cubes of iron pyrites, which -may have been intended for use in mosaic-work. There are, however, a -number of rather thin, flat, irregularly shaped pieces, with very thin -matrix of stone, and with beveled edges, which unquestionably have been -parts of mirrors made in mosaic fashion similar to those found in the -Cuilapa grave, the only difference being that the inlays from Iguala -are larger and thicker than those on the Cuilapa specimens, which are -simply thin sheets of hematite. The region where the Iguala specimens -were discovered was probably the seat of a people of Nahuan culture. - -[Illustration: PL. XVIII - -MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN] - -In 1908 Dr. Manuel Gamio conducted an important excavation of an -ancient building at the site known as the monuments of Alta Vista, near -Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, in northern Mexico. In a large chamber called -the Hall of the Columns, Gamio found two mosaics in a small circular -compartment in the concrete floor. One of these was a disc of yellow -pottery encircled by a ring of wood, the entire object being about two -and three-quarters inches in diameter and three-eighths of an inch -thick. The wooden ring bore traces of a coating of resin, and many tiny -bits which formed the mosaic incrustation were found with it, although -not in place. The bits that had formed the mosaic were thin plates -of worked turquois, beryl, and steatite. From the fact that the disc -contained perforations, evidently for suspension, Gamio described it as -a breast ornament. - -The other mosaic piece Gamio believes to have been a labret. He writes -that “at first glance its shape may be described as resembling the -bridge of a violin.... Its nucleus is wood, carved to represent two -symmetrical figures of an alligator (_caiman_), united at the belly. -Crowning the head are two head plumes, each having two branches. Above -the point of union of the two reptiles there is a square projection -with a perforation.”[78] The surface of the ornament had been covered -with small spherical plates of turquois, beryl, and steatite. - -Near these two mosaic ornaments were found numerous small pieces of -turquois and beryl of different shapes. - -In October, 1921, the Spanish newspaper _La Prensa_, New York, -published a short account, received by letter from the City of Mexico, -describing what purported to be an extraordinary discovery made early -in the autumn. It related to the finding of a stone mask decorated in -mosaic, discovered by one of the assistants of the Museo Nacional in -a sepulchral chamber in Guerrero. This mask was described as being -about eight inches high, the human face being partly covered with an -incrustation of small pieces of turquois, with small bits of coral -shell above the eyebrows and below the nose. Each eye was formed by an -oval piece of pearl shell, with pupils of hematite. The mosaic covering -was missing from the upper part of the forehead and the chin. - -The newspaper _Excelsior_ of Mexico City, under date of October 20, -1921, published a photograph of the specimen and a detailed study of -the object in a statement signed by José María Arreola, a member of -the staff of the Department of Anthropology in the City of Mexico. -In this statement Arreola casts doubt on the authenticity of the -specimen, pointing out that none of the known pieces of mosaic-work -in European collections are of stone; that the surface of the mask is -polished, which would make it difficult for the incrustation to have -adhered during centuries of burial; that there are no traces of dirt -in the cracks between the pieces of turquois, and finally he calls -attention to a strong odor of glue which pervades the object. These -arguments seemed sufficient to cast serious doubt as to the genuineness -of the mosaic decoration of the mask. No such question was raised in -regard to the mask itself. In a brief article entitled “Una Mascara de -Mosaico Falsificada,” published in _Ethnos_ (nos. 8-12, dated Mexico, -Nov. 1920-Mar. 1921), the same writer categorically asserts that the -specimen is fraudulent, and calls on the reputed finder, Sr. Don -Porfirio Aguirre, to present the evidence regarding the exact place -where the specimen was discovered in order that further excavation may -be made with a view of establishing beyond question the history of such -an important and unique discovery.[79] - -[Illustration: PL. XIX - -MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - -Precious and semi-precious stones were occasionally inserted singly for -decorative purposes. In this respect we may simply refer, in passing, -to the custom in ancient Mexico and Central America of decorating the -teeth by inserting inlays in the upper incisors, turquois, jadeite, -hematite, obsidian, and rock-crystal having been used in such manner. -Rarely two, and in one instance three, insets have been found in a -single tooth; but this form of decoration can in no sense be considered -as mosaic.[80] - -Another example of the use of turquois as an inlay is supposed to -be unique. Many years ago we obtained from Don Francisco Belmar a -beautiful tripod vessel supporting against the side a polychrome human -figure in the round, representing the god Macuilxochitl, god of dance -and sport--the deity represented with the painted design around the -mouth. It is not necessary here to discuss the question raised by Seler -regarding the attributes and representations of the two analogous -gods Macuilxochitl and Xochipilli. The vessel here seems clearly to -be Macuilxochitl, corresponding with that given by Sahagun in the -manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid. What is of interest is the -disc of turquois inserted in the clay on the upper left-hand part of -the chest, unquestionably there placed to denote some attribute of the -deity. - - -CHICHEN ITZA SPECIMENS - -We will now consider some interesting examples from the Mayan ruins -of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, which were found in the sacred well, or -_cenote_, at that site. This sacred well is described by Casares in -1905[81] as arousing the admiration and awe of the Indians even to -this day. It is about 450 feet north of the great pyramid known as the -Castillo, and a paved way, several inches high, leads to it. At the -brink is a small temple. The cenote is about 150 feet in diameter; the -level of the water is 70 feet below the surface, and it is 40 feet -deep, with a deposit of mud estimated to be about 30 feet in thickness. -Landa writes: “They [the Maya] held Cozumel and the well of Chichen -Itza in the same veneration as do pilgrims now Jerusalem and Rome, -and so they used to visit them, carrying their offerings chiefly to -Cozumel, as holy places, and when they could not go, they sent them.” -In another place this author states that “they had the habit then of -throwing into this well living men as sacrifices to their gods in -time of drought, and they thought that these would not die, though -they never saw them again. They used also to throw precious stones -and the things they most prized. Just on the brink of the well is a -small building where I found all kinds of idols in honor of all the -gods of the land.”[82] Casares adds: “What Landa, Cogolludo, and all -other writers had narrated from mere hearsay, one of the distinguished -members of the [American Antiquarian] Society, Mr. E. H. Thompson, -has had the satisfaction to realize, bringing to light the truth of -these statements, by diligent and intelligent work, the results of -which I will not mention, as that grateful and honorable task belongs -exclusively to him.”[83] - -Holmes wrote in 1895 of the sacred cenote as follows: - - The Sacred Cenote is larger, and more symmetrical than the other, and, - occurring in the midst of the somber forest, is a most impressive and - awe-inspiring spectacle. Its charm is enhanced by the weird stories - of human sacrifice associated correctly or incorrectly with its - history. The walls are nearly circular and approach the perpendicular - closely all around. They are diversified only by the encircling ribs - and pitted grooves produced by the uneven weathering of the massive, - horizontally-bedded limestones. The water has a light coffee color - and looks very impure. It is shallow on one side and of unknown depth - on the other. A small tomb-like ruin is perched upon the brink. It - is conjectured that this structure had something to do with the - ceremonies attending the casting of victims and treasure into the - terrible pool. There has been some talk of exploring the accumulations - from the bottom of this cenote with the expectation of securing works - of art or other treasures, but the task is a most formidable one and - will require the erection of strong windlasses and efficient dredging - apparatus. It is doubtful if promised results warrant the outlay - necessary for carrying out the work in a thorough manner.[84] - -[Illustration: PL. XX - -SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - -Nevertheless, a few years later, as hinted by Casares, Mr. Edward H. -Thompson secured the complete confirmation of the traditions concerning -the character of the cenote. He brought out of the mud a most amazing -archeological treasure. Through the kindness of Prof. A. M. Tozzer we -are enabled to include here drawings of four pieces of mosaic-work -which were among the many interesting things discovered. As Professor -Tozzer and Dr. Spinden are engaged in an exhaustive study of the cenote -material for publication, we will not further anticipate the results of -their investigations. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10] - -In figs. 9 and 10 are illustrated two small fragments of wooden -objects from the cenote which still retain portions of turquois-mosaic -decoration. In fig. 9 the irregularly shaped piece in the center is -a thin plate of gold. Both fragments are evidently from objects of -considerable size. Several wooden teeth covered with the same kind of -mosaic incrustation were probably from a jaguar mask or head. - -Pl. III represents two fairly complete specimens from the cenote. Of -these, _a_ is a small staff or scepter, the face of which is covered -with turquois mosaic, and it is possible that the headdress was once -similarly incrusted. In _b_ is shown a rattle of wood, within which -is a copper bell. Only two bits of turquois of the mosaic decoration -remain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11] - -In this object we find in the Mexican pictures an instrument analogous -to the one last mentioned. In both of the Sahagun manuscripts, that of -the Real Palacio in Madrid and the one in Florence, are representations -of the deity Xipe Totec. In the former manuscript is found the name -of the god written above the figure, _Xippe anavatlitec_, translated -by Seler as “Xipe, lord of the coastland.” He is an earth deity, “our -lord the flayed,” for he is represented wearing loosely about him a -human skin. He was the patron deity of the goldsmiths of the valley of -Mexico, and is said to have been paid special homage by the people of -the Teotitlan district, the beginning of the highway to Tabasco. In -the pictures given by Sahagun, and in other codices, this god carried -a long staff which terminates in a kind of rattle (fig. 11), similar -in shape to that found in the cenote of Chichen Itza. It was called -_chicauaztli_ by the Nahua, and Seler asserts that the rattlestick of -the god Xipe was carried, besides him, only by the goddesses of the -earth.[85] Sahagun describes it as a scepter made after the manner -of the calyx of the poppy where the seed is, with something like the -point of a dart fastened in and rising from the upper part.[86] The -resemblance of the cenote specimen to the one shown in the Sahagun -manuscript suggests that it was brought from the Nahuan region. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12] - -In the sculptured wall of the Temple of the Jaguars at Chichen Itza -are represented a considerable number of warriors and priests dressed -in elaborate costumes and paraphernalia. Several of these persons wear -the typical triangular head-band or crown of the Nahuas, on which -may be distinguished turquois-mosaic decoration (fig. 12). Two of -these priests or warriors have their faces covered with unmistakable -turquois-mosaic masks (figs. 13, 14).[87] This points to Nahuan -influence, and we have other instances of this influence both at -Chichen Itza and at Uxmal. We are thus led to the belief that the -mosaics recovered from the cenote were brought to Chichen Itza from -Nahuan territory. - -[Illustration: PL. XXI - -SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA] - -Another example of a turquois mosaic mask in stone sculpture is -found at the back of the profile face, in front of the ear, of -the human figure carved on the front of stela 11 at Seibal, in the -region of the upper Usumacinta, Department of Peten, Guatemala. It was -photographed by Maler in 1895, and illustrated and described by him -in his monograph, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and Adjacent -Region (_Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University_, vol. IV, -no. 1, Cambridge, 1908). Morley has deciphered the date on this stela -as 10.1.0.0.0, corresponding approximately, according to his method of -correlation, to 590 A.D. It appears to have been a hotun-marker, or -stone erected every five years, and is placed in the Great Period of -Mayan civilization. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14] - - -MAJOR EXAMPLES - -The more important major specimens now remain to be considered. As all -these objects are of wood, with the exception of numbers 3 and 9, we -will not repeat this in our descriptions. They are: - -1. Helmet or head-piece - -2. Wooden masks - -3. Skull masks - -4. Shields - -5. Ear-plug - -6. Animal figures - -7. God figure - -8. Knife handles - -9. Human femur musical instrument. - - -_Helmet_ - -The helmet or head-piece on pl. IV is in the British Museum, and was -first described and illustrated in colors in 1895 by Sir Charles -Hercules Read. From his study we take the following notes:[88] The -helmet is hollowed out inside to fit the head and is painted green; the -exterior is carved with two projections, perhaps intended to represent -the upper mandibles of eagles. The space between the inner upper part -of the two beaks and the two outer faces of the beaks bears traces of -red paint. With this exception, the outer surface has been covered with -a mosaic of turquois, malachite, pearl shell, and pink shell, inlaid or -incrusted on a bed of dark-brown gum. A great number of the pieces of -mosaic have fallen out. It contains, fashioned in dark-green malachite -pieces, two involved animal figures, which Read conjectures are -rattlesnakes with crested heads. Judging from the plate accompanying -Read’s study (no measurements are given), the specimen has an extreme -height of 7½ inches and a diameter of 7¼ inches. The illustration which -we reproduce, as well as of the other specimens in London, we owe to -the kindness of T. A. Joyce, Esq., of the British Museum. - - -_Masks_ - -The mask on pl. V is in the British Museum, and is one of the best -preserved specimens of mosaic-work from Mexico. It is of cedar, the -outer surface being covered with a mosaic of minute pieces of turquois, -of a brilliant color beneath the eyes and on the forehead, while on -the other parts the color is a poor grayish-green. The face is studded -with irregularly shaped cabochon turquoises. The eyes, nostrils, and -mouth are all pierced; the first are filled with oval pieces of pearl -shell, each with a circular hole for the pupil. The gum surrounding the -shell and keeping it in position is gilded. In the half-open mouth is a -row of seven teeth of white shell set in the upper jaw. On each temple -is set a pierced square of pearl shell. The inside of the mask is -painted red. Its height is 6½ inches, the width 6 inches. - -[Illustration: PL. XXII - -BACK OF SHIELD SHOWN ON PLATE I - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -On pl. VI is shown another mosaic mask in the British Museum. We follow -Read’s description. It is of cedar, and the lower left-hand part -of the face is missing. Over the face are represented two entwined -serpents curving around the eyes and mouth, and the rattle-tipped -tails rest over the right and left of the forehead. The whole of the -surface of the mask is covered with a mosaic of turquois, bright-blue -and dull-green in color, arranged in such manner that the two snakes -are distinct in color. The rattle of each snake upon the temples are -modeled of the same gum as that in which the stones are embedded, and -it seems possible that they were formerly gilded. The mouth of the -mask is slightly open and contains teeth of white shell in the upper -jaw. There is a slit over each eye and a hole in each temple. The -inside of the mask is painted red. Height 6.9 inches, width 6.6 inches. -Read believes that the heads of the two snakes were on the lower -checks, which are incomplete. Maudslay identifies this mask with that -described by Sahagun in the chapter which we have translated (see p. -14), relating to the objects pertaining to the god Quetzalcoatl which -were presented by Montezuma to Cortés.[89] In this description only -one serpent is mentioned, and Sahagun states that “the head with part -of the body came over one eye so that it formed an eyebrow, and the -tail with a part of the body went over the other eye to form the other -eyebrow.” In the plate the two rattles are clearly seen, and Holmes -has published a diagrammatic drawing differentiating the bodies of the -serpents. If Sahagun’s description is accurate, this specimen cannot be -the one mentioned by him. It is, however, one of the most interesting -pieces of mosaic that has survived. - -The very interesting mask of wood shown on pl. VII is in the -Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum in Rome. It is one of the best -preserved pieces in Europe, and its history is known as far back as -1553. It was purchased for the Museum by Giglioli from Cosimo de Medici -for two and a half francs. It was first illustrated in colors by -Pigorini,[90] and our illustration is from a photograph just received -from Rome through the kindness of Dr. S. K. Lothrop. The specimen is -11 inches high and 5⅜ inches broad, being the tallest mosaic mask that -has thus far come to light. It represents a human face placed in what -appears to be the flat open jaws of a snake or an animal, a common -motive in Middle American art. The back of the mask is flat, and there -are ovate openings for the eyes. From the nose hangs an ornament of a -type familiar in central Mexico. Over the forehead appear what seem to -be raised twined bodies of serpents, and from the left of the upper -part of the face projects the plumed head of a serpent. We are unable -to say if the head of the other snake once projected from the opposite -side of the mask, but it seems impossible that the artist would have -made this elaborate piece so symmetrical. From Dr. Lothrop’s notes -it appears that the turquois around the sides is of a slightly faded -color, but the major portion is brilliant and glistening. The materials -used are turquois, pink shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, jadeite -(for the facial lumps), and a dull-black stone. This remarkable piece -is a veritable work of art, and from the serpent motive we would class -it as a Quetzalcoatl mask. - -[Illustration: PL. XXIII - -SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -The other mask in Rome (pl. VIII) was illustrated as early as 1648. -This illustration, and the one published by Pigorini (fig. 15), are -front views. Our plate, from a photograph taken for Dr. Lothrop, is a -sideview presenting interesting features which are not revealed in the -illustrations hitherto published. The materials employed are turquois, -malachite, pink shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, an unidentifiable -black stone, and garnet. The edges of the orbits and the protruding -tongue are painted red, while the fangs are painted white. On the side -of the face, below the right eye, is the head of an alligator, in the -neck of which is set a garnet. Attention is called also to the peculiar -nose and the curling tongue. A considerable portion of the mosaic is -lost. This mask is larger than the masks in London and New York, being -8⅝ inches high, with an extreme length, including the protruding -tongue, of 11 inches. Dr. Lothrop writes that in his description -Pigorini has done scant justice to this remarkable piece. - -On pls. IX to XVI are illustrated the series of masks from the cave -recently discovered in Mexico, which are in the Museum of the American -Indian, Heye Foundation. They fall into two classes, those on pls. IX -to XII being ornamented with turquois mosaic, and so nearly alike in -workmanship that they might well be the product of one artist, while -the masks on pls. XIII to XV are different in character, the mosaic -pieces being larger and coarser, and considerable stone other than -turquois was employed in the decoration. They are all in a damaged -condition and lack the chin. All the mosaic incrustations are set in a -bed of gum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15] - -The best-preserved specimen is illustrated in colors on pl. IX; it is -7½ inches high, and 6¾ inches wide. Bands of light and dark turquois -will be observed on the forehead and temples. Around the lower margin -of the face is a band of blackish to dark-brown stones. On the sides of -the mask are two large black discs made of a composition resembling -charcoal and sticky clay. This substance is present in a number of the -other masks, and we venture the conjecture that it may be the material -used by the goldsmiths in modeling figures to be cast in gold. Sahagun -describes it as follows: - - The master gives them the charcoal, which they grind very fine. - And when it is ground they add a little clay, the glutinous earth - which they use in their pottery. They mix the charcoal with the clay - and stir it, and knead it in such manner that the two substances - constitute one solid mass. And when they have the mass prepared, they - shape it into thin discs which they expose to the sun.... For two - days these objects dry, and become very hard. When the charcoal is - well dried and very hard, it is cut, then carved by means of a little - scraper of copper.[91] - -The tip of the nose, as well as the chin, is gone. There are traces -of red paint over the mouth and in the circular spaces on each side -of the nose. When the specimen was received, the missing section of -the lower part of the face was covered with a band of tin, as in -the mask (pl. XVI) from which the mosaic has disappeared. From this -circumstance we believe that the objects in this cave deposit were used -by the Indians after the Spanish conquest, possibly until comparatively -recent times. Our reasons for this belief will be found in the chapter -translated from Motolinia in our conclusion. If we assume that at -certain intervals during centuries the Indians resorted to the cave to -worship in secret their ancient gods, we can explain the worn condition -of nearly all of these specimens. Undoubtedly they were preserved and -treasured for many generations, revered as precious relics of a lost -but not entirely forgotten civilization. There is not the slightest -reason for doubting their origin in pre-Spanish times. - -[Illustration: PL. XXIV - -SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -The mask on pl. X is 6½ inches high and 6¼ inches wide. It is quite -similar to the one last described, but lacks the encircling lower -marginal band. The outer zone is of light turquois, with zones of a -darker shade toward the center. There are traces of red paint above the -mouth and in the spaces on each side of the nose. On the left temple -are the remains of a black disc of the same material as on the other -mask. - -The right section of the mask on pl. XI is 7¼ inches in height. The -turquois incrustation is light-blue in color. There are traces of red -paint above the mouth. The black composition inlay on the temple is -square, and contains a biconical depression which does not pass through -the wood. Around the eye is a raised design, possibly a serpent’s body. -The entire lower zone is at present without decoration, and possibly -was never covered with mosaic. - -The mask fragment on pl. XII is 7⅜ inches high. The small section of -mosaic remaining on the forehead is dark-blue, while that on the rest -of the face is light-blue. There is a black composition disc on the -temple, and traces of red paint above the mouth. The marking on the -plain surface on the forehead appears to be ancient. - -We now come to the other group. On pl. XIII is a mask 6⅜ inches high -and 5¾ inches wide. A portion of the chin still remains, with mosaic -decoration, indicating that the missing chins in the other masks were -probably thus embellished. In general appearance this specimen differs -widely from those just described. The pieces used in the mosaic are -rougher in shape and larger. A few bits of bright-green turquois are -found on the forehead, but the rest of the incrustation is a stone of a -brownish- or grayish-green color. The distinctive feature is the band -which encircles the forehead, running downward and ending at the sides -of the nose. It is of black composition, but is highly polished, and -there are pieces of light-brown color. Traces of red paint appear above -the mouth. - -The mask on pl. XIV is 6¾ inches high and 5¼ inches wide. It lacks the -chin, but still retains a goodly part of the mosaic. This specimen is -somewhat different in treatment from the others, closely resembling -in technique the mask fragment which follows on pl. XV. The mass of -incrustation is outlined by a band of single light brownish-gray -stones. The forehead has a mosaic of blackish and dark-green stones, -the same effect being seen on each side of the plain space at the -sides of the nose, merging into lighter zones on the cheeks. Red paint -is above the mouth and on the spaces at the side of and below the nose. -This mask had a tin band or plate over the missing chin. The space -above the eyes is coated black, the material being probably obtained by -thinning the black composition into a coarse paint by the addition of -melted gum or wax. Two black composition discs are on the temples. - -The fragment of mask on pl. XV is 5⅝ inches high. As before stated, it -resembles the mask just described. The mosaic, of large bits of stone, -is outlined by a line of single lighter stones. The forehead contains -a mosaic of greenish stones, and the space above the ridge of the nose -has a patch of light-red shell bits. The space on each side of the nose -and in the mouth is painted red, while that above the eyes is painted -jet black. A black composition disc is on the temple. - -The mask without mosaic on pl. XVI is 6⅞ inches high and 5¼ inches -wide. The wood is of a light color, and rather soft. We have left on -this specimen the tin plate which replaces the missing chin. That -this mask was once covered with mosaic decoration may be seen in the -fragment remaining at the right side of the mouth. The eyes in this -specimen are semi-lenticular in shape, differing from the others which -are either ovate or lenticular in outline. - -This closes our description of the specimens found in the deposit in -the cave in the Mixteca. With them were found some fragments of native -paper made of _amate_ fiber, two of which enclosed regularly shaped -small masses of gum incense. In one of these several pieces of the -gum were held together by an interlaced string of flexible bark. They -provide further proof that the cave was resorted to for religious -ceremonies or sacrifices. - -[Illustration: PL. XXV - -SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -The next mask to be considered, on pl. XVII, is the only specimen known -from Central America, and with the pieces found recently in the Mexican -cave are the only major specimens found under archeological conditions. -This mask is 8½ inches high, and the three facial projections extend -4 inches from the face. It is in the Museum of the American Indian, -Heye Foundation. This interesting object was found some years ago in -a cave in the mountainous region of Honduras, in an arroyo on the -headwaters of a small stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon, about 25 -miles from the ruins of the ancient city of Naco. Hundreds of copper -bells of varying sizes and shapes were found at the same time. The mask -has been figured and described by A. H. Blackiston, whose description -follows: - - First in interest in the writer’s collection is a large life-sized - mask of white cedar which was covered with mosaics of turquois and - other stones set in a thick gum or pitch with which it was coated. - Three greatly elongated straight projections answer for the nose and - the two lips. Holes were cut for the eyes and two small ones on the - sides for the thongs which bound it to the head. A large cavity in - the forehead was evidently the setting of the crowning stone of the - collection, though of what nature this was we unfortunately are unable - to surmise, as it evidently became loosened and dropped out years - before its discovery. Along the sides of the face are depressions in - the coating of gum for regularly shaped stones about half an inch long - by three-eighths of an inch in width, arranged in parallel rows--none - of which remain at present. The rest of the surface, as noted, was - covered with small turquois mosaics, a number of which are in place - today.[92] - - -_Skull Masks_ - -The two final masks to be described are the skull masks in the -Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, and in the British Museum, London. On -pl. XVIII is represented the Berlin example, which has been described -by Uhle and illustrated in colors, three-fourths natural size.[93] -Only the front of the skull has been used, and it was incrusted with -sky-blue to pale slabs of turquois. The mask is 6⅝ inches in height. -Our illustration is a photograph of the lithograph published by Uhle. - -The skull mask in the British Museum (pl. XIX) has been illustrated -many times, and is one of the best-known pieces of Mexican mosaic. -It has also been repeatedly described, so that it is not necessary to -present a detailed description at this time. Suffice it to say that -the back of the skull has been cut away, and the front covered with -five broad transverse mosaic bands, alternating from the top downward, -of lignite (not obsidian, as all writers have described it, we are -informed by Joyce) and turquois. The inside is lined with leather, on -which traces of red paint still remain. - - -_Shields_ - -Richly decorated shields or chimallis played a prominent part in -certain phases of the life of the ancient Mexicans. Mrs. Nuttall, in -her interesting and instructive study, “On Old Mexican Shields,”[94] -has pointed out that “all authorities agree that the shields were -of two kinds. The first consisted of the military shields used -for protection in warfare by all grades of warriors; the second -comprised the shields carried, for display only, in religious dances -and festivals.” In this study Mrs. Nuttall has made the following -classification of shields, based on an extended examination of the -chronicles of early writers: - - 1. Plain, unadorned war-shields (_yaochimalli_) of several kinds, used - by the common soldiers. - - 2. Gala shields (_totopchimalli_), indicating the military rank and - achievement of chiefs. These seem to have been indiscriminately used - in warfare or feasts and dances. Their general structure seems to have - been alike in either case, though it is obvious that they may have - been more or less light and strong. Shields of this category sometimes - reproduced one or more features of the military costume, body-painting - and adornments pertaining to each grade. The shield in Museo Nacional - is an example of this kind. Others exhibited the emblematic device of - a militant god, Huitzilopochtli, Xipe, Yiacatecuhtli, etc., marking an - order of chivalry--and to this division the Stuttgart specimens belong. - - 3. Shields, presumably of the supreme war-chief, exhibiting in - picture-writing the name of his people or his personal appellation. - Nothing certain is known about this group, but its existence seems - vouched for by a series of indications. - - 4. Shields pictured in the codices with deities only exhibiting - their emblematic devices or reproducing features of their symbolic - attire. Such shields seem to have been carried, in religious dances - and festivals, by the living images of the deities in whose honor they - were held. - - 5. Shields of most precious materials, with strange and elaborate - designs, described in the Inventories. As they are not mentioned - elsewhere, it is not possible to state anything definite about them, - but it is obvious that they were intended for the use of individuals - of supreme rank. The beautiful shield at Castle Ambras belongs to - this group. It is, consequently, the sole forthcoming specimen with a - valid, though shadowy, right to the title of “Montezuma’s shield.” - -[Illustration: PL. XXVI - -SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -In the inventories of the Cortés loot, 150 shields are enumerated, -mostly decorated with feathers, but 25 are specified as being -ornamented with turquois mosaic, while others were garnished with -gold. Of the feather-mosaic shields, one example is in Vienna (the -shield formerly in Castle Ambras), two are in Stuttgart, and one is in -the Museo Nacional, Mexico. Of the turquois mosaic shields, one is in -London, and one in Vienna; none exists in Mexico. To this number we -are now able to add eight specimens in New York, namely, one perfect -shield, two nearly complete ones, and five fragments, all from the cave -in the Mixteca. - -We have already given numerous extracts from the early writers -concerning the use of mosaic shields as part of the paraphernalia -of the deities. In figs. 16-17 are two representations of the god -Paynal, holding in his right hand a mosaic shield. Fig. 16 is from the -Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (lamina 8), while fig. 17 is from the -Real Palacio manuscript of the same author. In the original the shield -is painted blue. These are the only examples we have been able to find -in the Mexican codices where the mosaic character of the shield is -unquestionably delineated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17] - -We will now consider the two mosaic shields in Europe. On pl. XX is the -shield in the British Museum. Its early history is unknown, other than -that it was purchased in 1866 from a dealer who stated that it came -from Turin. Quite a little of the mosaic is missing, but not enough to -destroy the intricate and interesting designs. It has been described by -Read, accompanied with a drawing of the figures.[95] The shield is of -cedar, with a diameter of 12¼ inches. The material used for the mosaic -is turquois and shell. The center of the design consists of a circle in -relief, the edge of which is divided into four equal parts by angular -points in pink shell, and each quarter of the circumference has three -large but irregular pieces of shell at intervals. It is a _tonatiuh_, -or sun disc, and a figure of a serpent is disposed meander-fashion -vertically over the entire central portion. One edge of the snake is -bordered with imitation studs formed of brown gum, of which a few still -preserve a covering of very thin gold-leaf. The head is placed at the -upper left side, the tail ending in three feathers at the lower right -edge of the circle. On each side are two human figures, and at the -center, near the top, projecting from the body of the snake, is a -bifurcated design, probably a tree, upon which rests, in a pear-shaped -enclosure, a human figure on its back. Through the shield are many -irregular perforations, and twenty-five small holes are regularly -disposed around the edge, possibly for the suspension of feathers, or -bits of stone, gold, or gold-leaf, over gum, may have been inserted. -Two larger holes are near the upper margin. - -[Illustration: PL. XXVII - -SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -On pl. XXI we reproduce the Vienna shield.[96] It is larger than the -London specimen, being 16½ inches in diameter, and the designs are not -so involved as in the London shield. Unfortunately the greater part -of the mosaic has fallen out, but the figures in most cases may be -traced by the impressions in the gum matrix. The designs consist of -two _tonatiuh_, or sun discs, placed one above the other. In the upper -_tonatiuh_ is a human figure. There are many examples of this motive -in Mexican sculptures and codices. Across the center of the shield, -between the two sun discs, is a procession of human figures, four each -on the right and the left, all facing the center. Between them is a -human figure, head-downward, in the act of falling or plunging from the -upper sun disc. Above this line of figures are four others, two on each -side of the sun disc, which they face. Below, facing the lower disc, -are three other figures on each side, and lower still are two more on -each side. The total number of human figures, so far as we are able -to determine, is twenty-four. This shield was formerly in the Castle -Ambras, near Innsbruck, and its history is traceable to 1596, it being -mentioned in an inventory of that date. - -We cannot identify these two shields with those described in the Cortés -inventories, but there is no reason to doubt that they formed part of -that treasure. As examples of mosaic art, they are priceless, even in -their damaged condition. - -The circumstances attending the discovery of the shields now in New -York have already been alluded to. Pl. I is an exact reproduction in -colors of one of these, the most important example of aboriginal -American mosaic art known. It is in an almost perfect state of -preservation, and is practically of the same size as the London -specimen, being 12¾ inches in diameter, with an average thickness of -three-eighths of an inch. The wood is probably cedar. In a highly -esthetic manner the mosaic incrustation has been set in a bed of gum, -with alternating massing of light and dark turquoises to produce bands -or zones of shading in light or dark bluish-green. It is estimated -that nearly 14,000 individual pieces enter into the composition of -this mosaic, the greater number being tiny circular bits. The design -represents a sun disc, with eight pointers in the outer rim. Inside of -the innermost of the two raised narrow encircling bands is a picture of -ceremonial or mythological character. We hesitate at an interpretation, -but the main features may quite certainly be recognized. We are of -the opinion that the scene portrayed perhaps relates to the worship -of the planet Venus. It is in the region where this shield was found -that Seler, after making exhaustive comparative studies of several -pre-Columbian codices, concludes: - - We have to look for the home of the Codex Borgia group of - manuscripts.... It was a land inhabited by Aztec-speaking peoples; - it was conterminous with the Zapotec territory, and it lay on the - trade-route which led to the coast, and to the Maya-peopled district - of Tabasco.... Indeed we also know that in this very region astronomic - observation was highly developed, and the Morning Star (Venus) held in - special veneration.[97] - -The upper horizontal band of the shield represents the celestial -region. It recalls, with its feather fringe at the top and dots hanging -from the lower section, the design around the so-called calendar -stone collected by Humboldt, now in the Berlin Museum, and the upper -encircling rim above the procession of figures of the so-called stone -of Tizoc, as well as some of the upper bands in the murals of Mitla. -If this is the celestial band, as we believe, it is quite appropriate -to find on it the _tonatiuh_, or sun, represented in the rosette in -the center. We find here two sets of four pointers each, radiating -from the central disc of feathers, which surrounds a lozenge-shaped -piece on which is a tiny pit below two horizontal lines. In the Real -Palacio manuscript of Sahagun (estampa XII) are pictures of various -symbols for heavenly bodies, one being a small disc with tiny dots, -explained by Sahagun as being the sign for Venus. We have endeavored to -identify this glyph with that of the symbol for turquois or jewel, or -the sign for chalchihuitl. There is a slight resemblance, but we hold -the opinion, as before stated, that it is the sign for the sun. We have -been unable to find the exact counterpart of this combination either in -the codices or in sculptures. - -[Illustration: PL. XXVIII - -SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -We now come to a feature which is also found in the Vienna shield, -namely, a person falling or descending from the sun or celestial -regions. The injured condition of the Vienna specimen renders it -impossible to distinguish the sex of the figure, but in the New York -specimen a woman is represented, probably a goddess. On several pages -of the Codex Nuttall Zouche[98] (pp. 4, 19, 21) are representations -of human figures hanging from or plunging from the heavenly band. -Seler has connected these scenes with the Venus period of the Mexican -calendar. Attached to the band on our shield are five dots. Taken in -connection with the eight dots below, respectively four on each side of -the hieroglyph at the bottom, one recalls the suggestive fact that the -Mexicans were acquainted with the correspondence of eight solar years -to five Venus periods, and reckonings connected with the correction of -these two periods have been established by both Seler and Bowditch.[99] -In the Codex Selden is found an analogous picture, the band of the sky, -with a central _tonatiuh_, and a descending human figure attached, -below which are two figures. This scene has been interpreted by -Beyer[100] as representing the solar god accepting human sacrifice. In -our shield, the feature which follows in Codex Selden, depicting this -sacrifice, is absent. - -In our shield, facing the plunging figure, are two human figures, one -on each side, holding something like a staff in each hand, similar -to those held in the hands of the goddess. From the mouth of each -of these figures protrudes an unknown object, perhaps a conch-shell -trumpet, but it is not supported by the hands. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18] - -Above a horizontal band just over the bottom of the inner encircling -rim is a hieroglyph. It is the well-known glyph for Culhuacan, or -Colhuacan, the name of an important town in the valley of Mexico in -ancient times. The form of the glyph, a mountain with a curved peak, -is derived from the tradition that the Nahuan people originated where -there was a mountain with a curved peak, called in the Nahuan language -_Culhuacan_. The sign is interwoven with the legendary history of the -ancient tribes in central Mexico, Teuculhuacan being the province far -to the north where were situated the Seven Caves of Chicomostoc, the -primeval home whence sallied the Seven Tribes. In the Codex Boturini I, -this legend is pictured. In fig. 18 are two forms of the glyph taken -from the Codex Telleriano Remensis. On each side of this glyph on the -shield are four dots, not to be confounded with the representations -of shells attached to the glyph. These eight dots should have a -calendric meaning, and we might stretch our imagination and consider -the glyph to be _Calli_, a day-sign and also year-bearer, represented -by the conventional figure of a house, which would give us the date -8 _Calli_, capable of being coordinated with either the year 1461 or -1513. The general character of the glyph, however, seems to be too well -established as Culhuacan to admit of such hypothesis. - -[Illustration: PL. XXIX - -SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -In a letter to the writer Dr. H. J. Spinden advances an explanation -of the combination of the figures in this sun-disc shield. With his -permission we quote him verbatim: - - I am inclined to believe that the design as a whole represents a sun - shield, the eight radiating bars being the rays, while the celestial - band, the three human figures, and the Colhuacan glyph replace the - parts of the sun’s face, namely, the head-band, the two eyes and nose - (the plunging figure in lieu of the nose), and the mouth. This may - seem pretty far-fetched at first glance, but it is quite in the spirit - of Aztec art. On the Calendar Stone, around the face of the sun god - and the _ollin_ symbol with the enclosed glyphs of the four ages, - is, first, a circle of the day signs, second, a circle of quincunx - figures, supposed to be the classical hieroglyphs or rather symbols - of turquoises, third, a frieze of eagles’ feathers. Multiple rays of - different sizes complete the picture. In the actual shield before us - we have the turquois mosaic, and the holes around the rim suggest that - eagles’ feathers may once have been attached. Compare the sun shield - or sun basket of the Pueblo Indians, and the various sun shields on - Mayan monuments. Now, the sun and turquois seem to be pretty closely - connected symbolically--both mean divine. The hieroglyph of the sun - is used for the _teo_, god, in place names, while the prefix _xiuh_ - means divine in connection with various objects. Jade, on the other - hand, means precious. The sun in Aztec ritual is pretty closely - connected with riches and jewels, and the sun disc may easily have - been conceived of as a gem-studded object. I think it quite possible, - therefore, that the design on this shield was intended to symbolize - the face of the sun, and the fact that complete figures engaged in - some ritualistic function replaces the parts of a realistic face does - not detract from the theory. - -The back of the shield is shown in pl. XXII. Through the two vertical -ridges are pairs of holes, evidently for the leather thongs for holding -the shield. The twenty-eight small holes around the edge of the shield -were probably for the insertion of feathers or other ornaments, as in -the British Museum shield. - -In technique our shield is similar in all respects to the two mosaic -shields in Europe. In all three the incrustation is in a bed of gum -that has been spread over the wood. - -We now come to the series of seven mosaic shields in New York, shown in -pls. XXIII-XXIX. In these we are dealing with a different technique, -and one which is new to us. For the matrix a kind of cement like fine -gritty brown sand was used in place of gum. They are unfortunately in a -considerably damaged state, but two are more or less complete. In these -examples the wood has been roughly shaped, and in all of them the marks -of the copper or stone adzes are clearly visible, for there was no -final smoothing of the wood as in the three specimens before described. -The probable reason for this is seen in the shield on pl. XXIII. On the -face of this specimen, on portions of the lower edge, especially at the -left, are traces of a coarse native paper made from the _amate_ tree, -which occurs as a band that had been glued to the wood. Traces of paper -also are found in the same place on the shield fragment illustrated -on pl. XXIV. It is impossible to state definitely if this paper once -extended from the edge to the raised body of the mosaic decoration. -On the fragmentary shield just referred to may be seen a faint black -line, made with some substance like graphite, running partly around the -circumference 1 to 1⅞ inches from the edge. It is probably the artist’s -line in arranging for some class of decoration, perhaps delimiting the -section to be covered with paper. On the first shield no such line is -found, but it seems certain that the rough wood between the narrow band -of paper and the mosaic must have been covered either with paper or -with some other material. There is no trace of cement, and we are led -to believe that the paper once extended over the entire plain surface -of the wood. Parchment or soft leather may also have been stretched -tightly over the outer zones of shields which show no traces of paper. -On this surface some type of decoration was undoubtedly placed. We -recall the quotation given above concerning the use of turquois -mosaic decoration on paper, in connection with the worship of the god -Huitzilopochtli. Feather-mosaics, so far as we know, were generally -made either on parchment or on paper. The codices were made either of -leather, parchment, or paper, often sized with stucco. In rare cases -the painting was applied directly on the paper. It is undoubtedly true -that one or the other of these processes of decoration completed the -ensemble of the shields we are now considering. - -[Illustration: PL. XXX - -EAR PLUG OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK] - -Another point of difference in this series of shields is the material -spread over the wood to receive the incrusted stones. It must have -solidified slowly to have allowed for the careful and laborious work -of fixing the pieces in the plastic matrix. In the case of the matrix -of gum, material could have been applied and would have hardened -immediately, for by tests, even after the lapse of centuries, we have -found it possible to loosen the bits by the application of heat to the -stone; but in the case of the cement matrix this is not possible. We do -not know what liquid was used to harden the cement, which is now quite -friable. - -Relatively speaking, comparatively little turquois was used in this -class of mosaics. Different shades of a soft light-gray stone was -employed in the outer zones, while darker stones interspersed with -turquois of varying shades, some almost white, and bits of lignite and -obsidian, are found. - -A final unique feature may be noted in the shields on pls. XXVII and -XXVIII. In the outer band will be observed the irregular inner edges of -the two lines of stones which form the border. In pl. XXVII the space -is filled in with a sprinkling of gritty, almost sand-like, bits of -faded whitish-blue bastard turquois. It appears to have been spattered -or sprinkled on while the matrix was very soft. In the case of the -shield on pl. XXVIII, the material is somewhat coarser, and consists of -rough bits of the same stone used in the broad light band within the -outer border. - -These shields, so far as we are able to judge from the fragmentary -sections, contained no pictures or figures as in the other type. In -general execution they are inferior in workmanship, and less refined -and finished in appearance. In fact, they constitute a quite distinct -and, up to the present, unknown type of stone mosaic from Mexico. - -The first shield of this series (pl. XXIII) is in two fragments, a -portion of one edge being missing. It has an average diameter of 15 -inches, and a thickness of one-half to three-quarters of an inch, the -mosaic disc rising one-eighth of an inch above the wood. The mosaic -portion has a diameter of 10¼ inches. It appears to be a sun shield, -judging by the eight pointers which radiate from the band surrounding -the circular design in the center, which suggest a conventional -representation of the sun. In the center the darker bits are obsidian. -A portion of the matrix and of the mosaic incrustation has fallen off, -and on the matrix near the upper left is a greasy patch which may be -candle grease. - -The shield on pl. XXIV is the same size as the preceding one, 15 inches -in diameter. It is also in two sections, and a larger section of the -side is missing. This likewise is probably a sun shield, but it has no -pointers. Where the outer band has fallen off toward the lower part -can be seen a faint incised line which the artist placed there as a -guide-line in following out the circular mosaic decoration. In the -center the black bits are lignite. - -The next shield shown (pl. XXV) consists of a half section only. It -was slightly larger than any other shield in the collection, having a -diameter of 15¼ inches and a thickness of 1 inch. It was a sun shield, -and had four pointers identical with those on the famous calendar stone -of the Aztecs. There are traces of a paper band glued around the outer -edge; the black line has already been referred to. The central disc, -with the white lines made of very tiny bits, is similar to the central -part of the shield on pl. XXIII. - -[Illustration: PL. XXXI - -HEAD WITH HEAD-PIECE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN] - -[Illustration: PL. XXXII - -A - -JAGUAR HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN - -B - -ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH HUMAN FACE IN OPEN JAW - -WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN] - -[Illustration: PL. XXXIII - -A - -ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -STATE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, VIENNA - -B - -MONKEY HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - -[Illustration: PL. XXXIV - -A - -TWO-HEADED JAGUAR FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN - -B - -BIRD HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -MUSEUM, GOTHA] - -[Illustration: PL. XXXV - -ANIMAL FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - - -One of the most interesting specimens is reproduced in pl. XXVI, which -is 14⅞ inches in diameter. This is the only shield of the series -bearing a figure. It had four pointers, which suggest a sun disc, -but the symbol seems clearly to be a conventional cross-section of a -conch-shell, the well-known and often delineated symbol of Ehecatl, -god of the air, one of the various attributes of the god Quetzalcoatl. -In this example the light pieces of stone are larger than -in any other piece, but they are cut exceedingly thin. Around the -outer edge of the mosaic is a faint incised line, and three lines may -be seen projecting from the pointers, showing that the artist carried -his guide-lines beyond the zone finally used. The circular line is so -regular that there is no doubt that the workman used our methods, tying -a piece of cord to an awl and working from the exact center of the -shield. - -The two fragments on pl. XXVII and XXVIII are the same size--15 inches -in diameter. They are similar in workmanship; the special feature, -the sprinkled outer band, has already been alluded to. In the first -specimen an irregular cavity on the upper face was apparently filled in -with cement, traces of which remain. The two holes in each shield are -modern, but the two specimens came to us joined with leather strings. -They are, however, sections of separate shields. - -The last shield of the series (pl. XXIX) has a height of 14⅝ inches. It -comprises little more than a third of the original object, hence the -diameter must have been fully 15 inches or more. As in the others, we -find the encircling bands, but as no part of the center remains, we do -not know if it had a figure or was like the others of the series. - - -_Ear-plug_ - -With the deposit of masks and shields in the cave in the Mixteca, -now in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was the -unique wooden object shown on pl. XXX. It is spool-shaped, the bottom -flat, the upper part concave and covered with a mosaic of dark-green -turquois, with a central disc of dark rose-colored shell. It is 1½ -inch high, with a diameter of 1¾ inch at the upper and lower rims. -There is no doubt that this specimen was an ear-plug. The sides of the -spool show the small gouges of the cutting instrument with which it was -fashioned, and the entire surface not covered with mosaic was painted -rose-red. - - -_Animal Figures_ - -The specimen in the National Museum in Copenhagen, shown on pl. XXXI, -has been described in detail by Lehmann,[101] and our illustration is -taken from his photograph. It is considerably damaged, much of the -mosaic incrustation having disappeared. The materials are turquois, -malachite, shell, and mother-of-pearl. In its original state it was one -of the imposing pieces of this art. The upper projecting part rising -from the top of the head probably simulated a plumed head-dress. Its -extreme height is about 10½ inches, and the diameter only 3¾ inches. - -On pl. XXXII are illustrated two animal heads. The first (_a_), a -jaguar head, in the Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, has been described -in detail by Lehmann in his paper published in the _Proceedings of -the Fifteenth Congress of Americanists_, held at Quebec in 1906. It -is 5¾ inches high, and the mosaic is composed of turquois, malachite, -and shell. The other specimen (_b_) is in the National Museum at -Copenhagen.[102] It seems to represent a serpent’s head with a human -face in the open jaws. The mosaic is turquois, malachite, and reddish -shell. It has an extreme length of 13½ inches and is 8¼ inches high. -Much of the incrustation has fallen off. - -The animal head shown on pl. XXXIII, _a_, is in the Vienna Museum, and -has been illustrated by Heger in three views.[103] Our drawing is the -side-view, after Heger. This object is 4⅝ inches long from front to -back. Much of the mosaic has fallen away, and the pieces of jadeite, -obsidian, and shell are larger and the work is generally coarser than -in any of the other examples in Europe. Heger’s photographs depict a -leather thong issuing from a hole at the back of the head. - -[Illustration: PL. XXXVI - -DOUBLE-HEADED SERPENT OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - -[Illustration: PL. XXXVII - -FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION, GOD XOLOTL - -STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA] - -The other mosaic on this plate (_b_) is in the British Museum. It -represents a monkey-like head of white wood, with open mouth. The -mosaic coating is of turquois, malachite, and other stones. The back -has a hemispherical depression coated round the sides with a thick -layer of brown gum, smoothly finished, containing some woolen threads. -The turquoises are chiefly of the pale-greenish variety, but -above the sides of the mouth are two patches of bright-blue stones. -Each eye is set in the lower edge of a protuberance coated with -malachite, the eyes themselves being convex discs of highly polished -iron pyrites set in a ring of shell. Height 4 inches, width 2.7 inches. - -An interesting piece is the two-headed jaguar figure in the -Ethnographical Museum in Berlin (pl. XXXIV, _a_).[104] It is covered -with bits of turquois and malachite, together with some obsidian, -shell, and mother-of-pearl. The eyes are of malachite. This specimen -measures 12⅝ inches in length, and the workmanship seems to be very -artistic. - -An important and unique example of mosaic art is shown on pl. XXXIV, -_b_, which represents a bird’s head embellished with an incrustation of -turquois, malachite, obsidian, mother-of-pearl, red coral, and white -shell, but much of the mosaic has fallen out. This specimen is in the -Museum in Gotha.[105] - -A much injured specimen in the British Museum is illustrated on pl. -XXXV, which represents an animal on his haunches, with open mouth and -protruding tongue. On its back is a circular, cup-like receptacle. -It is cut from a hard, pale-brown wood. Almost the entire surface -was originally covered with mosaic laid in a bed of black gum, the -component pieces being turquois, malachite, pink shell, pearl shell, -and fragments of iron pyrites. The cup-shaped receptacle on the back -of the animal is now covered with a transparent varnish, except in one -place where the black gum and bits of mosaic are still in place. The -varnish shows here and there fragments of gold-leaf, perhaps indicating -that the cup was once entirely gilded. The height is 6.8 inches.[106] - -The gracefully modeled breast-ornament representing a two-headed -serpent (pl. XXXVI) is in the British Museum. The base is of -light-colored wood, hollowed at the back and painted red. The front of -the snake is covered with turquois mosaic; the teeth and fangs in each -open jaw of the snake are made of white shell, while the edges of the -gums are indicated with pink shell. Across each nose is a raised band -of turquois and red shell. The heads have mosaic-work on both sides, -and it is probable that the eye-sockets formerly contained discs of -iron pyrites. On the upper edges of the two loops of the bodies are -holes for suspension. Length 17⅛ inches, height 8 inches. - - -_God Figure_ - -The figure of the deity shown in pl. XXXVII is in the Vienna Museum. -It has been described by Dr. Heger, who has kindly sent me a number -of photographs of the object, and some details regarding it. This has -been identified by Dr. Seler as representing the god Xolotl, one of -the deities or guardians of the Tonalamatl.[107] The specimen does not -contain much mosaic decoration, being of highly polished wood. It is 3½ -inches high and 2¾ inches broad. Dr. Heger has courteously sent me the -following notes concerning the specimen: - - The posterior circular cavity (see side view) is partly filled with a - resin-like mass, by means of which the piece must have been fastened - to some other object. Vestiges of this resin-like substance are found - in all the hollowed places where today some of the inlay is missing, - as in each of the three rounded oval incurvations, of both lateral - walls, in which probably small heads [of mosaic?] were also incrusted. - - The eyes and the six small teeth consist of milk-white shells; the - two hook-like canines consist of white mother-of-pearl-like shells. - The two large ear-lobes, as well as the inferior part of the nasal - septum, are perforated transversely. The pretty little human head at - the navel of the figure probably consists of pitch-black obsidian. - The ear-pendants are missing on the left side. The pupils of the eye - (right one missing) are enclosed in small rings of mother-of-pearl. - Projecting from the opened mouth, there is above the red tongue - another small white shell-plate with three sharp downward points - (teeth). The little head shows injury in several places. - -[Illustration: PL. XXXVIII - -STONE KNIFE WITH HANDLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON] - -[Illustration: PL. XXXIX - -A - -B - -KNIFE HANDLES OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME] - -_Knife Handles_ - -The next group of objects to be noted consists of knife handles. The -beautiful specimen on pl. XXXVIII is in the British Museum. It -is a chipped leaf-shape bladed knife of honey-colored chalcedony. -The handle is of a soft, light-colored wood, carved in the form of a -crouching human figure. The actual socket in which the blade is fixed -proceeds from the chest of the figure, which grasps it with a hand on -each side, and rests his chin on the top. The socket is firmly bound -with cord. The figure and the socket up to the binding have been -covered with a mosaic, chiefly of turquois, varied with malachite and -white, pink, purple, and orange shell, as well as a few pieces of pearl -shell. Much of the mosaic has disappeared. The figure wears an eagle -mask, the face appearing in the open jaws. This knife, which measures -12½ inches in length, is one of the most artistic of mosaic specimens. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19] - -Belonging to this class are the two handles on pl. XXXIX, which -are in the Museum in Rome. They have been illustrated in colors by -Pigorini. Through the interest of Dr. Lothrop we are enabled to present -photographs of these two very interesting objects, together with some -additional observations concerning them. The first piece (pl. XXXIX, -_a_, and fig. 19 after Pigorini), is in the form of a crouching figure -with an animal head and wide-open mouth. It has been described as a -knife handle, like the other specimen (_b_), which is unquestionably -of that character, but Dr. Lothrop writes that the front of this piece -(_a_), where the knife blade should be inserted, is smoothly covered -with a kind of cement, while in the belly of the figure is a large -hole. From Dr. Lothrop’s examination of the specimen he was unable to -satisfy himself whether it was a knife handle or was intended to be -placed on the head of a staff. The materials used for the incrustation -are turquois, reddish shell, dull white shell, mother-of-pearl, and -small flakes of gold. In the Pigorini illustration, which represents -the side opposite that shown here, two flakes of gold are shown, one in -the eye, the other on the arm between elbow and shoulder. - -The other piece (pl. XXXIX, _b_), unquestionably a knife handle, as -stated, of the same technique as the specimens in the British Museum, -represents a crouching human figure. The materials are turquois, -dark-green malachite, white shell, mother-of-pearl, and red shell. -Lothrop calls our attention to the tiny pieces of turquois set in shell -on the shoulder and in other places. He also states that a portion of a -broken chert (?) blade is still imbedded in the socket in front of the -figure. - - -_Human Femur Musical Instrument_ - -The last of the specimens of mosaic to be described is the musical -instrument (_omichicauaztli_) made from a left human femur, illustrated -on pl. XL. This unique example, which is in the Museum in Rome, has -been reproduced in colors by Pigorini. The mosaic seems to have been -confined to the head and neck, although the trochanter major may also -have been covered at one time. The incrustation at present consists -of gum in which are pinkish-orange bits of colored shell. A modern -copper chain is attached to the bone, from which hangs an oliva shell, -undoubtedly ancient. - -[Illustration: PL. XL - -HUMAN FEMUR MUSICAL INSTRUMENT WITH MOSAIC DECORATION - -PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME] - -According to Dr. Lothrop, the oliva shell shows signs of wear, and was -probably the instrument used for rasping the bone, as the bone is -sound and produces a rather musical tone when scraped with the shell, -as if the bone were of china. - -Notched human bones are not uncommon in ancient Mexico, and some have -been found elaborately engraved. In the course of excavations made in -1900 in the street back of the Cathedral in the City of Mexico, were -uncovered many small pottery models of musical instruments which had -been placed there undoubtedly when the foundations of the great Aztecan -_teocalli_ were laid. The writer secured for the American Museum of -Natural History examples of these interesting models. Among them was a -notched bone having attached to it a model of the handled instrument -with which it was rubbed or rasped.[108] - - * * * * * - -Finally, attention is called to three objects of wood, of Mexican -origin, in the Museo Borgiano, Rome. They have been described by -Colini, and two of the pieces illustrated, in the _Bollettino della -Società Geografica Italiana_.[109] The first is an idol representing -a human figure, 17¾ inches in height; the other two specimens, those -figured by Colini, are masks, and it is highly probable that all of -these pieces were once decorated, at least in part, with mosaic. One of -the masks is 6⅞ inches, and the other 7⅛ inches, in height. - - - - -CONCLUSION - - -In view of the considerable number of objects of stone mosaic that -were sent to Europe during the first years of the Spanish conquest -of Mexico, part of the loot obtained by Hernán Cortés, it is quite -possible that other examples are still hidden away either in Spain or -in Italy, which some day will be brought to light. Only twenty years -ago two wonderfully preserved carved ceremonial spear-throwers, or -atlatls, of wood, covered with delicate gold-leaf, were found in an -old leather-covered case in a house in Florence, and are now exhibited -in the Ethnological Museum of that city. It is not to be doubted that -they were sent from Mexico by Cortés himself, and remained stored away, -unknown to the world, until recent times. Bushnell, who figured and -described these atlatls, believes that they were formerly in the famous -collection of the Medicis, and that other objects of Mexican origin -may be hidden away in Italy, to be revealed from time to time.[110] -Again, in 1891, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall was the first to bring to our -notice the important mosaic shield, and the still more interesting -feather-mosaic shield in the Castle Ambras near Innsbruck, which were -shortly afterward transferred to the ethnographical section of the -State Natural History Museum in Vienna.[111] - -We should call attention here to the possibilities of finding mosaics -in Mexico, emphasizing the fact that the collection in the Museum of -the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was found under archeological -conditions. Until now we have been somewhat sceptical in regard to the -possibility of wooden objects of such a fragile and perishable nature -being discovered either in tombs or in ruined buildings in Middle -America. As we have already written, the few traces of this mosaic art -found heretofore in excavations have been of a fragmentary character. -No specimens of wood covered with mosaic have been found previously -in Mexico, with the exception of the small rim of wood excavated by -Gamio in Zacatecas, and the four pieces from Chichen Itza. In the -tropical and temperate zones, where the most important ancient sites -are situated, artifacts of wood of any sort have rarely been unearthed. -It is true that in some of the remote villages carved wooden drums -(_teponaztli_) have been religiously guarded from the time of the -conquest, and are brought out and played at certain festivals during -the year. But these drums are kept in the cabildos, and are preserved -with zealous care. - -We would again call attention to the statement of Sahagun regarding -the tradition of the abandonment of Tula, that Quetzalcoatl ordered -certain precious things to be buried in the neighboring hills and -ravines. This, of course, refers to times long anterior to the coming -of white men. After this unfortunate event, fatal indeed to the -Indian, the natives undoubtedly secreted a vast amount of material. -The circumstances concerning this have been told by Father Motolinia. -As this account is but little known, we have translated literally the -entire chapter, for it reveals to us the miserable state into which the -aborigines had fallen within twenty years after their subjugation. - - _Of how there was an end of idols and of the feasts which the Indians - were wont to prepare, and of the vanity and the endeavor which the - Spaniards displayed in (their) search for idols._ - - The feasts which the Indians made, as is told in the first part - (of this book), with their ceremonies and pomp, all ended from the - beginning (of the time) that the Spaniards were making war (on them), - because the Indians had so much to think about in their tribulations - that they did not think of their gods, not even of themselves, - because they had so much sorrow that in order to remedy that, all the - principal (things in their lives) were stopped. - - In every town they had an idol or demon whom they considered chiefly - as their mediator, and called him such, and they honored and adorned - him with jewels and garments, and the best they could find they - offered him, each town as it was (able to), and more so in the - capitals of provinces. These principal idols I mention, as soon as - the city of Mexico was taken by the Spaniards, with their jewels and - wealth the Indians hid in the most secret place they could find; a - large part of the gold that was on (or with) the idols and in the - temples they gave as tribute to the Spaniards under whose patronage - they belonged; for they could not do otherwise because in the - beginning the tributes were so excessive that all the Indians could - scrape together or search for, nor what the lords and chiefs had, - would suffice; besides, they were forced (to pay tributes) with such - iniquity that they also gave the gold they had in the temples of the - demons (idols), and even when this was exhausted they paid tribute in - slaves, and many times not having slaves in order to comply (with the - taxes), they gave free (Indians) as slaves. - - These principal idols, with the insignia and ornaments or garments - belonging to the demons, the Indians hid, some in the earth, others in - caves, and still others in the woods. Later, when the Indians became - converted and were baptized, they unearthed many (of them), and they - brought them to the courtyards of the churches to burn them publicly. - Others rotted in the earth, because after the Indians had received - (or accepted) the Faith, they were ashamed to take out those they - had hidden, and would rather let them rot than that anyone should - know that they hid them. And when they were importuned to tell (talk) - about their principal idols and their vestments, they took them out, - all decayed, of which I am a witness, for I have seen it (done) many - times. The excuse they gave was good, for they said, “When we hid it, - we did not know God, and we thought the Spaniards would soon return to - their (own) country, and after we came to understand (about) God, we - left it to rot, because we were afraid and ashamed to take it out.” - In other towns these principal idols with their vestments were in the - care of the lords or of the principal priests of the demons, and those - kept them so secretly that hardly anyone knew about them except two or - three people who guarded them, and of these (idols) they also brought - a very large number to the monasteries to burn them. In many other - remote villages, far away from Mexico, when the monks went there to - preach, they told them in their sermons and before christening them - that the first thing they had to do was to bring all the idols they - had and all the insignias of the demons to burn (them): and in this - manner they also gave and brought a large quantity which was publicly - done in many parts (of the country): because wherever the doctrine - and the word of God has reached, not a thing has remained that they - knew or could tell about, for if from now on for a hundred years they - should dig in the courts of the temples of the ancient idols, they - would always find idols, because there were so many that they had - made: for it happened that when a child was born they made an idol, - and the following year (they made) one a little larger, and after - four years they made another one, and as the child grew up they went - on making idols, and of these (idols) the foundations and walls are - filled, and in the courts there are many of them. In the year (15)39 - and in the year (15)40 several Spaniards, some with authority and - some without it, to show their zeal of the Faith, and thinking that - they were accomplishing something (worth while), began to dig and to - unearth the dead and to urge the Indians that they should give them - idols: and in some parts (of the country) this reached such a stage - that the Indians went to look for the idols that were decayed and - forgotten in the earth, and some of the Indians were even so sorely - tormented that, to tell the truth, they made new idols and gave them - (to the Spaniards) that they should cease maltreating them. - - Mixed with the great zeal they (the Spaniards) showed in searching - for idols, (there was) not a little covetousness, and it was because - the Spaniards (would say), in such a village, or in such a parish, - there are (were) idols of gold, or of chalchihuitl which is a stone - of great value, and they imagined that there was an idol weighing ten - or fifteen arrobas: but in truth they came (too) late, because all - the gold and precious stones were spent and cashed in and safely in - the power (hands) of the Spaniards who first held those Indians under - their jurisdiction. They also thought of finding an idol of stone - which would be worth as much as a city, and certainly, although I - have seen many idols which were adored and held highly by the Indians - and (were) very (greatly) revered as chief gods, and some were of - chalchihuitl, the one which seemed to me to be worth most, I do not - think that in Spain they would give ten pesos of gold for it: for - this they upset and stir and scandalize the towns with their truly - indiscrete zeal, because if there really is still an idol in some - village, it is either rotten or so (completely) forgotten or (held or - kept) so secretly that in a town of ten thousand inhabitants there - are not even five who know it, and they hold them for what they are, - either for stones or for wood. Those who thus upset these Indians who - go their straight way, are like Laban who went to meet Jacob to look - for his property, and to upset his house in search of his idols, - because of this that I am telling here I have great experience and I - (can) see the deceit in which they go about and the way they have to - disturb and disfavor (hurt) these poor Indians who have forgotten so - absolutely their idols, as if it were a hundred years ago (that they - had had them).[112] - -Hernándo Ruiz de Alarcon, in his treatise on the superstitions of the -natives of New Spain, relates that when they went to the hills or -other remote places where their idols were hidden away, or to certain -piles of stones where they often made offerings and sacrifices, they -carried there offerings which were sometimes copal incense wrapped in -_quauhamatl_, a kind of white paper made from the bark of a soft tree. -This work, written in 1620, is entitled, _Tratado de las Supersticiones -y Costumbres Gentilicas que oy viuen entre los Indios Naturales desta -Nueva España_, and was published for the first time in 1892 by the -Museo Nacional of Mexico. The present writer has noted such stone -piles, particularly in Yucatan. - -It is probable that we have here an explanation of the existence of our -deposit of mosaic-incrusted wooden shields and masks, which leads us -to hope that still further discoveries of this character may be made. -The climatic conditions in certain parts of the highlands of Middle -America, where this deposit was found in a cave, favor this assumption. -There are great sections of comparatively dry, wind-swept, almost -desert plains, treeless hill-slopes, and ravines, where the chief -vegetation is cacti in the lower altitudes, while higher up pines and -oaks abound. Here wooden objects should be indefinitely preserved in -ancient tombs or in caves, protected by a covering of loose, dry earth, -the condition under which our collection was found. - -The discovery of this remarkable collection of mosaics emphasizes the -fact that the investigation of the archeology of Mexico is hardly -commenced, in view of the vast amount of material hidden under the -ruins of thousands of ancient settlements and burial places, and -probably in countless caves, which still remain untouched by the -archeologist. - -As revealed by the surprising results of Thompson’s dredging in the -sacred cenote in Yucatan, a wealth of archeological material also lies -buried in the mud under the waters of sacred wells and lakes. This is -notably so in the case of Lake Chapala, on the borders of Michoacan -and Jalisco in Mexico,[113] and of Lake Amatitlan in Guatemala, where -thousands of pottery vessels and other objects have been recovered from -the bottoms of the lakes by divers, and from the mud when the waters -have receded from the shores during times of extreme drought. These -objects had been thrown into the waters as offerings to the gods. - -The recent results of the systematic exploration of the great mounds -at Teotihuacan have been quite surprising, and have shed new light on -the archeology of the central plateau of Mexico. Even more important is -the discovery of culture sequences in stratified deposits in the valley -of Mexico, the investigations showing three distinct culture layers -distinguished by the character of the pottery. Of great significance -are the discoveries recently made under the great lava flow called the -Pedregal, at the very edge of the City of Mexico, where the artifacts -correspond _in toto_ with those found in the bottom layer of the -stratified deposits.[114] These discoveries mark a great advance in -our knowledge of the history of ancient Mexico, but, as we have before -stated, they are only a beginning. Buried underground are the “books” -the student must study, if ever the tangled history of Middle America -is to become known and the story of the development of this exceedingly -interesting division of the human race is to be recorded. - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] See Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, _Museum of the -American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs_, 1920. - -[2] Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Historia General y Natural -de las Indias, edition of the Real Academia de la Historia, tomo I, -primera parte, lib. XVII, caps, VIII-XVIII, pp. 502-537, Madrid, 1851. - -[3] The Itinerary of Grijalva, written by chaplain Juan Díaz, was -undoubtedly recorded in Spanish, but we know it only from the Italian -translation of 1520. It was translated into Spanish by Joaquin Garcia -Icazbalceta and published by him in his _Documentos para la Historia -de México_, tomo I, Mexico, 1858. A translation into English, with -translations of other accounts, relating to this voyage, will appear in -the _Publications of the Cortes Society_ under the title, The Voyage of -Juan de Grijalva to Yucatan and the Mexican Coast in 1518. - -[4] We quote here from the edition of Bernal Díaz published by the -Hakluyt Society, bearing the title, The True Conquest of New Spain, -translated into English by Alfred Percival Maudslay. The citation is -from vol. I, pp. 48-49, London, 1908. - -[5] Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. I, p. 53. In the work of Torquemada, -Monarchia Indiana, is an important statement bearing on this matter, of -which we give the following translation _in extenso_: - -“And this present it was that Gomara and Antonio de Herrera make -confused mention as having been brought to Ferdinand Cortés by the -governors of Montezuma on his first landing, which they notice in -the following words: ‘Which present it is said was sent for Juan de -Grijalva, when he touched on those shores; but that, notwithstanding -the haste of those who carried it, they found that he was gone.’ The -fact was as they state; but I do not understand how those who drew -up the account of which Herrera availed himself, could have omitted -that which I say in this chapter, and many other particulars which -shall be observed in the sequel; since the circumstances which they -mention, and those which I relate, are intimately connected with each -other, and those who could have given an account of the former, could -likewise have done so of the latter; although I think that the error -lay in their seeking information only from the Spaniards, who at that -period returned from the Indies, without verifying facts by applying -to the Indians, who were mainly concerned in most of them, or I may -say in all, since they were the mark which all who have written on -the affairs of the conquest strove to hit, and were those who were -very well acquainted with them, and in the beginning recorded them -by means of figures and characters, and afterward, when some of the -most curious amongst them had learned how to write, wrote them down; -which histories are in my possession: and so high is the estimation -in which I hold them, on account of their language and the style of -their composition, that I should be glad to feel myself competent to -the task of translating them into Spanish with the same elegance and -grace as the Mexicans penned them in their own language; and since -these histories are true and authentic, I follow them to the letter; -but lest the accounts which they contain should appear strange to -those who read them, I affirm that they are merely a true relation of -what actually happened, but that other authors have not noticed them -before me, because the few that have written on the affairs of the -Indies were ignorant of the events which then occurred, nor had they -any one to give them the requisite information; neither should I have -mentioned these facts had I not found that they were verified by Father -Bernardino de Sahagun, a grave and pious ecclesiastic, who was of the -second number of those who undertook the conversion of the natives of -New Spain, but was the first of the investigators of the most secret -things of this land, of which he knew all the secrets, and employed -himself for more than sixty years in composing works in the Mexican -language and in incorporating into it all the information which he was -able to acquire.” Lib. IV, cap. XIII. - -[6] This important work will be reprinted in facsimile, with a -translation into English, in the author’s proposed work on the voyage -of Grijalva, as mentioned in Note 3. - -[7] This account will also be reprinted in facsimile, with a -translation into English, in the author’s account of the voyage of -Grijalva. The title is, Provinciæ Sive Regiones in India Occidentali -Noviter Repertæ in Vltima Navigatione. The known copies are in the John -Carter Brown Library, Providence, and the New York Public Library. - -[8] I quote here from the translation made and edited by Francis A. -MacNutt, De Orbe Novo, vol. II, pp. 19-20, New York, 1912. - -[9] The chapters relating to the voyage of Grijalva have been -translated into English by the writer and will appear in the proposed -work mentioned in Note 3. - -[10] Francisco López de Gomara, edition of Don Enrique de Vedia, -Historiadores Primitivos de Indias, in _Biblioteca de Autores -Españoles_, tomo I, Madrid, 1877. - -[11] Eduard Seler, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk des P. Sahagun, -p. 124, Berlin, 1890. - -[12] Lehmann, in his Methods and Results in Mexican Research, Paris, -1909, writes: “Hardly less remarkable are the mosaics made of more or -less precious stones, shells, etc. No less than twenty-three pieces are -known in various museums, the finest being in London, Rome, and Berlin. -The stones when cut to shape are embedded in a peculiar substance -(_tzinacanquauhcuitlatl_) covering the whole surface of the object -to be decorated; the latter were chiefly of wood, rarely of bone or -stone. Two masks are skilfully prepared human skulls. The usual shapes -are shields, helmets, knife handles and trinkets. The small cup-shaped -heads and the double-jaguar in the Berlin Museum are of doubtful -meaning. Most of these objects apparently come from the Eastern -provinces, i. e., Tabasco. We know from other sources that it was only -under king Ahuizotl, with the conquest of the Tzapotec district, that -the Mexicans became acquainted with turkois-mosaics, shields, earrings, -etc.” This is a translation of his Ergebnisse und Aufgaben der -mexikanistischen Forschung, published in _Archiv für Anthropologie_, -Neue Folge, band VI, heft 2 u 3, Braunschweig, 1907. - -[13] See Lehmann in our List of Works Describing Mexican Mosaics, under -1906. - -[14] Juan de Torquemada, Monarchia Indiana, Barcia edition, Madrid, -1732, lib. II, cap. LXXIX, p. 215. - -[15] See Antonio Peñafiel, Nomenclatura Geográfica y Etimológica de -México, Mexico, 1897. - -[16] Clavigero, The History of Mexico, Cullen transl., vol. II, p. 232, -London, 1787. - -[17] Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, op. cit. - -[18] Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. II, p. 46. - -[19] Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, tomo IV, cap. CXXI, pp. -284-286, Madrid ed., 1876. - -[20] Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva -España, Bustamante ed., lib. 12, caps, II-VI, pp. 5-12, Mexico, 1829. - -Notes to Chapter III. The two places mentioned here, Naulitlantoztlan -and Mictlanquactle, are given by Torquemada (op. cit., lib. IV, cap. -XIII, p. 379) as four different towns. Nauhtla and Toztla, the first -two, are recognizable as being combined into one place-name by Sahagun. -This is also the case with Mictla and Quauhtla, the third and fourth -towns of Torquemada, the Mictlanquactle of Sahagun. Brasseur de -Bourbourg transforms them to Nauhtlan, Tochtlan, and Mictlan-Quauhtla, -in which he is followed by Orozco y Berra. - -Vigil, the editor of Tezozomoc, states that the town of Mictlancuauhtla -has disappeared, but in a map or plan of Vera Cruz in the collection of -Icazbalceta, sent in 1580 to Philip II by the alcalde Alvaro Patiño, -the place is still mentioned, under a corrupted form of the name, as -Metlangutla. - -The name of the five lords sent by Montezuma to receive Cortés, -conceived to be Quetzalcoatl, are spelled differently by Torquemada -(op. cit., P-379), and they more closely approach the orthography of -Molina’s dictionary. They are, Yohualychan, Tepuztecatl, Tizahua, -Huehuetecatl, and Hueycamecateca. - -Notes to Chapter VI. This Xicalanco is not to be confused with the -Mexican colonial town of the same name near the Laguna de Términos, -Tabasco. A branch of the Nahuan Mexican people called Xicalancas from -the name of their first ruler, Xicalancatl, settled on the coast of -Vera Cruz in the region between the present city of Vera Cruz and the -Isthmus of Tehuantepec. - -Torquemada relates that the messengers, on leaving the ship of Cortés, -“paddled rapidly away, and came to a little island called Xicalanco, -where they ate, and rested a little, and they left there and came to -a town on the seashore called Tecpantlayacac; from there they went to -Cuetlaxtla, which is some leagues in the interior, where they spent -the night; the lords and chief of the town begged them to remain there -that day and rest, but they replied that the need for speed for their -journey was great.”--Op. cit., lib. IV, cap. XIV, p. 384. - -[21] Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. II, pp. 196-197. - -[22] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico. The inventories of the -loot obtained by Cortés are given in English translation on pp. 56-102. - -[23] This is quoted from the study of Dr. J. Cheston Morris on the -“Physical and Technographical Characteristics” of the leaves, in the -article, “The Tribute Roll of Montezuma,” edited by Dr. Daniel G. -Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr., and Dr. J. Cheston Morris, published in -_Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. XVII, N. S., -pt. II, art. IV, p. 61, Philadelphia, 1892. - -[24] The very important Crónica Mexicana, written by Hernando Alvarado -Tezozomoc, was published by José M. Vigil in his _Biblioteca Mexicana, -Colección Metódica de Obras y Documentos Relativos a la Historia, -Geografía, Literatura, Estadística y Legislación de México_, 1881. The -quotation is from cap. LXXVI, pp. 543-544. - -[25] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXXXIX, p. 600. - -[26] Dr. George F. Kunz has kindly placed in our hands his publications -relating to precious stones. In this connection consult his Gems and -Precious Stones, New York, 1892; his important paper, New Observations -on the Occurrences of Precious Stones of Archæological Interest in -America (extrait des _Mémoires et Déliberations du XVᵉ Congrès des -Américanistes tenue à Québec du 10 au 15 Septembre 1906_, Quebec, -1907); and Gems and Precious Stones of Mexico, Mexico, 1907. - -[27] The work of Rafael Aguilar y Santillan is entitled Bibliografía -Geológica y Minera de la República Mexicana completada hasta el año de -1904, _Boletín del Instituto Geológico de México_, núm. 17, Mexico, -1908. - -[28] The interesting study of Luigi Pigorini describing the Mexican -mosaics in Rome is entitled Gli Antichi Oggetti Messicani Incrostati di -Mosaico esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico di Roma, _Reale -Accademia dei Lincei_, Rome, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-85, 3ª serie, vol. -XII, pp. 1-9, I pl. with 5 colored illustrations. - -[29] The important study by Joseph E. Pogue, The Turquois. A Study of -its History, Mineralogy, Geology, Ethnology, Archæology, Mythology, -Folklore, and Technology, appears as the third memoir of Vol. XII, -_Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences_, Washington, 1915. - -[30] Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de -Nueva España que en Doce Libros y Dos Volúmenes Escribió el R. P. -Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, published by Carlos María de Bustamante, -4 vols., Mexico, 1829. Also published by Lord Kingsborough. The -quotations are from the Bustamante edition, tomo III, lib. II, cap. -VII, p. 284, and cap. VIII, pp. 296-297. - -[31] On this subject consult the paper by Dr. A. B. Meyer, Die -Nephritfrage, ein ethnologisches Problem, Berlin, 1883, of which -an abstract (“The Nephrite Question”) was published in _American -Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. I, no. 3, Washington, July, 1888. - -[32] Saville, A Votive Adze of Jadeite from Mexico, _Monumental -Records_, New York, May, 1900. - -[33] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 10, cap. XXIX, p. 107. - -[34] Ibid., cap. vii, p. 19. - -[35] The pictorial part of the section of the great work of Sahagun -in Florence was reproduced in facsimile by the late Mexican scholar, -Sr. D. Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, for the Mexican government. Only -recently has the work been received in Mexico, and we are under the -greatest obligations to Sr. D. Luis Castillo Ledon, Director of the -Museo Nacional, Mexico, for a copy which we have recently received, -and which has been of such great assistance in the preparation of -this study of Mexican mosaics. It is an Atlas, denominated Vol. V, of -158 estampas (plates). The plates relating to arts and crafts are to -illustrate Libro IX, and include pl. lv to lxxvi. - -[36] We refer the student to the edition of Lord Kingsborough, vol. I. - -[37] The Mappe Tlotzin once formed a part of the Boturini collection; -it was afterward acquired by Aubin, later by Goupil, and is now in the -National Library in Paris. It has been published in colors (pl. i-iii) -in Mémoires sur la Peinture Didactique et l’Écriture Figurative des -Anciens Méxicains, par J. M. A. Aubin, with an introduction by E. T. -Hamy, Paris, 1885. The pictures referred to are on pl. ii. - -[38] Eduard Seler, L’Orfèverie des Anciens Mexicains et leur Art de -Travailler la Pierre et de Faire des Ornements en Plumes, _Compte rendu -de la VIIIᵉᵐᵉ Session du Congrès International des Américanistes_, -Paris, pp. 401-452. The chapter on the art of the lapidaries is on pp. -418-425. The article, with slight changes in the French translation of -the Nahuatl text, and some revision, is included in Seler’s Gesammelte -Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde, Zweiter -Band, pp. 620-663, Berlin, 1904. The section on the lapidaries’ art is -on pp. 635-640. - -[39] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo II, lib. 9, cap. XVII, pp. 389-391. - -[40] The goddess is figured in the numerous examples of the tonalamatl -in the various codices, of which facsimiles are to be found in all -important libraries. - -[41] The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection. An Old Mexican Picture -Manuscript in the Paris National Library. Published at the Expense of -his Excellency the Duke of Loubat. With Introduction and Explanatory -Text by Dr. Eduard Seler. Berlin and London, 1900-1901, p. 115. - -[42] The Codex Borbonicus is in the National Library, Paris. It was -published in exact facsimile, with an introduction by Dr. E. T. -Hamy, Paris, 1899. The scene referred to is on p. 18 of the Paris -reproduction. - -[43] The important Codex Telleriano Remensis was published in -facsimile, with an introduction by E. T. Hamy, by the Duke of Loubat, -Paris, 1899. The illustration referred to is on p. 22 verso, of the -plates. - -[44] Seler, op. cit. (Note 41), p. 118. - -[45] Kingsborough, vol. VI, p. 129. - -[46] Sahagun, see reproduction of Troncoso, estampa x, fig. 34. - -[47] Codex Borbonicus, p. 18. - -[48] Tonalamatl Aubin, op. cit., pl. 18. - -[49] Seler, op. cit., pp. 114-118. - -[50] This quotation is from the Libro de Oro y Tesoro Indico, a -precious manuscript in the library of the late Joaquín García -Icazbalceta. Icazbalceta writes as follows about the author: “We do not -know who was Fr. Andrés de Alcobiz, who in the year 1543 collected in -Spain these laws of the Mexicans. It is published in _Nueva Colección -de Documentos para la Historia de México_, tomo III, p. 313, Mexico, -1891. - -[51] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, p. 119. - -[52] Anonymous Conqueror, translated by Marshall H. Saville, -publication of the Cortes Society, no. I, pp. 65-67, New York, 1917. - -[53] Obras Históricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, tomo I, -Historia Chichimeca, cap. XXXVI, p. 180, published in Mexico in 1892 -under the editorship of Dr. Alfredo Chavero. - -[54] We refer here to the labors of Mexican archeologists begun by -Leopoldo Batres, and continued by Dr. Manuel Gamio. An elaborate work, -edited by Gamio, treating of the exploration of this region, has just -been printed in Mexico. - -[55] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 10, cap. XXIX, p. 107. - -[56] Ibid., tomo I, lib. 3, cap. XII, p. 255. - -[57] Saville, The Cruciform Structures of Mitla and Vicinity, _Putnam -Anniversary Volume_, p. 187, New York, 1909. - -[58] Relación de Andrés de Tapia, published for the first time by -Icazbalceta in _Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México_, -tomo II, pp. 582-583, Mexico, 1866. - -[59] The Relación de Texcoco was written by Juan Bautista Pomar, a -mestizo, and a grandson of the Texcocan king Nezahualpitzintli on his -mother’s side. It was composed for Philip II, and belongs to the class -of Relations like those of Yucatan, etc. It was first published by -Icazbalceta in his _Nueva Colección de Documentos para la Historia de -México_, tomo II. The quotation is from p. 10. - -[60] Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. II, book VI, chap. xcii, p. 74. - -[61] Ibid., chap. CIV, p. 138. - -[62] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXXXVI, p. 592. - -[63] Ibid., cap. LXXXVII, p. 593. - -[64] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo I, lib. I, cap. XIII, p. 18. - -[65] Pomar, op. cit., pp. 8-9. - -[66] Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk -des P. Sahagun. _Sonderabzug der Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen -Museum für Völkerkunde_, I, 4, p. 123, Berlin, 1890. - -[67] Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22. - -[68] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 8, cap. IX, p. 289. - -[69] Antonio Peñafiel, Indumentaria Antigua Vestidos Guerreros y -Civiles de los Mexicanos, pl. 149, Mexico, 1903. - -[70] The Codex Coxcatzin has been published in part by Eugène Boban -in _Documents pour Servir à l’Histoire du Méxique_, Atlas, pl. 41-45, -Paris, 1891. - -[71] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXI, p. 469; cap. LXIX, pp. 506-507. - -[72] Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de -Tierra Firme, tomo I, cap. LI, p. 407, Mexico, 1867. - -[73] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. CI, p. 659. - -[74] Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22. - -[75] Thomas Unett Brocklehurst, Mexico To-day, pl. XXXIV, London, 1883. - -[76] See Saville, Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern Mexico, -_American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. I, pp. 350-362, April, 1899; -and Funeral Urns from Oaxaca, _American Museum Journal_, vol. IV, pp. -49-69, New York, 1904. - -[77] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp. 151-163, pl. i, -viii. - -[78] Manuel Gamio, Los Monumentos Arqueológicos de las Inmediaciones -de Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, sobretiro del tomo II de los _Anales del -Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología_, pp. 467-492, -5 plans, 8 pl., Mexico, 1910. This is the first piece of work by -Gamio, and presents the results of the first important archeological -exploration undertaken in this part of Mexico. - -[79] We have just received the first number (Jan.-Feb., 1922) of -tomo I, época 4ª, of the _Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, -Historia y Etnografía_ of Mexico, which have long been interrupted. In -it is announced the forthcoming appearance of a paper relating to this -subject, “Máscara con Mosaicos de Turquesas.--Dictámenes Periciales.” -It is to be hoped that the authenticity of this object will be cleared -of all suspicion by the proposed study. - -[80] On this subject consult Saville, Precolumbian Decoration of the -Teeth in Ecuador, etc., _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 15, -1913; reprinted as _Contributions from the Heye Museum_, vol. I, no. 2, -1913. - -[81] David Casares, A Notice of Yucatan with Some Remarks on its Water -Supply, _Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society_, pp. 207-230, -Oct., 1905. - -[82] Diego de Landa, Historia de las Cosas de Yucatan, edition of Juan -de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, p. 84, Madrid, 1881. - -[83] Casares, op. cit., p. 226. - -[84] William H. Holmes, Archeological Studies among the Ancient Cities -of Mexico, _Anthropological Series, Field Columbian Museum_, vol. I, -no. 1, Chicago, 1895. Part I, Monuments of Yucatan, Section on Chichen -Itza, p. 137. - -[85] Seler, Codex Vaticanus No. 3773. Elucidation published at the -expense of the Duke of Loubat, Berlin and London, 1902-1903. In this -study Seler treats at length of the God Xipe Totec. - -[86] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo I, lib. I, cap. XVIII, p. 28. - -[87] The two mosaic masks on the sculptured wall at Chichen Itza -are taken from the drawings on pl. 46 and 47 of the great work of -Alfred P. Maudslay published as part of _Biologia Centrali-Americana: -or Contributions to the Knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of Mexico -and Central America_, edited by F. Ducane Godman and Osbert Salvin. -Archæology, vol. III (Plates). London, 1895-1902. The crowns are from -pl. 38, 49-59. The crown with the feathers is from the doorway column -of Temple A, of the Ball Court. - -[88] The first extended study of Mexican turquois mosaics, based -especially on some of the specimens now in the British Museum, was made -by E. T. Stevens and published in his Flint Chips, pp. 324-328, London, -1870. Read’s paper did not appear until 1895. - -[89] See Maudslay’s edition of Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. I, app., -pp. 299-302. Maudslay gives photographs of the two wooden masks in the -British Museum, which he calls “Masks of Quetzalcoatl,” and of the -skull mask which he denominates “Mask of Tezcatlipoca.” - -[90] See List of Works following. - -[91] See translation in Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp. -126-127. - -[92] See List of Works following. - -[93] See List of Works following. Our illustration is a photograph of -the colored lithographic plate of Uhle. - -[94] Zelia Nuttall, On Ancient Mexican Shields, _Separat-Abdruck aus -Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, Bd. V, 21 pp., Leiden, 1892. - -[95] Read, in his study, gives only a drawing of this shield. Our -illustration, a direct photograph, does not show the designs so clearly -as the drawing. - -[96] Our illustration is a copy of the photograph published by Heger. -See List of Works following. - -[97] Seler, Codex Fejérváry, An Old Mexican Picture Manuscript in -the Liverpool Free Public Museum, published at the Expense of His -Excellency the Duke of Loubat, p. 210, Berlin and London, 1901-1902. - -[98] The Codex Nuttall or Zouche was published by the Peabody Museum, -Cambridge, in 1892. The original is now in the British Museum. - -[99] On this subject consult the elucidations of Mexican codices by -Seler, published at the expense of the Duke of Loubat. Also, Mexican -and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History, -being translations from the German of papers by Seler, Förstemann, -and others, published as _Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology_, -Washington, 1904. The studies of C. P. Bowditch will be found in his -Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas, -Cambridge, Mass., 1910. - -[100] Hermann Beyer, El llamado “Calendario Azteca,” Mexico, 1921, an -important study of interpretation of the calendar stone of the Aztecs. - -[101] This specimen was first illustrated by Lehmann in his paper, Die -altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen Museums in Kopenhagen, -_Globus_, 1907. Our illustration is a drawing from the photograph -reproduced in this study. - -[102] See Note 101. - -[103] See Heger, 1892, in List of Works. - -[104] Our drawing is from the photograph published by Lehmann in his -paper in the _Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Congress of -Americanists_, Quebec, 1907. - -[105] Our drawing of this specimen is made from the illustration -published by Oppel. See List of Works, 1896. - -[106] Illustrations of this piece have just been published for the -first time by Lehmann in his Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte: Ein -Entwurf in Umrissen, Berlin, 1922(?). - -[107] See Seler’s remarks to Heger’s paper, List of Works, 1890. - -[108] Consult Seler, Altmexikanische Knochenrasseln, _Gesammelte -Abhandlungen_, Zweiter Band, pp. 672-694, Berlin, 1904; also Lumholtz, -Unknown Mexico, vol. ii, pp. 428-430, New York, 1902. - -[109] As Colini’s paper is not easily consulted, we append his -description of these three Mexican wooden objects: - -“L’idolo, a guisa di figura umana, è alto m.o. 45 [17¾ inches high]. -La testa è molto grande, senza alcuna proporzione con le altre -parti del corpo ed è sormontana da un ornamento. La faccia conserva -ancora traccie del rosso con cui era colorita, il naso è piccolo ma -largo e schiacciato, gli occhi sono incavature ovali ed hanno sotto -tre incisioni circolari, come se si fossero volute rappresentare -le occhiaje di persona vecchia o malata. Anche vicino agli angoli -della bocca, poco sopra, sono incise due linee oblique, riempite di -bianco, quasi a guisa di rughe. Tiene le braccia sollevate con le -mani sull’ornamento della testa, ma le altre parti del corpo non sono -affatto distinte. Posa sopra una base decorata con incisioni colorite -in bianco, di cui manca però una parte, cosicché non è possibile -comprendere pienamente la sua forma primitiva, la quale sembra che -fosse rettangolare. In ogni modo era troppo sottile per sostenere -l’idolo, e perciò dobbiamo credere che facesse parte di un apparecchio -più complicato. - -“Delle maschere l’una (V. Tav. in fine, fig. 2) nel tipo e -nell’espressione somiglia a quella incrosta di mosaico, descritta da -Ulisse Aldrovandi la quale oggi si conserva nel Museo Etnografico -Nazionale di Roma [6⅞ inches high]. Il naso è lungo, sottile ed -arcuato; ma non essendo incavato nell’interno, la maschera non potrebbe -adattarsi faccia. Gli occhi consistono in rozze aperture ovali, sotto -le quali, a breve distanza, sono incisi due profondi solchi, a guisa -di semicerchi, come nell’idolo. Intorno la fronte, sopra la radice -del naso, corre una larga fascia in rilievo. Fra le labbra inferiore -allungate, esce la lingua, che si ripiega sul mento: della parte -inferiore non è possibile formarsi un concetto perchè è stata tagliata. -Conserva qua e là le traccie della tinta rossa, ma sono meno evidenti -che nell’idoli. Sulla fascia della fronte, nella lingua e sul naso -possono ancora notarsi delle linee incise, riempite di materia bianca. - -“L’altra maschera (tav., fig. I) è lavorata con maggiore cura -[7⅛ inches high]: ha la faccia simmetrica nelle varie parti e -proporzionata. Le labbra sono piccole, ma, quello inferiore essendo -rotto, non è possibile indovinarne la forma. Ha il naso arcuato, e -largo alla base, ed è internamente incavato in modo che la maschera -potrebbe adattarsi alla faccia, e siccome la bocca, le narici e gli -occhi sono forati, cosi il portatore potrebbe benissimo vedere, -respirare e parlare. Nella parte inferiore delle occhiaje, agli -angoli, si notano due piccole incavature ad arco, la cui forma -farebbe supporre che vi fossero adattati pezzi di madreperla a guisa -di occhi, come in quelle del Museo Christy. In generale i lineamente -mostrano quella espressione placida e contemplativa, che, secondo il -Tylor, e caratteristica dei lavori aztechi e degli egiziani, tanto -se si riguardano le massiccie sculture in pietra, quanto le piccole -teste di terracotta. Ambedue queste maschere, nella parte superiore -corrispondente alla fronte, hanno fori nei quali forse s’immettevano -cordoncini per sospenderle: la prima ne ha due grandi agli angoli, -l’altra quattro più piccoli intorno.” (See note under List of Works, -1885.) - -[110] D. I. Bushnell, Jr., Two Ancient Mexican Atlatls, _American -Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 7, no. 2, 1905; also North American -Ethnographical Material in Italian Collections, _ibid._, vol. 8, 1906. - -[111] See Note 94. - -[112] Fr. Toribio Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de Nueva -España, Tratado Tercero, cap. XX, pp. 247-249, edition published by -Icazbalceta, _Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México_, tomo -1, Mexico, 1858. - -[113] Consult Frederick Starr, The Little Pottery Objects of Lake -Chapala, Mexico, _Bulletin II, Department of Anthropology, University -of Chicago_, Chicago, 1897. - -[114] An important summary of these discoveries has recently been -published by Gamio; see Las Excavaciones del Pedregal de San Angel y -la Cultura Arcaica del Valle de Mexico, _American Anthropologist_, -N. S., vol. 22, no. 2, 1920. Also the paper of Hermann Beyer, Sobre -Antigüedades del Pedregal de San Angel, _Memorias de la Sociedad -Científica “Antonio Alzate” de México_, tomo 37, núm. 8, Oct., 1917; -and Ramon Mena, El Hombre de “El Pedregal” de San Angel, _Escuela -Naciona, Preparatoria Curso de 1918_. - - - - -LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS - - -1648 - -ALDROVANUS, ULYSSES. Musæum metallicum. Bologna. - -In this work are a brief description (p. 550) and illustrations of two -of the specimens now in the Museum in Rome, namely, one of the knife -handles (our pl. XXXIX), and the mask (our pl. VIII). This book is vol. -XIII of the fourteen volumes of the _Opera Omnia_ of Aldrovanus, issued -in 1602-1668. - - -1861 - -TYLOR, E. B. Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern. -London. - -See pp. 110, 235, 337-339, I fig. Dr. Tylor illustrates the knife with -handle in the figure on p. 101. In the appendix (pp. 337-339), article -V is a “Description of three very rare specimens of ancient Mexican -mosaic work (in the collection of Henry Christy, Esq.).” These objects -are now in the British Museum. - - -1866 - -BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, E., and WALDECK, F. Palenque et autres ruines de -l’ancienne civilisation du Mexique. Collection de vues, bas-reliefs, -morceaux d’architecture, coupes, vases, terre cuites, cartées et plans, -dessinés d’après nature et relevés par M. de Waldeck. Texte rédigé par -M. Brasseur de Bourbourg.... Ouvrage publié sous les auspices de S. -E. M. le Ministre de l’instruction publique. Paris. Arthur Bertrand, -Editeur. Plates. Monuments anciens du Mexique. - -Describes (p. VIII) and illustrates in color (pl. XLIII, XLIV) the -mosaic-handled knife and mosaic skull mask formerly in the Hertz -collection, now in the British Museum. - - -1867 - -LÉOUZON LE DUC, L. Rapport sur les antiquités mexicaines conservées à -Copenhague. _Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Mexique_, Tome -III. Paris. - -Two Mexican mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum are described (tome III, -pp. 157-158), as follows: - -“Voici maintenant trois pièces qui, à mon avis, méritent une attention -toute particulière. - -“D’abord, une tête d’alligator, de 19 centimètres de longueur. Cette -tête est sculptée en bois et creusée par derrière. La gueule de -l’alligator est largement ouverte et ses mâchoires encadrent une tête -humaine fixée au fond du palais. - -“Ensuite, une tête d’idole, également sculptée en bois et évidée -intérieurement, avec une coiffure très-élevée et évasée au sommet, -d’une hauteur totale, y compris la tête, de 24 centimètres. La bouche -de l’idole est vaste, ses lèvres fortement tendues découvrent une -double rangée de longues dents; ses oreilles sont ornées de pendelogues. - -“Ces deux pièces offrent cette singularité remarquable qu’elles sont -garnies en partie, et ont dû l’avoir été en entier, de petits fragments -d’os la plupart quadrangulaires, blanc ou teints en vert, en rouge et -en noir, fixés sur le bois à l’aide d’une espèce de résine, ce qui leur -donne l’aspect d’une mosaïque. Fort endommagées, elles n’ont guère -conservé d’intacts que les yeux, dont les prunelles sont formées d’os -blancs, noirs et rouges, et entourées d’un cordon d’os verts. L’état -du bois qui les compose suffrirait à lui seul pour établir leur haute -antiquité, si déjà leur caractère symbolique ne la rendait évidente. -L’une et l’autre out été achetées à Rome, où l’on suppose qu’elles -avaient été apportées de Mexico par un missionnaire.” - - -1869 - -SQUIER, E. G. Observations on a collection of chalchihuitls from -Central America. _Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History_, -vol. IX, August, article XIV, pp. 252-253, fig. I. - -The mosaic skull in the British Museum is illustrated, after Waldeck. - - -1870 - -STEVENS, EDWARD T. Flint chips. A guide to prehistoric archæology, -as illustrated by the collection in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury. -London. - -Aztec mosaic work, pp. 324-328. Describes specimens in the Christy -collection. - - -1880 - -STEINHAUER, C. L. Das Königliche Ethnographische Museum zu Copenhagen. -Hand-catalog für die Besuchenden. Copenhagen. - -Describes (p. 19) the two mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum. In the 1866 -edition the description is on p. 22. - - -1883 - -BROCKLEHURST, THOMAS UNETT. Mexico to-day: a country with a great -future, and a glance at the prehistoric remains and antiquities of the -Montezumas. London. - -Describes (p. 184) and reproduces in colors (pl. XXXIII) the -human-skull mask in the British Museum. Pl. XXXIV illustrates the -goddess Coatlicue, showing the turquois-mosaic in colors--the specimen -to which Peñafiel refers, vide 1903. See our pl. II. - - -1885 - -COLINI, G. A. Collezioni etnografiche del Museo Borgiano. _Bollettino -della Società Geografica Italiana_, Roma, Anno XIX, vol. XXII; serie -II, vol. X, pp. 316-325, 914-932. - -In this article Colini (pp. 324-325) describes two masks and an idol -in the Museo Borgiano in Rome. Regarding these specimens he quotes -from Vitæ Synopsis Stephani Borgiæ, S. R. E. Cardinalis amplissimi, -S. Congr. de Propaganda Fide Præfecti, Roma, 1805, p. 44, “Classis -mexicana: multa lignea et testacea idolorum simulacra forma et figura -singulari, ac gente mexicanæ propia.” He describes the idol as being -made of wood in the form of a human figure, 45 cm. high. The two masks -of wood are described, and figured on the plate containing drawings -of other American antiquities. It is highly probable that these three -objects were formerly decorated with mosaic. - -PIGORINI, LUIGI. Gli antichi oggetti Messicani incrostati di mosaico -esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Ethnografico di Roma. _Reale -Accademia dei Lincei_, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-1885. 9 pp., I pl. with 5 -colored figs. - -BASTIAN, A. Zwei altmexikanische Mosaiken. _Verhandlungen der Berliner -Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, p. 201. - - -1888 - -BASTIAN, A., and UHLE, MAX. Schädelmaske von Mexico und Analogien -aus der Südsee. _Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen Museum für -Völkerkunde, Herausgegeben von der Verwaltung_, Berlin, Oct. - -A description (pp. 2-3) and colored illustration (T. I., I) of the -mosaic-skull mask in the Berlin Museum. - -ANDREE, RICHARD. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. _Beitrage zur -Ethnographie von Amerika aus dem Internationalen Archiv für -Ethnographie._ Leiden. - -Brief notice (p. 8) of the specimen in Gotha. - - -1889 - -ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche. Neue Folge. -Leipzig. - -Description (pp. 127-130) of the mosaic specimen in Gotha. - - -1890 - -PEÑAFIEL, ANTONIO. Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo. Berlin. - -Description (Text, p. 23) and illustration in colors (Atlas, pl. 123) -of the knife with mosaic handle in the British Museum. - -ANDREE, RICHARD. Sur une ancienne mosaique mexicaine. _Congrès -International des Américanistes, Compte-rendu de la septième session_, -Berlin, 1888. Berlin. - -Describes the Gotha specimen (pp. 146-148). - -HEGER, FRANZ. Sur quelques objets archéologiques du Mexique et -de l’Amérique du Sud. _Congrès International des Américanistes, -Compte-rendu de la septième session_, Berlin, 1888, pp. 93-97. - -The author describes (p. 94) one of the mosaic pieces in the Vienna -Museum. In the discussion of this paper, Seler (p. 104) identifies the -animal-like figure as representing the god Xolotl. - - -1892 - -PI Y MARGIL, FRANCISCO. Historia de la América antecolombiana. Tomo -primero, segunda parte. Barcelona. - -Two colored illustrations (opposite p. 1214) of the mosaic-handled -knife in the British Museum. - -HEGER, FRANZ. Altmexikanische Reliquien aus dem Schlosse Ambras in -Tirol. _Annalen des K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums_, B. VII, Heft -4, pp. 310-400, pl. XVIII, XXII. Vienna. - -In this paper Dr. Heger describes and illustrates the shield and animal -head (three views) of turquois mosaic in the Vienna Museum. - - -1895 - -READ, CHARLES HERCULES. On an ancient Mexican head-piece coated with -mosaic. _Archæologia_, vol. LIV, 16 pp., pl. XXVIII, fig. 1-6, London. - -Gives in colors and describes for the first time the mosaic head-piece, -and illustrates all but one of the eight other pieces, in the British -Museum. - - -1896 - -OPPEL, A. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. _Globus_, Bd. LXX, Nr. 1 -(June), pp. 4-12, 15 fig., Braunschweig. - -Figures seven mosaic pieces in the British Museum, five pieces in Rome, -one piece in Berlin, a piece in Gotha, and a section of the shield in -Vienna. - - -1903 - -PEÑAFIEL, ANTONIO. Indumentaria Antigua Mexicana. Vestidos Guerreros y -Civiles de los Mexicanos. Mexico. - -Dr. Peñafiel, in chapter XXIII, under the heading “Incrustaciones -de Mosaico,” describes some of the mosaic pieces in Europe which he -states are the most important specimens. “Of this class of works the -Museo Nacional (Mexico) can count as having only one, in the statue -of Coatlicue coming from Tehuacan.” On pl. 26 are given the British -Museum knife, and the two knife-handles in Rome; on pl. 117 one of the -masks in Rome; on pl. 118(A) the skull mask in Berlin, and (B) the mask -in Rome; pl. 123 is the femur musical instrument in Rome; and pl. 168 -restorations of the knife-handle specimens with blades, in Rome. These -illustrations are all in colors, excepting the last. - - -1906 - -BUSHNELL, DAVID I., Jr. North American ethnographical material -in Italian museums. _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. VIII, -Lancaster, Pa. - -On pp. 245-246 the author briefly describes the five mosaic pieces in -Rome, and regarding one of the masks (our pl. VII, _a_) quotes from the -inventory of the Guardaroba Medicea, 1553, showing the specimen to have -been in the Medici collection. - -LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Mosaiken und die Geschenke König -Motecuzomas und Cortés. _Globus_, Bd. XV, Nr. 20, pp. 318-322, -Braunschweig, 29 Nov. - -In this study Lehmann enumerates the twenty-three Mexican mosaic pieces -in European museums and gives considerable documentary material from -the early chroniclers. - - -1907 - -KUNZ, GEORGE FREDERICK. Gems and precious stones of Mexico. Mexico. - -On pp. 7-10, Dr. Kunz discusses turquois and describes some of the -turquois mosaic specimens in European museums. On p. 52 he concludes -that “it must be considered as possible, at least, that other -localities containing turquois were once known, and may be hereafter -re-discovered.” - -LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Mosaiken in Kgl. Museum für -Völkerkunde zu Berlin. _Congrès International des Américanistes, XVᵉ -Session, tenue à Quebec en 1906_, tome II, pp. 339-349, 4 fig., Quebec. - -Describes and illustrates two pieces of Mexican mosaics in the -Ethnographical Museum of Berlin, a double-jaguar figure, and a jaguar -head. The first came from the estate of Alexander von Humboldt, the -second was transferred to the Berlin Museum from the Ducal Museum of -Braunschweig. - -LEHMANN, WALTER. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen -Museums in Kopenhagen. _Globus_, Bd. XCI, Nr. 21, pp. 332-335, 6 June, -1907. Abb. I-III. - -The author describes and figures the two pieces in Copenhagen, giving -front and side views, and two different drawings of one of the masks in -Rome. - - -1908 - -DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL. (Maudslay, A. P., translator and editor.) -The true history of the conquest of New Spain. Edition of the Hakluyt -Society, vol. I, London. - -Under the title “Montezuma’s Gifts to Cortés,” Maudslay describes -(Appendix, pp. 299-302) and illustrates (pl. 13-16) the three mosaic -masks in the British Museum. Pl. 16 is a rear view of the skull mask -showing the leather strap by which it was attached to the head. This -mask Maudslay identifies as probably that of Tezcatlipoca, and the -other two as belonging to Quetzalcoatl. - - -1910 - -GAMIO, MANUEL. Los monumentos arqueológicos de las inmediaciones de -Chalchihuites, Zacatecas. _Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, -Historia y Etnología_, tome II, pp. 469-492, pls. 1-8, Mexico. - -On pl. 8 are figured two pieces of mosaic-work found in the ruins near -Chalchihuites. - -BLACKISTON, A. HOOTON. Recent discoveries in Honduras. _American -Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 12, Lancaster, Pa. - -Describes (p. 539) and illustrates (pl. XLVI) the mosaic wooden mask -found in 1908 in a cave in an arroyo on the headwaters of a small -stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon, about 25 miles distant from the -ruins of the ancient city of Naco. This specimen is now in the Museum -of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. See our pl. XVII. - - -1912 - -JOYCE, T. A. A short guide to the American antiquities in the British -Museum. London. - -Joyce describes (p. 14) and illustrates (figs. 12-17) six of the mosaic -pieces in the British Museum. - - -1914 - -JOYCE, T. A. Mexican archæology. An introduction to the archæology of -the Mexican and Mayan civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York -and London. - -In pl. I is reproduced in colors the skull mask, and in pl. XVIII, fig. -1, the knife with handle. Reference to these is made on p. 141. - -HOLMES, W. H. Masterpieces of aboriginal American art. II. Mosaic -work, minor examples. _Art and Archæology_, vol. I, no. 3, Washington, -November. - -A description (pp. 91-102) of some of the more important specimens of -mosaics, with colored frontispiece and 9 figures. - - -1915 - -POGUE, JOSEPH E. The turquoise. A study of its history, mineralogy, -geology, ethnology, archæology, mythology, folklore, and technology. -_Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences_, vol. XII, part II, third -memoir, Washington. - -Mexican mosaics are described on pp. 93-97; fig. 4 illustrates the bird -mask in Gotha; pl. 15-17, Mexican mosaics in the British Museum and in -Rome (10 pieces). The Use of Turquois in Mexico and Central America: -Use as Attested by Historical Evidence, pp. 90-92; Use as Attested by -Objects, pp. 93-97. - - -1921 - -ARREOLA, JOSÉ MARÍA. Como legítima el Museo Nacional ha adquirido una -pieza falsificada. _El Excelsior_, Mexico, Oct. 20. - -Illustrates in this signed newspaper article a stone mask with turquois -mosaic decoration said to have been found in Guerrero. He concludes -that it is fraudulent. - -LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte ein Entwurf in -Umrissen. Band 8 des Orbis Pictus. Weltkunst-Bücherei herausgegeben von -Paul Westheim. Berlin. - -In this short study of old Mexican art history Dr. Lehmann illustrates -a number of notable Mexican antiquities. The Xolotl figure in Vienna -is illustrated, front and side views, pl. 7, and the crouching animal -figure in the British Museum is given on pl. 8. He gives brief -descriptions in the description of plates on pp. 22-23. - - -1922 - -GAMIO, MANUEL. Una máscara de mosaico falsificada. [A counterfeit -mosaic mask.] _Ethnos_, tomo I, núms. 8-12, pp. 260-264, Mexico, Nov. -1920-Mar. 1921. - -Gamio denounces as fraudulent the stone mosaic mask claimed to have -been discovered in Guerrero by Porfirio Aguirre. - -MENA, RAMON. La arqueología debe de estar en manos de arqueológicos. -_El Universal_, Mexico, April 2. - -In this signed newspaper article Mena defends the authenticity of the -stone mask decorated with turquois mosaic, said to have been found in -Guerrero. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - Italics are shown thus: _sloping_. - - Small capitals have been capitalised. - - Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained. - - Punctuation has been retained as published. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT -MEXICO *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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